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4,100 | Library_reference_desk | The reference desk or information desk of a library is a public service counter where professional librarians provide library users with direction to library materials, advice on library collections and services, and expertise on multiple kinds of information from multiple sources. Librarian, Ballard Carnegie Library, Seattle, Washington ca. 1907 Explanation Librarians are experts in the contents and arrangement of their collections, as well as how information is organized outside the library. Library users are encouraged not to be shy about asking a reference librarian for help. Even though most librarians stay busy when not serving a patron, their primary duty when they are at the desk is to assist library users. Purpose and usage Library users can consult the staff at the reference desk for help in finding information. Using a structured reference interview, the librarian works with the library user to clarify their needs and determine what information sources will fill them. To borrow a medical analogy, reference librarians diagnose and treat information deficiencies. The ultimate help provided may consist of reading material in the form of a book or journal article, instruction in the use of specific searchable information resources such as the library's online catalog or subscription bibliographic/fulltext databases, or simply factual information drawn from the library's print or online reference collection. Typically, a reference desk can be consulted either in person, by telephone, through email or online chat, although a library user may be asked to come to the library in person for help with more involved research questions. A staffed and knowledgeable reference desk is an essential part of a library. The services that are provided at a reference desk may vary depending on the type of library, its purpose, its resources, and its staff. Resources Resources that are often kept at a library reference desk may include: A small collection of reference books (called ready reference) that are most often used, so that the librarians can reach them quickly, especially when they are on the phone, and so that the books will be returned in time for someone else to use later the same day. The library's full reference collection is usually nearby as well. Newspaper clipping files and other rare or restricted items that must be returned to the reference desk. Index cards with the answers to frequently asked questions, and/or drawers with folders of pamphlets and photocopies of pages that, from previous experience, were difficult to find. These enable librarians to find such information quickly without leaving the desk -- even faster than they could look it up in a reference book or using the Internet. Books and other items that are being held for library users who asked the librarian by phone to set them aside for them to pick up later the same day, or within the next few days. Books from the circulating collection that have been set aside for students working on a special assignment, and are temporarily designated to be used only within the library until the project is due. Printed lists of items in the library that are not in the catalogue, such as newspapers, school yearbooks, old telephone directories, college course catalogues, and local history sources. Services Services that are often available at a library reference desk include: A sign up sheet for reserving computers with Internet access, or word processing software. The ability to place the book 'on hold', which prevents the person who has borrowed it from renewing it. The person who placed the 'hold' is notified when the book has been returned. (Some libraries provide this service at the circulation desk.) The ability to request Interlibrary loan of books and other material from other branch libraries in the same library system, or from a cooperating library anywhere in the world. (Some libraries provide this service at the circulation desk.) The opportunity to recommend that the library purchase something for its collection that it doesn't have, which may be needed or of interest to other library users. The librarian who staffs the reference desk can usually do the following by virtue of their professional training and experience: The librarian can look up a brief, factual answer to a specific question. The librarian can use the catalogue to find out whether the library owns an item with a particular title or author, or that contains a short story, chapter, song, or poem with a particular title, or to compile a list of books by a particular author or on a particular subject. The librarian can briefly teach the user how to use the catalogue and how to use its advanced features, or recommend the proper subject words or terms that are used in the catalogue for the topic the user has in mind. The librarian can often take the library user directly to the shelves with books on a certain topic without using the catalogue. The librarian is familiar with the contents of hundreds of reference books, and can recommend books that might contain the answer to a particular question. The librarian can teach the library user to use online databases such as magazine and newspaper articles, and recommend words and search strategies for the topic the user has in mind. The librarian can recommend reliable web sites, give advice on searching the Internet for information, and evaluate the reliability of the information on web sites. If the library doesn't have information on a given topic, or if the library user wants more information, the librarian can refer the library user to another library or to an organization that can be contacted by phone or mail. Staff qualifications In the United States, those who staff library reference desks are usually required to have a Masters degree in Library Science. However, if there is a lack of qualified applicants, particularly in rural areas of the country, a person with an Associate Degree, a Certificate in Library Technology, or a Bachelors Degree in Library Science may be performing these duties. In many academic libraries, student assistants are used as the primary contact, sometimes at an "information desk." Electronic reference services With the development of the Web, digital reference services are beginning to take over some of the roles of the traditional reference desk in a library. There is disagreement over whether or not this development is desirable or inevitable. Are Reference Desks Dying Out? by Scott Carlson, Chronicle of Higher Education April 20, 2007. See also Digital reference services Reference scenarios Virtual reference Ask a Librarian References External links UCLA DIS 245 "Info Access" Wiki on Reference Services, edited by John V. Richardson Jr. and Debbie Weismann 24 Hour Reference Service article by Ben Chan Trends and Issues in Digital Reference Services Building and Maintaining Digital Reference Services Management by Wandering Around: Reference Rovering and Quality Reference Service | Library_reference_desk |@lemmatized reference:33 desk:18 information:14 library:42 public:1 service:15 counter:1 professional:2 librarian:20 provide:5 user:15 direction:1 material:3 advice:2 collection:7 expertise:1 multiple:2 kind:1 source:3 ballard:1 carnegie:1 seattle:1 washington:1 ca:1 explanation:1 expert:1 content:2 arrangement:1 well:2 organize:1 outside:1 encourage:1 shy:1 ask:5 help:4 even:2 though:1 stay:1 busy:1 serve:1 patron:1 primary:2 duty:2 assist:1 purpose:2 usage:1 consult:2 staff:5 find:4 use:13 structured:1 interview:1 work:2 clarify:1 need:2 determine:1 fill:1 borrow:2 medical:1 analogy:1 diagnose:1 treat:1 deficiency:1 ultimate:1 may:6 consist:1 read:1 form:1 book:13 journal:1 article:3 instruction:1 specific:2 searchable:1 resource:4 online:4 catalog:1 subscription:1 bibliographic:1 fulltext:1 database:2 simply:1 factual:2 drawn:1 print:1 typically:1 either:1 person:5 telephone:2 email:1 chat:1 although:1 come:1 involved:1 research:1 question:4 staffed:1 knowledgeable:1 essential:1 part:1 vary:1 depend:1 type:1 often:4 keep:1 include:2 small:1 call:1 ready:1 reach:1 quickly:2 especially:1 phone:3 return:3 time:1 someone:1 else:1 later:2 day:3 full:1 usually:3 nearby:1 newspaper:3 clip:1 file:1 rare:1 restrict:1 item:4 must:1 index:1 card:1 answer:3 frequently:1 drawer:1 folder:1 pamphlet:1 photocopy:1 page:1 previous:1 experience:2 difficult:1 enable:1 without:2 leave:1 fast:1 could:1 look:2 internet:3 hold:3 set:2 aside:2 pick:1 within:2 next:1 circulate:1 student:2 special:1 assignment:1 temporarily:1 designate:1 project:1 due:1 printed:1 list:2 catalogue:6 school:1 yearbook:1 old:1 directory:1 college:1 course:1 local:1 history:1 available:1 sign:1 sheet:1 reserve:1 computer:1 access:2 word:3 processing:1 software:1 ability:2 place:2 prevent:1 renew:1 notify:1 circulation:2 request:1 interlibrary:1 loan:1 branch:1 system:1 cooperate:1 anywhere:1 world:1 opportunity:1 recommend:5 purchase:1 something:1 interest:1 following:1 virtue:1 training:1 brief:1 whether:2 particular:5 title:2 author:2 contain:2 short:1 story:1 chapter:1 song:1 poem:1 compile:1 subject:2 briefly:1 teach:2 advanced:1 feature:1 proper:1 term:1 topic:4 mind:2 take:2 directly:1 shelf:1 certain:1 familiar:1 hundred:1 might:1 magazine:1 search:2 strategy:1 reliable:1 web:3 site:2 give:2 evaluate:1 reliability:1 want:1 refer:1 another:1 organization:1 contact:2 mail:1 qualification:1 united:1 state:1 require:1 master:1 degree:3 science:2 however:1 lack:1 qualified:1 applicant:1 particularly:1 rural:1 area:1 country:1 associate:1 certificate:1 technology:1 bachelor:1 perform:1 many:1 academic:1 assistant:1 sometimes:1 electronic:1 development:2 digital:4 begin:1 role:1 traditional:1 disagreement:1 desirable:1 inevitable:1 die:1 scott:1 carlson:1 chronicle:1 high:1 education:1 april:1 see:1 also:1 scenario:1 virtual:1 external:1 link:1 ucla:1 dis:1 info:1 wiki:1 edit:1 john:1 v:1 richardson:1 jr:1 debbie:1 weismann:1 hour:1 ben:1 chan:1 trend:1 issue:1 building:1 maintain:1 management:1 wander:1 around:1 rovering:1 quality:1 |@bigram someone_else:1 bachelor_degree:1 external_link:1 |
4,101 | Karl_Radek | Karl Radek Karl Berngardovich Radek (October 31, 1885 - May 19, 1939) was a socialist active in the Polish and German movements before World War I and an international Communist leader after the Russian Revolution. Life He was born in Lemberg, Austria-Hungary (now Lviv, Ukraine), as Karol Sobelsohn, to a Jewish family. He took the name "Radek" from a favourite character in a book (perhaps Syzyfowe prace by Stefan Żeromski). He joined the Polish Social Democratic movement in 1904 and participated in the 1905 Revolution in Warsaw. Germany In 1907 he moved to Germany, joined the SPD and worked on various party newspapers until he was expelled in 1913 under unclear circumstances. Schorske, Carl: German Social Democracy, 1905-1917, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) & London 1983, pp. 254-255; Nettl, Peter: Rosa Luxemburg (Abridged edition), Oxford University Press, London, Oxford & New York 1969, pp.315-317, 353-356. After the outbreak of World War I he moved to Switzerland where he worked as a liaison between Vladimir Lenin and the Bremen Left, with which he had close links from his time in Germany. He was one of the passengers on the "sealed train" that carried Lenin and other Russian revolutionaries through Germany after the February Revolution in Russia. He took an anti-war stance during World War I while living in Switzerland and Sweden. In 1917 after the October Revolution he traveled to Petrograd and became an active Bolshevik functionary. He was in Germany in 1918-20 organising the German Communist movement. Comintern and after Radek, together with the Comintern member Dmitry Manuilsky, made an unsuccessful attempt to launch a second German revolution in October 1923, before Lenin died. Karl Radek's biography article on hronos.ru In 1920 Radek returned to Russia and became a secretary of the Comintern but his influence decreased and he lost his place on the Central Committee in 1924, being expelled from the Party in 1927. However, he was re-admitted in 1930 and helped to write the 1936 Soviet Constitution, but during the Great Purge of the 1930s, he was accused of treason and confessed at the Trial of the Seventeen (1937, also called the Second Moscow Trial). He was sentenced to 10 years of penal labor. He was reportedly killed in a labor camp in a fight with another inmate. However, during the investigations during the Khrushchev Thaw it was established that he was killed by an NKVD operative under direct orders from Lavrentiy Beria. Document describing the murder of Radek and another political immate, Sokolnikov Radek is also credited with originating a number of political jokes about Joseph Stalin. "In spite of his [Radek's] confession and reinstatement, he was bitterly critical of the government, and was credited with inventing most of the anti-government jokes then circulating in Moscow." He was exonerated in 1988. Notes External links Works by Karl Radek available at the Marxists Internet Archive. | Karl_Radek |@lemmatized karl:4 radek:10 berngardovich:1 october:3 may:1 socialist:1 active:2 polish:2 german:4 movement:3 world:3 war:4 international:1 communist:2 leader:1 russian:2 revolution:5 life:1 bear:1 lemberg:1 austria:1 hungary:1 lviv:1 ukraine:1 karol:1 sobelsohn:1 jewish:1 family:1 take:2 name:1 favourite:1 character:1 book:1 perhaps:1 syzyfowe:1 prace:1 stefan:1 żeromski:1 join:2 social:2 democratic:1 participate:1 warsaw:1 germany:5 move:2 spd:1 work:3 various:1 party:2 newspaper:1 expel:2 unclear:1 circumstance:1 schorske:1 carl:1 democracy:1 harvard:1 university:2 press:2 cambridge:1 mass:1 london:2 pp:2 nettl:1 peter:1 rosa:1 luxemburg:1 abridged:1 edition:1 oxford:2 new:1 york:1 outbreak:1 switzerland:2 liaison:1 vladimir:1 lenin:3 bremen:1 leave:1 close:1 link:2 time:1 one:1 passenger:1 seal:1 train:1 carry:1 revolutionary:1 february:1 russia:2 anti:2 stance:1 live:1 sweden:1 travel:1 petrograd:1 become:2 bolshevik:1 functionary:1 organise:1 comintern:3 together:1 member:1 dmitry:1 manuilsky:1 make:1 unsuccessful:1 attempt:1 launch:1 second:2 die:1 biography:1 article:1 hronos:1 ru:1 return:1 secretary:1 influence:1 decrease:1 lose:1 place:1 central:1 committee:1 however:2 admit:1 help:1 write:1 soviet:1 constitution:1 great:1 purge:1 accuse:1 treason:1 confess:1 trial:2 seventeen:1 also:2 call:1 moscow:2 sentence:1 year:1 penal:1 labor:2 reportedly:1 kill:2 camp:1 fight:1 another:2 inmate:1 investigation:1 khrushchev:1 thaw:1 establish:1 nkvd:1 operative:1 direct:1 order:1 lavrentiy:1 beria:1 document:1 describe:1 murder:1 political:2 immate:1 sokolnikov:1 credit:2 originate:1 number:1 joke:2 joseph:1 stalin:1 spite:1 confession:1 reinstatement:1 bitterly:1 critical:1 government:2 invent:1 circulate:1 exonerate:1 note:1 external:1 available:1 marxist:1 internet:1 archive:1 |@bigram karl_radek:3 austria_hungary:1 rosa_luxemburg:1 vladimir_lenin:1 lavrentiy_beria:1 external_link:1 |
4,102 | Abdu'l-Bahá | `Abdu'l-Bahá ‘Abdu’l-Bahá () (23 May 1844 - 28 November 1921), born `Abbás Effendí, was the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2 , the founder of the Bahá'í Faith. In 1892, `Abdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the Bahá'í Faith. His journeys to the West, and his Tablets of the Divine Plan spread the Bahá'í message beyond its middle-eastern roots, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Bahá'í administrative order. `Abdu'l-Bahá's given name was `Abbás Effendí, but he preferred the title of `Abdu'l-Bahá (servant of the glory of God). He is commonly referred to in Bahá'í texts as "The Master", and received the title of KBE after his personal storage of grain was used to relieve famine in Palestine following World War I. Background Early life `Abdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Persia on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu'l-Avval, 1260 AH ), the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the very same night on which the Báb declared his mission. During his youth, `Abdu'l-Bahá was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the Bábís. One event that affected `Abdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when `Abdu'l-Bahá was nine years old; the imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. Esslemont records that "A mob sacked their house, and the family were stripped of their possessions and left in destitution." Years in exile with his father Bahá'u'lláh was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and `Abdu'l-Bahá joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter of 1853. During the journey `Abdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. When Bahá'u'lláh secretly secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in 1854, `Abdu'l-Bahá was no more than ten years old and grieved over his separation from his father. During his years in Baghdad, `Abdu'l-Bahá spent much of his time reading the writings of the Báb, wrote commentary on Qur'anic verses and conversed with the learned of the city. In 1856, when news of a personage in the mountains of Kurdistan arrived, `Abdu'l-Baha along with some family and friends set out to ask Bahá'u'lláh to return to Baghdad. In 1863 Bahá'u'lláh was summoned to Constantinople (Istanbul), and thus his whole family including `Abdu'l-Bahá, then nineteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey. `Abdu'l-Baha followed his father through the further exile to Adrianople (Edirne), and finally Akká, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). During this time he increasingly assumed the role of Bahá'u'lláh's chief steward. On arrival in Akka, due to the unsanitary state of its barracks, many of the Bahá'ís fell sick, and `Abdu'l-Bahá tended the sick. Furthermore, the inhabitants of Akka were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God and his religion, and that association with them was strictly forbidden, and thus the Bahá'ís were faced with hostile officials, and scornful inhabitants and `Abdu'l-Bahá shielded his father of much of these attacks. Over time, he gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Bahá'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Bahá'ís, they recognized the innocence of the Bahá'ís, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Bahá'u'lláh was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places. Family life On March 8, 1873 twenty-eight year old ‘Abdu’l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahrí of Isfahán (1848-1938). Peter Smith, An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith pp.35 Fátimih, renamed Munírih Khánum by Bahá’u’lláh, was twenty-four years of age. H.M. Balyuzi, Baha'u'llah - The King of Glory, p. 341 She was the daughter of eminent Bábí-Bahá’í; Áqá Muhammad-‘Alí Nahrí of Isfahan, himself from an aristocratic family the Nahrí’s. Moojan Momen- Memoirs and Letters, p. xii Munírih Khánum was bought to ‘Akká when both Bahá’u’lláh and Ásíyih Khánum showed an intrest in her becoming the wife of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Dr. J.E. Esslemont, Baha'u'llah and the New Era, p. 54 After a pilgramige to the house of the Báb in Shiraz, and a hajj to Mecca requested by Bahá’u’lláh she arrived in ‘Akká. Lady Blomfield, The Chosen Highway, p. 75 The couple were betrothed for five months until their marriage. It was a happy marriage resulting in nine children. Myron H Phleps, The Master in 'Akka p. 112 Unfortunately, only four of these children survived into adulthood. Phelps p. 118 Díyá’íyyih Khánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi), Túbá Khánum, Rúhá Khánum and Munavvar Khánum. Juliet Thompson, The Diary of Juliet Thompson Early years of his ministry `Abdu'l-Bahá After Bahá'u'lláh died on 29 May 1892, the Will and Testament of Bahá'u'lláh named `Abdu'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Bahá'u'lláh's writings. In the Will and Testament `Abdu'l-Bahá's half-brother, Muhammad `Alí, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to `Abdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad `Alí became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Badi'u'llah and Diya'u'llah. He began correspondence with Bahá'ís in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about `Abdu'l-Bahá. While most Bahá'ís followed `Abdu'l-Bahá, a handful followed Muhammad `Alí including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim Khayru'llah, the famous Bahá'í missionary to America. Muhammad `Alí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse `Abdu'l-Bahá of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Bahá'u'lláh. It was at this time that `Abdu'l-Bahá, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations levelled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "`Abdu'l-Bahá" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude. It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when `Abdu'l-Bahá died, instead of appointing Muhammad `Alí, he left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of an administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. By the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started coming to Akka on pilgrimage to visit `Abdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Bahá'ís raised up in the West had met `Abdu'l-Bahá. During the next decade `Abdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Bahá'ís around the world, helping them to teach the religion; the group included May Ellis Bolles in Paris, Englishman Thomas Breakwell, American Herbert Hopper, French Hippolyte Dreyfus, Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, and American Laura Clifford Barney. It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of `Abdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions. During the final years of the 19th century, while `Abdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to `Akka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Bahá'u'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years. With the increase of pilgrims visiting `Abdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad `Alí worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on `Abdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the Governor of `Akka being supportive of `Abdu'l-Bahá, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit `Abdu'l-Bahá, he was confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad `Alí, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid `Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad `Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad `Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about `Abdu'l-Bahá was fabrication. * From 1902-1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Báb that `Abdu'l-Bahá was directing, he started to put into execution two different projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first Bahá'í House of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. `Abdu'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the work so that the house of the Báb would be restored to the state that it was at the time of the Báb's declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844; he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u'd-Dawlih. Also in 1904, Muhammad `Ali continued his accusations against `Abdu'l-Bahá which caused an Ottoman commission summoning `Abdu'l-Bahá to answer the accusations levelled against him. During the inquiry the charges against him were dropped and the inquiry collapsed. Momen, p. 320-323. The next few years in `Akka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit `Abdu'l-Bahá. Also, by 1909 the mausoleum of the shrine of the Báb was completed. Journeys to the West `Abdu'l-Bahá, during his trip to the United States The 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and `Abdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his freedom was to visit the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh in Bahji. While `Abdu'l-Bahá continued to live in `Akka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb. In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Bahá'í message. From August to December 1911, `Abdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Bahá'í communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings. In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Bahá'í believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S.S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. Upon arriving in New York, he arranged a private meeting with the survivors of the ill-fated Titanic, who asked him if he knew the Titanic's ultimate destruction would occur, to which, 'Abdu'l-Baha replied, "God gives man feelings of intuition". While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D.C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal (his only visit to Canada). He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On 5 December 1912 he set sail back to Europe. During his visit to North America he visited many missions, churches, and groups, as well as having scores of meetings in Bahá'ís' homes, and offering innumerable personal meetings with hundreds of people. During his talks he proclaimed Bahá'í principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, onesness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice. He also insisted that all his meetings be open to all races. His visit and talks were the subject of hundreds of newspaper articles. In Boston newspaper reporters asked `Abdu'l-Bahá why he had come to America, and he stated that he had come to participate in conferences on peace and that just giving warning messages is not enough. `Abdu'l-Bahá's visit to Montreal provided notable newspaper coverage; on the night of his arrival the editor of the Montreal Daily Star met with him and that newspaper along with The Montreal Gazette, Montreal Standard, Le Devoir and La Presse among others reported on `Abdu'l-Bahá's activities. The headlines in those papers included "Persian Teacher to Preach Peace", "Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices", and "Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha's Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth." The Montreal Standard, which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal's largest French language newspaper published two articles about him. His 1912 visit to Montreal also inspired humourist Stephen Leacock to parody him in his bestselling 1914 book Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich. Wagner, Ralph D. Yahi-Bahi Society of Mrs. Resselyer-Brown, The. Accessed on: 19-05-2008 In Chicago one newspaper headline included "His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha," and `Abdu'l-Bahá's visit to California was reported in the the Palo Altan. Back in Europe, he visited London, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally on 12 June 1913 he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa. Final years `Abdu'l-Bahá on Mount Carmel with pilgrims in 1919 During World War I `Abdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to `Abdu'l-Bahá. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa. On 27 April 1920, he was awarded a knighthood (KBE) by the British Mandate of Palestine for his humanitarian efforts during the war. `Abdu'l-Bahá died on 28 November 1921 (27th of Rabi'u'l-Avval, 1340 AH). On his funeral, Esslemont notes: "... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues." Esslemont, p 77, quoting 'The Passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá", by Lady Blomfield and Shoghi Effendi, pp 11, 12. He is buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of `Abdu'l-Bahá. In his Will and Testament he appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith. Works The total estimated number of tablets that `Abdu'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000, of which only a fraction have been translated into English. His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others. The first group includes the Secret of Divine Civilization written before 1875, A Traveller's Narrative written around 1886, the Resāla-ye sīāsīya or Sermon on the Art of Governance written in 1893, the Memorials of the Faithful, and a large number of tablets written to various people; including various Western intellectuals such as August Forel which has been translated and published as the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel. The Secret of Divine Civilization and the Sermon on the Art of Governance were widely circulated anonymously. The second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, `Abdu'l-Baha in London and Promulgation of Universal Peace which are respectively addresses given by `Abdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States. The following is a list of some of `Abdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks: Foundations of World Unity Memorials of the Faithful Paris Talks Secret of Divine Civilization Some Answered Questions Tablets of the Divine Plan Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel Tablet to The Hague Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá Promulgation of Universal Peace Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá Divine Philosophy Treatise on Politics / Sermon on the Art of Governance http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/trans/vol7/govern.htm See also Bahá'u'lláh's family Mírzá Mihdí Munirih Khánum Shoghi Effendi House of `Abdu'l-Bahá Notes References External links Selections from the Writings of `Abdu'l-Bahá Tablets of `Abdu'l-Bahá Abbas A much younger picture of him | Abdu'l-Bahá |@lemmatized abdu:69 l:71 bahá:107 may:4 november:2 bear:3 abbás:2 effendí:2 eldest:2 son:2 u:26 lláh:18 chamber:1 biographical:1 dictionary:1 isbn:1 page:1 founder:1 í:13 faith:4 appoint:4 father:10 successor:2 head:1 journey:9 west:6 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4,103 | Filioque | The Holy Trinity,by Andrei Rublev Filioque, Latin for "and (from) the Son", was added in Western Christianity to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. This insertion emphasizes that Jesus, the Son, is of equal divinity with God, the Father, while the absence of it in Eastern Christianity emphasizes that the Father is the only one cause of the two other persons. Et in Spiritum Sanctum, Dominum, et vivificantem: qui ex Patre Filioque procedit. (And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, and giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son.) The doctrine expressed by this phrase, as inserted into the Creed, is accepted by the Roman Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church, 246-248 by Anglicanism .1662 Book of Common Prayer 1979 Book of Common Prayer, Episcopal Church . Common Worship, Church of England (2000) and by Protestant churches in general. Lutheranism (Book of Concord, The Nicene Creed and the Filioque: A Lutheran Approach), Presbyterianism (Union Presbyterian Church, Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand, Reformed Presbyterian Church); Methodism (United Methodist Hymnal) Christians of these groups generally include it when reciting the Nicene Creed. Nonetheless, these groups recognize that Filioque is not part of the original text established at the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and they do not demand that others too should use it when saying the Creed. Indeed, the Roman Catholic Church does not add the phrase corresponding to Filioque (καὶ τοῦ Υἱοῦ) to the Greek text of the Creed, even in the liturgy for Latin Rite Catholics. Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity: The Greek and the Latin Traditions regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit (scanned image of the English translation on L'Osservatore Romano of 20 September 1995); also text with Greek letters transliterated and text omitting two sentences at the start of the paragraph that it presents as beginning with "The Western tradition expresses first …" Pope John Paul II recited the Nicene Creed several times with patriarchs of the Eastern Orthodox Church in Greek according to the original text. Agreed Statement of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation, 25 October 2003 At the 879-880 Council of Constantinople the Eastern Orthodox Church anathematized the "Filioque" phrase, "as a novelty and augmentation of the Creed", and in their 1848 encyclical the Eastern Patriarchs spoke of it as a heresy. Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs, 1848 A Reply to the Epistle of Pope Pius IX, "to the Easterns" It was qualified as such by some of the Eastern Orthodox Church's saints, including Photios I of Constantinople, Mark of Ephesus, Gregory Palamas, who have been called the Three Pillars of Orthodoxy. On the other hand Saint Maximus the Confessor wrote in defence of the Roman use of the Filioque, maintaining that it was a legitimate variation of the doctrine that the Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son; Concordia Theological Quarterly, January-April 1995, pp. 32 and 40 and Metropolitan John Zizioulas has declared that a recent document of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity "constitutes an encouraging attempt to clarify the basic aspects of the Filioque problem and show that a rapprochement between West and East on this matter is eventually possible". One Single Source: An Orthodox Response to the Clarification on the Filioque The Filioque became a point of contention between the Eastern and Western Churches in 867, when Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople declared it heretical. The controversy over the phrase contributed to the East-West Schism of 1054 and, despite agreements among participants at the Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439), reunion has not been achieved. Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994. A Greek Orthodox theologian has pointed to the 1054 schism as the most striking example of how practice, rather than theological differences, causes schisms: "The local Churches coexisted for centuries with the 'Filioque' before Church events brought the problem to a head in the period of Photios the Great, but there was no schism, and in the 1054 period the 'Filioque' was dormant. It came back and was intensified after this to justify it and make it fixed." Ἐκκλησία -Επίσημον Δελτἰον τῆς Ἐκκλησίας τῆς Ἑλλάδος (Ekklisia - Official Bulletin of the Church of Greece), June 2008, p. 432 History of the insertion in the Nicene Creed |First Council of Constantinope, miniature in Homilies of Gregory Nazianzus (879-882), Biblothèque nationale de France Origin of the Nicene Creed The First Council of Nicaea of 325 ended its Creed with the words "And in the Holy Spirit." In 381, the First Council of Constantinople added to this the words, "the Lord, the Giver of life, who proceeds from the Father …" This last phrase comes from . "The acts of the Council of Constantinople were lost, but the text of its Creed was quoted and formally acknowledged as binding, along with the Creed of Nicaea, in the dogmatic statement of the Council of Chalcedon (451). Within less than a century, this Creed of 381 took on a normative role in the definition of the Christian faith, and by the early sixth century was even proclaimed in the Eucharist in Antioch, Constantinople, and other regions in the East. In regions of the Western churches, the Creed was also introduced into the Eucharist, perhaps beginning with the Third Council of Toledo in 589. It was not formally introduced into the Eucharistic liturgy at Rome, however, until the eleventh century." An Agreed Statement of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation Insertion of the Filioque "No clear record exists of the process by which the word Filioque was inserted into the Nicene Creed in the Christian West before the sixth century. The idea that the Spirit came forth 'from the Father through the Son' is asserted by a number of earlier Latin theologians, as part of their insistence on the ordered unity of all three persons within the single divine Mystery (e.g., Tertullian, Adversus Praxean 4 and 5). Tertullian, writing at the beginning of the third century, emphasizes that Father, Son and Holy Spirit all share a single divine substance, quality and power (ibid. 2), which he conceives of as flowing forth from the Father and being transmitted by the Son to the Spirit (ibid. 8). Hilary of Poitiers, in the mid-fourth century, in the same work speaks of the Spirit as 'coming forth from the Father' and being 'sent by the Son' (De Trinitate 12.55); as being 'from the Father through the Son' (ibid. 12.56); and as 'having the Father and the Son as his source' (ibid. 2.29); in another passage, Hilary points to John 16.15 (where Jesus says: 'All things that the Father has are mine; therefore I said that [the Spirit] shall take from what is mine and declare it to you'), and wonders aloud whether 'to receive from the Son is the same thing as to proceed from the Father' (ibid. 8.20). Ambrose of Milan, writing in the 380s, openly asserts that the Spirit 'proceeds from (procedit a) the Father and the Son', without ever being separated from either (On the Holy Spirit 1.11.20). None of these writers, however, makes the Spirit’s mode of origin the object of special reflection; all are concerned, rather, to emphasize the equality of status of all three divine persons as God, and all acknowledge that the Father alone is the source of God’s eternal being." The phrase Filioque first appears as an interpolation in the Creed at the Third Council of Toledo, at which Visigothic Spain renounced Arianism, accepting Catholic Christianity. The anti-Arian addition underlined the equality of the Son with the Father, denied by Arianism, which held that the Son is a creature, and that there was a "then" when the Son did not exist. It has been argued that the Filioque was already used in the Nicene Creed before the Third Council of Toledo and that the Council was quoting what it believed to be the exact text.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.ix.iv.html |title=Historical Excursus on the Introduction into the Creed of the Words "and the Son"}}, in Philip Schaff, The Seven Ecumenical Councils, The Second Ecumenical Council</ref> The use of Filioque was defended by Saint Paulinus II of Aquileia at the Synod of Friuli, Italy in 796, and it was endorsed in 809 at the Council of Aachen. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Filioque The Council of Aachen (809) was held because some Eastern monks protested to the Pope about the use of the phrase in a Western monastery in Jerusalem. Pope Leo III approved the doctrine yet opposed adding "Filioque" to the Creed. He had the Creed in its original form engraved on two silver tables, one in Greek, the other in Latin, and placed them at the tomb of Saint Peter, writing: "I, Leo, have placed these for love and protection of the orthodox faith". "Haec Leo posui amore et cautela orthodoxae fidei" (Vita Leonis, Liber Pontificalis (ed. Duchêne, t. II, p. 26); cf. Treatise of Adam Zoernikaff, quoted in William Palmer: A Harmony of Anglican Doctrine with the doctrine of the catholic and apostolic church of the East (Aberdeen 1846) However, the Filioque continued to be included in the Creed as sung generally throughout the West, though in Rome itself the Creed was only read, not sung, and did not include the interpolation. But in 1014, at the request of the German King Henry II who had come to Rome to be crowned Emperor, and was surprised at the different custom in force there, Pope Benedict VIII, who owed to Henry his restoration to the papal throne after usurpation by Antipope Gregory VI, had the Creed, with the addition of Filioque, sung at Mass in Rome for the first time. Since then the Filioque phrase is included in the Creed as used throughout the Latin Rite, except where Greek is used in the liturgy. Ρωμαϊκο Λειτουργικό (Roman Missal), Συνοδική Επιτροπή για τη θεία Λατρεία 2005, I, p. 347 Eastern Catholic Churches such as the Maronites and those of Byzantine Rite, which are in full communion with the Holy See, have never used the Filioque. The Roman Catholic Church fully recognizes that the original text of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed does not include the Filioque and when quoting that text, as it did in the 6 August 2000 document, Dominus Iesus on the unicity and salvific universality of Jesus Christ and the Church, quotes it without that addition. Dominus Iesus Conflict According to John Meyendorff, The Orthodox Church, Crestwood, NY, 1981 quoted in On the Question of the Filioque the Western efforts to get Pope Leo III to approve the addition of Filioque to the Creed were due to a desire of Charlemagne, who in 800 had been crowned in Rome as Emperor, to find grounds for accusations of heresy against the East. The Pope's refusal to approve the interpolation avoided arousing a conflict between East and West about this matter. Patriarch Photiusof Constantinople The Photian controversy However, controversy about the question broke out in the course of the disputes surrounding Photius of Constantinople. In 858, Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople fell out of favour with Byzantine Emperor Michael III and was removed from his position. He was replaced by the layman Photius, a distinguished scholar, imperial secretary and ambassador to Baghdad. Ignatius was exiled to Terebinthos and resigned his position under pressure. Photius later even had a synod declare Ignatius's patriarchate invalid. Both Photius and Emperor Michael as well as the partisans of Ignatius appealed to Pope Nicholas I, who eventually in 863 deposed and excommunicated Photius and recognized Ignatius as the legitimate patriarch. Photius, with the support of Emperor Michael, rejected the Pope's judgment. To rally the Eastern Churches to his course he issued an Encyclical to the Eastern Patriarchs denouncing the Latin Church for differences in customs and, most importantly for the Filioque, which he deemed heretical. This latter element, appearing for the first time, is of special importance, as it moved the issue from jurisdiction and custom to one of dogma. In 867, he assembled a synod excommunicating Pope Nicholas and condemning Latin "aberrations". Photius's importance endured in regard to relations between East and West, as he was the first theologian to make the Filioque a contentious issue and to accuse Rome of heresy in the matter. He is recognized as a Saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church and his line of criticism has often been echoed later, making reconciliation between East and West difficult. Theology New Testament While the phrase "who proceeds from the Father" is found in , no direct statement about the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son is found in the New Testament, although perhaps indirectly discernible in and other passages. In Jesus says of the Holy Spirit "he will take what is mine and declare it to you", and it is argued that in the relations between the Persons of the Trinity one Person cannot "take" or "receive" (λήψεται) anything from either of the others except by way of procession. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Double Procession of the Holy Spirit Other texts that have been used include , , , where the Holy Spirit is called "the Spirit of the Son", "the Spirit of Christ", "the Spirit of Jesus Christ", and texts in the Gospel of John on the sending of the Holy Spirit by Jesus (, , ). speaks of God pouring out the Holy Spirit "through Jesus Christ our Saviour", while speaks of Jesus himself pouring out the Holy Spirit, having received the promise of the Holy Spirit from the Father. The Eastern Orthodox interpretation is that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and is sent (on Pentecost day) from the Father through the Son (ex Patre per Filium procedit). The Latin West states that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son together (ex Patre Filioque procedit). Barbero, Alessandro, 2004, Charlemagne: Father of a Continent. Allan Cameron, trans. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Church Fathers All the Fathers, of both East and West, agree that the relationships of the Father with the Son and the Holy Spirit are distinct: the Son is "begotten" of the Father; the Holy Spirit "proceeds" (verbs ἐκπορεύεσθαι, προϊέναι, procedere) from the Father. cf. and Nicene Creed Father, Son and Holy Spirit are one in essence but distinct in personhood. Constantine Platis refers to three Greek Fathers as saying that the Holy Spirit proceeds (ἐκπορεύεσθαι) from the Father only: St. Dionysius the Areopagite, On the Divine Names 2:5: Blessed Theodoret, PG 76:432; St Gregory Palamas, A NT Decalogue 6. Platis, Constantine. (2000). Dance, O Isaiah: Questions and Answers On Some of the Differences between Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Other Faiths (Boston, MA: Orthodox Metropolis of Boston). The Greek Father Saint Cyril of Alexandria spoke of the Holy Spirit proceeding (προϊέναι not ἐκπορεύεσθαι) from Father and Son. Thesaurus, PG 75, 585 In his struggle against Nestorianism, he spoke of the Holy Spirit as belonging to the Son (τὸ ἴδιον τοῦ Υἱοῦ) and several times spoke of the Holy Spirit proceeding (προϊέναι) from the Father "and the Son", alongside the phrase preferred in the East: "through the Son", the former indicating the equality of principle, the latter the order of origin. On the other hand, his Nestorian opponents Theodore of Mopsuestia and Theodoret denied that the Holy Spirit derives his existence from or through the Son. Catholic Encyclopedia: Filioque The formula most used in the East in relation to the Son when speaking of the procession (ἐκπορεύεσθαι) of the Holy Spirit from (ἐκ) the Father is through (διά) the Son. Platis gives as sources: St Dionysius the Great of Alexandria, Letter to Dionysius, Bishop of Rome 2:8-9; St Hilary of Poitiers, De Trinitate 12:57, 8:19-20, 2:1; St John of Damascus, Orthodox Faith 1:12.; St Tarasius of Constantinople, [Mansi, Sacrorum conciliorum 12:1122.]; and St Gregory of Sinai, On Commandments and Doctrines 27. Already in the fourth century the distinction was made, in connection with the Trinity, between the two Greek verbs ἐκπορεύεσθαι (the verb used in the original Greek text of the 381 Nicene Creed) and προϊέναι. In his Oration on the Holy Lights (XXXIX), Saint Gregory of Nazianzus wrote: "The Holy Ghost is truly Spirit, coming forth (προϊέναι) from the Father indeed, but not after the manner of the Son, for it is not by Generation but by Procession (ἐκπορεύεσθαι)". Translation in Christian Classics Ethereal Library The original is "προϊὸν μὲν ἐκ τοῦ Πατρὸς, οὐχ ὑϊκῶς δὲ, οὐδὲ γὰρ γεννητῶς, ἀλλ' ἐκπορευτῶς". Oratio 39, 12 That the Holy Spirit "proceeds" from the Father and the Son in the sense of the Latin word procedere and the Greek προϊέναι (as opposed to the Greek ἐκπορεύεσθαι) was taught by the early fifth century by Saint Cyril of Alexandria in the East and even earlier by the fourth-century Western Fathers Ambrose, "The Holy Spirit also, when He proceeds from the Father and the Son, is not separated from the Father nor separated from the Son" - in the original Latin "Spiritus quoque sanctus cum procedit a Patre et Filio, non separatur a Patre, non separatur a Filio".(De Spiritu Sancto, 1.11.120; "As the Father is the Fount of Life, so, too, many have stated that the Son is signified as the Fount of Life; so that, he says, with Thee, Almighty God, Thy Son is the Fount of Life. That is the Fount of the Holy Spirit, for the Spirit is Life, as the Lord says: 'The words which I speak unto you are Spirit and Life', for where the Spirit is, there also is Life; and where Life is, is also the Holy Spirit" (De Spiritu Sancto, 1.15.172. Augustine Augustinus, Contra Sermonem Arianorum Liber Unus, 4.4 "Whence it is clear that neither the Father without the Son, nor the Son without the Father sent the Holy Ghost, but Both sent Him equally". In the original Latin "Ubi ostenditur quod nec Pater sine Filio, nec Filius sine Patre misit Spiritum Sanctum, sed eum pariter ambo miserunt" and Jerome, all of whom taught that the Spirit "proceeds" from the Father and the Son, though subordinate to neither. The Athanasian Creed, probably of the middle of the fifth century, The Origin and Terminology of the Athanasian Creed by Robert H. Krueger and a dogmatic epistle of Pope Leo I. Ep. 15, c. 1 gives the same teaching, "The Holy Ghost is from the Father and the Son, neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding". In the original Latin:"Spiritus Sanctus a Patre et Filio: non factus, nec creatus, nec genitus, sed procedens". Constantine Platis argues: "When the early Christian writers are not unanimous, it is best to remember the words of St. Vincent of Lerins, a Church Father who says that in the universal Church we should be very careful to teach only what 'has been believed everywhere, always, and by all' or at least by 'almost all' our holy ancestors and Fathers (Commonitory 2 [6]). The filioque was not taught 'always' (it was not taught before the 5th century); nor has it been taught 'everywhere' (it has been believed only in the Latin Church)" On the other hand, the first record of denial of the teaching of Saint Cyril of Alexandria that the Holy Spirit "proceeds" (in the sense of the Greek προϊέναι or the Latin procedere, not in the sense of πορεύεσθαι) from the Father and the Son is of the start of the ninth century, when the first dispute about the matter arose: Easterners reacted against the use of the Latin form (with the verb procedere) by some Latin monks in Jerusalem who had visited the court of Charlemagne. Agreed Statement Letter of the Latin Monks to Pope Leo III The Filioque Clause East-West controversy As indicated above, the doctrine did not become a matter of controversy until Photius made it such in 864, affirming that it was contrary to the teaching of the Fathers and even suspecting that the relevant passages were interpolations. The opposition strengthened with the East-West Schism of 1054. Two councils held to heal the break discussed the question. The Second Council of Lyon (1274) accepted the profession of faith of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos in the Holy Spirit, "proceeding from the Father and the Son" Denzinger, 853 (old numbering 463) Latin text English translation and the Greek participants, including Patriarch Joseph I of Constantinople sang the Creed three times with the Filioque addition. Though Emperor Michael had in 1261 succeeded in deposing the Roman Catholic Emperor Baldwin II of Constantinople established by force over the Orthodox, and winning back the city of Constantinople, which had been in the made into the Crusader state called the Latin Empire of the East, since the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Most Byzantine Christians feeling disgust and recovering from the Latin Crusaders' conquest and betrayal, John Paul II asked, "How can we not share, at a distance of eight centuries, the pain and disgust."Pope Expresses “Sorrow” Over Sacking of Constantinople This has been regarded as an apology to the Greek Orthodox Church for the terrible slaughter perpetrated by the warriors of the Fourth Crusade. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, intro., xiii). refused to accept the agreement made at Lyon with the Latins. In 1282, Emperor Michael VIII died and Patriarch Joseph I's successor, John XI, who had become convinced that the teaching of the Greek Fathers was compatible with that of the Latins, was forced to resign, and was replaced by Gregory II, who was strongly of the opposite opinion. John VIII Palaiologosby Benozzo Gozzoli Another attempt at reunion was made at the fifteenth-century Council of Florence, to which Emperor John VIII Palaiologos, Ecumenical Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople, and other bishops from the East had gone in the hope of getting Western military aid against the looming Ottoman Empire. Thirteen public sessions held in Ferrara from 8 October to 13 December 1438 the Filioque question was debated without agreement. The Greeks held that any addition whatever, even if doctrinally correct, to the Creed had been forbidden by the Council of Ephesus, while the Latins claimed that this prohibition concerned meaning, not words. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Florence, Council of In fact, what this third Ecumenical Council prohibited was: The acts of the council of 431 contain the creed in its original 325 form, as adopted at Nicaea, without the additions made in 381 by the First Council of Constantinople, such as the clause "who proceeds from the Father", Extracts from the Acts of the Council of Ephesus, The Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius] additions to the text established by the Holy Fathers in Nicaea, but accepted without question by both East and West. When the Council moved to Florence in 1439, accord continued to be elusive, until the argument prevailed among the Greeks themselves that, though the Greek and the Latin saints expressed their faith differently, they were in agreement substantially, since saints cannot err in faith; and by 8 June the Greeks accepted the Latin statement of doctrine. On 10 June Patriarch Joseph II died. A statement on the Filioque question was included in the Laetentur Caeli decree of union, which was signed on 5 July 1439 and promulgated the next day, with Mark of Ephesus being the only bishop to refuse his signature. The Eastern Church refused to consider the agreement reached at Florence binding, since the death of Joseph II had for the moment left it without a Patriarch of Constantinople. There was strong opposition to the agreement in the East, and when in 1453, 14 years after the agreement, the promised military aid from the West still had not arrived and Constantinople fell to the Turks, neither Eastern Christians nor their new rulers wished union between them and the West. Differences in views In the late sixth century, the Latin-speaking churches of Western Europe began to add the words "and the Son" (Filioque) to the description of the procession of the Holy Spirit. Easterners have argued that this is a violation of Canon VII of the Third Ecumenical Council, which, after quoting the Creed in the form given to it by the Second Ecumenical Council, "decreed that it is unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa" (the First Ecumenical Council, which did not speak of the procession of the Holy Spirit). In the acts of the Council of Ephesus of 431 it is the original text of the Creed as established at Nicaea in 325 that appears, without the alterations made at the First Council of Constantinople of 381: the Creed used by the Council of Ephesus thus ends, as that of Nicaea, but not that of Constantinople, with "And in the Holy Ghost", and is followed, again as in the Creed of Nicaea, but not in that of Constantinople, by an anathema against "those that say, There was a time when he was not, and, before he was begotten he was not..." The Third Ecumenical Council. The Council of Ephesus, p. 202 The Council of Ephesus declared that "it is unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa". Canon VII of the Council of Ephesus The differences between the original Nicene Creed, approved at Ephesus, and the now familiar Niceno-Constantinopolitan form (mostly additions, but with some omissions) include the addition of "who proceeds from the Father", and the omission of "God from God", See comparison between the two version which was preserved in the Latin text of the Creed ("Deum de Deo"). If the words "and the Son" are associated with the Greek verb ἐκπορεύεσθαι of the text adopted by the Council of Constantinople, it is held that they would be heretical, The Roman Catholic Church does not permit the addition of these words to the Creed recited in Greek and so with the word ἐκπορευόμενον but not if associated with the Latin verb procedere, which corresponds instead to the Greek verb προϊέναι, with which some of the Greek Fathers also associated the same words. Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity: The Greek and the Latin Traditions regading the Procession of the Holy Spirit (scanned image of the English translation on L'Osservatore Romano of 20 September 1995); also text with Greek letters transliterated and text omitting two sentences at the start of the paragraph that it presents as beginning with "The Western tradition expresses first …" In English and other languages that lack the Greek distinction between ἐκπορεύεσθαι and προϊέναι, both of which can be translated by "proceed", "and the Son" is often included in reciting the Creed. In 2003, the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation issued an agreed statement that recommended that both Catholics and Orthodox refrain from labeling as heretical the traditions of the other side, and that the Catholic Church use the text of 381 (without the Filioque) in making translations of that Creed for catechetical and liturgical use. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of North America: Agreed Statement on Filioque It has been noted that a good deal of the disagreement comes from meaning of two distinct Greek verb forms, ἐκπορεύεσθαι (ekporeuesthai) and προϊέναι (proienai/coming-forth). The distinction here is about the cause of the Holy Spirit. The difference in meaning between the two Greek verbs gets to the nub of the theological question as to the Spirit's origin or cause. All of the Eastern Fathers acknowledge that the Father is monos aitios, the sole Cause” of the Son and the Spirit. When, therefore, certain Church Fathers use the expression “through the Son,” they are, precisely by means of this expression, preserving the dogma of the procession from the Father and the inviolability of the dogmatic formula, “proceedeth from the Father.” The Fathers speak of the Son as “through” so as to defend the expression “from,” which refers only to the Father. It is this distinction that is preserved in the East by clearly distinguishing between the two verbs ἐκπορεύεσθαι and προϊέναι, to the latter of which, but not to the former, the Latin processio corresponds. The first of the two involves the Father only, the second applies also to the Son. Another important point in the Vatican document is the emphasis it lays on the distinction between επόρευσις (ekporeusis) and processio. It is historically true that in the Greek tradition a clear distinction was always made between εκπορεύεσθαι (ekporeuesthai) and προείναι (proeinai), the first of these two terms denoting exclusively the Spirit's derivation from the Father alone, whereas προείναι (proienai) was used to denote the Holy Spirit's dependence on the Son owing to the common substance or ουσία (ousia) which the Spirit in deriving from the Father alone as Person or υπόστασις (hypostasis) receives from the Son, too, as ουσιωδώς (ousiwdws) that is, with regard to the one ουσία (ousia) common to all three persons (Cyril of Alexandria, Maximus the Confessor et al.). On the basis of this distinction one might argue that there is a kind of Filioque on the level of ουσία (ousia), but not of υπόστασις (hypostasis). Metropolitan John Zizioulas Orthodox dogmatic theology by Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky In like fashion, the Roman theologians find in the works of the Holy Fathers of the Church passages where often there is mention of the sending of the Holy Spirit “through the Son” and sometimes even of a “proceeding through the Son.” However, no reasoning of any kind can obscure the perfectly precise words of the Saviour: “the Comforter, whom I will send unto you from the Father, and immediately afterwards, the Spirit of Truth, which proceedeth from the Father” (John 15:26). The Holy Fathers of the Church could not possibly ascribe to the words “through the Son” any meaning that is not contained in Sacred scripture. In the present case, Roman Catholic theologians are either confusing two dogmas — that is, the dogma of the personal existence of the Hypostases and the dogma of the Oneness of Essence which is immediately bound up with it, although it is a separate dogma — or else they are confusing the inner relations of the Hypostases of the All Holy Trinity with the providential actions and manifestations of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, which are directed towards the world and the human race. That the Holy Spirit is One in Essence with the Father and the Son, that therefore He is the Spirit of the Father and of the Son, is an indisputable Christian truth, for God is a Trinity, One in Essence, and Indivisible. This idea is clearly expressed by Blessed Theodoret: “Concerning the Holy Spirit, it is said not that he has existence from the Son or through the Son, but rather that He proceeds from the Father and has the same nature as the Son, is in fact the Spirit of the Son as being One in Essence with Him” (Bl. Theodoret, “On the Third Ecumenical Council”). by using and translating both terms as Proceeds. However, as the document points out, the distinction between εκπορεύεσθαι (ekporeuesthai) and προϊέναι (proienai) was not made in Latin theology, which used the same term, procedere, to denote both realities. Is this enough to explain the insistence of the Latin tradition on the Filioque? Saint Maximus the Confessor seems to think so. For him the Filioque was not heretical because its intention was to denote not the εκπορεύεσθαι (ekporeuesthai) but the προϊέναι (proienai) of the Spirit. Photius, Patriarch of Constaninople, in the East, and the Patriarch of Rome John VIII (872-882) in the West, rejected the filioque More recently in 1994 Professor Phidas of Athens University stated the same point of view in his new manual of Church History. In his discussion of the Photian Council of 879/880 he wrote, that "the antithesis between the Old and the New Rome was also connected with the theological dispute over the "Filioque," which did not inhibit at that time the restoration of communion between Rome and Constantinople, since it had not been inserted into the Symbol of the Faith by the papal throne, but had acquired at that time a dogmatic character in the obvious tendency of diversification between East and West." Phidas also suggested, that "apparently the papal representatives may not have realized the scope of the suggestion of restating the traditional Creed in the Horos of the Council which was implicitly connected with the condemnation of the Filioque addition to this Creed, which had been already adopted in the West by the Franks ... Yet all the participating Bishops understood that this was meant to be a condemnation of the Filioque addition to the Creed."25 Furthermore, Phidas determined that the acceptance of the Horos by Pope John VIII was due to the influence of Zachariah of Anagne, librarian of the Vatican, papal legate at the Council, and a friend and sympathizer of St Photios, to whom the latter addressed an epistle as a vote of thanks. The Greek Orthodox Theological Review, Vol. 44, Nos. 1-4, 1999, pp. 357-369. by Fr. George Dragas both restoring communion to each others respective communities, but still disagreeing on this matter. East and West: The Making of a Rift in the Church : from Apostolic Times Until the Council of Florence By Henry Chadwick Published by Oxford University Press, 2003 ISBN 0199264570, 9780199264575 "Pope John VIII and Photius restored communion. Nevertheless the Mystagogia of Photius is thunderous in fierce criticism of the Filioque being encouraged by the Franks and conceded by the contemporary papacy." Rome refused to capitulate to the Filioque under pressure from Charlemagne in the ninth century, when Pope Leo III of Rome (795-816), though it was he who crowned Charlemagne as Emperor, and though he affirmed the orthodoxy of the doctrine expressed by Filioque, Agreed Statement of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation 2003 opposed its adoption (not only in Rome, where the Creed was, in any case, said at Mass), in part because of his loyalty to the received tradition. He also knew that the Greeks resented the new Roman Empire in the West and Charlemagne in particular; the Pope wanted to preserve Church unity. Leo had the traditional text of the Creed, without the Filioque, displayed publicly, engraved on two silver tablets, at the tomb of St. Peter Orthodox Wiki Eastern theologians have objected to the teaching that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, saying that it conflicts with biblical and accepted doctrine: speaks only of a proceeding from the Father, and no ecumenical approval had been granted to the teaching. On the Western side, it is claimed that absence of a declaration by an Ecumenical Council is not denial of this teaching that safeguards, against Arianism, the doctrine of the First Council of Nicaea that the Son is consubstantial with the Father; that, since the Son as well as the Father sends the Spirit in , we are justified, by analogy with this relationship to us, in inferring that the Spirit proceeds from both Father and Son in the relationship within the Trinity; and that to deny this teaching is to divorce the Spirit from the Son in contradiction of the passages that speak of him as the Spirit of Christ, as and . G W Bromiley (Elwell Evangelical Dictionary), quoted in Filioque Controversy Eastern theologians have said that, the Latin church was at the Council of Nicaea 325, (and also the First Council of Constantinople 381 and the Council of Ephesus 431). That the East and West both agreed on the original wording of Creed, against the Arians then. Eastern theologians content that the Latin Church then later acted unilaterally, without council or consent with the East and added the filioque. Which is an alteration of the faith in such a way as to show that the Eastern Churches are not equal with the West but are rather subordinate to the Western Church. The legal formalism and logical rationalism of the Roman Catholic Church have their roots in the Roman State. These features developed in it more strongly than ever when the Western Church without consent of the Eastern introduced into the Nicean Creed the filioque clause. Such arbitrary change of the creed is an expression of pride and lack of love for one's brethren in the faith. "In order not to be regarded as a schism by the Church, Romanism was forced to ascribe to the bishop of Rome absolute infallibility." In this way Catholicism broke away from the Church as a whole and became an organization based upon external authority. Its unity is similar to the unity of the state: it is not super-rational but rationalistic and legally formal. Rationalism has led to the doctrine of the works of superarogation, established a balance of duties and merits between God and man, weighing in the scales sins and prayers, trespasses and deeds of expiation; it adopted the idea of transferring one person's debts or credits to another and legalized the exchange of assumed merits; in short, it introduced into the sanctuary of faith the mechanism of a banking house. Aleksey Khomyakov History of Russian Philosophy by Nikolai Lossky ISBN 978-0823680740 p. 87 Subordinate to whatever alterations to the faith the Western Churches arrive upon and see as beneficial to its own opinion. as can be seen in the words of Archbishop Nicetas of Nicomedia of the Twelfth Century: “My dearest brother, we do not deny to the Roman Church the primacy among the five sister patriachates and we recognize her right to the most honorable seat at the Ecumenical Council. But she has separated herself from us by her own deeds when through pride she assumed a monarchy which does not belong to her office… How shall we accept decrees from her that have been issued without consulting us and even without our knowledge? If the Roman pontiff seated on the lofty throne of his glory wished to thunder at us and, so to speak, hurl his mandates at us from on high and if he wishes to judge us and even to rule us and our churches, not by taking counsel with us but at his own arbitrary pleasure what kind of brotherhood, or even what kind of parenthood can this be? We should be the slaves not the sons, of such a church and the Roman see would not be the pious mother of sons but a hard and imperious mistress of slaves.”The Orthodox Church London by Kallistos Ware St. Vladimir's Seminary Press 1995 ISBN 978-0913836583 Eastern theologians state for the Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father and the Son in the Creed, there would have to be two sources in the deity (double procession), whereas in the one God there can only be one source of divinity. Which in the case of the East, is the Father hypostasis of the Trinity, not God's essence per se. Oneness of Essence, and it is absolutely essential to distinguish this from another dogma, the dogma of the begetting and the procession, in which, as the Holy Fathers express it, is shown the Cause of the existence of the Son and the Spirit. All of the Eastern Fathers acknowledge that the Father is monos aitios, the sole Cause” of the Son and the Spirit. Orthodox Dogmatic Theology Michael Pomazansky Quoting Aleksey Khomyakov pg 87 The legal formalism and logical rationalism of the Roman Catholic Church have their roots in the Roman State. These features developed in it more strongly than ever when the Western Church without consent of the Eastern introduced into the Nicean Creed the filioque clause. Such arbitrary change of the creed is an expression of pride and lack of love for one's brethren in the faith. "In order not to be regarded as a schism by the Church, Romanism was forced to ascribe to the bishop of Rome absolute infallibility." In this way Catholicism broke away from the Church as a whole and became an organization based upon external authority. Its unity is similar to the unity of the state: it is not super-rational but rationalistic and legally formal. Rationalism has led to the doctrine of the works of superarogation, established a balance of duties and merits between God and man, weighing in the scales sins and prayers, trespasses and deeds of expiation; it adopted the idea of transferring one person's debts or credits to another and legalized the exchange of assumed merits; in short, it introduced into the sanctuary of faith the mechanism of a banking house. History of Russian Philosophy by Nikolai Lossky ISBN 978-0823680740 p. 87 This very behaviour of groups defining doctrine and acting unilaterally within Christianity as a whole was supposed to addressed, resolved and condemned by calling of councils to begin with. Eastern theologians have said that, for the Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father and the Son, there would have to be two sources in the deity, whereas in the one God there can only be one source of divinity. Western theologians counter by saying that, since both Greeks and Latins agree in attributing everything as common to the Father and the Son except the relation of Fatherhood and Sonship, the Spiration (breathing forth) of the Holy Spirit, which does not involve this relation, must also be common to both Father and Son. The Roman Catholic Church has expressed this by saying that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and Son as from a single principle or beginning: "We declare that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son, not as from two beginnings, but from one beginning, not from two breathings but from one breathing." Denzinger 850 (old numbering, 460): Latin text, English translation The Western tradition does not see itself as merging and confusing the persons of the Father and the Son, as it has been accused of doing: it has always held that the Holy Spirit proceeds, in a principal, proper and immediate manner, from the Father, not the Son. This terminology is that of Saint Thomas Aquinas in Summa Theologica, part I, q. 36, art. 3, responses to objections 1 and 2 Saint Augustine of Hippo admits that the Holy Spirit takes his origin from the Father "principaliter" (as principle). De Trinitate, XV, 25, 47: PL 42, 1094-1095 The East contends that this understanding can not said to be seen in the reciting of the creed with filioque, as is done in Latin and therefore this clarification is made outside and after the use of the Creed. It is of course true that, as the Vatican document points out, the Fourth Lateran Council excludes any interpretation that would make divine substance the source or cause, of the Son's generation and the, Spirit's procession. And yet the Cappadocian idea of "cause" seems to be almost absent in the Latin theological tradition. As Saint Maximus the Confessor insisted, however, in defence of the Roman use of the Filioque, the decisive thing in this defence lies precisely in the point that in using the Filioque the Romans do not imply a "cause" other than the Father. The notion of "cause" seems to be of special significance and importance in the Greek Patristic argument concerning the Filioque. If Roman Catholic theology would be ready to admit that the Son in no way constitutes a "cause" (aition) in the procession of the Spirit, this would bring the two traditions much closer to each other with regard to the Filioque. Metropolitan John Zizioulas Where as the Nicene Creed as the proclamation of faith is supposed to be the clarification of faith by and in itself. The West further contends from their perspective, even if Filioque has been accused of making both Father and Son, but not the Holy Spirit, sources of deity, thus diminishing the Holy Spirit, it "must not lead to a subordination of the Holy Spirit in the Trinity. Even if the Catholic doctrine affirms that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son in the communication of their consubstantial communion, it nonetheless recognizes the reality of the original relationship of the Holy Spirit as person with the Father, a relationship that the Greek Fathers express by the term ἐκπόρευσις." "Corresponding to the two relations of the Son and of the Holy Ghost by which they are related to the Father, we must understand two relations in the Father, whereby He is related to the Son and to the Holy Ghost" (Summa Theologica, pars I, q. 32, art. 2). Though in the East such a "diminishing" of the Holy Spirit was addressed as the heresy of the Macedonians, who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Catholic Encyclopedia: Pneumatomachi (Macedonians) The West however does so outside of the Creed and appears then, in the eyes of Eastern theologians, as wrong in its clarification of the procession of the Holy Spirit. In the Western teaching that the life or origin of the Holy Spirit is derived from both the Father and Son. Since the wording or portion of the Creed in question is dealing with the origin of the Holy Spirit or how the Holy Spirit has His existence not with what the Holy Spirit manifests as in the material world. All of the Eastern Fathers acknowledge that the Father is monos aitios, the sole Cause” of the Son and the Spirit. Therefore, when certain Church Fathers use the expression “through the Son,” they are, precisely by means of this expression, preserving the dogma of the procession from the Father and the inviolability of the dogmatic formula, “proceedeth from the Father.” The Fathers speak of the Son as “through” so as to defend the expression “from,” which refers only to the Father. To this one should add that the expression, “through the Son,” which is found in certain Holy Fathers, in the majority of cases refers definitely to the manifestations of the Holy Spirit in the world, that is, to the providential actions of the Holy Trinity, and not to the life of God in Himself. When the Eastern Church first noticed a distortion of the dogma of the Holy Spirit in the West and began to reproach the Western theologians for their innovations, St. Maximus the Confessor (in the 7th century), desiring to defend the Westerners, justified them precisely by saying that by the words “from the Son” they intended to indicate that the Holy Spirit is given to creatures through the Son, that He is manifested, that He is sent — but not that the Holy Spirit has His existence from Him. St. Maximus the Confessor himself held strictly to the teaching of the Eastern Church concerning the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and wrote a special treatise about this dogma. Orthodox dogmatic theology by Michael Pomazansky Part I. God in Himself 2. The dogma of the Holy Trinity On the procession of the Holy Spirit Although the Western teaching speaks of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Persons of the Father and the Son, it has been accused of making the divine essence itself the source of deity in God, pgs 50-53 The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, by Vladimir Lossky SVS Press, 1997. (ISBN 0-913836-31-1) James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1991. (ISBN 0-227-67919-9) thereby suggesting a form of Semi-Sabellian that the Holy Spirit proceeds from himself, since he is certainly not separate from the divine essence. The Western response is that the origin of the Holy Spirit is similar to that of the Son, whom the original text of the Nicene Creed as established in the First Council of Nicaea declares to be "begotten from the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the essence of the Father" (γεννηθέντα ἐκ τοῦ πατρὸς μονογενῆ, τουτέστιν ἐκ τῆς ουσίας τοῦ πατρός), without thereby implying that the Son is self-begotten. In the East however the filioque has never been accepted or used. This also includes Eastern Christian churches that did not remain in communion with the Greeks or Rome, including the Oriental Orthodox and the Assyrian Church of the East, which broke from communion with the Byzantine and Roman Churches after the fourth and third ecumenical councils respectively. The Armenian Apostolic Church, which is part of Oriental Orthodoxy and not the Roman Catholic or Eastern Orthodox communion, uses a version of the Nicene Creed that makes no mention of the procession of the Holy Spirit, either from the Father or from the Father and the Son. Armenian Church Library The use and defense of the filioque has been condemned by Eastern Orthodox theologians. The heart of the conflict from the Eastern perspective is that the Eastern Orthodox detect modalism, specifically the Sabellian heresy of modalism (see Photius) in the West's over all approach and teaching of the Trinitarian God. pgs 50-53 The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, by Vladimir Lossky SVS Press, 1997. (ISBN 0-913836-31-1) James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1991. (ISBN 0-227-67919-9) This by first, the use of the word person by the Latin West in its translation of the Greek work hypostasis which is sometimes translated as existence or reality.. pgs 50-53 The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, by Vladimir Lossky SVS Press, 1997. (ISBN 0-913836-31-1) James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1991. (ISBN 0-227-67919-9) Then the Latin East unilaterally inserting the filioque into the Universal declaration of faith or Nicene Creed. Both causing open conflict when the Latin Church attacked the East's rejection of this as heretical However, in Latin dogmatic works, intended for internal use, we encounter a definite treatment of the Orthodox dogma of the procession of the Holy Spirit as a “heresy.” In the officially approved Latin dogmatic work of the doctor of theology, A. Sanda, we read: “Opponents (of the present Roman teaching) are the schismatic Greeks, who teach that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone. Already in the year 808 Greek monks protested against the introduction by the Latins of the word Filioque into the Creed . . . Who the originator of this heresy was, is unknown” (Sinopsis Theologiae Dogmaticae Specialis, by Dr. A. Sanda, vol. 1, p. 100; Herder edition, 1916). However, the Latin dogma agrees neither with Sacred Scripture nor with the universal Sacred Tradition of the Church; and it does not even agree with the most ancient tradition of the Local Church of Rome. Orthodox Theological Dogma Michael Pomazansky The Filioque was the main subject discussed at the 62nd meeting of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation, in June 2002. In October 2003, the Consultation issued an agreed statement, The Filioque: A Church-Dividing Issue?, which provides an extensive review of Scripture, history, and theology. The recommendations include: 7.That the Catholic Church, following a growing theological consensus, and in particular the statements made by Pope Paul VI, declare that the condemnation made at the Second Council of Lyons (1274) of those "who presume to deny that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son" is no longer applicable. and in its continued treatment of the issue, after being confronted for adding to the Nicene Creed the "filioque", which appears to the Eastern Orthodox as further solidifying a modalistic teaching of the Trinitarian God. pgs 50-53 The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, by Vladimir Lossky SVS Press, 1997. (ISBN 0-913836-31-1) James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1991. (ISBN 0-227-67919-9) Saint Maximus the Confessor wrote in defense of the Roman use of the Filioque, maintaining that it was a legitimate variation of the doctrine that the Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son. Concordia Theological Quarterly, January-April 1995, pp. 32 and 40 Orthodox theologians insist that Maximus' use and definition are different than what was established by the West. When the Eastern Church first noticed a distortion of the dogma of the Holy Spirit in the West and began to reproach the Western theologians for their innovations, St. Maximus the Confessor (in the 7th century), desiring to defend the Westerners, justified them precisely by saying that by the words “from the Son” they intended to indicate that the Holy Spirit is given to creatures through the Son, that He is manifested, that He is sent — but not that the Holy Spirit has His existence from Him. St. Maximus the Confessor himself held strictly to the teaching of the Eastern Church concerning the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and wrote a special treatise about this dogma. Orthodox dogmatic theology by Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky What Maximus wrote was as follows: Maximus the Confessor, Letter to Marinus - on the Filioque From Maximus and John Damascene "We do not speak of the Spirit as from the Son." St. John Damascene pg 61 The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church By Vladimir Lossky Published by St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1976 ISBN 0913836311, 9780913836316 the East draws the conclusion that the Holy Spirit derives its existence and being from God the Father alone as it feels was originally expressed in the Final version of the Creed accepted by East and West. "The Orthodox Church" Sergey Bulgakov However, the Latin dogma agrees neither with Sacred Scripture nor with the universal Sacred Tradition of the Church; and it does not even agree with the most ancient tradition of the Local Church of Rome. Creation God is the Creator of the World, which He created from the void. God does not seek to complete Himself by means of the world; but, in His goodness, He wishes non-being to share in being and to have His image reflected there. The creation of the world ex nihilo is the work of love, of almighty power and of divine wisdom. The creation is the work of the Holy Trinity. The Father creates by the Word in the Holy Spirit. The Holy Trinity is immediately directed towards the world by the Word, by means of which all things were made (John 1:3). The Son is the divine hypostasis who created, in announcing it, the ideal existence of the world. But the Holy Spirit finishes, vivifies, gives to the world reality. However if the Roman Catholic Church changed it's addition to say "through the Son" rather than "from the Son" then such a compromise by the West would then clarify inside the Creed the true nature and sovereignty of each hypostases of God. The filioque clause was the main subject discussed at the 62nd meeting of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation, which met at Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts) from June 3 through June 5, 2002, for their spring session. As a result of these modern discussions, it has been suggested that the Orthodox could accept an "economic" filioque that states that the Holy Spirit, who originates in the Father alone, was sent to the Church "through the Son" (as the Paraclete), but this is not official Orthodox doctrine. It is what the Fathers call a theologoumenon, a theological opinion. (Similarly, the late Edward Kilmartin, S.J., proposed as a theologoumenon a "mission" of the Holy Spirit to the Church.) Orthodox Wiki filioque article Recent discussion In 1995 the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity published in various languages a study on The Greek and the Latin Traditions regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit. It pointed out, in particular, that the Latin verb procedere (to proceed), used in the Latin version of the Nicene Creed, has a broader meaning than the verb ἐκπορεύεσθαι, which is used in the Greek text. It quoted Saint Gregory of Nazianzus, who used the Greek word to distinguish the Spirit's form of coming from the Father from that of the Son from the Father, for both forms of which he used the Greek verb προϊέναι, "προϊὸν μὲν ἐκ τοῦ Πατρὸς, οὐχ ὑϊκῶς δὲ, οὐδὲ γὰρ γεννητῶς, ἀλλ' ἐκπορευτῶς" (Oration 39, 12, English translation). Προϊέναι was the word used by Greek Fathers of Alexandria when saying, as Saint Cyril of Alexandria did: "Since the Holy Spirit makes us like God when he has come to be in us, and since he also proceeds (προεῖσι) from the Father and the Son, it is clear that he is of the divine substance, proceeding (προϊόν) substantially (οὐσιωδῶς) in it and from it" Ὅτε τοίνυν τὸ Πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον ἐν ἡμῖν γενόμενον, συμμόρφους ἀποδεικνύει Θεοῦ, πρόεισι δὲ καὶ ἐκ Πατρὸς καὶ Υἱοῦ, πρόδηλον ὅτι τῆς θείας ἐστὶν οὐσίας, οὐσιωδῶς ἐν αὐτῇ καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς προϊόν. ( Thesaurus de sancta consubstantiali trinitate 75.585) Latin does not have two words, one of which corresponds to the precise meaning of ἐκπόρευσθαι and the other to the broader meaning of προϊέναι. Procedere is used for both these Greek verbs. In this view, to say that the Holy Spirit proceeds (in the sense of the Greek word "ἐκπορευόμενον") from the Father and the Son can be considered heretical; but to say the same, giving to the word "proceeds" the meaning of the Latin word "procedere" (or of the Greek "προϊέναι"), is not heretical. Saint Maximus the Confessor The difficulty or near impossibility of finding in another language words that will reproduce with complete accuracy certain words of another language was remarked on by Saint Maximus the Confessor in the seventh century precisely with regard to the Filioque expression. Of the Latins he wrote: "It is true, of course, that they cannot reproduce their idea in a language and in words that are foreign to them as they can in their mother-tongue, just as we too cannot do." St Maximos Confessor to Marinus on the Filioque Metropolitan John Zizioulas of Pergamon concluded his examination of the Pontifical Council's study by saying: "The Vatican document on the procession of the Holy Spirit constitutes an encouraging attempt to clarify the basic aspects of the Filioque problem and show that a rapprochement between West and East on this matter is eventually possible. An examination of this problem in depth within the framework of a constructive theological dialogue can be greatly helped by this document." One Single Source Even before the publication of the Pontifical Council's study, several Orthodox theologians had considered the Filioque anew, with a view to reconciliation of East and West. Theodore Stylianopoulos provided in 1986 an extensive, scholarly overview of the contemporary discussion. Theodore Stylianopoulos: The Filioque: Dogma, Theologoumenon or Error? Twenty years after writing the first (1975) edition of his book, The Orthodox Church, Metropolitan Kallistos of Diokleia said that he had changed his mind and had concluded that "the problem is more in the area of semantics and different emphases than in any basic doctrinal differences": "the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone" and "the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son" may both have orthodox meanings if the words translated "proceeds" actually have different meanings. The Father as the Source of the Whole Trinity For some Orthodox, then, the Filioque, while still a matter of conflict, would not impede full communion of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches if other issues were resolved. But many Orthodox consider that the Filioque is in flagrant contravention of the words of Christ in the Gospel,. has been specifically condemned by the Orthodox Church, and remains a fundamental heretical teaching which divides East and West. Eastern Christians also object that, even if the teaching of the Filioque can be defended, its interpolation into the Creed is anti-canonical.. The Roman Catholic Church, which like the Eastern Orthodox Church considers the teaching of the Ecumenical Councils to be infallible, "acknowledges the conciliar, ecumenical, normative and irrevocable value, as expression of the one common faith of the Church and of all Christians, of the Symbol professed in Greek at Constantinople in 381 by the Second Ecumenical Council. No profession of faith peculiar to a particular liturgical tradition can contradict this expression of the faith taught and professed by the undivided Church", but considers permissible additions that elucidate the teaching without in any way contradicting it, The Armenian additions to the Nicene Creed are much more numerous. and that do not claim to have, on the basis of their insertion, the same authority that belongs to the original. It allows liturgical use of the Apostles' Creed as well of the Nicene Creed, and sees no essential difference between the recitation in the liturgy of a creed with orthodox additions and a profession of faith outside the liturgy such that of the Patriarch of Constantinople Saint Tarasius, who developed the Nicene Creed as follows: "the Holy Spirit, the Lord and giver of life, who proceeds from the Father through the Son". The Roman Catholic view that the Greek and the Latin expressions of faith in this regard are not contradictory but complementary has been expressed as follows: At the outset the Eastern tradition expresses the Father's character as first origin of the Spirit. By confessing the Spirit as he "who proceeds from the Father", it affirms that he comes from the Father through the Son. The Western tradition expresses first the consubstantial communion between Father and Son, by saying that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son (Filioque). … This legitimate complementarity, provided it does not become rigid, does not affect the identity of faith in the reality of the same mystery confessed. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 248 For this reason, the Roman Catholic Church has refused the addition of καὶ τοῦ Υἱοῦ to the formula ἐκ τοῦ Πατρὸς ἐκπορευόμενον of the Nicene Creed in the Churches, even of Latin rite, which use it in Greek. Where as the Orthodox have pointed out that even though the Roman Catholic church has down played the use of the Filioque when the Creed is recited in Greek. The Roman Catholic church has insisted none the less that the Eastern Catholic churches accept the Filioque as correct and dogmatic. According to Roman Catholic canons the Filioque has to be accepted by the Eastern Catholic churches. Even though the Eastern Catholic churches may not recite the creed in Greek and use the Filioque they do have to accept the Filioque as correct. As such they maybe called to recite the Creed and include the Filioque in order to show their fidelity with the West. Joint statement in the United States in 2003 The Filioque was the main subject discussed at the 62nd meeting of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation, in June 2002. In October 2003, the Consultation issued an agreed statement, The Filioque: A Church-Dividing Issue?, which provides an extensive review of Scripture, history, and theology. The recommendations include: That all involved in such dialogue expressly recognize the limitations of our ability to make definitive assertions about the inner life of God. That, in the future, because of the progress in mutual understanding that has come about in recent decades, Orthodox and Catholics refrain from labeling as heretical the traditions of the other side on the subject of the procession of the Holy Spirit. That Orthodox and Catholic theologians distinguish more clearly between the divinity and hypostatic identity of the Holy Spirit (which is a received dogma of our Churches) and the manner of the Spirit's origin, which still awaits full and final ecumenical resolution. That those engaged in dialogue on this issue distinguish, as far as possible, the theological issues of the origin of the Holy Spirit from the ecclesiological issues of primacy and doctrinal authority in the Church, even as we pursue both questions seriously, together. That the theological dialogue between our Churches also give careful consideration to the status of later councils held in both our Churches after those seven generally received as ecumenical. That the Catholic Church, as a consequence of the normative and irrevocable dogmatic value of the Creed of 381, use the original Greek text alone in making translations of that Creed for catechetical and liturgical use. That the Catholic Church, following a growing theological consensus, and in particular the statements made by Pope Paul VI, declare that the condemnation made at the Second Council of Lyons (1274) of those "who presume to deny that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son" is no longer applicable. In the judgment of the consultation, the question of the Filioque is no longer a "Church-dividing" issue, one which would impede full reconciliation and full communion. It is for the bishops of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches to review this work and to make whatever decisions would be appropriate. Summary The Filioque was originally proposed to stress more clearly the connection between the Son and the Spirit, amid a heresy in which the Son was taken as less than the Father because he does not serve as a source of the Holy Spirit. When the Filioque came into use in Spain and Gaul in the West, the local churches were not aware that their language of procession would not translate well back into the Greek. Conversely, from Photius to the Council of Florence, the Greek Fathers were also not acquainted with the linguistic issues. The origins of the Filioque in the West are found in the writings of certain Church Fathers in the West and especially in the anti-Arian situation of seventh-century Spain. In this context, the Filioque was a means to affirm the full divinity of both the Spirit and the Son. It is not just a question of establishing a connection with the Father and his divinity; it is a question of reinforcing the profession of Catholic faith in the fact that both the Son and Spirit share the fullness of God's nature. Ironically, a similar anti-Arian emphasis also strongly influenced the development of the liturgy in the East, for example, in promoting prayer to "Christ Our God", an expression which also came to find a place in the West. In this case, a common adversary, namely, Arianism, had profound, far-reaching effects, in the orthodox reaction in both East and West. Church politics, authority conflicts, ethnic hostility, linguistic misunderstanding, personal rivalry, and secular motives all combined in various ways to divide East and West. As regards the doctrine expressed by the phrase in Latin (in which the word "procedit" that is linked with "Filioque" does not have exactly the same meaning and overtones as the word used in Greek), any declaration by the West that it is heretical (something that not all Orthodox now insist on) Cf. "For (Saint Maximus the Confessor) the Filioque was not heretical because its intention was to denote not the εκπορεύεσθαι (ekporeuesthai) but the προείναι (proeinai) of the Spirit" (Orthodox Research Institute). would conflict with the Western doctrine of the infallibility of the Church, since it has been upheld by Councils recognized by the Roman Catholic Church as ecumenical and by even those Popes who, like Leo III, opposed insertion of the word into the Creed. References Bibliography Much has been written on the Filioque; what follows is selective. As time goes on, this list will inevitably have to be updated. "Filioque", article in the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 614. David Bradshaw. Aristotle East and West: Metaphysics and the Division of Christendom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 214–220. Joseph P. Farrell. God, History, & Dialectic: The Theological Foundations of the Two Europes and Their Cultural Consequences. Bound edition 1997. Electronic edition 2008. John St. H. Gibaut, "The Cursus Honorum and the Western Case Against Photius", Logos 37 (1996), 35–73. Elizabeth Teresa Groppe. Yves Congar's Theology of the Holy Spirit. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. See esp. pp. 75–79, for a summary of Congar's work on the Filioque. Congar is widely considered the most important Roman Catholic ecclesiologist of the twentieth century. He was influential in the composition of several Vatican II documents. Most important of all, he was instrumental in the association in the West of pneumatology and ecclesiology, a new development. Richard Haugh. Photius and the Carolingians: The Trinitarian Controversy. Belmont, MA: Nordland Publishing Company, 1975. Joseph Jungmann, S.J. Pastoral Liturgy. London: Challoner, 1962. See "Christ our God", pp. 38–48. James Likoudis. Ending the Byzantine Greek Schism. New Rochelle, New York: 1992. An apologetic response to polemical attacks. A useful book for its inclusion of important texts and documents; see especially citations and works by Thomas Aquinas, O.P., Demetrios Kydones, Nikos A. Nissiotis, and Alexis Stawrowsky. The select bibliography is excellent. The author demonstrates that the Filioque dispute is only understood as part of a dispute over papal primacy and cannot be dealt with apart from ecclesiology. Bruce D. Marshall, "'Ex Occidente Lux?' Aquinas and Eastern Orthodox Theology", Modern Theology 20:1 (January, 2004), 23–50. Reconsideration of the views of Aquinas, especially on deification and grace, as well as his Orthodox critics. The author suggests that Aquinas may have a more accurate perspective than his critics, on the systematic questions of theology that relate to the Filioque dispute. John Meyendorff. Byzantine Theology. New York: Fordham University Press, 1979, pp. 91–94. Aristeides Papadakis. Crisis in Byzantium: The Filioque Controversy in the Patriarchate of Gregory II of Cyprus (1283–1289). New York: Fordham University Press, 1983. Aristeides Papadakis. The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994, pp. 232–238 and 379-408. Duncan Reid. Energies of the Spirit: Trinitarian Models in Eastern Orthodox and Western Theology. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1997. A. Edward Siecienski. The Use of Maximus the Confessor's Writing on the Filioque at the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1439). Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Dissertation Services, 2005. Malon H. Smith, III. And Taking Bread: Cerularius and the Azyme Controversy of 1054. Paris: Beauschesne, 1978. This work is still valuable for understanding cultural and theological estrangement of East and West by the turn of the millennium. Now, it is evident that neither side understood the other; both Greek and Latin antagonists assumed their own practices were normative and authentic. Timothy Kallistos Ware. The Orthodox Church. New edition. London: Penguin, 1993, pp. 52–61. Timothy [Kallistos] Ware. The Orthodox Way. Revised edition. Crestwood, New York: 1995, pp. 89–104. [World Council of Churches] /Conseil Oecuménique des Eglises. La théologie du Saint-Esprit dans le dialogue œcuménique Document # 103 [Faith and Order]/Foi et Constitution. Paris: Centurion, 1981. 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4,104 | Edvard_Grieg | Edvard Grieg (1891), a portrait by Eilif Peterssen. Edvard Grieg (15 June 1843 – 4 September 1907) was a Norwegian composer and pianist who composed in the Romantic period. He is best known for his Piano Concerto in A minor, for his incidental music to Henrik Ibsen's play Peer Gynt (which includes Morning Mood and In the Hall of the Mountain King), and for his collection of piano miniatures Lyric Pieces. Biography Grieg was born in Bergen, Norway on 15 June 1843. The original family name was spelled Greig. After the Battle of Culloden in 1746, his great-grandfather traveled widely, settling in Norway around 1770, and establishing business interests in Bergen. Grieg was raised in a musical home. His mother, Gesine b. Hagerup, became his first piano teacher, who taught him to play from the age of 6. He studied in several schools including Tank's School, and often brought in examples of his music to class. Edvard and Nina were cousins from Edvard Hagerup. In the summer of 1858, Grieg met the eminent Norwegian violinist Ole Bull, who was a friend of the family, and whose brother was married to Grieg's aunt. Bull noticed the 15-year-old boy's talent and persuaded his parents to send him to further develop his talents at the Leipzig Conservatory, then directed by Ignaz Moscheles. Grieg enrolled in the conservatory, concentrating on the piano, and enjoyed the numerous concerts and recitals given in Leipzig. He disliked the discipline of the conservatory course of study, yet he still achieved very good grades in most areas, an exception being the organ, which was mandatory for piano students. In the spring of 1860, he survived a life-threatening lung disease. The following year he made his debut as a concert pianist, in Karlshamn, Sweden. In 1862, he finished his studies in Leipzig, and held his first concert in his home town of Bergen, where his programme included Beethoven's Pathétique sonata. (Grieg's own recording of his Piano Sonata, made late in his life, shows he was an excellent pianist). In 1863, Grieg went to Copenhagen, Denmark, and stayed there for three years. He met the Danish composers J. P. E. Hartmann, and Niels Gade. He also met his fellow Norwegian composer Rikard Nordraak (composer of the Norwegian national anthem), who became a good friend and source of great inspiration. Nordraak died in 1866, and Grieg composed a funeral march in his honor. Grieg had close ties with the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra (Harmonien), and later became Music Director of the orchestra from 1880–1882. On 11 June 1867, Grieg married his first cousin, Nina Hagerup. The next year their only child, Alexandra, was born. The following summer, Grieg wrote his Piano Concerto in A minor while on holiday in Denmark. Edmund Neupert gave the concerto its premiere performance on 3 April 1869 in the Casino Theater in Copenhagen. Grieg himself was unable to be there due to commitments conducting in Christiania (as Oslo was then named). In 1868, Franz Liszt, who had not yet met Grieg, wrote a testimonial for him to the Norwegian Ministry of Education, which led to Grieg obtaining a travel grant. The two men met in Rome in 1870. On Grieg's first visit, they went over Grieg's Violin Sonata No. 1, which pleased Liszt greatly. On his second visit, in April, Grieg brought with him the manuscript of his Piano Concerto, which Liszt proceeded to sightread (including the orchestral arrangement). Liszt's rendition greatly impressed his audience, although Grieg gently pointed out to him that he played the first movement too quickly. Liszt also gave Grieg some advice on orchestration, (for example, to give the melody of the second theme in the first movement to a solo trumpet). Grieg's tombIn the summer of 1869, Grieg's daughter Alexandra became ill (cerebrospinal meningitis) and died, at the age of 13 months. In 1876, Grieg composed incidental music for the premiere of Ibsen's play Peer Gynt, at the request of the author. Many of the pieces from this work became very popular in the orchestral suites or piano and piano-duet arrangements. In 1888, Grieg met Tchaikovsky in Leipzig. Grieg was later struck by the sadness in Tchaikovsky. Lamb cites David Brown's Tchaikovsky Remembered Tchaikovsky thought very highly of Grieg's music, praising its beauty, originality and warmth. Grieg's later life brought him fame. The Norwegian government awarded him a pension. In the spring 1903, Grieg made nine 78-rpm gramophone recordings of his piano music in Paris; all of these historic discs have been reissued on both LPs and CDs and, despite limited fidelity, show his artistry as a pianist. Grieg also made live-recording player piano music rolls for the Welte-Mignon reproducing system, all of which survive today and can be heard. In 1906, he met the composer and pianist Percy Grainger in London. Grainger was a great admirer of Grieg's music and a strong empathy was quickly established. In a 1907 interview Grieg stated: “I have written Norwegian Peasant Dances that no one in my countrymen can play and here comes this Australian who plays them as they ought to be played! He is a genius that we Scandinavians cannot do other than love.” John Bird, Percy Grainger , Oxford University Press, 1999, P. 133-134. Edvard Grieg died in the autumn of 1907, aged 64, after a long period of illness. His final words were "Well, if it must be so". The funeral drew between 30,000 and 40,000 people out on the streets of his home town to honor him. Following his wish, his own funeral march for Rikard Nordraak was played in an orchestration by his friend Johan Halvorsen, who had married Grieg's niece. In addition, the famous funeral march by Frédéric Chopin was played. He and his wife's ashes are entombed in a mountain crypt near his house, Troldhaugen. Music Grieg is renowned as a nationalist composer, drawing inspiration from Norwegian folk music. Early works include a symphony (which he later suppressed) and a piano sonata. He also wrote three sonatas for violin and piano and a cello sonata. His many short pieces for piano — often based on Norwegian folk tunes and dances — led some to call him the Chopin of the north. The Piano Concerto is his most popular work. Its champions have included the pianist and composer Percy Grainger, a personal friend of Grieg who played the concerto frequently during his long career. An arrangement of part of the work made an iconic television comedy appearance in the 1971 Morecambe and Wise Show, conducted by André Previn. Some of the Lyric Pieces (for piano) are also well-known, as is the incidental music to Henrik Ibsen's play Peer Gynt, a play that Grieg found to be an arduous work to score properly. In a 1874 letter to his friend Frants Beyer, Grieg expressed his unhappiness with what is now considered one of his most popular compositions from Peer Gynt, In the Hall of the Mountain King: "I have also written something for the scene in the hall of the mountain King - something that I literally can't bear listening to because it absolutely reeks of cow-pies, exaggerated Norwegian nationalism, and trollish self-satisfaction! But I have a hunch that the irony will be discernible." See also: Grieg's popular Holberg Suite was originally written for the piano, and later arranged by the composer for string orchestra. Grieg wrote songs, in which he set lyrics by poets Heinrich Heine, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and others. Russian composer Nikolai Myaskovsky used a theme by Grieg for the variations with which he closed his Third String Quartet. Works Violin Sonata No. 1 in F Major, Op. 8 Piano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 7 Concert Overture "In Autumn", Op. 11 Violin Sonata No. 2 in G Major, Op. 13 Piano Concerto in A Minor, Op. 16 Incidental music to Sigurd Jorsalfar, Op. 22 Incidental music to Ibsen's play Peer Gynt, Op. 23 Ballade in the Form of Variations on a Norwegian Folk Song in G minor, Op. 24 Two Elegiac Melodies for Strings, Op. 34 Four Norwegian Dances for Piano four hands, Op. 35 Cello Sonata in A Minor, Op. 36 Holberg Suite for string orchestra, Op. 40 Violin Sonata No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 45 Peer Gynt Suite No. 1, Op. 46 Lyric Suite for Orchestra, Op. 54 (orchestration of four Lyric Pieces) Peer Gynt Suite No. 2, Op. 55 Suite from Sigurd Jorsalfar, Op. 56 Four Symphonic Dances for Orchestra, Op. 64 An orchestration of the Lyric Piece "Wedding-day at Troldhaugen", Op. 65 Symphony in C Minor Sixty-six Lyric Pieces for solo piano in ten books, including: To the Spring, Little Bird, Butterfly, Notturno, Wedding Day at Troldhaugen, At Your Feet, Norwegian Melody, Poème érotique and Gone. See also Grieg's music in popular culture References Further reading English Edvard Grieg in England by Lionel Carley (The Boydell Press 2006) ISBN 1843832070 Grieg: Music, Landscape and Norwegian Cultural Identity by Daniel Grimley (The Boydell Press 2006) ISBN 1843832100 Songs of Edvard Grieg by Beryl Foster (The Boydell Press new edition 2007) ISBN 1843833433 Norwegian Benestad, Finn/Schjelderup-Ebbe, Dag (1980): Edvard Grieg – mennesket og kunstneren. H. Aschehoug & Co. (W. Nygaard), Oslo. ISBN 82-03-10239-5 Bredal, Dag/Strøm-Olsen, Terje (1992): Edvard Grieg – Musikken er en kampplass. Aventura Forlag A/S, Oslo. ISBN 82-588-0890-7 Johansen, David Monrad (1943): Edvard Grieg. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, Oslo. Purdy, Claire Lee (1968): Historien om Edvard Grieg (originaltittel: The Story of Edvard Grieg). A/S Forlagshuset, Oslo. ISBN 82-511-0152-2 External links The 100th year commemoration of Edvard Grieg's death official site The Grieg archives at Bergen Public Library Troldhaugen Museum, Grieg's home Biography of Grieg by prof. Harald Herresthal Grieg: the work list (Norwegian/English) Films about Grieg's life: What Price Immortality? (1999), Song of Norway (1970) Memorial Page at FindaGrave Recordings by Edvard Grieg Papillon - Lyric Piece, Op. 43, no. 1 as recorded by Grieg on piano roll, 17 April 1906, Leipzig (Info) Legendary Piano Recordings: The Complete Grieg, Saint-Saëns, Pugno, and Diémer (Marston Records) Edvard Grieg: The Piano Music In Historic Interpretations (SIMAX Classics - PSC1809) Grieg and his Circle (Pearl, GEMM 9933 CD) Grieg spiller Grieg (Edvard Grieg Museum Troldhaugen) Piano Rolls (The Reproducing Piano Roll Foundation) Music scores | Edvard_Grieg |@lemmatized edvard:16 grieg:64 portrait:1 eilif:1 peterssen:1 june:3 september:1 norwegian:16 composer:9 pianist:6 compose:3 romantic:1 period:2 best:1 know:2 piano:27 concerto:7 minor:8 incidental:5 music:17 henrik:2 ibsen:4 play:13 peer:7 gynt:7 include:7 morning:1 mood:1 hall:3 mountain:4 king:3 collection:1 miniature:1 lyric:8 piece:8 biography:2 bear:3 bergen:5 norway:3 original:1 family:2 name:2 spell:1 greig:1 battle:1 culloden:1 great:3 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4,105 | Home_run | Barry Bonds (right) holds the officially recognized single-season and all-time home run records in Major League Baseball Sadaharu Oh, pictured here in 2006, holds the officially verified all-time world home run record In baseball, a home run (abbreviated HR) is scored when the ball is hit in such a way that the batter is able to circle all the bases, ending at home plate and scoring runs for himself and each runner who was already on base, with no errors by the defensive team on the play. In modern baseball, the feat is typically achieved by hitting the ball over the outfield fence between the foul poles (or making contact with either foul pole) without first touching the ground or outfield fence, resulting in an automatic home run. Circling the bases while the base ball is in play on the field, an "inside-the-park" home run, is rare in modern baseball. When a home run is scored, the batter is also credited with a hit and a run scored, and an RBI for each runner that scores, including himself. Likewise, the pitcher is recorded as having given up a hit, a run for each runner that scores including the batter, and an earned run each for the batter and for all baserunners who did not initially reach base on error, except for the runs scored by any runners who reached base while facing an earlier pitcher are charged to that pitcher. Home runs are among the most popular aspects of baseball and, as a result, prolific home run hitters are usually the most popular among fans and consequently the highest paid by teams, hence the old saying, variously attributed to slugger Ralph Kiner, or to a teammate talking about Kiner, "Home run hitters drive Cadillacs, and singles hitters drive Fords." http://bioproj.sabr.org/bioproj.cfm?a=v&v=a&bid=1066&pid=7516 Types of home runs Outside the park The most common type of home run involves hitting the ball over the outfield fence, in flight, in fair territory, i.e., out of the playing field, without it being caught or deflected back by an outfielder into the playing field. This is sometimes called a home run "out of the ballpark", although that term is frequently used to indicate a blow that completely clears any outfield seating. A batted ball is also considered a home run if the ball touches any of the following while in flight, regardless of whether the ball subsequently rebounds back onto the playing field: Foul pole or attached screen Glove, hat, or any equipment or apparel deliberately thrown by a fielder in an attempt to stop or deflect a fair ball that, in the umpires' judgment, would have otherwise been a home run. This rarely occurs in professional baseball, but is still contained in the official rules: http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/07_the_runner.pdf Any fixed object where a particular ballpark's ground rules specifically state that a batted ball striking that object is a home run. This usually applies to objects such as ladders, scoreboard supports, etc. which are beyond the outfield fence in fair territory, but are located such that it is difficult for an umpire to quickly judge their position in relation to the field from several hundred feet away. A home run accomplished in any of the above manners is an automatic home run. The ball is considered dead, and the batter and any preceding runners cannot be put out at any time while running the bases. However, if one or more runners fail to touch a base or one runner passes another before reaching home plate, that runner or runners can be called out on appeal. This stipulation is in Approved Ruling (2) of Rule 7.10(b). http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/07_the_runner.pdf An automatic home run counts for the same number of runs whether it cleared the fence by one foot or by 200 feet, but the more impressive a home run's distance is, the more superlatives and colorful adjectives are likely to be applied to it by the media: "tattooed", "hammered", "drilled", "towering", "tape measure", "in orbit", etc. Inside-the-park home run An inside-the-park home run occurs when a batter hits the ball into play and is able to circle the bases before the fielders can put him out. Unlike with an outside-the-park home run, the batter-runner and all preceding runners are liable to be put out by the defensive team at any time while running the bases. In the early days of baseball, outfields were relatively much more spacious, reducing the likelihood of an over-the-fence home run, while increasing the likelihood of an inside-the-park home run, as a ball getting past an outfielder typically had more distance that it could roll before a fielder could track it down. With outfields much less spacious and more uniformly designed than in the game's early days, inside-the-park home runs are now a rarity. They are usually the result of a ball being hit by a fast runner, coupled with an outfielder either misjudging the flight of the ball (e.g., diving and missing) or the ball taking an unexpected bounce, either way sending the ball into open space in the outfield and thereby allowing the batter-runner to circle the bases before the defensive team can put him out. If any defensive play on an inside-the-park home run is labeled an error by the official scorer, a home run is not scored; instead, it is scored as a single, double, etc., and the batter-runner and any applicable preceding runners are said to have taken all additional bases on error. All runs scored on such a play, however, still count. An example of a diving miss was committed by Torii Hunter of the Minnesota Twins in Game 2 of the 2006 ALDS vs. the Oakland Athletics at the Metrodome. He came in on a fly ball hit by Mark Kotsay, dove and completely missed the ball. It rolled behind him toward the center field area, with a fence from home plate, while Kotsay dashed around the bases. An example of an unexpected bounce occurred during the 2007 Major League Baseball All-Star Game on July 10, 2007. Ichiro Suzuki of the American League team hit a fly ball off the right-center field wall, which caromed in the opposite direction from where National League right fielder Ken Griffey, Jr. was expecting it to go. By the time the ball was relayed, Ichiro had already crossed the plate standing up. This was the first inside-the-park home run in All-Star Game history, and led to Ichiro being named the game's MVP. The most famous post-season inside the park home run was probably the one hit by Mule Haas of the Philadelphia Athletics in Game 4 of the 1929 World Series at Shibe Park in Philadelphia. In the eighth inning, the Chicago Cubs led 8-0 and were six outs away from bringing the Series to a 2-2 tie, until disaster struck. The late afternoon, autumn sun angle at Shibe tended to be almost directly in the eyes of the center fielder. This fact, along with a center field corner that was about from home plate, caught up to Cubs center fielder Hack Wilson, who lost Haas' fly ball in the sun. It sailed past Wilson, allowing Haas to round the bases while the short and chunky Wilson futilely chased after it. This punctuated a 10-run inning that effectively doomed the Cubs in that Series. Specific situation home runs These types of home runs are characterized by the specific game situation in which they occur, and can theoretically occur on either an outside-the-park or inside-the-park home run. Grand slam Home runs are often characterized by the number of runners on base at the time, if any. A home run hit with the bases empty is seldom called a "one-run homer", but rather a "solo" homer. With one or two runners on base, the home runs are usually called "two-run homers" or "three-run homers". The term "four-run homer" is seldom used. Instead, it is nearly always called a "grand slam". A grand slam occurs when the bases are "loaded" (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run. According to The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, the term originated in the card game of contract bridge. An inside-the-park grand slam is a grand slam without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare, due to the relative rarity of loading the bases along with the significant rarity (nowadays) of inside-the-park home runs. On July 25, 1956 Roberto Clemente became the only MLB player to have ever scored a walk-off inside-the-park grand slam in a 9-8 Pittsburgh Pirates win over the Chicago Cubs, at Forbes Field. Walk-off home run A walk-off home run is a home run hit by the home team in the bottom of the ninth inning, any extra inning, or other scheduled final inning, which gives the home team the lead and thereby ends the game. The term is attributed to Hall of Fame relief pitcher Dennis Eckersley, so named because after the run is scored, the players can "walk off" the field. The name initially meant that the pitcher walked off the field with his head hung in shame, but changed over time to mean that the batter, by necessity of the home team, would walk off the field to the cheers of the crowd. An ultimate grand slam is a specific type of walk-off home run (see grand slam above). This type of home run is also called "sayonara home run," "sayonara" meaning "good-bye" in Japanese. Two World Series have ended via the "walk-off" home run. The first was the 1960 World Series when Bill Mazeroski of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a 9th inning solo home run in the 7th game of the series off New York Yankees pitcher Ralph Terry to give the Pirates the World Championship. The second time was the 1993 World Series when Joe Carter of the Toronto Blue Jays hit a 9th inning 3-run home run off Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Mitch Williams in Game 6 of the series. Such a home run can also be called a "sudden death" or "sudden victory" home run. That usage has lessened as "walk-off home run" has gained favor. Along with Mazeroski's 1960 shot, the most famous walk-off or sudden-death homer would probably be the "Shot Heard 'Round the World" hit by Bobby Thomson to win the 1951 National League pennant for the New York Giants. Back-to-back The term "back-to-back" is a colloquialism for "consecutive", specifically referring to two like events occurring consecutively. One example "back-to-back" in general is winning two consecutive championships. In baseball, back-to-back can refer to two consecutive players hitting a home run, or it could refer to an individual hitting home runs in two consecutive at bats. The former usage is probably more common. When two consecutive batters each hit a home run, this is described as back-to-back home runs. It is still considered back-to-back even if both batters hit their home runs off of different pitchers. A third batter hitting a home run is commonly referred to as back-to-back-to-back, although at that point the anatomical analogy no longer works. Four home runs in a row by consecutive batters has only occurred six times in the history of Major League Baseball. Following convention, this is called back-to-back-to-back-to-back. The most recent occurrence was on August 14, 2008, when the Chicago White Sox hit four in a row against the Kansas City Royals in U.S. Cellular Field as Jim Thome, Paul Konerko, Alexei Ramirez and Juan Uribe homered off pitchers Joel Peralta (the first three) and Robinson Tejada. Two pitchers have surrendered back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs; Paul Foytack on July 31, 1963, and Chase Wright on April 22, 2007. Come-from-behind back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs occurred on April 22, 2007 and September 18, 2006. On April 22, 2007 the Boston Red Sox were trailing the New York Yankees 3-0 when Manny Ramirez, J.D. Drew, Mike Lowell and Jason Varitek hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back Home Runs to put them up 4-3. They eventually went on to win the game 7-6 after a 3 Run Home Run by Mike Lowell in the bottom of the 7th inning. On September 18, 2006 trailing 9-5 to the San Diego Padres in the 9th inning, Jeff Kent, J.D. Drew, Russell Martin, and Marlon Anderson of the Los Angeles Dodgers hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs to tie the game (The Dodgers won the game in the 10th, off a walk off home run by Nomar Garciaparra). J.D. Drew has been part of 2 different sets of Back to Back to Back to Back Home Runs. On September 30, 1997, in the sixth inning of Game One of the American League Division Series between the New York Yankees and Cleveland Indians, Tim Raines, Derek Jeter and Paul O'Neill hit back-to-back-to-back home runs for the Yankees. Raines' home run tied the game. New York went on to win 8-6. This was the first occurrence of three home runs in a row ever in postseason play. The Boston Red Sox repeated the feat in Game Four of the 2007 American League Championship Series, also against the Indians. Simple back-to-back home runs are a relatively frequent occurrence. If a pitcher gives up a homer, he might have his concentration broken, and might alter his normal approach in an attempt to "make up for it" by striking out the next batter with some fastballs. Sometimes the next batter will be expecting that, and will capitalize on it. A notable back-to-back home run of that type in World Series play involved "Babe Ruth's called shot" in 1932, which was accompanied by various Ruthian theatrics, yet the pitcher, Charlie Root, was allowed to stay in the game. He delivered just one more pitch, which Lou Gehrig drilled out of the park for a back-to-back shot, after which Root was removed from the game. In Game 3 of the 1976 NLCS, George Foster and Johnny Bench hit back-to-back homers in the last of the ninth off Ron Reed to tie the game. The Series-winning run was scored later in the inning. Another notable pair of back-to-back home runs occurred on September 14, 1990, when Ken Griffey, Sr. and Ken Griffey, Jr. hit back-to-back home runs, off Kirk McCaskill, the only father-and-son duo to do so in Major League history. Likewise, individuals hitting home runs in consecutive at bats is not unusual, but three or more is rare. The record for consecutive home runs by a batter under any circumstances is 4. Of the fifteen players (through 2006) who have hit 4 in one game, six have hit them consecutively. 28 other batters have hit four consecutive across two games. Bases on balls do not count as at-bats, and Ted Williams holds the record for consecutive home runs across the most games, 4 in four games played, during September 17-22, 1957, for the Red Sox. http://www.baseball-almanac.com/teamstats/schedule.php?y=1957&t=BOS Williams hit a pinch-hit homer on the 17th; walked as a pinch-hitter on the 18th; there was no game on the 19th; hit another pinch-homer on the 20th; homered and then was lifted for a pinch-runner after at least one walk, on the 21st; and homered after at least one walk on the 22nd. All in all, he had 4 walks interspersed among his 4 homers. In World Series play, Reggie Jackson was the most recent to hit a record three in one Series game, the final game in 1977. Those were consecutive in his first three at bats. He had also hit one in his last at bat the previous game, so he owns the record for consecutive homers across two Series games, which again is 4. Nomar Garciaparra holds the record for consecutive home runs in the shortest time in terms of innings: 3 homers in 2 innings, on July 23, 2002, for the Boston Red Sox. Home run cycle An offshoot of hitting for the cycle, a "home run cycle" is where a player hits a solo, 2-run, 3-run, and grand slam home run all in one game. This is an extremely rare feat, as it requires the batter to not only hit four home runs in a game (which itself has only occurred 15 times in the Major Leagues The Official Site of Major League Baseball: History: Rare Feats ), but also to hit those home runs with the specific number of runners already on base. Although it is a rare accomplishment, it is largely dependent on circumstances outside the player's control, such as his preceding teammates' ability to get on base, as well as the order in which he comes to bat in any particular inning. Though multiple home run cycles have been recorded in collegiate baseball, the only home run cycle in a professional baseball game belongs to Tyrone Horne, who stroked four long balls for the minor league, Double-A Arkansas Travelers in a game against the San Antonio Missions on July 27, 1998. Brian Sprout, a former St. Olaf College Ole, Division III All-American and former minor leaguer, once hit for the home run cycle in order. In a game back in 2002 against Augsburg College, Brian hit a solo, 2-run homer, 3 run homer and grand slam in 4 consecutive at bats. This is the only time in history that such a feat was accomplished. A major league player has come close to hitting for the home run cycle twice. The first was on April 26, 2005 when Alex Rodriguez of the New York Yankees hit 3 home runs off Los Angeles Angels pitcher Bartolo Colón. Los Angeles Angels/New York Yankees Box Score Tuesday April 26, 2005 Yahoo Sports, April 26, 2005 Rodriguez hit a 3-run home run, 2-run home run, and a grand slam in the first, third, and fourth innings, respectively. He later, in the bottom of the eighth inning, just missed a solo home run, lining out to Jeff DaVanon in deep center field. Los Angeles Angels/New York Yankees Play by Play Tuesday April 26, 2005 Yahoo Sports, April 26, 2005 The second was on May 16, 2008 when Jayson Werth of the Philadelphia Phillies hit 3 home runs off Toronto Blue Jays pitchers David Purcey and Jesse Litsch. Werth hit a 3-run home run, a grand slam, and a solo home run in the second, third, and fifth innings, respectively. History of the home run Graph depicting the yearly number of home runs per MLB game (blue line) In the early days of the game, when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside-the-park variety. The first home run ever hit in the National League was by Ross Barnes of the Chicago White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs), in 1876. The home "run" was literally descriptive. Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close. Hitters were discouraged from trying to hit home runs, with the conventional wisdom being that if they tried to do so they would simply fly out. This was a serious concern in the 19th century, because in baseball's early days a ball caught after one bounce was still an out. The emphasis was on place-hitting and what is now called "manufacturing runs" or "small ball". The home run's place in baseball changed dramatically when the live-ball era began after World War I. First, the materials and manufacturing processes improved significantly, making the ball somewhat more lively. Batters such as Babe Ruth and Rogers Hornsby took full advantage of rules changes that were instituted during the 1920s, particularly prohibition of the spitball, and the requirement that balls be replaced when worn or dirty. Along with the baseball being easier to see and capable of being hit farther, as the game's popularity boomed more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield and increasing the chances of a long fly ball resulting in a home run. The teams with the sluggers, typified by the New York Yankees, became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the "inside game" to the "power game" in order to keep up. Prior to 1931, a ball that bounced over an outfield fence during a major league game was considered a home run. The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence on the fly, and balls that reached the seats on a bounce became ground rule doubles in most parks. A carryover of the old rule is that if a player deflects a ball over the outfield fence without it touching the ground, it is a home run. Polo Grounds foul line with guide rope. Also, until approximately that time, the ball had to not only go over the fence in fair territory, but to land in the bleachers in fair territory or to still be visibly fair when disappearing behind a wall. The rule stipulated "fair when last seen" by the umpires. Photos from that era in ballparks, such as the Polo Grounds and Yankee Stadium, show ropes strung from the foul poles to the back of the bleachers, or a second "foul pole" at the back of the bleachers, in a straight line with the foul line, as a visual aid for the umpire. Ballparks still use a visual aid much like the ropes; a net or screen attached to the foul poles on the fair side has replaced ropes. As with American football, where a touchdown once required a literal "touch down" of the ball in the end zone but now only requires the "breaking of the [vertical] plane" of the goal line, in baseball the ball need only "break the plane" of the fence in fair territory (unless the balls is caught by a player who is in play, in which case the batter is called out). Babe Ruth's 60th home run in 1927 was somewhat controversial, because it landed barely in fair territory in the stands down the right field line. Ruth lost a number of home runs in his career due to the when-last-seen rule. Bill Jenkinson, in The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs, estimates that Ruth lost at least 50 and as many as 78 in his career due to this rule. Further, the rules once stipulated that an over-the-fence home run in a sudden-victory situation would only count for as many bases as was necessary to "force" the winning run home. For example, if a team trailed by two runs with the bases loaded, and the batter hit a fair ball over the fence, it only counted as a triple, because the runner immediately ahead of him had technically already scored the game-winning run. That rule was changed in the 1920s as home runs became increasingly frequent and popular. Babe Ruth's career total of 714 would have been one higher had that rule not been in effect in the early part of his career. The all-time, verified professional baseball record for home runs is held by Sadaharu Oh, a former player and manager of the Yomiuri Giants and current manager of the Fukuoka Softbank Hawks in Japan's league which is called Nippon Professional Baseball. Oh holds the all-time home run world record, having hit 868 home runs in his career. In Major League Baseball, the record is 762, held by Barry Bonds, who broke Hank Aaron's record on August 7, 2007, when he hit his 756th home run at AT&T Park. Only five other major league players have hit as many as 600: Hank Aaron (755), Babe Ruth (714), Willie Mays (660), Ken Griffey, Jr. (616 and counting) and Sammy Sosa (609). The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in 2001. Negro League slugger Josh Gibson's Baseball Hall of Fame plaque says he hit "almost 800" home runs in his career. The Guinness Book of World Records lists Gibson's lifetime home run total at 800. Gibson's true total is not known, in part due to inconsistent record keeping in the Negro Leagues. The 1993 edition of the MacMillan Baseball Encyclopedia attempted to compile a set of Negro League records, and subsequent work has expanded on that effort. Those records demonstrate that Gibson and Ruth were of comparable power. The 1993 book had Gibson hitting 146 home runs in the 501 "official" Negro League games they were able to account for in his 17-year career, about 1 homer every 3.4 games. Babe Ruth, in 22 seasons (several of them in the dead-ball era), hit 714 in 2503 games, or 1 homer every 3.5 games. The large gap in the numbers for Gibson reflect the fact that Negro League clubs played relatively far fewer league games and many more "barnstorming" or exhibition games during the course of a season, than did the major league clubs of that era. Other legendary home run hitters include Jimmie Foxx, Mel Ott, Ted Williams, Mickey Mantle (who on September 10, 1960, mythically hit "the longest home run ever" at an estimated distance of , although this was measured after the ball stopped rolling http://www.baseball-almanac.com/feats/art_hr.shtml ), Reggie Jackson, Harmon Killebrew, Ernie Banks, Mike Schmidt, Dave Kingman, Sammy Sosa (who has hit 60 or more home runs in a season 3 times but has never led the league in that category), Mark McGwire, Ken Griffey, Jr. and Eddie Mathews. The longest verifiable home run distance is about , by Babe Ruth, to straightaway center field at Tiger Stadium (then called Navin Field and prior to the double-deck), which landed nearly across the intersection of Trumbull and Cherry. The location of where Hank Aaron's record 755th home run landed has been monumented in Milwaukee. http://milwaukee.brewers.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20070607&content_id=2011893&vkey=news_mil&fext=.jsp&c_id=mil The hallowed spot sits outside Miller Park, where the Milwaukee Brewers currently play. Similarly, the point where Aaron's 715th homer landed, upon breaking Ruth's career record in 1974, is marked in the Turner Field parking lot. Frame-by-frame of "Babe Ruth's called shot" homer. The archetypal "uppercut" swing, and using body weight stepping into the pitch to optimize momentum. Home run slang Slang terms for home runs include: big fly, blast, bomb, circuit clout, dinger, ding-dong, dong, four-bagger, four-base knock, funk blast, goner, gopher ball, homer, jack, long ball, moonshot, quadruple, round-tripper, shot, slam, swat, tape-measure shot, tater, wallop, and yakerton. The act of hitting a home run can be called going deep or going yard or going home; additionally, with men on base, it can be called clearing the table. A comparatively long home run can be described as Ruthian, named after Babe Ruth's legendary drives. The act of attempting to hit a home run, whether successful or not, can also be termed swinging for the fences. A game with many home runs in it can be referred to as a slugfest or home run derby. A player who hits a home run is said to have "dialed 8", from the practice of having to dial 8 from a hotel room telephone to dial long distance. A grand slam is often referred to as a grand salami or simply, a salami. Player nicknames that describe home run-hitting prowess include: The Sultan of Swat, the Colossus of Clout, the Wali of Wallop (Babe Ruth) The Crown Prince of Swat (Lou Gehrig, a play on Ruth's nickname) The Rajah of Swat (Rogers Hornsby, a play on Ruth's nickname, as well as his own name) Hammerin' Hank Greenberg Hammerin' Hank, The Hammer, The New Sultan of Swat (Hank Aaron) Hammerin' Hank, Homerin' Hank, and The Hammer (Hank Blalock) 'Ammerin' Ank (Rick Ankiel) The Machine (Albert Pujols) Mr. Home Run (Ralph Kiner) Downtown (Ollie Brown) Kong (Dave Kingman) Frank "Home Run" Baker The Bash Brothers (Mark McGwire and José Canseco) Slammin' Sammy (Sammy Sosa), a play on golfer "Slammin' Sammy" Snead, also known for long drives The Killer (Harmon Killebrew) Bye-Bye (Steve Balboni) Juan Gone (Juan Gonzalez), as in "long gone" Murderers' Row (the 1927 New York Yankees lineup) "The South-Side Hitmen" (the 1977 Chicago White Sox lineup) The Blake Street Bombers (Colorado Rockies hitters of the 90s) Bill "Swish" Nicholson, imitative of his home run swing Vlad the Impaler (Vladimir Guerrero) The Big Hurt (Frank Thomas) Batman and Robin (Mike Piazza and Robin Ventura) The Hebrew Hammer (Ryan Braun) The Prince of Power (Prince Fielder) Progression of the Major League Baseball single-season home run record Summarized from The Baseball Encyclopedia for older information, and from various news stories for newer information: Four baseball bats that were used in setting single-season home run records. From left to right: bat used by Babe Ruth to hit his 60th home run during the 1927 season, bat used by Roger Maris to hit his 61st home run during the 1961 season, bat used by Mark McGwire to hit his 70th home run during the 1998 season, and the bat used by Sammy Sosa for his 66th home run during the same season. 5, by George Hall, Philadelphia Athletics (NL), 1876 (70 game schedule) 9, by Charley Jones, Boston Red Stockings (NL), 1879 (84 game schedule) 14, by Harry Stovey, Philadelphia Athletics (AA), 1883 (98 game schedule) 27, by Ned Williamson, Chicago White Stockings (NL), 1884 (112 game schedule) Williamson benefited from a very short outfield fence in his home ballpark, Lakeshore Park. During the park's previous years, balls hit over the fence in that park were ground-rule doubles, but in 1884 (its final year) they were credited as home runs. Williamson led the pace, but several of his Chicago teammates also topped the 20 HR mark that season. Of Williamson's total, 25 were hit at home, and only 2 on the road. Noticing the fluke involved, fans of the early 20th century were more impressed with Buck Freeman's total of 25 home runs in 1899 or Gavvy Cravath's 1915 total of 24. 29, by Babe Ruth, Boston Red Sox (AL), 1919 (140 game schedule) Even with that relatively small quantity, and still pitching part-time, Ruth alone hit more home runs than did 10 of the 15 other major league clubs. The second-highest individual total was 12, by Gavvy Cravath of the Philadelphia Phillies. Ruth homered in every park in the league, the first time anyone had achieved that distinction. Ruth was a pitcher by trade, and the ultimate exception to the axiom that pitchers can't hit. Ruth had led the league with 11 in 1918, despite playing only 95 games, and still in the "dead-ball" era. By 1919, after the War, the materials for baseballs began to improve and became naturally "livelier". 54, Babe Ruth, New York Yankees (AL), 1920 (154 game schedule) Ruth hit just a few more home runs on the road (26) than he had the previous year (20), but he hit far more (29) in the Polo Grounds in New York (where the Yankees played at the time) than he had in Fenway Park (9) in Boston the year before, as he took full advantage of the nearby right field wall, although he also hit many long drives at the Polo Grounds. Of the other 15 major league clubs, only the Philadelphia Phillies exceeded Ruth's single-handed total, hitting 64 in their bandbox ballpark Baker Bowl. The second-highest individual total was the St. Louis Browns' George Sisler's 19. Ruth's major-league record slugging percentage (total bases / at bats) of .847 stood for the next 80 years. 59, by Ruth, New York (AL), 1921 (154 game schedule) Ruth's slugging percentage was just .001 less than his record-setting average the previous year. 60, by Ruth, New York (AL), 1927 (154 game schedule) Ruth hit more home runs in 1927 than any of the other seven American League teams. His closest rival was his teammate Lou Gehrig, who hit 47 homers that year. 61, by Roger Maris, New York (AL), 1961 (162 game schedule) Pushing Maris that year was teammate Mickey Mantle; slowed by an injury late in the season, Mantle finished with 54. With the season being 8 games longer than in previous years – leading to the suggestion that official record keepers place an "asterisk" next to the record, many observers derided this situation as a major public relations gaffe by major league baseball. 70, by Mark McGwire, St. Louis Cardinals (NL), 1998 (162 game schedule) After an epic battle between McGwire and Ken Griffey, Jr., who both got into the 50s in 1997, many expected the two to take on Maris in 1998. However, the player that competed for the record with McGwire in 1998 was Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs, who propelled himself into the race with a record-setting 20 home runs that June. He would finish with 66 that season and actually led McGwire for approximately 45 minutes after hitting his 66th, until McGwire hit his own 66th, and four more in his final three games of the season. McGwire broke the old records in 144 games - fewer than even the old 154 game season. That removed season-length as a source of "asterisk" controversy, but McGwire's connection to the steroid scandal introduced a new call for asterisks on this and other records set in this era. See e.g. 73, by Barry Bonds, San Francisco Giants (NL), 2001 (162 game schedule) In part due to 9/11 terrorist attacks, the then-recently set record of only three years by McGwire, and Bonds' poor relationship with the media and some fans, Bonds' record setting was not as publicized as the previous chases. Bonds was initially chased closely by Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs and Luis Gonzalez of the Arizona Diamondbacks, but Gonzalez faded late and finished with 57, while Sosa finished closer with 64 to become the first player to exceed 60 home runs in three separate seasons. McGwire was not a factor, in his final major season, with the injuries that had plagued him for much of his career finally taking their toll, although he still hit at a pace that would have put him near 50 if he had played a full season. Bonds' slugging percentage of .863 broke the major league record set by Ruth in 1920. As happened with McGwire's record, Bonds' connection to the steroid scandal resulted in further calls for asterisks on this and other records set in this era. Past single-season home run record holders by average home runs per game: Number of home runs in the season divided by number of games in schedule (not games played) 0.45 Barry Bonds 0.43 Mark McGwire 0.39 Babe Ruth (1) 0.383 Babe Ruth (2) 0.377 Roger Maris 0.35 Babe Ruth (3) 0.24 Ned Williamson 0.20 Babe Ruth (4) 0.14 Harry Stovey 0.10 Charley Jones 0.07 George Hall Selected list of pitchers giving up record-breaking home runs: 1883 - Jack Neagle, Allegheny Club of Pittsburg - Harry Stovey's 10th of the season 1919 - Waite Hoyt, New York Yankees - Babe Ruth's 28th of the season 1920 - Dickie Kerr, Chicago White Sox - Babe Ruth's 30th of the season 1921 - Bill Bayne, St. Louis Browns - Babe Ruth's 55th of the season 1927 - Tom Zachary, Washington Nats/Senators - Babe Ruth's 60th of the season 1961 - Tracy Stallard, Boston Red Sox - Roger Maris' 61st of the season 1974 - Al Downing, Los Angeles Dodgers - Hank Aaron's 715th of his career 1998 - Steve Trachsel, Chicago Cubs - Mark McGwire's 62nd of the season 2001 - Chan Ho Park, Los Angeles Dodgers - Barry Bonds' 71st of the season 2007 - Mike Bacsik, Washington Nationals - Barry Bonds' 756 Career This includes only the home runs that broke a record set in a previous year, not home runs that extended a record within the same year. Instant replay In November 2007, the general managers of Major League Baseball voted in favor of implementing instant replay reviews on boundary home run calls ESPN - GMs vote 25-5 to use replay to aid home run decisions - MLB . The proposal limited the use of instant replay to determining whether a boundary home run call is: A fair (home run) or foul ball A live ball (ball hit fence and rebounded onto the field), ground rule double (ball hit fence before leaving the field), or home run (ball hit some object beyond the fence while in flight) Spectator interference or home run (spectator touched ball after it broke the plane of the fence). On August 28, 2008, instant replay review became available in MLB for reviewing calls in accordance with the above proposal. It was first utilized on September 3, 2008 in a game between the New York Yankees and the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/gameday_recap.jsp?ymd=20080903&content_id=3412731&vkey=recap&fext=.jsp&c_id=nyy Alex Rodriguez of the Yankees hit what appeared to be a home run, but the ball hit a catwalk behind the foul pole. It was at first called a home run, until Tampa Bay manager Joe Maddon argued the call, and the umpires decided to review the play. After 2 minutes and 15 seconds, the umpires came back and ruled it a home run. About two weeks later, on September 19, also at Tropicana Field, a boundary call was overturned for the first time. In this case, Carlos Peña of the Rays was given a ground rule double in a game against the Minnesota Twins after an umpire believed a fan reached into the field of play to catch a fly ball in right field. The umpires reviewed the play, determined the fan did not reach over the fence, and reversed the call, awarding Peña a home run. Aside from the two aforementioned reviews at Tampa Bay, replay was used four more times in the 2008 MLB regular season: twice at Houston, once at Seattle, and once at San Francisco. The San Francisco incident is perhaps the most unusual. Bengie Molina, the Giants' Catcher, hit what was first called as a double. Molina then was replaced in the game by a pinch-runner before the umpires re-evaluated the call and ruled it a home run. In this instance though, Molina was not allowed to return to the game to complete the run, as he had already been replaced. Molina was credited with the home run, and two RBIs, but not for the run scored which went to the pinch-runner instead. References See also 61*, a 2001 made-for-TV baseball movie chronicling Maris' 1961 season List of home run calls in baseball Home Run Derby External links MLB's Home Run Leaders - batting statistics for over 16,000 players Career achievement list List of lifetime home run leaders through history Major League Baseball home run milestones 500 home run club List of top 500 Major League Baseball home run hitters All-Time leaders in home runs for a pitcher Home run in first major league at bat Home run in final at-bat List of top home run hitters by birthplace Single game or season achievements Batters hitting two home runs in one inning: Accomplished close to 50 times in the course of major league history.Nomar Garciaparra hit two in the third inning and one in the fourth inning, in the first game on July 23, 2002 – the only player (through 2007) to hit three homers over two consecutive innings. Also notable was Fernando Tatis, who hit two grand slams off of Chan Ho Park in a single inning, and Carlos Baerga was the first player to have ever hit one home run from both sides of the plate in the same inning. He did so on April 8, 1993. Most home runs in a doubleheader: Stan Musial hit 5 on May 2, 1954. Nate Colbert equalled the feat on August 1, 1972. 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4,106 | Kremvax | Kremvax was originally a fictitious Usenet site at the Kremlin, named like the then large number of Usenet VAXen with names of the form foovax. Kremvax was announced on April 1, 1984 in a posting ostensibly originated there by Soviet leader Konstantin Chernenko. The posting was actually forged by Piet Beertema of CWI as an April Fool's joke. Other fictitious sites mentioned in the hoax were moskvax and kgbvax. The actual origin of the email was mcvax, one of the first European sites on the internet. In fact, it was only six years later that the first genuine site in Moscow, demos.su, joined Usenet. Some readers needed convincing that the postings from it weren't just another prank. Vadim Antonov, the senior programmer at Demos and the major poster from there until mid-1991, was quite aware of all this, and referred to it frequently in his own postings. Eventually, he even arranged to have the domain's gateway site named kremvax.demos.su, thus turning fiction into truth and, according to one account, "demonstrating that the hackerish sense of humor transcends cultural barriers". Raymond, E. S.: "The Jargon File", Kremvax entry, 2006 Antonov also contributed some Russian language material for the Jargon File. See also RELCOM References External links Original message archived on Google Groups Author's Account | Kremvax |@lemmatized kremvax:4 originally:1 fictitious:2 usenet:3 site:5 kremlin:1 name:3 like:1 large:1 number:1 vaxen:1 form:1 foovax:1 announce:1 april:2 posting:4 ostensibly:1 originate:1 soviet:1 leader:1 konstantin:1 chernenko:1 actually:1 forge:1 piet:1 beertema:1 cwi:1 fool:1 joke:1 mention:1 hoax:1 moskvax:1 kgbvax:1 actual:1 origin:1 email:1 mcvax:1 one:2 first:2 european:1 internet:1 fact:1 six:1 year:1 later:1 genuine:1 moscow:1 demo:3 su:2 join:1 reader:1 need:1 convincing:1 another:1 prank:1 vadim:1 antonov:2 senior:1 programmer:1 major:1 poster:1 mid:1 quite:1 aware:1 refer:1 frequently:1 eventually:1 even:1 arrange:1 domain:1 gateway:1 thus:1 turn:1 fiction:1 truth:1 accord:1 account:2 demonstrate:1 hackerish:1 sense:1 humor:1 transcends:1 cultural:1 barrier:1 raymond:1 e:1 jargon:2 file:2 entry:1 also:2 contribute:1 russian:1 language:1 material:1 see:1 relcom:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 original:1 message:1 archive:1 google:1 group:1 author:1 |@bigram konstantin_chernenko:1 external_link:1 |
4,107 | Halle_Berry | Halle Berry (; born August 14, 1966 Although a 1968 birthdate is found in Britannica and other places, she stated in interviews prior to August 2006 that she would turn 40 then. See: FemaleFirst, DarkHorizons, FilmMonthly, and see also CBS. Accessed 2007-05-05. ) is an American actress, former fashion model, and beauty queen. Berry has received Emmy and Golden Globe awards for Introducing Dorothy Dandridge and an Academy Award for Best Actress in 2001 for her performance in Monster's Ball, becoming the first and, as of 2009, only woman of African American descent to have won the award for Best Actress. She is one of the highest-paid actresses in Hollywood and also a Revlon spokeswoman. "Witherspoon tops actress pay list". (November 2007). 999Network. Accessed 2007-12-15. Jennifer Bayot (December 1, 2002). "Private Sector; A Shaker, Not a Stirrer, at Revlon". New York Times. Accessed 2007-12-23. She has also been involved in the production side of several of her films. Before becoming an actress, Berry entered several beauty contests, finishing runner-up in the Miss USA (1986), and winning the Miss USA World 1986 title. Her breakthrough feature film role was in the 1991 Jungle Fever. This led to roles in The Flintstones (1994), Bulworth (1998), X-Men (2000) and its sequels, and as Bond Girl Jinx in Die Another Day (2002). She also won a worst actress Razzie Award in 2005 for Catwoman and accepted the award in person. Divorced from baseball player David Justice and musician Eric Benét, Berry has been dating French-Canadian model Gabriel Aubry since November 2005. Their first child, a girl named Nahla Ariela Aubry, "Halle Berry's Baby Name: Nahla Ariela Aubry!" (March 18, 2008). People. Accessed 2008-03-18. was born on March 16, 2008. Early life Berry was born Maria Halle Berry, though her name was legally changed to Halle Maria Berry in 1971. "First Generation". Berry's parents selected her middle name from Halle's Department Store, which was then a local landmark in her birthplace of Cleveland, Ohio. "Halle Berry". Inside the Actors Studio. Bravo. (October 29, 2007) New York City. Her mother, Judith Ann (née Hawkins), "Halle Berry looking for X factor". BBC. Accessed 2007-02-07. Lawrence Van Gelder (May 26, 2003). "Arts Briefing". New York Times. Accessed 2008-02-02. who is Caucasian, was a psychiatric nurse. Her father, Jerome Jesse Berry, was an African-American hospital attendant in the same psychiatric ward where her mother worked; he later became a bus driver. "Halle Berry, "Black Pearl" to win Oscar´s Best Actress". Berry's maternal grandmother, Nellie Dicken, was born in Sawley, Derbyshire, England, while her maternal grandfather, Earl Ellsworth Hawkins, was born in Ohio. "Ancestry of Halle Berry". Genealogy.com. Accessed 2007-02-07. Berry's parents divorced when she was four years old; she was raised exclusively by her mother. Berry has said in published reports that she has been estranged from her father since her childhood. "Showbiz". (January 28, 2003) The Age. Accessed 2007-12-15. Berry graduated from Bedford High School, afterwards working in the children's department at Higbee's Department store. She then studied at Cuyahoga Community College. In the 1980s, she entered several beauty contests, winning Miss Teen All-American in 1985 and Miss Ohio USA in 1986. "Halle Berry Biography". People. Accessed 2007-12-15. She was the 1986 Miss USA first runner-up to Christy Fichtner of Texas. In the Miss USA 1986 pageant interview competition, she said she hoped to become an entertainer or to have something to do with the media. Her interview was awarded the highest score by the judges. "Pageant Almanac - Miss USA 1986 Scores". Accessed 2007-12-21. She was the first African-American Miss World entrant in 1986, where she finished sixth and Trinidad and Tobago's Giselle Laronde was crowned Miss World. Frank Sanello (2003). Halle Berry: A Stormy Life. ISBN 1852270926 In 1989, during the taping of the short-lived television series Living Dolls, Berry lapsed into a coma and was diagnosed with diabetes mellitus type 1. "Halle Berry – Oscar winning actress and Type 1 diabetic". Accessed 2007-02-07. Acting career Berry, as Miss Ohio USA 1987, preparing to embark on a USO tour with other Miss USA 1986 contestants In the late 1980s, Berry went to Illinois to pursue a modeling career as well as acting. One of her first acting projects was a television series for local cable by Gordon Lake Productions called Chicago Force. In 1989, Berry landed the role of Emily Franklin in the short-lived ABC television series Living Dolls (a spin-off of Who's the Boss?). She went on to have a recurring role on the long running serial Knots Landing. In 1992, Berry was cast as the love interest in the video for R. Kelly's seminal single, "Honey Love". Halle Berry, R. Kelly (January 14, 1992). "Born into the 90's". Jive Records. Her breakthrough feature film role was in Spike Lee's Jungle Fever, in which she played a drug addict named Vivian. Her first co-starring role was in the 1991 film Strictly Business. In 1992, Berry portrayed a career woman who falls for Eddie Murphy in the romantic comedy Boomerang. That same year, she caught the public's attention as a headstrong biracial slave in the TV adaptation of Queen: The Story of an American Family, based on the book by Alex Haley. Berry was in the live-action Flintstones movie as "Sharon Stone", the sultry secretary who seduced Fred Flintstone. "Berry: Ripe for success". (March 25, 2002) BBC-News. Accessed 2007-02-19. Playing a former drug addict struggling to regain custody of her son in Losing Isaiah (1995), Berry tackled a more serious role, starring opposite co-star Jessica Lange. She portrayed Sandra Beecher in Race the Sun (1996), which was based on a true story, and co-starred alongside Kurt Russell in Executive Decision. From 1996 onwards, she was a Revlon spokeswoman for seven years and renewed her contract in 2004. "Revlon - Supplier News - renewed its contract with actress Halle Berry; to introduce the Pink Happiness Spring 2004 Color Collection - Brief Article". (December 15, 2003) CNET Networks. Accessed 2007-12-23. In 1998, Berry received praise for her role in Bulworth as an intelligent woman raised by activists who gives a politician (Warren Beatty) a new lease on life. The same year, she played the singer Zola Taylor, one of the three wives of pop singer Frankie Lymon, in the biopic Why Do Fools Fall in Love. In the 1999 HBO biopic Introducing Dorothy Dandridge, she portrayed the first black woman to be nominated for a Best Actress Academy Award. Berry's performance was recognized with several awards, including an Emmy and a Golden Globe. Parish, James Robert (October 29, 2001). "The Hollywood Book of Death: The Bizarre, Often Sordid, Passings of More than 125 American Movie and TV Idols". Contemporary Books of McGraw Hill. ISBN 0809222272. In 2001, Berry appeared as Leticia Musgrove, the wife of an executed murderer, in the film Monster's Ball. Her performance was awarded the National Board of Review and the Screen Actors Guild prizes, and in a pleasant irony she became the first African-American woman to receive a Best Leading Actress Academy Award (earlier in her career she portrayed Dorothy Dandridge, the first African-American woman to be nominated for Best Actress). "Halle Berry Biography: Page 2". People.com. Accessed 2007-12-20. the NAACP issued the statement "Congratulations to Halle Berry and Denzel Washington for giving us hope and making us proud. If this is a sign that Hollywood is finally ready to give opportunity and judge performance based on skill and not on skin color then it is a good thing." "NAACP Congratulates Halle Berry, Denzel Washington". (March 2002) U.S. Newswire. Her role also generated controversy. Berry's graphic, nude love scene with a racist character played by co-star Billy Bob Thornton, was the subject of much media chatter and discussion among African-Americans. Many in the African-American community were critical of Berry for taking the part. Berry responded: "I don't really see a reason to ever go that far again. That was a unique movie. That scene was special and pivotal and needed to be there, and it would be a really special script that would require something like that again." Berry signs autographs for US soldiers in Bosnia-Herzegovina Berry asked for a higher fee for Revlon advertisements after winning the Academy Award, and Ron Perelman, the cosmetics firms chief congratulated her, saying how happy he was that she modeled for his company. She replied: "Of course, you'll have to pay me more." Perelman stalked off with rage. Hugh Davies (April 2, 2002). "Berry seeks higher adverts fee." The Telegraph. Accessed 2008-04-01. Her win at the Academy Awards led to two famous "Oscar moments." In accepting her award, she gave an acceptance speech honoring previous black actresses who had never had the opportunity. she said "This moment is so much bigger than me. This is for every nameless, faceless woman of colour who now has a chance tonight because this door has been opened." Oliver Poole (March 26, 2002). "Oscar night belongs to Hollywood's black actors." The Telegraph. Accessed 2008-04-01. One year later, as she presented the Best Actor award, winner Adrien Brody ran on stage and, instead of giving her the standard peck on the cheek, planted a long kiss on Berry. Berry portrayed the mutant superhero Storm in the film adaptation of the comic book series X-Men (2000) and its sequels, X2: X-Men United (2003) and X-Men: The Last Stand (2006). In 2001, Berry appeared in the film Swordfish, which featured her first on-screen nude scene. "Halle Berry: The Interview". (July 1, 2001) The Independent, (London). Accessed 2008-04-01. At first, she refused to be filmed topless in a sunbathing scene, but she changed her mind when Warner Brothers raised her fee substantially. Hugh Davies (February 7, 2001). "Halle Berry earns extra £357,000 for topless scene". The Telegraph. Accessed 2008-04-29. The brief flash of her breasts added $500,000 to her fee. "And the winner is...Page 2". After turning down numerous roles that required nudity, she said she decided to make Swordfish because her husband Benet supported her and encouraged her to take risks. "Halle's big year". (November 2002) Ebony. International success Berry in Hamburg in 2004 As Bond girl Giacinta 'Jinx' Johnson in the 2002 blockbuster Die Another Day, Berry recreated a scene from Dr. No, bursting from the surf to be greeted by James Bond as Ursula Andress had 40 years earlier. "Berry recreates a Bond girl icon". (April 12, 2002) Telegraph Observer. Lindy Hemming insisted that she wear a bikini and knife as an homage. Julia Robson (November 14, 2002). Miss Modesty keeps Bond sharp and sexy. Telegraph Observer. Accessed 2008-08-30. Berry has said of the scene: "It's splashy", "exciting", "sexy", "provocative" and "it will keep me still out there after winning an Oscar." The bikini scene was shot in Cadiz, the location was reportedly cold and windy, and footage has been released of Berry wrapped in thick towels in between takes to avoid catching a chill. Die Another Day Special Edition DVD 2002. According to a ITV news poll, Jinx was voted the fourth toughest girl on screen of all time. "Halle Berry`s `Jinx` named fourth toughest female screen icon". MI6 News. Berry was hurt during filming when debris from a smoke grenade flew into her eye. It was removed in a 30-minute operation. Hugh Davies (April 10, 2002). "Halle Berry hurt in blast during Bond film scene." The Telegraph. Accessed 2008-04-01. Because of winning the Academy Award, rewrites were commissioned to give Berry more screentime for X2. "The X-Men 2 panel". (July 30, 2002) JoBlo. Accessed 2008-03-12. Berry stated during interviews for X2 that she would not return as Storm unless the character had a significant presence comparable to the comic-book version. In late 2003, she starred in the psychological thriller Gothika opposite Robert Downey Jr., during which she broke her arm. Downey was supposed to grab her arm and twist but twisted too hard. Production was halted for eight weeks. "Halle Berry talks about Gothika". iVillage.co.uk. It was a moderate hit at the United States box office, taking in $60 million; it earned another $80 million abroad. Berry appeared in the Limp Bizkit music video for "Behind Blue Eyes" for the motion picture soundtrack for the film. The same year, she was named #1 in FHM'''s 100 Sexiest Women in the World poll. "FHM Readers Name Scarlett Johansson World's Sexiest Woman; Actress Tops Voting in FHM's 100 Sexiest Women in the World 2006 Readers' Poll". (March 27, 2006) Business Wire. Accessed 2008-01-01. In 2004 Berry was voted fourth of Empire magazine's 100 sexiest film stars of all time poll. "The sexiest film stars of all time." The Telegraph. Accessed 2008-04-01. Berry received $12.5 million for the title role in the film Catwoman, Sharon Waxman (July 21, 2004). "Making Her Leap Into an Arena Of Action; Halle Berry Mixes Sexiness With Strength." New York Times. Accessed 2008-04-01. a $100 million movie; it grossed $17 million on its first weekend. David Gritten (July 30, 2004). "Curse of the Best Actress Oscar." The Telegraph. She was awarded a "worst actress" Razzie award in 2005. She appeared at the ceremony to accept the award in person (making her the third person, and second actor, to ever do so) And the award for the most Golden Raspberries goes to ... Lindsay Lohan Daily Mail. Accessed 2008-03-23. with a sense of humor, considering it an experience of the "rock bottom" in order to be "at the top". Gina Piccalo (November 1, 2007). "Halle Berry: A career so strong it survived Catwoman". Los Angeles Times. Accessed 2007-12-15. Holding the Academy Award in one hand and the Razzie in the other she said, "I never in my life thought that I would be here, winning a Razzie. It's not like I ever aspired to be here, but thank you. When I was a kid, my mother told me that if you could not be a good loser, then there's no way you could be a good winner." The Fund for Animals praised Berry's compassion towards cats and for squelching rumors that she was keeping a Bengal tiger from the sets of Catwoman as a "pet." "Fund for Animals Thanks Catwoman Halle Berry for Her Compassion to Cats". Berry next appeared in the Oprah Winfrey-produced ABC TV movie Their Eyes Were Watching God (2005), an adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's novel, in which Berry portrayed Janie Crawford, a free-spirited woman whose unconventional sexual mores upset her 1920s contemporaries in her small community. Meanwhile, she voiced the character of Cappy, one of the many mechanical beings in the animated feature Robots (2005). Bob Grimm (March 17, 2005). "CGI City". Tucson Weekly. Berry on the red carpet of Robots In 2006, Berry, Pierce Brosnan, Cindy Crawford, Jane Seymour, Dick Van Dyke, Tea Leoni, and Daryl Hannah successfully fought the Cabrillo Port Liquefied Natural Gas facility that was proposed off the coast of Malibu. "Actors join protest against project off Malibu". (October 23, 2005) MSNBC.com. Berry said "I care about the air we breathe, I care about the marine life and the ecosystem of the ocean." Stephen M. Silverman (April 11, 2007). "Halle Berry, Others Protest Natural Gas Facility". Time Inc.. Accessed 2007-04-17. In May 2007, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the facility. "The Santa Barbara Independent Cabrillo Port Dies a Santa Barbara Flavored Death". (May 24, 2007) The Santa Barbara Independent. Hasty Pudding Theatricals gave her its 2006 Woman of The Year award. "And the Pudding Pot goes to..." (February 3, 2006) President and Fellows of Harvard College. Accessed 2008-01-01. Berry is involved in production of films and television. She served as executive producer on Introducing Dorothy Dandridge in 1999, and Lackawanna Blues in 2005. Berry produces as well as stars in the thriller Perfect Stranger with Bruce Willis and Things We Lost in the Fire with Benicio del Toro and Class Act, based on the real life story of a teacher whose students helped her run for political office. She will produce and star in the 2009 film Tulia, which will reunite her with Monster's Ball costar Billy Bob Thornton. Berry is one of the highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning $10 million per film. In July 2007, she topped In Touch magazine's list of the world's most fabulous 40-something celebrities. On April 3, 2007, she was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in front of the Kodak Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard for her contributions to the film industry. Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. "Hollywood Walk of Fame Recent Ceremonies". Accessed 2007-04-04. "Halle Berry Gets Star on Hollywood Walk of Fame". (April 4, 2007) Fox News. Accessed 2007-12-13. Berry has served many years as the face of Revlon cosmetics and also served as the face of Versace. The Coty Inc. fragrance company signed Berry to market her debut fragrance in March 2008. Berry was delighted, saying that she had created her own fragrances at home by mixing scents. "Coty Inc. Announces Fragrance Partnership With Hollywood Icon Halle Berry". (March 14, 2008) PRNewswire. Accessed 2008-03-16. She was paid $3–5 million with a royalty of about 5%. "Coty to launch Halle Berry fragrance". (February 29, 2008) ChinaDaily. Personal life Berry at the 2003 Comic-Con International in San Diego, CA Berry has been married twice. Her first marriage was to former baseball player David Justice, shortly after midnight on January 1, 1993. The couple separated in 1996 and their divorce was finalized in 1997. "Actress Halle Berry and Atlanta Braves' David Justice to divorce." (March 11, 1996) Jet. Accessed 2008-09-24. Justice played with the Atlanta Braves and experienced a measure of fame as the team rose to prominence in the early 1990s. The couple found it difficult to maintain their relationship while he was playing baseball and she was filming elsewhere. Berry has stated publicly that she was so depressed after her breakup with Justice that she considered taking her own life, "My Sights Are Set on Motherhood" (April 1, 2007) Parade. Accessed 2007-07-24. but she could not bear the thought of her mother finding her body. Hamida Ghafour (March 21, 2002). I was close to ending it all, says actress. The Telegraph. Accessed 2008-04-01. Berry's second marriage was to musician Eric Benét. They met in 1997 and married in early 2001 on a beach in Santa Barbara. Silverman, Steven M (October 2, 2003). "Halle Berry, Eric Benet Split." People. Accessed 2008-01-13. Berry credited Benét with support after she was involved in a February 2000 traffic collision, in which she suffered a concussion and left the scene of the accident before the police arrived. Some in the media complained that her misdemeanor hit and run charge was preferential treatment; "Saying She Doesn't Recall Incident, Halle Berry Gets Probation In Hit And Run Case". (May 29, 2000) Jet Magazine. Accessed 2009-05-24. "Halle Berry Charged With Misdemeanor In Hit And Run Case". (April 17, 2000) Jet Magazine. Accessed 2009-05-11. she had also been the driver in an alleged hit and run incident three years earlier in which no charges were filed. "Woman Injured In Halle Berry Car Incident Sues; Cops Say Actress Was In Similar Mishap 3 Years Ago". (March 27, 2000) Jet Magazine. Accessed 2009-05-11. The incident became fodder for comedians. Berry pled no contest, did community service, paid a fine and was placed on three years' probation. Touré (January 20, 2001). "Portrait of a Lady". USA Weekend. Accessed 2007-04-02. A civil lawsuit was settled out of court. "Halle Berry Sued in Hit-and-Run" (March 9, 2000) Associated Press. Accessed 2009-05-11. "Halle Berry Settles Suit Filed By Woman In February 2000 Car Crash". (May 28, 2001) Jet Magazine. Accessed 2009-05-11. The couple separated in 2003. After the separation, Berry stated, "I want love, and I will find it, hopefully". "Second Chance at Love". (July 14, 2006) US Online. Accessed 2007-02-07. While married to Benét, Berry adopted his daughter, India. The divorce was finalized in January 2005. Steven M. Silverman (January 10, 2005). "Halle Berry Finalizes Split from Benet." People. Accessed 2008-01-13. In November 2005, Berry began dating French-Canadian supermodel Gabriel Aubry, nine years her junior. The couple met at a Versace photoshoot. "Halle Berry Steps Out with Her New Man." (February 15, 2006) People. Accessed 2008-01-10. After six months with Aubry, she stated in an interview, "I'm really happy in my personal life, which is a novelty to me. You know, I'm not the girl that has the best relationships". Todd Williams (November 18, 2007). "Halle Berry – Great Expectations." Rollingout.com. Accessed 2008-01-10. At one point, Berry had indicated that she planned to adopt children, but her experience playing a mother in Things We Lost In The Fire opened her mind to the possibility of motherhood. Tom Chivers (March 17, 2008). "Halle Berry, James Bond girl, is a mother." The Telegraph. Accessed 2008-04-01. After initially denying rumors, she confirmed in September 2007 that she was three months pregnant. "Halle Berry expecting her first baby". (September 4, 2007) MSNBC. Accessed 2007-09-04. Berry gave birth to a girl named Nahla Ariela Aubry on March 16, 2008 at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. Nahla means "honeybee" in Arabic; Ariela is Hebrew for "lion for God." "Halle Berry names newborn daughter Nahla Ariela." (March 19, 2008) The Daily Mail. Accessed April 25, 2008. Berry hired security guards after receiving racist threats to her unborn baby from a stalker saying her child will be "cut into hundreds of pieces." "Berry Receives Racist Threats to Unborn Baby". SFGate.com. At one time, Berry indicated that she did not intend to marry again, "Halle Berry: "I'll Never Marry Again"". (May 22, 2006) HalleBerryWeb.com. Accessed 2007-02-07. insisting the couple's life was already complete without the need for a marriage. "Berry already 'feels married' to Aubry". (March 13, 2008) World Entertainment News Network. She has stated that she hopes to have a second child right away. Michael Tarm (October 2, 2007). "Halle Berry Says She Wants Another Child." Washington Post. Accessed 2008-01-10. Aubry recently told In Touch magazine, "I'd like Nahla to have a sibling in 2009." In Touch Magazine, February 16, 2009. In the media Berry has stated that the manner in which people have reacted to her is often the result of ignorance. Her own self-identification has been influenced by her mother. She is quoted as saying While taping the Tonight Show with Jay Leno on October 19, 2007, Berry displayed a distorted image of her face, remarking: "Here's where I look like my Jewish cousin!" Matthew Moore (October 29, 2007). "Halle Berry apologises for 'Jewish nose' gaffe." The Telegraph. During the editing of the program, the comment was obscured by a laugh track. Berry later stated "What happened was I was backstage before the show and I have three girls who are Jewish who work for me. We were going through pictures to see which ones looked silly, and one of my Jewish friends said [of the big-nose picture], 'That could be your Jewish cousin!' And I guess it was fresh in my mind, and it just came out of my mouth. But I didn't mean to offend anybody. I didn't. I didn't mean any harm. - and after the show I realized it could be seen as offensive, so I asked Jay to take it out, and he did.'" "Berry Nose Better Than That". (October 24, 2007) New York Post. Accessed 2007-12-21. Berry took part in a nearly 2000-house party cell-phone bank campaign for Barack Obama in February 2008, "Halle Berry, Ted Kennedy: 'Move On' for Obama". (February 29, 2008) Chicago Tribune. and said that she will "collect paper cups off the ground to make his pathway clear." "Why Women Back Barack Obama". (March 31, 2008) North Star Writers. In October 2008, Berry was named Esquire Magazine's "Sexiest Woman Alive", about which she stated "I don't know exactly what it means, but being 42 and having just had a baby, I think I'll take it." "Esquire names 'Sexiest Woman Alive'." (October 7, 2008) CNN.com. She is quoted as saying to Esquire Filmography Year Film Role Notes and Awards1989Living DollsEmily FranklinTV (cancelled after 13 episodes)1991Knots LandingDebbie PorterTV (cast member in 1991)Jungle FeverVivianStrictly BusinessNatalieThe Last Boy ScoutCory1992BoomerangAngela Lewis1993Queen: The Story of an American FamilyQueenNAACP Image AwardCB4Herself CameoFather HoodKathleen MercerThe ProgramAutumn Haley1994The FlintstonesSharon Stone1995Solomon & ShebaNikhaule/Queen ShebaTVLosing IsaiahKhaila Richards1996Executive DecisionJeanRace the SunMiss Sandra BeecherGirl 6 CameoThe Rich Man's WifeJosie Potenza1997B*A*P*SNisi1998The WeddingShelby Coles} TVBulworthNinaWhy Do Fools Fall in LoveZola TaylorIntroducing Dorothy DandridgeDorothy DandridgeEmmy, Golden Globe, SAG Award, NAACP Image Award2000X-MenOroro Munroe/StormWelcome to Hollywood Documentary2001SwordfishGinger KnowlesNAACP Image Award, BET AwardMonster's BallLeticia MusgroveAcademy Award, SAG award, NBR Award2002Die Another DayGiacinta 'Jinx' JohnsonNAACP Image Award2003X2: X-Men UnitedOroro Munroe/StormGothikaMiranda GreyBET Award2004CatwomanPatience Phillips / Catwoman2005Their Eyes Were Watching GodJanie StarksRobotsCappy(Voice)2006X-Men: The Last StandOroro Munroe/Storm2007Perfect StrangerRowena PriceThings We Lost in the FireAudrey Burke2009Frankie and Alice Frankie/Alice Post-Production2010Nappily Ever After Venus Johnson Announced Awards Year Award Category Film Result1995NAACP Image AwardsOutstanding Actress in a TV Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic SpecialQueen2000Primetime Emmy AwardOutstanding Lead Actress - Miniseries or MovieIntroducing Dorothy DandridgeGolden Globe AwardBest Actress - Miniseries or TV MovieScreen Actors Guild AwardsBest Actress - Miniseries or TV MovieBlack Reel AwardsBest Actress in a TV Movie/Mini-SeriesNAACP Image AwardsOutstanding Actress in a TV Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special2001Academy AwardBest ActressMonster's BallScreen Actors Guild AwardsBest Actress - Motion PictureBritish Academy of Film and Television ArtsBest Lead ActressNBRBest Actress2002Black Reel AwardsBest ActressNAACP Image AwardOutstanding ActressSwordfishBET AwardsBest Actress2003BET AwardsBest ActressNAACP Image AwardOutstanding Supporting ActressDie Another Day2004NAACP Image AwardOutstanding ActressGothikaBET AwardsBest Actress2005BET AwardsBest Actress2006NAACP Image AwardOutstanding Supporting Actress - TV seriesTheir Eyes Were Watching God2007People's Choice AwardsFavorite Female Action HeroX-Men: The Last Stand2008BET AwardsBest Actress References Citations Publications Banting, Erinn. Halle Berry, Weigl Publishers, 2005 - ISBN 1590363337 Gogerly, Liz. Halle Berry, Raintree, 2005 - ISBN 1410910857 Naden, Corinne J. Halle Berry, Sagebrush Education Resources, 2001 - ISBN 0613861574 O'Brien, Daniel. Halle Berry, Reynolds & Hearn, 2003 - ISBN 1903111382 Sanello, Frank. Halle Berry: A Stormy Life, Virgin Books, 2003 - ISBN 1852270926 Schuman, Michael A. Halle Berry: Beauty Is Not Just Physical'', Enslow, 2006 - ISBN 0766024679 External links | Halle_Berry |@lemmatized halle:53 berry:126 bear:7 august:2 although:1 birthdate:1 find:4 britannica:1 place:2 state:10 interview:6 prior:1 would:5 turn:2 see:5 femalefirst:1 darkhorizons:1 filmmonthly:1 also:7 cbs:1 accessed:48 american:12 actress:28 former:3 fashion:1 model:3 beauty:4 queen:3 receive:5 emmy:3 golden:4 globe:4 award:28 introduce:4 dorothy:6 dandridge:4 academy:8 best:9 performance:4 monster:3 ball:3 become:6 first:15 woman:17 african:7 descent:1 win:11 one:11 high:6 paid:2 actresses:2 hollywood:12 revlon:6 spokeswoman:2 witherspoon:1 top:4 pay:4 list:2 november:7 jennifer:1 bayot:1 december:2 private:1 sector:1 shaker:1 stirrer:1 new:7 york:5 time:9 involve:3 production:4 side:1 several:4 film:22 enter:2 contest:3 finish:2 runner:2 miss:12 usa:9 world:8 title:2 breakthrough:2 feature:4 role:12 jungle:3 fever:2 lead:4 flintstone:3 bulworth:2 x:7 men:8 sequel:2 bond:7 girl:9 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4,108 | Moctezuma_II | Moctezuma (c. 1466 or c. 1480 – June 1520), also known by a number of variant spellings including Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma and referred to in full by early Nahuatl texts as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin and similar, was the ninth tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlan, reigning from 1502 to 1520. It was during Moctezuma's reign that the episode known as the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began. The portrayal of Moctezuma in history has mostly been coloured by his role as ruler of a defeated nation, and many sources describe him as weak-willed and indecisive. The biases of some historical sources make it difficult to understand his actions during the Spanish invasion. Williamson, Edwin. The Penguin History of Latin America. New York: Penguin, 1992:18 During his reign the Aztec Empire reached its maximal size; through warfare Moctezuma II expanded the territory as far south as Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and incorporated the Zapotec and Yopi people into the empire. Hassig 1988, p. 231 He changed the previous meritocratic system of social hierarchy and widened the divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners) by prohibiting commoners from working in the royal palaces. Hassig 1988, p. 231 The famous Stone of Tizoc, a sacrificial stone decorated with carvings representing Tizoc, Moctezuma's predecessor as Tlatoani, was also elaborated during his rule. He had nine daughters, among them Tecuichpo, also known as Doña Isabel Moctezuma, and eleven sons, among them Chimalpopoca (Moctezuma) (not to be confused with the previous Huey Tlatoani) and Tlaltecatzin . Name The original Nahuatl form of his name was . It is a compound of a noun meaning "lord" and a verb meaning "to frown in anger", and so is interpreted as "he is one who frowns like a lord" or "he who is angry in a noble manner." Regnal number The use of a regnal number is only for modern distinction from the first Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I, because even if the latter was the great-grandparent of the former, there was no dynastic succession among the Aztecs. Williamson, Edwin. The Penguin History of Latin America. New York: Penguin, 1992:18 The Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma ("Old Moctezuma"). Xocoyotzin, , means "honored young one". The sources of Moctezuma's biography The descriptions of the life of Moctezuma are full of contradictions, and thus nothing is known for certain about his personality and rule. Bernal Díaz del Castillo Moctezuma II, 1715 by Antonio de Solis The first hand account of Bernal Díaz del Castillo's True History of the Conquest of New Spain paints a portrait of a noble leader who struggles to maintain order in his kingdom after he is taken prisoner by Cortés. In his first description of Moctezuma, Díaz del Castillo writes: "The Great Montezuma was about forty years old, of good height, well proportioned, spare and slight, and not very dark, though of the usual Indian complexion. He did not wear his hair long but just over his ears, and he had a short black beard, well-shaped and thin. His face was rather long and cheerful, he had fine eyes, and in his appearance and manner could express geniality or, when necessary, a serious composure. He was very neat and clean, and took a bath every afternoon. He had many women as his mistresses, the daughters of chieftains, but two legitimate wives who were Caciques Cacique is a hispanicized word of Caribbean origins, meaning "hereditary lord/chief" or "(military) leader". After first encountering the term and office in the Caribbean, conquest-era writers such as Díaz often used it to describe indigenous rulers generally. in their own right, and only some of his servants knew of it. He was quite free from sodomy. The clothes he wore one day he did not wear again till three or four days later. He had a guard of two hundred chieftains lodged in rooms beside his own, only some of whom were permitted to speak to him. (Díaz del Castillo 1568/1963: 224-25) When Moctezuma is killed, according to Díaz del Castillo, by his own people when trying to calm a revolt, Díaz writes how sad all the Spaniards were: Cortes and all of us captains and soldiers wept for him, and there was no one among us that knew him and had dealings with him who did not mourn him as if he were our father, which was not surprising, since he was so good. It was stated that he had reigned for seventeen years, and was the best king they ever had in Mexico, and that he had personally triumphed in three wars against countries he had subjugated. I have spoken of the sorrow we all felt when we saw that Montezuma was dead. We even blamed the Mercederian friar for not having persuaded him to become a Christian" (Díaz del Castillo 1568/1963: 294). The Conquest of New Spain. Bernal Díaz del Castillo. Trans. J.M. Cohen New York: Penguin, 1963. Bernardino de Sahagún The Florentine Codex, made by Bernardino de Sahagún and his native informants of Tenochtitlan-subjugated Tlatelolco, generally portrays Tlatelolco and Tlatelolcan rulers in a favorable light relative to the Tenocha, and Moctezuma in particular is depicted unfavorably as a weak-willed, superstitious, and indulgent ruler (Restall 2003). Historian James Lockhart suggests that the people needed to have a scapegoat for the Aztec defeat, and Moctezuma naturally fell into that role. Lockhart 1993, pp. 17–19 Hernán Cortés Unlike Bernal Díaz, who was remembering his memoirs many years after the fact, Cortés wrote his Cartas de relación (Letters from Mexico) in the moment in order to justify his actions to the Spanish Crown. His prose is characterized by simple descriptions and explanations, along with frequent personal addresses to the King. In his Second Letter, Cortes describes his first encounter with Moctezuma thus: Mutezuma [sic] came to greet us and with him some two hundred lords, all barefoot and dressed in a different costume, but also very rich in their way and more so than the others. They came in two columns, pressed very close to the walls of the street, which is very wide and beautiful and so straight that you can see from one end to the other. Mutezuma came down the middle of this street with two chiefs, one on his right hand and the other on his left. And they were all dressed alike except that Mutezuma wore sandals whereas the others went barefoot; and they held his arm on either side. (Trans. Pagden 1986:84). Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico. Trans. Anthony Pagden. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1986. Cortés' truthfulness and motives have been called into question by many scholars. Anthony Pagden Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico. Trans. Anthony Pagden. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1986:467. and Eulalia Guzman (Relaciones de Hernan Cortes 1958:279) Guzman, Eulalia. Relaciones de Hernan Cortes a Carlos V sobre la invasion de Anáhuac. Vol. I. Mexico, 1958. have pointed the Biblical messages that Cortés seems to ascribe to Moctezuma's retelling of the legend of Quetzalcoatl as a vengeful Messiah who would return to rule over the Mexica. Pagden has written that "There is no preconquest tradition which places Quetzalcoatl in this role, and it seems possible therefore that it was elaborated by Sahagún and Motolinía from informants who themselves had partially lost contact with their traditional tribal histories" (Pagden 1986:467) . Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc, who wrote the Crónica Mexicayotl, was a grandson of Moctezuma II and his chronicle mostly relates the genealogy of the Aztec rulers. He describes Moctezuma's issue and counts that Moctezuma had nineteen children – eleven sons and eight daughters Tezozomoc, Fernando Alvarado, 1992 (1949), Crónica Mexicayotl, Translated by Adrián León, UNAM, México . Depiction in early post-conquest literature Moctezuma's Palace from the Mendoza Codex (1542) Some of the Aztec stories about Moctezuma describe him as being fearful of the Spanish newcomers, and some sources, such as the Florentine codex, comment that the Aztecs believed the Spaniards to be gods and Cortés to be the returned god Quetzalcoatl. The veracity of this claim is difficult to ascertain, but recently ethnohistorians specialising in early Spanish/Nahua relations have discarded it as post-conquest mythicalisation Restall 2003, chapter 6 . Much of the idea of Cortés being seen as a deity can be traced back to the Florentine Codex written down some 50 years after the conquest. In the codex's description of the first meeting between Moctezuma and Cortés, the Aztec ruler is described as giving a prepared speech in classical oratorial Nahuatl, a speech which as described verbatim in the codex (written by Sahagún's Tlatelolcan informants who were probably not eyewitnesses of the meeting) included such prostrate declarations of divine or near-divine admiration as, "You have graciously come on earth, you have graciously approached your water, your high place of Mexico, you have come down to your mat, your throne, which I have briefly kept for you, I who used to keep it for you," and, "You have graciously arrived, you have known pain, you have known weariness, now come on earth, take your rest, enter into your palace, rest your limbs; may our lords come on earth." Matthew Restall argues that Moctezuma politely offering his throne to Cortés (if indeed he did ever give the speech as reported) may well have been meant as the exactly opposite of what it was taken to mean: politeness in Aztec culture was a way to assert dominance and show superiority Restall, 2003, p 97 . This speech has been a factor in fostering the belief that Moctezuma was addressing Cortés as the returning god Quetzalcoatl. Other parties have also propagated the idea that the Native Americans believed the conquistadors to be gods: most notably the historians of the Franciscan order such as Fray Geronimo Mendieta Martínez 1980 . Some Franciscan priests held millenarian beliefs and the natives taking the Spanish conquerors for gods was an idea that went well with this theology Phelan 1956 . Bernardino de Sahagún, who compiled the Florentine Codex, was also a Franciscan priest. Mythical accounts of omens and Moctezuma's superstition Bernardino de Sahagún (1499-1590) mentions eight events, occurring prior to the arrival of the Spanish, which were interpreted as signs of a possible disaster, e.g. a comet, the burning of a temple, a crying ghostly woman, and others. Some speculate that the Aztecs were particularly susceptible to such ideas of doom and disaster because the particular year in which the Spanish arrived coincided with a "tying of years" ceremony at the end of a 52-year cycle in the Aztec calendar, which in Aztec belief was linked to changes, rebirth and dangerous events. The belief of the Aztecs being rendered passive by their own superstition is referred to by Matthew Restall as part of "The Myth of Native Desolation" to which he dedicates chapter 6 in his book Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Restall, 2003, chapter 6 These legends are likely a part of the post-conquest rationalisation by the Aztecs of their defeat, and serve to show Moctezuma as indecisive, vain, and superstitious, and ultimately the cause of the fall of the Aztec Empire. Lockhart 1993, pp. 17–19 Ethnohistorian Susan Gillespie has argued that the Nahua understanding of history as repeating itself in cycles also led to a subsequent rationalisation of the events of the conquests. In this interpretation the description of Moctezuma, the final ruler of the Aztec Empire, was tailored to fit the role of earlier rulers of ending dynasties - for example Quetzalcoatl, the mythical last ruler of the Toltecs. Gillespie, 1989, Chapter 5. In any case it is more than likely that the description of Moctezuma in post-conquest sources was largely coloured by his role as a monumental closing figure of Aztec history. Contact with the Spanish Also see: Hernan Cortés, Spanish Conquest of Mexico and Siege of Tenochtitlan First interactions with the Spanish Meeting place of Moctezuma and Hernán Cortés. In 1517, Moctezuma received the first reports of Europeans landing on the east coast of his empire; this was the expedition of Juan de Grijalva who had landed on San Juan Ulúa, which although within Totonac territory was under the auspices of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma ordered that he be informed of any new sightings of foreigners at the coast and posted extra watch (Díaz del Castillo 1963: 220). When Cortés arrived in 1519 Moctezuma was immediately informed and he sent emissaries to meet the newcomers, one of them known to be an Aztec noble named Tentlil in the Nahuatl language but referred to in the writings of Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo as "Tendile". As the Spaniards approached Tenochtitlan they made an alliance with the Tlaxcalteca, who were enemies of the Aztec Triple Alliance, and they helped instigate revolt in many towns under Aztec dominion. Moctezuma was aware of this and he sent gifts to the Spaniards, probably in order to show his superiority to the Spaniards and Tlaxcalteca.<ref>Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Oxford University Press (2003), ISBN 0-19-516077-0 </ref> On November 8 1519, Moctezuma met Cortés on the causeway leading into Tenochtitlan and the two leaders exchanged gifts. Moctezuma gave Cortés the gift of an Aztec calendar, one disc of crafted gold and another of silver. Cortés later melted these down for their material value (Díaz del Castillo 1963: 216-19). Host and prisoner of the Spaniards Moctezuma brought Cortés to his palace where the Spaniards lived as his guests for several months. Moctezuma continued governing his empire and even undertook conquests of new territory during the Spaniards' stay at Tenochtitlan. At some time during that period Moctezuma became a prisoner in his own house. Exactly why this happened is not clear from the extant sources. The Aztec nobility reportedly became increasingly displeased with the large Spanish army staying in Tenochtitlan, and Moctezuma told Cortés that it would be best if they left. Shortly thereafter Cortés left to fight Panfilo de Narvaez and during his absence the massacre in the main temple turned the tense situation between the Spaniards and Aztecs into direct hostilities, and Moctezuma became a hostage used by the Spaniards to assure their security. See the account of Moctezuma's captivity, as given in Díaz del Castillo (1963, pp.245–299). Death Moctezuma capture and imprisoned by Cortés In the subsequent battles with the Spaniards after Cortés' return, Moctezuma was killed. The details of his death are unknown: different versions of his demise are given by different sources. In his Historia, Bernal Díaz del Castillo states that on July 1 1520, the Spanish forced Moctezuma to appear on the balcony of his palace, appealing to his countrymen to retreat. The people were appalled by their emperor's complicity and pelted him with rocks and darts. He died a short time after that. Bernal Díaz gives this account: Barely was [the emperor's speech to his subjects] finished when a sudden shower of stones and darts descended. Our men who had been shielding Montezuma had momentarily neglected their duty when they saw the attack cease while he spoke to his chiefs. Montezuma was hit by three stones, one on the head, one on the arm, and one on the leg; and though they begged him to have his wounds dressed and eat some food and spoke very kindly to him, he refused. Then quite unexpectedly we were told that he was dead. Díaz del Castillo (1963, p.294) Cortés similarly reported that Moctezuma died wounded by a stone thrown by his countrymen. On the other hand, the indigenous accounts claim that Moctezuma was killed by the Spanish prior to their leaving the city. According to Sahagún's Tlatelolcan informants, Alvarado "garrotted all the nobles he had in power", and Moctezuma's body was found in the street with sword wounds three days after the killings. Others say he was killed by Cortés alone. Cortés supposedly poured molten gold down his throat, thus simultaneously drowning, suffocating, and burning him. In the Ramirez Codex, an anonymous account by a Christianized Aztec, the Spanish priests are criticized for searching for gold rather than administering the Last Rites. Some modern scholars, such as Matthew Restall (2003), prefer the indigenous accounts over the Spanish ones. They surmise that the Spanish killed Moctezuma once his inability to pacify the Aztec people had made him useless. Aftermath The Spaniards were forced to flee the city and they took refuge in Tlaxcala, and signed a treaty with them to conquer Tenochtitlan, offering to the Tlaxcalans freedom from any kind of tribute and the control of Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma was then succeeded by his brother Cuitláhuac, who died shortly after during a smallpox epidemic. He was succeeded by his adolescent nephew, Cuauhtémoc. During the siege of the city, the sons of Moctezuma were murdered by the Aztec, possibly because they wanted to surrender. By the following year, the Aztec empire had entirely succumbed to the Spanish. Following the conquest, Moctezuma's daughter Techichpotzin was considered the heiress to the king's wealth following Spanish customs and given the name "Isabel". She was married to different conquistadors who laid claim to the heritage of the Aztec emperor. Legacy The story of Moctezuma the last leader of the Aztec Empire has captivated the thoughts of many people causing the ruler's name to gain wide recognition and use as a symbol in different contexts. Native American mythology and folklore Many Native American peoples are reported to worship deities named after the Aztec ruler, and often a part of the myth is that someday the deified Moctezuma shall return to vindicate his people. In Mexico the modern day Pames, the Otomi, Tepehua, Totonac and Nahua peoples are reported to worship earth deities named after Moctezuma. Gillespie 1989:165–66 The name also appears in Tzotzil Maya ritual in Zinacantán where dancers dressed as a raingod are called "Moctezumas" Bricker,1981:138–9 A mythological figure of the Tohono O'odham Another telling of the Tohono O'odham legend, dated to 1883 people of Northern Mexico and some Pueblo people of New Mexico and Arizona by the name Montezuma, can possibly be traced back to the Aztec ruler. Hubert Howe Bancroft, writing in the 19th century (Native Races, Volume #3), speculated that the name of the historical Aztec Emperor Moctezuma had been used to refer to a combination of different cultural heroes who were united under the name of a particularly salient representative of Native American identity. Symbol of indigenous leadership Map showing the expansion of the Aztec empire through conquest. The conquests of Moctezuma II are marked by the colour green (based on the maps by Ross Hassig in Aztec Warfare) As a symbol of resistance towards Spanish the name of Moctezuma has been invoked in several indigenous rebellions. One such example was the rebellion of the Virgin Cult in Chiapas in 1721, where the followers of the Virgin Mary rebelled against the Spanish after having been told by an apparition of the virgin that Moctezuma would be resuscitated to assist them against their Spanish oppressors. In the Quisteil rebellion of the Yucatec Maya in 1761 the rebel leader Jacinto Canek reportedly called himself "Little Montezuma". Bricker,1981:73 Spanish noble family The grandson of Moctezuma II, Ihuitemotzin, baptized as Diego Luis de Moctezuma, was brought to Spain by King Philip II. There he married Francisca de la Cueva de Valenzuela. Project MUSE In 1627, their son Pedro Tesifón de Moctezuma was given the title of 1st Count of Moctezuma de Tultengo, and thus became part of the Spanish nobility. One descendant of this family was General Jerónimo Girón y Moctezuma, commander of the Spanish forces at the Battle of Fort Charlotte. A Descendant of Moctezuma at the Battle of Mobile, 1780 Moctezuma's daughter, Princess Xipaguacin Moctezuma, married Juan de Grau, Baron of Toleriu, one of Cortés's senior officers, who took her back to Spain where she died in the Mountain village of Toleriu, near Andorra, in 1537. References in modern culture Man dressed as Montezuma, Valencia Orange festival, California, 1931 The Mexican emperor was at the centre of two 18th century Italian operas, Motezuma (1733) by Antonio Vivaldi and Montesuma (1781) by Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli. He is also protagonist in the modern opera La conquista (2005) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, which depicts the major episodes of the Spanish conquest of Mexico in 1521 and the subsequent destruction of the Aztec civilization. His part is written in the Nahuatl language. Montezuma's Revenge is the colloquial term for any episodes of travelers' diarrhea or other sicknesses contracted by tourists visiting Mexico. The Mexico City metro system has a station named Metro Moctezuma in honour of the tlatoani. Montezuma Castle and Montezuma Well, 13th century Indian ruins in central Arizona, were named by 19th century American pioneers who mistakenly thought they were built by the Aztecs. The conquest of the Aztecs is recounted in a song by Neil Young called Cortez the Killer from the album Zuma, a tribute to Moctezuma who appears in the song as a wise and benevolent ruler. In the game Age of Empires II The Conquerors you can play as the Aztecs and Moctezuma is featured in the storyline. In the Civilization line of games Montezuma is the leader of the Aztec empire and can be controlled by the player. References References (ed. and trans.) (1993);We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico''. Berkeley: University of California Press. See also Historic recurrence Motezuma (Antonio Vivaldi opera) External links A reconstructed portrait of Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style. | Moctezuma_II |@lemmatized moctezuma:72 c:2 june:1 also:11 know:9 number:3 variant:1 spelling:1 include:2 montezuma:12 moteuczoma:1 motecuhzoma:5 refer:5 full:2 early:4 nahuatl:6 text:1 xocoyotzin:4 similar:1 ninth:1 tlatoani:4 ruler:14 tenochtitlan:9 reign:4 episode:3 spanish:28 conquest:20 aztec:40 empire:13 begin:1 portrayal:1 history:7 mostly:2 colour:3 role:5 defeated:1 nation:1 many:7 source:8 describe:5 weak:2 indecisive:2 bias:1 historical:3 make:4 difficult:2 understand:1 action:2 invasion:2 williamson:2 edwin:2 penguin:5 latin:2 america:2 new:10 york:3 reach:1 maximal:1 size:1 warfare:2 ii:7 expand:1 territory:3 far:1 south:1 xoconosco:1 chiapas:2 isthmus:1 tehuantepec:1 incorporate:1 zapotec:1 yopi:1 people:12 hassig:3 p:4 change:2 previous:2 meritocratic:1 system:2 social:1 hierarchy:1 widen:1 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4,109 | Ganglion | In anatomy, a ganglion (, , plural ganglia) is a tissue mass. Cells found in a ganglion are called ganglion cells, though this term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to retinal ganglion cells. Neurology In neurological contexts, ganglia are composed mainly of somata and dendritic structures which are bundled or connected together. Ganglia often interconnect with other ganglia to form a complex system of ganglia known as a plexus. Ganglia provide relay points and intermediary connections between different neurological structures in the body, such as the peripheral and central nervous systems. There are two major groups of ganglia: Dorsal root ganglia (also known as the spinal ganglia) – contain the cell bodies of sensory (afferent) nerves; and Autonomic ganglia – contain the cell bodies of autonomic nerves. In the autonomic nervous system, fibers from the central nervous system to the ganglia are known as preganglionic fibers, while those from the ganglia to the effector organ are called postganglionic fibers. Basal ganglia The term "ganglion" usually refers to the peripheral nervous system. However, in the brain (part of the central nervous system), the "basal ganglia" is a group of nuclei interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and brainstem, associated with a variety of functions: motor control, cognition, emotions and learning. Partly due to this ambiguity, the Terminologia Anatomica recommends using the term "basal nuclei" instead of "basal ganglia". See also Dorsal root ganglion Ganglion cell Ganglion cyst Nervous system Neuron References | Ganglion |@lemmatized anatomy:1 ganglion:20 plural:1 tissue:1 mass:1 cell:6 find:1 call:2 though:1 term:3 also:3 sometimes:1 use:2 refer:2 specifically:1 retinal:1 neurology:1 neurological:2 context:1 compose:1 mainly:1 soma:1 dendritic:1 structure:2 bundle:1 connect:1 together:1 often:1 interconnect:2 form:1 complex:1 system:7 know:3 plexus:1 ganglia:3 provide:1 relay:1 point:1 intermediary:1 connection:1 different:1 body:3 peripheral:2 central:3 nervous:6 two:1 major:1 group:2 dorsal:2 root:2 spinal:1 contain:2 sensory:1 afferent:1 nerve:2 autonomic:3 fiber:3 preganglionic:1 effector:1 organ:1 postganglionic:1 basal:4 usually:1 however:1 brain:1 part:1 nucleus:1 cerebral:1 cortex:1 thalamus:1 brainstem:1 associate:1 variety:1 function:1 motor:1 control:1 cognition:1 emotion:1 learn:1 partly:1 due:1 ambiguity:1 terminologia:1 anatomica:1 recommend:1 nuclei:1 instead:1 see:1 cyst:1 neuron:1 reference:1 |@bigram autonomic_nervous:1 peripheral_nervous:1 cerebral_cortex:1 cognition_emotion:1 basal_ganglion:1 |
4,110 | Army | Map of the world of the army forms An army (from Latin Armata "act of arming" via Old French armée), in the broadest sense, is the land-based armed forces of a nation. It may also include other branches of the military such as an air force. Within a national military force, the word Army may also mean a field army, which is an operational formation, usually made up of one or more corps. In several countries the army is officially called the lander army to differentiate it from an air force called the air army, notably France. In such countries, the word "army" on its own retains its connotation of a land force in common usage. The current largest army in the world by number of active troops is the People's Liberation Army of China with 2,250,000 active troops and 800,000 reserve personnel. A standing army is an army composed of full-time career soldiers who 'stand over', in other words, who do not disband during times of peace. They differ from army reserves who are activated only during such times as or natural disasters. By definition, irregular military is understood in contrast to regular armies which grew slowly from personal bodyguards or elite militia. History of organization of armies Sparta The Spartan Army was one of the earliest profession armies, as men began training at the age of 7 and devoted their lives to war until retirement at the age of 60. Unlike other civilizations, whose army had to disband during planting and harvest season, the Spartan serfs, or helots did the manual labour. This allowed the Spartans to field a full-time army with a campaign season that lasted all year. The Spartan army was largely composed of hoplites, equipped with arms and armour nearly identical to each other, each bearing the Spartan emblem and the colour scarlet. Roman Empire The Roman army was not the first professional army, using the best factors of the Spartan military. It had its origins in the citizen army of the Republic, which was staffed by citizens serving mandatory duty for Rome. The reforms of Marius around 100 BC turned the army into a professional structure, still largely filled by citizens, but citizens who served continuously for 25 years before being discharged. The Romans were also noted for making use of auxiliary troops, non-Romans who served with the legions and filled roles that the traditional Roman military could not fill effectively, such as light skirmish troops and heavy cavalry. Later in the Empire, these auxiliary troops, along with foreign mercenaries, became the core of the Roman military. By the late Empire, tribes such as the Visigoths were bribed to serve as mercenaries. Medieval In the earliest Middle Ages it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his own equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time, but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be. The knights were drawn to battle by feudal and social obligation, and also by the prospect of profit and advancement. Those who performed well were likely to increase their landholdings and advance in the social hierarchy. The prospect of significant income from pillage and ransoming prisoners was also important. For the mounted knight war could be a relatively low risk affair. Nobles avoided killing each other for several reasons—for one thing, many were related to each other, had fought alongside one another, and they were all (more or less) members of the same elite culture; for another, a noble's ransom could be very high, and indeed some made a living by capturing and ransoming nobles in battle. Even peasants, who did not share the bonds of kinship and culture, would often avoid killing a nobleman, valuing the high ransom that a live capture could bring, as well as the valuable horse, armor and equipment that came with him. However, this is by no means a rule of medieval warfare. It was quite common, even at the height of "chivalric" warfare, for the knights to suffer heavy casualties during battles. As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. England was one of the most centralized states in the Middle Ages, and the armies that fought the Hundred Years' War were mostly paid professionals. In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent. Thus the scutage was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early twelfth century. As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy they came to dominate the armies of the city states. This made them considerably less reliable than a standing army. Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy also led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on manuevur as on battles. Early modern First nation-states lacked the funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire "free companies" of mercenaries to serve in their armies during wartime. Such companies typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments. The veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries. Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that was not available in the form of a mobilized militia. As late as the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), most troops were mercenaries. However, after this conflict, most states invested in better disciplined and more politically reliable permanent troops. For a time mercenaries became important as trainers and administrators, but soon these tasks were also taken by the state. The massive size of these armies required a large supporting force of administrators. The newly centralized states were forced to set up vast organized bureaucracies to manage these armies, which some historians argue is the basis of the modern bureaucratic state. The combination of increased taxes and increased centralisation of government functions caused a series of revolts across Europe such as the Fronde in France and the English Civil War. In many countries, the resolution of this conflict was the rise of monarchical absolutism. Only in England and the Netherlands did representative government evolve as an alternative. From the late 1600s, states learned how to finance wars through long term low interest loans from national banking institutions like the Bank of England. The first state to master this process was the Dutch Republic. This transformation in the armies of Europe had great social impact. J.F.C. Fuller famously stated that "the musket made the infantryman and the infantryman made the democrat." This argument states that the defense of the state now rested on the common man, not on the aristocrats, revolts by the underclass, that had been routinely been defeated in the Middle Ages, could now conceivably threaten the power of the state. However, aristocrats continued to monopolise the officer corps of almost all early modern armies, including their high command. Moreover, popular revolts almost always failed unless they had the support and patronage of the noble or gentry classes. The new armies, because of their vast expense, were also dependent on taxation and the commercial classes who also began to demand a greater role in society. The great commercial powers of the Dutch and English matched much larger states in military might. As any man could be quickly trained in the use of a musket, it became far easier to form massive armies. The inaccuracy of the weapons necessitated large groups of massed soldiers. This led to a rapid swelling of the size of armies. For the first time huge masses of the population could enter combat, rather than just the highly skilled professionals. It has been argued that the drawing of men from across the nation into an organized corps helped breed national unity and patriotism, and during this period the modern notion of the nation state was born. However, this would only become apparent after the French Revolutionary Wars. At this time, the levée en masse and conscription would become the defining paradigm of modern warfare. Before then, however, most national armies were in fact composed of many nationalities. For example, although the Swedish Army under Gustavus Adolphus was originally recruited by a kind of national conscription, the losses of the Thirty Years' War meant that by 1648 over 80% of its troops were foreign mercenaries. In Spain, armies were recruited from all the Spanish European territories including Spain, Italy, Wallonia and Germany. The French recruited soldiers from Germany, Switzerland and elsewhere as well as from France. Britain recruited Hessian troops until the late 18th century. Irish Catholics made careers for themselves in the armies of many European states (See the Flight of the Wild Geese). Prior to the English Civil War in England, the monarch maintained a personal Bodyguard of Yeomen of the Guard and the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms or 'gentlemen pensioners', and a few locally raised companies to garrison important places such as Berwick on Tweed or Portsmouth (or Calais before it was recaptured by France in 1558). Troops for foreign expeditions were raised upon an ad-hoc basis. Nobelmen and professional regular soldiers were commissioned by the monarch to supply troops, raising their quotas by indenture from a variety of sources. On January 26 1661 Charles II issued the Royal Warrant that created the genesis of what would become the British Army, although the Scottish and English Armies would remain two separate organisations until the unification of England and Scotland in 1707. The small force was represented by only a few regiments. After the American Revolutionary War the Continental Army was quickly disbanded as part of the Americans' distrust of standing armies, and irregular state militias became the sole ground army of the USA, with the exception of one battery of artillery guarding West Point's arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was soon realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The first of these, the Legion of the United States, was established in 1791. Until 1730 the common soldiers of Prussian Army consisted largely of peasantry recruited or impressed from Brandenburg-Prussia, leading many to flee to neighboring countries. Clark, p. 97 In order to halt this trend, Frederick William I divided Prussia into regimental cantons. Every youth was required to serve as a soldier in these recruitment districts for three months each year; this met agrarian needs and added extra troops to bolster the regular ranks. Koch, p. 88 Russian tsars before Peter I of Russia maintained professional hereditary musketeer corps (streltsy in Russian) that were highly unreliable and undisciplined. In times of war the armed forces were augmented by peasants. Peter I introduced a modern regular army built on German model, but with a new aspect: officers not necessarily from nobility, as talented commoners were given promotions that eventually included a noble title at the attainment of an officer's rank. Conscription of peasants and townspeople was based on quota system, per settlement. Initially it was based on the number of households, later it was based on the population numbers. Jerome Blum (1971) "Lord and Peasant in Russia: From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century", ISBN 0691007640, pp. 465,466 The term of service in 18th century was for life. In 1793 it was reduced to 25 years. In 1834 it was reduced to 20 years plus 5 years in reserve and in 1855 to 12 years plus 3 years of reserve. The first Ottoman standing army were Janissaries. They replaced forces that mostly comprised tribal warriors (ghazis) whose loyalty and morale could not always be trusted.The first Janissary units were formed from prisoners of war and slaves, probably as a result of the sultan taking his traditional one-fifth share of his army's booty in kind rather than cash. From the 1380s onwards, their ranks were filled under the devşirme system, where feudal dues were paid by service to the sultan. The "recruits" were mostly Christian youths, reminiscent of Mamelukes.Boys aged 14-18 were preferred, though ages 8-20 could be taken. In China the early 17th century Nurhaci and his son Hong Taiji organized the Manchu people into the Eight Banner system. Defected Ming armies formed the Green Standard Army. These troops enlisted voluntarily and for long terms of service. Modern Conscription allowed the French Republic to form the La Grande Armée, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which successfully battled European professional armies. Conscription, particularly when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I, bitter political disputes broke out in Canada (see Conscription Crisis of 1917), Newfoundland, Australia and New Zealand (See Compulsory Military Training) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II (see Conscription Crisis of 1944). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in several countries in the late 1960s. (See also: Conscription Crisis) In developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future. Russia, as well as many other nations, retains mainly a conscript army. There is also a very rare citizen army as used in Switzerland (see Swiss army). Armies as armed services Western armies are usually subdivided as follows: Corps: A Corps usually consists of two or more Divisions and is commanded by a Lieutenant General. Division: Each division is commanded by a Major General, and usually holds three Brigades including infantry, artillery, engineers and communications units in addition to logistics (supply and service) support to sustain independent action. Except for the Divisions operating in the mountains, all the Divisions have at least one armored unit, some have even more depending upon their functionality. The basic building block of all ground force combat formations is the infantry division. A typical division would hold three infantry brigades. Brigade: A Brigade is under the command of a Brigadier General and comprises three or more Battalions of different units depending on its functionality. An independent brigade would be one that primarily consists of an artillery unit, an infantry unit, an armour unit and logistics to support its actions. Such a brigade is not part of any division and is under direct command of a corps. Regiment: Each regiment is commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel who commands roughly 600 to 750 soldiers. This number varies depending on the functionality of the regiment. A regiment comprises either three batteries or four companies - and other arms excluding armoured units that are organised into squadrons each under the command of a major and comprising of individual subunits called sections (which are further divisible into platoons and squads). Field army A field army is composed of a headquarters, army troops, a variable number of corps, and a variable number of divisions. A battle is influenced at the Field Army level by transferring divisions and reinforcements from one corps to another to increase the pressure on the enemy at a critical point. Field armies are controlled by a General or Lieutenant General. Formations German Army soldiers in Bosnia Standard map symbol for a numbered Army, the 'X's are not substituting the army's number A particular army can be named or numbered to distinguish it from military land forces in general. For example, the First United States Army and the Army of Northern Virginia. In the British Army it is normal to spell out the ordinal number of an army (e.g. First Army), whereas lower formations use figures (e.g. 1st Division). Armies (as well as army groups and theaters) are large formations which vary significantly between armed forces in size, composition, and scope of responsibility. In the Soviet Red Army and the Soviet Air Force, "Armies" were actually corps-sized formations, subordinate to an Army Group-sized "front" in wartime. In peacetime, a Soviet army was usually subordinate to a military district. See also Military unit Military history Military organization Paramilitary Militia Mercenary List of armies List of armies by country List of armies by number List of countries by size of armed forces List of countries by number of active troops List of countries by number of total troops References | Army |@lemmatized map:2 world:4 army:83 form:9 latin:1 armata:1 act:1 arm:7 via:1 old:1 french:4 armée:2 broad:1 sense:1 land:3 base:4 armed:4 force:19 nation:9 may:2 also:14 include:5 branch:1 military:14 air:4 within:1 national:5 word:3 mean:3 field:7 operational:1 formation:6 usually:5 make:8 one:11 corp:10 several:3 country:9 officially:1 call:5 lander:1 differentiate:1 notably:1 france:4 retain:2 connotation:1 common:4 usage:1 current:1 large:6 number:12 active:3 troop:18 people:2 liberation:1 china:2 reserve:4 personnel:1 stand:5 compose:5 full:2 time:9 career:3 soldier:11 disband:3 peace:1 differ:1 activate:1 natural:1 disaster:1 definition:1 irregular:2 understand:1 contrast:1 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4,111 | Mammoth | A mammoth is any species of the extinct genus Mammuthus. These proboscideans are members of the elephant family and close relatives of modern elephants. They were often equipped with long curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair. They lived from the Pliocene epoch from around 4.8 million to 4,500 years ago. The word mammoth comes from the Russian mamont, probably in turn from the Vogul (Mansi) language. Oxford English Dictionary:Mammoth (2000). Extinction Mammuthus armeniacus skull Illustration of an Indian elephant jaw and a mammoth jaw from Georges Cuvier's 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants. The woolly mammoth was the last species of the genus. Most populations of the woolly mammoth in North America and Eurasia died out at the end of the last Ice Age. Until recently, it was generally assumed that the last woolly mammoths vanished from Europe and Southern Siberia about 10,000 BC, but new findings show that some were still present there about 8,000 BC. Only slightly later, the woolly mammoths also disappeared from continental Northern Siberia. Anthony J. Stuart, Leopold D. Sulerzhitsky, Lyobov A. Orlova, Yaroslav V. Kuzmin and Adrian M. Lister: The latest woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius Blumenbach) in Europe and Asia: a review of the current evidence Quaternary Science Reviews Volume 21, Issues 14-15, August 2002, Pages 1559-1569online Woolly mammoths as well as Columbian mammoths disappeared from the North American continent at the end of the ice age. A small population survived on St. Paul Island, Alaska, up until 3,750 BC, Kristine J. Crossen, “5,700-Year-Old Mammoth Remains from the Pribilof Islands, Alaska: Last Outpost of North America Megafauna”, Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Volume 37, Number 7, (Geological Society of America, 2005), 463. David R. Yesner, Douglas W. Veltre, Kristine J. Crossen, and Russell W. Graham, “5,700-year-old Mammoth Remains from Qagnax Cave, Pribilof Islands, Alaska”, Second World of Elephants Congress, (Hot Springs: Mammoth Site, 2005), 200-203 and the small mammoths of Wrangel Island survived until 1,650 BC Kh. A. Arslanov, G. T. Cook, Steinar Gulliksen, D.D. Harkness, Touvi Kankainen, E. M. Scott, Sergey Vartanyan, and Ganna I. Zaitseva, S. L. Vartanyan, “Consensus Dating of Remains from Wrangel Island”, Radiocarbon, Volume 40, Number 1, (Tucson: Radiocarbon, 1998), 289-294. Sergei L. Vartanyan, Alexei N. Tikhonov, and Lyobov A. Orlova, “The Dynamic of Mammoth Distribution in the Last Refugia in Beringia”, Second World of Elephants Congress, (Hot Springs: Mammoth Site, 2005), 195. A definitive explanation for their mass extinction is yet to be agreed upon. About 12,000 years ago, warmer, wetter weather began to take hold. Rising sea levels swamped the coastal regions. Forests replaced open woodlands and grasslands across the continent. The Ice Age was ebbing. As their habitats disappeared, so did the bison and the mammoth. Whether the general mammoth population died out for climatic reasons or due to overhunting by humans is controversial. Another theory suggests that mammoths may have fallen victim to an infectious disease. A combination of climate change and hunting by humans is the most likely explanation for their extinction. New data derived from studies done on living elephants suggests that though human hunting may not have been the primary cause for the mammoth's final extinction, human hunting was likely a strong contributing factor. Homo erectus is known to have consumed mammoth meat as early as 1.8 million years ago. Levy 2006: 295 However, the American Institute of Biological Sciences also notes that bones of dead elephants, left on the ground and subsequently trampled by other elephants, tend to bear marks resembling butchery marks, which have previously been misinterpreted as such by archaeologists. The survival of the dwarf mammoths on Russia's Wrangel Island was due to the island's very remote location and lack of inhabitants in the early Holocene period. The actual island was only discovered by American whalers in the 1820s. A similar dwarfing occurred with the Pygmy Mammoth on the outer Channel Islands of California, but at an earlier period. Those animals were very likely killed by early Paleo-Native Americans, and habitat loss caused by a rising sea level that split the Santa Rosae into the outer Channel Islands. Thomas Jefferson, well-versed in the natural sciences, suggested to Lewis and Clark that they might find mammoth fossils during their explorations of the American West. Size A full size reconstruction of a mammoth species, the woolly mammoth, at Ipswich Museum, Ipswich, Suffolk Cross-section of mammoth footprints (a type of trace fossil) at The Mammoth Site, Hot Springs, South Dakota. Like their modern relative the elephant, mammoths were quite large; in English the noun "mammoth" has become an adjective meaning "huge" or "massive". The largest known species, Songhua River Mammoth (Mammuthus sungari) , reached heights of at least 5 meters (16 feet) at the shoulder. Mammoths would probably normally weigh in the region of 6 to 8 tonnes, but exceptionally large males may have exceeded 12 tonnes. An long mammoth tusk was discovered north of Lincoln, Illinois in 2005. [http://dnr.state.il.us/pubaffairs/2006/August/woolly.htm Recently discovered long Woolly Mammoth tusk on display at the Illinois State Museum] Illinois Department of Natural Resources press release, August 14, 2006 However, most species of mammoth were only about as large as a modern Asian Elephant. Fossils of species of dwarf mammoth have been found on the Californian Channel Islands (Mammuthus exilis) and the Mediterranean island of Sardinia (Mammuthus lamarmorae). There was also a race of dwarf woolly mammoths on Wrangel Island, north of Siberia, within the Arctic Circle. Based on studies of their close relatives the modern elephants, mammoths probably had a gestation period of 22 months, resulting in a single calf being born. Their social structure was probably the same as that of African and Asian elephants, with females living in herds headed by a matriarch, whilst bulls lived solitary lives or formed loose groups after sexual maturity. Well preserved specimens In May 2007, the carcass of a one-month-old female woolly mammoth calf was discovered in a layer of permafrost near the Yuribei River in Russia, where it had been buried for 37,000 years. Alexei Tikhonov, the Russian Academy of Science's Zoological Institute's deputy director, has dismissed the prospect of cloning the animal, as the whole cells required for cloning would have burst under the freezing conditions. Nonetheless, DNA is expected to be well enough preserved to be useful for research on mammoth phylogeny and perhaps physiology. However, Dr Sayaka Wakayama from the RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology in Kobe, Japan, believes that a technique she has used to clone mice from specimens frozen for sixteen years could be used successfully on recovered mammoth tissue: she argues that in her experiments the dead mice had been frozen to -20°C under simulated natural conditions, without using the usual preservative chemicals. Researchers at Penn State University have sequenced about 85% of the gene map of the woolly mammoth, using DNA taken from hair samples collected from a selection of specimens, advancing the possibility of bringing the woolly mammoth back to life by inserting mammoth DNA sequences into the genome of the modern-day elephant. Although the samples were washed with bleach to remove possible contamination from bacteria or fungi, some DNA bases identified may be from the contaminating organisms and these have yet to be distinguished, by comparison with the genome of the African elephant currently being generated by scientists at the Broad Institute. The information cannot be used to synthesize the mammoth DNA, but Dr Stephan Schuster, leader of the project, notes that the mammoth’s genes differ at only some 400,000 sites from the genome of the African elephant and it would be possible to modify an elephant cell at these sites to make it resemble one bearing a mammoth's genome, and implant it into a surrogate elephant mother. See also Elephant Mastodon Megafauna Pleistocene Park La Brea Tar Pits - cluster of tar pits located in California, USA References Bibliography (2006): A nuclear DNA phylogeny of the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40 (2) 620–627. (HTML abstract). Supplemental data available to subscribers. (2006): Clashing with Titans. BioScience 56(4): 292-298. DOI:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[292:CWT]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext (1994): Mammoths. MacMillan, London. ISBN 0-02-572985-3 (2005): Twilight of the mammoths: Ice Age extinctions and the rewilding of America. University of California Press, Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-23141-4 (1885): The Lenape Stone or The Indian and the Mammoth. DjVu fulltext PDF fulltext (2001): Mammoth: The resurrection of an Ice Age giant. Fourth Estate, London. ISBN 1-84115-518-7 Notes External links "Mammoth find. New evidence links Siberian, North American mammals", Little Mammoth from North America found in Siberia, in Canada National Post, September 5, 2008. "The Mammoth Story" by Grant Keddie - an article on the Royal British Columbia Museum website Mammoth Site of Hot Springs, South Dakota "The Great Mammoth Hoax" BBC: Mammoth skeleton found in Siberia "Back from the dead": A feature on efforts to clone mammoths back from extinction, Cosmos Magazine, 6 December 2006. Humans not responsible for mammoth extinction The Waco Mammoth Site Wenas Creek Mammoth Site The Wenas Creek Mammoth Project is a Central Washington University (CWU) scientific investigation of mammoth bones found on private land in the Wenas Creek Valley near Selah, Washington Western Center for Archaeology and Paleontology Hemet, California Mammoth Genome Cracked: Key to Cloning? in Cosmos Online. | Mammoth |@lemmatized mammoth:66 specie:7 extinct:1 genus:2 mammuthus:7 proboscidean:1 member:1 elephant:19 family:1 close:2 relative:2 modern:5 often:1 equip:1 long:4 curved:1 tusk:3 northern:2 covering:1 hair:2 live:3 pliocene:1 epoch:1 around:1 million:2 year:7 ago:3 word:1 come:1 russian:2 mamont:1 probably:4 turn:1 vogul:1 mansi:1 language:1 oxford:1 english:2 dictionary:1 extinction:7 armeniacus:1 skull:1 illustration:1 indian:2 jaw:2 george:1 cuvier:1 paper:1 living:2 fossil:4 woolly:14 last:5 population:3 north:7 america:6 eurasia:1 die:2 end:2 ice:5 age:5 recently:2 generally:1 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4,112 | Godzilla_(1954_film) | is a successful landmark 1954 Japanese science fiction film directed and co-written by Ishiro Honda with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya, produced and distributed by Toho Company Ltd. It was the first of many "giant monster" movies (known as kaiju) to be produced in Japan, many of which also feature Godzilla. Synopsis The Japanese fishing boat Eikō-Maru (栄光丸) is attacked by a flash of light from the water near Odo Island and sinks. A rescue boat, the Bingo-Maru, is sent out to investigate the accident, but meets the same fate. A second search boat is sent out and finds a few survivors in the area, and like the other two boats, is shipwrecked. Meanwhile, on Odo Island, the natives of the fishing community are unable to catch anything. "Then…Godzilla must have done it", an elder says. According to legend, Godzilla is a monster god that lives in the sea that comes from the ocean to feed on mankind. Whenever fishing was poor, the natives used to sacrifice girls to prevent Godzilla from attacking the village. Later, a helicopter carrying investigative reporters arrives on Odo Island. The natives all believe that the recent disasters in the ocean were caused by a monster, but the reporters remain skeptical. That night the natives perform an exorcism in hopes that Godzilla will not attack again. As the natives are sleeping, a storm arrives and a giant monster attacks the small village, causing death and destruction. The next day, the witnesses are brought to the Diet Building in Tokyo. Paleontologist Dr. Kyohei Yamane requests that an investigative party be sent to Odo Island. The ship is sent out and arrives safely on the island. Yamane finds giant footprints contaminated with radioactivity, along with a trilobite. Suddenly, the village alarm is set off and the villagers run towards the hills. (This scene is often misinterpreted as the villagers fleeing from the monster, when in fact they are running toward it to fight.) Then, a huge, frightening, dinosaur-like monster pops its head over the hill and roars. The villagers discover that Godzilla is too large to fight and flee for their lives. The monster then leaves for the ocean. Afterwards, Yamane starts doing some research and discovers that the "monster god" is really a giant dinosaur that was awakened and mutated by atomic tests. He names the monster Godzilla, after the Odo legend. He also discovers that the sediment from Godzilla's footprint contained a massive amount of Strontium-90, which could have only have come from a nuclear bomb. After Yamane's presentation, a man from the crowd suggests that the information should not be publicly known. Since Godzilla is the product of atomic weapons, the truth might cause some bad consequences, since world affairs are still fragile. However, a woman objects to Mr. Ōyama's suggestion because the truth must be told. After she insults Ooyama, chaos breaks loose in the Diet Building. Godzilla's origins are then revealed to the public. An anti-Godzilla fleet is immediately sent out and uses depth charges against Godzilla, in an attempt to kill the monster. In his home, Yamane sits alone in the room with the light out. Yamane, being a zoologist, does not want Godzilla to be killed, but rather, studied. That night, Godzilla suddenly rises in Tokyo Bay in front of a party ship. Within a minute, the monster descends back into the ocean, but his brief appearance causes nationwide panic. The next morning, officials ask Yamane if there is a way to kill the monster. A frustrated Yamane explains that Godzilla has already survived a massive amount of radiation, and believes that he should be studied to see what keeps him alive. Yamane's daughter, Emiko, is engaged to Dr. Daisuke Serizawa, a colleague of Yamane's. Emiko, however, is in love with Lieutenant Hideto Ogata of the Nankai Steamship Company. When Emiko visits Serizawa to tell him that she loves Ogata, and wishes to break off her engagement to him, Serizawa reveals to her his own dark secret. He had created a device that can destroy all life in the sea. This device is called the Oxygen Destroyer, is more powerful than any nuclear weapon. He gives Emiko a demonstration in his lab, by using the device in a fish tank. All the fish are disintegrated, only leaving skeletons. Shocked by this discovery, Emiko leaves Serizawa, promising not to tell anybody of what she witnessed. She was unable to tell Serizawa about Ogata, or that she wanted to break the engagement. That night, Godzilla appears again out of Tokyo Bay and attacks the city. While the monster's attack was relatively short, it had caused much destruction and death. The next morning, the military hastily constructs a line of 40 meter electric towers along the coast of Tokyo that will send 300,000 Volts of electricity through Godzilla, should he arrive again. Civilians are then evacuated from the city and put into bomb shelters. The military then prepares a blockade along the fence line. When night falls, Godzilla surfaces from Tokyo Bay again. The monster easily breaks through the giant electric fence, with no pain inflicted. The bombardment of shells from the Japanese army also has no effect. As Godzilla breaks through the high-tension wires, he uses his atomic breath to melt the electric fences. The tanks and military are useless against Godzilla, who continues his raid well into the night. By the end, the entire city is destroyed and thousands of innocent civilians are dead, dying, or wounded. As Godzilla wades into the sea, a squadron of jets fire rockets at the monster but Godzilla is unscathed as he descends once again into Tokyo Bay. The next morning, the city is in absolute ruins. Hospitals are overrun with victims, many exposed to heavy doses of radiation. As Emiko sees the many victims of Godzilla's attack, she takes Ogata aside and tells him Serizawa's dark secret, in hope that together, they can convince Serizawa do something against Godzilla. Ogata and Emiko visit Serizawa to ask that they use the weapon against Godzilla. Serizawa refuses and storms down to his basement to destroy the Oxygen Destroyer. Ogata and Emiko follow him down in order to prevent him from doing so. However, this only results in a short fight between Ogata and Serizawa, with Ogata receiving a minor head wound. As Emiko treats the wound, Serizawa apologizes, and explains: "If the Oxygen Destroyer is used even once, politicians from around the world will see it. Of course they'll use it as a weapon", Serizawa says. "Bombs versus bombs, missiles versus missiles, and now a new superweapon to throw upon us all. As a scientist - no, as a human being — I cannot allow that to happen." Ogata tries to convince Serizawa that he is the only one who can save the world. "Humans are weak animals", Serizawa argues. "Even if I burn my notes, the secret will still be in my head. Until I die, how can I be sure I won't be forced by someone to make the device again?" Serizawa also worries about the weapon "falling in to the wrong hands." Ogata finalizes the situation stating "You have your fears, which may become reality. And you have Godzilla, which is reality." Then, after the argument, a grim television program appears on the air, showing the devastation and deaths caused by Godzilla, along with prayers for hope and peace. Shocked by what he's witnessing, Serizawa ultimately decides to use his last Oxygen Destroyer, but only one time. Serizawa then ultimately destroys his research, knowing that this weapon was almost as dangerous and destructive as the monster itself, and that destroying this weapon will be for the better of society. The next day, a navy ship takes Ogata and Serizawa to plant the device in Tokyo Bay. Serizawa requests that he be put in a diving suit to make sure the device is used correctly. Ogata at first refuses, but soon gives in. Ogata and Serizawa then descend into the water, and find Godzilla resting. Seemingly unaware of the divers, the monster slowly walks around the ocean floor. Ogata then is pulled back to the surface while Serizawa activates the Oxygen Destoyer. As Serizawa watches Godzilla dying from the destructive weapon, he cuts his cord and dies with Godzilla, sacrificing himself so that his knowledge of the horrible weapon will not be known to the world. A dying Godzilla surfaces, lets out a final roar, and sinks to the bottom, disintegrating. Although Godzilla is dead, the tone is still grim. "I can't believe that Godzilla was the only surviving member of its species", Dr. Yamane ponders. "If we keep on conducting nuclear tests, it's possible that Godzilla might appear somewhere in the world, again." As the people aboard the ship look to the sun, it is uncertain whether the thought death of Godzilla is either the end or the beginning of an apocalyptic era. The Japanese people, especially Emiko, will always remember Dr. Serizawa's sacrifice. Production The basic story was inspired by an actual incident. A real Japanese ship, the Lucky Dragon, had strayed too closely to a nuclear test site. It was not destroyed, but several crew members died in agony from radiation injuries. This is alluded to in the opening scene, when the Bingo Maru was obliterated by Godzilla's first attack, and in later scenes, when survivors of other attacks are found with radiation burns. The monster story itself had been necessitated by an emergency. The producers had planned a completely different film, but that project had fallen apart. Toho demanded a film, any film, within a short time. During an airplane ride, one of the screenwriters had read of the Lucky Dragon incident, and was inspired. The monster angle was derived from the success of Warner Bros. Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953). Several monsters had been contemplated (i.e. an octopus). They finally settled on a mutated dinosaur, which looked like a cross between a Tyrannosaurus Rex, an Iguanodon and a Stegosaurus. The Godzilla suit had actually been a last resort. Director Ishiro Honda had been deeply impressed with the "stop-motion" method used in King Kong. However, that method was far too costly and time-consuming (stop-motion would be used, very briefly, in two scenes in King Kong vs. Godzilla, but Toho never tried it again). They decided that the easiest way to go was a stuntman, a monster suit, and a scale-model Tokyo. This also proved difficult. The first attempt at a Godzilla suit was far too stiff and heavy, nearly impossible to use. They finally hit on a design that worked; but even that was grueling. The stuntman would suffer numerous bouts of heat exhaustion and dehydration. The suit had to have a valve to drain the sweat from it. In an eerie twist, the set had prominently featured an old Tokyo movie theater, which was destroyed by Godzilla. Meanwhile, the Tokyo audience had actually watched this scene in the very theater that was being destroyed on the screen. The whole idea of Godzilla's climactic attack was actually meant to exemplify a "rolling nuclear attack": just like Hiroshima and Nagasaki, only much more slowly. Honda had plotted it this way, having been shocked by the real devastation of those cities. Toho Studios had balked at the suggestion of filming Gojira in color. Ironically, the cheaper, grainy, black-and-white film had actually enhanced the special effects (i.e. hiding wires and other things in the shadows), and otherwise adding to the overall chill of Godzilla's nighttime attacks. Two years later, Toho would film Rodan in color, though the Godzilla sequel, Godzilla Raids Again, would be in black-and-white. From then on, Toho would use color. One of Godzilla's names during production was "Anguirus". That name was saved and later reused as the name of Godzilla's opponent in the sequel. Godzilla movie fans often call the monster in this film "Shodai Gojira", or "First generation Godzilla". For a special effects shoot for the movie, Nakajima was placed in a swimming pool. Someone accidentally sent electrical charges through the pool. Masaaki Tachibana (an announcer of a scene in a steel tower) painted his face with olive oil to express that he was sweating with fear. Cast Takashi Shimura as Momoko Kochi as Akira Takarada as Hideto Ogata Akihiko Hirata as Daisuke Serizawa Sachio Sakai as Hagiwara (Journalist) Fuyuki Murakami as Dr. Tanabe Ren Yamamoto as Masaji (fisherman) Toyoaki Suzuki as Shinkichi (Masaji's younger brother) Tsuruko Umano as Shinkichi's mother Tadashi Okabe as Assistant of Dr. Tanabe Jiro Mitsuaki as Employee of Nankai Salvage Company Ren Imaizumi as Radio Officer Nankai Salvage Company Sokichi Maki as Chief at Maritime Safety Agency Haruo Nakajima as Godzilla Japanese Box Office and Critical Reception When Godzilla was first released in 1954, the film sold approximately 9,610,000 tickets, and was the eighth best-attended film in Japan that year. It remains the second most-attended Godzilla film in Japan, behind King Kong vs. Godzilla. It grossed approximately 152 million Yen ($2.25 million USD). Initially, Japanese critics accused the film of exploiting the widespread devastation that the country had suffered in World War II, as well as the Daigo Fukuryū Maru incident that occurred a few months before filming began. However, as time went on, it gained more respect in its home country. North American Versions Initial Limited Release In 1955, the original Godzilla was released in the United States with subtitles and was confined to theaters catering to Japanese-Americans. This same version was later released in the 1960s, then in the '80s and as recently in 2004 through Rialto Pictures. In the fall of 2006, Rialto lost control of the distribution rights to the film as the original version was released for the first time on DVD in North America via Classic Media. Godzilla, King of the Monsters In 1956, Jewell Enterprises re-edited the film for American audiences by combining the original Japanese footage of Godzilla with new, American-made footage of Raymond Burr as an American reporter covering Godzilla's arrival. This version was released in Japan in 1958, and was surprisingly popular. Retitled Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, this version was the only one represented on North American home video until September 2006 when the Gojira DVD was released, containing both the unedited Japanese theatrical version and the reworked U.S. version. Restored Re-release On May 7, 2004, the original edit of the film was re-released into two theaters in North America. It grossed a commendable $38,030 USD ($19,015 per screen) in its opening weekend and remained in release until December 2004, never playing on more than six North American screens at any given point. By the end of its run, it grossed $412,520 U.S.. The film played in roughly 60 theaters and cities across the United States during its seven and a half month run. It had previously been reissued in the mid-1960s. Critical Reception The 2004 North American re-release of Godzilla was highly praised by many critics who had never seen the film in its original form without Raymond Burr. Its approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes is currently at 93% (and 88% among the "Cream of the Crop"). http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/gojira/ In Entertainment Weekly, Owen Glieberman, who gave the film an A- rating, wrote:"Godzilla, an ancient beast roused from the ocean depths and irradiated by Japanese H-bomb tests, reduces Tokyo to a pile of ash, yet, like Kong, he grows more sympathetic as his rampage goes on. The characters talk about him not as an enemy but as a force of destiny, a "god". The inescapable subtext is that Japan, in some bizarre way, deserves this hell. Godzilla is pop culture's grandest symbol of nuclear apocalypse, but he is also the primordial spirit of Japanese aggression turned, with something like fate, against itself." Entertainment Weekly In the Dallas Observer, Luke Y. Thompson wrote:"A lot of people are likely to be surprised by what they see. The 1954 Japanese cut is shot like a classic film noir, and the buildup to Tokyo's inevitable thrashing is quite slow by today's standards. The echoes of World War II are very strong, and the devastation wrought by Godzilla (played by Haruo Nakajima) is not sugar-coated; it eerily mirrors that of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the deaths and injuries are dwelt upon. The monster himself is not fully revealed for quite a while, and even when he finally shows up, he's a malevolent black predator with glistening skin, who stays mostly in the shadows, many times more fearsome than the green-skinned cookie monster who showed up in the various sequels to layeth the smacketh down on the candyasses of numerous alien invaders in ugly leotards." Dallas Observer One of the few recent negative reviews was written by Roger Ebert in the Chicago Sun-Times. Ebert admitted the film was "an important one" and "properly decoded, was the Fahrenheit 9/11 of its time", but he also said:"In these days of flawless special effects, Godzilla and the city he destroys are equally crude. Godzilla at times looks uncannily like a man in a lizard suit, stomping on cardboard sets, as indeed he was, and did. Other scenes show him as a stuffed, awkward animatronic model. This was not state-of-the-art even at the time; King Kong (1933) was much more convincing. When Dr. Serizawa demonstrates the Oxygen Destroyer to the fiancee of his son, the superweapon is somewhat anticlimactic. He drops a pill into a tank of tropical fish, the tank lights up, he shouts 'stand back!', the fiancee screams, and the fish go belly-up. Yeah, that'll stop Godzilla in his tracks." Chicago Sun-Times Multimedia Soundtrack The score by Akira Ifukube was released 3 times over a period of 13 years. The first recording was released by Futureland Toshiba in 1993, and nearly contained the film's complete score, missing only a brief source cue used for the pleasure boat scene. The tracklist is as follows: 01 - Main Title 02 - Footsteps (SFX) 03 - Eiko-Maru Sinking 04 - Bingo-Maru Sinking 05 - Uneasiness on Odo Island 06 - Rituals of Odo Island (Source Music) 07 - The Storm on Odo Island 08 - Theme from Odo Island 09 - Frigate March I 10 - Horror of the Water Tank 11 - Godzilla Comes Ashore 12 - Fury of Godzilla 13 - Deadly Broadcast 14 - Godzilla heads to Tokyo Bay 15 - Attack Godzilla! 16 - Devastated Tokyo (Contains SFX) 17 - The Oxygen Destroyer 18 - Prayer for Peace 19 - Frigate March II 20 - Godzilla Under the Sea 21 - Ending DVDs Apart from the U.S. re-cut of the movie Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, the original Godzilla film was not released in the United States on DVD until September 6, 2006, although the original had earlier appeared on DVD in Japan on 2002. The quality of the print used for the Japanese release was partially restored and remastered, including 3 Audio Tracks (the original mono track, an isolated audio track, and an isolated track & SFX track), and an interview with Akira Ifukube. In 2004 the movie was re-released in Japan as part of the Final Box DVD Boxset following the premiere of Godzilla: Final Wars. The disc quality was the same as the 2002 release, and included the U.S. version of the film. In the fall of 2005, BFI theatrically released the original Japanese version in the ; this was similar to the Rialto Pictures release in the US, and by the end of the same year, the movie was released on DVD by BFI. The quality of the print was very good (but not perfect), the DVD including the original mono track and several new extra freatures, such as documentaries and commentary tracks by Steve Ryfle, Ed Godziszewski and Keith Aiken covering production details and changes and trivia. The differences between the Japanese and US versions were discussed, and rare production stills, sketches and storyboards, unfilmed or filmed and lost scenes and early Godzilla sculptures. The DVD also includes a documentary about the Daigo Fukuryu Maru, a Japanese fishing boat which was caught in an American nuclear blast and partially inspired the creation of the movie. This release was received very well, and released in Australia Mad Man Co Ltd in Region 4. References External links G,history(Japan) G-FAN Magazine Monster Zero News Reviews Godzilla at Rotten Tomatoes Godzilla at Metacritic 'Godzilla,' Uncut and Unmatched by Desson Thomson. 'Godzilla': Not Your Daddy's Dinosaur by Stephen Hunter. It's the Bomb: We're off to see the lizard by J. Hoberman. Comparison of American and Japanese versions of film | Godzilla_(1954_film) |@lemmatized successful:1 landmark:1 japanese:18 science:1 fiction:1 film:26 direct:1 co:2 write:4 ishiro:2 honda:3 special:4 effect:5 eiji:1 tsuburaya:1 produce:2 distribute:1 toho:6 company:4 ltd:2 first:8 many:6 giant:5 monster:28 movie:8 know:4 kaiju:1 japan:8 also:8 feature:2 godzilla:77 synopsis:1 fishing:4 boat:6 eikō:1 maru:7 栄光丸:1 attack:13 flash:1 light:3 water:3 near:1 odo:9 island:9 sink:4 rescue:1 bingo:3 send:7 investigate:1 accident:1 meet:1 fate:2 second:2 search:1 find:4 survivor:2 area:1 like:8 two:4 shipwreck:1 meanwhile:2 native:5 community:1 unable:2 catch:2 anything:1 must:2 elder:1 say:3 accord:1 legend:2 god:3 live:1 sea:4 come:3 ocean:6 fee:1 mankind:1 whenever:1 poor:1 use:15 sacrifice:3 girl:1 prevent:2 village:3 later:4 helicopter:1 carry:1 investigative:2 reporter:3 arrive:4 believe:3 recent:2 disaster:1 cause:6 remain:3 skeptical:1 night:5 perform:1 exorcism:1 hope:3 sleep:1 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4,113 | Foresight_Institute | The Foresight Nanotech Institute (formerly Foresight Institute) is a Palo Alto, California-based nonprofit organization for increasing awareness about the uses and consequences of molecular nanotechnology. They sponsor conferences on the subject, publish reports, and produce a newsletter. The Institute was founded in 1986 by K. Eric Drexler, no longer with the Institute, along with Christine Peterson, now the Vice-President of Public Policy. Foresight Institute was founded to guide emerging technologies to improve the human condition but focused its efforts upon nanotechnology, the ability to engineer materials and products with atomic precision, and upon systems to enhance communication for policy decisions. " In 2005 the Foresight Institute changed its name to "Foresight Nanotech Institute" and narrowed its mission to nanotechnology. "Foresight is accomplishing this by providing balanced, accurate and timely information to help society understand and utilize nanotechnology through public policy activities, publications, guidelines, networking events, tutorials, conferences, roadmaps and prizes." Two sister organizations were formed: the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing and the Center for Constitutional Issues in Technology See also Center for Responsible Nanotechnology Center on Nanotechnology and Society Nanomedicine Transhumanism References Smith, Richard Hewlett. "A Policy Framework for Developing a National Nanotechnology Program", Master of Science thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1998, available at Digital Library and Archives External links Foresight Institute - official website | Foresight_Institute |@lemmatized foresight:7 nanotech:2 institute:10 formerly:1 palo:1 alto:1 california:1 base:1 nonprofit:1 organization:2 increase:1 awareness:1 us:1 consequence:1 molecular:2 nanotechnology:7 sponsor:1 conference:2 subject:1 publish:1 report:1 produce:1 newsletter:1 found:2 k:1 eric:1 drexler:1 longer:1 along:1 christine:1 peterson:1 vice:1 president:1 public:2 policy:4 guide:1 emerge:1 technology:2 improve:1 human:1 condition:1 focus:1 effort:1 upon:2 ability:1 engineer:1 material:1 product:1 atomic:1 precision:1 system:1 enhance:1 communication:1 decision:1 change:1 name:1 narrow:1 mission:1 accomplish:1 provide:1 balance:1 accurate:1 timely:1 information:1 help:1 society:2 understand:1 utilize:1 activity:1 publication:1 guideline:1 network:1 event:1 tutorial:1 roadmaps:1 prize:1 two:1 sister:1 form:1 manufacturing:1 center:3 constitutional:1 issue:1 see:1 also:1 responsible:1 nanomedicine:1 transhumanism:1 reference:1 smith:1 richard:1 hewlett:1 framework:1 develop:1 national:1 program:1 master:1 science:1 thesis:1 virginia:1 polytechnic:1 state:1 university:1 available:1 digital:1 library:1 archive:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram foresight_institute:4 palo_alto:1 nonprofit_organization:1 molecular_nanotechnology:1 eric_drexler:1 vice_president:1 polytechnic_institute:1 external_link:1 |
4,114 | Control_engineering | Control systems play a critical role in space flight Control engineering is the engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems with predictable behaviors. The engineering activities focus on the mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse nature. Overview Modern day control engineering (also called control systems engineering) is a relatively new field of study that gained a significant attention during twentieth century with the advancement in technology. It can be broadly defined as practical application of control theory. Control engineering has an essential role in a wide range of control systems from a simple household washing machine to a complex high performance F-16 fighter aircraft. It allows one to understand a physical system in terms of its inputs, outputs and various components with different behaviors using mathematical modeling, control it in a desired manner with the controllers designed using control systems design tools, and implement the controller on the physical system employing available technology. A system can be mechanical, electrical, fluid, chemical, financial and even biological, and the mathematical modeling, analysis and controller design shall be done using control theory in one or many of the time, frequency and complex-s domains depending on the nature of the control system design problem. Before it emerged as a unique discipline, control engineering was practiced as part of mechanical engineering and control theory was studied as a part of electrical engineering, since electrical circuits can often be easily described using control theory techniques. In the very first control relationships, a current output was represented with a voltage control input. However, not having proper technology to implement electrical control systems, designers left with the option of less efficient and slow responding mechanical systems. A very effective mechanical controller that is still widely used in some hydro plants is the governor. Later on, previous to modern power electronics, process control systems for industrial applications were devised by mechanical engineers using pneumatic and hydraulic control devices, many of which are still in use today. There are two major divisions in control theory, namely, classical and modern, which have direct implications over the control engineering applications. The scope of classical control theory is limited to single-input and single-output (SISO) system design. The system analysis is carried out in time domain using differential equations, in complex-s domain with Laplace transform or in frequency domain by transforming from complex-s domain. All the systems are assumed to be second order, single variable, and the higher order system responses and multivariable effects are ignored. A controller designed using classical theory usually requires on-site tuning due to design approximations. Yet, due to the easiness in physical implementation of the controller designs over the controllers designed using modern control theory, these controllers are preferred in most of the industrial applications. Most popular controllers that come under classical control engineering are PID controller. In contrast, modern control theory is strictly carried out in complex-s domain or in frequency domain, and can deal with multi-input and multi-output (MIMO) systems. This overcomes the limitations in classical control theory to be used in sophisticate control systems design problems such as fighter aircraft control. In modern controls a system is represented in terms of a set of first order differential equations defined using state variables. Nonlinear, multivariable, adaptive and robust control theories come under this division. Being fairly new, modern control theory has many areas yet to be explored. Scholars like Rudolf E. Kalman and Aleksandr Lyapunov are well known among the people who have shaped modern control theory. Originally control engineering was all about continuous systems. Development of computer control tools, posed a requirement of discrete control system engineering because the communications between the computer-based digital controller and the physical system are governed by a computer clock. The equivalent to Laplace transform in the discrete domain is z-transform. Today many of the control systems are computer controlled and they consist of both digital and analogue components. Therefore, at the design stage either digital components are mapped into the continuous domain and the design is carried out in the continuous domain, or analogue components are mapped in to discrete domain and design is carried out there. The first of these two methods is more commonly encountered in practice because many industrial systems have many continuous systems components, including mechanical, fluid, biological and analogue electrical components, with a few digital controllers. At many universities, control engineering courses are taught in electrical and electronic engineering, mechanical engineering, and aerospace engineering departments; in others it is connected to computer science, as most control techniques today are implemented through computers, often as embedded systems (as in the automotive field). The field of control within chemical engineering is often known as process control. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It is taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of any chemical engineering program, and employs many of the same principles in control engineering. Other engineering disciplines also overlap with control engineering, as it can be applied to any system for which a suitable model can be derived. Control engineering has diversified applications that include science, finance management, and even human behavior. Students of control engineering may start with a linear control system course dealing with the time and complex-s domain, which requires a thorough background in elementary mathematics and Laplace transform (called classical control theory). In linear control, the student does frequency and time domain analysis. Digital control and nonlinear control courses require z transformation and algebra respectively, and could be said to complete a basic control education. From here onwards there are several sub branches. Control systems Control engineering is the engineering discipline that focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems (e.g. mechanical systems) and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. Although such controllers need not be electrical many are and hence control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering. However, the falling price of microprocessors is making the actual implementation of a control system essentially trivial. As a result, focus is shifting back to the mechanical engineering discipline, as intimate knowledge of the physical system being controlled is often desired. Electrical circuits, digital signal processors and microcontrollers can all be used to implement Control systems. Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many modern automobiles. In most of the cases, control engineers utilize feedback when designing control systems. This is often accomplished using a PID controller system. For example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the motor's torque accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. In practically all such systems stability is important and control theory can help ensure stability is achieved. Although feedback is an important aspect of control engineering, control engineers may also work on the control of systems without feedback. This is known as open loop control. A classic example of open loop control is a washing machine that runs through a pre-determined cycle without the use of sensors. See also Adaptive control Building Automation Coefficient diagram method Control reconfiguration Control theory Feedback H infinity Intelligent control Laplace transform List of control engineering topics Model predictive control Nonlinear control Optimal control Intelligent control PID controller Process control Quantitative feedback theory Robotic unicycle Robust control Servomechanism State space Testing controller VisSim Control Engineering (magazine) EICASLAB References Literature External links Control Labs Worldwide The Michigan Chemical Engineering Process Dynamics and Controls Open Textbook | Control_engineering |@lemmatized control:85 system:43 play:1 critical:1 role:2 space:2 flight:2 engineering:34 discipline:5 applies:1 theory:18 design:16 predictable:1 behavior:3 activity:1 focus:3 mathematical:3 modeling:4 diverse:2 nature:2 overview:1 modern:9 day:1 also:4 call:2 relatively:1 new:2 field:3 study:2 gain:1 significant:1 attention:1 twentieth:1 century:1 advancement:1 technology:3 broadly:1 define:2 practical:1 application:6 essential:1 wide:2 range:3 simple:1 household:1 wash:2 machine:2 complex:6 high:2 performance:1 f:1 fighter:2 aircraft:2 allow:1 one:2 understand:1 physical:5 term:2 input:4 output:4 various:1 component:6 different:1 use:16 desired:2 manner:2 controller:17 tool:2 implement:4 employ:2 available:1 mechanical:9 electrical:9 fluid:2 chemical:5 financial:1 even:2 biological:2 analysis:3 shall:1 many:10 time:4 frequency:4 domains:1 depend:1 problem:2 emerge:1 unique:1 practice:2 part:3 since:1 circuit:2 often:6 easily:1 describe:1 technique:2 first:3 relationship:1 current:1 represent:2 voltage:1 however:2 proper:1 designer:1 leave:1 option:1 le:1 efficient:1 slow:1 respond:2 effective:1 still:2 widely:1 hydro:1 plant:2 governor:1 later:1 previous:1 power:1 electronics:1 process:5 industrial:3 devise:1 engineer:3 pneumatic:1 hydraulic:1 device:1 today:3 two:2 major:1 division:2 namely:1 classical:6 direct:1 implication:1 scope:1 limit:1 single:3 siso:1 carry:4 domain:12 differential:2 equation:2 laplace:4 transform:6 assume:1 second:1 order:3 variable:3 response:1 multivariable:2 effect:1 ignore:1 usually:1 require:3 site:1 tune:1 due:2 approximation:1 yet:2 easiness:1 implementation:2 prefer:1 popular:1 come:2 pid:3 contrast:1 strictly:1 deal:3 multi:2 mimo:1 overcome:1 limitation:1 sophisticate:1 set:1 state:2 nonlinear:3 adaptive:2 robust:2 theories:1 fairly:1 area:1 explore:1 scholar:1 like:1 rudolf:1 e:2 kalman:1 aleksandr:1 lyapunov:1 well:1 know:3 among:1 people:1 shape:1 originally:1 continuous:4 development:1 computer:6 pose:1 requirement:1 discrete:3 communication:1 base:1 digital:6 govern:1 clock:1 equivalent:1 z:2 consist:1 analogue:3 therefore:1 stage:1 either:1 map:2 method:2 commonly:1 encounter:1 include:2 university:1 course:3 teach:2 electronic:1 aerospace:1 department:1 others:1 connect:1 science:2 embed:1 automotive:1 within:1 primarily:1 undergraduate:1 curriculum:1 program:1 principle:1 overlap:1 apply:1 suitable:1 model:2 derive:1 diversify:1 finance:1 management:1 human:1 student:2 may:2 start:1 linear:2 thorough:1 background:1 elementary:1 mathematics:1 transformation:1 algebra:1 respectively:1 could:1 say:1 complete:1 basic:1 education:1 onwards:1 several:1 sub:1 branch:1 dynamic:2 g:1 cause:1 behave:1 although:2 need:1 hence:1 view:1 subfield:1 fall:1 price:1 microprocessor:1 make:1 actual:1 essentially:1 trivial:1 result:1 shift:1 back:2 intimate:1 knowledge:1 desire:1 signal:1 processor:1 microcontrollers:1 propulsion:1 commercial:1 airliner:1 cruise:2 present:1 automobile:2 case:1 utilize:1 feedback:7 accomplish:1 example:2 vehicle:1 speed:1 continuously:1 monitor:1 feed:1 adjust:1 motor:1 torque:1 accordingly:1 regular:1 determine:1 practically:1 stability:2 important:2 help:1 ensure:1 achieve:1 aspect:1 work:1 without:2 open:3 loop:2 classic:1 run:1 pre:1 determined:1 cycle:1 sensor:1 see:1 build:1 automation:1 coefficient:1 diagram:1 reconfiguration:1 h:1 infinity:1 intelligent:2 list:1 topic:1 predictive:1 optimal:1 quantitative:1 robotic:1 unicycle:1 servomechanism:1 test:1 vissim:1 magazine:1 eicaslab:1 reference:1 literature:1 external:1 link:1 labs:1 worldwide:1 michigan:1 textbook:1 |@bigram twentieth_century:1 input_output:1 differential_equation:2 laplace_transform:4 pid_controller:3 undergraduate_curriculum:1 external_link:1 |
4,115 | Cadillac,_Michigan | Cadillac () is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and is the county seat of Wexford County. As of the 2000 census, the city population was 10,000. The city is situated at the junction of US 131, M-55 and M-115. Approximately five miles north-northwest of Cadillac lies the geographic center of Michigan. Michigan Geography from NETSTATE. NETSTATE. Retrieved on January 5, 2008. Cadillac became the county seat after the so-called "Battle of Manton," in which a show of force was involved in enforcing a controversial decision to move the county seat from Manton, Michigan. History Village of Clam Lake Although European explorers and traders visited the area since the 1700s, permanent white communities were not established until some time later. Initial settlements were connected with the logging industry. In 1871, Cadillac's first sawmill began operations. Originally called the Pioneer Mill, it was built by John R. Yale. That same year, George A. Mitchell, a prominent Cadillac banker and railroad entrepreneur, and Adam Gallinger, a local carpenter, formed the Clam Lake Canal Improvement and Construction Company. Two years later, the Clam Lake Canal was constructed between Big and Little Clam lakes, present-day Lakes Mitchell and Cadillac. Sawmill owners used the canal to transport timber from Big Clam Lake to the mills and railroad sites—the G.R. & I. Railroad had reached the area in 1872—on Little Clam Lake, in Cadillac. Schindler, Kurt H. (2002) Wexford County Factbook, History, Chapter B2. MSU Extension. Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Cadillac was originally named Clam Lake and was incorporated as a village in 1874. George Mitchell was elected the first mayor. The village was incorporated as a city in 1877 and renamed Cadillac, after Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, a Frenchman who made the first permanent settlement at Detroit in 1701. City of Cadillac, History. City of Cadillac Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Battle of Manton The Wexford County seat of government, originally located in Sherman, was moved to Manton in 1881, as the result of a compromise between the feuding residents of Cadillac and Sherman. Cadillac partisans, however, won the county seat by county-wide vote in April 1882. The day following the election a sheriff's posse left the city for Manton by special train to seize the county records. After arriving and collecting a portion of the materials, however, an angry crowd confronted the Cadillac men and drove them from the town. Battling for the County Seat. Absolute Michigan. Retrieved on Jan 5 2008. When the sheriff returned to Cadillac, a force consisting of several hundred armed men was assembled; this group reportedly included a brass band. The Sheriff's force, some of whom may have been intoxicated, traveled back to Manton to seize the remaining records. Although Manton residents confronted the Cadillac men and barricaded the courthouse, the posse successfully seized the documents and returned to Cadillac. City of Cadillac In 1878, Ephraim Shay perfected his Shay locomotive, which was particularly effective in its ability to climb steep grades, maneuver sharp turns and manage imperfections in railroad tracks. Cadillac was home to the Michigan Iron Works Company, which manufactured the Shay locomotive for a short time in the early 1880s. Henderson, Rick (2001). Ephraim Shay, the Man. Shaylocomotives.com Retrieved January 5, 2008. The lumber industry continued to dominate the city, drawing in a large immigrant labor force, most of whom were Swedish; two of Cadillac's sister cities are Mölnlycke, Sweden, and Rovaniemi, Finland. The City Park, featuring the Kris Eggle Memorial Fountain and the Rotary Pavilion In 1899, the Cadillac Club formed, the forerunner of the Cadillac Area Chamber of Commerce. Cadillac: Where We Came From Cadillac Area Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Gradually, various manufacturing firms found success in Cadillac. By the early 1900’s, lumber was depleted and the timber industry was in decline. Industrial development soon dominated the local economy, and it continues to do so today. Cadillac's range of industries include the manufacture of pleasure boats, automotive parts, water well components, vacuum cleaners and rubber products. Cadillac Industrial Fund Cadillac Area Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved on January 4, 2008 In 1936, the U.S. Forest Service and the Civilian Conservation Corps created the Caberfae Ski Area, which led to promotion of the area as a tourist center. Caberfae Ski Club History Caberfae Ski Club Retrieved January 4, 2008 Caberfae remains in operation today, as the oldest ski resort in the midwest. Cadillac Area Visitors Bureau, Cadillac Yesterday. Cadillac Area Visitors Bureau. Retrieved on January 4, 2008. Tourism has since become an important sector of Cadillac's economy. Welcome to Cadillac Michigan History Magazine Retrieved on January 4, 2008 Ingraham, Lesa (July 1, 2002). Summer Tourism Outlook Favorable Cadillac News Retrieved on January 5, 2008 In the summer, tourists travel to the city for boating, fishing, hiking, mountain biking and camping. During the fall, hunting and color tours are popular. Cadillac Fall Color Tours. Michigan.org Retrieved on January 5, 2005. The winter is possibly the busiest season; the area can be found packed with downhill skiers, cross-country skiers, ice-fishers, snow-shoers and–most of all-snowmobilers. Cadillac, Michigan - Snowmobiling Information Snowtracks.com Retrieved January 5, 2008 The North American Snowmobile Festival (NASF) is held on frozen Lake Cadillac every winter. Cadillac Area Visitors Bureau NASF. Cadillac Area Visitors Bureau,. Retrieved on January 4, 2008. Thirsty's, a gas station on M-55 west of Cadillac, was the home of Samantha or "Sam The Bear" from the 1970s through the late 1990s, when Sam died of old age. Sam was the only brown bear in captivity in the US at the time to hibernate naturally. Sam lived in a large cage in front of the gas station and was fed ice cream cones by tourists every summer. In October 1975 the rock group Kiss visited Cadillac and performed at the Cadillac High School gymnasium. They played the concert to honor the Cadillac High School football team. In previous years, the team had compiled a record of sixteen consecutive victories, but the 1974 squad opened the season with two losses. The assistant coach, Jim Neff, an English teacher and rock'n'roll fan, thought to inspire the team by playing Kiss music in the locker room. He also connected the team's game plan, K-I-S-S or "Keep It Simple Stupid", with the band. The team went on to win seven straight games and their conference co-championship. After learning of their association with the team's success, the band decided to visit the school and play for the homecoming game. Weinstein, Fannie (1996). The Kiss that Inspired a Small Town Team. Neffzone.com. Retrieved on January 4, 2008. The Shay Locomotive Historic Landmarks Cadillac maintains a number of state historic landmarks. Most are marked with a green "Michigan Historical Marker" sign that includes a description of the landmark. There are six markers within the city limits: 'Cadillac Carnegie Library,' 'Charles T. Mitchell House,' 'Clam Lake Canal,' 'Cobbs & Mitchell Building,' 'Cobbs & Mitchell No. 1' and the 'Shay Locomotive,' which is pictured at the right. Two more are in the near Cadillac area ('Caberfae Ski Resort' and 'Greenwood Disciples of Christ Church') and another two are dispersed in surrounding Wexford County ('Battle of Manton' and '1st Wexford County Court House'). Michigan Historical Markers See "Wexford County." Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Geography Topography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 8.6 square miles (22.3 km²), of which 6.8 square miles (17.7 km²) is land and 1.8 square miles (4.6 km²) (20.70%) is water. The Lake Cadillac is entirely within the city limits, and some claim it is the largest lake entirely in any city in the United States. The larger, Lake Mitchell is nearby on the west side of the city, with of shoreline within the city's municipal boundary. The lakes were connected by a stream which was replaced in 1873 by the Clam Lake Canal. The canal was featured on Ripley's Believe It or Not in the 1970s due to the phenomenon that in winter the canal freezes before the lakes and then after the lakes freeze, the canal thaws and remains unfrozen for the rest of the winter. Cadillac Area Visitors Bureau, FAQ. Cadillac Area Visitors Bureau. Retrieved on January 4, 2008. Cadillac sits on the eastern edge of the Manistee National Forest and the surrounding area is heavily wooded with mixed hardwood and conifer forests. A main agricultural industry in the area is Christmas tree farming. In fact, Cadillac was chosen in 1988 to donate the Christmas tree to sit on the lawn of the U.S. Capitol building in Washington D.C. The area surrounding Cadillac is primarily rural, and is considered to be part of Northern Michigan. The small size of nearby communities make the city a major commercial and industrial hub of the region. Schindler, Kurt H. (2002). Wexford County Factbook, Population, Chapter B8. MSU Extension. Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Cityscape The commercial center of the city is located on the eastern edge of Lake Cadillac. Most downtown buildings range from two to five stories in height and face the traditional corridor of travel through town, Mitchell Street, the city's tree-lined main street. The downtown contains a movie theater, gift shops, restaurants, a bookstore, specialty food stores, jewelers, clothing retailers and various other businesses. Downtown Cadillac Business Directory Downtown Cadillac Association Retrieved on July 3, 2008 Cadillac Area Activities and Attractions Cadillac Area Visitors Bureau Retrieved on January 5, 2008 The Courthouse Hill Historic District, established in April 2005, lies adjacent to the city's commercial center. The District contains a number of large Victorian-style residences built by the lumber barons and businessmen who helped establish the city in the 1870s. Cadillac's Courthouse Hill Historic District City of Cadillac Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Population and building density is highest in this area. b=50|l=en|t=4001|zf=0.0|ms=thm_def|dw=0.1397926221024198|dh=0.07458776315041693|dt=gov.census.aff.domain.map.EnglishMapExtent|if=gif|cx=-85.416605|cy=44.2541885|zl=4|pz=4|bo=|bl=|ft=350:349:335:389:388:332:331|fl=403:381:204:380:369:379:368|g=16000US2612320|ds=DEC_2000_SF1_U|sb=50|tud=false|db=100|mn=0|mx=41250|cc=1|cm=1|cn=5|cb=|um=Persons/Sq%20 Mile|pr=0|th=DEC_2000_SF1_U_M00090|sf=N|sg=&-PANEL_ID=tm_result&-_pageY=&-_lang=en&-geo_id=16000US2612320&-_pageX=&-_mapY=&-_mapX=&-_latitude=&-_pan=&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-_longitude=&-_changeMap=Identify Cadillac city, Michigan by Block Group: Persons per Square Mile U.S. Census Retrieved on July 3, 2008 On the western portion of Lake Cadillac, where M-55 intersects M-115, is what is locally referred to as Cadillac West. This is a small commercial district, bordering Mitchell State Park and the two lakes, which caters mostly to tourists. It contains a number of motels and restaurants. For evidence on the usage of the name Cadillac West and the commercial features of the district, look for descriptions in local websites such as Cadillac Area Snowmobile Lodging Guide and Cadillac Area Lodging. Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Along the northern and southern stretches of the lake are the residential areas of the city. They are generally of low to moderate density, characterized primarily by single family structures. City of Cadillac Zoning Wexford County GIS Retrieved on July 3, 2008 Climate Cadillac experiences a typical northern Michigan climate, undergoing temperate seasonal changes, influenced by the presence of Lake Michigan and the inevitable lake effect. Winters are generally cold with large amounts of snowfall. Summers are warm. Cadillac Weather & Climate (2006). Michigan Vacations (accessed July 20, 2006). The average high temperature in July is 80 °F (27 °C) and the average low is in February, at 9 °F (-13 °C). Summer temperatures can exceed 90 °F (32 °C), and winter temperatures can drop below 0 °F (-18 °C). Average annual rainfall is 30 inches (76 cm), and average annual snowfall is 81 inches (206 cm) . Snowfall typically occurs between the months of November and March. Superfund sites Cadillac is also home to two superfund sites according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. One located at 1100 Wright Street, http://cfpub.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0502480 the former home of Kysor Industrial Corp. The other is located at 1002 6th Street, http://cfpub.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0502440 the former home of Northernaire Plating. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 10,000 people, 4,118 households, and 2,577 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,466.0 per square mile (566.1/km²). There were 4,466 housing units at an average density of 654.7/sq mi (252.8/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.55% White, 0.21% Black or African American, 0.92% Native American, 0.63% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.28% from other races, and 1.38% from two or more races. 1.18% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 4,118 households out of which 32.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.9% were married couples living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% were non-families. 31.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.96. In the city the population was spread out with 26.2% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 27.9% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 16.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $29,899, and the median income for a family was $36,825. Males had a median income of $29,773 versus $21,283 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,801. About 10.9% of families and 13.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.4% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those age 65 or over. Government By Michigan law, Cadillac is a home rule city. The city was incorporated in 1877, with a Council-Manager form of government-one of the first in Michigan. Under this system, the responsibilities of government are shared between an elected City Council and a hired full-time City Manager. Cadillac, The Community: Government For details on the local government, see The City. Retrieved on July 3, 2008 The elected City Council is the legislative authority of the City, composed of five members, one of whom is Mayor. All members have equal authority. The Council is responsible for making policy, passing ordinances, voting appropriations, and having overall supervisory authority in the city government. The terms of office are four years for Council Members and two years for the Mayor. The salaries of each council member are set by an independent advisory committee, which meets every two years. City Council General Information City of Cadillac Retrieved on July 3, 2008 The chief administrative officer of the City of Cadillac is the City Manager. The City Manager is responsible for the administration of all City departments, as well as the enforcement of all laws, provisions of the City charter and acts adopted by City Council. Current Council members are Shari Spoelman, Thomas Dyer, Arthur Stevens, James Dean and William Barnett (Mayor). Ronald Blanchard, the previous mayor of Cadillac, held the position for 18 years, until he retired from office in 2008. Berkebile, Tanya (January 4, 2008). A New Council. Cadillac News Retrieved on January 4, 2008 The present City Manager is Peter Stalker. Administration City of Cadillac Retrieved on July 3, 2008 Cadillac is located in Michigan's 2nd congressional district, represented by Republican Peter Hoekstra. U.S. Congressman Pete Hoekstra Official website of Pete Hoekstra. Retrieved on July 3, 2008 Economy Manufacturing has been the greatest employer in Cadillac since the logging industry. Presently, over 26% of the city’s labor force is employed in manufacturing. 2000 U.S. Census Data U.S. Census Retrieved on January 5, 2008 There are three industrial parks within the city limits, comprising 7% of the total land use in Cadillac and 47% of the city’s tax base. City of Cadillac Industrial Parks City of Cadillac Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Much of the city’s economic performance is determined by the fortunes of local industry. Major manufacturers include Four Winns, AAR Manufacturing, Avon Rubber and Plastics, FIAMM Technologies, Michigan Rubber Products and Rexair. Downtown Cadillac, popular with tourists year round. Apart from its manufacturing base, Cadillac is frequently considered by those who know it to be a tourist town. The center of the city is generally perceived to have a "small-town-feel." Whetstone, Matt (December 7, 2007). Survey says: Cadillac good, improvement needed Cadillac News Retrieved on January 5, 2008 In the summer, the downtown fills with tourists, many of whom are from southern Michigan. The city center is in fact only one block from Lake Cadillac and, by docking at the public docks, is as nearly accessible by boat as it is by car. The city’s immediate proximity to two lakes, as well as Manistee National Forest, Pere Marquette State Forest, Mitchell State Park and a number of major highways ensures that tourism occupies a significant sector of the local economy. During the winter months Lake Cadillac and Lake Mitchell freeze over and the city becomes covered with snow. Cadillac is connected to a number of trail systems heavily used by winter recreation enthusiasts, and the city itself integrates unusually well into the corridors of travel created by snowmobilers. For details on popular trails, see Cadillac Snowmobiling Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Cadillac is also known as Chestnut Town, USA. The local area is home to a relatively large number of American chestnut trees, planted by pioneers from New York and Pennsylvania who settled in western Michigan. A blight in the early twentieth century wiped out nearly every American Chestnut tree, but those in western Michigan developed a mysterious resistance and survived. The Cadillac Chestnut Harvest Festival is held every year, on the second Saturday of October. Fulbright, Dennis (2003) Cadillac Chestnut Harvest Festival. Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc. Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Lou Gehrig's Disease Based on a single, limited study involving twenty people, some people have labelled Cadillac as one of three "hot spots" for Lou Gehrig's Disease in the US. However, the study made no attempt to ascertain the occurrence of the disease in other parts of the state, or elsewhere in the country. The study was designed to examine the possible occurrence of the disease due to genetic influences. The occurrence of the disease within the city limits of Cadillac is reportedly over 100 times the normal rate. The cause of the abnormally large occurrence of the disease in Cadillac is as of yet unknown. Kaminski, Frank (March 14, 2003). Disease Rates in Greenville, Cadillac Puzzle Scientists. Capital News Service. Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Education Cadillac's public education system has a total of 10 schools, with approximately 3,100 students and 166 teachers with a student:teacher ratio of 19.1:1. Cadillac has 4 private primary and secondary schools with approximately 394 students, 20 teachers and a student:teacher ratio of 20:1. LocalSchoolDirectory Cadillac Area Public Schools (CAPS) The city has one high school, Cadillac High School; its mascot is the Vikings. The area also has a junior high school, covering grades 8 and 9, located adjacent to the high school, and a middle school, Mackinaw Trail Middle School, covering grades 6 and 7. There are five elementary schools, Forest View Elementary, Franklin Elementary, Kenwood Elementary, McKinley Elementary, and Lincoln Elementary. VikingnetVikingNet Cadillac also has an alternative high school, located in the building that formerly housed Cooley Elementary School. Adult high school and GED courses are offered there as well. As a whole, the programs at Cooley are part of a curriculum that aids individuals in overcoming the exceptional obstacles to their educational and workforce goals. Vocational career training is available to high school students free of charge in Cadillac and nearby schools at Wexford-Missaukee Independent School District (ISD) Career Tech Center (formerly Wexford-Missaukee Vocational Center or Voc-Tech). Students are bussed for part of the day to the Career Tech Center from their respective schools and receive credits toward high school graduation. Students are also able to earn certification in a chosen trade. Cosmetology is offered through the Career Tech Center, but at an off-campus location in downtown Cadillac. Adults can attend the vocational or cosmetology school with tuition or financial aid for certification. PublicSchoolReview Cadillac hosts the Wexford-Missaukee ISD Special Education for residents of the two counties who are in need of special services. This school is on the same campus as the Career Tech Center. Private Schools Cadillac offers several options for private religious education. privateschoolreview Cadillac Heritage Christian offers nondenominational Christian education from pre-K through 12th grade. It is a coed school with 98 students and a student:teacher ratio of 1:11. Graduating classes are typically between 3-12 students. Northside Jr. Academy has 17 students in grades 1-9. It is a coed Seventh Day Adventist school. Noah's Art Day School is a small alternative non-denominational Christian school for students in pre-K through first grade only. It is coed with 42 students and 1 teacher. Cadillac's largest and most well-known private school is St. Ann School, a coed private Roman Catholic school with 236 students in grades pre-K through 7. The teacher:student ratio is 1:26. St. Ann is a member of the National Catholic Education Association. No Catholic high school education is offered at St. Ann School, and students typically attend public school for grades 8-12. Training Schools Northwoods Aviation, located at Wexford County Airport, offers training programs for piloting and servicing aircrafts. Northwoods Aviation also offers primary instruction for those interested in sport pilot, private, and commercial certificates. Northwoods Aviation The Cadillac Institute of Cosmetology (formerly Cadillac Academy of Beauty) is a full service teaching salon in downtown Cadillac that offers training for general cosmetologists and specialized technicians to high school students through a partnership with Wexford-Missaukee Intermediate School District. Training is also available to adult students though private courses on a tuition basis. Upon completion of the program, students are qualified to take the state board exam to become a licensed cosmetologist or specialty technician. Colleges The Baker College-Cadillac campus occupies just outside of the City of Cadillac. The school has an enrollment of more than 1,300 students and offers Associate's and Bachelor's degrees, in addition to professional certifications. Baker College-Cadillac. Online profile. Retrieved on January 5, 2005 Transportation Major highways Cadillac is situated as the confluence of three highways: US-131, M-55 and M-115. Prior to 2001, the northern terminus of the freeway portion of US-131 was located at the southern entrance to Cadillac. With the construction of a bypass, the US-131 freeway was extended around the east side of the city. The former route of the highway through downtown Cadillac was redesignated as Business US-131. In the city, BUS US-131 is named named Mitchell Street, after George Mitchell, but may be referred to as main street. US-131 bypasses the city to the east. The freeway continues southerly toward Big Rapids and Grand Rapids and northerly toward Manton before transitioning to a two-lane highway for the remainder of the distance to Petoskey. BUS US-131 a loop route through downtown, running largely along the former route of US-131 through the city. M-55 is a major two-lane east-west route across the state, connecting with Manistee on the west and Houghton Lake and Tawas City on the east. M-115, another major two-lane route, runs diagonally from Clare to the southeast to Frankfort to the northwest. Rail The city is serviced by rail via the Great Lakes Central Railroad. This is primarily a freight line, although passenger service is expected in the future. Great Lakes Central Railroad. GLC Retrieved on March 4, 2009 Public Transit Cadillac and Wexford County jointly operate a local public bus service. The Cadillac/Wexford Transit Authority is a demand-response system, and has been in operation since 1974. Cadillac/Wexford Transportation Authority Michigan Department of Transportation Retrieved on January 5, 2008 In recent years the Authority has been experimenting with a fixed-route service, operating a mid-day service in the summer. This proto-bus line runs between Cadillac West and the downtown. Suhs, Mardhi (August 14, 2006). Trolley has stops in Cadillac West, downtown district during summer. Cadillac News. Retrieved on January 5, 2008 Non-Motorized Transportation The White Pine Trail's northern terminus is in Cadillac. The trail, which stretches and originates from Comstock Park, follows an abandoned railroad bed into the center of the city. The last mile of the trail is paved. Trail Surface White Pine Trail Retrieved on March 5, 2009 Local media Newspapers The Cadillac News Radio WTCM (580 AM, Traverse City) - news and talk WLDR (1210 AM, Kingsley-Traverse City) - classic country WATT (1240 AM) - news and talk WLJW (1370 AM) - religious WIAA (88.7 FM, Interlochen) - classical music "IPR Music Radio" WOLW (91.1 FM) - religious "Northern Christian Radio" WJZQ (92.9 FM) - soft AC/smooth jazz "The Breeze" WKAD (93.7 FM) - oldies WLXV (96.7 FM) - hot AC "Mix 96" WUPS (98.5 FM, Houghton Lake) - classic hits WLDR (101.9 FM, Traverse City) - country music "101.9 Sunny Country" WTCM (103.5 FM, Traverse City) - country music WAIR (104.9 FM) - contemporary Christian "Smile-FM" WCKC (107.1 FM) - classic rock "The Bear" Television WPBN (Channel 7, Traverse City) - NBC WWTV (Channel 9) - CBS WCMV (Channel 27) - PBS WGTU (Channel 29, Traverse City) - ABC WFQX (Channel 33) - Fox Local Edition (Cable Channel 63) - Independent References Further reading Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University, Bibliography on Wexford County External links City of Cadillac Cadillac Area Home Page Cadillac Area Chamber of Commerce Wikitravel Cadillac travel guide | Cadillac,_Michigan |@lemmatized cadillac:129 city:78 u:19 state:10 michigan:25 county:19 seat:6 wexford:17 census:7 population:7 situate:2 junction:1 approximately:3 five:4 mile:8 north:2 northwest:2 lie:2 geographic:1 center:12 geography:2 netstate:2 retrieve:40 january:31 become:4 call:2 battle:3 manton:9 show:1 force:5 involve:2 enforce:1 controversial:1 decision:1 move:2 history:5 village:3 clam:9 lake:28 although:3 european:1 explorer:1 trader:1 visit:3 area:30 since:4 permanent:2 white:4 community:3 establish:3 time:5 later:2 initial:1 settlement:2 connect:5 logging:2 industry:7 first:5 sawmill:2 begin:1 operation:3 originally:3 pioneer:2 mill:2 build:2 john:1 r:2 yale:1 year:13 george:3 mitchell:13 prominent:1 banker:1 railroad:7 entrepreneur:1 adam:1 gallinger:1 local:10 carpenter:1 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4,116 | Muon | The muon (from the Greek letter mu (μ) used to represent it) is an elementary particle similar to the electron, with negative electric charge and a spin of . Together with the electron, the tauon, and the three neutrinos, it is classified as a lepton. It is the subatomic particle with the second longest mean lifetime (), behind the neutron (~). Like all elementary particles, the muon has corresponding antiparticle of opposite charge but equal mass and spin: the antimuon (also called a positive muon). Muons are denoted by and antimuons by . Muons were sometimes referred to as mu mesons in the past, even though they are not classified as mesons by modern particle physicists (see History). Muons have a mass of , which is about 200 times the mass of the electrons. Since their interactions are very similar to those of the electron, a muon can be thought of as a much heavier version of the electron. Due to their greater mass, muons do not emit as much bremsstrahlung radiation; consequently, they are highly penetrating, much more so than electrons. As with the case of the other charged leptons, the muon has an associated muon neutrino. Muon neutrinos are denoted by . History Muons were discovered by Carl D. Anderson in 1936 while he studied cosmic radiation. He had noticed particles that curved in a manner distinct from that of electrons and other known particles, when passed through a magnetic field. In particular, these new particles were negatively charged but curved to a smaller degree than electrons, but more sharply than protons, for particles of the same velocity. It was assumed that the magnitude of their negative electric charge was equal to that of the electron, and so to account for the difference in curvature, it was supposed that these particles were of intermediate mass (lying somewhere between that of an electron and that of a proton). The discovery of the muon seemed so incongruous and surprising at the time that Nobel laureate I. I. Rabi famously quipped, "Who ordered that?" For this reason, Anderson initially called the new particle a mesotron, adopting the prefix meso- from the Greek word for "mid-". Shortly thereafter, additional particles of intermediate mass were discovered, and the more general term meson was adopted to refer to any such particle. Faced with the need to differentiate between different types of mesons, the mesotron was in 1947 renamed the mu meson (with the Greek letter μ (mu) used to approximate the sound of the Latin letter m). However, it was soon found that the mu meson significantly differed from other mesons; for example, its decay products included a neutrino and an antineutrino, rather than just one or the other, as was observed in other mesons. Other mesons were eventually understood to be hadrons—that is, particles made of quarks—and thus subject to the residual strong force. In the quark model, a meson is composed of exactly two quarks (a quark and antiquark), unlike baryons which are composed of three quarks. Mu mesons, however, were found to be fundamental particles (leptons) like electrons, with no quark structure. Thus, mu mesons were not mesons at all (in the new sense and use of the term meson), and so the term mu meson was abandoned, and replaced with the modern term muon. Muon sources Since the production of muons requires an available center of momentum frame energy of over 105 MeV, neither ordinary radioactive decay events nor nuclear fission and fusion events (such as those occurring in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons) are energetic enough to produce muons. Only nuclear fission produces single-nuclear-event energies in this range, but due to conservation constraints, muons are not produced. On earth, all naturally occurring muons are apparently created by cosmic rays, which consist mostly of protons, many arriving from deep space at very high energy. When a cosmic ray proton impacts atomic nuclei of air atoms in the upper atmosphere, pions are created. These decay within a relatively short distance (meters) into muons (the pion's preferred decay product), and neutrinos. The muons from these high energy cosmic rays, generally continuing essentially in the same direction as the original proton, do so at very high velocities. Although their lifetime without relativistic effects would allow a half-survival distance of only about 0.66 km at most, the time dilation effect of special relativity allows cosmic ray secondary muons to survive the flight to the earth's surface. Indeed, since muons are unusually penetrative of ordinary matter, like neutrinos, they are also detectable deep underground and underwater, where they form a major part of the natural background ionizing radiation. Like cosmic rays, as noted, this secondary muon radiation is also directional. See the illustration above of the moon's cosmic ray shadow, detected when 700 m of soil and rock filters secondary radiation, but allows enough muons to form a crude image of the moon, in a directional detector. The same nuclear reaction described above (i.e., hadron-hadron impacts to produce pion beams, which then quickly decay to muon beams over short distances) is used by particle physicists to produce muon beams, such as the beam used for the muon g-2 gyromagnetic ratio experiment (see link below). In naturally-produced muons, the very high-energy protons to begin the process are thought to originate from acceleration by electromagnetic fields over long distances between stars or galaxies, in a manner somewhat analogous to the mechanism of proton acceleration used in laboratory particle accelerators. Muon decay The most common decay of the muon Muons are unstable elementary particles and are heavier than electrons and neutrinos but lighter than all other matter particles. They decay via the weak interaction to an electron, two neutrinos and possibly other particles with a net charge of zero. Nearly all of the time, they decay into an electron, an electron-antineutrino, and a muon-neutrino. Antimuons decay to a positron, an electron-neutrino, and a muon-antineutrino: . The mean lifetime of the (positive) muon is 2.197 019 ± 0.000 021 μs . The equality of the muon and anti-muon lifetimes has been established to better than one part in 104. The tree-level muon decay width is where . A photon or electron-positron pair is also present in the decay products about 1.4% of the time. The decay distributions of the electron in muon decays have been parametrized using the so-called Michel parameters. The values of these four parameters are predicted unambiguously in the Standard Model of particle physics, thus muon decays represent an excellent laboratory to test the space-time structure of the weak interaction. No deviation from the Standard Model predictions has yet been found. Certain neutrino-less decay modes are kinematically allowed but forbidden in the Standard Model. Examples, forbidden by lepton flavour conservation, are and . Observation of such decay modes would constitute clear evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model (BSM). Upper limits for the branching fractions of such decay modes are in the range 10−11 to 10−12. Muonic atoms The muon was the first elementary particle discovered that does not appear in ordinary atoms. Negative muons can, however, form muonic atoms by replacing an electron in ordinary atoms. Muonic atoms are much smaller than typical atoms because the larger mass of the muon gives it a smaller ground-state wavefunction than the electron. A positive muon, when stopped in ordinary matter, can also bind an electron and form an exotic atom known as muonium (Mu) atom, in which the muon acts as the nucleus. The positive muon, in this context, can be considered a pseudo-isotope of hydrogen with one ninth of the mass of the proton. Because the reduced mass of muonium, and hence its Bohr radius, is very close to that of hydrogen, this short-lived "atom" behaves chemically — to a first approximation — like hydrogen, deuterium and tritium. Anomalous magnetic dipole moment The anomalous magnetic dipole moment is the difference between the experimentally observed value of the magnetic dipole moment and the theoretical value predicted by the Dirac equation. The measurement and prediction of this value is very important in the precision tests of QED (quantum electrodynamics). The E821 experiment at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) studied the precession of muon and anti-muon in a constant external magnetic field as they circulated in a confining storage ring. The E821 Experiment reported the following average value (from the July 2007 review by Particle Data Group) where the first errors are statistical and the second systematic. The difference between the g-factors of the muon and the electron is due to their difference in mass. Because of the muon's larger mass, contributions to the theoretical calculation of its anomalous magnetic dipole moment from Standard Model weak interactions and from contributions involving hadrons are important at the current level of precision, whereas these effects are not important for the electron. The muon's anomalous magnetic dipole moment is also sensitive to contributions from new physics beyond the Standard Model, such as supersymmetry. For this reason, the muon's anomalous magnetic moment is normally used as a probe for new physics beyond the Standard Model rather than as a test of QED (Phys.Lett. B649, 173 (2007)). See also Muonium Muon spin spectroscopy Muon-catalyzed fusion List of particles References S.H. Neddermeyer and C.D. Anderson, "Note on the Nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles", Phys. Rev. 51, 884–886 (1937). Full text available in . J.C. Street and E.C. Stevenson, "New Evidence for the Existence of a Particle of Mass Intermediate Between the Proton and Electron", Phys. Rev. 52, 1003-1004 (1937). Full text available in . Serway & Faughn, College Physics, Fourth Edition (Fort Worth TX: Saunders, 1995) page 841 Emanuel Derman, My Life As A Quant (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004) pp. 58-62. Marc Knecht ; The Anomalous Magnetic Moments of the Electron and the Muon, Poincaré Seminar (Paris, Oct. 12, 2002), published in : Duplantier, Bertrand; Rivasseau, Vincent (Eds.) ; Poincaré Seminar 2002, Progress in Mathematical Physics 30, Birkhäuser (2003) [ISBN 3-7643-0579-7]. Full text available in PostScript. External links Muon anomalous magnetic moment and supersymmetry g-2 (muon anomalous magnetic moment) experiment muLan (Measurement of the Positive Muon Lifetime) experiment The Review of Particle Physics The TRIUMF Weak Interaction Symmetry Test | Muon |@lemmatized muon:58 greek:3 letter:3 mu:9 μ:2 use:8 represent:2 elementary:4 particle:26 similar:2 electron:25 negative:3 electric:2 charge:5 spin:3 together:1 tauon:1 three:2 neutrino:11 classify:2 lepton:4 subatomic:1 second:2 long:2 mean:2 lifetime:4 behind:1 neutron:1 like:5 correspond:1 antiparticle:1 opposite:1 equal:2 mass:12 antimuon:3 also:7 call:3 positive:5 denote:2 sometimes:1 refer:2 meson:15 past:1 even:1 though:1 modern:2 physicist:2 see:4 history:2 time:6 since:3 interaction:5 think:2 much:4 heavy:2 version:1 due:3 great:1 emit:1 bremsstrahlung:1 radiation:5 consequently:1 highly:1 penetrate:1 case:1 charged:1 associate:1 discover:3 carl:1 anderson:3 study:2 cosmic:8 notice:1 curve:2 manner:2 distinct:1 known:1 pass:1 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4,117 | Marley_Marl | Marlon Williams (born 1962 in Queens, New York City), Biography better known as Marley Marl, is considered one of the most important and influential hip-hop producers in the history of hip hop. Pete Rock as well as DJ Premier cite him as their main influence. Biography Marley Marl was the house producer of the Juice Crew, known for The Bridge Wars, a feud with Boogie Down Productions seen as the first hip hop beef. The Juice Crew included Big Daddy Kane, Biz Markie, Roxanne Shanté, Kool G Rap, MC Shan (his cousin) and Masta Ace, and produced songs for outside artists including King Tee and LL Cool J. He was also an important figure in the careers of Eric B. & Rakim, producing their first hits "My Melody" and "Eric B Is President", mixing James Brown samples and synthetic beats in a fashion previously unheard of. Marley Marl was one of the pioneers of sampling in hip hop. He was the first to sample a breakbeat and reprogram it, which he did with the "Impeach the President" breakbeat on the MC Shan single "The Bridge" from 1985. This was an extremely important feat as it completely changed the way hip hop was made as well as other sample based genres. He debuted as an electro producer, but his records became more sample heavy, as can be seen by comparing the MC Shan LPs Down By Law (1987) and Born to be Wild (1988). The rhythms became less electronic, with drum machines becoming more prominent. Marl started his career working for Tuff City records. He debuted with his own track called "DJ Cuttin" in 1985, released under the pseudonym NYC Cutter. In 1994 Marley Marl was referenced on Biggie Smalls' track "Juicy" as being one of his early influences. He still works today and his music has had influences on RZA, DJ Premier as well as Pete Rock, who is also a longtime friend.. Marley Marl is also a legendary DJ member of the The worldwide DJ organization, The Core DJ's. He and KRS-One released Hip-Hop Lives in May 2007 with Marley Marl as the executive producer. On June 5, 2007, Marley Marl suffered a heart attack. He was released from the hospital a few days later on the 8th. According to an interview in The Source, he blamed the heart attack on stress brought on by his worries about being a good father. In 2008, Craig G and he released a collaborative album titled Operation: Take Back Hip-Hop. Discography Albums In Control, Volume 1 (1988) In Control, Volume II - for your steering pleasure (1991) Hip Hop Dictionary (2000) Re-entry (2001) Hip-Hop Lives (2007) (with KRS-One) Operation: Take Back Hip-Hop (2008) (with Craig G) Compilations House of Hits (1995) Best of Cold Chillin' (2001) Marley Marl's House of Hits (released 2007) Production credits 3rd Bass - "Product Of The Environment (Remix)" A.D.O.R. - "One For The Trouble" Aaron Hall - "Curiosity (Remix)" with Redman Bell Biv DeVoe - "She's Dope (EPOD Remix)" Big Daddy Kane - "Ain't No Half Steppin" Big Daddy Kane - "Rap Summary (Lean On Me)" Big Daddy Kane - "Set It Off" Biz Markie - "Biz In Harmony" Biz Markie - "Nobody Beats The Biz" Biz Markie - "Vapors" Bobby Brown - "Feelin Inside (Remix)" Busta Rhymes - "New York Shit (Remix)" with Swizz Beatz & KRS-One Capone-N-Noreaga - "LA, LA" with Mobb Deep & Tragedy Khadafi Craig G - "Let's Get Up" Da Youngsta's - "Hip-Hop Ride" Da Youngsta's - "No More Hard Times" Dimples D. - "Sucker DJ's (I Will Survive)" Dred Scott - "Nuttin' Ta Lose (Remix)" En Vogue - "Hold On (Remix)" Eric B. & Rakim - "Eric B. Is President (Remix)" Eric B. & Rakim - "My Melody (Remix)" Fat Boys - "Crushin" Fat Joe - "Find Out" with Armageddon Paula Abdul - "Straight Up (Remix)" Pop Da Brown Hornet - "Follow Me Up (Remix)" with Down Low Recka Harlem 6 - "The General And The Lieutenant" Heavy D - "Overweight Lover's In The House" Keith Sweat - "Why Me (Remix)" with LL Cool J King Tee - "At Your Own Risk (Remix)" Kool G Rap - "It's A Demo" Kool G Rap - "Rikers Island" Kool G Rap - "Road To Riches" LL Cool J - "Around The Way Girl" LL Cool J - "How I'm Comin" LL Cool J - "Mama Said Knock You Out" LL Cool J - "The Boomin System" LL Cool J - "You Better Watch Me" Lords of the Underground - "Check It (remix)" Lords of the Underground - "Flow On (New Symphony)" with Kid Deleon & Sah-B Lords of the Underground - "Keep It Underground" Lords of the Underground - "Psycho" Masta Ace - "Me And The Biz" with Biz Markie] Masta Ace - "Take A Look Around" MC Lyte - "Cappucino" MC Shan - "Down By Law" MC Shan - "The Bridge" Monie Love - "Born 2 B.R.E.E.D. (Remix)" Monie Love - "There's A Better Way" N.O.R.E. - "40 Island" with Kool G Rap & Musolini Nas - "On The Real" Rahzel - "Make The Music 2000" with TJ Swan Real Live - "All I Ask Of You (Commin Thru)" Sauce Money - "Whats That, Fuck That" Shai - "I Don't Wanna Be Alone" with Jay-Z Screwball - "On The Real" with Cormega & Havoc Sister Sledge - "We Are Family (Remix)" Rick James - "Loosey's Rap (Remix)" with Big Daddy Kane & Roxanne Shante Roxanne Shante - "Live On Stage" Roxanne Shante - "Roxanne's Revenge" Roxanne Shante - "Thin Line" Termanology - "50 Bodies" TLC - "Das Da Way We Like Em" TLC - "This Is How It Should Be Done" Tragedy Khadafi - "At Large" Tragedy Khadafi - "Pump The Funk" UGK - "Next Up" with Big Daddy Kane & Kool G Rap References External links Marley Marl bio The 411 on super-producer, Marley Marl [authored by Balance: 411@hiphop.sh] Allmusic biography Globaldarkness biography | Marley_Marl |@lemmatized marlon:1 williams:1 born:1 queen:1 new:3 york:2 city:2 biography:4 well:4 know:2 marley:10 marl:11 consider:1 one:7 important:3 influential:1 hip:11 hop:11 producer:5 history:1 pete:2 rock:2 dj:7 premier:2 cite:1 main:1 influence:3 house:4 juice:2 crew:2 bridge:3 war:1 feud:1 boogie:1 production:2 see:2 first:3 beef:1 include:2 big:6 daddy:6 kane:6 biz:8 markie:5 roxanne:6 shanté:1 kool:6 g:9 rap:8 mc:6 cousin:1 masta:3 ace:3 produce:2 song:1 outside:1 artist:1 king:2 tee:2 cool:7 j:7 also:3 figure:1 career:2 eric:5 b:7 rakim:3 hit:3 melody:2 president:3 mixing:1 james:2 brown:3 sample:5 synthetic:1 beat:2 fashion:1 previously:1 unheard:1 pioneer:1 breakbeat:2 reprogram:1 impeach:1 single:1 extremely:1 feat:1 completely:1 change:1 way:4 make:2 base:1 genre:1 debut:2 electro:1 record:2 become:3 heavy:2 compare:1 lps:1 law:2 bear:2 wild:1 rhythm:1 less:1 electronic:1 drum:1 machine:1 prominent:1 start:1 work:2 tuff:1 track:2 call:1 cuttin:1 release:4 pseudonym:1 nyc:1 cutter:1 reference:2 biggie:1 small:1 juicy:1 early:1 still:1 today:1 music:2 rza:1 longtime:1 friend:1 legendary:1 member:1 worldwide:1 organization:1 core:1 krs:1 live:3 may:1 executive:1 june:1 suffer:1 heart:2 attack:2 hospital:1 day:1 later:1 accord:1 interview:1 source:1 blame:1 stress:1 bring:1 worry:1 good:3 father:1 craig:3 collaborative:1 album:2 title:1 operation:2 take:3 back:2 discography:1 control:2 volume:2 ii:1 steering:1 pleasure:1 dictionary:1 entry:1 life:1 kr:2 compilation:1 best:1 cold:1 chillin:1 released:1 credit:1 bass:1 product:1 environment:1 remix:17 r:3 trouble:1 aaron:1 hall:1 curiosity:1 redman:1 bell:1 biv:1 devoe:1 dope:1 epod:1 half:1 steppin:1 summary:1 lean:1 set:1 harmony:1 nobody:1 vapor:1 bobby:1 feelin:1 inside:1 busta:1 rhyme:1 shit:1 swizz:1 beatz:1 capone:1 n:2 noreaga:1 la:2 mobb:1 deep:1 tragedy:3 khadafi:3 let:1 get:1 da:5 youngsta:2 ride:1 hard:1 time:1 dimple:1 sucker:1 survive:1 dred:1 scott:1 nuttin:1 ta:1 lose:1 en:1 vogue:1 hold:1 fat:2 boy:1 crushin:1 joe:1 find:1 armageddon:1 paula:1 abdul:1 straight:1 pop:1 hornet:1 follow:1 low:1 recka:1 harlem:1 general:1 lieutenant:1 overweight:1 lover:1 keith:1 sweat:1 risk:1 demo:1 rikers:1 island:2 road:1 riches:1 around:2 girl:1 comin:1 mama:1 say:1 knock:1 boomin:1 system:1 watch:1 lord:4 underground:5 check:1 flow:1 symphony:1 kid:1 deleon:1 sah:1 keep:1 psycho:1 look:1 lyte:1 cappucino:1 monie:2 love:2 e:3 musolini:1 na:1 real:3 rahzel:1 tj:1 swan:1 ask:1 commin:1 thru:1 sauce:1 money:1 whats:1 fuck:1 shai:1 wanna:1 alone:1 jay:1 z:1 screwball:1 cormega:1 havoc:1 sister:1 sledge:1 family:1 rick:1 loosey:1 shante:4 stage:1 revenge:1 thin:1 line:1 termanology:1 body:1 tlc:2 like:1 em:1 large:1 pump:1 funk:1 ugk:1 next:1 external:1 link:1 bio:1 super:1 author:1 balance:1 hiphop:1 sh:1 allmusic:1 globaldarkness:1 |@bigram marley_marl:10 hip_hop:11 daddy_kane:6 biz_markie:5 b_rakim:3 longtime_friend:1 busta_rhyme:1 paula_abdul:1 external_link:1 |
4,118 | Disk_storage | Disk storage or Disc storage is a general category of a computer storage mechanisms, in which data is recorded on planar, round and rotating surfaces (disks, discs, or platters). A disk drive is a peripheral device used to record and retrieve information. Main implementations are hard disks, floppy disks and optical discs. Nowadays the term disk storage almost exclusively refers to hard disk storage. Background History In the late 1940s information from the Manchester Mark 1 was stored externally onto a rotating drum, created in Manchester, England by Prof. F.C. Williams and J.C. West. The drum was coated with Nickel. Dr T Kilburn: The University of Manchester Universal High-speed Digital Computing Machine, Nature, Vol 164, page 684 October 22 1949. Macmillan Magazines Limited, 1949. The magnetic drum, or "wheel" as it was first called, had a set of parallel magnetic tracks around the circumference of the drum forming a circle for each with a head for each of the tracks. Each of these tracks was capable of holding 2560 bits, or 2 pages. The drum had to be carefully synchronised with the main memory store of the computer and was capable of reading data twice as fast as it could write it. Ferranti Ltd., who were developing their business machines from the work done in Manchester, took the prototype drum and improved it, making the reading heads and mechanical parts of the drum much more accurate and stable. This external unit was a 32 page capacity drum backing store, with 2 pages per track, and revolved once per 30 milliseconds. The scientists in Manchester then adopted the improved version for use on the 'Mark 1 Final Specification' due to its better performance. Ferranti used this in the Ferranti Mark 1 commercially available computer produced at their works in Moston, Manchester. From the Ferranti Mark 1's sales book of the time: Then scientists at IBM in San Jose, California expanded on the rotating drum method. The drum was superseded by disks, because of their lower mass and inertia. Rey Johnson, an inventor who worked for IBM for many years, is said to be the "father" of the disk drive. The random-access, low-density storage of disks was developed to complement the already used sequential-access high-density storage provided by magnetic tape. Vigorous innovation in disk storage technology, coupled with less vigorous innovation in tape storage, has reduced the density and cost per bit gap between disk and tape, reducing the importance of tape as a complement to disk. These were movable head devices, usually disks, and fixed head devices, usually drums. Movable head devices store more data per magnetic sensor and usually more per area of the medium. Fixed head devices avoid the seek time, while the head moves to the data. Fixed head devices have not been common since integrated circuit random access memory was developed. So the usual storage devices of, for example, an IBM 360 were discrete transistor registers, magnetic core random access memory, fixed head drums, movable head disk packs (several disks with the heads connected mechanically), and magnetic tape, in order of increasing time to access a random data element. Audio recordings In musical and audio data storage, the first devices were also drum shaped, called phonograph cylinders, which were popularized by Thomas Edison. In the 1910s these were replaced as the dominant medium of sound recording by analogue disc records, commonly called gramophone records (in British English) or phonograph records (in American English). From the 1950s through the 1980s, audio recordings were also done on magnetic tape media of several types, although the vinyl record remained the most popular medium for home use. These were mostly replaced by compact disc technology, where the data is recorded in a digital format as optical information. This compact disc technology has been widely accepted, and data storage, using writable compact disks or CD-R devices is very common. Access methods Disk drives are block storage devices. Each Disk is divided into logical blocks (collection of sectors). Blocks are addressed using their logical block addresses (LBA). Read from or writing to disk happens at the granularity of blocks. Originally the disk capacity was quite low and has been improved in one of several ways. Improvements in mechanical design and manufacture allowed smaller and more accurate heads, meaning that more tracks could be used on each of the platters. Advancements in data compression methods created more information in each of the individual sectors, and this was instrumental in allowing drives to store smaller units of data. sectors of data, the smallest unit stored, were reduced and so less wasted space was created. The drive stores data onto cylinders, heads and sectors. The sectors unit is the smallest size of data to be stored and each file will have many sectors units assigned to it. The information is sent from the computer processor to the BIOS into a chip controlling the data transfer. This is then sent out to the hard drive via a multi-wire connector. Once the data is received onto the circuit board of the drive, it is translated and compressed into a format that the individual drive can use to store onto the disk itself. The data is then passed to a chip on the circuit board that controls the access to the drive. The drive is divided into sectors of data stored onto one of the sides of one of the internal disks. In the picture opposite we have two disk, this gives us 4 sides. The controller chip determines available free space by listing sectors in a table of used and unused areas. This list is what determines where each part of a file is kept and where they are relative to track, sector and disk. Different file systems use different types of addressing systems. For example, Vista uses the NTFS system, whereas Windows 98 systems used the LBA system. Two copies of these lists are normally held and are used to ensure data integrity. If a problem occurs with a hard drive, a disk check can be run and it compares these two lists to determine where the problem occurs and rebuild the file structure from them. When a computer drive is formatted, the data are not erased, the lists are simply deleted and so the drive hardware will treat all sectors as clean and overwrite them with new data. The hardware on the drive now tells the actuator arm where it is to go for the relevant track and the compressed information is then sent down to the head which changes the magnetic properties of each byte on the drive, thus storing the information. The average modern hard drive has 16 heads, 4 on each end of an actuator arm, and four arms, one arm per side of the disk. This gives a total of 16 heads, each of which can write information onto the disk platter itself. A file is not stored in a linear manner, rather it is held in the best way for quickest retrieval. In the late 1990s it would be typical for a sector to be 240 bytes long, and was the smallest unit the drive could contain. If a document was to be stored and only had a small number of letters or graphics in it, for example it might have only contained 500 bytes of actual information. This meant that there would have been 2 x 240 sectors used completely, but one sector would have had only 20 bytes in it, leaving 220 bytes of empty, wasted space for that particular document. As drives improved with accuracy and compression the minimum sector size was reduced and today in 2009 a typical sectors size is around 52 bytes. The same 240 bytes would use 4 full blocks and one block would have 32 bytes in it, only wasting 20 bytes, a substantial saving of wasted space. Mechanically, there are usually two types of motion: the constant rate rotation, which passes the data of a track sequentially under a read head, and the radial (side-to-side) head motion or seek, which selects the track. Rotation is faster than seek, so the logical blocks are related in simple ways to the physical tracks. Interfaces Disk drive interface is the mechanism/protocol of communication between the rest of the system and the disk drive itself. Different interface types include SCSI and SAS for enterprise disks, ATA (PATA), SATA for desktop disks. Crashing Since a magnetic dipole field decreases rapidly with distance from the magnetic material, the space between the head and medium must be controlled with more precision than the thermal expansion of parts of the disk drive. The head, therefor "flies" or is hydrodynamically lubricated by air. That is, the air pulled along by the disk forces the head away from the disk surface. When the disk stops, the head must either "land" or be pulled away. Defects, wear or foreign objects such as dust, can distort the disk and head surfaces, so they make contact and damage each other further. When this process runs away, we say there is a "head crash". This results in lost data and an inoperable device. Head crashes are one of the reasons that important data must be backed up on some other device (often audio or video media). When removable hard disks were used, disc damage was contagious, since either the head or the disk could propagate the damage. Basic terminology Rotation - how the disks spin. Two techniques are common: Constant angular velocity (CAV) keeps the disk spinning at a fixed rate, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). This means the heads cover more distance per unit of time on the outer tracks than on the inner tracks. This method is typical with computer hard drives. Constant linear velocity (CLV) keeps the distance covered by the heads per unit time fixed. Thus the disk has to slow down as the arm moves to the outer tracks. This method is typical for CD drives. Sector - an area of disk enclosed within a given central angle (a pie piece) Platter - an individual disk (since confusingly, what is now commonly called a single hard disk is in fact a set of disks) Head - the device that reads and writes the information - magnetic or optical - on the disk surface. Arm - the mechanical assembly that supports the head as it moves in and out. Seek time - average time needed to move the head to a new position(specific track). Rotational delay - average time, once the arm is on the right track, before a head is over a desired sector. Interleave - the spacing between sectors. Since early hard disks had only enough buffer space to read one sector at a time, sequential sectors were physically spaced on the media to enable the next sector to be in the correct position under the head once the host was ready to read it. At an interleave factor of 3:1, three full rotations would be required to read an entire track. Almost all hard disks since Compaq and Western Digital defined the AT Attachment standard have however used an interleave factor of 1:1. Floppy disks are still usually interleaved. See also Computer data storage Compact disc Early IBM disk storage Floppy disk Hard disk Fragmentation (computer) Solid-state drive Information repository Data proliferation RAID Perpendicular recording Notes | Disk_storage |@lemmatized disk:53 storage:15 disc:8 general:1 category:1 computer:8 mechanism:2 data:25 record:7 planar:1 round:1 rotate:3 surface:4 platter:4 drive:24 peripheral:1 device:13 use:18 retrieve:1 information:11 main:2 implementation:1 hard:11 floppy:3 optical:3 nowadays:1 term:1 almost:2 exclusively:1 refers:1 background:1 history:1 late:2 manchester:6 mark:4 store:13 externally:1 onto:6 drum:13 create:3 england:1 prof:1 f:1 c:2 williams:1 j:1 west:1 coat:1 nickel:1 dr:1 kilburn:1 university:1 universal:1 high:2 speed:1 digital:3 computing:1 machine:2 nature:1 vol:1 page:4 october:1 macmillan:1 magazine:1 limit:1 magnetic:11 wheel:1 first:2 call:4 set:2 parallel:1 track:16 around:2 circumference:1 form:1 circle:1 head:33 capable:2 hold:3 bit:2 carefully:1 synchronise:1 memory:3 read:7 twice:1 fast:1 could:4 write:4 ferranti:4 ltd:1 develop:3 business:1 work:3 take:1 prototype:1 improve:3 make:2 reading:1 mechanical:3 part:3 much:1 accurate:2 stable:1 external:1 unit:8 capacity:2 back:2 per:9 revolve:1 millisecond:1 scientist:2 adopt:1 improved:1 version:1 final:1 specification:1 due:1 good:1 performance:1 commercially:1 available:2 produce:1 moston:1 sale:1 book:1 time:9 ibm:4 san:1 jose:1 california:1 expand:1 method:5 supersede:1 low:3 mass:1 inertia:1 rey:1 johnson:1 inventor:1 many:2 year:1 say:2 father:1 random:4 access:7 density:3 complement:2 already:1 sequential:2 provide:1 tape:6 vigorous:2 innovation:2 technology:3 couple:1 less:2 reduce:4 cost:1 gap:1 importance:1 movable:3 usually:5 fix:5 sensor:1 area:3 medium:7 avoid:1 seek:4 move:4 common:3 since:6 integrated:1 circuit:3 usual:1 example:3 discrete:1 transistor:1 register:1 core:1 pack:1 several:3 connect:1 mechanically:2 order:1 increase:1 element:1 audio:4 recording:4 musical:1 also:3 shape:1 phonograph:2 cylinder:2 popularize:1 thomas:1 edison:1 replace:2 dominant:1 sound:1 analogue:1 commonly:2 gramophone:1 british:1 english:2 american:1 type:4 although:1 vinyl:1 remain:1 popular:1 home:1 mostly:1 compact:4 format:3 widely:1 accept:1 writable:1 cd:2 r:1 block:8 divide:2 logical:3 collection:1 sector:21 address:3 lba:2 happens:1 granularity:1 originally:1 quite:1 one:8 way:3 improvement:1 design:1 manufacture:1 allow:2 small:6 mean:2 advancement:1 compression:2 individual:3 instrumental:1 wasted:2 space:7 size:3 file:5 assign:1 send:3 processor:1 bios:1 chip:3 control:3 transfer:1 via:1 multi:1 wire:1 connector:1 receive:1 board:2 translate:1 compress:1 pass:2 side:5 internal:1 picture:1 opposite:1 two:5 give:3 u:1 controller:1 determine:3 free:1 list:5 table:1 unused:1 keep:3 relative:1 different:3 system:6 vista:1 ntfs:1 whereas:1 windows:1 copy:1 normally:1 ensure:1 integrity:1 problem:2 occur:2 check:1 run:2 compare:1 rebuild:1 structure:1 erase:1 simply:1 deleted:1 hardware:2 treat:1 clean:1 overwrite:1 new:2 tell:1 actuator:2 arm:7 go:1 relevant:1 compressed:1 change:1 property:1 byte:9 thus:2 average:3 modern:1 end:1 four:1 total:1 linear:2 manner:1 rather:1 best:1 quick:1 retrieval:1 would:6 typical:4 long:1 contain:2 document:2 number:1 letter:1 graphic:1 might:1 actual:1 meant:1 x:1 completely:1 leave:1 empty:1 waste:2 particular:1 accuracy:1 minimum:1 today:1 full:2 substantial:1 saving:1 motion:2 constant:3 rate:2 rotation:4 sequentially:1 radial:1 select:1 faster:1 relate:1 simple:1 physical:1 interface:3 protocol:1 communication:1 rest:1 include:1 scsi:1 sa:1 enterprise:1 ata:1 pata:1 sata:1 desktop:1 crash:3 dipole:1 field:1 decrease:1 rapidly:1 distance:3 material:1 must:3 precision:1 thermal:1 expansion:1 therefor:1 fly:1 hydrodynamically:1 lubricate:1 air:2 pull:2 along:1 force:1 away:3 stop:1 either:2 land:1 defect:1 wear:1 foreign:1 object:1 dust:1 distort:1 contact:1 damage:3 far:1 process:1 result:1 lose:1 inoperable:1 reason:1 important:1 often:1 video:1 removable:1 contagious:1 propagate:1 basic:1 terminology:1 spin:2 technique:1 angular:1 velocity:2 cav:1 fixed:1 measure:1 revolution:1 minute:1 rpm:1 cover:2 outer:2 inner:1 clv:1 slow:1 enclose:1 within:1 central:1 angle:1 pie:1 piece:1 confusingly:1 single:1 fact:1 assembly:1 support:1 need:1 position:2 specific:1 rotational:1 delay:1 right:1 desired:1 interleave:4 spacing:1 early:2 enough:1 buffer:1 physically:1 enable:1 next:1 correct:1 host:1 ready:1 factor:2 three:1 require:1 entire:1 compaq:1 western:1 define:1 attachment:1 standard:1 however:1 still:1 see:1 fragmentation:1 solid:1 state:1 repository:1 proliferation:1 raid:1 perpendicular:1 note:1 |@bigram floppy_disk:3 almost_exclusively:1 san_jose:1 integrated_circuit:1 discrete_transistor:1 thomas_edison:1 compact_disc:3 magnetic_dipole:1 angular_velocity:1 |
4,119 | Bodybuilding | 2008 Mr. Olympia Dexter Jackson, posing Bodybuilding is a form of body modification involving intensive muscle hypertrophy; an individual who engages in this activity is referred to as a bodybuilder. In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders display their physiques to a panel of judges, who assign points based on their appearance. The muscles are revealed through a combination of fat loss, oils, and tanning (or tanning lotions) which combined with lighting make the definition of the muscle group more distinct. People well-known for being bodybuilders include Arnold Schwarzenegger, Lou Ferrigno, and Charles Atlas. Currently, Dexter Jackson, holds the title of Mr. Olympia, which is the best-known of many professional and amateur competitions. Jax Native is World's Top Bodybuilder History Early years Eugen Sandow |Eugen Sandow, the "Father of Modern Bodybuilding" The "Early Years" of Western Bodybuilding are considered to be the period between 1880 and 1930. Bodybuilding did not really exist prior to the late 19th century, when it was promoted by a man from Prussia (Germany) named Eugen Sandow, who is now generally referred to as "The Father of Modern Bodybuilding". He is credited as being a pioneer of the sport because he allowed an audience to enjoy viewing his physique in "muscle display performances". Although audiences were thrilled to see a well-developed physique, those men simply displayed their bodies as part of strength demonstrations or wrestling matches. Sandow had a stage show built around these displays through his manager, Florenz Ziegfeld. The Oscar winning 1936 musical film "The Great Ziegfeld", depicts this beginning of modern bodybuilding, when Sandow began to display his body for carnivals. The role of Sandow was played by actor Nat Pendleton. Sandow became so successful at flexing and posing his physique, he later created several businesses around his fame and was among the first to market products branded with his name alone. He was credited with inventing and selling the first exercise equipment for the masses (machined dumbbells, spring pulleys and tension bands) and even his image was sold by the thousands in "cabinet cards" and other prints. Sandow was a strong advocate of "the Grecian Ideal" (this was a standard where a mathematical "ideal" was set up and the "perfect physique" was close to the proportions of ancient Greek and Roman statues from classical times). This is how Sandow built his own physique and in the early years, men were judged by how closely they matched these "ideal" proportions. Sandow organised the first bodybuilding contest on 14 September 1901 called the "Great Competition" and held in the Royal Albert Hall, London, UK. Judged by himself, Sir Charles Lawes, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the contest was a huge success and was sold out and hundreds of physical culture enthusiasts were turned away. The trophy presented to the winner was a bronze statue of Sandow himself sculpted by Frederick Pomeroy. The winner was William L. Murray of Nottingham, England. The most prestigious bodybuilding contest today is the Mr. Olympia, and since 1977, the winner has been presented with the same bronze statue of Sandow that he himself presented to the winner at the first contest. The Mr. Olympia Bodybuilding Contest Trophy and Medal - I.F.B.B.: THE STORY OF THE MR. OLYMPIA TROPHY BY DAVID L. CHAPMAN. BIOGRAPHER OF EUGEN SANDOW. Article First large-scale bodybuilding competition in America On 16 January 1904, the first large-scale bodybuilding competition in America took place at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The winner was Al Treloar and he was declared "The Most Perfectly Developed Man in the World". Treloar won a $1,000 cash prize, a substantial sum at that time. Two weeks later, Thomas Edison made a film of Al Treloar's posing routine. Edison also made two films of Sandow a few years before, making him the man who made the first three motion pictures featuring a bodybuilder. In the early 20th century, Bernarr Macfadden and Charles Atlas, continued to promote bodybuilding across the world. Alois P. Swoboda was an early pioneer in America and the man whom Charles Atlas credited with his success in his statement: "Everything that I know I learned from A. P. (Alois) Swoboda." Notable early bodybuilders Ed Holovchik (aka Ed Fury), bodybuilder and Mr. Los Angeles contestant, 1953 Many other important bodybuilders in the early history of bodybuilding prior to 1930 include: Earle Liederman (writer of some of the earliest bodybuilding instruction books), Zishe Breitbart, Georg Hackenschmidt,Emy Nkemena, George F. Jowett, Finn Hateral (a pioneer in the art of posing), Monte Saldo, Launceston Elliot, Sig Klein, Sgt. Alfred Moss, Joe Nordquist, Lionel Strongfort (Strongfortism), Gustav Fristensky (the Czech champion), Ralph Parcaut, a champion wrestler who also authored an early book on "physical culture," and Alan C. Mead, who became an impressive muscle champion despite the fact that he lost a leg in World War I. 1950s and 1960s Bodybuilding became more popular in the 1950s and 1960s with the emergence of strength and gymnastics champions joining the sport, and the simultaneous popularization of muscle training, most of all by Charles Atlas, whose advertising in comic books and other other publications encouraged many young men to undertake weight training to improve their physiques to resemble the comic books' muscular superheroes. Of notable athletes, US national gymnastics champion John Grimek and British strength athlete Reg Park as winners of newly-created bodybuilding titles such as the Mr. Universe and Mr. America competitions paved the way for others. Magazines such as Strength & Health and Muscular Development were accompanied by the public notoriety of Muscle Beach. The casting of some bodybuilders in movies was another major vehicle for the sport's popularization. Of bodybuilder-actors perhaps the most famous were Steve Reeves and Reg Park, who were featured in roles portraying Hercules, Samson and other legendary heroes. Dave Draper gained public fame through appearances in Muscle Beach Party, part of the "beach party" series of films featuring Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon that began with Beach Blanket Bingo, and also in cameo appearances in television series such as the Beverly Hillbillies. Other rising stars in this period were Larry Scott, Serge Nubret, and Sergio Oliva. The gym equipment and training supplement industry founded by the Joe Weider were complemented by the growth of the International Federation of BodyBuilders (IFBB) by his brother Ben, which eventually displaced the Amateur Athletic Union's Mr. Universe titles and also that of NABBA, the National Amateur Bodybuilders Association as the most important and notable contests. 1970s onwards New organizations In the 1970s, bodybuilding had major publicity thanks to Arnold Schwarzenegger and the 1977 film Pumping Iron. By this time the International Federation of Bodybuilders (IFBB) dominated the sport and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took a back seat. The National Physique Committee (NPC) was formed in 1981 by Jim Manion, who had just stepped down as chairman of the AAU Physique Committee. The NPC has gone on to become the most successful bodybuilding organization in the U.S., and is the amateur division of the IFBB in the United States. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the decline of AAU sponsored bodybuilding contests. In 1999, the AAU voted to discontinue its bodybuilding events. Rise of anabolic steroids This period also saw the rise of anabolic steroids used both in bodybuilding and many other sports. In bodybuilding lore, this is partly attributed to the rise of "mass monsters", beginning with Arnold Schwarzenegger but including Mike Mentzer, Franco Columbu, Lou Ferrigno, Dorian Yates, Lee Haney and Paul DeMayo and also the emergence of athletes such as Rich Gaspari and Andreas Munzer, who defied their natural genetics to attain size and hardness previously unimagined. To combat this, and in the hopes of becoming a member of the IOC, the IFBB introduced doping tests for both steroids and other banned substances. Although doping tests occurred, the majority of professional bodybuilders still used anabolic steroids for competition. During the 1970s the use of anabolic steroids was openly discussed partly due to the fact they were legal. However the U.S. Congress in the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990 placed anabolic steroids into Schedule III of the Controlled substance act (CSA). Similarly in Canada, in the wake of the Ben Johnson scandal, steroids were added to the Criminal Code of Canada as a Class IV controlled substance (that class was created expressly for steroids). World Bodybuilding Federation WBF Logo In 1990, wrestling promoter Vince McMahon announced he was forming a new bodybuilding organization, the World Bodybuilding Federation (WBF). McMahon wanted to bring WWF-style showmanship and bigger prize money to the sport of bodybuilding. A number of IFBB stars were recruited but the roster was never very large, with the same athletes competing; the most notable winner and first WBF champion was Gary Strydom. McMahon formally dissolved the WBF in July 1992. Reasons for this probably included lack of income from the pay-per-view broadcasts of the WBF contests, slow sales of the WBF's magazine Bodybuilding Lifestyles (which later became WBF Magazine), and the expense of paying multiple 6-figure contracts as well as producing two TV shows and a monthly magazine. Olympic sport discussion In the early 2000s, the IFBB was attempting to make bodybuilding an Olympic sport. It obtained full IOC membership in 2000 and was attempting to get approved as a demonstration event at the Olympics which would hopefully lead to it being added as a full contest. This did not happen. Olympic recognition for bodybuilding remains controversial since many argue that bodybuilding is not a sport. Recent developments In 2003, Joe Weider sold Weider Publications to AMI, which owns The National Enquirer. The position of president of the IFBB is vacant following the death of Ben Weider in October 2008. In 2004, contest promoter Wayne DeMilia broke ranks with the IFBB and AMI took over the promotion of the Mr. Olympia contest. Other profesional contests emerged in this period, most notably the Arnold Classic and Night of the Champions but also the European Grand Prix of Bodybuilding. Also with the growth of consumer lifestyles in Europe and especially in Eastern Europe following the collapse of the Soviet Union saw whole new populations of bodybuilders emerge from those areas, and also from the Middle East and Asia. Areas Professional bodybuilding In the modern bodybuilding industry, "professional" generally means a bodybuilder who has won qualifying competitions as an amateur and has earned a "pro card" from the IFBB. Professionals earn the right to compete in sanctioned competitions including the Arnold Classic and the Night of Champions. Placings at such competitions in turn earn them the right to compete at the Mr. Olympia; the title is considered to be the highest accolade in the professional bodybuilding field. Natural bodybuilding In natural contests bodybuilders are routinely tested for illegal substances and are banned for any violations from future contests. Testing can be done on urine samples, but in many cases a less expensive polygraph (lie detector) test is performed instead. What qualifies as an "illegal" substance, in the sense that it is prohibited by regulatory bodies, varies between natural federations, and does not necessarily include only substances that are illegal under the laws of the relevant jurisdiction. Illegal Anabolic steroids, Prohormone and Diuretics, under widespread use by professional bodybuilders, are generally banned by natural organizations. Natural bodybuilding organizations include NANBF (North American Natural Bodybuilding Federation), and the NPA (Natural Physique Association). Natural bodybuilders assert that their method is more focused on competition and a healthier lifestyle than other forms of bodybuilding. Female bodybuilding Pro female bodybuilder Nikki Fuller performs a side chest pose. The first U.S. Women's National Physique Championship, promoted by Henry McGhee and held in Canton, Ohio in 1978, is generally regarded as the first true female bodybuilding contest - that is, the first contest where the entrants were judged solely on muscularity. Todd, Jan, "Bodybuilding", St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture, Gale Group, 1999 In 1980 the first Ms. Olympia (initially known as the "Miss" Olympia), the most prestigious contest for professionals, was held. The first winner was Rachel McLish who had also won the NPC's USA Championship earlier in the year. The contest was a major turning point for the sport of women's bodybuilding. McLish turned out to be very promotable, and inspired many future competitors to start training and competing. In 1985, a movie called Pumping Iron II: The Women was released. This film documented the preparation of several women for the 1983 Caesars Palace World Cup Championship. Competitors prominently featured in the film were Kris Alexander, Lori Bowen, Lydia Cheng, Carla Dunlap, Bev Francis, and Rachel McLish. At the time, Francis was actually a powerlifter, though she soon made a successful transition to bodybuilding, becoming one of the leading competitors of the late 1980s and early 1990s. In recent years, the related areas of fitness and figure competition have gained in popularity, surpassing that of female bodybuilding, and have provided an alternative for women who choose not to develop the level of muscularity necessary for bodybuilding. Rachel McLish would resemble closely what is thought of today as a fitness and figure competition instead of what is now considered female bodybuilding. Competition A bodybuilder posing on stage during a competition. The pose is a variation of the "most muscular". In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders aspire to develop and maintain an aesthetically pleasing (by bodybuilding standards) body and balanced physique. The competitors show off their bodies by performing a number of required poses - the front lat spread, the front double biceps, the back double biceps, the side chest, the side triceps, the most muscular, and the thigh abdominal. Each competitor also performs a choreographed posing routine to display their physique as well as aesthetics, and some are often very artistic in nature. A posedown is usually held at the end of an evening-show judging, while the judges are counting points, and generally does not affect the result. Bodybuilders spend time practicing their posing technique as this has a large effect on how they are judged. Some bodybuilders have been renowned for the skill and artistry of their posing routines. These include John Grimek, Ed Corney and Bob Paris. Others have made famous individual, often original poses, such as the side one-armed biceps in the case of Larry Scott and Dave Draper. In contrast to strongman or powerlifting competitions where physical strength is important, or with Olympic weightlifting, where the main point is equally split between strength and technique, for bodybuilding competitions it is the, size, shape and symmetry that are the important factors during competition. The different types of competitions entail different training and dietary regimens. Preparations Cutting and bulking The general strategy adopted by most present-day competitive bodybuilders is to make muscle gains for most of the year (known as the "off-season") and approximately 12–14 weeks from competition attempt to lose body fat (referred to as "cutting") while minimizing the loss of muscle mass. Generally this involves reducing calorie intake and increasing aerobic exercise while monitoring body fat percentage. The precise effectiveness of the cutting and bulking strategy is unknown, with only limited observational case studies on the subject. No studies involving precise hypercaloric feeding combined with resistance exercise have been conducted. Many non-competitive bodybuilders choose not to adopt this strategy, as it often results in significant unwanted fat gain during the "bulking" phase (particularly for those who do not use anabolic steroids). While competitive bodybuilders focus their efforts to achieve a peak appearance during a brief "competition season", most ordinary people prefer to maintain an attractive physique year-round. Anecdotal evidence suggests that a proper training program combined with a modestly hypercaloric diet with proper macronutrient balance can produce steady gains in size and strength, while avoiding significant increases in body fat. Pre-competition In the week leading up to a contest, bodybuilders may decrease their consumption of water, sodium and carbohydrates, the former two to alter how water is retained by the body and the latter to reduce glycogen in the muscle. The day before the show, water is removed from the diet, and diuretics may be introduced, while carbohydrate loading to increase the size of the muscles through replenishment of their glycogen. The goal is to maximize leanness and increase the visibility of veins. The appearance of veins are further enhanced immediately before appearing on stage by darkening the skin through tanning products, applying oils to the skin to increase shine and some competitors will eat sugar-rich foods to increase the visibility of their veins. A final step is the use of weights to fill the muscles with blood and further increase their size. Muscule growth Bodybuilders use three main strategies to maximize muscle hypertrophy: Strength training through weights or elastic/hydraulic resistance Specialized nutrition, incorporating extra protein and supplements where necessary Adequate rest, including sleep and recuperation between workouts Weight training Weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair to these micro-trauma that result in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease. Nutrition The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a specialized diet. Generally speaking, bodybuilders require more calories than the average person of the same weight to support the protein and energy requirements needed to support their training and increase muscle mass. A sub-maintenance level of food energy is combined with cardiovascular exercise to lose body fat in preparation for a contest. The ratios of food energy from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats vary depending on the goals of the bodybuilder. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates play an important role for bodybuilders. Carbohydrates give the body energy to deal with the rigors of training and recovery. Bodybuilders seek out low-glycemic polysaccharides and other slowly-digesting carbohydrates, which release energy in a more stable fashion than high-glycemic sugars and starches. This is important as high-glycemic carbohydrates cause a sharp insulin response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to store additional food energy as fat rather than muscle, and which can waste energy that should be directed towards muscle growth. However, bodybuilders frequently do ingest some quickly-digesting sugars (often in form of pure dextrose or maltodextrin) after a workout. This may help to replenish glycogen stores within the muscle, and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis. Protein Protein is probably one of the most important parts of the diet for the bodybuilder to consider. Functional proteins such as motor proteins which include myosin, kinesin, and dynein generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles. Current advice says that bodybuilders should consume 25-30% of protein per total calorie intake to further their goal of maintaining and improving their body composition. Lambert CP, Frank LL, Evans WJ. Macronutrient considerations for the sport of bodybuilding. Sports Med. 2004;34(5):317-27. PMID 15107010 This is a widely debated topic, with many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight is ideal, some suggesting that less is sufficient, while others recommending 1.5, 2, or more. Protein: a guide to maximum muscle: confused? Let us separate the gristle from the meat, Samantha Heller, Men's Fitness, April 2004 http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1608/is_4_20/ai_n6002944 Bodybuilders & Protein Part 2, Tom Venuto http://www.bodybuildingforyou.com/articles-submit/tom-venuto/bodybuildiers-and-protein-2.htm Protein Handbook for Beginners, Jeff Bahar, Bodybuilding.com http://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/protein8.htm It is believed that protein needs to be consumed frequently throughout the day, especially during/after a workout, and before sleep. Your nutrition problems solved; This month: pre- and postworkout nutrition, calculating protein intake and adding simple carbs FLEX Magazine, January 2005 There is also some debate concerning the best type of protein to take. Chicken, beef, pork, fish, eggs and dairy foods are high in protein, as are some nuts, seeds, beans and lentils. Casein or whey are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. Whey protein is the type of protein contained in many popular brands of protein supplements, and is preferred by many bodybuilders because of its high Biological Value (BV) and quick absorption rates. Bodybuilders usually require higher quality protein with a high BV rather than relying on protein such as soy, which is often avoided due to its claimed estrogenic properties. Author L. Rea's Core Performance: Truth For Excellence In Physique & Performance -- Soy Proten Sucks! Article Still, some nutrition experts believe that soy, flax seeds and many other plants that contain the weak estrogen-like compounds or phytoestrogens can be used beneficially as phytoestrogens compete with this hormone for receptor sites in the male body and can block its actions. This can also include some inhibition of pituitary functions while stimulating the P450 system (the system that eliminates chemicals, hormones, drugs and metabolic waste product from the body) in the liver to more actively process and excrete excess estrogen. http://www.maxmuscle.com/index.cfm?fa=article&doc_id=116&subcat=science Estrogens, Testosterone & Phytoestrogens By Mike Falcon Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle, and inhibits protein synthesis. Manchester, K.L., “Sites of Hormonal Regulation of Protein Metabolism. p. 229”, Mammalian Protein [Munro, H.N., Ed.]. Academic Press, New York. On p273. Meals Bodybuilders usually split their food intake for the day into 5 to 7 meals of roughly equal nutritional content and attempt to eat at regular intervals (normally between 2 and 3 hours). This method purports to serve 2 purposes: to limit overindulging as well as increasing basal metabolic rate when compared to the traditional 3 meals a day. However, the theory that more frequent eating increases BMR has been debunked as the most reliable research using whole-body calorimetry and doubly-labeled water finds no metabolic advantage to eating more frequently. Dietary supplements The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a wide variety of dietary supplements. Various products are used in an attempt to augment muscle size, increase the rate of fat loss, improve joint health and prevent potential nutrient deficiencies. Scientific consensus supports the effectiveness of only a small number of commercially available supplements when used by healthy, physically active adults. Creatine is probably the most widely used performance enhancing legal supplement. Creatine works by turning into creatine phosphate, which provides an extra phosphorus molecule in the regeneration of ATP. This will provide the body with more energy that lasts longer during short, intense bits of work like weight training. Performance enhancing substances Some bodybuilders use drugs such as anabolic steroids and precursor substances such as prohormones to increase muscle hypertrophy. Most of the substances require medical prescriptions to be accessed legally. Anabolic steroids cause muscle hypertrophy of both types (I and II) of muscle fibers caused likely by an increased synthesis of muscle proteins and are accompanied with undesired side effects including hepatotoxicity, gynecomastia, acne, male pattern baldness and a decline in the body's own testosterone production, which can cause testicular atrophy. Other controlled substances used by competitive bodybuilders include human growth hormone (HGH), which can cause acromegaly. Rest Although muscle stimulation occurs in the gym lifting weights, muscle growth occurs afterward during rest. Without adequate rest and sleep, muscles do not have an opportunity to recover and build. About eight hours of sleep a night is desirable for the bodybuilder to be refreshed, although this varies from person to person. Additionally, many athletes find a daytime nap further increases their body's ability to build muscle. Some bodybuilders take several naps per day, during peak anabolic phases. Overtraining Overtraining occurs when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where his workload exceeds his recovery capacity. There are many reasons that overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate nutrition, lack of recovery time between workouts, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity for too long (a lack of splitting apart workouts). Training at a high intensity too frequently also stimulates the central nervous system (CNS) and can result in a hyper-adrenergic state that interferes with sleep patterns. Testosterone Nation - The Warrior Nerd: Overtraining or Under-eating? Part 1 by Lonnie Lowery, Ph.D. Article To avoid overtraining, intense frequent training must be met with at least an equal amount of purposeful recovery. Timely provision of carbohydrates, proteins, and various micronutrients such as vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, even nutritional supplements are acutely critical. It has been argued that overtraining can be beneficial. One article published by Muscle & Fitness magazine stated that you can "Overtrain for Big Gains". It suggested that if one is planning a restful holiday and they do not wish to inhibit their bodybuilding lifestyle too much, they should overtrain before taking the holiday, so the body can rest easily and recuperate and grow. Overtraining can be used advantageously, as when a bodybuilder is purposely overtrained for a brief period of time to super compensate during a regeneration phase. These are known as "shock micro-cycles" and were a key training technique used by Soviet athletes. However, the vast majority of overtraining that occurs in average bodybuilders is generally unplanned and completely unnecessary. Testosterone Nation - The "Imperfect" Training Program. by Keats Snideman. Article Non muscle-developing methods Some bodybuilders, particularly at professional level, use substances such as site enhancement oil to mimic the appearance of muscle where it may otherwise be disproportionate or lagging. Surgical methods are also often employed to remove steroid-related gynecomastia in male bodybuilders, and breast implants in female bodybuilders who wish to retain a feminine physique, which can be compromised in terms of breast reduction by intense weight training. See also Amazon feminism Athletic training Body image Bodyweight exercise Exercise equipment Exercise physiology Flex magazine Gold's Gym Health club Muscle dysmorphia Muscle worship Physical culture Physical exercise Physical fitness Sports medicine Sports nutrition List of weight training exercises List of male professional bodybuilders List of female bodybuilders List of health and fitness magazines References External links Official IFBB website History of Mr. Olympia Sandow Museum - Historic Photographs of Early Bodybuilders The Golden Age of Bodybuilding be-x-old:Культурызм | Bodybuilding |@lemmatized mr:12 olympia:10 dexter:2 jackson:2 pose:9 bodybuilding:55 form:5 body:23 modification:1 involve:3 intensive:1 muscle:43 hypertrophy:4 individual:2 engage:1 activity:1 refer:3 bodybuilder:55 competitive:6 display:6 physique:16 panel:1 judge:6 assign:1 point:5 base:1 appearance:6 reveal:1 combination:1 fat:10 loss:3 oil:3 tan:2 lotion:1 combine:4 light:1 make:9 definition:1 group:2 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4,120 | Military_of_Latvia | National Armed Forces (Latvian: Nacionālie Bruņotie Spēki (NAF)) are the unified armed forces of the Republic of Latvia. Latvia's defense concept is based upon the Swedish - Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilization base and a small group of career professionals. The National Armed Forces consists of Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force, National Guard and other. Latvia has switched to a professional army, the last draft was in 2005. From January 1, 2007, the Latvian army is fully contract-based. Mission The mission of the National Armed Forces (NAF) is to guarantee the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the nation and to defend its population against aggression. In order to implement these tasks, the NAF provide for the defense of the nation, its air space and national territorial waters, participate in large scale crisis response operations, perform emergency rescue operations, and participate in international peacekeeping operations. The main mission of the National Armed Forces is to: Provide for the inviolability of all national territory, its waters and air space; Participate in international operations; Participate in national threat elimination; Provide for the training of personnel and military reserves. Ensure modernization and enhancement of professional combat training; Structure |Troops of the 2nd Infantry Battalion National Armed Forces consist of: NAF Joint Headquarters NAF Commander’s Personal Staff Land Forces Naval Forces Air Force National Guard Special Tasks Unit Military Police NAF Staff Battalion Security Service of Parliament and State President Training and Doctrine Command Logistics Command Personnel There are 5052 soldiers of professional military service in the NAF. 952 soldiers are in Land Forces, 552 - in Naval Forces, 291 - in Air Force and 550 soldiers of professional military service and 10 642 national guardsmen in National Guard. There are 1380 civil and military employees serving in the NAF. There are 1284 officers, 1945 non-commissioned officers and 1817 privates or privates first class serving in the NAF. Cooperation Along with providing for national defense, the NAF will also react immediately to threats to other allies and to international crises. Latvia cooperates with Estonia and Lithuania in the joint infantry battalion BALTBAT and naval squadron BALTRON which are available for peacekeeping operations. Currently, NATO is involved in the patrolling and protection of the Latvian air space as the Latvian army does not have the means to do so effectively. For this goal a rotating force of four NATO fighters, which comes from different nations and switches at two or three month intervals, is based in Lithuania to cover all three Baltic states (see Baltic Air Policing). Modernization |Latvian soldier in Iraq After joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Latvia has undertaken obligations to strengthen common defense within the scope of its capabilities. For this purpose, every NATO member state delegates its military formations — fast response, well-armed and well-equipped units capable to operate beyond the NATO’s borders. After joining NATO, the foundation of the Latvian defense system has shift from total territorial defense to collective defense. Latvia has acquired small but highly professional troops that have been fully integrated into NATO structures. NAF soldiers have participated in international operations since 1996. Specialized units (e.g. units of military medics, military police, unexploded ordnance neutralizers, military divers and special forces) have been established in order to facilitate and enhance NAF participation in international operations. Special attention has been paid to establishing a unit to deal with the identification and clearance of nuclear pollution. The successful participation of Latvian soldiers in international exercises, operations and missions demonstrates that their professional skills already comply with the performance requirements set by the Alliance. References Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Latvia Mission of Latvia to NATO kamouflage.net > Europe > Latvia (Republic of Latvia) > index www.sargs.lv Stefan Marx, 'The Latvian Defence System,' Jane's Intelligence Review, December 1993, p.557-559 | Military_of_Latvia |@lemmatized national:13 arm:3 force:18 latvian:8 nacionālie:1 bruņotie:1 spēki:1 naf:12 unified:1 armed:4 republic:3 latvia:10 defense:7 concept:1 base:4 upon:1 swedish:1 finnish:1 model:1 rapid:1 response:3 compose:1 mobilization:1 small:2 group:1 career:1 professional:7 consist:2 land:3 naval:4 air:7 guard:3 switch:2 army:3 last:1 draft:1 january:1 fully:2 contract:1 mission:5 guarantee:1 sovereignty:1 territorial:3 integrity:1 nation:3 defend:1 population:1 aggression:1 order:2 implement:1 task:2 provide:4 space:3 water:2 participate:5 large:1 scale:1 crisis:2 operation:8 perform:1 emergency:1 rescue:1 international:6 peacekeeping:2 main:1 inviolability:1 territory:1 threat:2 elimination:1 training:3 personnel:2 military:9 reserve:1 ensure:1 modernization:2 enhancement:1 combat:1 structure:2 troop:2 infantry:2 battalion:3 joint:2 headquarters:1 commander:1 personal:1 staff:2 special:3 unit:5 police:3 security:1 service:3 parliament:1 state:3 president:1 doctrine:1 command:2 logistics:1 soldier:6 guardsman:1 civil:1 employee:1 serve:1 officer:2 non:1 commission:1 private:2 first:1 class:1 serving:1 cooperation:1 along:1 also:1 react:1 immediately:1 ally:1 cooperates:1 estonia:1 lithuania:2 baltbat:1 squadron:1 baltron:1 available:1 currently:1 nato:8 involve:1 patrolling:1 protection:1 mean:1 effectively:1 goal:1 rotate:1 four:1 fighter:1 come:1 different:1 two:1 three:2 month:1 interval:1 cover:1 baltic:2 see:1 iraq:1 join:2 north:1 atlantic:1 treaty:1 organization:1 undertake:1 obligation:1 strengthen:1 common:1 within:1 scope:1 capability:1 purpose:1 every:1 member:1 delegate:1 formation:1 fast:1 well:2 equip:1 capable:1 operate:1 beyond:1 border:1 foundation:1 system:2 shift:1 total:1 collective:1 acquire:1 highly:1 integrate:1 since:1 specialize:1 e:1 g:1 medic:1 unexploded:1 ordnance:1 neutralizers:1 diver:1 establish:2 facilitate:1 enhance:1 participation:2 attention:1 pay:1 deal:1 identification:1 clearance:1 nuclear:1 pollution:1 successful:1 exercise:1 demonstrate:1 skill:1 already:1 comply:1 performance:1 requirement:1 set:1 alliance:1 reference:1 ministry:1 defence:2 kamouflage:1 net:1 europe:1 index:1 www:1 sargs:1 lv:1 stefan:1 marx:1 jane:1 intelligence:1 review:1 december:1 p:1 |@bigram territorial_integrity:1 infantry_battalion:2 |
4,121 | Cotton_Mather | Cotton Mather (February 12, 1663 – February 13, 1728). A.B. 1678 (Harvard College), A.M. 1681; honorary doctorate 1710 (University of Glasgow), was a socially and politically influential New England Puritan minister, prolific author, and pamphleteer. Cotton Mather was the son of influential minister Increase Mather. He is often remembered for his connection to the Salem witch trials. Biography Richard Mather John Cotton (1585–1652) Mather was named after his grandfathers, both paternal (Richard Mather) and maternal (John Cotton). He attended Boston Latin School, and graduated from Harvard in 1678, at only 16 years of age. After completing his post-graduate work, he joined his father as assistant Pastor of Boston's original North Church (not to be confused with the Anglican/Episcopal Old North Church). It was not until his father's death, in 1723, that Mather assumed full responsibilities as Pastor at the Church. Author of more than 450 books and pamphlets, Cotton Mather's ubiquitous literary works made him one of the most influential religious leaders in America. Mather set the nation's "moral tone," and sounded the call for second and third generation Puritans, whose parents had left England for the New England colonies of North America to return to the theological roots of Puritanism. The most important of these, Magnalia Christi Americana (1702), is composed of 7 distinct books, many of which depict biographical and historical narratives which later American writers such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Elizabeth Drew Stoddard, and Harriet Beecher Stowe would look to in describing the cultural significance of New England for later generations following the American Revolution. Mather's text thus was one of the more important documents in American history because it reflects a particular tradition of seeing and understanding the significance of place. Mather, as a Puritan thinker and social conservative, drew on the figurative language of the Bible to speak to present-day audiences. In particular, Mather's review of the American experiment sought to explain signs of his time and the types of individuals drawn to the colonies as predicting the success of the venture. From his religious training, Mather viewed the importance of texts for elaborating meaning and for bridging different moments of history (for instance, linking the Biblical stories of Noah and Abraham with the arrival of eminent leaders such as John Eliot, John Winthrop, and his own father Increase Mather). The struggles of first, second and third-generation Puritans, both intellectual and physical, thus became elevated in the American way of thinking about its appointed place among other nations. The unease and self-deception that characterized that period of colonial history would be revisited in many forms at political and social moments of crisis (such as the Salem witch trials which coincided with frontier warfare and economic competition among Indians, French and other European settlers) and during lengthy periods of cultural definition (e.g., the American Renaissance of the late 18th and early 19th century literary, visual, and architectural movements which sought to capitalize on unique American identities). A friend of a number of the judges charged with hearing the Salem witch trials, Mather admitted the use of "spectral evidence," (compare "The Devil in New England") but warned that, though it might serve as evidence to begin investigations, it should not be heard in court as evidence to decide a case. Despite this, he later wrote in defense of those conducting the trials, stating: "If in the midst of the many Dissatisfaction among us, the publication of these Trials may promote such a pious Thankfulness unto God, for Justice being so far executed among us, I shall Re-joyce that God is Glorified..." (Wonders of the Invisible World). Highly influential due to his prolific writing, Mather was a force to be reckoned with in secular, as well as in spiritual, matters. After the fall of James II of England in 1688, Mather was among the leaders of a successful revolt against James's Governor of the consolidated Dominion of New England, Sir Edmund Andros. The Mather tomb in Copp's Hill Cemetery Mather was influential in early American science as well. In 1716, as the result of observations of corn varieties, he conducted one of the first experiments with plant hybridization. This observation was memorialized in a letter to a friend: "My friend planted a row of Indian corn that was colored red and blue; the rest of the field being planted with yellow, which is the most usual color. To the windward side this red and blue so infected three or four rows as to communicate the same color unto them; and part of ye fifth and some of ye sixth. But to the leeward side, no less than seven or eight rows had ye same color communicated unto them; and some small impressions were made on those that were yet further off." Of Mather's three wives and fifteen children, only his last wife and two children survived him. Mather was buried on Copp's Hill near Old North Church. Smallpox inoculation A smallpox epidemic struck Boston in May 1721 and continued through the year. The practice of smallpox inoculation (as opposed to the later practice of vaccination) had been known for some time. In 1706 a slave, Onesimus, had explained to Mather how he had been inoculated as a child in Africa. The practice was an ancient one, and Mather was fascinated by the idea. He encouraged physicians to try it, without success. Then, at Mather's urging, one doctor, Zabdiel Boylston, tried the procedure on his only son and two slaves–one grown and one a boy. All recovered in about a week. In a bitter controversy, the New England Courant published writers who opposed inoculation. The stated reason for this editorial stance was that the Boston populace feared that inoculation spread, rather than prevented, the disease; however, some historians, notably H. W. Brands, have argued that this position was a result of editor-in-chief James Franklin's (Benjamin Franklin's brother) contrarian positions. Boylston and Mather encountered such bitter hostility, that the selectmen of the city forbade him to repeat the experiment. The opposition insisted that inoculation was poisoning, and they urged the authorities to try Boylston for murder. So bitter was this opposition that Boylston's life was in danger; it was considered unsafe for him to be out of his house in the evening; a lighted grenade was even thrown into the house of Mather, who had favored the new practice and had sheltered another clergyman who had submitted himself to it. After overcoming considerable difficulty and achieving notable success, Boylston traveled to London in 1724, published his results, and was elected to the Royal Society in 1726. Cotton Mather & the Salem Witch Trials New Englanders perceived themselves abnormally susceptible to the Devil’s influence in the 17th century. The idea that New Englanders now occupied the Devil’s land established this fear. It would only be natural for the Devil to fight back against the pious invaders. Cotton Mather shared this general concern, and combined with New England’s lack of piety, Mather feared divine retribution. English writers, who shared Mather’s fears, cited evidence of divine actions to restore the flock. In 1681, a conference of ministers met to discuss how to rectify the lack of faith. In an effort to combat the lack of piety, Cotton Mather considered it his duty to observe and record illustrious providences. Cotton Mather’s first action related to the Salem Witch Trials was the publication of his 1684 essay Illustrious Providences. Mather, being an ecclesiastical man, believed in the spiritual side of the world and attempted to prove the existence of the spiritual world with stories of sea rescues, strange apparitions, and witchcraft. Mather aimed to combat materialism, the idea that only physical objects exist. Such was the social climate of New England when the Goodwin children received a strange illness. Mather, seeing an opportunity to explore the spiritual world, attempted to treat the children with fasting and prayer. After treating the children of the Goodwin family, Mather wrote Memorable Providences, a detailed account of the illness. In January 1692, Abigail Williams and Betty Parris received a similar illness to the Goodwin children; and Mather emerged as an important figure in the Salem Witch trials. Even though Mather never presided in the jury, he exhibited great influence over the witch trials. On May 31, 1692, Mather sent a letter “Return of the Several Ministers,” to the trial. This article advised the Judges to limit the use of Spectral evidence, and recommended the release of confessed criminals. Mather as a negative influence on the trial Critics of Cotton Mather assert that he caused the trials because of his 1688 publication Remarkable Providences, and attempted to revive the trial with his 1692 book Wonders of the Invisible World, and generally whipped up witch hunting zeal. Others have stated, “His own reputation for veracity on the reality of witchcraft prayed, "for a good issue.” Charles Upham mentions Mather called accused witch Martha Carrier a ‘rampant hag.’ The critical evidence of Mather’s zealous behavior comes later, during the trial execution of George Burroughs {Harvard Class of 1670}. Upham gives the Robert Calef account of the execution of Mr. Burroughs; The second issue with Cotton Mather was his influence in construction of the court for the trials. Bancroft quotes Mather, “Intercession had been made by Cotton Mather for the advancement of William Stoughton, a man of cold affections, proud, self-willed and covetous of distinction.” Later, referring to the placement of William Stoughton on the trial, which Bancroft noted was against the popular sentiment of the town. Bancroft referred to a statement in Mather’s diary; Bancroft also noted that Mather considered witches “among the poor, and vile, and ragged beggars upon Earth”, and Bancroft asserts that Mather considered the people against the witch trials to be 'witch advocates.' Mather as a positive influence on the trial Chadwick Hansen’s Witchcraft at Salem, published in 1969, defined Mather as a positive influence on the Salem Trials. Hansen considered Mathers handling of the Goodwin Children to be sane and temperate. Hansen also noted that Mather was more concerned with helping the affected children than witch-hunting. Mather treated the affected children through prayer and fasting. Mather also tried to convert accused witch Goodwife Glover after she was accused of practicing witchcraft on the Goodwin children. Most interestingly, and out of character with the previous depictions of Mather, was Mather’s decision not to tell the community of the others whom Goodwife Clover claimed practiced witch craft. One must wonder if Mather desired an opportunity to promote his church through the fear of witchcraft, why he did not use the opportunity presented by the Goodwin family. Lastly, Hansen claimed Mather acted as a moderating influence in the trials by opposing the death penalty for lesser criminals, such as Tituba and Dorcas Good. Hansen also notes that the negative impressions of Cotton Mather stem from his defense of the trials in, Wonders of the Invisible World. Mather became the chief defender of the trial, which diminished accounts of his earlier actions as a moderate influence. Some historians who have examined the life of Cotton Mather after Chadwick Hansen’s book share his view of Cotton Mather. For instance, Bernard Rosenthal noted that Mather often gets portrayed as the rabid witch hunter. Rosenthal also described Mather’s guilt about his inability to restrain the judges during the trial. Larry Gregg highlights Mather’s sympathy for the possessed, when Mather stated, “the devil have sometimes represented the shapes of persons not only innocent, but also the very virtuous.” And John Demos considered Mather a moderating influence on the trial. Post-Trial After the trial, Cotton Mather was unrepentant for his role. Of the principal actors in the trial, only Cotton Mather and William Stoughton never admitted guilt. In fact, in the years after the trial Mather became an increasingly vehement defender of the trial. At the request of then Lieutenant-Governor William Stoughton, Mather wrote Wonders of the Invisible World in 1693. The book contained a few of Mather’s sermons, the conditions of the colony and a description of witch trials in Europe. Mather also contradicted his own advice in “Return of the Several Ministers,” by defending the use of spectral evidence. Wonders of the Invisible World appeared at the same time as Increase Mather’s Case of Conscience, a book critical of the trial. Upon reading Wonders of the Invisible World, Increase Mather publicly burned the book in Harvard Yard. Also, Boston merchant, Robert Calef began what became an eight year campaign of attacks on Cotton Mather. The last event in Cotton Mather's involvement with witchcraft was his attempt to cure Mercy Short and Margaret Rule. Mather later wrote A Brand Pluck’d Out of the Burning and Another Brand Pluckt Out of the Burning about curing the women. The Christian Philosopher In 1721 The Christian Philosopher was published. Written by Mather, it was the first systematic book on science published in America. Mather attempted to show how Newtonian science and religion were in harmony. It was in part based on Robert Boyle's The Christian Virtuoso (1690). Mather also took inspiration from Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, a philosophical novel by Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail (who he refers to as "Abubekar"), a 12th-century Islamic philosopher. Despite condemning the 'Mahometans' as infidels, he viewed the protagonist of the novel, Hayy, as a model for his ideal 'Christian philosopher' and 'monotheistic scientist'. Mather also viewed Hayy as a noble savage and applied this in the context of attempting to understand the Native American 'Indians' in order to convert them to Puritan Christianity. Major works Wonders of the Invisible World (1693) ISBN 0-7661-6867-0 Online edition (PDF) Magnalia Christi Americana (1702) ISBN 0-674-54155-3 The Negro Christianized (1706) Online edition (PDF) Theopolis Americana: An Essay on the Golden Street of the Holy City (1710) Online edition (pdf) Bonifacius (1710) ISBN 0-7661-6924-3 The Christian Philosopher (1721) ISBN 0-252-06893-9 Religious Improvements (1721) The Angel of Bethesda (1724) Manuductio ad Ministerium (1726) A Token for the Children of New England (1675) ISBN 1-877611-76-X (inspired by the book by James Janeway and published together with his account in the American volume) Triparadisus (1712-1726), Mather's discussion of millennialism, Jewish conversion, the Conflagration, the Second Coming, and Judgment Day R. Smolinski ed, online Biblia Americana (c. 1693-1728), his unpublished commentary on the Bible Other A character based on Cotton Mather plays a major role in The Age of Unreason, a series of four alternate history novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes. References Bibliography Christopher D. Felker, Reinventing Cotton Mather in the American Renaissance: Magnalia Christi Americana in Hawthorne, Stowe, and Stoddard (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), ISBN 1-55553-187-3 Richard F. Lovelace, The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism, (Grand Rapids, Mich.: American University Press, 1979), ISBN 0-8028-1750-5 Robert Middlekauff, The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596-1728, ISBN 0-520-21930-9 E. Jennifer Monaghan, "Learning to Read and Write in Colonial America", ISBN 978-1-55849-581-4 Kenneth Silverman, The Life and Times of Cotton Mather, ISBN 1-56649-206-8 Reiner Smolinski, The Threefold Paradise of Cotton Mather: An Edition of 'Triparadisus'. (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1995), ISBN 0-8203-1519-2 online Reiner Smolinski, "Authority and Interpretation: Cotton Mather's Response to the European Spinozists," in, Shaping the Stuart World, 1603-1714: The Atlantic Connection. Eds. Arthur Williamson and Allan MacInnes. Leyden: Brill, 2006: 175-203 Reiner Smolinski, "How to Go to Heaven, or How Heaven Goes: Natural Science and Interpretation in Cotton Mather's Biblia Americana (1690-1728)," in, The New England Quarterly 81.2 (June 2008): 278-329" Barrett Wendell, Cotton Mather, the Puritan priest, New York, Dodd, Mead and company, 1891. External links Cotton Mather's writings Mather's influential commentary on the "collegiate way of living" The Wonders of the Invisible World'' (1693 edition) in PDF format | Cotton_Mather |@lemmatized cotton:28 mather:93 february:2 b:1 harvard:4 college:1 honorary:1 doctorate:1 university:4 glasgow:1 socially:1 politically:1 influential:6 new:14 england:12 puritan:7 minister:5 prolific:2 author:3 pamphleteer:1 son:2 increase:4 often:2 remember:1 connection:2 salem:8 witch:17 trial:31 biography:1 richard:3 john:5 name:1 grandfather:1 paternal:1 maternal:1 attend:1 boston:6 latin:1 school:1 graduate:2 year:4 age:2 complete:1 post:2 work:3 join:1 father:3 assistant:1 pastor:2 original:1 north:4 church:5 confuse:1 anglican:1 episcopal:1 old:2 death:2 assume:1 full:1 responsibility:1 book:9 pamphlet:1 ubiquitous:1 literary:2 make:3 one:8 religious:3 leader:3 america:4 set:1 nation:2 moral:1 tone:1 sound:1 call:2 second:4 third:2 generation:4 whose:1 parent:1 leave:1 colony:3 return:3 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4,122 | Gilbert_Cesbron | Gilbert Cesbron (1913–1979) was a French novelist. Born in France, Cesbron attended what is now known as Lycée Condorcet. In 1944, he published his first novel, Les innocents de Paris ("The Innocent of Paris"), in Switzerland. He first came into wide public acclaim with the release of Notre prison est un royaume ("Our Prison is a Kingdom") in 1948, and Il est minuit, docteur Schweitzer ("It is midnight, Doctor Schweitzer") in 1950. In his works, Cesbron tended to illustrate and describe relevant social topics such as: juvenile delinquency in Chiens perdus sans collier ("Lost Dogs Without Collars"), violence in Entre chiens et loups ("Between Dogs and Wolves"), euthanasia in Il est plus tard que tu ne penses ("It is Later than You Think"), and working priests in Les Saints vont en enfer ("Saints go to Hell"). In 1955, Cesbron's book Chiens perdus sans collier, the story of an orphan boy and a benevolent judge, was made into a movie starring Jean Gabin and Robert Dalban. | Gilbert_Cesbron |@lemmatized gilbert:1 cesbron:4 french:1 novelist:1 bear:1 france:1 attend:1 know:1 lycée:1 condorcet:1 publish:1 first:2 novel:1 les:2 innocent:2 de:1 paris:2 switzerland:1 come:1 wide:1 public:1 acclaim:1 release:1 notre:1 prison:2 est:3 un:1 royaume:1 kingdom:1 il:2 minuit:1 docteur:1 schweitzer:2 midnight:1 doctor:1 work:2 tend:1 illustrate:1 describe:1 relevant:1 social:1 topic:1 juvenile:1 delinquency:1 chiens:3 perdus:2 sans:2 collier:2 lose:1 dog:2 without:1 collar:1 violence:1 entre:1 et:1 loups:1 wolf:1 euthanasia:1 plus:1 tard:1 que:1 tu:1 ne:1 pen:1 later:1 think:1 priest:1 saint:2 vont:1 en:1 enfer:1 go:1 hell:1 book:1 story:1 orphan:1 boy:1 benevolent:1 judge:1 make:1 movie:1 star:1 jean:1 gabin:1 robert:1 dalban:1 |@bigram juvenile_delinquency:1 |
4,123 | D._B._Cooper | D. B. Cooper is the name attributed to a man who hijacked a Boeing 727 aircraft in the United States on November 24, 1971, received US$200,000 Adjusted for inflation, $200,000 in 1971 has the buying power of over $1,000,000 in 2008. in ransom, and parachuted from the plane. The name he used to board the plane was Dan Cooper, but through a later press miscommunication, he became known as "D. B. Cooper". Despite hundreds of leads through the years, no conclusive evidence has ever surfaced regarding Cooper's true identity or whereabouts, and the bulk of the money has never been recovered. Several theories offer competing explanations of what happened after his famed jump, which the FBI believes he did not survive. The nature of Cooper's escape and the uncertainty of his fate continue to intrigue people. The Cooper case (code-named "Norjak" by the FBI) is the only United States aircraft hijacking never to have been solved, and one of the few such cases anywhere in the world, along with Malaysia Airlines Flight 653. The Cooper case has baffled government and private investigators for decades, with countless leads turning into dead ends. As late as March 2008, the FBI thought it might have had a breakthrough when children unearthed a parachute within the bounds of Cooper's probable jump site near the town of Amboy, Washington. Experts later determined that it did not belong to the hijacker. Despite the case's enduring lack of evidence, a few significant clues have arisen. In late 1978 a placard containing instructions on how to lower the aft stairs of a 727, later confirmed to be from the rear stairway of the plane from which Cooper jumped, was found just a few flying minutes north of Cooper's projected drop zone. In February 1980 on the banks of the Columbia River, eight-year-old Brian Ingram found $5,880 in decaying $20 bills, which proved to be part of the original ransom. In October 2007, the FBI claimed that it had obtained a partial DNA profile of Cooper from the tie he left on the hijacked plane. On December 31, 2007, the FBI revived the unclosed case by publishing never-before-seen composite sketches and fact sheets online in an attempt to trigger memories that could possibly identify Cooper. In a press release, the FBI reiterated that it does not believe Cooper survived the jump, but expressed an interest in ascertaining his identity. Hijacking On Wednesday, November 24, 1971, the day before Thanksgiving in the United States, a man traveling under the name Dan Cooper boarded a Boeing 727-100, Northwest Orient (subsequently Northwest Airlines, now part of Delta Air Lines) Flight 305 (FAA Reg. N467US), flying from Portland International Airport (PDX) in Portland, Oregon to Seattle, Washington. Cooper was described as being in his mid-forties, and between 5 feet 10 inches (1.78 m) and 6 feet (1.83 m) tall. He wore a black raincoat, loafers, a dark suit, a neatly pressed white collared shirt, a black necktie, black sunglasses and a mother of pearl tie pin. Cooper sat in the back of the plane in seat 18C. After the jet had taken off from Portland, he handed a note to a young flight attendant named Florence Schaffner, who was seated in a jumpseat attached to the aft stair door, situated directly behind and to the left of Cooper's seat. She thought he was giving her his phone number, so she slipped it, unopened, into her pocket. Cooper leaned closer and said, "Miss, you'd better look at that note. I have a bomb." In the envelope was a note that read: "I have a bomb in my briefcase. I will use it if necessary. I want you to sit next to me. You are being hijacked." The note also provided demands for $200,000, in unmarked $20 bills, and two sets of parachutes—two main back chutes and two emergency chest chutes. The note carried instructions ordering the items to be delivered to the plane when it landed at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport; if the demands were not met, he would blow up the plane. Bragg, p. 3. When the flight attendant informed the cockpit about Cooper and the note, the pilot, William Scott, contacted Seattle-Tacoma air traffic control, who contacted Seattle police and the FBI. The FBI contacted Northwest Airlines president Donald Nyrop, who instructed Scott to cooperate with the hijacker. Scott instructed Schaffner to go back and sit next to Cooper, and ascertain if the bomb was in fact real. Sensing this, Cooper opened his briefcase momentarily, long enough for Schaffner to see red cylinders, a large battery, and wires, convincing her the bomb was real. He instructed her to tell the pilot not to land until the money and parachutes Cooper had requested were ready at Seattle-Tacoma. She went back to the cockpit to relay Cooper's instructions. Releasing passengers in exchange for demands Following Cooper's demands, the jet was put into a holding pattern over Puget Sound, while Cooper's demands for $200,000 and four parachutes were met. In assembling the cash demands, FBI agents followed Cooper's instruction for unmarked bills, but they decided to give bills printed mostly in 1969 (although some were older or newer), that mostly had serial numbers beginning with the letter L, issued by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. The agents also ran all of the 10,000 $20 bills quickly through a Recordak device to create a microfilm photograph of each bill and thus record all the serial numbers. Himmelsbach and Worcester, p. 25 Authorities initially intended to obtain military-issue parachutes from McChord Air Force Base, but Cooper said he wanted civilian parachutes, which had manually operated ripcords. Seattle police were able to find Cooper's preferred parachutes at a local skydiving school. Meanwhile, Cooper sat in the airplane, drinking bourbon whiskey and soda, which he would offer to pay for. Tina Mucklow, a flight attendant who spent the most time with the hijacker, remarked Cooper "seemed rather nice," and thoughtful enough to request the crew be brought meals after the jet landed in Seattle. However, FBI investigators for the Cooper case claim the hijacker was "obscene," and used "filthy language." At 17:24, airport traffic control radioed Scott and told him that Cooper's demands had been met. Cooper then gave Captain Scott permission to land at the flight's intended destination, Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (SEA) near Seattle, Washington. The plane landed at the airport at 17:39. Cooper then instructed Scott to taxi the plane to a remote section of the tarmac and also dim the lights in the cabin to deter police snipers. He instructed air traffic control to send one person to deliver the $200,000 and four parachutes, unaccompanied. The person chosen, a Northwest Orient employee, drove to the plane and delivered the cash and parachutes to flight attendant Mucklow, via the aft stairs. A few minutes after his demands were met, Cooper released all 36 passengers and attendant Schaffner via the aft stairs. Pilot Scott, flight attendant Mucklow, First Officer Bob Rataczak and flight engineer H.E. Anderson were not permitted to leave the aircraft. The FBI was puzzled regarding Cooper's plans, and his request of four parachutes. The agents wondered if Cooper had an accomplice on board, or if the parachutes were intended for the four crew members who were still on the plane. Up to this point in history, nobody had ever attempted to jump with a parachute from a hijacked commercial aircraft. While the plane was being refueled, an FAA official, who wanted to explain to the hijacker the legal consequences of air piracy, walked to the door of the plane and asked Cooper's permission to come aboard the plane. Cooper promptly denied the official's request. A vapor lock in the fuel tanker truck's engines slowed down the refueling process. Cooper became suspicious when the refueling had still not been completed after 15 minutes. He made threats to blow up the plane, upon which the fuel crew promptly tried to speed up the job until completion. Back in the skies After refueling, careful examination of the ransom and parachutes, and negotiations regarding the flight pattern and the position of the aft stairs upon take-off, Cooper ordered the flight crew to take the hijacked jet back into the air at around 19:40 (7:40 pm). The crew was ordered to fly to Mexico City, at a relatively low speed of 170 knots (200 mph or 320 km/h), an altitude at or under 10,000 feet (3,000 m) (normal cruising altitude is between 25,000 and 37,000 feet or 7,600 – 11,000 m), with the landing gear down and 15 degrees of flap. Rothenberg and Ulvaeus, p. 5. However, First Officer Rataczak told him that the jet could only fly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) under the altitude and airspeed conditions Cooper ordered. Cooper and the crew discussed other possible locations, before deciding on flying to Reno, Nevada, where they would again refuel. They also agreed to fly on Victor 23 as depicted on the Jeppesen air navigational charts, a low-altitude Federal airway that passed west of the Cascade Range. Cooper then ordered Scott to leave the cabin unpressurized. An unpressurized cabin at would curtail the risk of a sudden rush of air exiting the plane (and ease the opening of the pressure door) if he were to attempt to exit the aircraft for a subsequent parachute landing. Immediately upon takeoff, Cooper asked Mucklow, who had previously been sitting with him, to go back to the cockpit and stay there. Before she went behind the curtain that separates the coach and first-class seats, she watched him tie something to his waist with what she thought was rope. Moments later in the cockpit, the crew noticed a light flash indicating that Cooper attempted to operate the door. Over the intercom, Scott asked Cooper if there was anything they could do for him, but the hijacker replied curtly, "No!" The crew started to notice a change of air pressure in the cabin (an "ear popping experience"). Cooper had lowered the aft stairs and jumped out of the plane never to be seen again. Bragg, p. 4. That was the last time he was known to be alive. The FBI believed his descent was at 20:13 (8:13 pm) over the southwestern portion of the state of Washington, because the aft stairway "bumped" at this time, most likely due to the weight of Cooper being released from the aft stairs. At the time Cooper jumped, the plane was flying through a heavy rainstorm, with no light source coming from the ground due to cloud coverage. Because of the poor visibility, his descent went unnoticed by the United States Air Force F-106 jet fighters tracking the airliner. He initially was believed to have landed southeast of the unincorporated area of Ariel, Washington, near Lake Merwin, north of Portland, Oregon (). Later theories based on a variety of sources—including testimony on weather conditions from Continental Airlines pilot Tom Bohan, who had been flying above and 4 minutes behind Flight 305—placed Cooper's landing zone as much as farther east, but its precise location remains unknown. Himmelsbach and Worcester, p. 111-113 Nearly 2½ hours after take-off from Seattle-Tacoma, at approximately 22:15, with the aft stairs dragging on the runway, the Boeing 727 landed safely in Reno. The airport and runway were surrounded by FBI agents and local police. After communicating with Captain Scott, it was determined Cooper was gone, and FBI agents boarded the plane to search for any evidence left behind. They recovered a number of fingerprints (which may or may not have belonged to Cooper), a tie and a mother of pearl tie clip, and two of the four parachutes. Cooper was nowhere to be found, nor was his briefcase, the money, the moneybag, or the two remaining parachutes. The individuals with whom Cooper had interacted on board the plane and while he was on the ground were interrogated to compile a composite sketch; those interviewed all gave nearly identical descriptions of him, leading the FBI to create the sketch that has been used on wanted posters ever since, where Dan Cooper is described as being of Latin appearance. FBI FOIA file part 1, from FBI FOIA catalogue on the Dan Cooper case, also see the actual FBI poster. , the FBI maintains that the sketch is an accurate likeness of Cooper because so many individuals, interviewed simultaneously in separate locations, gave nearly identical descriptions. Vanished without a trace Despite aerial and ground searches of the projected landing zone in late 1971 and spring 1972, no trace of Cooper or his parachute was found. An exact landing point was difficult to determine, as the plane's -per-second speed in winds varying by location and altitude would make even small differences in timing move the projected landing point considerably. This led the FBI to determine that Cooper could not have known exactly where he would land, and therefore must not have had an accomplice waiting to assist him upon landing. Initial search efforts combined small groups of FBI agents with local Clark and Cowlitz County sheriff's deputies, who probed on foot and by helicopter. Others ran patrol boats along Lake Merwin and Yale Lake. Himmelsbach and Worcester, p. 67-68. Because months passed with no significant leads coming from anywhere else, the arrival of the spring thaw provided incentive for a thorough ground search, conducted by the FBI and no fewer than 200 U.S. Army troops from nearby Fort Lewis. Teams of agents and soldiers searched the area virtually yard by yard for eighteen straight days in March and for another 18 straight days in April 1972. After a combined six weeks of searching the projected drop zone, one of the most intense manhunts in the history of the northwestern U.S. revealed no evidence related to the hijacking. Himmelsbach and Worcester, p. 87-89. As a result, it remains widely disputed whether Cooper actually landed outside the initial estimated drop zone, as well as whether he survived the jump and subsequently escaped on foot. Shortly after the hijacking, the FBI questioned and then released a Portland man by the name of D. B. Cooper, who was never considered a significant suspect. Due to a miscommunication with the media, however, the initials "D. B." became firmly associated with the hijacker and this is how he is now known. Meanwhile, the FBI also stepped up efforts to track the 10,000 ransomed $20 bills by notifying banks, savings and loan companies, and other businesses of the notes’ serial numbers. Law enforcement agencies around the globe, including Scotland Yard, also received information on Cooper and the serial numbers. In the months following the hijacking, Northwest Airlines offered a reward of 15 percent of the recovered money up to a maximum of $25,000, but the airline eventually canceled the offer as no new substantial evidence seemed to arise. In November 1973, The Oregon Journal, based in Portland, began publishing the first public listings of the serial numbers with permission from the FBI and offered $1,000 to the first person who could claim to have found a single one of the $20 bills. Later, the Seattle Post-Intelligencer offered a $5,000 reward for one of the bills. Himmelsbach and Worcester, p. 95. Despite reported interest from around the country and several alleged near-matches, the newspapers never received a claim of an exact serial number match. In the decade before the Cooper hijacking, local law enforcement and the FBI had solved at least two major crimes—a bank robbery and an extortion—in the Pacific Northwest by tracing money serial numbers. But both cases, which took only weeks for authorities to solve, involved instances of a perpetrator spending the traceable money only days after the crime and in the same general region of the crime, circumstances that in all likelihood did not apply in the Cooper case. In late 1978, a hunter walking just a few flying minutes north of Cooper's projected drop zone found a placard with instructions on how to lower the aft stairs of a 727. The placard was from the rear stairway of the plane from which Cooper jumped. On February 10, 1980, Brian Ingram, then eight years old, was with his family on a picnic when he found $5,880 in decaying bills (a total of 294 $20 bills), still bundled in rubber bands, approximately from the waterline and just below the surface, on the banks of the Columbia River 5 miles (8 km) northwest of Vancouver, Washington. After comparing the serial numbers with those from the ransom given to Cooper almost nine years earlier, it was proven that the money found by Ingram was part of the ransom given to Cooper. Upon the discovery, then-FBI lead investigator Ralph Himmelsbach declared that the money "must have been deposited within a couple of years after the hijacking" because "rubber bands deteriorate rapidly and could not have held the bundles together for very long." However, several area scientists recruited by the FBI for assistance with the case noted their belief that the money arrived at the beach as a result of a 1974 Army Corps of Engineers dredging operation. Furthermore, some scientists estimated that the money’s arrival must have occurred even later. Geologist Leonard Palmer of Portland State University, for example, reportedly concluded that the 1974 dredging operation did not place the money on the Columbia's riverbank because Ingram had found the bills above clay deposits put on shore by the dredge. The FBI generally agree now that the money had to have arrived at the location on the riverbank no earlier than 1974. Some investigators and hydrologists have theorized that the bundled bills washed freely into the Columbia River from one of its many connecting tributaries, such as the Washougal River, which originate or run near Cooper's suspected landing zone. Ingram's discovery of the $5,880 reinforced the FBI's belief that Cooper probably did not survive the jump, in large part because of the unlikelihood that such a criminal would be willing to leave behind any of the loot for which he had risked his life. Authorities eventually allowed Ingram to keep a split of about $2,860 of the recovered money, with the amount being a rough estimate because of the badly deteriorated condition of the bills. On June 13, 2008, in accordance with Ingram's wishes, the Heritage Auction Galleries' Americana Memorabilia Grand Format Auction in Dallas, Texas sold fifteen of the bills to various buyers for a total of more than $37,000. , the rest of the money remains unrecovered. The serial numbers of all 9,998 $20 bills that the hijacker was given were databased and placed in a search engine for public search. D B Cooper's Loot Aftermath Effect on the airline industry The hijacking caused major changes in commercial flight safety, mainly in the form of metal detectors added to the airports by the airline companies, several related flight safety rules set in place by the FAA, and modifications made to the Boeing 727 aircraft. Following three similar but less successful hijackings in 1972, the Federal Aviation Administration required that all Boeing 727 aircraft be fitted with a device known as the "Cooper vane", (named after Cooper) a mechanical aerodynamic wedge that prevents the airstair or rear stairway of an aircraft from being lowered in flight. Suspects The FBI has investigated over a thousand "serious suspects", and ruled out most (but not all) of them. The FBI believed that Cooper was familiar with the Seattle area, as he was able to recognize Tacoma from the air while the jet was circling over the Puget Sound. He also remarked to flight attendant Mucklow that McChord Air Force Base was approximately 20 minutes from the Seattle-Tacoma Airport. Although the FBI initially believed that Cooper might have been an active or retired member of the United States Air Force, based on his apparent knowledge of jet aerodynamics and skydiving, it later changed this assessment, deciding that no experienced parachutist would have attempted such a risky jump. John List In 1971, mass-murderer John List was considered a suspect in the Cooper hijacking, which occurred only fifteen days after he had killed his family in Westfield, New Jersey. List's age, facial features, and build were similar to those described for the mysterious skyjacker. FBI agent Ralph Himmelsbach stated that List was a "viable suspect" in the case. Cooper parachuted from the hijacked airliner with $200,000, the same amount List had used up from his mother's bank account in the days before the killing. After his capture and imprisonment in 1989, List strenuously denied being Cooper, and the FBI no longer considered him a suspect. List died in prison custody on March 21, 2008. Richard McCoy, Jr. On April 7, 1972, four months after Cooper's hijacking, Richard McCoy, Jr., under the alias "James Johnson," boarded United Airlines Flight 855 during a stopover in Denver, Colorado, and gave the flight steward an envelope labeled "Hijack Instructions," in which he demanded four parachutes and $500,000. He also instructed the pilot to land at San Francisco International Airport and order a refueling truck for the plane. The airplane was a Boeing 727 with aft stairs, which McCoy used in his escape. He was carrying a paper weight grenade and an empty pistol. He left his handwritten message on the plane, along with his fingerprints on a magazine he had been reading, which the FBI later used to establish positive identification. Police began investigating McCoy following a tip from Utah Highway Patrolman Robert Van Ieperen, who was a friend of McCoy's. Apparently, after the Cooper hijacking, McCoy had made a reference that Cooper should have asked for $500,000, instead of $200,000. Van Ieperen thought that was an odd coincidence, so he alerted the FBI. Married and with two young children, McCoy was a Mormon Sunday school teacher studying law enforcement at Brigham Young University. He had a record as a Vietnam veteran and was a former helicopter pilot, and an avid skydiver. On April 9, following the fingerprint and handwriting match, McCoy was arrested for the United 855 hijacking. Coincidentally, McCoy had been on National Guard duty flying one of the helicopters involved in the search for the hijacker. Inside his house FBI agents found a jumpsuit and a duffel bag filled with $499,970 in cash. McCoy claimed innocence, but was convicted and received a 45-year sentence. Once incarcerated, using his access to the prison's dental office, McCoy fashioned a fake handgun out of dental paste. He and a crew of convicts escaped in August 1974 by stealing a garbage truck and crashing it through the prison's main gate. It took three months before the FBI located McCoy in Virginia. McCoy shot at the FBI agents, and agent Nicholas O'Hara fired back with a shotgun, killing him. In 1991, Bernie Rhodes and former FBI agent Russell Calame coauthored D.B. Cooper: The Real McCoy, in which they claimed that Cooper and McCoy were really the same person, citing similar methods of hijacking and a tie and mother-of-pearl tie clip, left on the plane by Cooper. Neither Rhodes nor Calame were involved in the original Cooper investigation, but Calame was the head of the Utah FBI office that investigated McCoy, and eventually arrested him for the copycat hijacking that occurred in April 1972. The author said that McCoy "never admitted nor denied he was Cooper." And when McCoy was directly asked whether he was Cooper he replied, "I don't want to talk to you about it." The agent who killed McCoy is quoted as supposedly saying, "When I shot Richard McCoy, I shot D. B. Cooper at the same time." The widow of Richard McCoy, Karen Burns McCoy, reached a $120,000 legal settlement with the book's co-authors and its publisher, after claiming they misrepresented her involvement in the hijacking and later events from interviews done with her attorney in the 1970s. Duane Weber In July 2000, U.S. News & World Report ran an article about a widow in Pace, Florida, named Jo Weber and her claim that her late husband, Duane L. Weber (born 1924 in Ohio), had told her "I'm Dan Cooper" before his death on March 28, 1995. She became suspicious and began checking into his background. Weber had served in the Army during World War II and had later served time in a prison near the Portland airport. Weber recalled that her husband had once had a nightmare where he talked in his sleep about jumping from a plane and said something about leaving his fingerprints on the aft stairs. Jo recalled that shortly before Duane's death, he had revealed to her that an old knee injury of his had been incurred by "jumping out of a plane." Weber also recounts a 1979 vacation the couple took to Seattle, "a sentimental journey," Duane told Jo, with a visit to the Columbia River. She remembers how Duane walked down to the banks of the Columbia by himself just four months before the portion of Cooper's cash was found in the same area. Weber related that she had checked out a book on the Cooper case from the local library and saw notations in it that matched her husband's handwriting. She began corresponding with Himmelsbach, the former chief investigator of the case, who subsequently agreed that much of the circumstantial evidence surrounding Weber fit the hijacker's profile. However, the FBI stopped investigating Weber in July 1998 because of a lack of hard evidence. The FBI compared Weber's prints with those processed from the hijacked plane and found no matches. In October 2007, the FBI stated that a partial DNA sample taken from the tie that Cooper had left on the plane did not belong to Weber. Kenneth Christiansen The October 29, 2007 issue of New York magazine stated that Kenneth P. Christiansen had been identified as a suspect by Sherlock Investigations. The article noted that Christiansen is a former army paratrooper, a former airline employee, had settled in Washington near the site of the hijacking, was familiar with the local terrain, had purchased property with cash a year after the hijacking, drank bourbon and smoked (as did Cooper during the flight) and resembled the eyewitness sketches of Cooper. However, the FBI ruled out Christiansen because his complexion, height, weight and eye color did not match the descriptions given by the passengers or the crew of Flight 305. William Gossett On August 4, 2008, Canadian Press reported that a Spokane, Washington lawyer believes that the ransom money is stored in a Vancouver, British Columbia, safety deposit box under the name of William Gossett, a college instructor from Ogden, Utah, who died in 2003. Lawyer Galen Cook says that Gossett matches the sketches circulated by the FBI. Also, Gossett is alleged to have bragged to his sons about the hijacking and shown them a key to the safety deposit box. Gossett is also said to have confessed to two people, including a judge and a lawyer, and his own son also believed that his father was the infamous hijacker. Renewed FBI interest and new evidence On November 1, 2007, the FBI released detailed information concerning some of the evidence in their possession, which they had not revealed to the public before. The FBI displayed Cooper's 1971 plane ticket from Portland to Seattle, which cost $18.52. It also revealed that he requested four parachutes—two main back chutes and two reserve chest chutes. Authorities inadvertently supplied Cooper with a "dummy" reserve chute—an unusable parachute that is sewn shut for classroom demonstration. The dummy chute was not left behind on the plane, and some theorize Cooper did not realize it was not functional. This piece of information had been revealed in a 1979 episode of TV documentary series In Search of.... The other reserve parachute, which was a functional parachute, was popped open and the shrouds were cut and supposedly used to secure the money bag. On December 31, 2007, the FBI issued a press release online containing never before seen photos and fact sheets in an attempt to trigger memories or useful information regarding Cooper's identity. In the fact sheets, the FBI withdrew its previous theory that Cooper was either an experienced skydiver or paratrooper. While it was initially believed that Cooper must have had training to have performed such a feat, later analysis of the chain of events led the FBI to reevaluate this claim. Investigators said that no experienced paratrooper or skydiver would attempt a jump during a rainstorm with no light source. Investigators also believe that, even if Cooper was in a hurry to escape, an experienced jumper or paratrooper would have stopped to inspect his chutes. On March 24, 2008, the FBI announced that it was in possession of a parachute recovered from a field in northern Clark County, Washington, near the town of Amboy. A property owner was in the process of making a private road with a bulldozer when the blade caught some cloth, and his children pulled the cloth until the canopy lines appeared. Earl Cossey, the man who provided the four parachutes that were given to Cooper by the FBI, examined the newly found chute and on April 1, 2008 said that "absolutely, for sure" it could not have been one of the four that he supplied in 1971. The Cooper parachutes were made of nylon, unlike the new chute that was recovered which is made of silk and most likely made around 1945. The FBI later made a press release confirming Cossey's findings. Investigators reached their official conclusion after consulting Cossey and other parachute experts. "From the best we could learn from the people we spoke to, it just didn't look like it was the right kind of parachute in any way," said FBI spokeswoman Robbie Burroughs. Further digging at the site in southwestern Washington turned up no indication that it could have been Cooper's. FBI Special Agent Larry Carr has theorized that Cooper took his alias from Dan Cooper, a French comic book character who is depicted parachuting on the cover of one issue. Cultural phenomenon Cooper's daring and unprecedented acts inspired a cult following, expressed through song, film and literature. Cities in the Pacific Northwest sold tourist souvenirs and held celebrations in his memory. He is remembered in Ariel with an annual "Cooper Day" event on November 24, and elsewhere with Cooper-themed promotions held by restaurants and bowling alleys. See also List of people who have mysteriously disappeared Cold case Samuel Byck Footnotes Further reading The book includes a full list of serial numbers from the $20 notes that were given to Cooper. External links FBI FOIA Reading Room Files of the "Norjak" D.B. Cooper Case D.B. Cooper Memorial At Find A Grave Check-Six.com - Codename:Norjak - The Skyjacking of Northwest Orient Flight 305 Radio interviews about D. B. Cooper's identity with major authors Nov. 27, 1971, account of the hijacking in the Minneapolis Tribune Radio interview with FBI lead investigator Larry Carr Video tour of D.B. Cooper evidence with FBI lead investigator Larry Carr PCGS Currency Notifies FBI of “D. B. Cooper” Serial Numbers Check-Six.com - D B Cooper's Loot Serial Number Search Engine Fifteen D.B. 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4,124 | International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia | The International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, more commonly referred to as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia or ICTY, is a body of the United Nations (UN) established to prosecute serious crimes committed during the wars in the former Yugoslavia, and to try their alleged perpetrators. The tribunal is an ad-hoc court which is located in The Hague, the Netherlands. It was originally proposed by German Foreign Minister Klaus Kinkel and established by Resolution 827 of the United Nations Security Council, which was passed on May 25, 1993. It has jurisdiction over four clusters of crime committed on the territory of the former Yugoslavia since 1991: grave breaches of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, violations of the laws or customs of war, genocide, and crime against humanity. It can try only individuals, not organizations or governments. The maximum sentence it can impose is life imprisonment. Various countries have signed agreements with the UN to carry out custodial sentences. The last indictment was issued March 15, 2004. The Tribunal aims to complete all trials by the end of 2009 and all appeals by 2010. The ICTY should not be confused with the International Criminal Court and the International Court of Justice; both courts are also based in The Hague, but have a permanent status and different jurisdictions. Organization The Tribunal employs around 1,200 staff. Its organisational components are Chambers, Registry and the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP). Chambers encompasses the judges and their aides. The Tribunal operates three Trial Chambers and one Appeals Chamber. The President of the Tribunal is also the presiding Judge of the Appeals Chamber. Currently, this is Patrick Robinson of Jamaica (since 2008). His predecessors were Antonio Cassese of Italy (1993–1997), Gabrielle Kirk McDonald of the United States (1997–1999), Claude Jorda of France (1999–2002), Theodor Meron of the United States (2002–2005), Fausto Pocar of Italy (2005-2008). The Registry is responsible for handling the administration of the Tribunal; activities include keeping court records, translating court documents, transporting and accommodating those who appear to testify, operating the Public Information Section, and such general duties as payroll administration, personnel management and procurement. It is also responsible for the Detention Unit for indictees being held during their trial and the Legal Aid program for indictees who cannot pay for their own defence. It is headed by the Registrar, currently Hans Holthuis of the Netherlands (since 2001). His predecessors were Dorothée de Sampayo Garrido-Nijgh of the Netherlands (1995–2000) and Theo van Boven of the Netherlands (February 1994 to December 1994). The Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) is responsible for investigating crimes, gathering evidence and prosecuting indictees. It is headed by the Prosecutor, Serge Brammertz. Previous Prosecutors have been Ramón Escovar Salom of Venezuela (1993–1994), Richard Goldstone of South Africa (1994–1996), Louise Arbour of Canada (1996–1999) and Carla Del Ponte of Switzerland (1999–2007), who until 2003, simultaneously served as the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda where she led the OTP since 1999. Judges There are 16 permanent judges and 12 ad litem judges who serve on the tribunal. They are elected to four-year terms by the UN General Assembly. They can be re-elected. On 17 November 2008, Judge Patrick Robinson (Jamaica) was elected as the new President of the ICTY by the permanent judges in an Extraordinary Plenary Session. Judge O-Gon Kwon (South Korea) was elected as the new Vice-President. Judge Robinson elected new ICTY President from Hague Justice Portal Name Country Position Elected Term Ends Fausto Pocar Italy Judge 2001 2009Kevin Parker Australia Judge 2003 2009Patrick Lipton Robinson Jamaica President 1998 2010 Carmel A. Agius Malta Presiding Judge 2001 2007 Alphonsus Martinus Maria Orie Netherlands Presiding Judge 2001 2007 Mohamed Shahabuddeen Guyana Judge 1997 2009Mehmet Güney TurkeyJudge 2001 2007Liu Daqun ChinaJudge 2000 2012Andresia Vaz Senegal Judge 2005 2011Theodor Meron United States Judge 2001 2007Wolfgang Schomburg Germany Judge 2001 2007O-Gon Kwon South Korea Vice-President 2001 2007Jean-Claude Antonetti France Judge 2003 2009Iain Bonomy United Kingdom Judge 2004 2010Christine Van Den Wyngaert Belgium Judge 2003 2009Bakone Justice Moloto South Africa Judge 2005 2011Krister Thelin Sweden Ad Litem Judge 2003 2009Janet M. Nosworthy Jamaica Ad Litem Judge 2005 2011Frank Hoepfel Austria Ad Litem Judge 2005 2011Árpád Prandler Hungary Ad Litem Judge 2006 2012Stefan Trechsel Switzerland Ad Litem Judge 2006 2012Antoine Kesia-Mbe Mindua Congo Ad Litem Judge 2006 2012Ali Nawaz Chowhan Pakistan Ad Litem Judge 2006 2012Tsvetana Kamenova Bulgaria Ad Litem Judge 2006 2012Kimberly Prost Canada Ad Litem Judge 2006 2012Ole Bjørn Støle Norway Ad Litem Judge 2006 2012Frederik Harhoff Denmark Ad Litem Judge 2007 2013Flavia Lattanzi Italy Ad Litem Judge 2007 2013 List of judges provided on Organs of the Tribunal at: http://www.un.org/icty/glance-e/index.htm Accomplishments In 2004, the ICTY published a list of five successes which it claimed it had accomplished: "Spearheading the shift from impunity to accountability", pointing out that, until very recently, it was the only court judging crimes committed as part of the Yugoslav conflict, since prosecutors in the former Yugoslavia were, as a rule, reluctant to prosecute such crimes; "Establishing the facts", highlighting the extensive evidence-gathering and lengthy findings of fact that Tribunal judgments produced; "Bringing justice to thousands of victims and giving them a voice", pointing out the large number of witnesses that had been brought before the Tribunal; "The accomplishments in international law", describing the fleshing out of several international criminal law concepts which had not been ruled on since the Nuremberg Trials; "Strengthening the Rule of Law", referring to the Tribunal's role in promoting the use of international standards in war crimes prosecutions by former Yugoslav republics. For more information see: ICTY at a glance Criticism Criticisms levelled against the court include: Practicality One key indictee is still not apprehended, which reflects badly on its image. Defenders point out that the Tribunal has no powers of arrest, and is reliant on other agencies (notably national governments, EUFOR, and KFOR) to apprehend and extradite indictees. The Tribunal's power to issue secret indictments creates uncertainty among people who regard themselves as possible indictees, which places an unreasonable strain on their ability to proceed with their everyday lives, both in the short and long term. Critics have questioned whether the Tribunal exacerbates tensions rather than promotes reconciliation, as is claimed by Tribunal supporters. Polls show a generally negative reaction to the Tribunal among the Serb and Croat public. The majority of Croats and Serbs doubt the tribunal's integrity and question the tenability of its legal procedures (although the Serbian and Croatian opinions on the court are almost always exactly the opposite with regard to the cases that involve both parties). Kosovo Albanians and Bosnian Muslims, on the other hand, have expressed their high regard for the court and the trust in its impartiality though these feelings change when their own individuals stand accused of atrocities against opponents. Critics, even within the United Nations, have complained of the Tribunal's high cost. The two-year budget for the Tribunal for 2004 and 2005 was $271,854,600 (currently $ million). The cost is borne by all U.N. members. Critics have also complained of the length of trials, with some extending for several years. Supporters of the Tribunal respond that many of the defendants are charged with multiple crimes against many victims, all of which must be proven beyond reasonable doubt, thus requiring long trials. Simultaneous translation also slows trials. Ethical issues It was established by the UN Security Council instead of the UN General Assembly. Milošević's claim that the court has no legal authority rested on the distinction that, as a result, it had not been created on a broad international basis. The Tribunal was established on the basis of Chapter VII of the UN Charter; the relevant portion of the Charter reads "the Security Council can take measures to maintain or restore international peace and security". It is disputed whether a tribunal could be considered a measure to maintain or restore international peace and security. The suggestion to utilize Chapter VII was initially made in a report from the Secretary-General to the Security Council. The legal criticism has been succinctly stated in a Memorandum issued by Austrian Professor Hans Köchler, which was submitted to the President of the Security Council in 1999. Whilst sympathisers of the Tribunal hold that Serb control of the established command structure (and most of the weaponry) of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) from the start of the various wars facilitated the commission of crimes on a wide and organised scale; and Serb command structure facilitated the identification of those with command responsibility for war crimes, critics (Serbian sympathisers) remain sceptical about the disproportionately large number (~75%) of indictees being Serbs or Montenegrins (to the extent that a sizeable portion of the Bosnian Serb and Serbian political and military leaderships have been indicted), whereas there have been too few indictments resulting from crimes committed against Serbs (eg. many Croat indictees have been charged with crimes committed against Bosnian Muslims). As non-sympathisers (of the Serbs) in political circles and the media often loosely label the Serbs as having "lost" every conflict, critics respond that the "winning" side must have carried out widespread atrocities to have emerged triumphant. The Serbian (and Montenegrin) indictees are of higher rank than those of other nations and face with broader accusations. Although it was reported that had Franjo Tuđman and Alija Izetbegović lived, that they too may have been indicted, the statements came disconcertingly late since their deaths (1999 and 2003 respectively) happened long after the last of their actions (1995). Critics believe that the posthumous accusations were a symbolic gesture so as to appear neutral when in actual fact the court had no intention of trying the individuals when they were alive; yet many Serbs had been appearing in the trial chambers during those years. In addition, whilst Slobodan Milošević was in power (until 2000), there was very little interest by the court to investigate any atrocities against Serbs. NATO spokesman Jamie Shea said the following about the court: NATO countries are those that have provided the finance to set up the Tribunal, we are amongst the majority financiers, and of course to build a second chamber so that prosecutions can be speeded up so let me assure that we and the Tribunal are all one on this, we want to see war criminals brought to justice and I am certain that when Justice Arbour goes to Kosovo and looks at the facts she will be indicting people of Yugoslav nationality (meaning: all citizens of former Yugoslavia) and I don't anticipate any others at this stage. The Tribunal has never prosecuted the citizens of any NATO countries as a result of NATO's involvement in the Kosovo conflict. Indictees Since the very first hearing (referral request in the Tadić case) on 8 November, 1994, the Tribunal has indicted a total of 161 individuals, and has already completed proceedings with regard to 100 of them: five have been acquitted, 48 sentenced (seven are awaiting transfer, 24 have been transferred, 16 have served their term, and one died while serving his sentence), 11 have had their cases transferred to local courts. Another 36 cases have been terminated (either because indictments were withdrawn or because the accused died, before or after transfer to the Tribunal). As of November 2008, there were eight ongoing trials and a further four cases in the pre-trial stage. Ten further cases are at the appeals stage and two accused, Ratko Mladić and Goran Hadžić, are still at large. Calendar of court proceedings before the ICTY: Hague Justice Portal The figure of the accused at the appeals stage includes Sefer Halilović, Fatmir Limaj and Isak Musliu (who have been acquitted and released but against whom an appeal by the Office of the Prosecutor is running), as well as Amir Kubura and Naser Orić. These two accused have been sentenced and granted early release (Kubura) and release (Orić), but the OTP has appealed against the Trial Chamber's Judgements. A further 19 individuals have also been the subject of contempt proceedings. UN Site The indictees ranged from common soldiers and to generals and police commanders all the way to Prime Ministers. Slobodan Milošević was the first sitting head of state indicted for war crimes. ASIL.org Other "high level" indictees included Milan Babić, President of the Republika Srpska Krajina; Ramush Haradinaj, former Prime Minister of Kosovo; Radovan Karadžić, former President of the Republika Srpska; Ratko Mladić, former Commander of the Bosnian Serb Army and Ante Gotovina, former General of the Croatian Army. Haradinaj's trial began at The Hague on March 5, 2007 Washington Post/Associated Press, Ex-Kosovo PM Pleads Innocent at Hague, March 1, 2007 and the closing brief was given on 23 January 2008. Closing Arguments in Haradinaj Trial The final decision of the ICTY was expected in March 2008. On 3 April 2008, ICTY issued a public notice of the Haradinaj verdict, in which he was acquitted of all charges. Hague court acquits Kosovo ex-PM from BBC News On July 31, 2008, Radovan Karadzic appeared in front of the judges of the tribunal for the first time in 13 years. Detention facilities A typical 15 m2 single cell at the ICTY detention facilities. Photograph provided courtesy of the ICTY. Those defendants on trial and those who were denied a provisional release are detained at the United Nations Detention Unit on the premises of the Penitentiary Institution Haaglanden, location Scheveningen, located some 3 km by road from the courthouse. The indicted are housed in private cells which have a toilet, shower, radio, satellite TV and other comforts. They are allowed to phone family and friends daily and can have conjugal visits (Serb general Nebojsa Pavkovic became a father at the age of 59 as a result of one such visit). There is also a library, a gym and various rooms used for religious observances. The inmates are even allowed to cook for themselves. All of the inmates mix freely and are not segregated on the basis of nationality. The prison is often called "the most humane prison on earth". Further reading Ackerman, J.E. and O'Sullivan, E.: Practice and procedure of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: with selected materials for the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, The Hague, KLI, 2000. Aldrich, G.H.: Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, American Journal of International Law, 1996, pp. 64-68. Bassiouni, M.C.: The Law of the International Criminal Tribunal of the Former Yugoslavia, New York, Transnational Publications, 1996. Boelaert-Suominen, S.: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) anno 1999: its place in the international legal system, mandate and most notable jurisprudence, Polish Yearbook of International Law, 2001, pp. 95-155. Boelaert-Suominen, S.: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the Kosovo Conflict, International Review of the Red Cross, 2000, pp. 217-251. Cassese, Antonio: The ICTY: A Living and Vital Reality”, Journal of International Criminal Justice Vol.2, 2004, No.2, pp. 585-597 Cisse, C.: The International Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda: some elements of comparison, Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems, 1997, pp. 103-118. Clark, R.S. and SANN, M.: A critical study of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, European Journal of International Law, 1997, pp. 198-200. Goldstone, R.J.: Assessing the work of the United Nations war crimes tribunals, Stanford Journal of International Law, 1997, pp. 1-8. Ivković, S.K.: Justice by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Stanford Journal of International Law, 2001, pp. 255-346. Jones, J.W.R.D.: The practice of the international criminal tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, New York, Transnational, 2000. Kaszubinski, M.: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, in: Bassiouni, M.C. (ed.), Post-conflict justice, New York, Transnational, 2002, pp. 459-585. Kerr, R.: International judicial intervention: the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, International Relations, 2000, pp. 17-26. Kerr, R.: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: an exercise in law, politics and diplomacy, Oxford, OUP, 2004. King, F. and La Rosa, A.: Current Developments. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, B.T.I.R., 1997, pp. 533-555. Klip, A. and Sluiter, G.: Annotated leading cases of international criminal tribunals; (Vol. III) The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 2000-2001, Schoten, Intersentia, 2003. Köchler, Hans: Global Justice or Global Revenge? International Criminal Justice at the Crossroads, Vienna/New York, Springer, 2003, pp. 166-184. Kolb, R.: The jurisprudence of the Yugoslav and Rwandan Criminal Tribunals on their jurisdiction and on international crimes, British Yearbook of International Law, 2001, pp. 259-315. Lamb, S.: The powers of arrest of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, British Yearbook of International Law, 2000, pp. 165-244. Laughland, J.: Travesty: The Trial of Slobodan Milošević and the Corruption of International Justice, London, Pluto Press, 2007. Lescure, K.: International justice for former Yugoslavia: the working of the International Criminal Tribunal of the Hague, The Hague, KLI, 1996. McDonald, G.K.: Reflections on the contributions of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, 2001, pp. 155-172. Mettraux, G.: Crimes against humanity in the jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda, Harvard International Law Journal, 2002, pp. 237-316. Morris, V. and Scharf, M.P.: An insider's guide to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, African Yearbook of International Law, 1995, pp. 441-446. Murphy, S.D.: Progress and jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, American Journal of International Law, 1999, pp. 57-96. Panovsky, D.: Some war crimes are not better than others: the failure of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia to prosecute war crimes in Macedonia, Northwestern University Law Review, 2004, pp. 623-655. Pilouras, S.: International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and Milosevic's trial, New York Law School Journal of Human Rights, 2002, pp. 515-525. Roberts, K.: The law of persecution before the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Leiden Journal of International Law, 2002, pp. 623-663. Robinson, P.L.: Ensuring fair and expeditious trials at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, European Journal of International Law, 2000, pp. 569-589. Shenk, M.D.: International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda, The International Lawyer, 1999, pp. 549-554. Shraga, D. and Zackalin, R.: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, European Journal of International Law, 1994, pp. 360-380. Sjocrona, J.M.: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: some introductory remarks from a defence point of view, Leiden Journal of International Law, 1995, pp. 463-474. Tolbert, David: The ICTY: Unforeseen Successes and Foreseeable Shortcomings, The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, Vol.26, No.2, Summer/Fall 2002, pp. 7-20 Tolbert, David: Reflections on the ICTY Registry, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol.2, No.2, 2004, pp.480-485 Vierucci, L.: The First Steps of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, European Journal of International Law, 1995, pp. 134-143. Warbrick, C. and McGoldrick, D.: Co-operation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 1996, pp. 947-953. Wilson, Richard Ashby: ‘Judging History: the Historical Record of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.’ Human Rights Quarterly. 2005. August. Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 908-942. References See also Arrest and prosecution of Radovan Karadžić Command responsibility Global Justice or Global Revenge International Criminal Court International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC) State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina External links Official website of ICTY International Progress Organization: Monitoring of the ICTY Topical digests of the case law of ICTR and ICTY, Human Rights Watch, 2004 Hague Justice Portal: Academic gateway to The Hague organisations concerning international peace, justice and security. Calendar of court proceedings before the ICTY: Hague Justice Portal Why Journalists Should be Worried by the Rwanda Tribunal Precedents (deals also with ICTY) by Thierry Cruvellier for Reporters Without Borders SENSE News Agency, a special project based in ICTY | International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia |@lemmatized international:76 tribunal:68 prosecution:4 person:1 responsible:4 serious:2 violation:2 humanitarian:1 law:30 commit:6 territory:2 former:41 yugoslavia:36 since:9 commonly:1 refer:2 criminal:42 icty:22 body:1 united:9 nation:6 un:8 establish:6 prosecute:4 crime:18 war:10 try:3 alleged:1 perpetrator:1 ad:14 hoc:1 court:20 locate:2 hague:13 netherlands:5 originally:1 propose:1 german:1 foreign:1 minister:3 klaus:1 kinkel:1 resolution:1 security:8 council:5 pass:1 may:2 jurisdiction:4 four:3 cluster:1 grave:1 breach:1 geneva:1 convention:1 custom:1 genocide:1 humanity:2 individual:5 organization:3 government:2 maximum:1 sentence:5 impose:1 life:2 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4,125 | Algebraically_closed_field | In mathematics, a field F is said to be algebraically closed if every polynomial in one variable of degree at least 1, with coefficients in F, has a root in F. Examples As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. Also, no finite field F is algebraically closed, because if a1, a2, …, an are the elements of F, then the polynomial (x − a1)(x − a2) ··· (x − an) + 1 has no zero in F. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers. Equivalent properties Given a field F, the assertion “F is algebraically closed” is equivalent to other assertions: The only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one The field F is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the ring F[x] are those of degree one. The assertion “the polynomials of degree one are irreducible” is trivially true for any field. If F is algebraically closed and p(x) is an irreducible polynomial of F[x], then it has some root a and therefore p(x) is a multiple of x − a. Since p(x) is irreducible, this means that p(x) = k(x − a), for some k ∈ F \ {0}. On the other hand, if F is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial p(x) in F[x] without roots in F. Let q(x) be some irreducible factor of p(x). Since p(x) has no roots in F, q(x) also has no roots in F. Therefore, q(x) has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in F. Every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial p(x) of degree n ≥ 1, with coefficients in F, splits into linear factors. In other words, there are elements k, x1, x2, …, xn of the field F such that p(x) = k(x − x1)(x − x2) ··· (x − xn). If F has this property, then clearly every non-constant polynomial in F[x] has some root in F; in other words, F is algebraically closed. On the other hand, that the property stated here holds for F if F is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that, for any field K, any polynomial in K[x] can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials. The field has no proper algebraic extension The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension. If F has no proper algebraic extension, let p(x) be some irreducible polynomial in F[x]. Then the quotient of F[x] modulo the ideal generated by p(x) is an algebraic extension of F whose degree is equal to the degree of p(x). Since it is not a proper extension, its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of p(x) is 1. On the other hand, if F has some proper algebraic extension K, then the minimal polynomial of an element in K \ F is irreducible and its degree is greater than 1. The field has no proper finite extension The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no finite algebraic extension because if, within the previous proof, the world “algebraic” is replaced by the word “finite”, then the proof is still valid. Every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector The field F is algebraically closed if and only if, for each natural number n, every linear map from Fn into itself has some eigenvector. An endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root. Therefore, when F is algebraically closed, every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector. On the other hand, if every endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector, let p(x) be an element of F[x]. Dividing by its leading coefficient, we get another polynomial q(x) which has roots if and only if p(x) has roots. But if q(x) = xn + an − 1xn − 1+ ··· + a0, then q(x) is the characteristic polynomial of the companion matrix Decomposition of rational expressions The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable x, with coefficients in F, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a/(x − b)n, where n is a natural number, and a and b are elements of F. If F is algebraically closed then, since the irreducible polynomials in F[x] are all of degree 1, the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition. On the other hand, suppose that the property stated above holds for the field F. Let p(x) be an irreducible element in F[x]. Then the rational function 1/p can be written as the sum of a polynomial function q with rational functions of the form a/(x − b)n. Therefore, the rational expression can be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials. Since p(x) is irreducible, it must divide this product and, therefore, it must also be a first degree polynomial. Other properties If F is an algebraically closed field and n is a natural number, then F contains all nth roots of unity, because these are (by definition) the n (not necessarily distinct) zeroes of the polynomial xn − 1. A field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a cyclotomic extension, and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its cyclotomic closure. Thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed. The converse is not true. Even assuming that every polynomial of the form xn − a splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed. If a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0, but there is some natural number N such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic p when p > N. See subsections Rings and fields and Properties of mathematical theories in §2 of J. Barwise's "An introduction to first-order logic". Every field F has some extension which is algebraically closed. Among all such extensions there is one and (up to isomorphism) only one which is an algebraic extension of F; See Lang's Algebra, §VII.2 or van der Waerden's Algebra I, §10.1. it is called the algebraic closure of F. Notes References | Algebraically_closed_field |@lemmatized mathematics:1 field:33 f:51 say:1 algebraically:29 close:23 every:14 polynomial:28 one:9 variable:2 degree:16 least:1 coefficient:5 root:13 example:3 real:4 number:9 equation:1 solution:1 even:2 though:1 argument:1 prove:1 subfield:1 particular:1 rational:7 also:3 finite:4 element:6 x:44 zero:2 contrast:1 fundamental:1 theorem:2 algebra:3 state:4 complex:2 another:2 closed:7 algebraic:10 equivalent:2 property:8 give:1 assertion:3 irreducible:12 ring:2 trivially:1 true:4 p:20 therefore:6 multiple:1 since:6 mean:1 k:8 hand:5 non:2 constant:2 without:1 let:4 q:7 factor:3 great:2 first:6 product:4 n:9 split:2 linear:3 word:3 xn:5 clearly:1 hold:3 follow:1 previous:2 together:1 fact:1 write:4 proper:6 extension:15 quotient:2 modulo:1 ideal:1 generate:3 whose:1 equal:1 minimal:1 within:1 proof:2 world:1 replace:1 still:1 valid:4 endomorphism:4 fn:5 eigenvector:5 natural:4 map:1 characteristic:6 dividing:1 leading:1 get:1 companion:1 matrix:1 decomposition:2 expression:2 function:6 sum:2 form:3 b:3 partial:1 fraction:1 suppose:1 two:1 denominator:1 must:2 divide:1 contains:1 nth:1 unity:3 definition:1 necessarily:1 distinct:1 contain:1 cyclotomic:2 sometimes:1 call:2 closure:2 thus:1 cyclotomically:1 converse:1 assume:1 enough:1 assure:1 proposition:3 express:1 language:1 order:2 logic:2 furthermore:1 see:2 subsection:1 mathematical:1 theory:1 j:1 barwise:1 introduction:1 among:1 isomorphism:1 lang:1 vii:1 van:1 der:1 waerden:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram algebraically_close:22 algebraically_closed:7 irreducible_polynomial:6 trivially_true:1 fn_eigenvector:5 nth_root:1 van_der:1 der_waerden:1 algebraic_closure:1 |
4,126 | History_of_French_Guiana | The history of French Guiana spans many centuries. Before the first Europeans arrived, there was no written history in the territory. It was originally inhabited by a number of Native American peoples, among them the Carib, Arawak, Emerillon, Galibi, Palikour, Wayampi (also known as Oyampi) and Wayana. The first Europeans arrived in the expeditions of Christopher Columbus, shortly before 1500. Beginnings of European involvement In 1498 French Guiana was first visited by Europeans when Christopher Columbus sailed to the region on his third voyage and named it the "Land of pariahs". In 1604 France attempted to settle in the area, but was forced to abandon it in the face of hostility from the Portuguese, who viewed it as a violation of the Treaty of Tordesillas. French settlers returned, however, in 1643 and managed to establish a settlement at Cayenne along with some small-scale plantations. This second attempt would again be abandoned following Amerindian attacks. The French returned once more in 1664, and founded a second settlement at Sinnamary (this was attacked by the Dutch in 1665). In 1667 the British seized the area. Following the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667 the area was given back to France. The Dutch briefly occupied it for a period in 1676. Consolidation of French rule After the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which deprived France of almost all her possessions in the Americas other than Guiana and a few islands, Louis XV sent thousands of settlers to Guiana who were lured there with stories of plentiful gold and easy fortunes to be made. Instead they found a land filled with hostile natives and tropical diseases. One and a half years later only a few hundred survived. These fled to three small islands which could be seen off shore and named them the Iles de Salut (or "Islands of Salvation"). The largest was called Royal Island, another St. Joseph (after the patron saint of the expedition), and the smallest of the islands, surrounded by strong currents, Île du Diable (the infamous "Devil's Island"). When the survivors of this ill-fated expedition returned home, the terrible stories they told of the colony left a lasting impression in France. In 1794, after the death of Robespierre, 193 of his followers were sent to French Guiana. In 1797 the republican general Pichegru and many deputies and journalists were also sent to the colony. When they arrived they found that only 54 of the 193 deportées sent out three years earlier were left; 11 had escaped, and the rest had died of tropical fevers and other diseases. Pichegru managed to escape to United States and then returned to France where he was eventually executed for plotting against Napoleon. Later on, slaves were brought out from Africa and plantations were established along the more disease-free rivers. Exports of sugar, hardwood, Cayenne pepper and other spices brought a certain prosperity to the colony for the first time. Cayenne, the capital, was surrounded by plantations, some of which had several thousand slaves. 1800s and the penal era In 1809 an Anglo-Portuguese naval squadron took French Guiana (ousting governor Victor Hugues) and gave it to the Portuguese in Brazil. However with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1814 the region was handed back to the French, though a Portuguese presence remained until 1817. In 1848 France abolished slavery and the ex-slaves fled into the rainforest setting up communities similar to the ones they had been stolen from in Africa. Now called Maroons, they formed a sort of buffer zone between the Europeans who settled along the coast and main rivers, and the unconquered, and often hostile, Native American tribes of the inland regions. Without the availability of slave labour the plantations were soon taken over by the jungle, and the planters ruined. In 1850 several shiploads of Indians, Malays and Chinese were brought out to work the plantations but, instead, they set up shops in Cayenne and other settlements. "Quartier - Disciplinaire", St. Laurent, 1954 In 1852 the first shiploads of chained convicts arrived from France. In 1885, to get rid of habitual criminals and to increase the number of colonists, the French Parliament passed a law that anyone, male or female, who had more than three sentences for theft of more than three months each, would be sent to French Guiana as a "relégué." These relégués were to be kept in prison there for six months but then freed to become settlers in the colony. However, this experiment was a dismal failure. The prisoners were unable to make a living off the land and so were forced to revert again to crime, or to eke out a hand-to-mouth existence until they died. In fact, being sent to French Guiana as a relégué was a life sentence, and usually a short life sentence, as most of the relégués died very quickly from disease and malnutrition. The prisoners would arrive at St Laurent du Maroni before being transported to various camps throughout the country. The Iles du Salut were used to house political prisoners and for solitary confinement. The islands became notorious for the brutality of life there, centering around the notorious Devil's Island. Famous political figures to be sent to the islands included Alfred Dreyfus and Henri Charrière, who managed to escape. He later wrote a best-selling book about his experiences called Papillon. "Quartier Spécial" - Condemned men's block, St. Laurent, 1954 (the guillotine stood at the spot where the photographer took the photo). In 1853, gold was discovered in the interior, precipitating border disputes with Brazil and Dutch Guiana (these were later settled in 1891, 1899 and 1915, though a small region of the border with Suriname is still disputed). 20th century The territory of Inini, consisting of most of the interior of French Guiana, was created in 1930. It was abolished in 1946. After the fall of France to Nazis in World War II the local government declared its allegiance to the Vichy government, despite widespread support for Charles de Gaulle. This government was later removed by the Allies in August 1944. French Guiana became an overseas département of France on 19 March 1946. The infamous penal colonies, including Devil's Island, were gradually phased out and then formally closed in 1951. At first, only those freed prisoners who could raise the fare for their return passage to France were able to go home, so French Guiana was haunted after the official closing of the prisons by numerous freed convicts leading an aimless existence in the colony. Visitors to the site in December 1954 reported being deeply shocked by the conditions and the constant screams from the cell-block still in use for convicts who had gone insane and which had only tiny ventilation slots at the tops of the walls under the roof. Food was pushed in and bodies removed once a day. In 1964 Kourou was chosen to be launch site for rockets, largely due to its favourable location near the equator. The Guiana Space Centre was built and became operational in 1968. This has provided limited local employment and the mainly foreign technicians, and hundreds of troops stationed in the region to prevent sabotage, bring income to the local economy. The 1970s saw the settlement of Hmong refugees from Laos in the county, primarily to the towns of Javouhey and Cacao. The Green Plan (Plan Vert) of 1976 aimed to improve production, though it had only limited success. A movement for increased autonomy from France gained momentum in the 70's and 80's, along with the increasing success of the Parti Socialiste Guyanais. Protests by those calling for more autonomy from France have become increasingly vocal. Protests in 1996, 1997 and 2000 all ended in violence. While many Guianese wish to see more autonomy, support for complete independence is low due to large economic support from France. References Belbenoit, René. 1940. Hell on Trial. Translated from the Original French Manuscript by Preston Rambo. E. P Dutton & Co. Reprint by Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1941. Belbenoit, René. 1938. Dry Guillotine: Fifteen years among the living dead. Reprint: Berkley (1975). ISBN 0-425-02950-6. Reprint: Bantam Books, 1971. Charrière, Henri. Papillon. Reprints: Hart-Davis Macgibbon Ltd. 1970. ISBN 0-246-63987-3 (hbk); Perennial, 2001. ISBN 0-06-093479-4 Tissot, Jean-Michel: La Guyane telle quelle, Paris (Le Créations du Pélican) 1998. ISBN 2-7191-0379-9 Further reading Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. ISBN 0-201-52396-5. External links History of French Guiana - History from the European Space Agency. 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4,127 | Arcology | The Try2004 Hyperstructure or Megacity as featured on the Discovery Channel's Extreme Engineering programs. Arcology, a portmanteau of the words "architecture" and "ecology," is a set of architectural design principles aimed toward the design of enormous habitats (hyperstructures) of extremely high human population density. These largely hypothetical structures, called "arcologies," would contain a variety of residential and commercial facilities and minimize individual human environmental impact. They are often portrayed as self-contained or economically self-sufficient. The concept has been primarily popularized by architect Paolo Soleri, and appears commonly in science fiction. Development The term arcology is restricted mainly to theoretical discussions and fictional depictions, such as Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's Oath of Fealty or as elements in video games, such as SimCity 2000, Escape Velocity Nova, Deus Ex: Invisible War, Call to Power II, Sid Meier's Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword and Mass Effect. The first mention of arcology can be found in HG Wells' When the Sleeper Wakes, published in 1899. A more in-depth description of arcology's design principles can be found in "The Last Redoubt" from The Night Land by William Hope Hodgson, first published in 1912. In it Hodgson envisions structures complete with a full artificial ecology, agriculture, and public transport by mobile roadways. J.G. Ballard wrote a dystopian take on a self contained building which is much like an arcology in his 1975 novel High Rise. Yet another mention of the term can be found in William Gibson's 1984 novel Neuromancer. Moreover, the structure Fiddler's Green from George A. Romero's 2005 film Land of the Dead is a possible arcology. Similar real-world projects Arcosanti is an experimental town under construction in central Arizona. Designed by Paolo Soleri, its primary purpose is to demonstrate principles of arcology. Many cities in the world have proposed projects adhering to the design principles of the arcology concept, like Tokyo, and Dongtan near Shanghai. British to help China build 'eco-cities' | Business | The Observer The first phase of Dongtan is scheduled to open by 2010. Certain cities and urban projects exhibit some characteristics that reflect the design principles of arcology. Pedestrian connection systems, like the +15 system in downtown Calgary, or the Minneapolis Skyway System are examples. They are self-contained apparatuses, with interconnected supermarkets, malls and entertainment complexes. The +15 is the world's most extensive pedestrian skywalk system with a total length of 16 km (10 miles), and Minneapolis possesses the longest continuous system, with eight miles (13 km) of length. Co-op City in the Bronx, New York City is another example, with many services provided on-site. The Las Vegas Strip exhibits characteristics of arcology inspired design. Most of the major casino resorts are connected by tunnels, footbridges, and monorails. It is possible to travel from Mandalay Bay at the south end of the Strip to the Las Vegas Convention Center, three miles (5 km) to the north, without using streets. In many cases, it is possible to travel between several different casinos without ever going outdoors. The McMurdo Station of the United States Antarctic Program and other scientific research stations on the continent of Antarctica may most closely approximate the popular conception of an arcology as a technologically-advanced, self-sufficient human community. Although by no means entirely self-sufficient (the U.S. Military "Operation Deep Freeze" resupply effort delivers 8 million gallons of fuel and 11 million pounds of supplies and equipment yearly Modern Marvels: Sub-Zero. The History Channel. ) the base has a very insular character as a necessary shelter and protection from an extremely harsh environment, is geographically isolated from conventional support networks, and must avoid damage to the surrounding Antarctic ecosystem due to international treaty. The base generates electricity with its own power plant (previously nuclear, although that leaked radioactive waste and 11,000 cubic metres of contaminated rock had to be dumped in the ocean), grows fruits and vegetables in a hydroponic green house mainly for limited winter use when resupply is nonexistent. The base also provides a full range of living and entertainment amenities for the 3,000 or so science and support staff that visit each year. Crystal Island is a proposed arcology project in Moscow, Russia. In 2008, the design firm Timelinks proposed a 2.3 square kilometers, 1 million inhabatant carbon-neutral super-structure to be built in Dubai, UAE with many arcology concepts (see Inhabitat » ZIGGURAT: Dubai Carbon Neutral Pyramid will House 1 Millionby Evelyn Lee). In popular culture Novels and comics H.G. Wells' 1899 tale "When the Sleeper Wakes" describes a rudimentary version of pre-Soleri arcology, having developed from the evolution of transportation. They are hotel-like and dominate the surrounding landscape, having replaced all towns and cities though preserving their names. Town In One Building by H.G. Wells from When the Sleeper Wakes William Hope Hodgson's 1912 novel The Night Land features the first example of what we now would call an arcology, though the future Earthlings depicted — millions of years into the future, in fact — have different reasons for building their metallic pyramid. In Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's collaboration Oath of Fealty (1982), much of the action is set in and around Todos Santos, an arcology built in a burnt-out section of Los Angeles that has evolved a separate culture from the city around it. Niven also occasionally refers to arcologies in his Known Space series, particularly in the stories involving Gil Hamilton. In the novel The World Inside by Robert Silverberg, everyone lived in 'Urban Monads' that were self-contained three kilometer high hyperstructures. People hardly ever departed. In Isaac Asimov's Robot Series, Earth's population lives in large hyperstructures simply called Cities. In Asimov's Empire and the The Foundation series, the capital planet Trantor of the galactic empire is a completely built-up planet, covered in its entirety with tall buildings and subterranean structures. All the remaining cities of the Earth are hyperstructures in Peter F. Hamilton's Night's Dawn trilogy. In the Judge Dredd comic stories, originally published in 2000 AD comic, the megalopolis of Mega-City One consists of many hundreds, if not thousands, of City Blocks, in which a citizen can be born, grow, live, and die without ever leaving. William Gibson's Sprawl trilogy features various Arcologies, namely the "projects." It is a megastructure that has been constructed with electricity, heat, oxygen, and food that it produced. They are also featured in the Bridge Trilogy. David Wingrove's Chung Kuo series depicts a dystopian future Earth in which almost the entire population lives within several hyperstructures that are thousands of feet tall and span entire continents. J.G. Ballard's 1975 novel High Ris featured a luxury arcology in which disparity between social classes among the residents eventually led to widespread anarchy and a reversion to primitive archetypes. In Samuel Youd's 1967-68 trilogy of novels The Tripods, an alien race known as "The Masters" live in three huge domed arcologies built on Earth to use as a base from which to colonise the planet. The structures are made from a golden material, and are capped with a crystal that replicates the atmospheric conditions of The Masters' home planet. In Lois McMaster Bujold's Vorkosigan Saga novels, the inhabitants of the planet Komarr live in arcologies, as the surface of the planet is inhospitable. The James Blish and Normal L. Knight collaboration A Torrent of Faces, set in the future where a trillion people inhabit the earth, features several semi-enclosed 'cities' - massive buildings big enough to house, entertain and feed hundreds of millions of people, and therefore may be considered arcologies. The city/building of London apparently extends as far as the Cornish coast. Films and television Arcologies are common elements in futuristic anime and manga titles. An example would be the post-apocalyptic/cyberpunk series Appleseed by Masamune Shirow, in which hyperstructures dominate the skyline of the city Olympus. In the 1982 film Blade Runner by Ridley Scott, the main offices of the fictional Tyrell Corporation (a Megacorp) resemble a hyperstructure. The Genom Tower arcologies (among other things) in the anime Bubblegum Crisis were partially inspired by the Tyrell hyperstructure; the series also features an underground "Geo City." In the film Equilibrium, an arcology named Libria is the last human civilization, a society in which peace is kept by the forced administration of an injected liquid drug designed to completely suppress emotions. In the science-fiction movie series The Matrix, the last human city, known as Zion, is a hyperstructure. Due to nuclear scarring of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, the hyperstructure is buried deeply under ground. While ecologically sparse, the habitat's climate is controlled by complex machinery in the lower levels. The population is in the realm of 200,000. Due to the nature of the aggression from the machines, Zion is an example of a heavily fortified hyperstructure. In the season four finale of the science fiction show Andromeda a large battle takes place in space around an antiquated space hyperstructure known simply as 'Arcology'. In the episode "11:59" of Star Trek: Voyager's fifth season (original air date: May 5, 1999), Earth's first self-contained ecosystem known as "The Millennium Gate" was referenced. Said to be one kilometer tall and began construction in 2001. In a number of movies, most notably the Star Wars prequels, the cities in the more populated worlds have buildings many miles tall, effectively approaching the completely built-over world of Trantor in the classic Isaac Asimov Foundation trilogy. The trailer for the 2009 film Star Trek features arcologies in a futuristic Iowa; in several scenes, James Kirk is seen driving among them in his car and motorcycle. Video games The "Launch Arco", from SimCity 2000 Will Wright's computer game SimCity 2000 allows the construction of four different types of arcologies. More primitive models hold quite a few people in exchange for producing considerable pollution, but later models are denser and cleaner. When 250 of the most advanced model, the "Launch Arco" (pictured), are built, an "exodus sequence" starts in which all Launch Arcos blast into space. This parallels parts of Soleri's book, in which hyperstructures were shown as being appropriate for environments in space, under the sea, in polar lands, etc. Another Wright game, Spore, features bubbled cities that serve the same function. In Wright's 1990 SimEarth, "Nanotech Age" cities eventually advance to a mass exodus of the entire sentient species of the planet. Two levels of the computer game Deus Ex: Invisible War posits a futuristic arcology, simply called the Arcology, on the edge of an ancient medina in Cairo. The Domes seen in the 24th century in Chrono Trigger could be considered arcologies. In the computer game Afterlife, the player controlling Heaven and Hell can eventually purchase Love Domes or Omnibulges. Functioning similarly to arcologies, these structures are the remnants of transcended/destroyed Heaven/Hells that are able to hold billions of souls. In the computer game Civilization: Call to Power, the "Arcology Advance," found in a near future part of the technology list, grants access to the Arcology building, which reduces overcrowding effects in its host city. This is also available in Call to Power II. In the computer game Escape Velocity: Nova, many planets that are part of the Auroran Empire have multiple arcologies on them. Many of their populations number in the hundreds of billions. The tutorial in the computer game Dystopia takes place in Yggdrasil's first arcology. The wholly self-sustained utopian society 'Rapture' in the computer and Xbox 360 game BioShock is an underwater example of an arcology. In Mass Effect the Codex (an in-game encyclopedia) explains that Earth is composed mainly of Arcology buildings. In the manga and anime world of BLAME! the plot takes place only in a gigantic megastructure/arcology simply called the City, which is still being expanded by its automatic systems. Role-playing and table-top games In the table-top strategy game Warhammer 40,000, hyperstructures, called "hives," are extremely common and are the main method of housing large populations. Arcologies are so widespread that some planets, Holy Terra and Mars amongst others, dubbed 'hive worlds', are constructed entirely of hyperstructures. Necromunda, an off-shoot game set in the Warhammer 40,000 universe, involves conflict between rival gangs on the hive world of Necromunda. In the RPG Shadowrun, a number of hyperstructures such as the "Renraku Arcology" exist by 2050, most of which are mega-corporate controlled. A major theme to these is the desire of a large corporation to control every aspect of its employees' lives. A major meta-plot element was the sealing off of the aforementioned Renraku Arcology in Seattle when the advanced computer control system awakened into a self-aware AI named Deus. In the RPG Trinity, a number of hyperstructures exist, with the largest being that of the New New York Arcology run by the Psi-Order Orgotek. In the RPG Rifts, the capital of the Coalition States is the city of Chi-Town. Chi-town (as well as several other Coalition cities) is considered a "Mega-City", in that the entire city is housed inside one giant structure, which consists of more than thirty levels, each several stories high, and several sub-levels. The tongue-in-cheek RPG Paranoia primarily takes place in the futuristic and mostly computer controlled arcology Alpha Complex. In R.Talsorian's follow up to Cyberpunk 2020, Cybergeneration, one of the player archetype Yo-Gangs was called the "Arcorunner". The character was a child who has grown up in the arcologies, knowing every aspect about them. In WildFire's CthulhuTech RPG, humanity has been forced to live in fortified arcologies due to attacks from the Old Ones and the Migou. In Mindstorm's Alpha Omega RPG, the world's populations have retreated into arcology city-states to protect themselves from the war-torn decimation of the Earth's surface See also Arcosanti Autonomous building Bionic architecture Vertical farming Dubai City Tower Megastructure Shimizu Mega-City Pyramid Underground city Urban ecology References Further reading Soleri, Paolo Arcology: The City in the Image of Man 1969:Cambridge, Massachusetts MIT Press External links Arcosanti.org – Official Webpage for a prototype arcological development in Arizona Arcology.com – Useful links The Night Land by William Hope Hodgson (Full text online) Victory City A discussion of arcology concepts Usage of "arcology" vs. "hyperstructure": Arcology.com ("An arcology in southern China" on front page) Arcology ("An arcology is a self-contained environment...") SculptorsWiki: Arcology ("The only arcology yet on Earth...") Review of Shadowrun: Renraku Arcology ("What's an arcology? A self-contained, largely self-sufficient living, working, recreational structure...") (Arcology discussion group) Floating Arcology A design to prevent against rising sea levels. | Arcology |@lemmatized hyperstructure:8 megacity:1 feature:9 discovery:1 channel:2 extreme:1 engineering:1 program:2 arcology:46 portmanteau:1 word:1 architecture:2 ecology:3 set:4 architectural:1 design:10 principle:5 aim:1 toward:1 enormous:1 habitat:2 hyperstructures:11 extremely:3 high:5 human:5 population:7 density:1 largely:2 hypothetical:1 structure:9 call:10 arcologies:16 would:3 contain:8 variety:1 residential:1 commercial:1 facility:1 minimize:1 individual:1 environmental:1 impact:1 often:1 portray:1 self:13 economically:1 sufficient:4 concept:4 primarily:2 popularize:1 architect:1 paolo:3 soleri:5 appear:1 commonly:1 science:4 fiction:3 development:2 term:2 restrict:1 mainly:3 theoretical:1 discussion:3 fictional:2 depiction:1 larry:2 niven:3 jerry:2 pournelle:2 oath:2 fealty:2 element:3 video:2 game:14 simcity:3 escape:2 velocity:2 nova:2 deus:3 ex:2 invisible:2 war:4 power:4 ii:2 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sculptorswiki:1 review:1 work:1 recreational:1 group:1 float:1 prevent:1 |@bigram science_fiction:3 larry_niven:2 niven_jerry:2 jerry_pournelle:2 oath_fealty:2 deus_ex:2 sid_meier:1 meier_civilization:1 sleeper_wake:3 mile_km:2 la_vega:2 casino_resort:1 mcmurdo_station:1 technologically_advanced:1 radioactive_waste:1 cubic_metre:1 fruit_vegetable:1 square_kilometer:1 dubai_uae:1 los_angeles:1 gil_hamilton:1 robert_silverberg:1 isaac_asimov:2 asimov_robot:1 judge_dredd:1 hundred_thousand:1 sprawl_trilogy:1 lois_mcmaster:1 mcmaster_bujold:1 vorkosigan_saga:1 james_blish:1 anime_manga:1 post_apocalyptic:1 masamune_shirow:1 blade_runner:1 ridley_scott:1 tyrell_corporation:1 bubblegum_crisis:1 star_trek:2 trek_voyager:1 chrono_trigger:1 heaven_hell:2 manga_anime:1 warhammer_universe:1 tongue_cheek:1 r_talsorian:1 alpha_omega:1 external_link:1 |
4,128 | Emperor_Suizei | ; also known as Kamununakawamimi no Mikoto; was the 2nd emperor of Japan to appear on the traditional list of emperors. Titsingh, Isaac (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 3-4; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 250-251; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 88-89. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 29. Legendary narrative Suizei is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor" because of the paucity of information about him, which does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. The reign of Emperor Kimmei (509?-571), the 29th emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, is the first for which contemporary historiography are able to assign verifiable dates; Titsingh, pp. 34-36; Brown, pp. 261-262; Varley, pp. 123-124. however, the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu (737–806), the 50th sovereign of the Yamato dynasty. Aston, William. (1896). Nihongi, pp. 109. In Kojiki and Nihonshoki only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial misasagi or tomb for Suizei is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered which confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. He is considered to have been the first of eight emperors without specific legends associated with them, also known as the . Aston, pp. 138-141. Later generations may have included this name to the list of emperors of Japan, thus making him posthumously an emperor and assigning him as one of the early sovereigns and ancestors of the dynasty that has reigned unbroken since time immemorial. If he lived, at his time the title tenno was not yet used, and the polity he possibly ruled did certainly not contain all or even the most of Japan. In the chronicle which encompasses his alleged successors in beginnings of historical time, it becomes reasonable to conclude that Suizei, if he existed, might have been a chieftain or a regional king in early Yamato tribal society. Jien records that Suizei was one of the sons of Emperor Jimmu, and that he ruled from the palace of Takaoka-no-miya at Katsuragi in what will come to be known as Yamato province. Brown, p. 250. This emperor's posthumous name literally means "joyfully healthy peace". It is undisputed that this identification is Chinese in form and Buddhist in implication, which suggests that the name must have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Suizei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Suizei |@lemmatized also:3 know:4 kamununakawamimi:1 mikoto:1 emperor:15 japan:10 appear:1 traditional:3 list:3 titsingh:3 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:8 brown:4 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 varley:4 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 firm:1 date:3 assign:3 life:1 reign:5 ponsonby:3 fane:2 richard:2 imperial:4 house:2 p:2 legendary:2 narrative:1 suizei:5 regard:1 historian:1 paucity:1 information:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 person:1 ever:1 exist:2 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 kimmei:1 accord:1 order:1 succession:1 first:2 contemporary:2 historiography:1 able:1 verifiable:1 however:2 conventionally:1 accept:2 name:5 early:4 confirm:2 kammu:1 sovereign:4 yamato:4 dynasty:3 aston:3 william:2 nihongi:2 kojiki:2 nihonshoki:1 genealogy:1 record:3 japanese:1 traditionally:1 historical:3 existence:1 misasagi:1 tomb:1 currently:1 maintain:1 extant:1 discover:1 view:1 figure:1 actually:1 consider:1 eight:1 without:1 specific:1 legend:1 associate:1 late:1 generation:1 may:1 include:1 thus:1 make:1 posthumously:1 one:2 ancestor:1 unbroken:1 since:1 time:5 immemorial:1 live:1 title:1 tenno:1 yet:1 use:1 polity:1 possibly:2 rule:2 certainly:1 contain:1 even:1 chronicle:4 encompass:1 alleged:1 successor:1 beginning:1 become:1 reasonable:1 conclude:1 might:1 chieftain:1 regional:1 king:1 tribal:1 society:2 jien:2 son:1 jimmu:1 palace:1 takaoka:1 miya:1 katsuragi:1 come:1 province:1 posthumous:1 literally:1 mean:1 joyfully:1 healthy:1 peace:1 undisputed:1 identification:1 chinese:1 form:1 buddhist:1 implication:1 suggest:1 must:1 regularize:1 century:1 lifetime:1 ascribe:1 legends:1 origin:1 compile:1 today:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 c:1 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 arthur:1 brabazon:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 see:1 cult:1 |@bigram titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 ponsonby_fane:2 fane_richard:2 emperor_paucity:1 paucity_information:1 emperor_kimmei:1 emperor_kammu:1 yamato_dynasty:2 william_nihongi:1 kojiki_nihonshoki:1 imperial_misasagi:1 misasagi_tomb:1 title_tenno:1 tenno_yet:1 yamato_tribal:1 yamato_province:1 undisputed_identification:1 must_regularize:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
4,129 | Poseidon | In Greek mythology, Poseidon (Greek: ; Latin: Neptūnus) was the god of the sea and, as "Earth-Shaker," of earthquakes. The name of the god Nethuns in Etruscan was adopted in Latin for Neptune in Roman mythology: both were sea gods analogous to Poseidon. Linear B tablets show that Poseidon was venerated at Pylos and Thebes in pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, but he was integrated into the Olympian gods as the brother of Zeus and Hades. Worship of Poseidon Poseidon was a major civic god of several cities: in Athens, he was second only to Athena in importance; while in Corinth and many cities of Magna Graecia he was the chief god of the polis. In his benign aspect, Poseidon was seen as creating new islands and offering calm seas. When offended or ignored, he supposedly struck the ground with his trident and caused chaotic springs, earthquakes, drownings and shipwrecks. Sailors prayed to Poseidon for a safe voyage, sometimes drowning horses as a sacrifice. According to Pausanias, Poseidon was one of the caretakers of the oracle at Delphi before Olympian Apollo took it over. Apollo and Poseidon worked closely in many realms: in colonization, for example, Delphic Apollo provided the authorization to go out and settle, while Poseidon watched over the colonists on their way, and provided the lustral water for the foundation-sacrifice. Xenophon's Anabasis describes a group of Spartan soldiers in 400-399 BCE singing to Poseidon a paean - a kind of hymn normally sung for Apollo. Like Dionysus, who inflamed the maenads, Poseidon also caused certain forms of mental disturbance. A Hippocratic text of ca 400 BCE, On the Sacred Disease (Hippocrates), On the Sacred Disease, Francis Adams, tr. says that he was blamed for certain types of epilepsy. Bronze Age Greece Angelo Bronzino: Neptune The name seems to rather transparently stem from Greek pósis "lord, husband" with a less-transparent -don element, perhaps from dea, "goddess'. If surviving Linear B clay tablets can be trusted, the name PO-SE-DA-WO-NE ("Poseidon") occurs with greater frequency than does DI-U-JA (Zeus). A feminine variant, PO-SE-DE-IA, is also found, indicating a lost consort goddess, in effect a precursor of Amphitrite. Tablets from Pylos record sacrificial goods destined for "the Two Queens and Poseidon" and to "the Two Queens and the King". The most obvious identification for the "Two Queens" is with Demeter and Persephone, or their precursors, goddesses who were not associated with Poseidon in later periods. The illuminating exception is the archaic and localised myth of stallion Poseidon and mare Demeter at Phigalia in isolated and conservative Arcadia, noted by Pausanias (second century CE) as having fallen into desuetude; the violated Demeter was Demeter Erinys. Poseidon is already identified as "Earth-Shaker"— E-NE-SI-DA-O-NE— in Mycenaean Knossos, a powerful attribute where earthquakes had accompanied the collapse of the Minoan palace-culture. In the heavily sea-dependent Mycenean culture, no connection between Poseidon and the sea has yet surfaced; among the Olympians it was determined by lot that he should rule over the sea (Hesiod, Theogony 456): the god preceded his realm. Demeter and Poseidon's names are linked in one Pylos tablet, where they appear as PO-SE-DA-WO-NE and DA, referred to by the epithets Enosichthon, Seischthon and Ennosigaios, all meaning "earth-shaker" and referring to his role in causing earthquakes. Poseidon in myth Birth and triumph over Cronus Detail of Neptune, by Lambert-Sigisbert Adam, ca 1725 (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) Jacob de Gheyn II: Neptune and Amphitrite Poseidon was a son of Cronus and Rhea. In most accounts he is swallowed by Cronus at birth but later saved, with his other brothers and sisters, by Zeus. However in some versions of the story, he, like his brother Zeus, did not share the fate of his other brother and sisters who were eaten by Cronus. He was saved by his mother Rhea, who concealed him among a flock of lambs and pretended to have given birth to a colt, which she gave to Cronus to devour. In the second century CE, a well with the name of Arne, the "lamb's well", in the neighbourhood of Mantineia in Arcadia, where old traditions lingered, was shown to Pausanias. (Pausanias viii.8.2.) According to John Tzetzes Tzetzes, ad Lycophron 644. the kourotrophos, or nurse of Poseidon was Arne, who denied knowing where he was, when Cronus came searching; according to Diodorus Siculus Diodorus, v. 55. Poseidon was raised by the Telchines on Rhodes, just as Zeus was raised by the Korybantes on Crete. According to a single reference in the Iliad, when the world was divided by lot in three, Zeus received the sky, Hades the underworld and Poseidon the sea. The foundation of Athens Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion, ca 440 BCE Athena became the patron goddess of the city of Athens after a competition with Poseidon. Yet Poseidon remained a numinous presence on the Acropolis in the form of his surrogate, Erechtheus. At the dissolution festival at the end of the year in the Athenian calendar, the Skira, the priests of Athena and the priest of Poseidon would process under canopies to Eleusis. Discussed by Walter Burkert, Homo Necans, (1972, tr. 1983143-49. They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and the Athenians would choose whichever gift they preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a spring sprang up; the water was salty and not very useful, Another version of the myth says that Poseidon gave horses to Athens. whereas Athena offered them an olive tree. Neptune's fountain in Prešov, Slovakia. The Athenians (or their king, Cecrops) accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought wood, oil and food. After the fight, infuriated at his loss, Poseidon sent a monstrous flood to the Attic Plain, to punish the Athenians for not choosing him. The depression made by Poseidon's trident and filled with salt water was surrounded by the northern hall of the Erechtheum, remaining open to the air. "In cult, Poseidon was identified with Erechtheus," Walter Burkert noted. Burkert, Homo Necans (1972, tr. 1983:157). "That Poseidon and Erechtheus were merely two names for a single god, a fact that is stated by Euripides, is also clearly visible in the cult." (p. 149). "the myth turns this into a temporal-causal sequence: in his anger at losing, Poseidon led his son Eumolpus against Athens and killed Erectheus." The contest of Athena and Poseidon was the subject of the reliefs on the western pediment of the Parthenon, the first sight that greeted the arriving visitor. This myth is construed by Robert Graves and others as reflecting a clash between the inhabitants during Mycenaean times and newer immigrants. It is interesting to note that Athens at its height was a significant sea power, at one point defeating the Persian fleet at Salamis Island in a sea battle. The walls of Troy Poseidon on an ancient Greek vase Poseidon and Apollo, having offended Zeus, were sent to serve King Laomedon of Troy. He had them build huge walls around the city and promised to reward them well, a promise he then refused to fulfill. In vengeance, before the Trojan War, Poseidon sent a sea monster to attack Troy (it was later killed by Perseus). Consorts/children His consort was Amphitrite, a nymph and ancient sea-goddess, daughter of Nereus and Doris. Poseidon was the father of many heroes. He is thought to have fathered the famed Theseus. A mortal woman named Tyro was married to Cretheus (with whom she had one son, Aeson) but loved Enipeus, a river god. She pursued Enipeus, who refused her advances. One day, Poseidon, filled with lust for Tyro, disguised himself as Enipeus, and from their union were born the heroes Pelias and Neleus, twin boys. Poseidon also had an affair with Alope, his granddaughter through Cercyon, begetting the Attic hero Hippothoon. Cercyon had his daughter buried alive but Poseidon turned her into the spring, Alope, near Eleusis. Poseidon rescued Amymone from a lecherous satyr and then fathered a child, Nauplius, by her. After having raped Caeneus, Poseidon fulfilled her request and changed her into a male warrior. Not all of Poseidon's children were human. In an archaic myth, Poseidon once pursued Demeter. She spurned his advances, turning herself into a mare so that she could hide in a herd of horses; he saw through the deception and became a stallion and captured her. Their child was a horse, Arion, which was capable of human speech. Poseidon also had sexual intercourse with Medusa on the floor of a temple to Athena. Medusa was then changed into a monster by Athena. When she was later beheaded by the hero Perseus, Chrysaor and Pegasus emerged from her neck. There is also Triton, the merman; Polyphemus, the cyclops; and Oto and Ephialtae, the giants. With Aethra Theseus With Alope Hippothoon With Amphitrite Rhode Triton Benthesikyme With Amymone Nauplius With Astypalaea Ancaeus Eurypylos With Canace Aloeus Epopeus Hopelus Nireus Triopas With Celaeno Lycus With Chione Eumolpus With Chloris Poriclymenus With Clieto Atlas Eymelus Ampheres Evaemon Mneseus Autochthon Elasippus Mestor Azaes Diaprepes With Demeter Arion Despoina With Europa Euphemus With Euryale Orion With Gaia Antaeus Charybdis With Halia Rhode With Hiona Hios With Hippothoe Taphius With Iphimedia Aloadae, giants Otus and Ephialtes With Libya Belus Agenor Lelex With Lybie Lamia With Melia Amycus With Medusa Pegasus Chrysaor With Periboea Nausithous With Satyrion Taras With Thoosa Polyphemus With Tyro Neleus Pelias Unknown mother Aon Byzas Cercyon Cycnus Evadne Lotis Rhodus Sinis Epithets Poseidon was known in various guises, denoted by epithets. In the town of Aegae in Euboea, he was known as Poseidon Aegaeus and had a magnificent temple upon a hill. Strabo, ix. p. 405 Virgil, Aeneid iii. 74, where Servius erroneously derives the name from the Aegean Sea Poseidon also had a close association with horses, known under the epithet Poseidon Hippios. Poseidon in literature and art The Neptun brunnen fountain in Berlin Poseidon's family in the sea In Greek art, Poseidon rides a chariot that was pulled by a hippocampus or by horses that could ride on the sea. He was associated with dolphins and three-pronged fish spears (tridents). He lived in a palace on the ocean floor, made of coral and gems. In the Iliad Poseidon favors the Greeks, and on several occasion takes an active part in the battle against the Trojan forces. However, in Book XX he rescues Aeneas after the Trojan prince is laid low by Achilles. In the Odyssey, Poseidon is notable for his hatred of Odysseus due to the latter's having blinded the god's son, the cyclops Polyphemus. The enmity of Poseidon prevents Odysseus's return home to Ithaca for many years. Odysseus is even told, notwithstanding his ultimate safe return, that to placate the wrath of Poseidon will require one more voyage on his part. In the Aeneid, Neptune is still resentful of the wandering Trojans, but is not as vindictive as Juno, and in Book I he rescues the Trojan fleet from the goddess's attempts to wreck it, although his primary motivation for doing this is his annoyance at Juno's having intruded into his domain. A hymn to Poseidon included among the Homeric Hymns is a brief invocation, a seven-line introduction that addresses the god as both "mover of the earth and barren sea, god of the deep who is also lord of Helicon and wide Aegae The ancient palace-city that was replaced by Vergina , and specificies his twofold nature as an Olympian: "a tamer of horses and a saviour of ships." In contemporary culture The image of Poseidon or Neptune is widely used in European culture as symbolic of the ocean and waters generally, and hence occurs as a decorative sculpture on many fountains, and monuments in ancient seaports. "King" Neptune appears as the ruler of the sea, from cans of tuna to The Spongebob Squarepants Movie. Disney animators have portrayed Neptune as a fish-man, mistaking him for Triton, in the 1997 animated Hercules. In Percy Jackson & The Olympians, by Rick Riordan, the main character Perseus Jackson is a son of Poseidon (making him a demigod). Age of Mythology In the Age Of Mythology Game's Campaign Poseidon is seduced by the power the Titan Kronos promises him in return to setting him free. Poseidon then aids one of his cyclops children Gargarenses in freeing the Titan. In Marvel Comics, Poseidon (more frequently referred to as "Neptune") is the patron deity of Namor the Sub-Mariner, and his undersea kingdom of Atlantis. In Masami Kurumada's manga Saint Seiya, the Poseidon war is the second story arc. Poseidon incarnates in the body of the young Julian Solo and plots to get rid of humans to purify the earth. He's defeated by Athena and her Bronze Saints and sealed back to sleep again, although he awakens one more time to help her defeat Hades. He's set to make an appearance in the prequel Lost Canvas, after Athena sends two of her saints to Bluegard, where he was once sealed and is kept and guarded, to ask for his help in the war against Hades. In the GBA game, Golden Sun: The Lost Age, Poseidon lives in the center of an ocean, guarding the fabled city of Lemuria. He has apparently gone mad, due to the Lighthouses' recent lightings. In the Xena:Warrior Princess episode "Motherhood", Poseidon is the first God killed by Xena, when she is given the power to kill Gods. Sound and images Poseidon myths as told by story tellers1. Poseidon and Pelops, part I, (integral to Tantalus myth), read by Timothy CarterBibliography of reconstruction: Homer, Odyssey, 11.567 (7th c. BC); Pindar, Olympian Odes, 1 (476 BC); Euripides, Orestes, 12-16 (408 BC); Apollodorus, Epitomes 2: 1-9 (140 BC); Ovid, Metamorphoses, VI: 213, 458 (AD 8); Hyginus, Fables, 82: Tantalus; 83: Pelops (1st c. AD); Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2.22.3 (AD 160 - 176)2. Poseidon and Pelops, part II (Integral to the myth of Pelops and Hippodameia), read by Timothy CarterBibliography of reconstruction: Pindar, Olympian Ode, I (476 BC); Sophocles, (1) Electra, 504 (430 - 415 BC) & (2) Oenomaus, Fr. 433 (408 BC); Euripides, Orestes, 1024-1062 (408 BC); Apollodorus, Epitomes 2, 1-9 (140 BC); Diodorus Siculus, Histories, 4.73 (1st c. BC); Hyginus, Fables, 84: Oinomaus; Poetic Astronomy, ii (1st c. AD); Pausanias, Description of Greece, 5.1.3 - 7; 5.13.1; 6.21.9; 8.14.10 - 11 (c. AD 160 - 176); Philostratus the Elder Imagines, I.30: Pelops (AD 170 - 245); Philostratus the Younger, Imagines, 9: Pelops (c. AD 200 - 245); First Vatican Mythographer, 22: Myrtilus; Atreus et Thyestes; Second Vatican Mythographer, 146: Oenomaus Notes References Walter Burkert, Greek Religion (1977) 1985. GML Poseidon Theoi.com: Poseidon The story of Poseidon and Pelops Gods found in Mycenaean Greece; a table drawn up from Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek second edition (Cambridge 1973) be-x-old:Пасэйдон | Poseidon |@lemmatized greek:8 mythology:4 poseidon:75 latin:2 neptūnus:1 god:15 sea:16 earth:5 shaker:3 earthquake:4 name:8 nethuns:1 etruscan:1 adopt:1 neptune:10 roman:1 analogous:1 linear:2 b:2 tablet:4 show:2 venerate:1 pylos:3 thebe:1 pre:1 olympian:8 bronze:3 age:5 greece:5 integrate:1 brother:4 zeus:7 hades:4 worship:1 major:1 civic:1 several:2 city:6 athens:6 second:6 athena:10 importance:1 corinth:1 many:5 magna:1 graecia:1 chief:1 polis:1 benign:1 aspect:1 see:1 create:1 new:2 island:2 offer:2 calm:1 offend:2 ignore:1 supposedly:1 strike:2 ground:2 trident:4 cause:3 chaotic:1 spring:3 drownings:1 shipwreck:1 sailor:1 pray:1 safe:2 voyage:2 sometimes:1 drown:1 horse:7 sacrifice:2 accord:4 pausanias:6 one:9 caretaker:1 oracle:1 delphi:1 apollo:5 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4,130 | Black_Hand | Black hand may refer to: in underground groups Black Hand (extortion), racket practised by gangsters of Camorra and Mafia. Black Hand of Serbia, secret society devoted to Serbian unification in 1910s. Black Hand (Palestine), an Islamist militant group in the British Mandate of Palestine in the 1930s La Mano Negra ("The Black Hand"), a supposed secret and violent anarchist organization in Spain at the end of the 19th century Black Band (rebel forces) - alternative name for the Arumer Zwarte Hoop, violent organisation of petty Frisian noblemen during a rebellion In modern culture Mano Negra, a French pop-fusion band. Black Hand Gang, a series by Hans Jürgen Press. Black Hand (comics) a DC Comics supervillain. Black Hand (World of Darkness), fictional sect of vampires. Black Hand (VTES), the sixth expansion of White Wolf's trading card game Vampire: The Eternal Struggle collectible card game Vampire: The Eternal Struggle. The Black Hand of the Brotherhood of Nod (Command & Conquer series). Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion features an assassin group called 'The Dark Brotherhood'. The brotherhood itself is governed by a council called 'The Black Hand'. In Eldest the Black Hand is an underground group created to assassinate the leaders of the Varden. | Black_Hand |@lemmatized black:13 hand:12 may:1 refer:1 underground:2 group:4 extortion:1 racket:1 practise:1 gangster:1 camorra:1 mafia:1 serbia:1 secret:2 society:1 devote:1 serbian:1 unification:1 palestine:2 islamist:1 militant:1 british:1 mandate:1 la:1 mano:2 negra:2 suppose:1 violent:2 anarchist:1 organization:1 spain:1 end:1 century:1 band:2 rebel:1 force:1 alternative:1 name:1 arumer:1 zwarte:1 hoop:1 organisation:1 petty:1 frisian:1 nobleman:1 rebellion:1 modern:1 culture:1 french:1 pop:1 fusion:1 gang:1 series:2 han:1 jürgen:1 press:1 comic:2 dc:1 supervillain:1 world:1 darkness:1 fictional:1 sect:1 vampire:3 vtes:1 sixth:1 expansion:1 white:1 wolf:1 trading:1 card:2 game:2 eternal:2 struggle:2 collectible:1 brotherhood:3 nod:1 command:1 conquer:1 elder:1 scroll:1 iv:1 oblivion:1 feature:1 assassin:1 call:2 dark:1 govern:1 council:1 eldest:1 create:1 assassinate:1 leader:1 varden:1 |@bigram mandate_palestine:1 han_jürgen:1 dc_comic:1 collectible_card:1 |
4,131 | Othello | The seminal Russian actor and theatre practitioner Constantin Stanislavski as Othello in 1896. Othello, the Moor of Venice is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in approximately 1603, and based on the Italian short story "Un Capitano Moro" (A Moorish Captain) by Cinthio (a disciple of Boccaccio) first published in 1565. The work revolves around four central characters: Othello, a Moorish general in the Venetian army; his wife Desdemona; his lieutenant, Cassio; and his trusted ensign Iago. Because of its varied themes — racism, love, jealousy and betrayal — Othello remains relevant to the present day and is often performed in professional and community theatres alike. The play has also been the basis for numerous operatic, film and literary adaptations. Characters Othello, a Moor in the service of the Republic of Venice; Desdemona's husband and partner Desdemona, Othello's wife and Brabantio's daughter Iago, Othello's ensign and Emilia's husband Emilia, Iago's wife and Desdemona's attendant Cassio, Othello's lieutenant Brabantio, a Venetian senator, Gratiano's brother, Desdemona's father, and Othello's father-in-law Bianca, an associate of Cassio's sometimes identified as a courtesan Roderigo, a dissolute Venetian, Desdemona's admirer, and Iago's confederate Duke of Venice, or the "Doge" Gratiano, Brabantio's brother Lodovico, Brabantio's kinsman and Desdemona's cousin Montano, Othello's Venetian predecessor in the government of Cyprus Clown, a servant Officers, Gentlemen, Messenger, Musicians, Herald, Sailor, Attendants, etc. Plot The play opens with Roderigo, a rich and dissolute gentleman, complaining to Iago, a high-ranking soldier, that Iago has not told him about the secret marriage between Desdemona, the daughter of a Senator named Brabantio, and Othello, a Moorish general in the Venetian army. He is upset by this development because he lusts for Desdemona and has previously asked her father for her hand in marriage. Iago is upset with Othello for promoting a younger man named Michael Cassio above him, and tells Roderigo that he (Iago) is simply using Othello for his own advantage. Iago's argument against Cassio is that he is a scholarly tactician and has no real battle experience from which he can draw strategy. By emphasizing this point, and his dissatisfaction with serving under Othello, Iago convinces Roderigo to wake Brabantio and tell him about his daughter's affair. After Roderigo rouses Brabantio, Iago says aside that he has heard rumors that Othello has had an affair with his wife, Emilia. Later, Iago tells Othello that he overheard Roderigo telling Brabantio about the marriage and that he (Iago) was angry because the development was meant to be secret. News arrives in Venice that the Turks are going to attack Cyprus; therefore Othello is summoned to advise. Brabantio arrives and accuses Othello of seducing Desdemona by witchcraft, but Othello defends himself successfully before an assembly that includes the Duke of Venice, Brabantio's kinsman Lodovico and Gratiano, and various senators, explaining that Desdemona became enamored of him for the stories he told of his early life. By order of the Duke, Othello leaves Venice to command the Venetian armies against invading Turks on the island of Cyprus, accompanied by his new wife, his new lieutenant Cassio, his ensign Iago, and Emilia as Desdemona's attendant. The party arrives in Cyprus to find that a storm has destroyed the Turkish fleet. Othello orders a general celebration. Iago schemes to use Cassio to ruin Othello and takes the opportunity of Othello's absence at the celebration to persuade Roderigo to engage the drunken Cassio in a fight. The brawl greatly alarms the citizenry, and Othello is forced to quell the disturbance. Othello then strips Cassio of his rank. After Cassio sobers, Iago persuades him to importune Desdemona to act as an intermediary between himself and Othello, hoping that she will persuade the Moor to reinstate Cassio. "Desdemona in bed asleep", from Othello (Act V, scene 2), part of "A Collection of Prints, from Pictures Painted for the Purpose of Illustrating the Dramatic Works of Shakespeare, by the Artists of Great-Britain", published by John and Josiah Boydell (1803) Iago now persuades Othello to be suspicious of Desdemona and Cassio. As it happens, Cassio is courting a woman named Bianca, who is a seamstress and, allegedly, a prostitute. Desdemona drops a handkerchief that was Othello's first gift to her and which he has stated holds great significance to him in the context of their relationship; Emilia obtains this for Iago, who has asked her to steal it, having decided to plant it in Cassio's lodgings as evidence of Cassio and Desdemona's affair. Emilia is unaware of what Iago plans to do with the handkerchief. After he has planted the handkerchief, Iago tells Othello to stand apart and watch Cassio's reactions while Iago questions him about the handkerchief. He goads Cassio on to talk about his affair with Bianca; because Othello cannot hear what they are saying, Othello thinks that Cassio is referring to Desdemona. Bianca, on discovering the handkerchief, chastises Cassio. Enraged and hurt, Othello decides he is going to kill his wife and Iago suggests to Othello to let him kill Cassio. Iago convinces Roderigo to kill Cassio because Cassio has just been appointed in Othello's place, whereas if Cassio lives to take office, Othello and Desdemona will leave Cyprus, thwarting Roderigo's plans to win Desdemona. Roderigo attacks Cassio in the street after Cassio leaves Bianca's lodgings and they fight. Both are wounded. Passers-by arrive to help; Iago joins them, pretending to help Cassio. Iago secretly stabs Roderigo to stop him from talking and accuses Bianca of conspiracy to kill Cassio. In the night, Othello confronts Desdemona, and then kills her by smothering her in bed, before Emilia arrives. At Emilia's distress, Othello tries to explain himself, justifying his actions by accusing Desdemona of adultery. Emilia calls for help. The Governor arrives, with Iago and others, and Emilia begins to explain the situation. When Othello mentions the handkerchief (distinctively embroidered) as proof, Emilia realizes what Iago has done; she exposes him, whereupon Iago kills her. Othello, realizing Desdemona's innocence, attacks Iago but does not kill him, saying that he would rather have Iago live the rest of his life in pain. Lodovico, a Venetian nobleman, apprehends both Iago and Othello, but Othello commits suicide with a dagger before they can take him into custody. At the end, it can be assumed, Iago is taken off to be tortured and possibly executed. Source Othello is an adaptation of the Italian writer Cinthio's tale, "Un Capitano Moro" from his Gli Hecatommithi (1565), a collection of one hundred tales in the style of Boccacio's Decameron. No English translation of Cinthio was available in Shakespeare's lifetime, and verbal echoes in Othello are closer to the Italian original than to Gabriel Chappuy's 1584 French translation. Cinthio's tale may have been based on an actual incident occurring in Venice about 1508. Shakespeare, William. Four Tragedies: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. Bantam Books, 1988. It also resembles an incident described in the earlier tale of "The Three Apples", one of the stories narrated in the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights). Desdemona is the only named character in Cinthio's tale, with his few other characters identified only as "the Moor", "the squadron leader", "the ensign", and "the ensign's wife". Cinthio drew a moral (which he placed in the mouth of Desdemona) that European women are unwise to marry the temperamental males of other nations. Hecatommithi Cinthio's Moor is the model for Shakespeare's Othello, but some researchers believe the poet also took inspiration from the several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England circa 1600. Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare's Globe Theatre (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London, pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority) While Shakespeare closely followed Cinthio's tale in composing Othello, he departed from it in some details. Brabantio, Roderigo, and several minor characters are not found in Cinthio, for example, and Shakespeare's Emilia takes part in the handkerchief mischief while her counterpart in Cinthio does not. Unlike Shakespeare's Iago, Cinthio's ensign lusts after Desdemona and is spurred to revenge when she rejects him. Shakespeare's opening scenes are unique to his tragedy as is the tender scene between Emilia and Desdemona as the lady prepares for bed. Shakespeare's most striking departure from Cinthio is the manner of his heroine's death. In Shakespeare, Othello suffocates Desdemona, but in Cinthio, the Moor commissions his ensign to bludgeon his wife to death with a sand-filled stocking. Cinthio describes each gruesome blow, and, when the lady is dead, the Moor and his ensign place her lifeless body upon her bed, smash her skull, and cause the cracked ceiling above the bed to collapse upon her, giving the impression its falling rafters caused her death. In Cinthio, the two murderers escape detection. The Moor then misses his wife greatly, and comes to loathe the sight of his ensign. He demotes him, and refuses to have him in his company. The ensign then seeks revenge by disclosing to the "the squadron leader" (the tale's Cassio counterpart), the Moor's involvement in Desdemona's death. The two depart Cyprus for Venice, and denounce the Moor to the Venetian Seignory; the Moor is arrested, taken to Venice, and tortured. He refuses to admit his guilt and is condemned to exile. Desdemona's relatives eventually find and kill him. The ensign, however, continues to escape detection in Desdemona's death, but engages in other crimes while in Venice. He is arrested and dies after being tortured. Cinthio's "ensign's wife" survives her husband's death to tell her story. Bevington, David and Kate Bevington, translators. "Un Capitano Moro" in Four Tragedies: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. Bantam Books, 1988. pp. 371-387. Date and text Title page of the first quarto (1622) The earliest mention of the play is found in a 1604 Revels Office account, which records that on "Hallamas Day, being the first of Nouembar ... the Kings Maiesties plaiers" performed "A Play in the Banketinghouse att Whit Hall Called The Moor of Venis." The work is attributed to "Shaxberd." The Revels account was first printed by Peter Cunningham in 1842, and, while its authenticity was once challenged, is now regarded as genuine (as authenticated by A. E. Stamp in 1930). Sanders, Norman (ed.). Othello (2003, rev. ed.), New Cambridge Shakespeare, p. 1. Based on its style, the play is usually dated 1603 or 1604, but arguments have been made for dates as early as 1601 or 1602. Shakespeare, William. Four Tragedies: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. Bantam Books, 1988. Honigmann (ed), Othello (1997), Arden Shakespeare, Appendix 1, pp 344-350. The play was entered into the Register of the Stationers Company on October 6, 1621, by Thomas Walkley, and was first published in quarto format by him in 1622: <blockquote>THE Tragoedy of Othello, The Moore of Venice. As it hath beene diuerse times acted at the Globe, and at the Black-Friers, by his Maiesties Seruants. Written by VVilliam Shakespeare. LONDON, Printed by N. O. [Nicholas Okes] for Thomas Walkley, and are to be sold at his shopl at the Eagle and Child, in Brittans Bursse, 1622.</blockquote> One year later, the play was included among the plays in the First Folio of Shakespeare's collected plays. However, the version in the Folio is rather different in length, and in wording: as the editors of the Folger edition explain, ...the Folio play has about 160 lines that do not appear in the Quarto. Some of these cluster together in quite extensive passages. The Folio also lacks a scattering of about a dozen lines or part-lines that are to be found in the Quarto. These two versions also differ from each other in their readings of numerous words. Paul Westine and Barbara Mowat, eds. Othello, Folger Shakespeare Library edition (New York: WSP, 1993), p.xlv. Scholars differ in their explanation of these differences, and no consensus has emerged. Paul Westine and Barbara Mowat, eds. Othello, Folger Shakespeare Library edition (New York: WSP, 1993), p.xlv. One explanation is that the Quarto may have been cut in the printing house to meet a fixed number of pages. Another is that the Quarto is based on an early version of the play, while the Folio represents Shakespeare's revised version. Paul Westine and Barbara Mowat, eds. Othello, Folger Shakespeare Library edition (New York: WSP, 1993), p.xlv. Most modern editions are based on the longer Folio version, but often incorporate Quarto readings of words when the Folio text appears to be in error. Paul Westine and Barbara Mowat, eds. Othello, Folger Shakespeare Library edition (New York: WSP, 1993), pp.xlv-xlvi. Quartos were also published in 1630, 1655, 1681, 1695, 1699 and 1705. Themes and tropes Othello's racial classification Portrait of Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, Moorish ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, sometimes claimed as an inspiration for Othello. Vaughan, p.59 There is no consensus over Othello's racial classification; although normally performed as a black person today, he was frequently performed as an Arab during the nineteenth century. Othello is referred to as a "Moor", a term that technically referred to a Berber and Arab people of North Africa, but which was used more casually during the English Renaissance to refer to dark-skinned people in general, including black people. "Moor, n2", The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edtn. E.A.J. Honigmann, the editor of the Arden Shakespeare edition, concludes that Othello's race is ambiguous. Various uses of the word 'black' (for example, "Haply for I am black") are insufficient evidence, Honigmann argues, since 'black' could simply mean 'swarthy' to Elizabethans. Oxford English Dictionary, 'Black', 1c. Moreover, Iago twice uses the word 'Barbary' or 'Barbarian' to refer to Othello, seemingly referring to the Barbary coast inhabited by the "tawny" Moors. Roderigo calls Othello 'the thicklips', which seems to refer to European conceptions of Sub-Saharan African physiognomy, but Honigmann counters that, arguing that because these comments are all insults, they need not be taken literally. E.A.J. Honigmann, ed. Othello. London: Thomas Nelson, 1997, p. 15. Furthermore, Honigmann wonders whether the ambassador of the Arab King of Barbary, who stayed with his retinue in London in 1600 for several months and occasioned much discussion, might have inspired Shakespeare's play, written only a few years afterwards. Honigmann, 2-3. However, Michael Neill, editor of the Oxford Shakespeare edition, disagrees, arguing that the earliest external references to Othello's colour (Thomas Rymer's 1693 critique of the play, and the 1709 engraving in Nicholas Rowe's edition of Shakespeare) assume him to be a black man, while the earliest known North African interpretation was Edmund Kean's production of 1814. Michael Neill, ed. Othello (Oxford University Press), 2006, p. 45-7. Modern-day readers and theatre directors now normally lean towards the "black" interpretation, and North African Othellos are rare. Honigmann, 17. Iago / Othello Although eponymously titled, suggesting that the tragedy belongs primarily to Othello, Iago plays an important role in the plot and with that has more lines than the title character. In Othello, it is Iago who manipulates all other characters at will, controlling their movements and trapping them in an intricate net of lies. He achieves this by getting close to all characters and playing on their weaknesses while they refer to him as "honest" Iago, thus furthering his control over the characters . A. C. Bradley — and more recently Harold Bloom — have been major advocates of this interpretation. Other critics, most notably in the later twentieth century (after F. R. Leavis), have focused on Othello. Apart from the common question of jealousy, some argue that his honour is his undoing, while others address the hints of instability in his person (in Act IV Scene I, for example, he falls 'into a trance'). Critical analysis There have been many differing views on the character of Othello over the years. They span from describing Othello as a hero to describing him as an egotistical fool. A.C Bradley calls Othello the "most romantic of all of Shakespeare's heroes" and "the greatest poet of them all". On the other hand, F.R. Leavis describes Othello as "egotistical". There are those who also take a less critical approach to the character of Othello such as William Hazlitt, who makes a statement that would now be regarded as racist, saying that "the nature of the Moor is noble...but his blood is of the most inflameable kind". Performance historyOthello possesses an unusually detailed performance record. The first certainly-known performance occurred on November 1, 1604, at Whitehall Palace in London, being mentioned in a Revels account on "Hallamas Day, being the first of Nouembar", 1604, when "the Kings Maiesties plaiers" performed "A Play in the Banketinge house at Whit Hall Called The Moor of Venis." The play is there attributed to "Shaxberd". Shakespeare, William. Four Tragedies. Bantam Books, 1988. Subsequent performances took place on Monday, April 30, 1610 at the Globe Theatre, and at Oxford in September 1610. Loomis, Catherine ed. (2002). William Shakespeare: A Documentary Volume, Vol. 263, Dictionary of Literary Biography, Detroit: Gale, 200-1. On November 22, 1629, and on May 6, 1635, it played at the Blackfriars Theatre. Othello was also one of the twenty plays performed by the King's Men during the winter of 1612–13, in celebration of the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V, Elector Palatine. Poster for an 1884 American production starring Thomas Keene. At the start of the Restoration era, on October 11, 1660, Samuel Pepys saw the play at the Cockpit Theatre. Nicholas Burt played the lead, with Charles Hart as Cassio; Walter Clun won fame for his Iago. Soon after, on December 8, 1660, Thomas Killigrew's new King's Company acted the play at their Vere Street theatre, with Margaret Hughes as Desdemona — probably the first time a professional actress appeared on a public stage in England. It may be one index of the play's power that Othello was one of the very few Shakespearean plays that was never adapted and changed during the Restoration and the eighteenth century. F. E. Halliday, A Shakespeare Companion 1564-1964, Baltimore, Penguin, 1964; pp. 346-47. Famous nineteenth century Othellos included Edmund Kean, Edwin Forrest, Ira Aldridge, and Tommaso Salvini, and outstanding Iagos were Edwin Booth and Henry Irving. The play has maintained its popularity into the 21st century. The most famous American production may be Margaret Webster's 1943 staging starring Paul Robeson as Othello and Jose Ferrer as Iago. This production was the first ever in the United States of America to feature a black actor playing Othello with an otherwise all-white cast (there had been all-black productions of the play before). It ran for 296 performances, almost twice as long as any other Shakespearean play ever produced on Broadway. Although it was never filmed, it was the first nearly complete performance of a Shakespeare play released on records. Robeson had first played the role in London in 1931 opposite a cast that included Peggy Ashcroft as Desdemona and Ralph Richardson as Roderigo, and would return to it in 1959 at Stratford on Avon. The 1943 run of Othello — starring Paul Robeson and Uta Hagen — holds the record for the most performances of any Shakespeare play ever produced on Broadway. The American actor William Marshall performed the title role in at least six productions. His Othello was called by Harold Hobson of the London Sunday Times "the best Othello of our time," Jet magazine, 30 June 2003 continuing:"...nobler than [Godfrey] Tearle, more martial than [John] Gielgud, more poetic than [Frederick] Valk. From his first entry, slender and magnificently tall, framed in a high Byzantine arch, clad in white samite, mystic, wonderful, a figure of Arabian romance and grace, to his last plunging of the knife into his stomach, Mr Marshall rode without faltering the play's enormous rhetoric, and at the end the house rose to him." The (London) Independent, 6 July 2003 Marshall also played Othello in a jazz musical version, Catch My Soul, with Jerry Lee Lewis as Iago, in Los Angeles in 1968. Christgau, Robert. Any Old Way You Choose It, ISBN 0815410417 His Othello was captured on record in 1964 with Jay Robinson as Iago and on video in 1981 with Ron Moody as Iago. Another famous production was the 1982 Broadway staging with James Earl Jones as Othello and Christopher Plummer as Iago, who became the only actor to receive a Tony Award nomination for a performance in the play. When Laurence Olivier played his legendary and wildly acclaimed performance of Othello at the Royal National Theatre in 1964, he had developed a case of stage fright that was so profound that when he was alone onstage, Frank Finlay (who was playing Iago) would have to stand offstage where Olivier could see him to settle his nerves. Laurence Olivier, Confessions of an Actor, Simon and Shuster (1982) p. 262 This performance was recorded complete on LP, and filmed by popular demand in 1965 (according to a biography of Olivier, tickets for the stage production were notoriously hard to get). The film version still holds the record for the most Oscar nominations for acting ever given to a Shakespeare film - Olivier, Finlay, Maggie Smith (as Desdemona) and Joyce Redman (as Emilia, Iago's wife) were all nominated for Academy Awards. Olivier was among the last white actors to be greatly acclaimed as Othello, although the role continued to be played by such performers as Paul Scofield at the Royal National Theatre in 1980, Anthony Hopkins in the BBC Shakespeare television production on videotape. (1981), and Michael Gambon in a stage production at Scarborough directed by Alan Ayckbourn in 1990. When Patrick Stewart played Othello at the Shakespeare Theater Company in Washington, D.C., he portrayed the Moor as a white man with the other characters played by black actors. Actors have alternated the roles of Iago and Othello in productions to stir audience interest since the nineteenth century. Two of the most notable examples of this role swap were William Charles Macready and Samuel Phelps at Drury Lane (1837) and Richard Burton and John Neville at the Old Vic Theatre (1955). When Edwin Booth's tour of England in 1880 was not well attended, Henry Irving invited Booth to alternate the roles of Othello and Iago with him in London. The stunt renewed interest in Booth's tour. James O'Neill also alternated the roles of Othello and Iago with Booth, with the latter's complimentary appreciation of O'Neill's interpretation of the Moor being immortalized in O'Neill's son Eugene's play Long Day's Journey Into Night.Othello opened at the Donmar Warehouse in London on 4 December 2007, directed by Michael Grandage, with Chiwetel Ejiofor as Othello, Ewan McGregor as Iago and Kelly Reilly as Desdemona. Despite tickets selling as high as £2000 on web-based vendors, only Ejiofor was praised by critics, winning the Laurence Olivier Award for his performance; with McGregor and Reilly's performances receiving largely negative notices. Lenny Henry, the stand up comedian, has been the latest big name to play Othello. He did so on a tour at the start of 2009 produced by Northern Broadsides in collaboration with West Yorkshire Playhouse. Adaptations and cultural references Opera Maria Malibran as Rossini's Desdemona by François Bouchet, 1834Otello, a three act opera with an Italian libretto by Francesco Maria Berio di Salsi and music by Gioachino Rossini was first performed at the Teatro del Fondo, Naples, on December 4, 1816. The opera deviates from Shakespeare's original in some aspects: Jago is less diabolical than his Shakespearean counterpart, the setting is Venice rather than Cyprus, and the composer and librettist provided an alternative happy ending to the work, a common practice with drama and opera at one time. The opera is rarely performed. Giuseppe Verdi and librettist Arrigo Boito adapted Shakespeare's play to Otello, an Italian grand opera in four acts that was first performed at the Teatro alla Scala, Milan on February 5, 1887. It was Verdi's second to last opera (followed by another Shakespeare adaptation, Falstaff) and is considered by many to be Verdi's greatest tragedy. Verdi and his librettist dispensed with the first act of the play. The popular opera attracts world class singers and is found in the repertoire of prominent opera houses. Franco Zeffirelli's 1986 film version of Verdi's opera starring Plácido Domingo as Othello won the BAFTA for foreign language film. Otello (1986) (Indeed, according to the Kennedy Center's biographical note on Domingo, Laurence Olivier saw Domingo in Otello and, furious, told Franco Zeffirelli: "You realize that Domingo plays Othello as well as I do, and he has that voice!" ) On February 25, 1999, Bandanna, an English language opera in a prologue and two acts with a libretto by Irish poet Paul Muldoon and music by Daron Hagen was performed by the opera theater at The University of Texas in Austin. The opera is set in 1968 on the United States–Mexican border and borrows elements from Cinthio's tale, Shakespeare's play, and Verdi's opera. Ballet Mexican choreographer José Limón created a 20-minute, four character ballet called The Moor's Pavane to the music of Henry Purcell in 1949. The work premiered at the Connecticut College American Dance Festival in the same year. American Ballet Theatre was the first dance company outside Limon's to include the work in its repertory. It is a standard in dance companies around the world and notable interpreters of the Moor include Rudolf Nureyev. Hélène Bouchet and Amilcar Moret Gonzalez in Othello, a ballet choreographed by John Neumeier for the Hamburg Ballet in 1985 The ballet Othello was choreographed by John Neumeier to music by Arvo Pärt, Alfred Schnittke, Naná Vasconcelos et al. and was premiered by the Hamburg Ballet in Hamburg on January 27, 1985, with Gamal Gouda as Othello, Gigi Hyatt as Desdemona, and Max Midinet as Jago. The work remains in the repertoire of the Hamburg Ballet, seeing its 100th performance in 2008. In 2002, modern dance master Lar Lubovitch created a full-length ballet in three acts based on the Shakespeare play and Cinthio's tale with a score by Elliot Goldenthal. The work has been staged by the San Francisco Ballet with Desmond Richardson, Yuan Yuan Tan, and Parrish Maynard in the principal roles. The San Francisco Chronicle hailed the work as "a major new chapter in American ballet as well as a spectacular addition to the international repertory." The ballet was broadcast on PBS's Great Performances: Dance in America and the program was nominated for an Emmy Award. The ballet is recorded on Kultur video. Othello was first performed in New York City at the Metropolitan Opera House, May 23, 1997, by American Ballet Theatre. Great Performances . Dance in America: Lar Lubovitch's "Othello" from San Francisco Ballet | PBS Other ballets include Prologue choreographed by Jacques d'Amboise for the New York City Ballet in 1967 as a prequel to Shakespeare's play, Othello choreographed by John Butler to the music of Dvořák for Carla Fracci and the La Scala Ballet in 1976, and a version choreographed by Jean-Pierre Bonnefous for the Louisville Ballet in the 1980s. FilmSee also Shakespeare on screen (Othello). The two earliest screen adaptations of Othello are black and white, silent German versions filmed in 1909 and 1922. The 1909 version was directed by, and stars, Franz Porten as Othello, Henny Porten as Desdemona, and Rosa Porten as Emilia. The 1922 film stars the celebrated Emil Jannings as Othello, Werner Krauss as Iago, and Ica von Lenkeffy as Desdemona. Othello (1922) Orson Welles as Othello in his 1952 film The Orson Welles-directed 1952 version, The Tragedy of Othello: The Moor of Venice was also filmed in black and white. The Tragedy of Othello: The Moor of Venice (1952) The film stars Welles as Othello and Suzanne Cloutier as Desdemona. The troubled production was filmed over the course of three years as Welles' time and money permitted. Lack of funds (and costumes) forced Roderigo's death scene to be shot in a Turkish bath with performers wearing only large, ragged towels. The film won the Palme D'Or at the 1952 Cannes Film Festival. Отелло (1955), USSR, starring Sergei Bondarchuk, Irina Skobtseva, Andrei Popov. Directed by Sergei Yutkevich. See All Night Long (1962) A British adaptation in which the character of Othello is Rex, a jazz bandleader. Featuring Dave Brubeck and other modern jazz musicians. All Night Long (1962) Othello (1965) starring Laurence Olivier, Maggie Smith, Frank Finlay, and Joyce Redman Othello (1965) Catch My Soul (1974) adapted from Jack Good's rock musical, directed by Patrick McGoohan and starring Richie Havens, Lance LeGault, Season Hubley and Tony Joe White. Laurence Fishburne and Kenneth Branagh as Othello and Iago respectively, in a scene from the 1995 version of Othello. Othello (1995) starring Kenneth Branagh, Laurence Fishburne, and Irene Jacob. Directed by Oliver Parker. Othello (1995) Kaliyattam (1997), in Malayalam, a modern update, set in Kerala, starring Suresh Gopi as Othello, Lal as Iago, Manju Warrier as Desdemona, directed by Jayaraaj. Kaliyattam (1997) O (2001) a modern update, set in an American high school. Stars Mekhi Phifer, Julia Stiles, and Josh Hartnett O (2001) Omkara (2006) (Hindi) is an Indian version of the play, set in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The film stars Ajay Devgan as Omkara (Othello), Saif Ali Khan as Langda Thyagi (Iago), Kareena Kapoor as Dolly (Desdemona), Vivek Oberoi as Kesu (Cassio), Bipasha Basu as Billo (Bianca) and Konkona Sen Sharma as Indu (Emilia). The film is directed by Vishal Bharadwaj who earlier adapted Shakespeare's Macbeth as Maqbool. All characters in the film share the same letter or sound in their first name as in the original Shakespeare classic. It is one of the few mainstream Indian movies to contain uncensored swear-words. Eloise (2002) a modern update, set in Sydney, NSW, Australia. Jarum Halus (2008) a modern Malaysian film, in English and Malay by Mark Tan. Jarum Halus official website Television Othello (1981), actually shot on videotape, part of the BBC's complete works of William Shakespeare on television. Starring Anthony Hopkins and Bob Hoskins. Othello (1981) (TV) Othello (1990) A film version of the last Royal Shakespeare Company production at The Other Place in 1989 starring Michael Grandage, Ian McKellen, Clive Swift, Willard White, Sean Baker, and Imogen Stubbs. Directed by Trevor Nunn. Othello (2001). TV film. A modern-day adaptation in modern English, in which Othello is the first black Commissioner of London's Metropolitan Police. Made for ITV by LWT. Scripted by Andrew Davies. Directed by Geoffrey Sax. Starring Eamonn Walker, Christopher Eccleston and Keeley Hawes. Othello (2001) (TV) Graphic Novels Othello, an adaptation by Oscar Zarate, Oval Projects Ltd (1985). Reprinted in 2005 by Can Of Worms Press. Includes the complete text of the play. Gallery References External links Othello—text by PublicLiterature.org Othello—Scene-indexed and searchable version of the text. Othello at IBDB—lists numerous productions. 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4,132 | Dwight_D._Eisenhower | Dwight David “Ike” Eisenhower (October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general in the United States Army. During the Second World War, he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe, with responsibility for planning and supervising the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45. In 1951, he became the first supreme commander of NATO. As President, he oversaw the cease-fire of the Korean War, kept up the pressure on the Soviet Union during the Cold War, made nuclear weapons a higher defense priority, launched the Space Race, enlarged the Social Security program, and began the Interstate Highway System. He was the last World War I veteran to serve as U.S. president, and the last president born in the 19th century. Eisenhower ranks highly among former U.S. presidents in terms of approval rating. Early life and family Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, the first president born in that state. He was the third of seven sons born to David Jacob Eisenhower and Ida Elizabeth Stover, of German, English and Swiss ancestry. The house in which he was born has been preserved as Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site and is operated by the Texas Historical Commission. He was named David Dwight and was called Dwight; he reversed the order of his given names when he entered West Point, , which is also where he received his nickname, "Ike". Dwight D. Eisenhower from the website of the National Portrait Gallery Eisenhower's paternal ancestors can be traced back to Hans Nicolas Eisenhauer, whose surname is German for "iron worker." Hans Eisenhauer and his family emigrated from Karlsbrunn (Saarland), Germany to Lancaster, Pennsylvania in 1741. Descendants made their way west. Eisenhower's family settled in Abilene, Kansas in 1892. His father David Eisenhower was a college-educated engineer. Eisenhower graduated from Abilene High School in 1909. Eisenhower married Mamie Geneva Doud (1896–1979) of Denver, Colorado on July 1, 1916. The couple had two sons. Doud Dwight Eisenhower was born September 24, 1917, and died of scarlet fever on January 2, 1921, at the age of three. Their second son, John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower, was born the following year on August 3, 1922; John served in the United States Army (retiring as a brigadier general from the Army reserve), became an author, and served as U.S. Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. John, coincidentally, graduated from West Point on D-Day, June 6, 1944, and was married to Barbara Jean Thompson in a June wedding in 1947. John and Barbara had four children: Dwight David II "David", Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean. David, after whom Camp David is named, married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968. Religion Eisenhower's paternal ancestor, Hans Nicholas Eisenhauer, was probably of Lutheran or Reformed Protestant practice. Eisenhower's mother, Ida E. Stover Eisenhower, previously a member of the River Brethren sect of the Mennonites, joined the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society which would evolve into what is now known as the Jehovah's Witnesses between 1895 and 1900, when Eisenhower was a child. Smith, Gary Scott, (2006). - Faith and the Presidency: From George Washington to George W. Bush. - Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. - ISBN 0-19-530060-2. - Retrieved: 2008-05-24 The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915. When Eisenhower joined the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1911, his ties to Jehovah’s Witnesses were weakened because of the group's anti-militarist stance. The Watchtower-2002, p.159 | "They Are No Part of the World" Worship the Only True God | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania Reasoning From the Scriptures –1985, p. 138 | “Neutrality” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania By 1915, his parents' home no longer served as the meeting hall. All the men in the household abandoned the Witnesses as adults. Some hid their previous affiliation. Jehovah Witnesses Abilene Congregation. - Dwight D. Eisenhower Library. - Eisenhower Presidential Center. - (Adobe Acrobat *.PDF document). - Retrieved: 2008-05-23 At his death in 1942, Eisenhower's father was given funeral rites as though he remained a Jehovah's Witness. Eisenhower's mother continued as an active Jehovah's Witness until her death. Despite their differences in religious beliefs, Eisenhower enjoyed a close relationship with his mother. Eisenhower was baptized, confirmed, and became a communicant in the Presbyterian Church in a single ceremony on February 1, 1953, just 12 days after his first inauguration. Eisenhower Presidential Trivia. - (c/o Archive.org. - Archive Date: 2007-06-12). - Eisenhower Presidential Center. - Retrieved: 2008-05-24 He is the only president known to have undertaken these rites while in office. Eisenhower was instrumental in the addition of the words "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954, and the 1956 adoption of "In God We Trust" as the motto of the US, and its 1957 introduction on paper currency. In his retirement years, he was a member of the Gettysburg Presbyterian Church. The chapel at his presidential library is intentionally inter-denominational. He questioned Billy Graham about how people can be certain they are going to Heaven after death. Gibbs, Nancy; and Michael Duffy. - "Billy Graham, Pastor In Chief". - TIME. - August 9, 2007. - Retrieved: 2008-06-07 Eisenhower was sworn into office with his personal West Point Bible, open to Psalm 33:12, at both his 1953 and 1957 inaugural ceremonies. Additionally for 1953, he included the Bible that George Washington had used in 1789 (belonging to St. John's Masonic Lodge No. 1), opened to II Chronicles 7:14. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953. - Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. - U.S. Senate. President Dwight David Eisenhower, 1957. - Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. - U.S. Senate. Education Dwight D. Eisenhower attended Abilene High School in Abilene, Kansas and graduated with the class of 1909. He then took a job as a night foreman at the Belle Springs Creamery. After Dwight worked for two years to support his brother Edgar's college education, a friend urged him to apply to the Naval Academy. Though Eisenhower passed the entrance exam, he was beyond the age of eligibility for admission to the Naval Academy. Kansas Senator Joseph L. Bristow recommended Dwight for an appointment to the Military Academy in 1911, which he received. Eisenhower graduated in the upper half of the class of 1915. The 1915 class was known as "the class the stars fell on", because 59 members eventually became general officers. Athletic career Eisenhower long had aspirations of playing professional baseball: At West Point, Eisenhower tried out for the baseball team but did not make it. He would later say that "not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest." But Eisenhower did make the football team. He started as a varsity running back and linebacker in 1912. In a bit of a fabled match-up, he even tackled the legendary Jim Thorpe in a 1912 game. The next week however, Eisenhower would hurt his knee after being tackled around the ankles, which he would soon worsen and permanently damage on horseback and in the boxing ring. He would later serve as junior varsity football coach and yell leader. Controversy persists over whether Eisenhower played minor league (semi-professional) baseball for Junction City in the Central Kansas League the year before he attended West Point and played amateur football there. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Eisenhower was football coach for St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University. Early military career Eisenhower enrolled at the United States Military Academy at West Point in June 1911. His parents were against militarism, but did not object to his entering West Point because they supported his education. Eisenhower was a strong athlete and enjoyed notable successes in his competitive endeavors. In 1912, a spectacular Eisenhower touchdown won praise from the sports reporter of the New York Herald, and he even managed, with the help of a linebacker teammate, to tackle the legendary Jim Thorpe. In the very next week, however, his promising sports career ended when he incurred a severe knee injury. Eisenhower graduated in 1915. He served with the infantry until 1918 at various camps in Texas and Georgia. During World War I, Eisenhower became the #3 leader of the new tank corps and rose to temporary (Bvt.) Lieutenant Colonel in the National Army. He spent the war training tank crews in Pennsylvania and never saw combat. After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain (and was promoted to major a few days later) before assuming duties at Camp Meade, Maryland, where he remained until 1922. His interest in tank warfare was strengthened by many conversations with George S. Patton and other senior tank leaders; however their ideas on tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors. Eisenhower became executive officer to General Fox Conner in the Panama Canal Zone, where he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Karl von Clausewitz's On War), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking. In 1925–26, he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and then served as a battalion commander at Fort Benning, Georgia until 1927. During the late 1920s and early 1930s Eisenhower's career in the peacetime Army stagnated; many of his friends resigned for high paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission, directed by General John J. Pershing, then to the Army War College, and then served as executive officer to General George V. Mosely, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to 1933. He then served as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff, until 1935, when he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government. It is sometimes said that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill, George S. Patton and Bernard Law Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower was promoted to lieutenant colonel (in a non-brevet status) in 1936 after sixteen years as a major. He also learned to fly, although he was never rated as a military pilot. He made a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937. Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in 1939 and held a series of staff positions in Washington, D.C., California and Texas. In June 1941, he was appointed Chief of Staff to General Walter Krueger, Commander of the 3rd Army, at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. He was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941 The Eisenhowers: The General . Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II he had never held an active command and was far from being considered as a potential commander of major operations. World War II After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division, General Leonard T. Gerow, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Then he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of Operations Division under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall. It was his close association with Marshall that finally brought Eisenhower to senior command positions. Marshall recognized his great organizational and administrative abilities. In 1942, Eisenhower was appointed Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA) and was based in London. Eisenhower lived in 'Telegraph Cottage', Warren Road, Coombe, Kingston Upon Thames from 1942 to 1944. A plaque commemorating this, placed there in 1995 by the Royal Borough of Kingston Upon Thames, can be seen at the north end of Warren Road. In November, he was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters A(E)FHQ. The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British 8th Army, commanded by General Bernard Law Montgomery. The 8th Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA. After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower remained in command of the renamed Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), keeping the operational title and continued in command of NATOUSA redesignated MTOUSA. In this position he oversaw the invasion of Sicily and the invasion of the Italian mainland. In December 1943, it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. In January 1944, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. In these positions he was charged with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of western Europe and the invasion of Germany. A month after the Normandy D-Day landings on June 6, 1944, the invasion of southern France took place, and control of the forces which took part in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. From then until the end of the War in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower through SHAEF had supreme command of all operational Allied forces2, and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the Western Front north of the Alps. As recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He dealt skillfully with difficult subordinates such as Omar Bradley and Patton, and allies such as Winston Churchill, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle. He had fundamental disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He negotiated with Soviet Marshal Zhukov Memoir of Eisenhower's translator for the Potsdam Conference meetings with Zhukov , and such was the confidence that President Franklin D. Roosevelt had in him, he sometimes worked directly with Stalin, much to the chagrin of the British High Command who disliked being bypassed. During the advance towards Berlin, he was notified by General Bradley that Allied forces would suffer an estimated 100,000 casualties before taking the city. The Soviet Army sustained 80,000 casualties during the fighting in and around Berlin, the last large number of casualties suffered in the war against Nazism. It was never certain that Operation Overlord would succeed. The seriousness surrounding the entire decision, including the timing and the location of the Normandy invasion, might be summarized by a second shorter speech that Eisenhower wrote in advance, in case he needed it. Long after the successful landings on D-Day and the BBC broadcast of Eisenhower's brief speech concerning them, the never-used second speech was found in a shirt pocket by an aide. It read: Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone. Aftermath of World War II Occupation of Germany Eisenhower served as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army from 1945–48. The Supreme Commanders on June 5, 1945 in Berlin: Bernard Montgomery, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Jean de Lattre de Tassigny. Following the German unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone, based in Frankfurt am Main. Germany was divided into four Occupation Zones, one each for the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. Upon full discovery of the death camps that were part of the Final Solution (Holocaust), he ordered camera crews to comprehensively document evidence of the atrocity for use in the war crimes tribunals. He made the decision to reclassify German prisoners of war (POWs) in U.S. custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), thus depriving them of the protection of the Geneva convention. As DEFs, their food rations could be lowered and they could be compelled to serve as unfree labor (see Rheinwiesenlager). Eisenhower was an early supporter of the Morgenthau Plan to permanently remove Germany's industrial capacity to wage future wars. In November 1945 he approved the distribution of 1000 free copies of Morgenthau's book Germany is Our Problem, which promoted and described the plan in detail, to American military officials in occupied Germany. Historian Stephen Ambrose draws the conclusion that, despite Eisenhower's later claims the act was not an endorsement of the Morgenthau plan, Eisenhower both approved of the plan and had previously given Morgenthau at least some of his ideas about how Germany should be treated. He also incorporated officials from Morgenthau's Treasury into the army of occupation. These were commonly called "Morgenthau boys" for their zeal in interpreting the occupation directive JCS 1067, which had been heavily influenced by Morgenthau and his plan, as strictly as possible. Columbia University and NATO In 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, New York, Touchstone Books, 1990, pp 234–235, ISBN 0-671-70107-X In December 1950, he took leave from the university when he became the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service on May 31, 1952, and resumed the university presidency, which he held until January 1953. 1948 also was the year that Eisenhower's memoir, Crusade in Europe, was published. Crusade in Europe, Doubleday; 1st edition (1948), 559 pages, ISBN 1-125-30091-4 It is widely regarded as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs. Entry into politics After his many wartime successes, Eisenhower was a great hero in the U.S. He was unusual for a military hero as he never saw the front line in his life. The nearest he came to being under enemy fire was in 1944 when a German fighter strafed the ground while he was inspecting troops in Normandy. Eisenhower dove for cover like everyone else and after the plane flew off, a British brigadier helped him up and seemed very relieved he was not hurt. When Eisenhower thanked him for his solicitude, the brigadier deflated him by explaining "my concern was that you should not be injured in my sector." Not long after his return in 1952, a "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert Taft. (Eisenhower had been courted by both parties in 1948 and had declined to run then.) Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination but came to an agreement that Taft would stay out of foreign affairs while Eisenhower followed a conservative domestic policy. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan "I Like Ike" and was a crusade against the Truman administration's policies regarding "Korea, Communism and Corruption." Truman, formerly a friend of Eisenhower's, never forgave him for not denouncing Senator Joseph McCarthy during the 1952 campaign. Truman said he had previously thought Eisenhower would be a great President, but "he has betrayed almost everything I thought he stood for." Eisenhower promised during his campaign to go to Korea himself and end the war there. He also promised to maintain both a strong NATO commitment against Communism and a corruption-free frugal administration at home. He and his running mate Richard Nixon, whose daughter later married Eisenhower's grandson David, defeated Democrats Adlai Stevenson and John Sparkman in a landslide, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years, with Eisenhower becoming the last President born in the 19th century. Eisenhower, at 62, was the oldest man to be elected President since James Buchanan in 1856. Eisenhower was the only general to serve as President in the 20th century, and the most recent President to have never held elected office prior to the Presidency. The other Presidents not to have sought prior elected office were Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, William Taft, and Herbert Hoover. Presidency 1953–1961 Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower preached a doctrine of dynamic conservatism. He continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security. He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. His cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber." Eisenhower won his second term in 1956 with 457 of 531 votes in the Electoral College, and 57.6% of the popular vote. Interstate Highway System One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956. He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible future war, and the highways were designed to evacuate them and allow the military to move in. Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast. His subsequent experience with German autobahns during World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but be the building block for continued economic growth. Eisenhower Doctrine After the Suez Crisis, the United States became the protector of most Western interests in the Middle East. As a result, Eisenhower proclaimed the "Eisenhower Doctrine" in January 1957. In relation to the Middle East, the U.S. would be "prepared to use armed force...[to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism." On July 15, 1958, he sent just under 15,000 soldiers to Lebanon (a combined force of Army and Marine Corps) as part of Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peace keeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government. They left in October of the same year. In addition, Eisenhower explored the option of supporting the French colonial forces in Vietnam who were fighting an independence insurrection there. However, Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. As the Cold War deepened, Eisenhower's Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances of nations against it. His efforts were sometimes called "pacto-mania". Cornelia Navari, Internationalism and the State in the Twentieth Century. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 978-0415097475. p. 316. Civil rights Eisenhower supported the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka U.S. Supreme Court decision, in which segregated ("separate but equal") schools were ruled to be unconstitutional. The very next day he told District of Columbia officials to make Washington a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public school children. He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 and signed those acts into law. Although both Acts were weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since the 1870s. The "Little Rock Nine" incident of 1957 involved the refusal by Arkansas to honor a Federal court order to integrate the schools. Under , Eisenhower placed the Arkansas National Guard under Federal control and sent Army troops to escort nine black students into an all-white public school. The integration did not occur without violence. Eisenhower and Arkansas governor Orval Faubus engaged in tense arguments. Judicial appointments Supreme Court Eisenhower appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Earl Warren, 1953 (Chief Justice) John Marshall Harlan II, 1954 William J. Brennan, 1956 Charles Evans Whittaker, 1957 Potter Stewart, 1958 Other courts In addition to his five Supreme Court appointments, Eisenhower appointed 45 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 129 judges to the United States district courts. States admitted to the Union Alaska – January 3, 1959 49th state Hawaii – August 21, 1959 50th state End of presidency In 1961, Eisenhower became the first U.S. president to be "constitutionally forced" from office, having served the maximum two terms allowed by the 22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The amendment was ratified in 1951, during Harry S. Truman's term, but it stipulated that Truman would not be affected by the amendment. Eisenhower was also the first outgoing President to come under the protection of the Former Presidents Act (two then living former Presidents, Herbert Hoover and Harry S. Truman, left office before the Act was passed). Under the act, Eisenhower was entitled to receive a lifetime pension, state-provided staff and a Secret Service detail. In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed his own Vice-President, Republican Richard Nixon against Democrat John F. Kennedy. He thoroughly supported Nixon over Kennedy, telling friends: "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy." However, he only campaigned for Nixon in the campaign's final days and even did Nixon some harm. When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, he joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one." Kennedy's campaign used the quote in one of its campaign commercials. Nixon lost narrowly to Kennedy. Eisenhower, who was the oldest elected President in history at that time, thus handed power over to the youngest elected President. On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office. In his farewell speech to the nation, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War saying: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together." Because of legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower resigned his permanent commission as General of the Army before entering the office of President of the United States. Upon completion of his Presidential term, his commission on the retired list was reactivated and Eisenhower again was commissioned a five-star general in the United States Army. Eisenhower Archives. Post Presidential Years. Quote: "President Kennedy reactivated his commission as a five star general in the United States Army. With the exception of George Washington, Eisenhower is the only United States President with military service to reenter the Armed Forces after leaving the office of President." Post-presidency Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. In 1967, the Eisenhowers donated the farm to the National Park Service and since 1980 it has been open to the public as the Eisenhower National Historic Site Eisenhower National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service) . In retirement, he did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the 1964 Republican National Convention and appeared with Barry Goldwater in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg. Death and funeral Eisenhower died of congestive heart failure on March 28, 1969 at Walter Reed Army Hospital in Washington D.C. The following day his body was moved to the Washington National Cathedral's Bethlehem Chapel where he lay in repose for twenty-eight hours. On March 30, his body was brought by caisson to the United States Capitol where he lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda. On March 31, Eisenhower's body was returned to the National Cathedral where he was given an Episcopal Church funeral service. That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a train en route to Abilene, Kansas. His body arrived on April 2, and was interred later that day in a small chapel on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Library. Eisenhower is buried alongside his son Doud who died at age 3 in 1921, and his wife, Mamie, who died in 1979. Nixon spoke of Eisenhower's death, "Some men are considered great because they lead great armies or they lead powerful nations. For eight years now, Dwight Eisenhower has neither commanded an army nor led a nation; and yet he remained through his final days the world's most admired and respected man, truly the first citizen of the world." http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/Chappaquiddick/12303189849225-7/#title "1969 Year in Review, UPI.com" Legacy After Eisenhower left office, his reputation declined and he was seen as having been a "do-nothing" President. This was partly because of the contrast between Eisenhower and his young activist successor, John F. Kennedy. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the civil rights movement to the degree which other activists wanted. Eisenhower was also criticized for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the international embarrassment, <ref name="us news">{{cite news |title= Presidential Lies and Deceptions|last= Walsh|first= Kenneth T.|authorlink= |coauthors= |date= 2008-06-06|publisher= US News and World Report|pages= |url=http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/politics/2008/06/06/presidential-lies-and-deceptions.html }}</ref> the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the Arms race and the Space race, and his failure to publicly oppose McCarthyism. In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend George Marshall from attacks by Joseph McCarthy, though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics and claims. Such omissions were held against him during the liberal climate of the 1960s and 1970s. Since that time, however, Eisenhower's reputation has risen. In recent surveys of historians, Eisenhower often is ranked in the top 10 among all US Presidents. Eisenhower was the first President to hire a White House Chief of Staff or "gatekeeper" - an idea that he borrowed from the United States Army, and that has been copied by every president after Lyndon Johnson. (Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter initially tried to operate without a Chief of Staff but both eventually gave up the effort and hired one.) Tributes and memorials Eisenhower's picture was on the dollar coin from 1971 to 1978. Nearly 700 million of the copper-nickel clad coins were minted for general circulation, and far smaller numbers of uncirculated and proof issues (in both copper-nickel and 40% silver varieties) were produced for collectors. He reappeared on a commemorative silver dollar issued in 1990, celebrating the 100th anniversary of his birth, which with a double image of him showed his two roles, as both a soldier and a statesman. The reverse of the commemorative depicted his home in Gettysburg. As part of the Presidential $1 Coin Program, Eisenhower will be featured on a gold-colored dollar coin in 2015. He is remembered for his role in World War II, the creation of the Interstate Highway System and ending the Korean War. USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, the second Nimitz-class supercarrier, was named in his honor. The Eisenhower Expressway (Interstate 290), a long expressway in the Chicago area, was renamed after him. The British A4 class steam locomotive No. 4496 (renumbered 60008) Golden Shuttle was renamed Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1946. It is preserved at the National Railroad Museum in Green Bay, Wisconsin. Eisenhower College was a small, liberal arts college chartered in Seneca Falls, New York in 1965, with classes beginning in 1968. Financial problems forced the school to fall under the management of the Rochester Institute of Technology in 1979. Its last class graduated in 1983. The Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage, California was named after the President in 1971. The Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center, located at Fort Gordon near Augusta, Georgia, was named in his honor. In February 1971, Dwight D. Eisenhower School of Freehold Township, New Jersey was officially opened. The Eisenhower Tunnel was completed in 1979; it conveys westbound traffic on I-70 through the Continental Divide, west of Denver, Colorado. In 1983, The Eisenhower Institute was founded in Washington, D.C., as a policy institute to advance Eisenhower's intellectual and leadership legacies. In 1989, U.S. Ambassador Charles Price and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher dedicated a bronze statue of Eisenhower in Grosvenor Square, London. The statue is located in front of the current US Embassy, London and across from the former command center for the Allied Expeditionary Force during World War II, offices Eisenhower occupied during the war. In 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, which is in the planning stages of creating an enduring national memorial in Washington, D.C., across the street from the National Air and Space Museum on the National Mall. On May 7, 2002, the Old Executive Office Building was officially renamed the Eisenhower Executive Office Building. This building is part of the White House Complex, west of the West Wing. It currently houses a number of executive offices, including ones for the Vice President and his or her spouse. The White House. Eisenhower Executive Office Building. Construction Chronology & Historical Events for the Eisenhower Executive Office Building In 2009, Frank Gehry was commissioned to design a memorial to Eisenhower to stand near the National Mall. A county park in East Meadow, New York (Long Island) is named in his honor. In addition, Eisenhower State Park on Lake Texoma near his birthplace of Denison is named in his honor; his actual birthplace is currently operated by the State of Texas as Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site. Many public high schools and middle schools in the U.S. are named after Eisenhower. There is a Mount Eisenhower in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains in New Hampshire. A tree overhanging the 17th hole that always gave him trouble at Augusta National Golf Club, where he was a member, is named the Eisenhower Tree in his honor. The Eisenhower Golf Club at the United States Air Force Academy, a 36-hole facility featuring the Blue and Silver courses and which is ranked #1 among DoD courses, is named in Eisenhower's honor. Awards and decorations United States awards In Order of Precedence Army Distinguished Service Medal with four oak leaf clusters Navy Distinguished Service Medal Legion of Merit Mexican Border Service Medal World War I Victory Medal American Defense Service Medal American Campaign Medal European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with one silver and four bronze service stars World War II Victory Medal Army of Occupation Medal with "Germany" clasp National Defense Service Medal (2 awards) He was offered the Medal of Honor, but turned it down. He was also an honorary member of the Boy Scouts of America's Tom Kita Chara Lodge #96. International awards List of citations bestowed by other countries. Argentine Order of the Liberator San Martin, Great Cross Belgian Order of Léopold Belgian Croix de Guerre/Belgisch Oorlogskruis Brazil Campaign Medal Brazil War Medal Brazilian Order of Military Merit, Grand Cross Brazilian Order of Aeronautical Merit, Grand Cross Brazilian National Order of the Southern Cross British Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross British Order of Merit British Africa Star with "8" and "1" numerical devices. Chilean Chief Commander of the Order of Merit Chinese Order of Yun Hui, Grand Cordon Chinese Order of Yun Fei, Grand Cordon Czechoslovakian Order of the White Lion Czechoslovakian Golden Star of Victory Danish Order of the Elephant Ecuadorian Star of Abdon Calderon Egyptian Order of Ismal, Grand Cordon Ethiopian Order of Solomon French Croix de Guerre French Legion of Honor. French Order of Liberation French Military Medal Greek Order of George I with swords Guatemalan Cross of Military Merit, First Class Haitian Order of Honor and Merit, Grand Cross Italy Military Order of Italy, Knight Grand Cross Italy Order of Malta Luxembourg Medal of Merit Luxembourg War Cross Mexican Order of the Aztec Eagle, First Class Mexican Medal of Civic Merit Mexican Order of Military Merit Moroccan Order of Ouissam Alaouite Netherlands: Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross Norwegian Order of St. Olav Pakistani Nishan-e-Pakistan, or Order of Pakistan, First Class Panama Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Grand Cross Panama Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Grand Master (collar grade) Philippines Distinguished Service Star Philippines Shield of Honor Medal, Chief Commander Philippines Order of Sikatuna, Raja (First Class) Polish Cross of Grunwald Polish Order of Polonia Restituta Polish Virtuti Militari Soviet Order of Suvorov Soviet Order of Victory Tunisian Order of Nichan Iftikhar, Gand Cordon Other honors In 1966, Eisenhower was the second person to be awarded Civitan International's World Citizenship Award. Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc., in cities around the world, including Paris, France. In December 1999, Eisenhower was listed on Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. See also Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower Mamie Eisenhower, wife of Dwight D. Eisenhower Atoms for Peace, a speech to the U.N. General Assembly in December 1953 Eisenhower National Historic Site Eisenhower Presidential Center Historical rankings of United States Presidents History of the United States (1945-1964) Kay Summersby Military-industrial complex, a term made popular by Eisenhower Mount Eisenhower People to People Student Ambassador Program German Americans Thomas E. Stephens Portrait painter (Gallery of Presidents, Smithsonian) and friend of Eisenhower References Specific references: General references: . . . . . Further reading Military career Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952 (1983);' Bacque, James. Other Losses (2d. rev. ed., 1999) Eisenhower, David. Eisenhower at War 1943–1945 (1986), detailed study by his grandson Irish, Kerry E. "Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan", The Journal of Military History 70.1 (2006) 31–61 online in Project Muse. Pogue, Forrest C. The Supreme Command (1996) official Army history of SHAEF Weigley, Russell. Eisenhower's Lieutenants. Indiana University Press, 1981. Ike's dealings with his key generals in WW2 Civilian career Albertson, Dean, ed. Eisenhower as President (1963). Alexander, Charles C. Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952–1961 (1975). Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952 (1983); Eisenhower. The President (1984); one volume edition titled Eisenhower: Soldier and President (2003). Standard biography. Bowie, Robert R. and Richard H. Immerman; Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy, Oxford University Press, 1998. Damms, Richard V. The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961 (2002). David Paul T. (ed.), Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952. 5 vols., Johns Hopkins Press, 1954. Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War (1981). Greenstein, Fred I. The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (1991). Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997. Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962). Krieg, Joann P. ed. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman (1987). 24 essays by scholars. McAuliffe, Mary S. "Eisenhower, the President", Journal of American History 68 (1981), pp. 625–632. Medhurst, Martin J. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator Greenwood Press, 1993. Pach, Chester J. and Elmo Richardson. Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1991). Standard scholarly survey. Primary sources Boyle, Peter G., ed. The Churchill-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955 University of North Carolina Press, 1990. Eisenhower, Dwight D. Crusade in Europe (1948), his war memoirs. Eisenhower, Dwight D. The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956-1961, Doubleday and Co., 1965. Eisenhower Papers 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940–1961. Summersby, Kay. Eisenhower was my boss'' (1948) New York: Prentice Hall; (1949) Dell paperback. External links Papers and Records of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Extensive essay on Dwight D. Eisenhower (with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs) 1952 Ike for President TV Ad Full audio of Eisenhower speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa) Eisenhower's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa) Audio clips of Eisenhower's speeches Dwight David Eisenhower biography Eisenhower Chronology World History Database Eisenhower Presidential Library & Museum, including Home and Tomb Essay: Why the Eisenhower administration embraced nuclear weapons (PDF) Farewell Address (Wikisource) Guardians of Freedom - 50th Anniversary of Operation Arkansas, by ARMY.MIL First Inaugural Address Original Document: D-Day Statement from Dwight D. Eisenhower Original Document: "In Case of Failure" D-Day Statement from Dwight D. Eisenhower Second Inaugural Address Spartacus Educational Biography The Arms of Dwight David Eisenhower The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, CHAPTER XXIX, Former President Dwight D. Eisenhower, State Funeral, March 28-April 2, 1969 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower (searchable online) White House biography Thaw in the Cold War: Eisenhower and Khrushchev at Gettysburg, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan TIME Magazine Cover: Dwight D. Eisenhower, April 4, 1969 Eisenhower's report on operation Torch 'The American Presidency: Transformation and Change - Dwight Eisenhower', lecture overview of EIsenhower's presidency by Vernon Bogdanor, Gresham College, March 18, 2008 (available in text, audio and video formats). The Eisenhower Center for American Studies Eisenhower Center Studies on War and Peace Papers of Pearlie and Michael J. McKeough (Military Aid at AFHQ and SHAEF and Eisenhower's enlisted aid, respectively), Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Dr. Thomas W. Mattingly Medical History of Dwight D. Eisenhower, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Papers of Fannie Belle Taylor Richardson (Eisenhower Family Genealogy), Dwight D. 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4,133 | Dots_and_Boxes | Dots and Boxes (also known as Boxes, Squares, Paddocks, Square-it, Dots and Dashes, Dots, Smart Dots, or, simply, the Dot Game) is a pencil and paper game for two players (or sometimes, more than two). Game of dots and boxes on the 2×2 board. Starting with an empty grid of dots, players take turns, adding a single horizontal or vertical line between two unjoined adjacent dots. A player who completes the fourth side of a box earns one point and takes another turn. (The points are typically recorded by placing in the box an identifying mark of the player, such as an initial). The game ends when no more lines can be placed. The winner of the game is the player with the most points. The board may be of any size. When short on time, 2×2 boxes (created by a square of 9 dots) is good for beginners, and 6×6 is good for experts. In games with an even number of boxes, it is conventional that if the game is tied then the win should be awarded to the second player (this offsets the advantage of going first). The diagram on the right shows a game being played on the 2×2 board. The second player (B) plays the mirror image of the first player's move, hoping to divide the board into two pieces and tie the game. The first player (A) makes a sacrifice at move 7; B accepts the sacrifice, getting one box. However, B must now add another line, and connects the center dot to the center-right dot, causing the remaining boxes to be joined together in a chain as shown at the end of move 8. With A's next move, A gets them all, winning 3–1. Strategy The double-cross strategy. Faced with position 1, a novice player would create position 2 and lose. An experienced player would create position 3 and win. Beginners play more or less at random until all the remaining boxes are joined together into chains, whereupon any move gives away all the boxes in a chain to the opponent. A novice player faced with a situation like position 1 in the diagram on the left, in which some boxes can be captured, takes all the boxes in the chain, resulting in position 2. But with the extra move, they have to open the next (and larger) chain, and the novice loses the game, 4–5. An experienced player faced with position 1 instead plays the double-cross strategy, taking all but 2 of the boxes in the chain, leaving position 3. This leaves the last two boxes in the chain for their opponent, but then the opponent has to open the next chain. By moving to position 3 player A wins 7–2. A common alternate ruleset is to require all available boxes be claimed on your turn. This eliminates the double cross strategy, forcing even the experienced player to take all the boxes, and give his opponent the win. The double-cross strategy applies however many long chains there are. Take all but two of the boxes in each chain, but take all the boxes in the last chain. If the chains are long enough then the player will certainly win. Therefore, when played by experts, Dots and Boxes becomes a battle for control: An expert player tries to force their opponent to be the one who starts the first long chain. Against a player who doesn't understand the concept of a sacrifice, the expert simply has to make the correct number of them to set up the opponent to hand him the first sufficiently chain. If the other player also knows to offer sacrifices, the expert also have to manipulate the number of available sacrifices through earlier play. There is never any reason not to accept a sacrifice, as if it is refused, the player who offered it can always take it without penalty. Thus, the impact of refusing a sacrifice need not be considered in your strategy. Experienced players can avoid the chaining phenomenon by making early moves to split the board. A board split into 4x4 squares is ideal. Dividing limits the size of chains- in the case of 4x4 squares, the longest possible chain is four, filling the larger square. A board with an even number of spaces will end in a draw (as the number of 4x4 squares will be equal for each player); an odd numbered board will lead to the winner winning by one square (the 4x4 squares and 2x1 half-squares will fall evenly, with one box not incorporated into the pattern falling to the winner). In combinatorial game theory dots and boxes is very close to being an impartial game and many positions can be analyzed using Sprague–Grundy theory. Unusual grids Dots and boxes need not be played on a rectangular grid. It can be played on a triangular grid or a hexagonal grid. There is also a variant in Bolivia when it is played in a Chakana or Inca Cross grid. It is quite more difficult. Dots-and-boxes has a dual form called "strings-and-coins". This game is played on a network of coins (vertices) joined by strings (edges). Players take turns to cut a string. When a cut leaves a coin with no strings, the player pockets the coin and takes another turn. The winner is the player who pockets the most coins. Strings-and-coins can be played on an arbitrary graph. A variant played in Poland allows a player to claim a region of several squares as soon as its boundary is completed. References David Wilson, Dots-and-Boxes Analysis. Contains computer analysis of small boards. Ilan Verdi, Dots Strategies. | Dots_and_Boxes |@lemmatized dot:16 box:25 also:4 know:2 square:11 paddock:1 dash:1 smart:1 simply:2 game:13 pencil:1 paper:1 two:6 player:26 sometimes:1 board:9 start:2 empty:1 grid:6 take:10 turn:5 add:2 single:1 horizontal:1 vertical:1 line:3 unjoined:1 adjacent:1 complete:2 fourth:1 side:1 earn:1 one:5 point:3 another:3 typically:1 record:1 place:2 identify:1 mark:1 initial:1 end:3 winner:4 may:1 size:2 short:1 time:1 create:3 good:2 beginner:2 expert:5 even:3 number:6 conventional:1 tie:2 win:7 award:1 second:2 offset:1 advantage:1 go:1 first:5 diagram:2 right:2 show:2 play:11 b:3 mirror:1 image:1 move:8 hop:1 divide:2 piece:1 make:3 sacrifice:7 accept:2 get:2 however:2 must:1 connect:1 center:2 cause:1 remain:2 join:3 together:2 chain:16 next:3 strategy:7 double:4 cross:5 face:3 position:9 novice:3 would:2 lose:2 experienced:4 less:1 random:1 whereupon:1 give:2 away:1 opponent:6 situation:1 like:1 left:1 capture:1 result:1 extra:1 open:2 large:2 instead:1 leave:3 last:2 common:1 alternate:1 ruleset:1 require:1 available:2 claim:2 eliminate:1 force:2 applies:1 many:2 long:4 enough:1 certainly:1 therefore:1 become:1 battle:1 control:1 try:1 understand:1 concept:1 correct:1 set:1 hand:1 sufficiently:1 offer:2 manipulate:1 early:2 never:1 reason:1 refuse:2 always:1 without:1 penalty:1 thus:1 impact:1 need:2 consider:1 avoid:1 chaining:1 phenomenon:1 split:2 ideal:1 limit:1 case:1 possible:1 four:1 fill:1 space:1 draw:1 equal:1 odd:1 lead:1 half:1 fall:2 evenly:1 incorporate:1 pattern:1 combinatorial:1 theory:2 close:1 impartial:1 analyze:1 use:1 sprague:1 grundy:1 unusual:1 rectangular:1 triangular:1 hexagonal:1 variant:2 bolivia:1 chakana:1 inca:1 quite:1 difficult:1 dual:1 form:1 call:1 string:5 coin:6 network:1 vertex:1 edge:1 cut:2 pocket:2 arbitrary:1 graph:1 played:1 poland:1 allow:1 region:1 several:1 soon:1 boundary:1 reference:1 david:1 wilson:1 analysis:2 contain:1 computer:1 small:1 ilan:1 verdi:1 dots:1 |@bigram dot_dash:1 horizontal_vertical:1 |
4,134 | Anagram | An anagram is a type of word play, the result of rearranging the letters of a word or phrase to produce a new word or phrase, using all the original letters exactly once; e.g., orchestra = carthorse, Eleven plus two = Twelve plus one, A decimal point = I'm a dot in place. Someone who creates anagrams is called an anagrammatist. Anagrammatist, www.dictionary.com. Retrieved on 2008-08-12. The original word or phrase is known as the subject of the anagram. Any word or phrase that exactly reproduces the letters in another order is an anagram. Skill in creating an anagram is permutation to produce phrases which, in some way, reflect or comment on the subject. Such an anagram may be a synonym or antonym of its subject, a parody, a criticism, or praise; e.g. George Bush = He bugs Gore.; Madonna Louise Ciccone = Occasional nude income; William Shakespeare = I am a weakish speller, Roger Meddows-Taylor = Great words or melody. Another goal of anagrammatists is to produce an anagram which becomes widely known: there are famous or classic anagrams, like "est vir qui adest" below, which was cited as the example in Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language. Assumptions Illustration of an anagram by George Herbert The creation of anagrams assumes certainly an alphabet, the symbols of which are to be permuted, and the Latin alphabet is usually now implicitly meant. For a given natural language, diacritics are usually disregarded (usual for English native speakers anyway), and standard orthography is to be used (a point to bear in mind in the history, because spelling in English only slowly became fixed, and is not quite international). There is the important "rule" that every letter must be used, with exactly the same number of occurrences as in the anagrammed word or phrase; any result that falls short is called an imperfect anagram. The history of anagrams shows that that even the language may not be fixed, since anagrams in Latin were considered witty over many centuries. There were attempts to regulate anagram formation, an important one in English being that of George Puttenham Of the Anagram or Posy Transposed in The Art of English Poesie (1589). Historical material on anagrams only makes sense in terms of the assumptions that were current at that period. History of anagrams The construction of anagrams is an amusement of great antiquity. They were popular throughout Europe during the Middle Ages, for example with the poet and composer Guillaume de Machaut, http://www.hoasm.org/IID/Machaut.html and go back at least to the Greek poet Lycophron, in the third century BCE. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Lycophron Influence of Latin As a literary game when Latin was the common property of the literate, Latin anagrams were prominent: two examples are the change of "Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum" (Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord [is] with you) into "Virgo serena, pia, munda et immaculata" (Serene virgin, pious, clean and spotless), and the anagrammatic answer to Pilate's question, "Quid est veritas?" (What is truth?), namely, "Est vir qui adest" (It is the man who is here). The origins of these are not documented. Latin continued to influence letter values (such as I = J, U = V and W = VV). Early modern period When it comes to the 17th century and anagrams in English or other languages, there is a great deal of documented evidence of learned interest. The lawyer Thomas Egerton was praised through the anagram gestat honorem; the physician George Ent took the anagrammatic motto genio surget, which requires his first name as "Georgius". Articles from the Dictionary of National Biography.</ref> James I's courtiers discovered in "James Stuart" "a just master", and converted "Charles James Stuart" into "Claims Arthur's seat" (even at that point in time, the letters I and J were more-or-less interchangeable). Walter Quin, tutor to the future Charles I, worked hard on multilingual anagrams on the name of father James.<ref>Dictionary of National Biography. A notorious murder scandal, the Overbury case, threw up two imperfect anagrams that were aided by typically loose spelling and were recorded by Simonds D'Ewes: 'Francis Howard' (for Frances Carr, Countess of Somerset, her maiden name spelled in a variant) became Car findes a whore, with the letters E hardly counted, and the victim Thomas Overbury, as 'Thomas Overburie', was written as O! O! a busie murther, with a V counted as U. http://www.earlystuartlibels.net/htdocs/overbury_murder_section/H21.html http://www.earlystuartlibels.net/htdocs/overbury_murder_section/H22.html William Drummond of Hawthornden, in an essay On the Character of a Perfect Anagram, tried to lay down permissible rules (such as S standing for Z), and possible letter omissions. Henry Benjamin Wheatley, On Anagrams (1862) , p. 58. William Camden Remains, 7th ed., 1674. provided a definition of "Anagrammatisme" as "a dissolution of a name truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, making some perfect sense applyable (i.e., applicable) to the person named." Dryden disdainfully called the pastime the "torturing of one poor word ten thousand ways". "Eleanor Audeley", wife of Sir John Davies, is said to have been brought before the High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that her name could be transposed to "Reveale, O Daniel", and to have been laughed out of court by another anagram submitted by the dean of the Arches, "Dame Eleanor Davies", "Never soe mad a ladie". Oxford Book of Word Games Modern period Examples from the nineteenth century are the transposition of "Horatio Nelson" into "Honor est a Nilo" (Latin = Honor is from the Nile); and of "Florence Nightingale" into "Flit on, cheering angel". 1911 Britannica article "anagram". The Victorian love of anagramming as recreation is alluded to by Augustus De Morgan In his Budget of Paradoxes, p. 82. using his own name as example; "Great Gun, do us a sum!" is attributed to his son William De Morgan, but a family friend John Thomas Graves was prolific, and a manuscript with over 2,800 has been preserved. Robert Edoward Moritz, On Mathematics and Mathematicians (2007), p. 151. Anna Stirling, William De Morgan and His Wife (1922) p. 64. http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cats/13/3491.htm With the advent of surrealism as a poetic movement, anagrams regained the artistic respect they had had in the Baroque period. The German poet Unica Zürn, who made extensive use of anagram techniques, came to regard obsession with anagrams as a "dangerous fever", because it created isolation of the author. Friederike Ursula Eigler, Susanne Kord, The Feminist Encyclopedia of German Literature (1997), pp. 14-5. The surrealist leader André Breton coined the anagram Avida Dollars for Salvador Dalí, to tarnish his reputation by the implication of commercialism. Applications While anagramming is certainly a recreation first, there are ways in which anagrams are put to use, and these can be more serious, or at least not quite frivolous and formless. For example, psychologists use anagram-oriented tests, often called "anagram solution tasks", to assess the implicit memory of young adults and adults alike. Java, Rosalind I. "Priming and Aging: Evidence of Preserved Memory Function in an Anagram Solution Task." The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 105, No. 4. (Winter, 1992), pp. 541–548. Priority established by anagram Natural philosophers (astronomers and others) of the 17th century transposed their discoveries into Latin anagrams, to establish their priority. In this way they laid claim to new discoveries, before their results were ready for publication. Galileo used smaismrmilmepoetaleumibunenugttauiras for Altissimum planetam tergeminum observavi ("I have observed the most distant planet to have a triple form") for discovering the Rings of Saturn in 1610. Galileo announced his discovery that Venus had phases like the Moon in the form "Haec immatura a me iam frustra leguntur -oy" (Latin: These immature ones have already been read in vain by me -oy), that is, when rearranged, "Cynthiae figuras aemulatur Mater Amorum" (Latin: The Mother of Loves [= Venus] imitates the figures of Cynthia [= the moon]). When Robert Hooke discovered Hooke's law in 1660, he first published it in anagram form, ceiinossttu, for ut tensio, sic vis (Latin: as the tension, so the force). Derek Gjertsen, The Newton Handbook (1986), p. 16. In a related use, from 1975, British naturalist Sir Peter Scott coined the scientific term "Nessiteras rhombopteryx" (Greek for "The monster {or wonder} of Ness with the diamond shaped fin") for the apocryphal Loch Ness Monster. Shortly afterwards, several London newspapers pointed out that "Nessiteras rhombopteryx" anagrams into "Monster hoax by Sir Peter S". Loch Ness Monster, crystalinks.com However, Robert Rines, who previously made two underwater photographs allegedly showing the monster, countered with the fact that they can also be arranged into "Yes both pix are monsters, R." Pseudonyms Anagrams are connected to pseudonyms, by the fact that they may conceal or reveal, or operate somewhere in between like a mask that can establish identity. For example, Jim Morrison used an anagram of his name in the Doors song L.A. Woman, calling himself "Mr. Mojo Risin' ". The use of anagrams and fabricated personal names may be to circumvent restrictions on the use of real names, as happened in the 18th century when Edward Cave wanted to get round on restrictions imposed on the reporting of the House of Commons. http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/pooleyj.html In a genre such as farce or parody, anagrams as names may be used for pointed and satiric effect. Pseudonyms adopted by authors are sometimes transposed forms,of their names; thus "Calvinus" becomes "Alcuinus" (here V = U) or "François Rabelais" = "Alcofribas Nasier". The name "Voltaire" of François Marie Arouet fits this pattern, and is allowed to be an anagram of "Arouet, l[e] j[eune]" (U = V, J = I) that is, "Arouet the younger". Other examples: "Arrigo Boito" = "Tobia Gorrio"; "Edward Gorey" = "Ogdred Weary", = "Regera Dowdy" or = "E. G. Deadworry" (and others); "Vladimir Nabokov" = "Vivian Darkbloom", = "Vivian Bloodmark" or = "Dorian Vivalcomb"; "Bryan Waller Proctor" = "Barry Cornwall, poet"; "(Sanche) de Gramont" = "Ted Morgan"; "Declan Gunn" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I,_Lucifer_(Glen_Duncan) = Glen Duncan; and so on. Several of these are "imperfect anagrams", letters having been left out in some cases for the sake of easy pronunciation. A source of titles Anagrams used for titles afford scope for some types of wit. Examples: Homer Hickam, Jr.'s book Rocket Boys was adapted into the 1999 film October Sky. The tapes for the revival of BBC show Doctor Who were labeled with the anagram Torchwood, which later went on to be used as the name for a spin-off show. The New Wave band Missing Persons' best-selling album was called Spring Session M. Hip-hop artist MF DOOM recorded a 2004 album called MM..FOOD. Brian Eno's album Before and After Science includes a song entitled "King's Lead Hat", an anagram of "Talking Heads", a band Eno has worked with. Perfect anagram games and puzzles Anagrams are in themselves a recreational activity, but they also make up part of many other games, puzzles and game shows. The Jumble is a puzzle found in many newspapers in the United States requiring the unscrambling of letters to find the solution. Cryptic crossword puzzles frequently use anagrammatic clues, usually indicating that they are anagrams by the inclusion of a descriptive term like "confused" or "in disarray". An example would be Businessman burst into tears (9 letters). The solution, stationer, is an anagram of into tears, the letters of which have burst out of their original arrangement to form the name of a type of businessman. Apposite anagrams of the names of famous people add something here: for example, Margaret Thatcher = That great charmer, Alec Guinness = Genuine Class, Elvis Aaron Presley = Seen alive? Sorry, pal!, Vin Diesel = I End Lives, Steve Martin = I’m star event, Clint Eastwood = Old West Action. Imperfect anagram skills Numerous games and contests involve some element of imperfect anagram formation as a basic skill. Some examples: In a version of Scrabble called Clabbers, the name itself being an anagram of Scrabble, tiles may be placed in any order on the board as long as they anagram to a valid word. On the British game show Countdown, contestants are given 30 seconds to make the longest word from nine random letters. In Boggle, players make constrained words from a grid of sixteen random letters, by joining adjacent cubes. On the British game show BrainTeaser, contestants are shown a word broken into randomly arranged segments and must announce the whole word. At the end of the game there is a "Pyramid" which starts with a three-letter word. A letter appears in the line below to which the player must add the existing letters to find a solution. The pattern continues until the player reaches the final eight-letter anagram. The player wins the game by solving all the anagrams within the allotted time. In Bananagrams, players place tiles from a pool into crossword-style word arrangements in a race to see who can finish the pool of tiles first. Methods of construction Sometimes it is possible to "see" anagrams in words, unaided by tools, though the more letters involved the more difficult this becomes. Anagram dictionaries could also be used. Computer programs, known as "anagram servers", "anagram solvers" or "anagrammers", offer a much faster route to creating anagrams, and large number of these programs are available on the Internet. The program or server carries out an exhaustive search of a database of words, to produce a list containing every possible combination of words or phrases from the input word or phrase. Some programs (such as Lexpert) restrict to one-word answers. Many anagram servers can control the search results, by excluding or including certain words, limiting the number or length of words in each anagram, or limiting the number of results. Anagram solvers are often banned from online anagram games. The disadvantage of computer anagram solvers, especially when applied to multi-word anagrams, is that their poor understanding of the meaning of the words they are manipulating. They usually cannot filter out meaningful or appropriate anagrams from large numbers of nonsensical word combinations. Some anagrammatists indicate the method they used. Anagrams constructed without aid of a computer are noted as having been done ‘manually’ or ‘by hand’; those made by utilizing a computer may be noted ‘by machine’ or ‘by computer’, or may indicate the name of the computer program (using ‘Anagram Genius’). There are also a few "natural" instances: English words unconsciously created by switching letters around. The French chaise longue ("long chair") became the American "chaise lounge" by metathesis (transposition of letters and/or sounds). It has also been speculated that the English "curd" comes from the Latin crudus ("raw"). See also Ambigram Blanagram Letter bank Constrained writing Anagrammatic poem Word play Anagrams, a board game London Underground anagram map References External links Internet Anagram Server List of Online Anagram Finders Anagrammy Awards | Anagram |@lemmatized anagram:76 type:3 word:29 play:2 result:5 rearrange:2 letter:24 phrase:8 produce:4 new:4 use:19 original:3 exactly:3 e:6 g:3 orchestra:1 carthorse:1 eleven:1 plus:2 two:4 twelve:1 one:5 decimal:1 point:4 dot:1 place:3 someone:1 create:5 call:8 anagrammatist:2 www:7 dictionary:5 com:2 retrieve:1 know:3 subject:3 reproduce:1 another:3 order:2 skill:3 permutation:1 way:4 reflect:1 comment:1 may:8 synonym:1 antonym:1 parody:2 criticism:1 praise:2 george:4 bush:1 bug:1 gore:1 madonna:1 louise:1 ciccone:1 occasional:1 nude:1 income:1 william:5 shakespeare:1 weakish:1 speller:1 roger:1 meddows:1 taylor:1 great:5 melody:1 goal:1 anagrammatists:2 become:6 widely:1 famous:2 classic:1 like:4 est:4 vir:2 qui:2 adest:2 cite:1 example:12 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4,135 | BIND | BIND (), for Berkeley Internet Name Domain, or named (), is the most commonly used DNS server on the Internet, especially on Unix-like systems, where it is a de facto standard. Supported by Internet Systems Consortium, BIND was originally created by four graduate students with CSRG at the University of California, Berkeley and first released with 4.3BSD. Paul Vixie started maintaining it in 1988 while working for DEC. A new version of BIND (BIND 9) was written from scratch in part to address the architectural difficulties with auditing the earlier BIND code bases, and also to support DNSSEC (DNS Security Extensions). Other important features of BIND 9 include: TSIG, DNS notify, nsupdate, IPv6, rndc flush (remote name daemon control), views, multiprocessor support, and an improved portability architecture. rndc uses a shared secret to provide encryption for local and remote terminals during each session. History BIND was originally written in the early 1980s under a DARPA grant. In the mid-1980s, DEC employees took over BIND development. One of these employees was Paul Vixie, who continued to work on BIND after leaving DEC. He eventually helped start the ISC, which became the entity responsible for maintaining BIND. The development of BIND 9 was done with a combination of commercial and military contracts. Most of the features of BIND 9 were funded by UNIX vendors who wanted to ensure that BIND stayed competitive with Microsoft's DNS offerings; the DNSSEC features were funded by the US military who felt that DNS security was important. The acronym BIND was derived from its first domain use, Berkeley Internet Name Domain, and the server software being the "Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) Server". It was not, as is sometimes assumed, Berkeley Internet Name Daemon. The original acronym is clear from the title of and usage in the original BIND paper, The Berkeley Internet Name Domain Server. Douglas Brian Terry, Mark Painter, David W. Riggle and Songnian Zhou, The Berkeley Internet Name Domain Server, Proceedings USENIX Summer Conference, Salt Lake City, Utah, June 1984, pages 23–31. Criticisms Zone storage support Earlier versions of BIND offered no stock mechanism to store and retrieve zone data in anything other than flat text files. Since BIND 9.4 https://www.isc.org/about/pr/2007032700 DLZ has been available as a compile time option allowing for zone storage in a variety of database formats including LDAP, Berkeley DB, PostgreSQL, MySQL, and ODBC. Security Like Sendmail, WU-FTPD and other systems dating back to the earlier days of the Internet (when security was not such an issue as it has since become) BIND 4 and BIND 8 have had a large number of serious security vulnerabilities over the years and as such their use is now strongly discouraged. P. Hudson, A. Hudson, B. Ball, H. Duff: Red Hat Fedora 4 Unleashed, page 723. Sams Publishing, 2005 ISBN 0-672-32792-9 While BIND 9 was a complete rewrite, it has still experienced numerous vulnerabilities. Configuration issues The configuration files are not checked automatically for errors at runtime, but a configuration syntax verification tool is included in the distribution. See also Comparison of DNS server software DNS management software References Books DNS and BIND, Fifth Edition by Paul Albitz, Cricket Liu. 2006. ISBN 0-596-10057-4. BIND 9 DNS Administration Reference Book: Name Server Operations and DNS Configuration using BIND. Published by Reed Media Services. 2007. ISBN 0-9790342-1-3. External links The official BIND site at Internet Systems Consortium (ISC.org) CircleID Interview with Cricket Liu, author of 'DNS and BIND' DNS & BIND Resources at Bind9.net A Brief History of BIND by ISC Configuration sites BIND for the Small LAN (Linux) Using DNS with BIND (FreeBSD) | BIND |@lemmatized bind:30 berkeley:8 internet:10 name:9 domain:6 commonly:1 use:6 dns:13 server:7 especially:1 unix:2 like:2 system:4 de:1 facto:1 standard:1 support:4 consortium:2 originally:2 create:1 four:1 graduate:1 student:1 csrg:1 university:1 california:1 first:2 release:1 paul:3 vixie:2 start:2 maintain:2 work:2 dec:3 new:1 version:2 write:2 scratch:1 part:1 address:1 architectural:1 difficulty:1 audit:1 early:3 code:1 base:1 also:2 dnssec:2 security:5 extension:1 important:2 feature:3 include:3 tsig:1 notify:1 nsupdate:1 rndc:2 flush:1 remote:2 daemon:2 control:1 view:1 multiprocessor:1 improved:1 portability:1 architecture:1 shared:1 secret:1 provide:1 encryption:1 local:1 terminal:1 session:1 history:2 darpa:1 grant:1 mid:1 employee:2 take:1 development:2 one:1 continue:1 leave:1 eventually:1 help:1 isc:4 become:2 entity:1 responsible:1 combination:1 commercial:1 military:2 contract:1 fund:2 vendor:1 want:1 ensure:1 stay:1 competitive:1 microsoft:1 offering:1 u:1 felt:1 acronym:2 derive:1 software:3 sometimes:1 assume:1 original:2 clear:1 title:1 usage:1 paper:1 douglas:1 brian:1 terry:1 mark:1 painter:1 david:1 w:1 riggle:1 songnian:1 zhou:1 proceeding:1 usenix:1 summer:1 conference:1 salt:1 lake:1 city:1 utah:1 june:1 page:2 criticisms:1 zone:3 storage:2 earlier:1 offer:1 stock:1 mechanism:1 store:1 retrieve:1 data:1 anything:1 flat:1 text:1 file:2 since:2 https:1 www:1 org:2 pr:1 dlz:1 available:1 compile:1 time:1 option:1 allow:1 variety:1 database:1 format:1 ldap:1 db:1 postgresql:1 mysql:1 odbc:1 sendmail:1 wu:1 ftpd:1 date:1 back:1 day:1 issue:2 large:1 number:1 serious:1 vulnerability:2 year:1 strongly:1 discourage:1 p:1 hudson:2 b:1 ball:1 h:1 duff:1 red:1 hat:1 fedora:1 unleashed:1 sam:1 publish:2 isbn:3 complete:1 rewrite:1 still:1 experience:1 numerous:1 configuration:5 check:1 automatically:1 error:1 runtime:1 syntax:1 verification:1 tool:1 distribution:1 see:1 comparison:1 management:1 reference:2 book:2 fifth:1 edition:1 albitz:1 cricket:2 liu:2 administration:1 operation:1 reed:1 medium:1 service:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:2 circleid:1 interview:1 author:1 resource:1 net:1 brief:1 small:1 lan:1 linux:1 freebsd:1 |@bigram dns_server:2 de_facto:1 paul_vixie:2 https_www:1 berkeley_db:1 external_link:1 |
4,136 | Galactus | Galactus is a fictional character that appears in comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist and co-plotter Jack Kirby, the character first appears in Fantastic Four #48 (March 1966), the first part of a three-issue story later known as "The Galactus Trilogy." Thomas, Roy, Stan Lee's Amazing Marvel Universe (Sterling Publishing, New York, 2006), "Moment 29: The Galactus Trilogy", pp. 112-115. ISBN-10 1-4027-4225-8; ISBN-13 978-1-4027-4225-5 In 2009, Galactus was ranked as IGN's 5th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time. Galactus is number 5 , IGN. Publication history "The Galactus Trilogy" In 1966, nearly five years after having launched Marvel Comics' flagship superhero title, Fantastic Four, creators Stan Lee and Jack Kirby collaborated on an antagonist designed to break from the archetypal mold of supervillains of the time, and be instead a being of god-like stature and power. As Lee later explained, "I created Galactus after we had done so many villains and wanted something different. I wondered, 'How could we get something bigger than a villain? Let's do a guy who's like a demigod — I like the name 'Galactus'. He comes from outer space and eats planets, or some stupid thing".This culminated in the introduction of Galactus in Fantastic Four #48-50 (March-May 1966), now known as "The Galactus Trilogy". . Fantastic Four #49 (April 1966), featuring Galactus. Cover art by Jack Kirby & Joe Sinnott. Kirby described his Biblical inspirations for Galactus and an accompanying character, an angelic herald Lee dubbed the Silver Surfer: Kirby further explained that "Galactus in actuality is a sort of god. He is beyond reproach, beyond anyone's opinion. In a way he is kind of a Zeus, who fathered Hercules. He is his own legend, and of course, he and the Silver Surfer are sort of modern legends, and they are designed that way." . The trilogy culminated in Fantastic Four #50 ( May 1966), which featured the Silver Surfer interceding for humankind against Galactus. After the trilogy, Kirby had not intended for Galactus to reappear, in order to preserve the character's tremendous presence. Popularity among fans, however, prompted Lee to petition Kirby for Galactus' reappearance, and the character eventually became a mainstay in the Marvel Universe. Galactus returned for a cameo in Thor #134 (Nov. 1966), which hinted at a confrontation between Galactus and another Lee and Kirby character, Ego the Living Planet. The plot-line was left unresolved in the subsequent issues, as Kirby put the character on hiatus. Galactus reappeared more than a year later, in a flashback cameo in Daredevil #37 (Feb. 1968) before starring opposite the Fantastic Four in Fantastic Four #72-77 (March-Aug. 1968) at the request of Lee, and then in flashback in The Silver Surfer #1 (Aug. 1968). He eventually returns to Earth, however, seeking the Silver Surfer. Fantastic Four #74 - 77 (May - Aug. 1968) Lee and Kirby then featured Galactus in a storyline in Thor #160-162 (Jan.-March 1969), which resolved the plot-line from issue #134. Issue #162 began the transition to Galactus' origin story, but the character makes an unexplained departure from the storyline. The absence of the character may be explained by miscommunication between Kirby and Lee; Kirby may have wanted to directly write Galactus' origin, while Lee may have had his own interpretation of the character's beginnings. . Galactus' origin finally appeared in Thor #168-169 (Sept.-Oct. 1969). 1970s and 1980s Two appearances showcasing new heralds followed in Fantastic Four #120-123 (March-June 1972) and Thor #225-228 (July-Oct. 1974), and subsequently appeared in Fantastic Four #172-175 (July-Oct. 1976) and #206-213 (May-Dec. 1979). The Sentience of the [previous] Universe merges with Galan of Taa in the Cosmic egg. In 1983, writer Mark Gruenwald, pencillers John Byrne and Ron Wilson, and inkers Jack Abel and Vince Colletta collaborated to produce a more in-depth, 23-page origin story titled "Galactus", which appeared in Super-Villain Classics #1 (May). While mostly identical to the previous origin, the story featured additions, edits, and deletions, and was later reprinted as Origin of Galactus #1 (Feb. 1996). As before, Galactus was Galan, the last survivor of a highly advanced civilization, which had died from a plague, but rather than being transformed by immersion in a massive star, he was presented as an inhabitant of the previous cosmos, who at the end of the universe, enters a cosmic egg. Within the Cosmic egg, the Sentience of the Universe reveals itself to Galan and informs him that though they both will die in the impending cataclysm, they will survive through an heir born into the next universe. The Sentience of the Universe then unites with Galan, establishing him as the sole survivor of the ensuing Big Crunch. After the Big Bang and the birth of the present reality, Galactus gestates in a cocoon of cosmic energy in order to complete his metamorphosis, and after an undetermined period of time emerges as an entity of vast cosmic power who is essential and intrinsic to the newly formed universe. This version added information to the origin present in Thor #168, and included Galactus constructing Taa II in homage to his dead homeworld Taa out of the remains of Archeopia. Super-Villain Classics #1 (May 1983) The character returned in Fantastic Four #242-244 (May-July 1982) Fantastic Four #242 - 244 (May - July 1982) and then Fantastic Four #257 (Aug. 1983), where his relationship with other cosmic entities was developed further. The entity Death notes that Galactus is "my husband and father, my brother and son." Fantastic Four #257 (Aug. 1983) This is followed by an appearance in Fantastic Four #262 (Jan. 1984) and the appearance of the entity Eternity, who asserts that Galactus is essential to the natural order of the cosmos. Fantastic Four #262 (Jan. 1984) The necessity of Galactus and his role in the universe is developed over the next two decades and his representation as 'the type of evil that we can celebrate as a catalyst for the long-term good of all creation'. The same year, the anthology comics-magazine Epic Illustrated #26-34 (Oct. 1984 - Feb. 1986) published the first nine serialized installments of a projected 10-part tale, "The Last Galactus Story", by writer-penciler John Byrne and inker Terry Austin. Each ran six pages, with the exception of part eight, which ran 12 pages. The magazine was cancelled at this point, leaving the story unfinished. According to notes at Byrne's website, the conclusion of the story would see a dying Galactus releasing his power causing a new big bang and transforming his herald Nova into the Galactus for the new universe. Byrne Robotics: Frequently Asked Questions - Questions about Aborted Storylines The following year, Galactus would place an important appearance in the limited series Marvel Super Heroes Secret Wars (May 1984 - April 1985), and then again in Silver Surfer vol. 3 (1987 - 1998). The concept of the need for Galactus was revisited during a conflict with the entity the In-Betweener when Galactus states that he exists to rectify the imbalances of Eternity and Death. Silver Surfer vol. 3 #18 1990s Galactus featured prominently in the Infinity series of the 1990s, specifically Infinity Gauntlet #1-6 (July-Dec. 1991) and Infinity War #1-6 (June-Nov. 1992), and starred in the six-issue miniseries Galactus the Devourer (Sept. 1999 - March 2000), written by Louise Simonson and illustrated by John Buscema, which climaxed with the character's death. Simonson had originally conceived of the story arc to take place in third volume of the Silver Surfer, but the title was canceled due to dwindling sales. Simonson instead proposed a separate limited series, and at the time was initially doubtful that Marvel would approve what she believed to be a "radical" idea concerning "why the very existence of the Universe depends on the health and well-being of Galactus." The series concludes with the death of Galactus at the hands of the Silver Surfer. As Galactus' body disperses, he warns that his death will allow a great evil to surface. 2000s After his death, Galactus' remains take the form of a star. Galactus the Devourer #1-6 (Sept. 1999 - March 2000) When the Fantastic Four later learn that much of the energy Galactus harvests from planets is devoted to keeping the cosmic entity Abraxas imprisoned — thus preventing him from destroying the multiverse — Franklin Richards and Valeria Von Doom resurrect Galactus. Galactus is instrumental in defeating the unleashed Abraxas. Fantastic Four Annual 2001 Galactus appears prominently in Marvel: The End #1-6 (May-July 2003), and the maxi-series Thanos #1-12 (Dec. 2003 - May 2004), wherein the character displays remorse for the many inhabited planets he has consumed, and actively seeks alternate sources of nourishment. It also introduced Galactus' first herald, the Fallen One. In another appearance, a weapon designed by Reed Richards and Johnny Storm succeeded in splitting Galactus into his two core components — Galan and the Power Cosmic. Galan then exiles himself in another dimension, hoping that this act will prevent the Power Cosmic from finding him. As herald - Fantastic Four #520-523 (Jan.-April 2005) Fantastic Four #520-523 (Jan.-April 2005) The ruse fails; however, as the alien warrior Beta Ray Bill encounters a fully reformed Galactus shortly afterward. Stormbreaker: The Saga of Beta Ray Bill #1-6 (March-Aug. 2005) Galactus was also a central character in the Annihilation crossover, first appearing as a co-star in the four-issue miniseries Annihilation: Silver Surfer (June-July 2006) followed by a pivotal role in the six-issue Annihilation limited series (Oct. 2006 - Mar. 2007). Galactus then appears in the two-issue epilogue Annihilation: Heralds of Galactus (April-May 2007). Annihilation: Heralds of Galactus added further detail to the character's back story with the introduction of the "Proemial Gods". A faction of these beings attempted to gain total control of the universe during its formative years, causing a civil war. The war eventually involves Galactus, who slays the faction's leader and imprisons the surviving members in the Kyln. Annihilation: Heralds of Galactus #2 Escaping during the Annihilation wave, the remaining Proemial Gods Tenebrous of The Darkness Between and Aegis Lady of All Sorrows attack and defeat Galactus and the Silver Surfer. Annihilation: Silver Surfer #1-4 (June-Sept. 2006) An incapacitated Galactus is then imprisoned by Annihilus – the creator of the Annihilation Wave – who plans to use Galactus' Power Cosmic as a bomb to destroy all life in the universe. Drax the Destroyer manages to free Galactus who in retaliation unleashes a blast that destroys most of the Annihilation Wave and more than three star systems. This forces the surviving parties to form a truce. Annihilation #1-6 (Oct. 2006 - March 2007). Powers and abilities Galactus, as perceived by alien races. Panel from Fantastic Four #262 (Jan. 1984). Art by John Byrne. Galactus is the product of the union between the "Sentience of the [previous] Universe" and Galan. He has been described as "the physical, metamorphosed embodiment of a cosmos" Fantastic Four #522 (March 2005) and "the most awesome living entity in the cosmos." Thor #134 (Nov. 1966) Galactus wields the Power Cosmic and can employ it to produce nearly any effect he desires, including the molecular restructuring and transmutation of matter, Silver Surfer #1 (Aug. 1968) the teleportation of objects — in one instance a galaxy — across space Fantastic Four #257 (Aug. 1981) or time, Fantastic Four #213 (December 1979) size-alteration, Rom #27 (Feb. 1982) the projection of energy with indeterminable destructive force, Annihilation #6 (March 2007) the erection of nearly impenetrable force fields, the creation of interdimensional Thanos #3 (Feb. 2004) and intra-dimensional portals, Thanos #12 (Sept. 2004) telepathy, Fantastic Four #242 (May 1982) telekinesis, Fantastic Four #49 (April 1966) and a form of cosmic awareness. Marvel Super Heroes Secret Wars #9 (Jan. 1985) Galactus has even shown the abilities to create sentient life, Cosmic Powers Unlimited #2 (Sept. 1995) simultaneously reconstitute himself and others from complete physical disruption, Infinity War #4 (Sept. 1992) resurrect his herald Morg, Silver Surfer vol. 3, #76 (Jan. 1993) manipulate mortal souls Silver Surfer vol. 3, #49 (May 1991) as well as memories and emotions, Silver Surfer vol. 3 #130 (Aug. 1997) and restore dead planets along with their population. Due to his vast power and intrinsic, natural role in the universal order, Galactus considers himself a higher being than all non-abstracts. Galactus maintains his existence by devouring planets that have the potential for supporting life. In so doing, he has consumed countless worlds, resulting in the elimination of entire extra-terrestrial civilizations. As a living force of nature, Galactus' true form cannot be perceived by most beings, Fantastic Four #521 (Feb. 2005) and so each species perceives Galactus in a form they can comprehend, usually in a form similar to that of their own species. However, he has consciously appeared as a humanoid star at certain occasions. Silver Surfer vol. 3, #10 (April 1988), Infinity Gauntlet #5 (Nov. 1991), and Super-Villain Classics #1 (May 1983) Galactus also requires his armor to help regulate internal energies. As Galactus must continuously feed to sustain himself, his power levels are inconsistent throughout any given period. For this reason, Earth's heroes have been able to achieve various degrees of success in repelling, or defeating, a starving, weakened Galactus. A starving, weakened Galactus has shown susceptibility to the Images of Ikonn spell, which forces him to recall all of the beings he has destroyed as a result of his feeding. Fantastic Four #243 (June 1982) As the oldest known living entity in the universe, Galactus employs science that the most brilliant minds on Earth cannot begin to grasp. Examples include the Ultimate Nullifier, Fantastic Four #48-50 (March-May 1966) and Taa II. Fantastic Four #210 (Sept. 1979) Galactus has appointed a number of beings to act as his Herald, with each bestowed with a fraction of the Power Cosmic. Other versions Galactus has been depicted in other alternate universes, in which his nature, and behavior vary from the mainstream setting. Earth X In Earth X, Galactus is one of the three essential entities in the universe keeping the cosmic entities the Celestials in check. By destroying planets - actually "eggs" of the Celestials - Galactus prevents the Celestials from overpopulating the universe. Franklin Richards later adopts the identity of Galactus. Earth X #1-12 (2000-2001) Exiles In contrast to his normal role, the Exiles featured a Galactus who restored rather than destroyed worlds. Exiles #86 - 87 (Oct. - Nov. 2006) Heroes Reborn Galactus appears in the pocket universe created by Franklin Richards (after the events of the Onslaught saga) and deploys several heralds at once. The chracter and his heralds are worshiped by the Inhumans. Heroes Reborn (1996-1997) Manga Universe Galactus appears as a gigantic, planet-sized life-form, and appears to have a single massive eye and tentacles to drain the life from planets. It is covered in various life-forms (referred to as "Galactus Spores") which aid its digestive process. New Mangaverse vol. 2, #1-5 (2005-2006) Official Handbook to the Marvel Universe: Alternate Universes (2005) Marvel Zombies Galactus battles the Marvel Zombies, who consume the Silver Surfer and acquire a fraction of his cosmic power. With the help of advanced technology, the Zombies manage to eventually defeat and consume Galactus. The Zombies absorb his powers, assume his role and travel to different planets for sustenance. Marvel Zombies (2005-2006) MC2 A future Galactus, accompanied by a new herald named Dominas, appears in the MC2 universe. Last Planet Standing #1-5 Ultimate Galactus Ultimate Galactus, called Gah Lak Tus, was introduced in a trilogy written by Warren Ellis. Ellis noted in a 2005 interview that 'Gah Lak Tus is a gestalt entity — it needs to be able to surround a planet, and it needs to be able to survive tens of thousands of years in space, which is a hugely destructive environment.' Gah Lak Tus is first mentioned by Ultimate Vision, which is an early-warning system for worlds under threat by Gah Lak Tus and describes Gah Lak Tus as an immense (approx. long) group mind of city-sized robotic drones that attacks worlds using envoys (resembling the Silver Surfer) followed by a flesh-eating virus that destroys all life. Reed Richards uses the Ultimate version of the Ultimate Nullifier- a weapon that channels the energies of another universe's Big Bang at the target- which destroys 20% of Gah Lak Tus's mass and forces it to retreat. Ultimate Nightmare (2004); Ultimate Secret (2005); Ultimate Extinction (2006) Other media Television Galactus appears in one episode of the 1967 version of The Fantastic Four, voiced by Ted Cassidy. Galactus appears in the 1994 version of The Fantastic Four, voiced by Tony Jay. Galactus appeared regularly in the Silver Surfer cartoon series, voiced by James Blendick. Film Galactus as the character appears in Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007) Galactus appears in the 2007 film Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, the story of which was based upon the character's debut and his Ultimate incarnation. The official novelization of the film names the character as "the Gah Lak Tus". 20th Century Fox's rationale for having the character as a cloud was to keep him discreet. Visual effects studio Weta Digital convinced Fox to add physical hints of the comic book incarnation, such as a shadow and the fiery mass within the cloud resembling Galactus' signature helmet. Director Tim Story claimed he made Galactus a cloud so that the future Silver Surfer spin-off film would have a chance to be unique and introduce the character as he normally appears. J. Michael Straczynski, the spin-off's writer, confirmed Galactus is in his script and that "You don't want to sort of blow out something that big and massive for one quick shot in the first movie." Video games Galactus appears in the 1990 Silver Surfer NES game. Galactus appears in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance voiced by Gregg Berger. Galactus appears in the PSP and PS2 versions of Spider-Man: Web of Shadows. Toys Toy Biz released a figure of Galactus in 1995 as part of their Fantastic Four line. Toy Biz also released a figure as part of the Silver Surfer line. In 2005, Toy Biz also produced Galactus as the first "build-a-figure" in the Marvel Legends line-up. Galactus has appeared twice in the Heroclix CMG. Galactus appears in the Vs System TCG. See also "The Galactus Trilogy" Cosmic entities (Marvel Comics) Marvel Universe Concepts Punisher cyborg Herald of Galactus Notes References Galactus at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators Galactus at the Marvel Directory External links Galactus at the Marvel Universe wiki The Origin of Galactus, by Rachel Jankiewicz (cached page by The Wayback Machine) Galactus: The Web Page, by James Pedrick | Galactus |@lemmatized galactus:110 fictional:1 character:20 appear:24 comic:8 book:3 publish:2 marvel:19 create:4 writer:4 editor:1 stan:3 lee:11 artist:1 co:2 plotter:1 jack:4 kirby:12 first:8 fantastic:35 four:36 march:12 part:5 three:3 issue:8 story:11 later:6 know:2 trilogy:8 thomas:1 roy:1 amaze:1 universe:26 sterling:1 publishing:1 new:6 york:1 moment:1 pp:1 isbn:2 rank:1 ign:2 great:2 villain:6 time:5 number:2 publication:1 history:1 nearly:3 five:1 year:6 launch:1 flagship:1 superhero:1 title:3 creator:3 collaborate:2 antagonist:1 design:3 break:1 archetypal:1 mold:1 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4,137 | BeOS | BeOS was an operating system for personal computers which began development by Be Inc. in 1991. It was first written to run on BeBox hardware. BeOS was optimized for digital media work and was written to take advantage of modern hardware facilities such as symmetric multiprocessing by utilizing modular I/O bandwidth, pervasive multithreading, preemptive multitasking and a custom 64-bit journaling file system known as BFS. The BeOS GUI was developed on the principles of clarity and a clean, uncluttered design. The API was written in C++ for ease of programming. It has POSIX compatibility and access to a command line interface through Bash, although internally it is not a Unix-derived operating system. BeOS was positioned as a multimedia platform which could be used by a substantial population of desktop users and a competitor to Microsoft Windows and Linux. However, it was ultimately unable to achieve a significant market share and proved commercially unviable for Be Inc. The company was acquired by Palm Inc. and today BeOS is mainly used and developed by a small population of enthusiasts. Be Inc. sued Microsoft claiming that Hitachi had been pressured to dissuade them from selling PCs loaded with BeOS, and that Compaq had been pressured not to market an Internet appliance in partnership with Be. BeOS also claimed that Microsoft acted to artificially depress Be Inc's IPO. The case was eventually settled out of court with no admission of liability on Microsoft's part. History Initially designed to run on AT&T Hobbit-based hardware, BeOS was later modified to run on PowerPC-based processors: first Be’s own systems, later Apple, Inc.’s PowerPC Reference Platform and Common Hardware Reference Platform, with the hope that Apple would purchase or license BeOS as a replacement for its then aging Mac OS Classic. Apple CEO Gil Amelio started negotiations to buy Be Inc., but negotiations stalled when Be CEO Jean-Louis Gassée wanted $200 million; Apple was unwilling to offer any more than $125 million. Apple’s board of directors decided NeXTSTEP was a better choice and purchased NeXT in 1996 for $429 million, bringing back Apple co-founder Steve Jobs. Apple Confidential: The Day They Almost Decided To Put Windows NT On The Mac Instead Of OS X! -http://macspeedzone.com/archive/art/con/be.shtml To further complicate matters for Be, Apple refused to disclose certain architectural information about its G3 line of computers—information Be deemed critical to making BeOS work on the latest hardware from Apple. In 1997, Power Computing began bundling BeOS (on a CD for optional installation) with its line of PowerPC-based Macintosh clones. These systems could dual boot either the Mac OS or BeOS, with a startup screen offering the choice. Due to Apple’s moves and the mounting debt of Be Inc., BeOS was soon ported to the Intel x86 platform with its R3 release in March 1998. Through the late 1990s, BeOS managed to create a niche of followers, but the company failed to remain viable. As a last-ditch effort to increase interest in the failing operating system, Be Inc. released a stripped-down, but free, copy of BeOS R5 known as BeOS Personal Edition (BeOS PE). BeOS PE could be started from within Microsoft Windows or Linux, and was intended to nurture consumer interest in its product and give developers something with which they could tinker. Be Inc. also released a stripped-down version of BeOS for Internet Appliances (BeIA), which soon became the company’s business focus in place of BeOS. BeOS PE and BeIA proved to be too little too late, and in 2001 Be’s intellectual property was sold to Palm, Inc. for some $11 million. BeOS R5 is considered the last official version, but BeOS R5.1 “Dano", which was under development before Be’s sale to Palm and included the BONE networking stack, was leaked to the public shortly after the company’s demise. After the split from Palm, PalmSource used parts of BeOS' multimedia framework for their failed Palm OS Cobalt product PalmSource Introduces Palm OS Cobalt, PalmSource press release, Feb 10, 2004 . With the takeover of PalmSource, the BeOS rights now belong to Access Co. Continuation Despite the end of Be Inc, BeOS remains popular among devoted followers. The BeOS community still develops free software and has even released patches, drivers and various updates to BeOS. The main source of BeOS-related software can be found at BeBits. The BeOS user interface was notable at the time for being almost completely unthemeable, even with third party hacks. The BeOS theme of yellow, changing length tabs on the top of windows, and relatively plain grey interface widgets was enforced. This UI remained relatively unchanged from 1995, but had been completely overhauled by the time of the leaked Dano release. An Easter egg in the OS allowed changing the title bar look-and-feel to a few others (Mac OS 8, Amiga Workbench, and Windows 98 appearances) and in Dano, this had been extended to be a feature allowing changing of the title bar and scroll bars. No other interface widgets could be changed. There is a pre-Dano third party program WindowShade that allows the colors of the title bar and window frame to be changed, but the appearance remained the same. The plain BeOS R5 GUI is commonly cloned, for example with themes for the GNOME or KDE desktop environment. Version history Release Date Hardware DR1–DR5 October 1995 AT&T Hobbit DR6 (developer release) January 1996 PowerPC DR7 April 1996 DR8 September 1996 Advanced Access Preview Release May 1997 PR1 (preview release) June 1997 PR2 October 1997 R3 March 1998 PowerPC and Intel x86 R3.1 June 1998 R3.2 July 1998 R4 November 4, 1998 R4.5 (“Genki”) June 1999 R5 PE/Pro (“Maui”) March 2000 R5.1 (“Dano”) November 2001 Intel x86 Projects to recreate BeOS BeOS was well respected by a small but loyal user base which was disappointed when Be Inc. failed commercially and no further enhancement of the operating system would be possible. In the years that followed a handful of projects formed to recreate BeOS or key elements of the OS with the eventual goal of then continuing where Be Inc. left off. To ensure that the OS could not be "taken away" from the Be community again, and to attract the efforts of volunteer programmers, these projects were all free and open source software. The modular nature of the original BeOS facilitated recreating the operating system a piece at a time, inserting the newly coded modules into a working BeOS system to test compatibility. Eventually all of the “servers” (interworking modules of code) were to be replaced with original, freely licensed code. But within a few years, some of these projects lost momentum and were discontinued. The domain name for Blue Eyed OS has lapsed and been taken up by another party, the most recent release available on the Cosmoe web site is from 2004 and active development on E/OS ended in July 2008. Development however continues on Haiku, a complete reimplementation of BeOS. On April 2nd 2008, it was announced that Haiku was "self-hosting", meaning that it can now be built from within itself, thus reaching a critical step on the path to Alpha and Beta releases of a Binary Compatible and Open Source version of the final BeOS R5, released in 2001. Projects to continue BeOS ZETA was a commercially available operating system based on the BeOS R5.1 codebase. Originally developed by YellowTAB, the operating system was then distributed by magnussoft. During the development by YellowTAB, the company received criticism from the BeOS community for refusing to discuss their legal position with regard to the BeOS code-base (perhaps for contractual reasons). Access Co. (which bought PalmSource, until then, the holders of the intellectual property associated with BeOS) has since declared that YellowTAB had no right to distribute a modified version of BeOS, and magnussoft has ceased distribution of the operating system. Products using BeOS BeOS (and now Zeta) continue to be used in media appliances such as the Edirol DV-7 video editors from Roland corporation which run on top of a modified BeOS and the TuneTracker radio automation software that runs on BeOS and Zeta, but is also sold as a “Station-in-a-Box” with the Zeta operating system included. The Tascam SX-1 digital audio recorder runs a heavily modified version of BeOS that will only launch the recording interface software. iZ Technology sells the RADAR 24, a hard disc-based, 24-track professional audio recorder based on BeOS 5. Magicbox, a manufacturer of signage and broadcast display machines, uses BeOS to power their Aavelin product line. The Casablanca-KRON from MacroSystem MacroSystem runs a modified version of BeOS 5. A dedicated computer built to edit video and audio, using a built in hard disk, CD-R(W)/DVD-R(W), and SD capabilities included to store media for later use and/or presentation. Made primarily for Schools and Universities. Final Scratch – the 12” vinyl timecode record-driven DJ software/hardware system was first developed on BeOS. The ‘ProFS’ version was sold to a few dozen world-class DJs prior to the 1.0 release, which ran on a Linux virtual partition. See also Access Co. OpenTracker – Filemanager from BeOS, officially and freely licensed NetPositive – Default web browser of BeOS Haiku - an open source continuation of BeOS bootman Gobe Productive Comparison of operating systems List of BeOS programs References External links Get BeOS 5 Personal Edition as a free download (Most likely to be documented for early 2000-01 hardware.) Mirror of the old www.be.com site BeBits is a comprehensive file repository for BeOS applications. BeOS Celebrating Ten Years BeGroovy A blog dedicated to all things BeOS BeOS: The Mac OS X might-have-been, reghardware.co.uk YouTube videos A brief overview of BeOS's features Programming the Be Operating System – An O'Reilly Open Book (out of print) | BeOS |@lemmatized beos:64 operating:7 system:16 personal:3 computer:3 begin:2 development:5 inc:14 first:3 write:3 run:8 bebox:1 hardware:8 optimize:1 digital:2 medium:3 work:3 take:3 advantage:1 modern:1 facility:1 symmetric:1 multiprocessing:1 utilize:1 modular:2 bandwidth:1 pervasive:1 multithreading:1 preemptive:1 multitasking:1 custom:1 bit:1 journaling:1 file:2 know:2 bfs:1 gui:2 develop:5 principle:1 clarity:1 clean:1 uncluttered:1 design:2 api:1 c:1 ease:1 program:4 posix:1 compatibility:2 access:5 command:1 line:4 interface:5 bash:1 although:1 internally:1 unix:1 derive:1 position:2 multimedia:2 platform:4 could:6 use:8 substantial:1 population:2 desktop:2 user:3 competitor:1 microsoft:5 window:5 linux:3 however:2 ultimately:1 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4,138 | Alain_Connes | Alain Connes (born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, currently Professor at the College de France, IHÉS and Vanderbilt University. Work Alain Connes is one of the leading specialists on operator algebras. In his early work on von Neumann algebras in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective factors. Following this he made contributions in operator K-theory and index theory, which culminated in the Baum-Connes conjecture. He also introduced cyclic cohomology in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of noncommutative differential geometry. Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics, including number theory, differential geometry and particle physics. Awards and honours Connes was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982, the Crafoord Prize in 2001 and the gold medal of the CNRS in 2004. He is a member of the French Academy of Sciences and several foreign academies and societies, including the Danish Academy of Sciences, Norwegian Academy of Sciences, Russian Academy of Sciences, and US National Academy of Sciences. See also cyclic homology factor (functional analysis) Higgs boson C*-algebra M Theory Groupoid External links Alain Connes Official Web Site containing downloadable papers, and his book Non-commutative geometry, ISBN 0-12-185860-X. Alain Connes' Standard Model An interview with Alain Connes and a discussion about it | Alain_Connes |@lemmatized alain:5 connes:8 bear:1 april:1 french:2 mathematician:1 currently:1 professor:1 college:1 de:1 france:1 ihés:1 vanderbilt:1 university:1 work:3 one:1 lead:1 specialist:1 operator:2 algebra:3 early:2 von:1 neumann:1 succeed:1 obtain:1 almost:1 complete:1 classification:1 injective:1 factor:2 follow:1 make:1 contribution:1 k:1 theory:4 index:1 culminate:1 baum:1 conjecture:1 also:2 introduce:1 cyclic:2 cohomology:1 first:1 step:1 study:1 noncommutative:1 differential:2 geometry:3 apply:1 area:1 mathematics:1 theoretical:1 physic:2 include:2 number:1 particle:1 award:2 honour:1 field:1 medal:2 crafoord:1 prize:1 gold:1 cnrs:1 member:1 academy:6 science:5 several:1 foreign:1 society:1 danish:1 norwegian:1 russian:1 u:1 national:1 see:1 homology:1 functional:1 analysis:1 higgs:1 boson:1 c:1 groupoid:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 web:1 site:1 contain:1 downloadable:1 paper:1 book:1 non:1 commutative:1 isbn:1 x:1 standard:1 model:1 interview:1 discussion:1 |@bigram alain_connes:5 von_neumann:1 differential_geometry:2 crafoord_prize:1 gold_medal:1 higgs_boson:1 external_link:1 |
4,139 | Paleozoic | The Paleozoic or Palaeozoic Era (from the Greek palaios (παλαιός), "old" and zoe (ζωή), "life", meaning "ancient life") is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic eon. The Paleozoic spanned from roughly (ICS, 2004), and is subdivided into six geologic periods; from oldest to youngest they are: the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian Paleozoic life Trilobites flourished throughout the lower Paleozoic era until becoming extinct in the Permian period The Paleozoic covers the time from the first appearance of abundant, soft-shelled fossils to the time when the continents were beginning to be dominated by large, relatively sophisticated reptiles and modern plants. The lower (oldest) boundary was classically set at the first appearance of creatures known as trilobites and archeocyathids. The upper (youngest) boundary is set at a major extinction event 300 million years later, known as the Permian extinction. Modern practice sets the older boundary at the first appearance of a distinctive trace fossil called Trichophycus pedum. At the start of the era, all life was confined to bacteria, algae, sponges and a variety of somewhat enigmatic forms known collectively as the Ediacaran fauna. A large number of body plans appeared nearly simultaneously at the start of the era -- a phenomenon known as the Cambrian Explosion. There is some evidence that simple life may already have invaded the land at the start of the Paleozoic, but substantial plants and animals did not take to the land until the Silurian and did not thrive until the Devonian. Although primitive vertebrates are known near the start of the Paleozoic, animal forms were dominated by invertebrates until the mid-Paleozoic. Fish populations exploded in the Devonian. During the late Paleozoic, great forests of primitive plants thrived on land forming the great coal beds of Europe and eastern North America. By the end of the era, the first large, sophisticated reptiles and the first modern plants (conifers) had developed. Tectonics Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia and at the end of a global ice age. (See Varanger glaciation and Snowball Earth). Throughout the early Paleozoic, the Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area. Climate Land distribution in the Early Paleozoic, 514 Ma The Early Cambrian climate was probably moderate at first, becoming warmer over the course of the Cambrian, as the second-greatest sustained sea level rise in the Phanerozoic got underway. However, as if to offset this trend, Gondwana moved south with considerable speed, so that, in Ordovician time, most of West Gondwana (Africa and South America) lay directly over the South Pole. The Early Paleozoic climate was also strongly zonal, with the result that the "climate", in an abstract sense became warmer, but the living space of most organisms of the time -- the continental shelf marine environment -- became steadily colder. However, Baltica (Northern Europe and Russia) and Laurentia (eastern North America and Greenland) remained in the tropical zone, while China and Australia lay in waters which were at least temperate. The Early Paleozoic ended, rather abruptly, with the short, but apparently severe, Late Ordovician Ice Age. This cold spell caused the second-greatest mass extinction of Phanerozoic time. Over time, the warmer weather moved into the Paleozoic era. The Middle Paleozoic was a time of considerable stability. Sea levels had dropped coincident with the Ice Age, but slowly recovered over the course of the Silurian and Devonian. The slow merger of Baltica and Laurentia, and the northward movement of bits and pieces of Gondwana created numerous new regions of relatively warm, shallow sea floor. As plants took hold on the continental margins, oxygen levels increased and carbon dioxide dropped, although much less dramatically. The north-south temperature gradient also seems to have moderated, or metazoan life simply became hardier, or both. At any event, the far southern continental margins of Antarctica and West Gondwana became increasingly less barren. The Devonian ended with a series of turnover pulses which killed off much of Middle Paleozoic vertebrate life, without noticeably reducing species diversity overall. The Late Paleozoic was a time which has left us a good many unanswered questions. The Mississippian epoch began with a spike in atmospheric oxygen, while carbon dioxide plummeted to unheard-of lows. This destabilized the climate and led to one, and perhaps two, ice ages during the Carboniferous. These were far more severe than the brief Late Ordovician Ice; but, this time, the effects on world biota were inconsequential. By the Cisuralian, both oxygen and carbon dioxide had recovered to more normal levels. On the other hand, the assembly of Pangea created huge arid inland areas subject to temperature extremes. The Lopingian is associated with falling sea levels, increased carbon dioxide and general climatic deterioration, culminating in the devastation of the Permian extinction. See also Geologic timescale References and further reading British Palaeozoic Fossils, 1975, The Natural History Museum, London. | Paleozoic |@lemmatized paleozoic:18 palaeozoic:2 era:8 greek:1 palaios:1 παλαιός:1 old:4 zoe:1 ζωή:1 life:7 meaning:1 ancient:1 early:6 three:1 geologic:3 phanerozoic:3 eon:1 span:1 roughly:1 ic:1 subdivide:1 six:1 period:2 young:2 cambrian:4 ordovician:4 silurian:3 devonian:5 carboniferous:2 permian:4 trilobites:1 flourish:1 throughout:2 low:3 become:6 extinct:1 cover:1 time:9 first:6 appearance:3 abundant:1 soft:1 shell:1 fossil:3 continent:3 begin:2 dominate:2 large:3 relatively:3 sophisticated:2 reptile:2 modern:3 plant:5 boundary:3 classically:1 set:3 creature:1 know:5 trilobite:1 archeocyathids:1 upper:1 major:1 extinction:4 event:2 million:1 year:1 later:1 practice:1 distinctive:1 trace:1 call:3 trichophycus:1 pedum:1 start:5 confine:1 bacteria:1 algae:1 sponge:1 variety:1 somewhat:1 enigmatic:1 form:3 collectively:1 ediacaran:1 fauna:1 number:2 body:1 plan:1 appear:1 nearly:1 simultaneously:1 phenomenon:1 explosion:1 evidence:1 simple:1 may:1 already:1 invade:1 land:5 substantial:2 animal:2 take:2 thrive:2 although:2 primitive:2 vertebrate:2 near:1 invertebrate:1 mid:1 fish:1 population:1 explode:1 late:4 great:4 forest:1 coal:1 bed:1 europe:2 eastern:2 north:3 america:3 end:5 conifer:1 develop:1 tectonics:1 geologically:1 shortly:1 breakup:1 supercontinent:2 pannotia:1 global:1 ice:5 age:4 see:2 varanger:1 glaciation:1 snowball:1 earth:3 landmass:1 break:1 small:1 toward:1 gather:1 together:1 pangaea:1 include:1 area:2 climate:5 distribution:1 probably:1 moderate:2 warmer:2 course:2 second:2 sustain:1 sea:4 level:5 rise:1 get:1 underway:1 however:2 offset:1 trend:1 gondwana:4 move:2 south:4 considerable:2 speed:1 west:2 africa:1 lay:2 directly:1 pole:1 also:3 strongly:1 zonal:1 result:1 abstract:1 sense:1 warm:2 living:1 space:1 organism:1 continental:3 shelf:1 marine:1 environment:1 steadily:1 colder:1 baltica:2 northern:1 russia:1 laurentia:2 greenland:1 remain:1 tropical:1 zone:1 china:1 australia:1 water:1 least:1 temperate:1 rather:1 abruptly:1 short:1 apparently:1 severe:2 cold:1 spell:1 cause:1 mass:1 weather:1 middle:2 stability:1 drop:2 coincident:1 slowly:1 recover:2 slow:1 merger:1 northward:1 movement:1 bit:1 piece:1 create:2 numerous:1 new:1 region:1 shallow:1 floor:1 hold:1 margin:2 oxygen:3 increase:2 carbon:4 dioxide:4 much:2 less:2 dramatically:1 temperature:2 gradient:1 seem:1 metazoan:1 simply:1 hardy:1 far:2 southern:1 antarctica:1 increasingly:1 barren:1 series:1 turnover:1 pulse:1 kill:1 without:1 noticeably:1 reduce:1 specie:1 diversity:1 overall:1 leave:1 u:1 good:1 many:1 unanswered:1 question:1 mississippian:1 epoch:1 spike:1 atmospheric:1 plummet:1 unheard:1 destabilize:1 lead:1 one:1 perhaps:1 two:1 brief:1 effect:1 world:1 biota:1 inconsequential:1 cisuralian:1 normal:1 hand:1 assembly:1 pangea:1 huge:1 arid:1 inland:1 subject:1 extreme:1 lopingian:1 associate:1 fall:1 general:1 climatic:1 deterioration:1 culminate:1 devastation:1 timescale:1 reference:1 reading:1 british:1 natural:1 history:1 museum:1 london:1 |@bigram phanerozoic_eon:1 cambrian_ordovician:1 ordovician_silurian:1 paleozoic_era:2 cambrian_explosion:1 snowball_earth:1 continental_shelf:1 carbon_dioxide:4 unanswered_question:1 geologic_timescale:1 |
4,140 | Armed_Forces_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina | +Armed Forces of Bosnia-HerzegovinaCoat of Arms of Bosnia-HerzegovinaCoat of Arms of Bosnia-HerzegovinaLeadershipCommander-in-chief The acting president (out of 3)Minister of Defense Selmo CikotićChairman of the Joint Staff and Commander Lt. Gen. Sifet PodžićComponents Ground Forces Air Force and Anti-Aircraft DefenseMilitary manpowerTotal Personal15,000 + 1000 civilian staffActive troops10,000 ranked 127thReserve troops5,000Fit for military servicemales age 18-49: 831,554 (2007 est.)Military expendituresUSD figure$ 450 Million (2007 est.) CIA - The World Factbook - Bosnia and Herzegovina Percent of GDP4.5% (2007 est.)History Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina History of the Army of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina War in Bosnia and Herzegovina Patriotic LeagueTerritorial Defence Force of the Republic of Bosnia and Hercegovina Štab Vrhovne Komande Armije Republike Bosne i HercegovineSefer HalilovićRelated Articles Military ranks and Insignia of OSBIH Armed Forces of Bosnia-Herzegovina (OSBIH / ОСБИХ; Oružane snage BIH / Оружане снаге БИХ) is the official military force of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnian Armed forces were unified in 2005 and are composed of two founding armies: Bosniak-Croat, Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb, Army of Republika Srpska. The Ministry of Defense of Bosnia and Herzegovina, founded in 2004, is in charge of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Conscription was completely abolished in Bosnia and Herzegovina effective on and from 1 January 2006. NATO and the Defence Reform Commission: partners for progress (SETimes.com) The supreme commander of the Bosnian Armed Forces is the current president of Bosnia and Herzegovina thus the Presidency commands the Bosnian Army, then the Bosnian Ministry of Defence with the minister Selmo Cikotić, then the Chiefs of Joint Staff with Sifet Podžić as the head of the chiefs. Structure President Nebojša Radmanović and President Haris Silajdžić of Bosnia-Herzegovina arrive at Eagle Base, for the turnover of the base from the United States to the government of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Chairman of the Joint Staff - Lt. General Sifet Podžić Minister of Defense - Selmo Cikotić Personnel Structure of Military Forces BiH Army soldiers 10,000 Active troops 5,000 Reserve troops 1,000 Civilian staff Components Arms Ground forces Bosnian land force Bosnian mechanized force Special Regiment force Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Defense Branches Infantry Artillery Artillery-Rocket Air Defence unit Mechanized Armour unit Aviation Engineering Communication Nulear-Biology-Chemical Defence (NBC Defence) Electronic surveillance and anti-electronic battle Air surveillance and reconnaissance Military intelligence Services Technical service Air technology service Military Police service Communications service Sanitary service Veterans service Civilian service Financial service Information service Legal service Religious service Musical service Defense Law BiH Defense Law Defines the Following areas: Military of Bosnia and Herzegovina Government Institutions Entity jurisdictions and structure Budget and Financing Composition of Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina War declaration Natural disasters Conflict of interests and professionalism Oath to Bosnia-Herzegovina Flags, Anthem and Military Insignia Transitional and end orders Uniform MARPAT Insignia Insignia is found on military hats or berets, on the right and left shoulder on the uniform of all Soldiers of the Armed Forces. All, except for generals, wear badges on their hats or berets with either the land force badge or air force badge. Generals wear badges with the coat of arms of Bosnia surrounded with branches and two swords.All soldiers of the armed forces have on their right shoulder a flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina. All members of the 3 regiments wear their regiment insignia on the left shoulder. There are other insignias, brigades or other institution are worn under the regiment insignia. The name of the soldiers is worn on the left part of the chest wile the name "Armed Forces of BiH" is worn on the right part of the chest. Regiments There are three regiments that have soldiers of one of the three ethnic groups of Bosnia: Bosnian, Croats and Serbians from the past armies that were created during the Bosnian war. These regiments have the distinct ethnic insignia of the Croats, Serbians and Bosniaks. Equipment Infantry weapons 55,000 M-16A1 13,000 Beretta 92 (Used by the Military and Police forces) 5,000 CZ-99 15,000 CZ-999 220,000 Zastava M70 13,000 Zastava M21 (12 000 to armed forces and 1000 to SIPA) 12,000 HK G3 (Donated by Turkey 1997) 20,000 Heckler & Koch MP5 500 M60 machine guns 4500M240 machine guns 20,000 + 35 000 in reserve Zastava M76 ?M2 .50 caliber machine guns 12,000 M79 Osa rocket launcher 90 mm RPG 15,000 HK33 35,000 + 120 000 in reserve AK47 Main battle tanks 65 M60 PattonA3 14 M-84 55 AMX-30 Armoured fighting vehicles 140-180 ZSL-92 (large numbers) 5 HMMWV 88 M113 A2 55-60 AML90 65 AMX-10 60 BVP M-80 Anti-tank weapons 1 000+ Baktar-Shikan (large numbers) 15 000 AT-4 Spigot 10 000 AT-3 Sagger 12 000 MILAN Artillery 24M101 36 D-30 18 M114A2 5 2S1 4-5 M-77 Oganj 40 M-63 Plamen 2 M-87 Orkan 8-10 BM-21 Grad Logistics 33 Mercedes-Benz G-270 (Military Police/Officers) (Donated by Germany) 40 Mercedes-Benz Unimog (Donated by Germany) 130 TAM-110 90 TAM-150 75 TAM-5000 Helicopters 6 Mil Mi-8 8 Mil Mi-17 16 UH-1H 14 SOKO Gazelle (8 from VRS and 6 from the Federation army) Other equipment 11,000 Hughes/Magnavox AN/PRC-126 hand held radios 5,600 NAPCO AN/PRC-77 man pack radios 4,100 tactical telephones 22,000 binoculars 50 10kW generators Formations Joint Command and Operational Command - Sarajevo 1st Infantry Brigade (Tuzla) 2nd Infantry Brigade (Banja Luka) 3rd Infantry Brigade (Čapljina) Signals Platoon Military Police Platoon Reconnaissance Company 1st Infantry Battalion 2nd Infantry Battalion 3rd Infantry Battalion Artillery Battalion (Doboj, Mostar and Žepče) Air Defense Brigade (Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla) 1st Helicopter Squadron 2nd Helicopter Squadron Air Defense Battalion Early Warning and Surveillance Battalion Flight Support Battalion Tactical Support Brigade Engineer Battalion De-mining Battalion (Bugojno) MI Battalion Military Police Battalion Armor Battalion (Tuzla) NBC Defense Company Signals Company Signals Platoon Support Command - Banja Luka Personal Management Command - TRADOC Training Section Training Section Combat Training Center Armored Mechanized Battalion Combat Simulation Center Professional Development Center Officers School NCO School Foreign Language Center Logistics Command Center for Movement Control Center for Material Management Main Logistics Base 1st Logistics Support Battalion (Doboj i Sarajevo) 2nd Logistics Support Battalion 3rd Logistics Support Battalion 4th Logistics Support Battalion 5th Logistics Support Battalion Locations of Military Forces Joint Command and Operational Command - Sarajevo Support Command - Banja Luka 3 Infantry Brigades - Tuzla, Banja Luka, and Čapljina Air Forces Brigade - Banja Luka, Sarajevo and Tuzla Tactical Brigade - Sarajevo Infantry Battalions - Banja Luka, Bihać, Bijeljina, Bileća, Čapljina, Kiseljak, Livno, Orašje, Prijedor, Tuzla ,Ustikolin and Zenica Helicopter Battalion - Sarajevo and Banja Luka Air Defense Battalion - Sarajevo Air Reconnaissance Battalion - Banja Luka Air Support Battalion - Sarajevo and Banja Luka Artillery Battalion - Doboj, Mostar and Žepče Military Intelligence Battalion and Military Police Battalion - Butilama Armored Battalion - Tuzla De mining Battalion - Bugojno Logistics Bases - Doboj and Sarajevo History Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina The Army of the Republic of Bosnia And Herzegovina, was created on April 15 1992 during the early days of the Bosnian War Before, the ARBiH was formally created, there existed a number of paramilitary groups such as the Green Berets, Patriotic League, , Bosnia's Territorial Defence forces and civil defense groups, as well as many criminal gangs and collections of police and military professionals. The army was formed under poor circumstances, with a very low number of tanks, APCs and no military aviation assets. The army was divided into Corps, each Corp was stationed in a territory. First commander was Sefer Halilović. Army of Repubika Srpska The Army of Republika Srpska, was created on May 12, 1992. Before, the VRS was formally created, there were a number of paramilitary groups such as the Srpska Dobrovoljačka Garda, Beli Orlovi, as well as some Russian, Greek and other volunteers. Most of the paramilitary groups were not under the command of General Ratko Mladić. The army was equipped with ex-JNA inventory. It had about 200 tanks, mostly T-55s and 85 M-84s, and 150 APCs with several heavy artillery pieces. The Air Defense of VRS has shot down several aircraft, like F-16, Mirage 2000, F-18 and two Croatian Air Force MiG-21. The VRS received support from the Yugoslav Army and FRY until 1994, when Slobodan Milošević stopped military relations with Republika Srpska. Croatian Defence Council The Croatian Council of Defence was the main military formation of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War and it was first organized military force to with the aim to control the Croat populated areas. It is not to be confused with the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) which was a separate Croatian military unit Foreign armies In 1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia, beginning on December 21st 1995 to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force or SFOR. The number of SFOR troops was reduced first to 12,000 and then to 7,000. SFOR was in turn succeeded by an even smaller, EU-led European Union Force or EUFOR (Althea). , EUFOR numbers ca. 7,000 troops. Statistical indicators Military service age and obligation: 18 years of age for compulsory military service in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina; 16 years of age in times of war; 18 years of age for Republika Srpska; 17 years of age for voluntary military service in the Federation and in the Republika Srpska; by law, military obligations cover all healthy men between the ages of 18 and 60, and all women between the ages of 18 and 55; service obligation is 4 months (July 2004) Bosnian Army in Iraq Manpower available for military service: males age 18-49: 1,034,367 (2005 est.) Military Branches: All branches are combined in to the OSBiH; Land, and Mechanized Forces. Manpower fit for military service: males age 18-49: 829,530 (2005 est.) Manpower reaching military service age annually: males: 31,264 (2005 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $450 million (FY06) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 4.5% (FY06) Operations outside Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina deployed a unit of 37 men to destroy munitions and clear mines, in addition to 6 command personnel as part of the Multinational force in Iraq. The unit was first deployed to Fallujah, then Talil Air Base, and is now located at Camp Echo. In December 2006, the Bosnian government formerly extended its mandate through June 2007. Bosnia and Herzegovina is planning to send another 49 soldiers from the 6th infantry division to Iraq in August 2008, their mission will be to protect/guard Camp Victory in Baghdad. See also Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina References External links MoD of Bosnia and Herzegovina European Union Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina - EUFOR OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina NATO Headquarters Sarajevo Security Sector Reform information | Armed_Forces_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina |@lemmatized arm:10 force:35 bosnia:36 herzegovinacoat:2 herzegovinaleadershipcommander:1 chief:3 act:1 president:4 minister:3 defense:12 selmo:3 cikotićchairman:1 joint:5 staff:4 commander:3 lt:2 gen:1 sifet:3 podžićcomponents:1 ground:2 air:15 anti:4 aircraft:3 defensemilitary:1 manpowertotal:1 civilian:3 staffactive:1 rank:2 military:34 servicemales:1 age:11 est:6 expendituresusd:1 figure:2 million:2 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 herzegovina:27 percent:2 history:3 army:20 republic:7 war:6 patriotic:2 leagueterritorial:1 defence:10 hercegovina:1 štab:1 vrhovne:1 komande:1 armije:1 republike:1 bosne:1 hercegovinesefer:1 halilovićrelated:1 article:1 insignia:8 osbih:3 осбих:1 oružane:1 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4,141 | British_Steel | British Steel was a major British steel producer. It originated as a nationalised industry, the British Steel Corporation (BSC), formed in 1967. This was converted to a limited company, British Steel PLC, and privatised in 1988. It was once a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index but following mergers, the business is now owned by Corus, a Tata Steel company. Nationalisation BSC was formed from the assets of former private companies which had been nationalised, largely under the Labour Party government of Harold Wilson (1964-1970). Wilson's was the second attempt at nationalisation, Clement Attlee's Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain having been largely privatised by the Conservative governments of the 1950s. Only one steel company, Richard Thomas and Baldwins, remained in public ownership throughout. BSC was established under the Iron and Steel Act 1967, which vested in the Corporation the shares of the fourteen major steel companies (one missing from this list): Colvilles Ltd Consett Iron Company Ltd Dorman Long & Company Ltd English Steel Corporation Ltd GKN Steel Company Ltd John Summers & Sons Ltd Lancashire Steel Corporation Ltd Richard Thomas and Baldwins Ltd Skinningrove Iron Company Ltd South Durham Steel & Iron Company Ltd Steel Company of Wales Ltd Stewarts & Lloyds Ltd United Steel Companies Ltd Dorman Long, South Durham and Stewarts and Lloyds had merged as British Steel and Tube Ltd before vesting took place. BSC later arranged an exchange deal with Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds Ltd (GKN), the parent company of GKN Steel, under which BSC acquired Dowlais Ironworks at Merthyr Tydfil and GKN took over BSC's Brymbo Steelworks near Wrexham. Change in the British steel industry The Act brought together 90 percent of the UK's steelmaking to form BSC, a single business with 268,500 employees. UK Steel:Key dates One of the arguments aired in favour of nationalisation was that it would enable steel production to be rationalised. This involved concentrating investment on major integrated plants, placed near the coast for ease of access by sea, and closing older, smaller plants, especially those that had been located inland for proximity to coal supplies. From the mid-1970s the (now loss-making) British Steel pursued a strategy of concentrating steelmaking in five areas: South Wales, South Yorkshire, Scunthorpe, Teesside and Scotland. This policy continued following the Conservative victory in the 1979 General Election. Other traditional steelmaking areas faced cutbacks. Under the Labour government of James Callaghan, a review by Lord Beswick had led to the reprieve of the so-called 'Beswick plants', for social reasons, but subsequent governments were obliged under EU rules to withdraw subsidies. Major changes resulted across Europe including, in the UK: At Consett the closure of the British Steel works in 1980 marked the end of steel production in the Derwent Valley and the decline of the area. At Corby the early 1980s saw the loss of 11,000 jobs leading to an initial unemployment rate of over 30%. Select Committee on Transport, Local Government and the Regions, HMSO In Wales, works at East Moors (Cardiff), Ebbw Vale and Shotton were closed. In Scotland, Western Europe's largest hot strip steel mill Ravenscraig steelworks, near Motherwell, North Lanarkshire, was closed by British Steel in 1991, leading to huge unemployment in the area. It also led to the closure of several local support and satellite businesses, such as the nearby British Steel Clydesdale Works in Mossend, Clyde Alloy in Netherton and equipment maker Anderson Strathclyde. Demolition of the site's landmark blue gasometer in 1994, and the subsequent cleanup operation, has created the largest brownfield site in Europe. This huge area between Motherwell and Wishaw is in line to be transformed into the new town of Ravenscraig, a project partly funded by Corus. Privatisation British Steel was privatised in 1988 under the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher. It merged with the Dutch steel producer Koninklijke Hoogovens to form Corus Group on 6 October 1999. Corus Group Webpage Corus itself was taken over in March 2007 by the Indian steel operator Tata Steel. Chairmen Lord Melchett (1967 - 1973) Monty Finniston (1973 - 1976) Charles Villiers (1976 - 1980) Ian MacGregor (1980 - 1983) Ian MacGregor later became famous for his role at British Coal and the UK miners' strike (1984-1985). During the strike the "Battle of Orgreave" took place at British Steel's coking plant. Sponsorship In 1971, British Steel sponsored Sir Chay Blyth in his record-making non-stop circumnavigation against the winds and currents, known as 'The Impossible Voyage'. In 1992 they sponsored the British Steel Challenge, the first of a series of 'wrong way' races for amateur crews. British Steel had agreed a sponsorship deal with Middlesbrough Football Club during the 1994-95 season, with a view to British Steel sponsored Middlesbrough shirts making their appearance the following season. But the sponsorship deal was terminated before it commenced after it was revealed that British steel only made up a tiny fraction of steel used in construction of the stadium - the bulk of the steel had been imported from Germany. See also British Iron and Steel Research Association References Further reading British Steel Corporation, 1988 Competition Commission report British Steel plc and C Walker & Sons (Holdings) Ltd, 1990 Competition Commission report External links | British_Steel |@lemmatized british:21 steel:41 major:4 producer:2 originate:1 nationalised:1 industry:2 corporation:6 bsc:7 form:4 convert:1 limited:1 company:13 plc:2 privatise:3 constituent:1 ftse:1 index:1 follow:2 merger:1 business:3 corus:5 tata:2 nationalisation:3 asset:1 former:1 private:1 nationalise:1 largely:2 labour:2 party:1 government:6 harold:1 wilson:2 second:1 attempt:1 clement:1 attlee:1 iron:6 great:1 britain:1 conservative:3 one:3 richard:2 thomas:2 baldwin:2 remain:1 public:1 ownership:1 throughout:1 establish:1 act:2 vest:2 share:1 fourteen:1 miss:1 list:1 colvilles:1 ltd:16 consett:2 dorman:2 long:2 english:1 gkn:4 john:1 summer:1 son:2 lancashire:1 skinningrove:1 south:4 durham:2 wale:3 stewart:2 lloyds:1 unite:1 lloyd:1 merge:2 tube:1 take:4 place:3 later:2 arrange:1 exchange:1 deal:3 guest:1 keen:1 nettlefolds:1 parent:1 acquire:1 dowlais:1 ironwork:1 merthyr:1 tydfil:1 brymbo:1 steelworks:2 near:3 wrexham:1 change:2 bring:1 together:1 percent:1 uk:4 steelmaking:3 single:1 employee:1 key:1 date:1 argument:1 air:1 favour:1 would:1 enable:1 production:2 rationalise:1 involve:1 concentrating:1 investment:1 integrate:1 plant:4 coast:1 ease:1 access:1 sea:1 closing:1 old:1 small:1 especially:1 locate:1 inland:1 proximity:1 coal:2 supply:1 mid:1 loss:2 make:4 pursue:1 strategy:1 concentrate:1 five:1 area:5 yorkshire:1 scunthorpe:1 teesside:1 scotland:2 policy:1 continue:1 victory:1 general:1 election:1 traditional:1 face:1 cutback:1 james:1 callaghan:1 review:1 lord:2 beswick:2 lead:4 reprieve:1 call:1 social:1 reason:1 subsequent:2 oblige:1 eu:1 rule:1 withdraw:1 subsidy:1 result:1 across:1 europe:3 include:1 closure:2 work:3 mark:1 end:1 derwent:1 valley:1 decline:1 corby:1 early:1 saw:1 job:1 initial:1 unemployment:2 rate:1 select:1 committee:1 transport:1 local:2 region:1 hmso:1 east:1 moor:1 cardiff:1 ebbw:1 vale:1 shotton:1 close:2 western:1 large:2 hot:1 strip:1 mill:1 ravenscraig:2 motherwell:2 north:1 lanarkshire:1 huge:2 also:2 several:1 support:1 satellite:1 nearby:1 clydesdale:1 mossend:1 clyde:1 alloy:1 netherton:1 equipment:1 maker:1 anderson:1 strathclyde:1 demolition:1 site:2 landmark:1 blue:1 gasometer:1 cleanup:1 operation:1 create:1 brownfield:1 wishaw:1 line:1 transform:1 new:1 town:1 project:1 partly:1 fund:1 privatisation:1 margaret:1 thatcher:1 dutch:1 koninklijke:1 hoogovens:1 group:2 october:1 webpage:1 march:1 indian:1 operator:1 chairman:1 melchett:1 monty:1 finniston:1 charles:1 villiers:1 ian:2 macgregor:2 become:1 famous:1 role:1 miner:1 strike:2 battle:1 orgreave:1 coking:1 sponsorship:3 sponsor:3 sir:1 chay:1 blyth:1 record:1 non:1 stop:1 circumnavigation:1 wind:1 current:1 know:1 impossible:1 voyage:1 challenge:1 first:1 series:1 wrong:1 way:1 race:1 amateur:1 crew:1 agree:1 middlesbrough:2 football:1 club:1 season:2 view:1 shirt:1 appearance:1 following:1 terminate:1 commence:1 reveal:1 tiny:1 fraction:1 use:1 construction:1 stadium:1 bulk:1 import:1 germany:1 see:1 research:1 association:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 competition:2 commission:2 report:2 c:1 walker:1 holding:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram ftse_index:1 clement_attlee:1 merthyr_tydfil:1 james_callaghan:1 unemployment_rate:1 margaret_thatcher:1 tiny_fraction:1 external_link:1 |
4,142 | BBC_News_(TV_channel) | BBC News (also referred to as the BBC News Channel) is the BBC's 24 hour rolling news television channel in the United Kingdom. The channel launched as BBC News 24 on 9 November 1997 at 17:30 as part of the BBC's foray into digital domestic television channels, becoming the first competitor to Sky News, which had been running since 1989. About BBC News 24 TV Home Since then, with several relaunches, an increase in funding and resources from the BBC and improvements in digital television technology, the channel has been able to diversify content, with two minute looped bulletins available to view via BBC Red Button, BBC News Online and the BBC's mobile website, alongside individual weather and sport bulletins. In May 2007 the channel became available for UK viewers to view through the BBC News website through a live stream. In April 2008 the channel was renamed "BBC News" as part of a £550,000 rebranding of the BBC's news output, complete with a new studio and presentation. Its sister services, BBC World was also renamed as "BBC World News" while the national news bulletins as BBC News at One, BBC News at Six and BBC News at Ten. As a major part of the BBC News department, the channel is based at and broadcast from the News Centre within BBC Television Centre in West London. About BBC News 1997: News on the move The channel was named RTS News Channel of the Year in 2006 and again in 2009. The channel has recently undergone a lot of scrutiny on the BBC's 'Newswatch' programme and 'Points of View' due to the increasing number of technical problems and careless mistakes that hamper the channel all too frequently. This has been allegedly down to the recent job-cuts at the channel but senior directors have promised viewers that standards will be raised and have apologised if it has/had caused viewers inconvenience. Freeview - Our Channels - BBC News 24 Freeview History BBC News 24 was originally available only to analogue cable television subscribers. To this day it and BBC Parliament remain the only BBC "digital" channels which are made available to analogue cable subscribers. This coverage was improved in 1998 with the advent of digital television in the United Kingdom allowing satellite and digital terrestrial television viewers to also view the service. Initially it was difficult to obtain a digital satellite or terrestrial receiver without a subscription to Sky or ONdigital respectively, but now the channel forms an important part of the Freeview package of channels. Freeview - Our Channels - BBC News 24 Freeview The BBC had run the international news channel BBC World for two and a half years prior to the launch of BBC News 24 on 9 November 1997. Sky News had had a free hand with domestic news for over eight years (since 5 February 1989) and being owned by News International their papers were used to criticise the BBC for extending its news output. The Sky News Blog-A New Angle In The News? Tips 'N' Tutorials Sky News objected to the breaking of its monopoly, complaining about the costs associated with running a channel that only a minority could view from the licence fee. Sky News claimed that a number of British cable operators had been incentivised to carry News 24 (which, as a licence-fee funded channel was made available to such operators for free) in preference to the commercial Sky News. However, in September 1999 the European Commission ruled against a complaint made by Sky News that the publicly funded channel was unfair and illegal under EU law. The Commission ruled that the licence fee should be considered state aid but that such aid was justified due to the public service remit of the BBC and that it did not exceed actual costs. BBC News 24 (State aid) Reckon Regulation & Competition Economics LLP The channel's journalistic output has been overseen by Controller of the channel, Kevin Bakhurst, since 16 December 2005. This was a return to having a dedicated Controller for the channel in the same way as the rest of the BBC's domestic television channels. At launch, Tim Orchard was Controller of News 24 from 1997 until 2000. Editorial decisions were then overseen by Rachel Atwell in her capacity as Deputy Head of television news. Her deputy Mark Popescu became responsible for editorial content in 2004, a role he continued in until the appointment of Bakhurst as Controller in 2005. BBC to revamp TV news operation - BBC News Online, 8 November 2005 A further announcement by Head of television news Peter Horrocks came at the same time as Bakhurst's appointment in which he outlined his plan to provide more funding and resources for the channel and shift the corporation's emphasis regarding news away from the traditional BBC One bulletins and across to the rolling news channel. The introduction of simulcasts of the main bulletins on the channel was to allow the news bulletins to pool resources rather than work against each other at key times in the face of competition particularly from Sky News. BBC announces changes to Television News TV Newsroom, 8 November 2005 The BBC Governors' annual report for 2005/2006 reported that average audience figures for fifteen minute periods had reached 8.6% in multichannel homes, up from 7.8% in 2004/2005. BBC Governor's Annual Report 2005/2006 Page 47 The 2004 report claimed that the channel outperformed Sky News in both weekly and monthly reach in multichannel homes for the January 2004 period, and for the first time in two years moved ahead of Sky News in being perceived as the channel best for news. BBC News 24 edging ahead of Sky NewsNeil Wilkes; Digital Spy, 19 August 2004 On 22 February 2006, the channel was named News Channel of the Year at the Royal Television Society Television Journalism Awards for the first time in its history. BBC winners at TV journalism awards Dave West; Digital Spy, 23 February 2006 The judges remarked that this was the year that the channel had "really come into its own." News 24 wins news channel of the year Newswatch - BBC News Online, 23 February 2006 2008 Rebranding On 21 April 2008 BBC News 24 was renamed BBC News on the channel itself - but is referred to as the BBC News Channel on other BBC services. BBC News 24 to be renamed This is part of the creative futures plan, launched in 2006, to bring all BBC News output under the single brand name. Creative Futures Plan News 24 moved from the Studio N8 set (now home to BBC World News) to what was the home of the national news in Studio N6, allowing the news channel to share its set with the BBC News at One and the BBC News at Ten - with other bulletins moving to studio TC7. 2008 Changes Programming News Each hour consists of headlines on each quarter hour, extended at the top of the hour to form the main part of the daily schedule though these are interspaced with other programmes, generally at weekends. This will be often be displaced by rolling news coverage including reports and live interviews. Weather summaries are provided every half hour by forecasters from the BBC Weather Centre while business and sport updates are also presented generally from within the main studio. Breaking news The BBC maintains guidelines for procedures to be taken for breaking news. With domestic news, the correspondent first records a "generic minute" summary (for use by all stations and channels) and then priority is to report on BBC Radio 5 Live, then on the BBC News Channel and any other programmes that are on air. For foreign news, first a "generic minute" is recorded, then reports are to World Service radio, then the reporter talks to any other programmes that are on air. A key claim made by Lord Lambert in his report had been that the channel was slower to react to breaking news compared with its main rival Sky News. Getting creative breakthrough...-About BBC News TV Home To counteract this, a new feature introduced with the 2003 relaunch was a 'breaking news sting': a globe shown briefly onscreen to direct a viewer's attention to the breaking news. The graphics relaunch in January 2007 has since seen the globe sting replaced by a red strapline to highlight the breaking story immediately. To complement this, a permanent live news ticker had earlier been introduced in 2006: this had only previously been in use sporadically. News statements are shown as continuously-scrolling upper-case text located at the bottom of the screen; some past ambiguities noted have included spelling the plural of MPs as "MPS", together with other occasional spelling and grammatical errors. The design of this ticker was slightly altered with the 2007 graphics redesign and from June turned red to indicate breaking news, as Newswatch reported viewers' confusion. Overnight and special simulcasts The BBC began simulcasting the channel overnight on terrestrial channel BBC One with the launch of the channel, ending the tradition of a closedown but at the same time effectively making the service available to many more viewers. In the early 2000s, BBC Two also started simulcasting the channel, although the weekend morning show Weekend 24 had been simulcast on the channel in the early days. During major breaking news events, the BBC News Channel has been broadcast on BBC One; examples of special broadcasts include the September 11th attacks, 7 July 2005 London bombings and the capture of Saddam Hussein. News 24 claims July victory Neil Wilkes; Digital Spy, 1 August 2005 News 24 top for rolling news TV Newsroom, 21 August 2005 Coverage of major events has also been simulcast on BBC World News. Simulcast BBC One programmes Since the launch of Breakfast in 2000, the programme has been simulcast on both BBC One and BBC News, replacing the individual breakfast news programmes that had been run by both channels. Since May 2006, the simulcast begins with the programme at 06:00 until 08:30 when programming on BBC News begins. Breakfast on BBC One then generally continues until 09:15. The BBC News at Ten began simulcasting on the channel on 30 January 2006 as part of the Ten O'Clock Newshour, followed by extended sport and business news updates. The bulletin was joined in being simulcast on 10 April 2006 when the BBC News at One (with British Sign Language in-vision signing) and BBC News at Six bulletins were added to the schedule following a similar format to the News at Ten in terms of content on the channel once each simulcast ends. During the Summer, the hour long programme News 24 Sunday is broadcast both on BBC One and the BBC News Channel at 09:00, to replace The Andrew Marr Show, which is off air. It is presented by Peter Sissons, and comes from the main News channel studio. The programme is made up mostly of interviews focusing on current affairs, and includes a full paper review, a weather summary, and a news update at 09:00, 09:30 and 10:00. Exclusive programmes Part of the previous BBC News set. Other programming produced solely by the BBC News channel includes the BBC News at Five O'Clock with Huw Edwards (including Film 24 with Mark Kermode at 17:45 on Fridays), Entertainment programme E24 (at 18:30 and 21:30, with Tasmin Lucia Khan), Sportsday (at 18:45, except on Friday and Saturdays when it is from 18:30, plus 22:30 every weekday) and Newswatch (Friday 20:45, Saturday 07:45). Programmes including Click, Dateline London, HARDtalk, Our World, E24, The Record Europe, Reporters, Straight Talk, Your News and Your Money appear regularly in the weekend schedules. Many of these programmes also appear throughout the week on BBC News's sister channel BBC World News. Previous BBC News programming includes Head 2 Head, STORYFix and BBC News 24 Tonight a regular weekday evening programme providing a round up of the days news which ran from 2005 to 2008. BBC World News shared programming Between 01:00 and 06:00 UK Time (UKT) the channel simulcasts with its sister channel, BBC World News, for the first 25 minutes of each hour with world news shown all through the simulcasts. Non-World programmes air generally on the half hour, notably ABC World News with Charles Gibson at 01:30. Since 21 April 2008, the overnight bulletins, while produced by the BBC News Channel has usually been broadcast from the studios of BBC World News. On 1 October 2007, BBC World News started broadcasting BBC World News America and World News Today at 00:00 and 03:00 UKT respectively. World News Today is simulcasted on the BBC News channel while BBC World News America, airs a delayed version at 00:30 UKT. BBC World News and World Business Report air at 5.00 on both channels and in lieu of commercials seen on the international broadcasts, the presenters give a brief update on UK news for domestic audiences. Sport coverage In 1990, new broadcaster British Satellite Broadcasting launched its new satellite television service. During the news programmes on Galaxy and Now and during the sports news programme on The Sports Channel clips from other broadcaster's sports output would be used to illustrate the sports headlines. The BBC took BSB to court to sue them for copyright violation for showing highlights of the BBC's live broadcasts of the 1990 FIFA World Cup football matches. The High Court of Justice decided that the rebroadcasts were for the purposes of reporting the news and were legal, even if the highlights were also entertaining, the BBC lost the case but set a legal precedent. Transformative Use of Copyright Material page 141 This has allowed all UK television broadcasters to legally package highlights from their own and other broadcasters' output into news programmes without payment or permission, as only a caption indicating the originating broadcaster is required. This has allowed the BBC to benefit from the action it took against BSB, to provide a cut-price sport news service since the channel launched. As the precedent only applies to television, Sky News is not streamed online as the criticism and review provision used does not apply outside broadcast television. Since the beginning of May 2007, BBC News 24 has been streamed online. Sports bulletins are usually at 45 minutes past the hour, with headlines at 15 minutes past the hour. There are also two extended sports bulletins per day, entitled 'Sportsday' broadcast at 18:45 (18:30 Friday and Saturday) and 22:30 (weekdays only). Each bulletin is read by a single sports presenter, with the exception of Saturday Sportsday, which is double headed. Bulletins during BBC Breakfast are presented by Chris Hollins or Mike Bushell, with the latter also appearing on other sports bulletins on the channel. The other presenters for bulletins on the channel are Sonja McLaughlan, Celina Hinchcliffe, Francis Collings, Dan Walker, Amanda Davies, Sean Fletcher, David Garrido, Adnan Nawaz, Amelia Harris, Laura Jones, Sally Nugent and Robin Bailey. These presenters also often produce reports on major sports stories, as well as appearing on the BBC One weekend bulletins. Business An hourly business update is included during the weekday schedule from the BBC Business Unit, usually presented by Simon Jack or Aaron Heslehurst during BBC Breakfast and through the morning until the BBC News at One and Rachel Horne later on in the day. Other presenters include Susannah Streeter, Babita Sharma and Sally Eden. These updates are usually broadcast at 40 minutes past the hour from 08:40 until 22:40. The final bulletin is an extended roundup of the day's business news. It was during a Business segment that Karen Bowerman famously interviewed Guy Goma thinking him to be Guy Kewney. From Tuesday, 26 May 2009, the morning business updates were presented from the main BBC Breakfast and BBC News Channel studio sets, rather than outside broadcast from the studio at the City of London. The reason for this change, and whether it is permanent, is not known. News presenters Regular presenters Since December 2007, the main regular presenters on the channel have been Simon McCoy, Carrie Gracie, Matthew Amroliwala, Jane Hill, Jon Sopel, Louise Minchin, Huw Edwards, Ben Brown, Joanna Gosling and Chris Eakin BBC News Channel Presenters - Weekdays . The main weekend presenters include Tim Willcox, Maxine Mawhinney, Nicholas Owen, Peter Sissons, Sophie Long and Annita McVeigh BBC News Channel Presenters - Weekends . Some of these presenters also regularly stand in during the week. Regular overnight presenters on the channel include Karin Giannone, Martine Croxall, Alastair Yates, Deborah Mackenzie, James Dagwell, Juliet Dunlop and Kaisa Madeira, with Giannone and Croxall also appearing during the day. BBC News' Europe Correspondent Clive Myrie will replace Chris Lowe on the weekends presenting alongside Annita McVeigh BBC News Channel Presenters - Weekends . Regular relief presenters on the channel include Jonathan Charles, Ellie Crisell, Gavin Esler, Stuart Flinders, Ben Geoghagen, Robert Hall, Emily Maitlis, Rachel Schofield, Sue Thearle, Carole Walker, Sally Nugent and Julian Worricker. The simulcasting of the main national news bulletins has led to the presenters of those bulletins appearing on the channel, with these presenters currently including Sophie Raworth, George Alagiah, Huw Edwards and Fiona Bruce. The main BBC Breakfast presenters have also appeared on the channel since it was first launched as a simulcast programme in 2000, with the current presenters being Bill Turnbull, Sian Williams (Mondays to Thursdays), Charlie Stayt and Susanna Reid (Fridays and weekends). During a major news event one or more of the main news presenters may be sent to present live for the channel from the scene of the story, where they will conduct interviews with the people involved, question correspondents, introduce related reports and also give general information on the story, much as a reporter sent to cover a story would. The presenters often have expertise in the story they are sent to cover, for example, former Paris correspondent Jon Sopel presented coverage of the 2007 French presidential elections. Past presenters Past presenters on BBC News include Peter Coe, Stephen Cole (now with Al Jazeera English), Peter Dobbie (now with BBC World News), Gwenan Edwards, Mike Embley (now with BBC World News), Adrian Finighan (now with CNN International), Kate Garraway (now with GMTV), Krishnan Guru-Murthy (now with Channel 4 News), Jackie Hardgrave, Andrew Harvey, Philip Hayton, Anna Jones (now with Sky News), Chris Lowe, Claire Marshall (now South America correspondent) Sarah Montague (now presenting Today on Radio 4), John Nicolson, Liz Pike, Martin Popplewell (now with Sky News), David Robertson (subsequently with Reporting Scotland), Valerie Sanderson, Manisha Tank (now with CNN International), Dhashini David (now working for Tesco) and Philippa Thomas (now with BBC World News). Presentation Graphics The channel was criticised at launch for its style of presentation, with accusations of it being less authoritative than the BBC One news bulletins, with presenters appearing onscreen without jackets. Jenny Abramsky had originally planned to have a television version of the informal news radio channel BBC Radio Five Live, or a TV version of Radio 4 News FM both of which she had run. The bright design of the set was also blamed for this - one insider reportedly described it as a "car crash in a shower" - and was subject to the network relaunch on 25 October 1999. The channel swapped studios with sister channel BBC World, moving to studio N8 within the newsroom, where it remained until 2008. New music and title sequences accompanied this set change, following the look of newly relaunched BBC One bulletins. Graphics and titles were developed by the Lambie-Nairn design agency and were gradually rolled out across the whole of BBC News, including a similar design for regional news starting with Newsroom South East and the three BBC Nations - Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The similarity of main BBC News output was intended to increase the credibility of the channel as well as aiding cross channel promotion. About BBC News TV Home A graphics relaunch in January 2007 saw the channel updated, with redesigned headline straplines, a redesigned 'Digital on-screen graphic' and repositioned clock. The clock was originally placed to the left hand side of the channel name though following complaints that this could only be viewed in widescreen, it was moved to the right in February 2007. Bulletins on BBC World News and BBC One also introduced similar graphics and title sequences on the same day. In 2008 the graphics were again relaunched, using the style introduced in 2007 and a new colourscheme. The Lambert report The Lambert Report into the channel's performance in 2002 called upon News 24 to develop a better brand of its own, to allow viewers to differentiate between itself and similar channels such as Sky News. As a direct result of this, a brand new style across all presentation for the channel launched on Monday 8 December 2003 at 09:00. Philip Hayton and Anna Jones were the first two presenters on the set, the relaunch of which had been put back a week due to previous power disruptions at Television Centre where the channel is based. The new designs also featured a dynamic set of titles for the channel; the globe would begin spinning from where the main story was taking place, while the headline scrolled around in a ribbon; this was occasionally replaced by the BBC News logo. Bulletins on BBC One adopted the style later in February 2004 despite moving into a new set in January 2003 but retaining the previous ivory Lambie-Nairn titles. News 24 updated the title colours slightly to match those of BBC One bulletins in time for the 50th anniversary of BBC television news on 5 July 2004. BBC News 24 2003-08 TV & Radio Bits Countdown sequence The countdown since 2005 has shown the elements of journalism and production involved in bringing news stories to air. An important part of the channel's presentation since launch has been the top of the hour countdown sequence, since there is no presentation system with continuity announcers so the countdown provides a link to the beginning of the next hour. A similar musical device is used on BBC Radio Five Live, and mirrors the pips on BBC Radio 4. Previous styles have included a series of fictional flags set to music between 1997 and 1999 before the major relaunch, incorporating the new contemporary music composed by David Lowe, and graphics developed by Lambie-Nairn. Various images, originally ivory numbers fully animated against a deep red background, were designed to fit the pace of the channel, and the music soon gained notoriety, and was often satirised and parodied in popular culture, perhaps most famously by comic Bill Bailey who likened the theme music to an "apocalyptic rave". Images of life around the UK were added in replacement later with the same music, together with footage of the newsroom and exterior of Television Centre. The 2003 relaunch saw a small change to this style with less of a metropolitan feel to the footage. A brand new version was introduced on 28 March 2005, designed and created by Red Bee Media and directed by Mark Chaudoir was launched. The full version runs for 60 seconds, though only around 30 seconds are shown on air. The music was revised completely but the biggest change came in the footage used - it now reflects the methods and nature of newsgathering, while a strong emphasis is placed on the BBC logo itself. Satellite dishes are shown transmitting and receiving red "data streams". In production of the countdown sequence, Clive Norman filmed images around the United Kingdom, Richard Jopson in the United States, while BBC News cameramen filmed images from Iraq, Beijing, Shanghai, Africa, as well as areas affected by the 2004 Asian Tsunami and others. The sequence has since seen several remixes to the music and a change in visuals to focus more on the well-known journalists, with less footage of camera crews and production teams. Changes have also seen the channel logo included during the sequences and at the end, as well as the fonts used for the time. The conclusion of the countdown was altered in 2008 to feature the new presentation style, rather than a data stream moving in towards the camera. A full three minute version of the countdown music was made available on the BBC News website and David Lowe's own after a remix on 16 May 2006. News 24 'releases' countdown music - BBC News Online, 18 May 2006 An international version of the countdown was launched on BBC World News on 5 September 2005 featuring more international content and similar music. Various changes have been made to the music and visuals since then, with presentation following the style of BBC News. See also Sky News ITV News Channel BBC World News References External links BBC News channel stream (available to UK & Ireland viewers only) TV Newsroom presentation coverage MP3 tracks of BBC News music: 1997, 1999 and 2003 - See the David Lowe article for more. 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4,143 | Long_gun | The term long gun is used to describe classes of firearm and cannon with longer barrels than other classes. In small arms, a long gun is designed to be fired braced against the shoulder, in contrast to a handgun, while in artillery a long gun would be contrasted with a howitzer or carronade. Small arms The actual length of the barrels of a long gun are subject various laws in many jurisdictions, for example by the National Firearms Act in the United States, which sets a minimum length of 16 inches (40 cm) for rifle barrels and 18 inches (45 cm) for shotgun barrels. Canada has a limit of 18.5 inches (47 cm) for either. In addition, both countries put a minimum fireable length for long guns with detachable or folding stocks of 26 inches (66 cm). Examples of various classes of small arms generally considered long arms include, but are not limited to: rifles shotguns muskets blunderbusses carbines wall guns musketoons Advantages and disadvantages of long guns Almost all long-arms have front grips (forearms) and shoulder stocks, which provides the user the ability to hold the firearm more steadily than a handgun. In addition, the long barrel of a long gun usually provides a longer sight plane for iron sights, providing the user with more precision when aiming. The presence of a stock makes the use of a telescopic sight or red dot sight more practical than with a hand gun. The mass of a long gun is usually greater than that of a short gun, reducting recoil and increasing weight and moment of inertia. Increased weight will make the long gun more expensive to transport, and more difficult and tiring to carry. The increased moment of inertia makes the long gun slower and more difficult to traverse and elevate, and it is thus slower and more difficult to adjust the aim. However, this also results in greater stability in aiming. The greater amount of material in a long gun tends to make it more expensive to manufacture, other factors being equal. The greater size makes it more difficult to conceal, and more inconvenient to use in confined quarters, as well as requiring a larger storage space. Shotguns are long guns that are designed to fire many small projectiles at once. This makes them very effective and easy to aim at close ranges, but with diminished usefulness at long range. Naval long guns In historical navy usage, a long gun was the standard type of cannon mounted by a sailing vessel, called such to distinguish it from the much shorter carronades. In informal usage, the length was combined with the weight of shot, yielding terms like "long 9s", referring to full length 9 pound cannons. See also Supergun Notes and references References | Long_gun |@lemmatized term:2 long:20 gun:17 use:3 describe:1 class:3 firearm:3 cannon:3 barrel:5 small:4 arm:5 design:2 fire:2 brace:1 shoulder:2 contrast:2 handgun:2 artillery:1 would:1 howitzer:1 carronade:1 actual:1 length:5 subject:1 various:2 law:1 many:2 jurisdiction:1 example:2 national:1 act:1 united:1 state:1 set:1 minimum:2 inch:4 cm:4 rifle:2 shotgun:2 canada:1 limit:2 either:1 addition:2 country:1 put:1 fireable:1 detachable:1 fold:1 stock:3 generally:1 consider:1 include:1 shotguns:1 musket:1 blunderbuss:1 carbines:1 wall:1 musketoons:1 advantage:1 disadvantage:1 almost:1 front:1 grip:1 forearm:1 provide:3 user:2 ability:1 hold:1 steadily:1 usually:2 longer:1 sight:4 plane:1 iron:1 precision:1 aim:4 presence:1 make:6 telescopic:1 red:1 dot:1 practical:1 hand:1 mass:1 great:4 short:2 reducting:1 recoil:1 increase:2 weight:3 moment:2 inertia:2 expensive:2 transport:1 difficult:4 tire:1 carry:1 increased:1 slow:2 traverse:1 elevate:1 thus:1 adjust:1 however:1 also:2 result:1 stability:1 amount:1 material:1 tend:1 manufacture:1 factor:1 equal:1 size:1 conceal:1 inconvenient:1 confined:1 quarter:1 well:1 require:1 large:1 storage:1 space:1 projectile:1 effective:1 easy:1 close:1 range:2 diminished:1 usefulness:1 naval:1 historical:1 navy:1 usage:2 standard:1 type:1 mount:1 sailing:1 vessel:1 call:1 distinguish:1 much:1 carronades:1 informal:1 combine:1 shot:1 yield:1 like:1 refer:1 full:1 pound:1 see:1 supergun:1 note:1 reference:2 |@bigram inch_cm:4 advantage_disadvantage:1 moment_inertia:2 sailing_vessel:1 |
4,144 | Coprophagia | A female Oriental Latrine Fly (Chrysomya megacephala) feeds on animal feces. Coprophagia is the consumption of feces, from the Greek κόπρος copros ("feces") and φαγεῖν phagein ("to eat"). Many animal species practice coprophagia as a matter of course; other species do not normally consume feces but may do so under unusual conditions. Coprophagia in animals Two Common Blue butterflies feast on a small lump of feces lying on a rock. A female Physiphora alceae feeding on feces in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Coprophagous insects consume and redigest the feces of large animals. These feces contain substantial amounts of semi-digested food (herbivores' digestive systems are especially inefficient). The most notable feces-eating insect is the dung-beetle and the most ubiquitous is the fly. Pigs, like the above insects, will eat the feces of herbivores that leave a significant amount of semidigested matter. In certain cultures it was common for poor families to collect horse feces to feed their pigs. Pigs are also known to eat their own feces and even human feces as well. However, domesticated pigs should not be allowed to eat any sort of feces, as this contributes to the risk of parasite infection. Perhaps for reasons associated with pigs' ready coprophagy, pork was scripturally banned as human food first in the Old Testament and then the Qur'an. Practicing Jews, Seventh Day Adventists and Muslims familiar with this behavior by pigs may cite it as an additional important reason why pork should not be eaten. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex ruminant digestive system. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft fecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten. Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the feces of their mother to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation found on the savanna and in the jungle. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from plants. Gorillas eat their own feces and the feces of other gorillas. Similar behavior has also been observed among Chimpanzees. Such behavior may serve to improve absorption of vitamins or of nutritive elements made available from the re-ingestion of seeds. Hamsters and chinchillas eat their own droppings, which are thought to be a source of vitamins B and K, produced by bacteria in the gut. Apes have been observed eating horse feces for the salt content. Monkeys have been observed eating elephant feces. Coprophagia also has been observed in the naked mole rat. Coprophagia in dogs Coprophagia is a behavior often observed in dogs. Hofmeister, Cumming, and Dhein (2001) wrote that this behavior in dogs has not been well-researched, and they are currently preparing a study. In a preliminary paper, they write that there are various hypotheses for this behavior in canines, although none have been proven: To obtain attention from their caretakers. From anxiety, stress, or upon being punished for bad behaviors. They had been punished for having defecated in the past, and attempt to clean up out of fear of being punished again. Because dogs are, by nature, scavengers, and this is within the range of scavenger behavior. To prevent the scent from attracting predators. Because the texture and temperature of fresh feces approximates that of regurgitated food, which is how mothers in the wild provide solid food to their pups. Because of the protein content of the feces (particularly cat feces), or over-feeding, leading to large concentrations of undigested matter in the feces. Due to assorted health problems, including: Pancreatitis Intestinal infections Food allergies, leading to mal-absorption Because they are hungry, such as when eating routines are changed, food is withheld, or nutrients are not properly absorbed. Carnivores may sometimes eat or roll in the feces of their prey to ingest and exude scents which mask their own. Another hypothesis is that dogs want to investigate the diet of their opponents and get more acquainted with their smell. Some veterinarians recommend adding meat tenderizer to dog food, as this makes the feces taste excessively bad to dogs. Several companies produce food additives that can also be added to the animal's food to make feces taste bad. Often, these food additives will contain Capsicum Oleoresin which gives off a repugnant odor making the fecal matter undesirable to the dog. Coprophagia in humans Sexual aspects Coprophagia is extremely uncommon in humans. A subset of coprophiles engage in this practice. Psychologists using the classification system of the DSM-IV would consider this to be a symptom of the paraphilia known as coprophilia. Coprophagia is also sometimes depicted in pornography, usually under the term "scat". The term "scat" is also frequently used to refer to the practice on online sites such as craigslist in the M4M section. Also, in some rare forms of pica, humans have been known to ingest fecal matter. Medical aspects From the medical literature, coprophagia has been observed in a small number of patients with dementia and/or schizophrenia Effective treatment of coprophagia in a patient with schizophrenia with the novel atypical antipsychotic drug perospirone and depression. Escalation of a fetish: coprophagia in a nonpsychotic adult of normal intelligence Consuming other people's feces carries the risk of contracting diseases spread through fecal matter, such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis E, pneumonia, polio, and influenza. Coprophagia also carries a risk of contracting intestinal parasites. Vaccinations are generally recommended for those who engage in this practice. Lewin (2001) reports that "... consumption of fresh, warm camel feces has been recommended by Bedouins as a remedy for bacterial dysentery; its efficacy (probably attributable to the antibiotic subtilisin from Bacillus subtilis) was confirmed by German soldiers in Africa during World War II." The introduction of foreign bacteria into the human GI tract via infusion of fecal enemas is, moreover, an established medical practice in cases of ulcerative colitis, especially where the patient's own intestinal flora has been badly depleted by antibiotic therapy applied for other maladies. Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis Using Fecal Bacteriotherapy Cultural aspects Kopi Luwak is a coffee made from coffee beans that have been ingested and excreted by the Asian Palm Civet. Punk musician and performance artist GG Allin often engaged in coprophagia during his performances. Divine was well known for his consumption of dog feces at the conclusion of Pink Flamingos. Adolescent prisoners of war are fed feces at a dinner banquet in one scene of the film Salò, another scene also has a man defecating and forcing a girl to eat his feces. Coprophagia came into recent spotlight after viral video 2 Girls 1 Cup spread on the internet in 2007. Serial killer Albert Fish was known to indulge on coprophagia, amongst other types of masochism. Notes References PMID 11600805 . Accessed November 17, 2005. PMID 8789509 External links King County, Washington, Animal Control Section. "Eating His Own or Other Animal Feces." Why Does My Dog Eat Feces? - Theresa A. Fuess, Ph.D, College of Vet Medicine Coprophagia: Effective Treatment for Dogs Eating Feces Coprophagia in the Canine - Erik Hofmeister; Melinda Cumming, DVM PhD; Cheryl Dhein, DVM, MS, DACVIM; Douglas Island Veterinary Service; detailed preliminary results of study of behavior and prevention in dogs Rat care guide Break.com - Video of Coprophagia by a Gorilla Yesterday's Food Will Become Tomorrow's Food Dr David Ryde MB BS FRCP | Coprophagia |@lemmatized female:2 oriental:1 latrine:1 fly:2 chrysomya:1 megacephala:1 feed:3 animal:7 feces:34 coprophagia:19 consumption:3 greek:1 κόπρος:1 copros:1 φαγεῖν:1 phagein:1 eat:16 many:1 specie:3 practice:5 matter:6 course:1 normally:1 consume:4 may:4 unusual:1 condition:1 two:1 common:2 blue:1 butterfly:1 feast:1 small:2 lump:1 lie:1 rock:1 physiphora:1 alceae:1 dar:1 e:2 salaam:1 tanzania:1 coprophagous:1 insect:3 redigest:1 large:2 contain:3 substantial:1 amount:2 semi:1 digest:3 food:14 herbivore:2 digestive:2 system:3 especially:2 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4,145 | Kaohsiung | Kaohsiung skyline at night Kaohsiung (; old names: Takao, Takow, Takau) is a city located in southwestern Taiwan. It is enclosed by the Kaohsiung County, and faces the Taiwan Strait on the west. As one of two Direct-controlled municipalities under the administration of Republic of China (ROC), Kaohsiung is officially named as the Kaohsiung City, a province-level political division. It is divided into eleven districts, each with an office. Kaohsiung is the most densely populated and the second largest city in Taiwan, with a population around 1.5 million. Welcome to Kaohsiung City - Statistics It is a center for manufacturing, refining, shipbuilding, and other light and heavy industries. A major port, through which pass most of Taiwan's marine imports and exports, is located at the city but is not managed by the city government. An international airport, the terminal of Sun Yat-sen Freeway, and the railway stations of Western Line and Taiwan High Speed Rail, are also located in Kaohsiung. The city is also a home to the Republic of China Navy. The Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit, a subway system of the city, was launched in early 2008. Kaohsiung will host the 2009 World Games, a multisport event primarily composed of sports not featured in the Olympic Games. History Founded near the end of the Ming Dynasty in the 17th century, the village was known as Takau (; POJ: Táⁿ-káu) in the Hoklo language spoken by most of the early immigrants. The name originates from the Makatao language of the local aboriginal tribe and translates as "bamboo forest". The Dutch established Fort Zeelandia in 1624 and defeated the local tribes in 1635. They called the place Tancoia. The Dutch were later expelled by the Kingdom of Tungning government founded by Ming Dynasty loyalists of Koxinga in 1662. Zheng Jing, the son of Koxinga, renamed the village Wannian Zhou () in 1664. The name was restored to Takau in the late 1670s, when the town expanded dramatically with immigrants from mainland China. In 1684 the Qing Dynasty annexed Taiwan and renamed the town Fengshan County (), considering it a part of Taiwan Prefecture. It was first opened as a port during the 1680s. In 1895, Taiwan was ceded to Japan as part of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. It was during this period that the city's name was changed from 打狗 (Taiwanese: Táⁿ-káu) to 高雄 (romaji: Takao). While the sound remained more or less the same, the literal meaning of the name changed from "Beating Dog" to "High Hero". The Japanese developed Takao, especially the harbour. An important military base and industry center, the city was heavily bombed by Task Force 38 and FEAF during 1944-1945. After control of Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China in 1945, the official romanization of the city name came to be "Kao-hsiung", based on the Wade-Giles romanization of the Standard Mandarin reading of the kanji name. What's in changing a name? Taiwan Journal Vol. XXVI No. 19 May 15, 2009 "...while name Kaohsiung is technically the Mandarin pronunciation of the Japanese written version of a Holo Taiwanese rendition of an old aboriginal name..." Kaohsiung was upgraded to a municipality on July 1, 1979, by the Executive Yuan, which approved this proposal on November 19, 1978. The Kaohsiung Incident took place in Kaohsiung on December 10, 1979. Geography Streets in Kaohsiung Kaohsiung is located south of the Tropic of Cancer. The climate is tropical with average temperatures ranging from between 18.6 and 28.7 degrees Celsius, and average humidity between 60 and 81%. Average annual rainfall is 1134 mm. The city sits on the southwestern coast of Taiwan facing the Taiwan Strait. The downtown areas are centered around Kaohsiung Harbor with the island of Cijin on the other side of the harbor acting as a natural breakwater. The Love River (or Ai River) flows into the harbor through the Old City and downtown. Zuoying Military Harbor lies to the north of Kaohsiung Harbor and the city center. Kaohsiung's natural landmarks include the coral mountains Ape Hill, Shoushan and Banpingshan. Government Politics Tuntex Sky Tower at night Liouho Night Market Kaohsiung is sometimes seen as the political mirror image of Taipei. While northern Taiwan leans towards the Pan-Blue Coalition in the state-level elections, southern Taiwan leaned towards the Pan-Green Coalition since late 1990s, and Kaohsiung is no exception. Frank Hsieh of the Democratic Progressive Party was reelected twice as Mayor of Kaohsiung, where he was widely credited for transforming the city from an industrial sprawl into an attractive modern metropolis. Hsieh resigned from the office of mayor to take up the office of Premier of the Republic of China in 2005. The last municipal election, held on December 9, 2006, resulted in a victory for the Democratic Progressive Party's candidate Chen Chu, the first elected female mayor of direct-controlled municipalities in Taiwan, defeating her Kuomintang rival and former deputy mayor, Huang Chun-ying. Subdivisions The gate of Kaohsiung Harbor Kaohsiung Li De Baseball Stadium Kaohsiung has 11 districts (區 Cu):DistrictPopulationLand area Hanyu Pinyin Hanzi as of 2009 km²■ Nanzih District楠梓區170,83025.8276■ Zuoying District左營區188,97219.3888■ Gushan District鼓山區126,54714.7458■ Sanmin District三民區355,89919.7866■ Lingya District苓雅區186,2408.1522■ Sinsing District新興區56,6381.9764■ Cianjin District前金區29,6671.8573■ Yancheng District, Kaohsiung鹽埕區28,0211.4161■ Cianjhen District前鎮區200,63319.1207■ Cijin District旗津區29,8641.4639■ Siaogang District小港區153,28339.8573 Two islands in the South China Sea are administered by Kaohsiung City as parts of Cijin District: Taiping (island) () Dongsha Islands or Pratas Islands () Economy Intensive settlement began in earnest in the late 17th century, when the place was known as Ch'i-hou. Opened in 1863 as a treaty port, subsidiary to the port of Anping farther north on the coast, Kaohsiung became a customs station in 1864 and then gradually became an important port for the southern Taiwan coastal plain. Kaohsiung's real economic and strategic importance began under the Japanese occupation (1895–1945). The Japanese needed a good port in southern Taiwan to serve those designated areas that were to become a major source of raw materials and food for Japan, and Kaohsiung was chosen. It became the southern terminus of the main north-south railway line, and from 1904 to 1907 extensive harbor works were undertaken. In 1920 the port was given the name Takao and the area became a municipality in 1920. Before and during World War II it handled a growing share of Taiwan's agricultural exports to Japan, and was also a major base for Japan's campaigns in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, and extremely ambitious plans for the construction of a massive modern port were drawn up. At the same time, it handled a growing share of Taiwan's agricultural exports to Japan. Toward the end of the war, too, the Japanese promoted some industrial development at Kaohsiung, establishing an aluminum industry based on the abundant hydroelectric power produced by the Jih-Yueh Lake project in the mountains. After it came under Chinese administration in 1945, Kaohsiung developed rapidly. The port, badly damaged in World War II, was restored. It also became a fishing port for boats sailing to Philippine and Indonesian waters. Largely because of its climate, Kaohsiung has overtaken Keelung as Taiwan's major port. Today as a major international port and industrial city in the southwest of the country, Kaohsiung is the most rapidly developing urban center of Taiwan. With an area of 154 km2, it has a large natural harbor, with the entrance in recent years being expanded, rock-excavated, and dredged. As an exporting center, Kaohsiung serves the rich agricultural interior of southern Taiwan, as well as the mountains of the southeast. Major raw material exports include rice, sugar, bananas, pineapples, peanuts (groundnuts), and citrus fruits. The 2,200 hectare Linhai Industrial Park, on the waterfront, was completed in the mid-1970s and includes a steel mill, shipyard, petrochemical complex, and other industries. The city has a petroleum refinery, aluminum and cement works, fertilizer factories, sugar refineries, brick and tile works, and salt-manufacturing and papermaking plants. Designated an export-processing zone in the late 1970s, Kaohsiung has succeeded in attracting foreign investment to process locally purchased raw materials for export. There is also a large canning industry that processes both fruit and fish. Transportation Container depot and docks, Port of Kaohsiung Port of Kaohsiung Also known as the "Harbor Capital" of Taiwan, Kaohsiung has always had a strong link with the ocean and maritime transportation. Ferries play a key role in everyday transportation, and often play the role that buses do in other cities, especially for transportation across the harbor. With five terminals and 23 berths, the Port of Kaohsiung is Taiwan's largest container port and the 6th largest in the world. In 2007 the port reached its handling capacity with a record trade volume of . A new container terminal is under construction, increasing future handling capacity by by 2013. The Port of Kaohsiung is not officially a part of Kaohsiung City, instead it is administrated by Kaohsiung Port Authority, under Ministry of Transportation. There is a push for Kaohsiung City to annex the Port of Kaohsiung in order to facilitate better regional planning. Kaohsiung International Airport Kaohsiung City is also home to Taiwan's second largest airport, the Kaohsiung International Airport, which is located in the Siaogang District in southern Kaohsiung City. Rapid Transit The World Games Station of Kaohsiung MRT. A new metro system, the Kaohsiung Rapid Transit System opened for revenue service in March 2008. A light rail line that circles central Kaohsiung City was also approved in 2007. In 2004, the Kaohsiung City Government and Siemens AG built a temporary two-station circular light rail line, along with one trainset, in Central Park, in order to demonstrate the feasibility of building a light rail system in Kaohsiung City. It was meant to alleviate some residents' concerns, such as producing excessive noise and hindering normal traffic flow, that light rail would negatively impact their surroundings. This Siemens Combino vehicle was later used as part of the defunct M>Tram network in Melbourne, later transferring to Yarra Trams. Railroad The city is served by the Taiwan Railway Administration's Western Line and Pingtung Line. Taiwan High Speed Rail also serves Kaohsiung City via its new Zuoying Station in northern Kaohsiung City. Future plans include extending high speed rail to the new Kaohsiung Station in the city center. The new Kaohsiung Station will be an underground station, replacing the current surface station. Additionally, these two stations will also be served by Red line of Kaohsiung Rapid Transit System when the line opened for revenue service in early 2008. Attractions Sailboats on the Love River Love River (愛河) Urban Spotlight Arcade (城市光廊) Tuntex Sky Tower (東帝士85國際廣場) Kaohsiung World Games Main Stadium (高雄世運會主場館) Liuhe Night Market (六合夜市) Zuoying's Lotus Lake (左營蓮池潭) Kaohsiung Museum of Fine Arts (高雄市立美術館) Cihou Battery (旗後砲台) Cijin Ferry (旗津渡輪) Fengshan Old City (鳳山舊城) Chai Mountain (柴山) Ban Ping Mountain (半屏山) Shou Shan Zoo (壽山動物園) Former British Consulate at Takao (前清英國領事館) Holy Rosary Cathedral (前金天主堂) National Science and Technology Museum (國立科學工藝博物館) Kaohsiung Museum of History (高雄市立歷史博物館) Old Kaohsiung Railway Station (台鐵舊高雄車站) Siziwan Scenic Area (西子灣風景區) Kaohsiung Astronomical Museum (高雄市立天文教育館) Kaohsiung Hakka Cultural Museum (高雄市客家文物館) Chang-Gu World Trade Center (長谷世貿大樓) Tower of Light (光之塔) Singuang Ferry Wharf （新光碼頭) True Love Ferry Pier (真愛碼頭) Kaohsiung Fisherman's Wharf (高雄港漁人碼頭) Sinsing Night Market (新興夜市) Education Entrance to the pedestrian underpass that leads to National Sun Yat-sen University Kaohsiung has a number of colleges and junior colleges offering training in commerce, education, maritime technology, medicine, modern languages, nursing, and technology. Kaohsiung Medical University (高雄醫學大學) National Sun Yat-sen University (國立中山大學) National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology (國立高雄科技大學) National Kaohsiung Normal University (國立高雄師範大學) National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences (國立高雄應用科技大學) National University of Kaohsiung (國立高雄大學) National Kaohsiung Marine University (國立高雄海洋科技大學) National Kaohsiung Hospitality College (國立高雄餐旅學院) Municipal Kaohsiung Senior High School (高雄市立高雄高級中學) Municipal Kaohsiung Girls' Senior High School (高雄市立女子高級中學) Kaohsiung American School （美國學校） Wenzao Ursuline College of Languages (文藻外語學院) Sister cities Holy Rosary Cathedral Kaohsiung Confucius Temple Honolulu, United States Macon, United States Tulsa, United States Colorado Springs, United States Miami, United States San Antonio, United States Seattle, United States Knoxville, United States Plains, United States Pensacola, United States Mobile, United States Little Rock, United States Portland, United States Busan, South Korea Cebu, Philippines Danang, Vietnam Barranquilla, Colombia Cartago, Costa Rica Durban, South Africa Blantyre, Malawi Brisbane, Australia See also Taipei City List of cities in the Republic of China (Taiwan) Administrative divisions of the Republic of China References External links Kaohsiung City Government official website Kaohsiung City Government official website | Kaohsiung |@lemmatized kaohsiung:79 skyline:1 night:5 old:5 name:12 takao:5 takow:1 takau:3 city:36 locate:5 southwestern:2 taiwan:28 enclose:1 county:2 face:2 strait:2 west:1 one:2 two:4 direct:2 control:3 municipality:4 administration:3 republic:6 china:8 roc:1 officially:2 province:1 level:2 political:2 division:2 divide:1 eleven:1 district:5 office:3 densely:1 populated:1 second:2 large:6 population:1 around:2 million:1 welcome:1 statistic:1 center:8 manufacturing:2 refining:1 shipbuilding:1 light:6 heavy:1 industry:5 major:6 port:20 pass:1 marine:2 import:1 export:6 manage:1 government:6 international:4 airport:4 terminal:3 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military:2 base:4 heavily:1 bomb:1 task:1 force:1 feaf:1 hand:1 official:3 romanization:2 come:2 kao:1 hsiung:1 wade:1 giles:1 standard:1 mandarin:2 reading:1 kanji:1 journal:1 vol:1 xxvi:1 may:1 technically:1 pronunciation:1 write:1 version:1 holo:1 rendition:1 upgrade:1 july:1 executive:1 yuan:1 approve:2 proposal:1 november:1 incident:1 take:2 december:2 geography:1 street:1 south:5 tropic:1 cancer:1 climate:2 tropical:1 average:3 temperature:1 range:1 degree:1 celsius:1 humidity:1 annual:1 rainfall:1 mm:1 sit:1 coast:2 downtown:2 area:6 harbor:10 island:5 cijin:4 side:1 act:1 natural:3 breakwater:1 love:4 river:4 ai:1 flow:2 zuoying:4 lie:1 north:3 landmark:1 include:4 coral:1 mountain:5 ape:1 hill:1 shoushan:1 banpingshan:1 politics:1 tuntex:2 sky:2 tower:3 liouho:1 market:3 sometimes:1 see:2 mirror:1 image:1 taipei:2 northern:2 lean:2 towards:2 pan:2 blue:1 coalition:2 state:14 election:2 southern:6 green:1 since:1 exception:1 frank:1 hsieh:2 democratic:2 progressive:2 party:2 reelect:1 twice:1 mayor:4 widely:1 credit:1 transform:1 industrial:4 sprawl:1 attractive:1 modern:3 metropolis:1 resign:1 premier:1 last:1 municipal:3 hold:1 result:1 victory:1 candidate:1 chen:1 chu:1 elect:1 female:1 kuomintang:1 rival:1 former:2 deputy:1 huang:1 chun:1 ying:1 subdivision:1 gate:1 li:1 de:1 baseball:1 stadium:2 區:1 cu:1 districtpopulationland:1 hanyu:1 pinyin:1 hanzi:1 nanzih:1 gushan:1 sanmin:1 lingya:1 sin:2 cianjin:1 yancheng:1 cianjhen:1 siaogang:2 sea:1 administer:1 taiping:1 dongsha:1 pratas:1 economy:1 intensive:1 settlement:1 begin:2 earnest:1 ch:1 hou:1 subsidiary:1 anping:1 farther:1 become:6 custom:1 gradually:1 coastal:1 plain:2 real:1 economic:1 strategic:1 importance:1 occupation:1 need:1 good:2 serve:5 designate:2 source:1 raw:3 material:3 food:1 choose:1 terminus:1 main:2 extensive:1 work:3 undertaken:1 give:1 war:3 ii:2 handle:3 grow:2 share:2 agricultural:3 campaign:1 southeast:2 asia:1 pacific:1 extremely:1 ambitious:1 plan:2 construction:2 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4,146 | Jewish_prayer | Jewish services (, tefillah ; plural תפלות, tefillos or tefillot ; Yinglish: davening) are the prayer recitations that form part of the observance of Judaism. These prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in the siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book. Traditionally, three prayer services are recited daily: Shacharit, from the Hebrew shachar, "morning light," Mincha or Minha, the afternoon prayers named for the flour offering that accompanied sacrifices at the Temple in Jerusalem, and Arbith also called Arvit or Ma'ariv , from "nightfall." Additional prayers called Musaf ("additional") are recited by Sephardic, Mizrahi, Orthodox and Conservative congregations on Shabbat and on major Jewish holidays. A fifth prayer service, Ne'ilah ("closing"), is recited only on Yom Kippur. According to the Talmud, prayer is a Biblical commandment Tractate Taanit 2a, in reference to (: "You shall serve God with your whole heart. and the Talmud gives two reasons why there are three basic prayers: to recall the three daily sacrifices at the Temple in Jerusalem, and/or because each of the Patriarchs instituted one prayer: Abraham the morning, Isaac the afternoon and Jacob the evening. Tractate Berachoth 26b: the morning sacrifice Tamid, the afternoon Tamid, and the overnight burning of the afternoon offering. The latter view is supported with Biblical quotes indicating that the Patriarchs prayed at the times mentioned. However, even according to this view, the exact times of when the services are held, and moreover the entire concept of a mussaf service, are still based on the sacrifices. A distinction is made between individual prayer and communal prayer, which requires a quorum known as a minyan, with communal prayer being preferable as it permits the inclusion of prayers that otherwise must be omitted. Maimonides (1135–1204 CE) relates that until the Babylonian exile (586 BCE), all Jews composed their own prayers, but thereafter the sages of the Great Assembly composed the main portions of the siddur. Mishneh Torah, Laws of Prayer 1:4 Modern scholarship dating from the Wissenschaft des Judentums movement of 19th Century Germany, as well as textual analysis influenced by the 20th Century discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, suggests that dating from this period there existed "liturgical formulations of a communal nature designated for particular occasions and conducted in a centre totally independent of Jerusalem and the Temple, making use of terminology and theological concepts that were later to become dominant in Jewish and, in some cases, Christian prayer." The language of the prayers, while clearly from the Second Temple period (516 BCE–70 CE), often employs Biblical idiom. Jewish prayerbooks emerged during the early Middle Ages during the period of the Geonim of Babylonia (6th–11th Centuries CE) Over the last two thousand years variations have emerged among the traditional liturgical customs of different Jewish communities, such as Ashkenazic, Sephardic, Yemenite, Hassidic, and others, however the differences are minor compared with the commonalities. Most of the Jewish liturgy is sung or chanted with traditional melodies or trope. Synagogues may designate or employ a professional or lay hazzan (cantor) for the purpose of leading the congregation in prayer, especially on Shabbat or holidays. Origin and History of Jewish Prayer Biblical origin According to the Talmud (tractate Taanit 2a), prayer is a Biblical command: "'You shall serve God with your whole heart.' () What service is performed with the heart? This is prayer." The prayers are therefore referred to as Avodah sheba-Lev ("service that is in the heart"). The noted rabbi Maimonides likewise categorizes prayer as a Biblical command, Mishneh Torah, Laws of Prayer 1:1. but believed that the number of prayers and their times are not. The Talmud (tractate Berachoth 26b) gives two reasons why there are three basic prayers: Each service was instituted parallel to a sacrificial act in the Temple in Jerusalem: the morning Tamid offering, the afternoon Tamid, and the overnight burning of this last offering. According to one sage, each of the Patriarchs instituted one prayer: Abraham the morning, Isaac the afternoon and Jacob the evening prayers. This view is supported with Biblical quotes indicating that the Patriarchs prayed at the times mentioned. However, even according to this view, the exact times of when the services are held, and moreover the entire concept of a mussaf service, are still based on the sacrifices. Additional Biblical references suggest that King David and the prophet Daniel prayed three times a day. In Psalms, David states: "Evening, morning and afternoon do I pray and cry, and He will hear my voice" (). As in Daniel: "[...] his windows being open in his chamber toward Jerusalem, he kneeled upon his knees three times a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he had done before" (). Orthodox Judaism regards halakha (Jewish law) as requiring Jewish men to pray three times daily and four times daily on the Sabbath and most Jewish holidays, and five times on Yom Kippur. Orthodox Jewish women are required to pray at least daily, with no specific time requirement, but the system of multiple daily prayer services is regarded as optional. This view is based on Maimonides' view as above. Conservative Judaism also regards the halakhic system of multiple daily services as mandatory. Since 2002, Conservative Jewish women have been regarded as having undertaken a communal obligation to pray the same prayers at the same times as men, with traditionalist communities and individual women permitted to opt out. Rabbi David Fine, Women and the Minyan, Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. . Reform and Reconstructionist congregations do not regard halakha as binding and hence regard appropriate prayer times as matters of personal spiritual decision rather than a matter of religious requirement. Text and language According to halakha, all individual prayers and virtually all communal prayers may be said in any language that the person praying understands. For example, the Mishnah mentions that the Shema need not be said in Hebrew Berakhot 2:3 A list of prayers that must be said in Hebrew is given in the Mishna, Sotah 7:2 and among these only the Priestly Blessing is in use today, as the others are prayers that are to be said only in a Temple in Jerusalem, by a priest, or by a reigning King. Despite this, the tradition of most Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogues is to use Hebrew (usually Ashkenazi Hebrew) for all except a small number of prayers, including the Kaddish, which had always been in Aramaic, and sermons and instructions, for which the local language is used. In other streams of Judaism there is considerable variability: Sephardic communities may use Ladino or Portuguese for many prayers; Conservative synagogues tend to use the local language to a varying degree; and at some Reform synagogues almost the whole service may be in the local language. Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Laws of Prayer 1:4) relates that until the Babylonian exile, all Jews composed their own prayers. After the exile, however, the sages of the time (united in the Great Assembly) found the ability of the people insufficient to continue the practice, and they composed the main portions of the siddur, such as the Amidah. The origins of modern Jewish prayer were established during the period of the Tannaim, "from their traditions, later committed to writing, we learn that the generation of rabbis active at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple (70 C.E.) gave Jewish prayer its structure and, in outline form at least, its contents." This liturgy included the twice-daily recitation of the Shema, the Amidah, or Shmoneh Esrei, including 18 blessings recited several times daily, and the public recitation of the Torah in installments. The oldest prayer books date from the time of the Geonim of Babylonia; "some were composed by respected rabbinic scholars at the request of far-flung communities seeking an authoritative text of the required prayers for daily use, Shabbat, and holidays." The language of the prayers, while clearly being from the Second Temple period, often employs Biblical idiom, and according to some authorities it should not contain rabbinic or Mishnaic idiom apart from in the sections of Mishnah that are featured (see Baer). Over the last two thousand years, the various streams of Jews have resulted in small variations in the traditional liturgy customs among different Jewish communities, with each community having a slightly different Nusach (customary liturgy). The principal difference is between Ashkenazic and Sephardic customs, although there are other communities (e.g. Yemenite Jews), and Hassidic and other communities also have distinct customs, variations, and special prayers. The differences are quite minor compared with the commonalities. The siddur The earliest parts of Jewish prayer are the Shema Yisrael ("Hear O Israel") (Deuteronomy 6:4 et seq), and the Priestly Blessing (Numbers 6:24-26), which are in the Torah. A set of eighteen (currently nineteen) blessings called the Shemoneh Esreh or the Amidah (Hebrew, "standing [prayer]"), is traditionally ascribed to the Great Assembly in the time of Ezra, at the end of the Biblical period. The name Shemoneh Esreh, literally "eighteen", is an historical anachronism, since it now contains nineteen blessings. It was only near the end of the Second Temple period that the eighteen prayers of the weekday Amidah became standardized. Even at that time their precise wording and order was not yet fixed, and varied from locale to locale. Many modern scholars believe that parts of the Amidah came from the Hebrew apocryphal work Ben Sira. According to the Talmud, soon after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem a formal version of the Amidah was adopted at a rabbinical council in Yavne, under the leadership of Rabban Gamaliel II and his colleagues. However, the precise wording was still left open. The order, general ideas, opening and closing lines were fixed. Most of the wording was left to the individual reader. It was not until several centuries later that the prayers began to be formally fixed. By the Middle Ages the texts of the prayers were nearly fixed, and in the form in which they are still used today. The siddur was printed by Soncino in Italy as early as 1486, though a siddur was first mass-distributed only in 1865. The siddur began appearing in the vernacular as early as 1538. The first English translation, by Gamaliel ben Pedahzur (a pseudonym), appeared in London in 1738; a different translation was released in the United states in 1837. Power and Politics: Prayer books and resurrection | Jerusalem Post Readings from the Torah (five books of Moses) and the Nevi'im ("Prophets") form part of the prayer services. To this framework various Jewish sages added, from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns. The earliest existing codification of the prayerbook was drawn up by Rav Amram Gaon of Sura, Babylon, about 850 CE. Half a century later Rav Saadia Gaon, also of Sura, composed a siddur, in which the rubrical matter is in Arabic. These were the basis of Simcha ben Samuel's Machzor Vitry (11th century France), which was based on the ideas of his teacher, Rashi. Another formulation of the prayers was that appended by Maimonides to the laws of prayer in his Mishneh Torah: this forms the basis of the Yemenite liturgy, and has had some influence on other rites. From this point forward all Jewish prayerbooks had the same basic order and contents. Denominational variations Conservative services generally use the same basic format for services as in Orthodox Judaism with some doctrinal leniencies and some prayers in English. In practice there is wide variation among Conservative congregations. In traditionalist congregations the liturgy can be almost identical to that of Orthodox Judaism, almost entirely in Hebrew (and Aramaic), with a few minor exceptions, including excision of a study session on Temple sacrifices, and modifications of prayers for the restoration of the sacrificial system. In more liberal Conservative synagogues there are greater changes to the service, with 20% to 50% of the service in English, abbreviation or omission of many of the preparatory prayers, and the replacement of some traditional prayers with more contemporary forms. There are often also additional changes for doctrinal reasons, including more egalitarian language, additional excisions of references to the Temple in Jerusalem and sacrifices, elimination of special roles for Kohanim and Levites, etc. Reform and Reconstructionist use a format which is based on traditional elements, but contains language more reflective of liberal belief than the traditional liturgy. Doctrinal revisions which may vary from congregation to congregation but generally include revising or omitting references to traditional doctrines such as bodily resurrection, a personal Jewish Messiah, and other elements of traditional Jewish eschatology, Divine revelation of the Torah at Mount Sinai, angels, conceptions of reward and punishment, and other personal miraculous and supernatural elements. Services are often from 40% to 90% in the vernacular. Reform Judaism has made greater alterations to the traditional service in accord with its more liberal theology including dropping references to traditional elements of Jewish eschatology such as a personal Messiah, a bodily resurrection of the dead, and others. The Hebrew portion of the service is substantially abbreviated and modernized and modern prayers substituted for traditional ones. In addition, in keeping with their view that the laws of Shabbat (including a traditional prohibition on playing instruments) are inapplicable to modern circumstances, Reform services often play instrumental or recorded music with prayers on the Jewish Sabbath. All Reform synagogues are Egalitarian with respect to gender roles. Philosophy of prayer In Jewish philosophy and in Rabbinic literature, it is noted that the Hebrew verb for prayer—hitpallel התפלל—is in fact the reflexive form of palal פלל, to judge. Thus, “to pray” conveys the notion of “judging oneself”: This interpretation is homiletic rather than scholarly, as it is historically more likely that the root meaning of hitpallel is "to seek judgement for oneself", in other words to present a legal pleading. ultimately, the purpose of prayer—tefilah תפלה—is to transform ourselves . This etymology is consistent with the Jewish conception of Divine simplicity. It is not God that changes through our prayer—Man does not influence God as a defendant influences a human judge who has emotions and is subject to change—rather it is man himself who is changed . It is further consistent with Maimonides' view on Divine Providence. Here, Tefillah is the medium which God gave to man by means of which he can change himself, and thereby establish a new relationship with God—and thus a new destiny for himself in life ; see also under Psalms. The rationalist approach In this view, ultimate goal of prayer is to help train a person to focus on divinity through philosophy and intellectual contemplation. This approach was taken by Maimonides and the other medieval rationalists The educational approach In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, it is meant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, but not to influence. This has been the approach of Rabbenu Bachya, Yehuda Halevy, Joseph Albo, Samson Raphael Hirsch, and Joseph Dov Soloveitchik. This view is expressed by Rabbi Nosson Scherman in the overview to the Artscroll Siddur (p.XIII); note that Scherman goes on to also affirm the Kabbalistic view (see below). Kabbalistic view Kabbalah (esoteric Jewish mysticism) uses a series of kavanot, directions of intent, to specify the path the prayer ascends in the dialog with God, to increases its chances of being answered favorably. Kabbalists ascribes a higher meaning to the purpose of prayer, which is no less than affecting the very fabric of reality itself, restructuring and repairing the universe in a real fashion. In this view, every word of every prayer, and indeed, even every letter of every word, has a precise meaning and a precise effect. Prayers thus literally affect the mystical forces of the universe, and repair the fabric of creation. This approach has been taken by the Chassidei Ashkenaz (German pietists of the Middle-Ages), the Zohar, the Arizal's Kabbalist tradition, the Ramchal, most of Hassidism, the Vilna Gaon and Jacob Emden. Methodology and terminology Terms for praying Daven is the originally exclusively Eastern Yiddish verb meaning "pray"; it is widely used by Ashkenazic Orthodox Jews. In Yinglish, this has become the Anglicised davening. The origin of the word is obscure, but is thought by some to have come from Middle French divin (short for office divin, Divine service) and by others to be derived from a Slavic word meaning "to give" (, davat') . Others claim that it originates from an Aramaic word, "de'avoohon" or "d'avinun", meaning "of their/our forefathers", as the three prayers are said to have been invented by Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. In Western Yiddish, the term for "pray" is oren, a word with clear roots in Romance languages—compare Spanish and Portuguese orar and Latin orare. Minyan (Quorum) Individual prayer is considered acceptable, but prayer with a quorum of ten adults (a minyan) is considered "prayer with the community", and this is the most highly recommended form of prayer. An adult in this context means over the age of 13 (bar mitzvah). Judaism has traditionally counted only men in the minyan for formal prayer, on the basis that one does not count someone who is not obligated to participate. Since 1973, many Conservative congregations have begun to count women in the minyan as well, although the determination of whether or not to do so is left to the individual congregation. Those Reform and Reconstructionist congregations that consider a minyan mandatory for communal prayer, count both men and women for a minyan. In Orthodox Judaism, according to some authorities, women can count in the minyan for certain specific prayers, such as the Birchot HaGomel blessing, which both men and women are obligated to say publicly. Various sources encourage a congregrant to pray in a fixed place in the synagogue (מקום קבוע, maqom qavua). Attire Head covering. In most synagogues, it is considered a sign of respect for male attendees to wear a head covering, either a dress hat or a kippa (skull cap, plural kipot). It is common practice for both Jews and non-Jews who attend a synagogue to wear a head covering. International Council of Christians and Jews, Jewish-Christian Relations :: A glossary of terms used in the Christian-Jewish dialogue, "Non-Jewish male visitors to the synagogue are offered skull caps at the entrance and are asked to wear them." Rabbi Amy R. Scheinerman, Who? and What? in the Synagogue, "Non-Jews who are guests in a synagogue can cover their heads; it is a sign of respect and not at all inappropriate for people who are not Jewish." Some Conservative synagogues also encourage (but rarely require) women to cover their heads. Many Reform and Progressive temples do not require people to cover their heads, although individual worshippers, both men and women, may choose to. Many Orthodox men wear a head covering throughout their day, even when not attending religious services. Tallit (prayer shawl) is traditionally worn during all morning services, during Aliyah to the Torah, as well as the Kol Nidre service of Yom Kippur. In Orthodox synagogues they are expected to be worn only by men who are halakhically Jewish and in Conservative synagogues they should be worn only by men and women who are halakhically Jewish. Tzeniut (modesty) applies to men and women. When attending Orthodox synagogues, women will likely be expected to wear long sleeves (past the elbows), long skirts (past the knees), a high neckline (to the collar bone), and if married, to cover their hair. For men, short pants or sleeveless shirts are generally regarded as inappropriate. In some Conservative and Reform synagogues the dress code may be more lax, but still respectful. Daily prayers Shacharit (morning prayers) The Shacharit (from shachar, morning light) prayer is recited in the morning. Halacha limits parts of its recitation to the first three (Shema) or four (Amidah) hours of the day, where "hours" are 1/12 of daylight time, making these times dependent on the season. Various prayers are said upon arising; the talis koton (a garment with tzitzit) is donned at this time. The tallit (large prayer shawl) is donned before or during the actual prayer service, as are the tefillin (phylacteries); both are accompanied by blessings. The service starts with the "morning blessings" (birkot ha-shachar), including blessings for the Torah (considered the most important ones). In Orthodox services this is followed by a series of readings from Biblical and rabbinic writings recalling the offerings made in the Temple in Jerusalem. The section concludes with the "Rabbis' Kaddish" (kaddish de-rabbanan). The next section of morning prayers is called Pesukei D'Zimrah ("verses of praise"), containing several psalms (100 and 145–150), and prayers (such as yehi chevod) made from a tapestry of Biblical verses, followed by the Song at the Sea (Exodus, chapters and ). Barechu, the formal public call to prayer, introduces a series of expanded blessings embracing the recitation of the Shema. This is followed by the core of the prayer service, the Amidah or Shemoneh Esreh, a series of 19 blessings. The next part of the service, is Tachanun, supplications, which is omitted on days with a festive character (and by Reform services usually entirely). On Mondays and Thursdays a Torah reading service is inserted, and a longer version of Tachanun takes place. Concluding prayers (see U-Ba Le-Tzion) and Aleinu then follow, with the Kaddish of the mourners generally after Aleinu. Mincha (afternoon prayers) Mincha or Minha(derived from the flour offering that accompanied each sacrifice) may be recited from half an hour after halachic noontime. This earliest time is referred to as mincha gedola (the "large mincha"). It is, however, preferably recited after mincha ketana (2.5 halachic hours before nightfall On another view, before sunset ). Ideally, one should complete the prayers before sunset, although many authorities permit reciting Mincha until nightfall. Sephardim and Italian Jews start the Minha prayers with Psalm 84 and Korbanot (), and usually continue with the Pittum hakketoret. The opening section is concluded with . Western Ashkenazim recite the Korbanot only. Ashrei, containing verses from Psalms , and the entire , is recited, immediately followed by Chatzi Kaddish (half-Kaddish) and the Shemoneh Esreh (or Amidah). This is followed by Tachanun, supplications, and then the full Kaddish. Sephardim insert Psalm or , followed by the Mourner's Kaddish. After this follows, in most modern rites, the Aleinu. Ashkenazim then conclude with the Mourner's Kaddish. On Tisha B'Av, tallit and tefillin are worn during Mincha. Service leaders often wear a tallit even on normal days, and must wear one during Jewish fast days. Ma'ariv/Arvit/Arbith (evening prayers) In many congregations, the afternoon and evening prayers are recited back-to-back on a working day, to save people having to attend synagogue twice. In strict law, one should only recite Mincha between sunset and nightfall if one recites Arvit after nightfall; conversely one should only recite Arvit between sunset and nightfall if one recites Mincha before sunset; in other words one should not take advantage of both flexibilities at once so as to combine the prayers. The prevailing practice, of doing exactly that, is regarded as an emergency measure. On yet another view, the disputed period is not that between sunset and nightfall but the last seasonally adjusted hour and a quarter before sunset. The Vilna Gaon discouraged this practice, and followers of his set of customs commonly wait until after nightfall to recite Ma'ariv (the name derives from the word "nightfall"). One reason for this is that, while the prevailing practice may satisfy the law concerning the timing of Arvit in the sense of the evening Amidah, it means that the evening Shema is recited too early. This service begins with the Barechu, the formal public call to prayer, and Shema Yisrael embraced by two benedictions before and two after. Ashkenazim outside of Israel (except Chabad-Lubavitch and followers of the Vilna Gaon) then add another blessing (Baruch Adonai le-Olam), which is made from a tapestry of biblical verses. (This prayer is also said by Baladi Temanim in and out of Israel.) This is followed by the Half-Kaddish, and the Shemoneh Esreh (Amidah), bracketed with the full Kaddish. Sephardim then say Psalm 121, say the Mourner's Kaddish, and repeat Barechu before concluding with the Aleinu. Ashkenazim, in the diaspora, do neither say Psalm 121 nor repeat Barechu, but conclude with Aleinu followed by the Mourner's Kaddish (in Israel, Ashkenazim do repeat Barcheu after mourner's Kaddish). Prayer on Shabbat (Sabbath) Friday night Shabbat services begin on Friday evening with the weekday Mincha (see above), followed in some communities by the Song of Songs, and then in most communities by the Kabbalat Shabbat, the mystical prelude to Shabbat services composed by 16th century Kabbalists. This Hebrew term literally means "Receiving the Sabbath". In many communities, the piyut Yedid Nefesh introduces the Kabbalat Shabbat prayers. Kabbalat Shabbat is, except for amongst many Italian and Spanish and Portuguese Jews, composed of six psalms, to , and , representing the six week-days. Next comes the poem Lekha Dodi. Composed by Rabbi Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz in the mid-1500s, it is based on the words of the Talmudic sage Hanina: "Come, let us go out to meet the Queen Sabbath" (Talmud Shabbat 119a). Kabbalat Shabbat is concluded by (the recital of which constitutes men's acceptance of the current Shabbat with all its obligations) and . Many add a study section here, including Bameh Madlikin and Amar rabbi El'azar and the concluding Kaddish deRabbanan and is then followed by the Maariv service; other communities delay the study session until after Maariv. Still other customs add here a passage from the Zohar. The Shema section of the Friday night service varies in some details from the weekday services—mainly in the different ending of the Hashkivenu prayer and the omission of Baruch Adonai le-Olam prayer in those traditions where this section is otherwise recited. In the Italian rite, there are also different versions of the Ma'ariv 'aravim prayer (beginning asher killah on Friday nights) and the Ahavat 'olam prayer. Most commemorate the Shabbat at this point with VeShameru (). The custom to recite the biblical passage at this point has its origins in the Lurianic Kabbalah, and does not appear before the 16th century. It is therefore absent in traditions and prayer books less influenced by the Kabbalah (such as the Yemenite Baladi tradition), or those that opposed adding additional readings to the siddur based upon the Kabbalah (such the Vilna Gaon). The Amidah on Shabbat is abbreviated, and is read in full once. This is then followed by the hazzan's mini-repetition of the Amidah, Magen Avot, a digest of the seven benedictions. In some Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogues the second chapter of Mishnah tractate Shabbat, Bameh Madlikin, is read at this point, instead of earlier. Kiddush is recited in the synagogue in Ashkenazi and a few Sephardi communities. The service then follows with Aleinu. Most Sephardi and many Ashkenazi synagogues end with the singing of Yigdal, a poetic adaptation of Maimonides' 13 principles of Jewish faith. Other Ashkenazi synagogues end with Adon `olam instead. Shacharit Shabbat morning prayers commence as on week-days. Of the hymns, Psalm 100 (Mizmor LeTodah, the psalm for the Thanksgiving offering), is omitted because the todah or Thanksgiving offering could not be offered on Shabbat in the days of the Temple in Jerusalem. Its place is taken in the Ashkenazi tradition by Psalms , , , , , , , , . Sephardic Jews maintain a different order, add several psalms and two religious poems. The Nishmat prayer is recited at the end of the Pesukei D'Zimrah. The blessings before Shema are expanded, and include the hymn El Adon, which is often sung communally. The fourth intermediary benediction of the Shacharit Amidah begins with Yismach Moshe. The Torah scroll is taken out of the Ark, and the weekly portion is read, followed by the haftarah. After the Torah reading, three prayers for the community are recited. Two prayers starting with Yekum Purkan, composed in Babylon in Aramaic, are similar to the subsequent Mi sheberakh, a blessing for the leaders and patrons of the synagogue. The Sephardim omit much of the Yekum Purkan. Prayers are then recited (in some communities) for the government of the country, for peace, and for the State of Israel. After these prayers, Ashrei is repeated and the Torah scroll is returned to the Ark in a procession through the Synagogue. Many congregations allow children to come to the front in order to kiss the scroll as it passes. In many Orthodox communities, the Rabbi (or a learned member of the congregation) delivers a sermon at this point, usually on the topic of the Torah reading. In yeshivot, the sermon is usually delivered on Saturday night. Musaf The Musaf service starts with the silent recitation of the Amidah. It is followed by a second public recitation that includes an additional reading known as the Kedushah. This is followed by the Tikanta Shabbat reading on the holiness of Shabbat, and then by a reading from the biblical Book of Numbers about the sacrifices that used to be performed in the Temple in Jerusalem. Next comes Yismechu, "They shall rejoice in Your sovereignty"; Eloheynu, "Our God and God of our Ancestors, may you be pleased with our rest"; and Retzei, "Be favorable, our God, toward your people Israel and their prayer, and restore services to your Temple." After the Amidah comes the full Kaddish, followed by Ein ke'eloheinu. In Orthodox Judaism this is followed by a reading from the Talmud on the incense offering called Pittum Haketoreth and daily psalms that used to be recited in the Temple in Jerusalem. These readings are usually omitted by Conservative Jews, and are always omitted by Reform Jews. The Musaf service culminates with the Rabbi's Kaddish, the Aleinu, and then the Mourner's Kaddish. Some synagogues conclude with the reading of An'im Zemirot, "The Hymn of Glory", Mourner's Kaddish, The psalm of the Day and either Adon Olam or Yigdal. Mincha Mincha commences with Ashrei (see above) and the prayer U-Ba Le-Tzion, after which the first section of the next weekly portion is read from the Torah scroll. The Amidah follows the same pattern as the other Shabbat Amidah prayers, with the middle blessing starting Attah Echad. After Mincha, during the winter Sabbaths (from Sukkot to Passover), Barekhi Nafshi (Psalms , -) is recited in some customs. During the summer Sabbaths (from Passover to Rosh Hashanah) chapters from the Avot, one every Sabbath in consecutive order, are recited instead of Barekhi Nafshi. Ma'ariv The week-day Ma'ariv is recited on Sabbath evening, concluding with Vihi No'am, Ve-Yitten lekha, and Havdalah. Special observances and circumstances Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur The services for the Days of Awe—Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur—take on a solemn tone as befits these days. Traditional solemn tunes are used in the prayers. The musaf service on Rosh Hashana has nine blessings; the three middle blessings include biblical verses attesting to sovereignty, remembrance and the shofar, which is sounded 100 times during the service. Yom Kippur is the only day in the year when there are five prayer services. The evening service, containing the Ma'ariv prayer, is widely known as "Kol Nidrei", the opening declaration made preceding the prayer. During the daytime, shacharit, musaf (which is recited on Shabbat and all festivals) and mincha are followed, as the sun begins to set, by Ne'ila, which is recited just this once a year. Pesach, Shavuot and Sukkot The services for the three festivals of Pesach ("Passover"), Shavuot ("Feast of Weeks" or "Pentecost"), and Sukkot ("Feast of Tabenacles") are alike, except for interpolated references and readings for each individual festival. The preliminaries and conclusions of the prayers are the same as on Shabbat. The Amidah on these festivals only contains seven benedictions, with Attah Bechartanu as the main one. Hallel (communal recitation of Psalms -) follows. The Musaf service includes Umi-Penei Hata'enu, with reference to the special festival and Temple sacrifices on the occasion. A blessing on the pulpit ("dukhen") is pronounced by the "kohanim" (Jewish priests) during the Amidah (this occurs daily in Israel and many Sephardic congregations, but only on Pesach, Shavuot, Sukkot, Rosh Hashanah, and Yom Kippur in Ashkenazic congregations of the diaspora). On week-days and Sabbath the priestly blessing is recited by the hazzan after the Modim ("Thanksgiving") prayer. (American Reform Jews omit the Musaf service.) Missed prayer In the event one of the prayers was missed inadvertedly, the Amidah prayer is said twice in the next service — a procedure known as tefillat tashlumin. Brachot 26a Related customs Many Jews sway their body back and forth during prayer. This practice (referred to as shoklen in Yiddish) is not mandatory, and in fact the kabbalist Isaac Luria felt that it should not be done. In contrast, the German Medieval authority Maharil (Rabbi Jacob Molin) linked the practice to a statement in the Talmud that the Mishnaic sage Rabbi Akiva would sway so forcefully that he ended up at the other side of the room when praying (Talmud tractate Berachot). Money for tzedakah (charity) is given during the weekday morning and afternoon services in many communities. Role of women Jewish women praying by the Western Wall, early 1900s. Men are obligated to perform public prayer three times a day with additional services on Jewish holidays. According to Jewish law, each prayer must be performed within specific time ranges, based on the time that the communal sacrifice the prayer is named after would have been performed in the days of the Temple in Jerusalem. According to the Talmud women are generally exempted from obligations that have to be performed at a certain time. [Baruch atah Adoni aloheinu melech ha olam shelo asani isha—which is the prayer said in the shacharit (morning service) by men only, when translated it means "Blessed are you, Lord, our God, sovereign of the universe, thank you for not making me a woman] Orthodox authorities have generally interpreted this exemption as necessitated by women's family responsibilities which require them to be available at any time and make compliance with time-specific obligations difficult. In accordance with the general exemption from time-bound obligations, most Orthodox authorities have exempted women from performing time-bound prayer. Orthodox authorities have been careful to note that although women have been exempted from praying at specific fixed times, they are not exempted from the obligation of prayer itself. The 19th century posek Yechiel Michel Epstein, author of the Arukh HaShulkhan, notes: "Even though the rabbis set prayer at fixed times in fixed language, it was not their intention to issue a leniency and exempt women from this ritual act". Women praying in the Western Wall tunnel at the closest physical point to the Holy of Holies that women can be.Authorities have disagreed on the minimum amount that women's prayer should contain. Many Jews rely on the ruling of the (Ashkenazi) Rabbi Avraham Gombiner in his Magen Avraham commentary on the Shulkhan Arukh, Shulkhan Arukh section Orach Chayim 106:2 and more recently the (Sephardi) Rabbi Ovadia Yosef (Yabiah Omer vol. 6, 17), that women are only required to pray once a day, in any form they choose, so long as the prayer contains praise of (brakhot), requests to (bakashot), and thanks of (hodot) God. Women's Issues:Women And Prayer When Time is Short, Nishmat In addition, not all Orthodox authorities agree that women are completely exempt from time-bound prayer. The Mishnah Berurah by Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan, an important code of Ashkenzic Jewish law, holds that the Men of the Great Assembly obligated women to say Shacharit (morning) and Minchah (afternoon) prayer services each day, "just like men". The Mishnah Berurah also states that although women are exempt from reciting the Shema Yisrael, they should nevertheless say it anyway. Nonetheless, even the most liberal Orthodox authorities hold that women cannot count in a minyan for purposes of public prayer. Throughout Orthodox Judaism, including its most liberal forms, men and women are required to sit in separate sections with a mechitza (partition) separating them. Conservative/Masorti Judaism permits mixed seating (almost universally in the United States, but not in all countries). All Reform and Reconstructionist congregations have mixed seating. Haredi and much of Modern Orthodox Judaism has a blanket prohibition on women leading public congregational prayers. Conservative Judaism has developed a blanket justification for women leading all or virtually all such prayers, holding that although only obligated individuals can lead prayers and women were not traditionally obligated, Conservative Jewish women in modern times have as a collective whole voluntarily undertaken such an obligation. http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf Reform and Reconstructionist congregations permit women to perform all prayer roles because they do not regard halakha as binding. A small liberal wing within Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly rabbis friendly to the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (JOFA), has begun re-examining the role of women in prayers based on an individual, case-by-case look at the historical role of specific prayers and services, doing so within classical halakhic interpretation. Accepting that where obligation exists only the obligated can lead, this small group has typically made three general arguments for expanded women's roles: Because women were required to perform certain korbanot (sacrifices) in the Temple in Jerusalem, women today are required to perform, and hence can lead (and can count in the minyan for if required), the specific prayers substituting for these specific sacrifices. Birchat Hagomel falls in this category. Because certain parts of the service were added after the Talmud defined mandatory services, such prayers are equally voluntary on everyone and hence can be led by women (and no minyan is required). Pseukei D'Zimrah in the morning and Kabbalat Shabbat on Friday nights fall in this category. In cases where the Talmud indicates that women are generally qualified to lead certain services but do not do so because of the "dignity of the congregation", modern congregations are permitted to waive such dignity if they wish. Torah reading on Shabbat falls in this category. An argument that women are permitted to lead the services removing and replacing the Torah in the Ark on Shabbat extends from their ability to participate in Torah reading then. A very small number of Modern Orthodox congregations accept some such arguments, but very few Orthodox congregations or authorities accept all or even most of them. Many of those who do not accept this reasoning point to kol isha, the tradition that prohibits a man from hearing a woman other than his wife sing. JOFA refers to congregations generally accepting such arguments as Partnership Minyanim. On Shabbat in a Partnership Minyan, women can typically lead Kabbalat Shabbat, the P'seukei D'Zimrah, the services for removing the Torah from and replacing it to the Ark, and Torah reading, as well as give a D'Var Torah or sermon. Role of minors In most divisions of Judaism boys prior to Bar Mitzvah cannot act as a Chazzen for prayer services that contain devarim sheb'kidusha, i.e. Kaddish, Barechu, the amida, etc., or receive an aliya or chant the Torah for the congregation. Since Kabbalat Shabbat is just psalms and does not contain devarim sheb'kidusha, it is possible for a boy under Bar Mitzvah to lead until Barechu of Ma'ariv. Some eastern Jews let a boy under bar mitzvah read the Torah and have an aliyah. Epstein, Morris. All About Jewish Holidays and Customs. Ktav Publishing House, 1959. p. 89 See also List of Jewish prayers and blessings Siddur Shiv'ah Shuckling Notes References To Pray As a Jew, Hayim Halevy Donin, Basic Books (ISBN 0-465-08633-0) Entering Jewish Prayer, Reuven Hammer (ISBN 0-8052-1022-9) Kavvana: Directing the Heart in Jewish Prayer, Seth Kadish, Jason Aronson Inc. 1997. ISBN 0-76575-952-7. Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals, Reuven Hammer, The Rabbinical Assembly and the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism Rabbi S. Baer. Siddur Avodath Yisrael (newly researched text with commentary Yachin Lashon), 19th century. A Guide to Jewish Prayer, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, Shocken Books (ISBN 0-8052-4174-4) External links Jewish liturgy Jewish Virtual Library.org Prayer: an Anthology Chabad.org Outline of prayer services Jewfaq.org GoDaven.com - The Worldwide Minyan Database GoDaven.com Introduction to Jewish Prayer Aish.com Siddur.org - a free Transliterated Siddur online Siddur.org | Jewish_prayer |@lemmatized jewish:49 service:65 tefillah:2 plural:2 תפלות:1 tefillos:1 tefillot:1 yinglish:2 davening:2 prayer:155 recitation:8 form:10 part:7 observance:2 judaism:17 often:8 instruction:2 commentary:4 find:2 siddur:16 traditional:14 book:8 traditionally:5 three:14 recite:31 daily:13 shacharit:8 hebrew:11 shachar:3 morning:17 light:2 mincha:15 minha:3 afternoon:11 name:4 flour:2 offering:9 accompany:3 sacrifice:13 temple:21 jerusalem:15 arbith:2 also:12 call:7 arvit:5 ariv:8 nightfall:9 additional:8 musaf:8 sephardic:6 mizrahi:1 orthodox:26 conservative:16 congregation:23 shabbat:30 major:1 holiday:6 fifth:1 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4,147 | Holland | Holland North and South Holland shown together within the Netherlands. Area Population 6,065,459 (2006 est.) Density 1105.22/km² (3032.72/sq mi) Regions 2 Demonym Hollander Languages Dutch(mainly Hollandic dialects) Time Zones CEST (UTC+1) Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)Largestcities(2008) Amsterdam (739,290)Rotterdam (539,650)The Hague (473,940)Haarlem (146,960)Dordrecht (118,540) Coat of arms of the former County of Holland. Holland is a name in common usage given to two regions in the western part of the Netherlands. The name 'Holland' is also often used to refer to the whole of the Netherlands, although this is not formally correct. From the 10th century to the 16th century it was a unified political region, a county ruled by the Count of Holland. By the 17th century, Holland had risen to become a maritime and economic power, dominating the other provinces of the Dutch Republic. Today, the former County of Holland consists of the two Dutch provinces of North Holland and South Holland. Etymology The name Holland first appeared in sources in 866 for the region around Haarlem, and by 1064 was being used as the name of the entire county. By this time, the inhabitants of Holland were referring to themselves as "Hollanders". Antheun Janse, "Een zichzelf verdeeld rijk" in Thimo de Nijs and Eelco Beukers (eds.), 2003, Geschiedenis van Holland, Volume 1, p. 73 Holland is derived from the Middle Dutch term holtland ("wooded land"). This spelling variation remained in use until around the 14th century, at which time the name stabilised as Holland (alternative spellings at the time were Hollant and Hollandt). Popular, but incorrect, etymology holds that Holland is derived from hol land ("hollow land") and was inspired by the low-lying geography of Holland. Usage The proper name of the area in both Dutch and English is "Holland". "Holland" is a part of the Netherlands. "Holland" is informally and quite incorrectly used in English and other languages, including sometimes the Dutch language itself, to mean the whole of the modern country of the Netherlands (this example of pars pro toto or synecdoche is similar to the tendency to refer to the United Kingdom as "England"). The people of Holland are referred to as "Hollanders" in both Dutch and English. Today this refers specifically to people from the current provinces of North Holland and South Holland. Strictly speaking, the term "Hollanders" does not refer to people from the other provinces in the Netherlands, but colloquially "Hollanders" is sometimes mistakenly used in this wider sense. When referring to the Netherlands as a whole, the adjective is "Dutch". "Dutch" is not used as an adjective for "Holland" in a modern context because "Dutch" refers to all of the Netherlands, not just Holland. However, there is a good deal of confusion about this. In actual practice, the adjective "Dutch" is often (but somewhat inaccurately) used in the specific context of Holland. In Dutch, the Dutch word "Hollands" is the adjectival form for "Holland", but in English there is no commonly used adjective for "Holland". "Hollands" is ordinarily expressed in English in two ways: a possessive construction (e.g. "Holland's economic power"); or an "of Holland" or "from Holland" construction (e.g. "the Maid of Holland"; "a girl from Holland"). The following usages apply in certain limited situations but do not ordinarily serve as the English equivalent of the commonly used Dutch adjective "Hollands". Occasionally, the noun "Holland" is used in apposition (e.g. "the Holland Society"). The adjective "Hollandic" is occasionally used by some historians and other academic writers as an adjective for Holland. Historians who use the word tend to reserve it to pre-Napoleonic Holland. Hollandic is also the name linguists give to the dialect spoken in Holland. Historically the English word "Dutch" had a different, broader meaning that could occasionally include "Hollands". The adjective "Hollandish" is a word in English but is currently no longer in use. Geography North Holland South Holland Holland is situated in the west of the Netherlands. A maritime water-oriented region, Holland lies on the North Sea at the mouths of the Rhine and the Meuse (Maas). It has numerous rivers and lakes and an extensive inland canal and waterway system. To the south is Zealand. The region is bordered on the east by the IJsselmeer and four different provinces of the Netherlands. Holland is protected from the sea by a long line of coastal dunes. Most of the land area behind the dunes consists of polder landscape lying well below sea level. At present the lowest point in Holland is a polder near Rotterdam, which is about seven meters below sea level. Continuous drainage is necessary to keep Holland from flooding. In earlier centuries windmills were used for this task. The landscape was (and in places still is) dotted with windmills, which have become a symbol of Holland. Holland is 7,494 square kilometres (land and water included), making it roughly 13% of the area of the Netherlands. Looking at land alone, it is 5,488 square kilometres in size. The combined population is 6.1 million. The main cities in Holland are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague. Amsterdam is formally the capital of the Netherlands and its most important city. The Port of Rotterdam is Europe's largest and most important harbour and port. The Hague is the seat of government of the Netherlands. These cities, combined with Utrecht and other smaller municipalities, effectively form a single city - a conurbation called Randstad. The Randstad area is one of the most densely populated regions of Europe, but still relatively free of urban sprawl. There are strict zoning laws. Population pressures are enormous, property values are high, and new housing is constantly under development on the edges of the built-up areas. Surprisingly, much of the province still has a rural character. The remaining agricultural land and natural areas are highly valued and protected. Most of the arable land is used for intensive agriculture, including horticulture and greenhouse agri-businesses. Language See the article on the Dutch language for a more detailed description. The language primarily spoken in Holland is Dutch. Hollanders sometimes refer to the Dutch language as "Hollands", instead of the standard term Nederlands. Inhabitants of Flanders and other provinces of the Netherlands refer to "Hollands" to indicate someone speaking in a Hollandic dialect. The standard Dutch that is spoken in the Netherlands is historically largely based on the Hollandic dialect of Holland, but is also partly derived from Flemish and Brabantian. There are many local variations in dialect throughout the Netherlands. Today, Holland is the region where the original dialects are least spoken, in many areas having been completely replaced by standard Dutch, and which has the largest influence on the developments of the standard language — with the exception of the Dutch spoken in Belgium. Sijs, Nicoline van der, 2006, De geschiedenis van het Nederlands in een notendop, Amsterdam, Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, pp. 127-128 Despite this correspondence between standard Dutch and the Dutch spoken in Holland, there are local variations within Holland itself that differ from standard Dutch. The main cities each have their own modern urban dialect, that can be considered a sociolect. Sijs, Nicoline van der, 2006, De geschiedenis van het Nederlands in een notendop, Amsterdam, Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, pp. 123 A small number of people, especially in the area north of Amsterdam, still speak the original dialect of the county, Hollandic. The Hollandic dialect is present in the north: Volendam and Marken and the area around there, West Friesland and the Zaanstreek; and in a south-eastern fringe bordering on the provinces of North Brabant and Utrecht. In the south on the island of Goeree-Overflakkee, Zealandic is spoken. History Each of the provinces in the Netherlands has a history that deserves full attention on its own. However, to a certain extent at least, the history of Holland is the history of the Netherlands, and vice versa. See the article on "History of the Netherlands" for a more detailed history. The article here focuses on those points that are specific to Holland itself or that highlight the nature of the role played by Holland in the Netherlands as a whole. Reclamation of the land The land that is now Holland had never been stable. Over the millennia the geography of the region had been dynamic. The western coastline shifted up to thirty kilometres to the east and storm surges regularly broke through the row of coastal dunes. The Frisian Isles, originally joined to the mainland, became detached islands in the north. The main rivers, the Rhine and the Meuse (Maas), flooded regularly and changed course repeatedly and dramatically. The people of Holland found themselves living in an unstable, watery environment. Behind the dunes on the coast of the Netherlands a high peat plateau had grown, forming a natural protection against the sea. Much of the area was marsh and bog. By the tenth century the inhabitants set about cultivating this land by draining it. The drainage however, resulted in extreme soil shrinkage, lowering the surface of the land by up to fifteen metres. Benthuizen polder, seen from a dike To the south of Holland, in Zealand, and to the north, in Frisia, this development led to catastrophic storm floods literally washing away entire regions, as the peat layer disintegrated or became detached and was carried away by the flood water. From the Frisian side the sea even flooded the area to the east, gradually hollowing Holland out from behind and forming the Zuiderzee (the present IJsselmeer). This inland sea threatened to link up with the "drowned lands" of Zealand in the south, reducing Holland to a series of narrow dune barrier islands in front of a lagoon. Only drastic administrative intervention saved the county from utter destruction. The counts and large monasteries took the lead in these efforts, building the first heavy emergency dikes to bolster critical points. Later special autonomous administrative bodies were formed, the waterschappen ("water control boards"), which had the legal power to enforce their regulations and decisions on water management. As the centuries went by, they eventually constructed an extensive dike system that covered the coastline and the polders, thus protecting the land from further incursions by the sea. However, the Hollanders did not stop there. Starting around the 16th century, they took the offensive and began land reclamation projects, converting lakes, marshy areas and adjoining mudflats into polders. This continued right into the 20th century. As a result, historical maps of mediaeval and early modern Holland bear little resemblance to the maps of today. This ongoing struggle to master the water played an important role in the development of Holland as a maritime and economic power and in the development of the character of the people of Holland. County of Holland Until the 9th century, the inhabitants of the area that became Holland were Frisians. The area was part of Frisia. At the end of the 9th century, Holland became a separate county in the Holy Roman Empire. The first count of Holland known about with certainty was Dirk I, who ruled (also as count of Frisia) from 896 to 931. He was succeeded by a long line of counts in the House of Holland. When John I, count of Holland, died childless in 1299, the county was inherited by John II of Avesnes, count of Hainaut. By the time of Willian V (House of Wittelsbach; 1354-1388) the count of Holland was also the count of Hainaut, Flanders and Zealand. "De Staten van Hollandt ende West-Vrieslandt..." (1654) In this time a part of Frisia, West Friesland, was conquered (as a result, most provincial institutions, including the States of Holland and West Frisia, would for centuries refer to "Holland and West Frisia" as a unit). The Hook and Cod wars started around this time and ended when the countess of Holland, Jacoba or Jacqueline was forced to give up Holland to the Burgundian Philip I in 1432. The last count of Holland was Philip III, better known as Philip II king of Spain. He was abolished in 1581 by the socalled Act of Abjuration, although the kings of Spain continued to carry the titular title of count of Holland until the Peace of Münster signed in 1648. Holland's prominence in the United Provinces and Dutch Republic In 1432 Holland became part of the Burgundian Netherlands and since 1477 of the Habsburg Seventeen Provinces. In the 16th century the region became more densely urbanised, with the majority of the population living in cities. Within the Burgundian Netherlands, Holland was the dominant province in the north; the political influence of Holland largely determined the extent of Burgundian dominion in that area. Comitatus Hollandiae (1682) In the Dutch Rebellion against the Habsburgs during the Eighty Years' War, the naval forces of the rebels, the Watergeuzen, established their first permanent base in 1572 in the town of Brill. In this way, Holland, now a sovereign state in a larger Dutch confederation, became the centre of the rebellion. It became the cultural, political and economic centre of the United Provinces in the 17th century Dutch Golden Age, the wealthiest nation in the world. After the King of Spain was deposed as the count of Holland, the executive and legislative power rested with the States of Holland, which was led by a political figure who held the office of Grand Pensionary. The largest cities in the Dutch Republic were in the province of Holland such as Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Leiden, Alkmaar, The Hague, Delft, Dordrecht and Haarlem. From the great ports of Holland, Hollandic merchants sailed to and from destinations all over Europe, and merchants from all over Europe gathered to trade in the warehouses of Amsterdam and other trading cities of Holland. Many Europeans thought of the United Provinces first as "Holland" rather than as the "Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands". A strong impression of "Holland" was planted in the minds of other Europeans, which then was projected back onto the Republic as a whole. Within the provinces themselves, a gradual slow process of cultural expansion took place, leading to a "Hollandification" of the other provinces and a more uniform culture for the whole of the Republic. The dialect of urban Holland became the standard language. Kingdom of Holland The formation of the Batavian Republic, inspired by the French revolution, led to a more centralised government. Holland became a province of a unitary state. Its independence was further reduced by an administrative reform in 1798, in which its territory was divided into several departments called Amstel, Delf, Texel, and part of Schelde en Maas. From 1806 to 1810 Napoleon styled his vassal state, governed by his brother Louis Napoleon and shortly by the son of Louis, Napoleon Louis Bonaparte, as the "Kingdom of Holland". This kingdom encompassed much of what would become the modern Netherlands. The name reflects how natural at the time it had become to equate Holland with the non-Belgian Netherlands as a whole. Willem Frijhoff, "Hollands hegemonie" in Thimo de Nijs and Eelco Beukers (eds.), 2002, Geschiedenis van Holland, Volume 2, p. 468 During the period the Low Countries were annexed by the French Empire and actually incorporated into France (from 1810 to 1813), Holland was divided into the départements Zuyderzée and Bouches-de-la-Meuse. Provinces like any other After 1813, Holland was restored as a province of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Holland was divided into the present provinces North Holland and South Holland in 1840, after the Belgian Revolution of 1830. This reflected an historical division of Holland along the IJ into a Southern Quarter (Zuiderkwartier) and a Northern Quarter (Noorderkwartier). From 1850 a strong process of nation formation took place, the Netherlands being culturally unified and economically integrated by a modernisation process, with the cities of Holland at its centre. Hans Knippenberg and Ben de Pater, "Brandpunt van macht en modernisering" in Thimo de Nijs and Eelco Beukers (eds.), 2003, Geschiedenis van Holland, Volume 3, p. 548 The image of Holland at home and abroad The predominance of Holland in the Netherlands has resulted in regionalism on the part of the other provinces. This is a reaction to the perceived threat that Holland poses to the identities and local cultures of the other provinces. The other provinces have a strong, and often negative, Rob van Ginkel, "Hollandse Tonelen" in Thimo de Nijs and Eelco Beukers (eds.), Geschiedenis van Holland, Volume 3, p. 688 image of Holland and the Hollanders, to whom certain qualities are ascribed within a mental geography. Hans Knippenberg and Ben de Pater, "Brandpunt van macht en modernisering" in Thimo de Nijs and Eelco Beukers (eds.), 2003, Geschiedenis van Holland, Volume 3, p. 556 Hollanders themselves, however, have a weak self-image. They take Holland's cultural dominance for granted. To them, the concepts of "Holland" and the "Netherlands" coincide. Consequently they see themselves not primarily as "Hollanders", but simply as "Dutch" (Nederlanders). Thimo de Nijs, "Hollandse identiteit in perspectief" in Thimo de Nijs and Eelco Beukers (eds.), 2003, Geschiedenis van Holland, Volume 3, p. 700 This phenomenon is called "hollandocentrism". Rob van Ginkel, "Hollandse Tonelen" in Thimo de Nijs and Eelco Beukers (eds.), 2003, Geschiedenis van Holland, Volume 3, p. 647 Holland tends to be associated with a particular image. The stereotypical image of Holland is an artificial amalgam of tulips, windmills, clogs, cheese and traditional dress (klederdracht). As is the case with many stereotypes, this is far from the truth and reality of life in Holland. This can at least in part be explained by the active exploitation of these stereotypes in promotions of Holland and the Netherlands. In fact only in a few of the more traditional villages, such as Volendam and locations in the Zaan area, are the different costumes with wooden shoes still worn by some inhabitants. References External links Map of Holland (the provinces of North Holland and South Holland) on Google Maps be-x-old:Галяндыя (гістарычная вобласьць) | Holland |@lemmatized holland:123 north:13 south:11 show:1 together:1 within:5 netherlands:31 area:17 population:4 est:1 density:1 sq:1 mi:1 regions:1 demonym:1 hollander:10 language:9 dutch:30 mainly:1 hollandic:8 dialect:10 time:8 zone:2 cest:2 utc:2 summer:1 dst:1 largestcities:1 amsterdam:8 rotterdam:5 hague:4 haarlem:3 dordrecht:2 coat:1 arm:1 former:2 county:9 name:8 common:1 usage:3 give:3 two:3 region:10 western:2 part:8 also:5 often:3 use:15 refer:10 whole:7 although:2 formally:2 correct:1 century:14 unified:1 political:4 rule:2 count:12 rise:1 become:14 maritime:3 economic:4 power:5 dominate:1 province:26 republic:7 today:4 consists:2 etymology:2 first:5 appear:1 source:1 around:5 entire:2 inhabitant:5 antheun:1 janse:1 een:3 zichzelf:1 verdeeld:1 rijk:1 thimo:8 de:14 nij:8 eelco:7 beukers:7 ed:7 geschiedenis:9 van:16 volume:7 p:7 derive:3 middle:1 term:3 holtland:1 wooded:1 land:15 spell:1 variation:3 remain:2 stabilise:1 alternative:1 spelling:1 hollant:1 hollandt:2 popular:1 incorrect:1 hold:2 hol:1 hollow:2 inspire:2 low:3 lie:3 geography:4 proper:1 english:8 informally:1 quite:1 incorrectly:1 include:5 sometimes:3 mean:1 modern:5 country:2 example:1 par:1 pro:1 toto:1 synecdoche:1 similar:1 tendency:1 united:6 kingdom:5 england:1 people:6 specifically:1 current:1 strictly:1 speak:6 colloquially:1 mistakenly:1 wider:1 sense:1 adjective:8 context:2 refers:1 however:5 good:2 deal:1 confusion:1 actual:1 practice:1 somewhat:1 inaccurately:1 specific:2 word:4 hollands:4 adjectival:1 form:5 commonly:2 ordinarily:2 express:1 way:2 possessive:1 construction:2 e:3 g:3 maid:1 girl:1 following:1 apply:1 certain:3 limited:1 situation:1 serve:1 equivalent:1 occasionally:3 noun:1 apposition:1 society:1 historian:2 academic:1 writer:1 tend:1 reserve:1 pre:1 napoleonic:1 linguists:1 historically:2 different:3 broad:1 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4,148 | Elijah | Elijah or Elias (; Arabic:إلياس, Ilyās) meaning "Yahweh is God" (Elijah = (is) Yahweh, with El being one of God's names in the Bible, Karen Armstrong: A History of God from the same root as the name Allah) was a prophet in Israel in the 9th century BC. He appears in the Hebrew Bible, Talmud, Mishnah, Christian Bible, and the Qur'an. According to the Books of Kings, Elijah raised the dead, brought fire down from the sky, and ascended into heaven in a chariot. In the New Testament, both Jesus and John the Baptist are on some occasions thought to be Elijah. He is also one of two Old Testament figures (along with Moses) who appear and converses with Jesus on Mount Hermon during the Transfiguration. Elijah's name is invoked at the weekly Havdalah ritual that marks the end of Shabbat, and in other Jewish customs, among them the Passover seder. Based on a prophecy in Malachi, many Jews await his return as precursor to the coming of the Messiah . In Bulgaria, he is known as "Elijah the Thunderer" and in folklore is held responsible for summer storms, hail, rain, thunder and dew. http://www.bnr.bg/RadioBulgaria/Emission_English/Theme_Folklore/Material/st_elijah_folk.htm Biblical narratives 1st and 2nd Kings Elijah is introduced in as Elijah "The Tishbite." He gives a warning to Ahab, king of Israel, that there will be years of drought, a drought so severe that not even dew will fall. This catastrophe will come because Ahab and his queen--Jezebel--stand at the end of a line of kings of Israel who are said to have "done evil in the sight of the Lord." In particular, Ahab and Jezebel had encouraged the worship of Baal and killed the prophets of the Lord. Elijah appears on the scene with no fanfare. Nothing is known of his origins or background. His name, Elijah, "My God is Jehovah (Yahweh)," may be a name applied to him because of his challenge to Baal worship. "Elijah." Encyclopedia Judaica. Jerusalam: Keter Publishing House, 1971. p 633. Cogan, Mordechai. The Anchor Bible: I Kings. New York: Doubleday, 2001. p 425. Even the title of "the Tishbite" is problematic, as there is no reference from the period to a town or village of Tishbe. Sweeney, Marvin A. "Elijah." In Werblowsky, R.J.Z., and Geoffrey Wigoder, eds. Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-508605-8 Elijah's challenge, characteristic of his behaviour in other episodes of his story as told in the Bible, is bold and direct. Baal was the local nature deity responsible for rain, thunder, lightning, and dew. Elijah not only challenges Baal on behalf of the God of Israel, he challenges Jezebel, her priests, Ahab, and the people of Israel. Strategic situation in Israel Map of Israel in the 9th Century BCE. Dark Green is the Kingdom of Israel. Light Green is the Kingdom of Judah. By the 9th century BC, the united kingdom of David and Solomon had broken up into northern (Israel) and southern (Judah) kingdoms. With the Temple in Jerusalem, Judah had both the seat of government and the focus of religion within its borders. It was in this situation that Omri became king of Israel. As a purely practical matter, Omri had to take steps to contain both government and religion within the borders of Israel, lest the loyalties of his subjects be divided between Israel and Judah. The task of centralising the government had a relatively straightforward solution: Omri built a new capital at Samaria on a hill 300 feet above the countryside. The religious problem posed more of a challenge, as the requirements of Temple worship were firmly focused on Solomon’s Temple. To break Israel's religion away from the control of the priests of the Temple in Judah, three solutions were pursued. The first was to encourage the building of temples (altars where sacrifices could be offered) at local sites within the borders of Israel. Secondly, priests were appointed from outside the family of the Levites. And finally, temples dedicated to the Canaanite god, Baal, were alternately allowed and encouraged. Kaufman, Yehezkel. "The Biblical Age." In Schwarz, Leo W. ed. Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People. Modern Library: New York. 1956. p53-56. Raven, John H. The History of the Religion of Israel. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1979. p281-281. All three solutions were contrary to the laws of Moses, and were guaranteed to bring the wrath of the prophets of Israel. None of these solutions was new to Omri. They had all been begun with the reign of Jeroboam. Omri added a new dimension. In order to bring security with the outside world, Omri sought a marriage alliance. There was precedent for this solution in Solomon’s reign. Omri was able to arrange the marriage of his son Ahab to princess Jezebel, daughter of the king of Sidon in Phoenicia. Jezebel came to Israel not only as a princess, but she was also a priestess of Baal. The resulting problems may be alluded to in Psalm 45, sometimes viewed as a wedding song for Ahab and Jezebel: Smith, Norman H. "I Kings." in Buttrick, George A., et al. Eds. The Interpreter's Bible: Volume 3. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1982. p 144. Hear, O daughter, consider, and incline your ear; forget your people and your father’s house; and the king will desire your beauty. Since he is your lord, bow to him; the people of Tyre will sue your favor with gifts. () All of these solutions brought security and economic prosperity to Israel for a time. Miller, J. M. and J. H. Hayes. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006. However, it did not bring peace with the prophets of Yahweh, who were interested in a strict deuteronomic interpretation of Mosaic law. As bad as Omri's problems with the prophets were, Ahab managed to add to them. He not only allowed the worship of a foreign god within the palace, he also built a temple for Baal, and allowed Jezebel to bring a large entourage of priests and prophets of Baal and Asherah into the country. Elijah in the wilderness, by Washington Allston Widow of Zarephath After Elijah's confrontation with Ahab, God tells him to flee out of Israel, to a hiding place by the brook Cherith, east of the Jordan, where he will be fed by ravens. When the brook dries up, God sends him to a widow living in the town of Zarephatho in Phoenicia. When Elijah finds her and asks to be fed, she says that she does not have sufficient food to keep her and her own son alive. Elijah tells her that God will not allow her supply of flour or oil to run out. She feeds him the last of their food, and Elijah's promise miraculously comes true. Some time later, the widow's son dies. Elijah prays that God might restore her son. relates how God "heard the voice of Elijah; and the soul of the child came into him again, and he revived." After more than two years of drought and famine, God tells Elijah to return to Ahab and announce the end of the drought. While on his way, Elijah meets Obadiah, the head of Ahab's household, who had hidden a hundred prophets of Yahweh the God of Israel when Ahab and Jezebel had been killing them. Elijah sends Obadiah back to Ahab to announce his return to Israel. Challenge to Baal A statue of Elijah in the Cave of Elijah, Mount Carmel, Israel. When Ahab confronts Elijah, he refers to him as the "troubler of Israel." Elijah responds by throwing the charge back at Ahab, saying that it is Ahab who has troubled Israel by allowing the worship of false gods. Elijah then berates both the people of Israel and Ahab for their acquiescence in Baal worship. “How long will you go limping with two different opinions? If the Lord is God, follow him; but if Baal then follow him” (). And the people were silent. At this point Elijah proposes a test of the powers of Baal and the God of Israel. The people of Israel, 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 prophets of Asherah are summoned to Mount Carmel. Two altars are built, one for Baal and one for the God of Israel. Wood is laid on the altars. Two oxen are slaughtered and cut into pieces; the pieces are laid on the wood. Elijah then invites the priests of Baal to pray for fire to light the sacrifice. They pray from morning to noon without success. Elijah ridicules their efforts. They respond by cutting themselves and adding their own blood to the sacrifice. They continue praying until evening without success. Elijah now orders that the altar of the God of Israel be drenched with water (twelve barrels of water). He asks God to accept the sacrifice. Fire falls from the sky, igniting the sacrifice. Elijah seizes the moment and orders the death of the prophets of Baal. The rains begin, signaling the end of the famine. Mt. Horeb Jezebel, enraged that Elijah had ordered the deaths of her priests, threatens to kill Elijah (). This was Elijah's first encounter with Jezebel, and not the last. Later Elijah would prophesy about Jezebel's death, because of her sin. Later, Elijah flees to Beersheba in Judah, continues alone into the wilderness, and finally sits down under a juniper tree. He falls asleep under the tree; an angel touches him and tells him to wake and eat. When he wakes he finds a bit of bread and a jar of water. He eats, drinks, and goes back to sleep. The angel comes a second time and tells him to eat and drink because he has a long journey ahead of him. Elijah travels, for forty days and forty nights, to Mount Horeb and seeks shelter in a cave. God again speaks to Elijah (): "What doest thou here, Elijah?". Up until this time Elijah has only the word of God to guide him, but now he is told to go outside the cave and "stand before the Lord." A terrible wind passes, but God is not in the wind. A great earthquake shakes the mountain, but God is not in the earthquake. Then a fire passes the mountain, but God is not in the fire. Then a "still small voice" comes to Elijah and asks again, "What doest thou here, Elijah?". God then sends him out again, this time to Damascus to anoint Hazael as king of Syria, Jehu as king of Israel, and Elisha as his replacement. The Cave of Elijah, Mount Carmel, Israel. Vineyard of Naboth Elijah encounters Ahab again in , after Ahab has acquired possession of a vineyard by murder. Ahab desires to have the vineyard of Naboth of Jezreel. He offers a better vineyard or a fair price for the land. But Naboth tells Ahab that God has told him not to part with the land. Ahab accepts this answer with sullen bad grace. Jezebel, however, plots a method for acquiring the land. She sends letters, in Ahab's name, to the elders and nobles who lived near Naboth. They are to arrange a fast and invite Naboth. At the fast, false charges of cursing God and Ahab are to be made against him. The plot is carried out and Naboth is stoned to death. When word comes that Naboth is dead, Jezebel tells Ahab to take possession of the vineyard. God again speaks to Elijah and sends him to confront Ahab with a question and a prophecy: "Have you killed and also taken possession?" and, "In the place where dogs licked up the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick up your own blood" ()." Ahab begins the confrontation by calling Elijah his enemy. Elijah responds by throwing the charge back at him, telling him that he has made himself the enemy of God by his own actions. Elijah then goes beyond the prophecy he was given and tells Ahab that his entire kingdom will reject his authority; that Jezebel will be eaten by dogs within Jezreel; and that his family will be consumed by dogs as well (if they die in a city) or by birds (if they die in the country). When Ahab hears this he repents to such a degree that God relents in punishing Ahab but will punish Jezebel and their son--Ahaziah. Ahaziah Russian icon of the Prophet Elijah, 18th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). Elijah continues now from Ahab to an encounter with Ahaziah. The scene opens with Ahaziah seriously injured in a fall. He sends to the priests of Baalzebub in Ekron, outside the kingdom of Israel, to know if he will recover. Elijah intercepts his messengers and sends them back to Ahaziah with a message. In typical Elijah fashion, the message begins with a blunt, impertinent question: "Is it because there is no God in Israel that you are sending to inquire of Baalzebub, the god of Ekron?"(). Ahaziah asks the messengers to describe the person who gave them this message. They tell him he wore a hairy coat with a leather belt and he instantly recognizes the description as Elijah the Tishbite. Ahaziah sends out three groups of soldiers to arrest Elijah. The first two are destroyed by fire which Elijah calls down from heaven. The leader of the third group asks for mercy for himself and his men. Elijah agrees to accompany this third group to Ahaziah, where he gives his prophecy in person. Departure The biblical story of Elijah's departure is unique. Elijah, in company with Elisha (Eliseus), approaches the Jordan. He rolls up his mantle and strikes the water (). The water immediately divides and Elijah and Elisha cross on dry land. Suddenly, a chariot of fire and horses of fire appear and Elijah is lifted up to heaven in a whirlwind. As Elijah is lifted up, his mantle falls to the ground and Elisha picks it up. Saint Elias in the cave (below) and on a chariot of fire. A fresco from Rila Monastery, Bulgaria, medieval Orthodox tradition, renovated 20th century 2nd Chronicles Elijah is mentioned once more in . A letter is sent under the prophet's name to Jehoram. It tells him that he has led the people of Judah astray in the same way that Israel was led astray. The prophet ends the letter with a prediction of a painful death. This letter is a puzzle to readers for several reasons. First, it concerns a king of the southern kingdom, while Elijah concerned himself with the kingdom of Israel. Second, the message begins with "Thus says Yahweh, God of your father David..." rather than the more usual "...in the name of Yahweh the God of Israel." Also, this letter comes after Elijah's ascension into the whirlwind. Jacob Myers suggests a number of possible reasons for this letter, among them that it may be an example of a better known prophet's name being substituted for that of a lesser known prophet. Myers, J. M. The Anchor Bible: II Chronicles. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1965. pp.121-123. VanSeters, however, rejects the letter as having any connection with the Elijah tradition. VanSeters, John. "Elijah." In Jones, Lindsay. Editor in Chief. Encyclopedia of Religion. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2005. p 2764. Malachi "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes. And he will turn the hearts of fathers to their children and the hearts of children to their fathers, lest I come and smite the land with a curse." — Malachi 3:23-24 Elijah's final mention in the Hebrew Bible is in Malachi, where it is said that Elijah will come again before "the great and terrible day of the Lord." That day is described as the burning of a great furnace, "... so that it will leave them neither root nor branch ()". Traditionally, in both Judaism and Christianity, this is taken to mean the return of Elijah will precede the Messiah. Chronology According to one recent researcher, the Elijah stories were added to the Deuteronomistic History in four stages. The first stage dates from the final edition of the History, about 560 BCE, when the three stories of Naboth’s vineyard, the death of Ahaziah, and the story of Jehu’s coup were included to embody the themes of the reliability of God's word and the cycle of Baal worship and religious reform in the history of the Northern Kingdom. The narratives about the Omride wars were added shortly afterwards to illustrate a newly-introduced theme, that the attitude of the king towards the word of the prophets determines the fate of Israel. was added in early post-Exilic times (after 538 BCE) to demonstrate the possibility of a new life in community with God after the time of judgment. In the fifth century BCE, and the remaining Elisha stories were inserted to give prophecy a legitimate foundation in the history of Israel. Susanne Otto, "The Composition of the Elijah-Elisha Stories and the Deuteronomistic History", Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Vol. 27, No. 4, 487-508 (2003), abstract Christian references Eastern Orthodox icon of the prophet Elijah, depicted with a disciple In the New Testament, Jesus would say for those who believed, John the Baptist was Elijah, whom would come before the "great and terrible day" as predicted by Malachi. John the Baptist John the Baptist preached a message of repentance and baptism. He predicted the day of judgment using imagery similar to that of Malachi. He also preached that the Messiah was coming. All of this was done in a style that immediately recalled the image of Elijah to his audience. He wore a coat of animal hair secured with a leather belt (, ). He also frequently preached in wilderness areas: near the Jordan river. In the Gospel of John, the Baptist was asked by a delegation of priests if he was Elijah. To which, he replied "I am not ()." The author of and however, makes it clear that John was Elijah but was not recognized as such. In the annunciation narrative in Luke, an angel appears to Zechariah, John's father, and tells him that John "will turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God," and that he will go forth "in the spirit and power of Elijah ()." Jesus Jesus' ministry had little in common with that of Elijah; in particular, he preached the forgiveness of one's enemies, while Elijah killed his. However, miracle stories similar to those of Elijah were associated with Jesus (e. g. raising of the dead, , , , miraculous feeding , , , ; also and ). In the Gospel of Luke, Herod Antipas hears some of the stories surrounding Jesus. Some tell Herod that John the Baptist, whom he had executed, has come back to life. Others tell him that it is Elijah. also Later, in the same gospel, Jesus asks his disciples who the people say that he is. Peter's answer includes Elijah among others. , also By this time, Elijah had entered folklore as a rescuer of Jews in distress. During Jesus' crucifixion, , some of the onlookers wonder if Elijah will come to rescue him. Transfiguration Elijah makes an appearance in the New Testament during an incident known as the Transfiguration. , and At the summit of an unnamed mount, Jesus' face begins to shine. The disciples who are with Him hear the voice of God announce that Jesus is "My beloved Son." The disciples also see Moses and Elijah appear and talk with Jesus. Peter is so struck by the experience that he asks Jesus if they should not build three "tabernacles": one for Elijah, one for Jesus and one for Moses. In this appearance, Elijah is generally seen as a witness of the prophets and Moses as a witness of the law for the divinely announced "Son of God." Albright, W. F. and C. S. Mann. The Anchor Bible: Matthew. New York: Doubleday, 1971. Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Anchor Bible: Luke I-IX. New York: Doubleday, 1981. Other references Elijah is mentioned three more times in the New Testament: in Luke, Romans, and James. In , Jesus uses Elijah as an example of rejected prophets. Jesus says, "No prophet is accepted in his own country," and then mentions Elijah, saying that there were many widows in Israel, but Elijah was sent to one in Phoenicia (see story above). In , Paul cites Elijah as an example of God's never forsaking his people (the Israelites). In , James says, "The . . . prayer of a righteous man availeth much," and then cites Elijah's prayers which started and ended the famine in Israel (again, see above), as examples of such prayers. Elijah in Jewish tradition The volume of references to Elijah in Jewish Tradition stands in marked contrast to that in the Canon. His career is extensive, colorful, and varied. He has appeared the world over in the guise of a beggar, scholar. Many stories of him are found in the Talmud. Jewish legends about Elijah abound in the aggadah, which is found throughout various collections of rabbinic literature, including the Babylonian Talmud. This varied literature does not merely discuss his life, but has created a new history of him, which, beginning with his death - or "translation" - ends only with the close of the history of the human race. From the time of Malachi, who says of Elijah that God will send him before "the great and dreadful day" (Mal. 3:23), down to the later stories of the Chasidic rabbis, reverence and love, expectation and hope, were always connected in the Jewish consciousness with Elijah. As in the case of most figures of Jewish legend, so in the case of Elijah, the Biblical account became the basis of later legend. Elijah the precursor of the Messiah, Elijah zealous in the cause of God, Elijah the helper in distress: these are the three leading notes struck by the Aggadah, endeavoring to complete the Biblical picture with the Elijah legends. Since, according to the Bible, Elijah lived a mysterious life, the Aggadah naturally did not fail to supply the Biblical gaps in its own way. In the first place, it was its aim to describe more precisely Elijah's origin, since the Biblical (I Kings xvii. 1) "Elijah, who was of the inhabitants of Gilead," was too vague Three different theories regarding Elijah's origin are presented in the Aggadah literature: (1) he belonged to the tribe of Gad (Midrash Genensis Rabbah lxxi.) (2) he was a Benjamite from Jerusalem, identical with the Elijah mentioned in I Chron. viii:27--Bythor (talk) 18:04, 6 May 2009 (UTC) (3) he was a priest. That Elijah was a priest is a statement which is made by many Church fathers also (Aphraates, "Homilies," ed. Wright, p. 314; Epiphanius, "Hæres." lv. 3, passim), and which was afterward generally accepted. In some later works some rabbis speculate that he is to be identified with Phinehas (Pirḳe R. El. xlvii.; Targ. Yer. on Num. xxv. 12) Mention must also be made of a statement which, though found only in the later Kabbalistic literature (Yalḳuṭ Reubeni, Bereshit, 9a, ed. Amsterdam), seems nevertheless to be very old (see Epiphanius, l.c.). According to this legend Elijah was really an angel in human form, so that he had neither parents nor offspring. See Melchizedek. Elijah's Zeal for God In spite of Elijah's many miracles, the mass of the Jewish people remained as godless as before. A midrash tells that they even abolished the sign of the covenant, and the prophet had to appear as Israel's accuser before God (Pirḳe R. El. xxix.). In the same cave where God once appeared to Moses and revealed Himself as gracious and merciful, Elijah was summoned to appear before God. By this summons he perceived that he should have appealed to God's mercy, instead of becoming Israel's accuser. The prophet, however, remained relentless in his zeal and severity, so that God commanded him to appoint his successor (Tanna debe Eliyahu Zuṭa viii.). The vision in which God revealed Himself to Elijah gave him at the same time a picture of the destinies of man, who has to pass through "four worlds." This world was shown to the prophet in the form of the wind, since it disappears as the wind; storm () is the day of death, before which man trembles (); fire is the judgment in Gehenna, and the stillness is the last day (Tan., Peḳude, p. 128, Vienna ed.). Three years after this vision (Seder 'Olam R. xvii.) Elijah was "translated." Concerning the place to which Elijah was transferred, opinions differ among Jews and Christians, but the old view was that Elijah was received among the heavenly inhabitants, where he records the deeds of men (Ḳid. 70; Ber. R. xxxiv. 8), a task which according to the apocalyptic literature is entrusted to Enoch. But as early as the middle of the second century, when the notion of translation to heaven was very much changed by Christian theologians, the assertion was made that Elijah never entered into heaven proper (Suk. 5a). In later literature paradise is generally designated as the abode of Elijah (compare Pirḳe R. El. xvi.), but since the location of paradise is itself uncertain, the last two statements may be identical. Elijah in folklore The volume of references to Elijah in folklore stands in marked contrast to that in the canon. Some stories owe their existence entirely to the minds of their creators. Apocrypha "At the appointed time, it is written, you are destined to calm the wrath of God before it breaks out in fury, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and to restore the tribes of Jacob." — A line in the Apocrypha describing Elijah's mission (Sirach 48:10). In , Elijah uses 12 stones, representing the 12 tribes of Israel, to build an altar. In , he has two tasks: to herald the eschaton and to reconcile the generations with the generation that experienced the covenant. In the Wisdom of Jesus ben Sira () his tasks are altered to: 1) herald the eschaton, 2) calm God’s fury, 3) restore familial peace, and 4) restore the 12 tribes. Folklore Elijah's miraculous transferral to heaven lead to speculation as to his true identity. Louis Ginzberg equates him with Phinehas the grandson of Aaron Ginzberg, Lewis. Legends of the Bible. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. p 580. (). Because of Phinehas zealousness for God, he and his descendants were promised, “a covenant of lasting priesthood” (). Therefore, Elijah is a priest as well as a prophet. Elijah is also equated with the Archangel Sandalphon, Ginzberg, Lewis. Legends of the Bible. Jewish Philadelphia: Publication Society of America, 1956. p 589 whose four wing beats will carry him to any part of the earth. When forced to choose between death and dishonor, Rabbi Kahana chose to leap to his death. Before he could strike the ground, Elijah/Sandalphon had appeared to catch him. Ginzberg, Lewis. Legends of the Bible. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. p 590-591. Yet another name for Elijah is "Angel of the Covenant" Schwartz, Howard. Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. p 201. (see Elijah’s chair below). Rabbi Joshua ben Levi References to Elijah in Jewish folklore range from short observations (e. g. It is said that when dogs are happy for no reason, it is because Elijah is in the neighborhood Bialik, H. N. and Y. H Ravnitzky. eds. The Book of Legends: Sefer Ha-Aggadah. New York: Schocken Books, 1992. p 756, 782, and 805. ) to lengthy parables on the nature of God’s justice. One such story is that of Rabbi Joshua ben Levi. The rabbi, a friend of Elijah’s, was asked what favor he might wish. The rabbi answered only that he be able to join Elijah in his wanderings. Elijah granted his wish only if he refrained from asking any questions about any of the prophet’s actions. He agreed and they began their journey. The first place they came to was the house of an elderly couple who were so poor they had only one old cow. The old couple gave of their hospitality as best they could. The next morning, as the travelers left, Elijah prayed that the old cow would die and it did. The second place they came to was the home of a wealthy man. He had no patience for his visitors and chased them away with the admonition that they should get jobs and not beg from honest people. As they were leaving, they passed the man’s wall and saw that it was crumbling. Elijah prayed that the wall be repaired and it was so. Next, they came to a wealthy synagogue. They were allowed to spend the night with only the smallest of provisions. When they left, Elijah prayed that every member of the synagogue might become a leader. Finally, they came to a very poor synagogue. Here they were treated with great courtesy and hospitality. When they left, Elijah prayed that God might give them a single wise leader. At this Rabbi Joshua could no longer hold back. He demanded of Elijah an explanation of his actions. At the house of the old couple, Elijah knew that the Angel of Death was coming for the old woman. So he prayed that God might have the angel take the cow instead. At the house of the wealthy man, there was a great treasure hidden in the crumbling wall. Elijah prayed that the wall be restored thus keeping the treasure away from the miser. The story ends with a moral: A synagogue with many leaders will be ruined by many arguments. A town with a single wise leader will be guided to success and prosperity. “Know then, that if thou seest an evil-doer prosper, it is not always unto his advantage, and if a righteous man suffers need and distress, think not God is unjust.” Ginzberg, Lewis. Legends of the Bible. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. p 599. Rabbi Eliezer The Elijah of legend did not lose any of his ability to afflict the comfortable. The case of Rabbi Eliezer son of Rabbi Simon ben Yohai is illustrative. The rabbi was known as much for his conceit as he was for his learning. Once, when walking a beach, and feeling particularly proud of himself, he came upon a hideously ugly man–the prophet in disguise. The man greeted him courteously, “Peace be with thee, Rabbi.” Instead of returning the greeting, the rabbi could not resist an insult, “How ugly you are! Is there anyone as ugly as you in your town?” Elijah responded with, “I don’t know. Perhaps you should tell the Master Architect how ugly is this, His construction.” The rabbi realized his wrong and asked for pardon. But Elijah would not give it until the entire city had asked for forgiveness for the rabbi and the rabbi had promised to mend his ways. Ginzberg, Lewis. Legends of the Bible. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. p 597. Lilith Elijah was always seen as deeply pious, it seems only natural that he would be pitted against an equally evil individual. This was found in the person of Lilith. Lilith in legend was the first wife of Adam. She rebelled against Adam, the angels, and even God. She came to be seen as a demon and a witch. Schwartz, Howard. Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Ginzberg, Lewis. Legends of the Bible. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. Elijah encountered Lilith and instantly recognized and challenged her, "Unclean one, where are you going?" Unable to avoid or lie to the prophet, she admitted she was on her way to the house of a pregnant woman. Her intention was to kill the woman and eat the child. Elijah pronounced his malediction, "I curse you in the Name of the Lord. Be silent as a stone!" But, Lilith was able to make a bargain with Elijah. She promises to "forsake my evil ways" if Elijah will remove his curse. To seal the bargain she gives Elijah her names so that they can be posted in the houses of pregnant women or new born children or used as amulets. Lilith promises, "where I see those names, I shall run away at once. Neither the child nor the mother will ever be injured by me." Schwartz, Howard. Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. p 224-225. Traditions Elijah's chair At Jewish circumcision ceremonies, a chair is set aside for the use of the prophet Elijah. Elijah is said to be a witness at all circumcisions when the “sign of the covenant” is placed upon the body of the child. This custom stems from the incident at Mount Horeb (). Elijah had arrived at Mt. Horeb after the demonstration of Yahweh’s presence and power on Mt. Carmel (). Elijah is asked by God for an explanation of his presence on Mt. Horeb. He replies: “I have been very jealous for the Lord, the God of hosts; for the people of Israel have forsaken thy covenant, thrown down thy altars, and slain thy prophets with the sword; and I, even I only, am left; and they seek my life, to take it away” (). According to Rabbinic tradition it is interpreted Elijah's words were patently untrue.( and ) Since Elijah had made the charge that Israel had failed to uphold the covenant, God would require Elijah to be present at every covenant of circumcision (brit milah). ”Elijah, Chair of.” Encyclopedia Judaica. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971. Unterman, Alan. “Elijah’s Chair.” Dictionary of Jewish Lore and Legend. London: Thames and Hudson, 1991. Rabbinic tradition assumes when Elijah is referring to covenant that he solely means circumcision. Karaites consider this interpretation as inaccurate and even a insult to Prophet Elijah. With the Rabbinic suggestion Elijah lied when he was encountered by God on Mt.Horeb. Elijah's cup In the Talmudic literature, Elijah would visit rabbis to help solve particularly difficult legal problems. Malachi had cited Elijah as the harbinger of the eschaton. Thus, when confronted with reconciling impossibly conflicting laws or rituals, the rabbis would set aside any decision “until Elijah comes.” ”Elijah, Cup of.” Encyclopedia Judiaca. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971. One such decision was whether the Passover seder required four or five cups of wine. Each serving of wine corresponds to "four expressions of redemption" in Exodus: "I am the Lord, and I will bring you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians, and I will deliver you from their bondage, and I will redeem you with an out-stretched arm and with great acts of judgment, and I will take you for my people, and I will be your God; and you shall know that I am the Lord your God, who has brought you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians" (). The next verse, "And I will bring you into the land which I swore to give to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob; I will give it to you for a possession. I am the Lord" (), was not fulfilled until the generation after that of the passover story. Since the rabbis could not resolve the question of whether or not this verse was a part of the Passover celebration (thus deserving of another serving of wine), a cup was left for the arrival of Elijah. In practice, the fifth cup has come to be seen as a celebration of future redemption. Today, a place is reserved at the seder table and a cup of wine is placed there for Elijah. During the seder, the door of the house is opened and Elijah is invited in. Traditionally, the cup is viewed as Elijah’s and is used for no other purpose. Telushkin, Joseph. Jewish Literacy. New York: William Morrow, 2001. Havdalah Havdalah is the ceremony that concludes the Sabbath Day (Saturday evening in Jewish tradition). As part of the concluding hymn, an appeal is made to God that Elijah will come during the following week. “Elijah the Prophet, Elijah the Tishbite. Let him come quickly, in our day with the messiah, the son of David.” Other traditions Prophet saint Russian Icon of the Prophet Elias (12th century, Pskov school. Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow). In Western Christianity, the Prophet Elijah is commemorated as a saint with a feast day on 20 July by the Roman Catholic Church Martyrologium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2001 ISBN 88-209-7210-7) and the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod. Calendar of Saints (Lutheran) In the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, he is commemorated on the same date (in the twenty-first century, Julian Calendar 20 July corresponds to Gregorian Calendar 2 August). He is greatly revered among the Orthodox as a model of the contemplative life. He is also commemorated on the Orthodox liturgical calendar on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord). Carmelite tradition In , Elijah returns from his stay with the widow of Zarephath to confront Ahab and announce the end of the drought. He encounters Obadiah and orders him back to Ahab to announce his return. Obadiah is reluctant to comply for Elijah has just spent several years in hiding from a determined search by the king. Obadiah is afraid that Elijah will disappear again leaving him to face the king’s wrath. After the confrontation on Mt. Carmel, Elijah will again avoid a determined search by Jezebel by going to the Sinai wilderness. After the confrontation over Naboth’s vineyard, Elijah will disappear from the record completely and not reappear until the confrontation with Ahaziah in 2nd Kings. Elijah is revered as the spiritual Father and traditional founder of the Catholic religious Order of Carmelites. In addition to taking their name from Mt. Carmel where the first hermits of the order established themselves, the Calced Carmelite and Discalced Carmelite traditions pertaining to Elijah focus upon the prophet’s withdrawal from public life. Ackerman, Jane. “Stories of Elijah and medieval Carmelite identity.” History of Religions. 35(2). 1995. 124-147. Ackerman, Jane. Elijah Prophet of Carmel. Washington, D.C.: Institute of Carmelite Studies Publications, 2003. The medieval Carmelite Book of the First Monks offers some insight into the heart of the Orders' contemplative vocation and reverence for the prophet. The prophet Elijah's feastday is celebrated on July 20 of the Carmelite Liturgical Calendar. Islamic tradition In the Qur'an, Elijah is the prophet known as Ilyas (إلياس) in Arabic. Similar to the story in the Hebrew Bible, Elijah preaches in opposition to Baal, pleading with the people not to forsake Allah. Qur'an 6:85, 37:123-132 He also causes a famine and prophesies destruction on Ahab and Jezebel. Latter-day Saint perspective The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also acknowledges Elijah as a prophet. Latter-day Saints believe that the Malachi prophecy of the return of Elijah was fulfilled on April 3, 1836 when Elijah visited the prophet and founder of the church, Joseph Smith, Jr. in the Kirtland Temple as a resurrected being. This event is chronicled in The Doctrine and Covenants Section 110 (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) verses 13-16: After this vision had closed, another great and glorious vision burst upon us; for Elijah the prophet, who was taken to heaven without tasting death, stood before us, and said: Behold the time has fully come, which was spoken of by the mouth of Malachi—testifying that he [Elijah] should be sent, before the great and dreadful day of the Lord come—To turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the children to the fathers, lest the whole earth be smitten with a curse—Therefore, the keys of this dispensation are committed into your hands; and by this ye may know that the great and dreadful day of the Lord is near, even at the doors. This experience forms the basis for the church's focus on genealogy and family history and belief in the eternal nature of marriage and families. Latter-day saints make a difference between the personal name Elijah and the title Elias. Bahá'í The Bahá'í Faith, accepts the Báb, the founder of The Bábí Faith as the return of Elijah and John the Baptist. Both Elijah and John the Baptist are generally seen as Lesser Prophets, the Báb is buried on Mount Carmel, where Elijah had his confrontation with the prophets of Baal Bahá'í Reference Library - Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era, Page 18 Bahá'ís also view the Báb as the Islamic Mahdi and Al-Qua'im. Bahá'í Reference Library - Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era, Pages 15-16 Eastern European As Elijah was described as ascending into heaven in a fiery chariot, the Christian missionaries who converted Slavic tribes likely found him an ideal analogy for Perun, the supreme Slavic god of storms, thunder and lightning bolts. In many Slavic countries Elijah is known as Elijah the Thunderer (Ilija Gromovnik), who drives the heavens in a chariot and administers rain and snow, thus actually taking the place of Perun in popular beliefs. Lenhoff, Gail. "Christian and Pagan Strata in the East Slavic Cult of St. Nicholas: Polemical Notes on Boris Uspenskij's FilologiÄeskie Razyskanija v Oblasti Slavjanskix Drevnostej." The Slavic and East European Journal. (July 1984) 28.2 pgs. 147-163. McLeish, Kenneth. Myth: Myths and Legends of the World Explored. London: Facts on File, 1996. p 506. In one Eastern-European folklore tale, Elijah is portrayed in his "Thunderer" persona: Once Jesus, the prophet Elijah, and St. George were going through Georgia. When they became tired and hungry they stopped to dine. They saw a Georgian shepherd and decided to ask him to feed them. First, Elijah went up to the shepherd and asked him for a sheep. After the shepherd asked his identity Elijah said that, he was the one who sent him rain to get him a good profit from farming. The shepherd became angry at him and told him that he was the one who also sent thunderstorms, which destroyed the farms of poor widows. (After Elijah, Jesus and St. George attempt to get help and eventually succeed). Gabidzashvili, Enriko. 1991. Saint George: In Ancient Georgian Literature. Armazi - 89: Tbilisi, Georgia. Raëlism In Raëlism, a group believing that extraterrestrial life is the source of modern religion, as well as human life on earth, Raël is told by the Elohim (in this group, the "people from the sky") that the Elohim had previously contacted several people to act as their prophets on Earth, including Moses, Elijah, Buddha, and others. Carter, Glenn, Glenn Carter's Raëlian Webpage, Glenncarter.com. Retrieved 12 March, 2007. Holy Piby In the Holy Piby, God enters into a dead man and becomes alive, then calls himself Elijah. The Holy Piby, Controversies Miracle of the ravens The ravens that fed Elijah by the brook Cherith have been queried. The Hebrew text at uses the word , which means ravens, but with a different vocalization might equally mean Arabs. The Septuagint has , ravens, and other traditional translations followed. When, centuries later, vowel points were added to the Hebrew text, they also were those for the ravens interpretation. Alternatives have been proposed for many years; for example Adam Clarke treats it as a discussion already of long standing. Clarke, Adam. The Holy Bible ... with a Commentary and Critical Notes, Volume II, London 1836 Objections to the traditional translation are that ravens are ritually unclean (see ) as well as physically dirty; it is difficult to imagine any method of delivery of the food which is not disgusting. The parallelism with the incident that follows, where Elijah is fed by the widow, also suggests a human, if mildly improbable, agent. Prof. John Gray chooses Arabs, saying "We adopt this reading solely because of its congruity with the sequel, where Elijah is fed by an alien Phoenician woman." Gray, John. Old Testament Library, I & II Kings, SCM Press, London, 1964 His translation of the verses in question is: And the word of Yahweh came to Elijah saying, Go hence and turn eastward and hide thyself in the Wadi Kerith east of the Jordan, and it shall be that thou shalt drink of the wadi, and I have commanded the Arabs to feed thee there. And he went and did according to the word of Yahweh and went and dwelt in the Wadi Kerith east of the Jordan. And the Arabs brought him bread in the morning and flesh in the evening and he would drink of the wadi. Ascension into the heavens In some Christian interpretations, the Gospel of John quotes Jesus as saying that none have gone to heaven other than the Son of Man (Jesus Himself) (). Accordingly, some Christians believe that Elijah was not assumed into heaven but simply transferred to another assignment either in Heaven biblical studies: The Fate of Enoch and Elijah or with King Jehoram of Judah. Indeed, the prophets reacted in such a way that makes sense if he was carried away, and not simply straight up (). Return Centuries after his departure, the Jewish nation still awaits the coming of Elijah to precede the coming of the Messiah. As discussed above, in some aspects of Judaism, there is a tradition of leaving an empty chair and a full goblet of wine at the Passover feast table to serve as a reminder of his promised return. At one point during the feast, participants may open a door in hopes that he will appear as a guest. Anticipation Elijah the Prophet - The Prophet Elijah Retrieved on 2007-04-07 Similarly, an empty chair is left in the room during a circumcision. For Christians, this belief is referenced in Matthew's gospel, where Jesus Christ taught that the Elijah who was to come was John the Baptist (). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, as mentioned previously in the 'Latter-day Saint' section, believes that Elijah returned on April 3, 1836 in an appearance to Joseph Smith, fulfilling a prophecy in Malachi. The Bahá'í Faith, as mentioned above in the 'Bahá'í' section, believes Elijah to have returned as the Biblical Prophet John the Baptist, and as the founder of the Bábí Faith; the Báb, in 1844 in Shiraz, Iran. Bahá'í Reference Library - God Passes By, Pages 49-60 Bahá'í Reference Library - Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era, Pages 15-16 Arts and literature Perhaps the best-known representation of the story of Elijah is Felix Mendelssohn's oratorio "Elijah." The oratorio chronicles many episodes of Elijah's life, including his challenge to Ahab and the contest of the gods, the miracle of raising the dead, and his ascension into heaven. Composed and premiered in 1846, the oratorio was criticized by members of the New German School but nonetheless remains one of the most popular Romantic choral-orchestral works in the repertoire. In Orlando Furioso, the English knight Astolfo flies up to the moon in Elijah's flaming chariot. In Melville's Moby-Dick, Elijah appears as a vagrant to admonish Ishmael and Queeqeg about sailing with Ahab; he prophesizes that all shall perish (on the Pequod) but one. Elijah Rock is a traditional Christian spiritual about Elijah, also sometimes used by Jewish youth groups. "Go Like Elijah" is a song by the American rock-pop-jazz songwriter Chi Coltrane. Lorenzetto created a statue of Elijah with assistance of the young sculptor Raffaello da Montelupo, using designs by Raphael. Link to on-line biography of Lorenzetto from Vasari's Vite The Fifth Mountain by Paulo Coelho is based on the story of Elijah Christian metal band Disciple released the song "God of Elijah" on their 2001 album By God. The theme of the song is the challenge Elijah placed against Ahab between Baal and the God of Israel. From 1974 to 1976 Philip K. Dick believed himself to be possessed by the spirit of Elijah. Rickman, Gregg. Philip K. Dick: The Last Testament. Long Beach, CA: Fragments West/The Valentine Press, 1985. On Ryan Adam's 2005 album "29" the song "Voices" speaks of Elijah, alluding to Elijah being the prophet of destruction. See also Carmelites Theophoric name References Bibliography Elijah: Prophet of Carmel, by Jane Ackerman, ICS Publications, 2003. ISBN 0-935216-30-8 History Miller, J. M. and J. H. Hayes. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004. ISBN 0-664-22358-3 Folklore and tradition Bialik, H. N. and Y. H Ravnitzky. eds. The Book of Legends: Sefer Ha-Aggadah. New York: Schocken Books, 1992. ISBN 0-8052-4113-2 Ginzberg, Lewis. Legends of the Bible. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. Schwartz, Howard. Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-508679-1 Wolfson, Ron and Joel L. Grishaver. Passover: The family Guide to Spiritual Celebration. Woodstock, VT: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-58023-174-8 Children's literature Aronin, Ben and Shay Rieger. The Secret of the Sabbath Fish. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1978. ISBN 0827601107 Goldin, Barbara. Journeys with Elijah: Eight Tales of the Prophet. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999. ISBN 0152004459 Jaffe, Nina. The Mysterious Visitor: Stories of the Prophet Elijah. New York: Scholastic Press, 1997. ISBN 0590484222 Jaffe, Nina. The Way Meat Loves Salt: A Cinderella Tale from the Jewish Tradition. New York: Holt Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0805043854 Silverman, Erica. Gittel's Hands. Mahwah, NJ: BridgeWater Books, 1996. ISBN 0816737983 Sydelle, Pearl. Elijah's Tears: Stories for the Jewish Holidays. New York: Holt Publishing, 1996. ISBN 0805046275 Thaler, Mike. Elijah, Prophet Sharing: and Other Bible Stories to Tickle Your Soul. Colorado Springs, CO: Faith Kids Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0781435129 Scheck, Joann. The Water That Caught On Fire. St. Louis, Missouri: Concordia Publishing House: ARCH Books, 1969. (59-1159) External links Legends of the Jews by Louis Ginzberg. The legends of Elijah. Jewish Encyclopedia: Elijah Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Cosmic Voyages - Mentions (in passing) the story of Elijah being carried up to heaven in a flaming chariot as an inspiration for human flight Elijah by Rob Bradshaw Extensive dictionary style article. LDS Bible Dictionary Entry on Elijah Edith Stein on Elijah in Carmelite spirituality Founder Statue in St Peter's Basilica Holy, Glorious Prophet Elijah Orthodox icon and synaxarion | Elijah |@lemmatized elijah:251 elias:1 arabic:2 إلياس:2 ilyās:1 meaning:1 yahweh:10 god:72 el:4 one:20 name:16 bible:22 karen:1 armstrong:1 history:15 root:2 allah:2 prophet:57 israel:49 century:11 bc:2 appear:13 hebrew:5 talmud:3 mishnah:1 christian:11 qur:3 accord:7 book:9 king:19 raise:2 dead:5 bring:10 fire:11 sky:3 ascend:2 heaven:15 chariot:7 new:25 testament:8 jesus:25 john:20 baptist:10 occasion:1 think:2 also:23 two:8 old:10 figure:2 along:1 moses:7 converse:1 mount:8 hermon:1 transfiguration:3 invoke:1 weekly:1 havdalah:3 ritual:2 mark:1 end:9 shabbat:1 jewish:28 custom:2 among:6 passover:6 seder:5 base:2 prophecy:7 malachi:11 many:11 jew:4 await:2 return:13 precursor:2 come:33 messiah:6 bulgaria:2 know:15 thunderer:3 folklore:8 hold:2 responsible:2 summer:1 storm:3 hail:1 rain:5 thunder:3 dew:3 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4,149 | Electromagnetic_spectrum | Although some radiations are marked as N for no in the diagram, some waves do in fact penetrate the atmosphere, although extremely minimally compared to the other radiations The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation frequencies. The "electromagnetic spectrum" (usually just spectrum) of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation from that particular object. The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio, virtually harmless (at the long-wavelength end) through gamma radiation,able to mutate and kill you (at the short-wavelength end), covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction the size of an atom. It is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length while the long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself (see physical cosmology), although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous. Legend What is Light? – UC Davis lecture slides The Electromagnetic Spectrum, The Physics Hypertextbook Definition of frequency bands on vlf.it γ= Gamma raysMIR= Mid infraredHF= High freq.HX= Hard X-RaysFIR= Far infraredMF= Medium freq.SX= Soft X-RaysRadio wavesLF= Low freq.EUV= Extreme ultravioletEHF= Extremely high freq.VLF= Very low freq.NUV= Near ultravioletSHF= Super high freq.VF/ULF= Voice freq.Visible lightUHF= Ultra high freq.SLF= Super low freq.NIR= Near InfraredVHF= Very high freq.ELF= Extremely low freq. Freq=Frequency Range of the spectrum EM waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency, f, wavelength, λ, and photon energy, E. Frequencies range from Hz (1 GeV gamma rays) down to tiny fractions of Hertz (millihertz for magnetic pulsations, microhertz and nanohertz for astronomical scale waves). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have the highest energy around a billion electron volt and radio waves have very low energy around femto electron volts (femto ). These relations are illustrated by the following equations: or or Where: c = (speed of light in vacuum) and h = (Planck's constant). Whenever light waves (and other electromagnetic waves) exist in a medium (matter), their wavelength is decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they are traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength , although this is not always explicitly stated. Generally, EM radiation is classified by coiled wavelength into radio wave, microwave, infrared, the visible region we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of energy per quantum (photon) it carries. Electromagnetic radiation can be divided into octaves — as sound waves are. Isaac Asimov, Isaac Asimov's Book of Facts. Hastingshouse/Daytrips Publ., 1992. Page 389. Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. It is widely used in astrophysics. For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave photon which has a wavelength of 21.12 cm. Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below can be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae and frequencies as high as have been detected from astrophysical sources. Rationale Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways in different parts of the spectrum. The types of interaction can be so different that it seems to be justified to refer to different types of radiation. At the same time there is a continuum containing all these "different kinds" of electromagnetic radiation. Thus we refer to a spectrum, but divide it up based on the different interactions with matter. Region of the spectrum Main interactions with matterRadio Collective oscillation of charge carriers in bulk material (plasma oscillation). An example would be the oscillation of the electrons in an antenna. Microwave through far infraredPlasma oscillation, molecular rotation Near infrared Molecular vibration, plasma oscillation (in metals only)VisibleMolecular electron excitation (including pigment molecules found in the human retina), plasma oscillations (in metals only)UltravioletExcitation of molecular and atomic valence electrons, including ejection of the electrons (photoelectric effect)X-raysExcitation and ejection of core atomic electronsGamma raysEnergetic ejection of core electrons in heavy elements, excitation of atomic nuclei, including dissociation of nucleiHigh energy gamma raysCreation of particle-antiparticle pairs. At very high energies a single photon can create a shower of high energy particles and antiparticles upon interaction with matter. Types of radiation The electromagnetic spectrum While the classification scheme is generally accurate, in reality there is often some overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted along wires as electric power. The distinction between X and gamma rays is based on sources. "Gamma ray" is the name given to the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and subnuclear/particle processes, whereas X-rays on the other hand are generated by electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner atomic electrons. Generally, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so usually, gamma-rays are more energetic than X-rays, but exceptions exist. By analogy to electronic transitions, muonic atom transitions are also said to produce X-rays, even though their energy may exceed 6 MeV CORRECTIONS TO MUONIC X-RAYS AND A POSSIBLE PROTON HALO slac-pub-0335 (1967) , whereas there are a few low-energy nuclear transitions (e.g. the 14.4 keV nuclear transition of Fe-57), and despite being over 400-fold less energetic than some muonic X-rays, the emitted photons are still called gamma rays due to their nuclear origin. Hyperphysics (see Gamma-Rays Also, the region of the spectrum of particular electromagnetic radiation is reference-frame dependent (on account of the Doppler shift for light) so EM radiation which one observer would say is in one region of the spectrum could appear to an observer moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light with respect to the first to be in another part of the spectrum. For example, consider the cosmic microwave background. It was produced, when matter and radiation decoupled, by the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms to the ground state. These photons were from Lyman series transitions, putting them in the ultraviolet (UV) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Now this radiation has undergone enough cosmological red shift to put it into the microwave region of the spectrum for observers moving slowly (compared to the speed of light) with respect to the cosmos. However, for particles moving near the speed of light, this radiation will be blue-shifted in their rest frame. The highest energy cosmic ray protons are moving such that, in their rest frame, this radiation is blueshifted to high energy gamma rays which interact with the proton to produce bound quark-antiquark pairs (pions). This is the source of the GZK limit. Radio frequency Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size (according to the principle of resonance), with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via modulation. Television, mobile phones, wireless networking and amateur radio all use radio waves. Radio Aids can be made to carry information by varying a combination of the amplitude, frequency and phase of the wave within a frequency band and the use of the radio spectrum is regulated by many governments through frequency allocation. When EM radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor, travels along it, and induces an electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting the electrons of the conducting material. This effect (the skin effect) is used in antennas. EM radiation may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to heat up, thus causing thermal effects and sometimes burns; this is exploited in microwave ovens. Microwaves Plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. The super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF) of microwaves come next up the frequency scale. Microwaves are waves which are typically short enough to employ tubular metal waveguides of reasonable diameter. Microwave energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state diodes such as Gunn and IMPATT devices. Microwaves are absorbed by molecules that have a dipole moment in liquids. In a microwave oven, this effect is used to heat food. Low-intensity microwave radiation is used in Wi-Fi, although this is at intensity levels unable to cause thermal heating. Volumetric heating, as used by microwaves, transfer energy through the material electro-magnetically, not as a thermal heat flux. The benefit of this is a more uniform heating and reduced heating time; microwaves can heat material in less than 1% of the time of conventional heating methods. When active, the average microwave oven is powerful enough to cause interference at close range with poorly shielded electromagnetic fields such as those found in mobile medical devices and cheap consumer electronics. Terahertz radiation Terahertz radiation is a region of the spectrum between far infrared and microwaves. Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimetre waves or so-called terahertz waves), but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing. Scientists are also looking to apply terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high frequency waves might be directed at enemy troops to incapacitate their electronic equipment. Infrared radiation The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz (1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts: Far-infrared, from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 μm). The lower part of this range may also be called microwaves. This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids. The water in the Earth's atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere effectively opaque. However, there are certain wavelength ranges ("windows") within the opaque range which allow partial transmission, and can be used for astronomy. The wavelength range from approximately 200 μm up to a few mm is often referred to as "sub-millimetre" in astronomy, reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 μm. Mid-infrared, from 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 μm). Hot objects (black-body radiators) can radiate strongly in this range. It is absorbed by molecular vibrations, where the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called the fingerprint region since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for that compound. Near-infrared, from 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750 nm). Physical processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light. Visible radiation (light) Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. This is the range in which the sun and stars similar to it emit most of their radiation. It is probably not a coincidence that the human eye is sensitive to the wavelengths that the sun emits most strongly. Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. The light we see with our eyes is really a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if you could see it) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end. EM radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (790–400 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off of an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes our eyes, this results in our visual perception of the scene. Our brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this not-entirely-understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit. At most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and our technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. Optical fiber transmits light which, although not suitable for direct viewing, can carry data that can be translated into sound or an image. The coding used in such data is similar to that used with radio waves. Ultraviolet light The amount of penetration of UV relative to altitude in Earth's ozone Next in frequency comes ultraviolet (UV). This is radiation whose wavelength is shorter than the violet end of the visible spectrum, and longer than that of an x-ray. Being very energetic, UV can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive or ionizing them, in general changing their mutual behavior. Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of UV radiation on skin cells, which is the main cause of skin cancer, if the radiation irreparably damages the complex DNA molecules in the cells (UV radiation is a proven mutagen). The Sun emits a large amount of UV radiation, which could quickly turn Earth into a barren desert; however, most of it is absorbed by the atmosphere's ozone layer before reaching the surface. X-rays After UV come X-rays. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. As they can pass through most substances, X-rays can be used to 'see through' objects, most notably bodies (in medicine), as well as for high-energy physics and astronomy. Neutron stars and accretion disks around black holes emit X-rays, which enable us to study them. X-rays are given off by stars, and strongly by some types of nebulae. Gamma rays After hard X-rays come gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Villard in 1900. These are the most energetic photons having no defined lower limit to their wavelength. They are useful to astronomers in the study of high energy objects or regions and find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their production from radioisotopes. Gamma rays are also used for the irradiation of food and seed. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy by means of Compton scattering. Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radiation of some types have a mixture of the properties of those in two regions of the spectrum. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can resonate some chemical bonds. See also Atmospheric window Bandplan Cosmic rays Electromagnetic spectroscopy ozone layer Radiant energy Radiation Spectroscopy V band W band References External links Australian Radiofrequency Spectrum Allocations Chart (from Australian Communications and Media Authority) Canadian Table of Frequency Allocations (from Industry Canada) U.S. Frequency Allocation Chart — Covering the range 3 kHz to 300 GHz (from Department of Commerce) UK frequency allocation table (from Ofcom, which inherited the Radiocommunications Agency's duties, pdf format) Flash EM Spectrum Presentation / Tool - Very complete and customizable. 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4,150 | Injector | Diagram of a typical modern injector or ejector. An injector, ejector, steam ejector or steam injector is a pump-like device that uses the Venturi effect of a converging-diverging nozzle to convert the pressure energy of a motive fluid to velocity energy which creates a low pressure zone that draws in and entrains a suction fluid. After passing through the throat of the injector, the mixed fluid expands and the velocity is reduced which results in recompressing the mixed fluids by converting velocity energy back into pressure energy. The motive fluid may be a liquid, steam or any other gas. The entrained suction fluid may be a gas, a liquid, a slurry, or a dust-laden gas stream. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical modern ejector or injector. It consists of a motive fluid inlet nozzle and a converging-diverging outlet nozzle. Water, air, steam, or any other fluid at high pressure provides the motive force at the inlet. The Venturi effect, a particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to the operation of this device. Fluid under high pressure is converted into a high-velocity jet at the throat of the convergent-divergent nozzle which creates a low pressure at that point. The low pressure draws the suction fluid into the convergent-divergent nozzle where it mixes with the motive fluid. In essence, the pressure energy of the inlet motive fluid is converted to kinetic energy in the form of velocity head at the throat of the convergent-divergent nozzle. As the mixed fluid then expands in the divergent diffuser, the kinetic energy is converted back to pressure energy at the diffuser outlet in accordance with Bernoulli's principle. Depending on the specific application, an injector is commonly also called an Eductor-jet pump, a water eductor, a vacuum ejector, a steam-jet ejector, or an aspirator. Key design parameters The compression ratio of the injector, , is defined as ratio of the injectors's outlet pressure to the inlet pressure of the suction fluid . The entrainment ratio of the injector, , is defined as the amount of motive fluid (in kg/hr) required to entrain and compress a given amount (in kg/hr) of suction fluid.. The compression ratio and the entrainment ratio are key parameters in designing an injector or ejector. History A- Steam from boiler, B- Needle valve, C- Needle valve handle, D- Steam and water combine, E- Water feed, F- Combining cone, G- Delivery nozzle and cone, H- delivery chamber and pipe, K- Check valve A more modern drawing of the injector used in steam locomotives. Steam injector of a steam locomotive boiler. The injector was invented by a Frenchman, Henri Giffard in 1858 and patented in the United Kingdom by Messrs Sharp Stewart & Co. of Glasgow. Motive force was provided at the inlet by a suitable high-pressure fluid. The injector was originally used in the boilers of steam locomotives for injecting or pumping the boiler feedwater to and from the boiler. The injector consisted of a body containing a series of three or more nozzles, "cones" or "tubes". The motive steam passed through a nozzle that reduced its pressure below atmospheric and increased the steam velocity. Fresh water was entrained by the steam jet, and both steam and water entered a convergent "combining cone" which mixed them thoroughly so that the water condensed the steam. The condensate mixture then entered a divergent "delivery cone" which slowed down the jet, and thus built up the pressure to above that of the boiler. An overflow was required for excess steam or water to discharge, especially during starting. There was at least one check valve between the exit of the injector and the boiler to prevent back flow, and usually a valve to prevent air being sucked in at the overflow. After some initial skepticism resulting from the unfamiliar and superficially paradoxical mode of operation, the injector was widely adopted as an alternative to mechanical pumps in steam-driven locomotives. The injectors were simple and reliable, and they were thermally efficient. Efficiency was further improved by the development of a multi-stage injector which was powered not by live steam from the boiler but by exhaust steam from the cylinders, thereby making use of the residual energy in the exhaust steam which would otherwise have gone to waste. Steam locomotives dominated rail transport from the mid 19th century until the mid 20th century, after which they were superseded by diesel and electric locomotives. Uses The use of injectors (or ejectors) in various industrial applications has become quite common due to their relative simplicity and adaptability. For example: To inject chemicals into the boiler drums of small, stationary, low pressure boilers. In large, high-pressure modern boilers, usage of injectors for chemical dosing is not possible due to their limited outlet pressures. In thermal power stations, they are used for the removal of the boiler bottom ash, the removal of fly ash from the hoppers of the electrostatic precipitators used to remove that ash from the boiler flue gas, and for creating a vacuum pressure in steam turbine exhaust condensers. For use in producing a vacuum pressure in steam jet cooling systems. For the bulk handling of grains or other granular or powdered materials. The construction industry uses them for pumping turbid water and slurries. Some aircraft (mostly earlier designs) use an ejector attached to the fuselage to provide vacuum for gyroscopic instruments such as an attitude indicator. Similar devices called aspirators based on the same operating principle are used in laboratories to create a partial vacuum and for medical use in suction of mucus or bodily fluids. Multi-stage steam ejectors In practice, for suction pressure below 100 mbar absolute, more than one ejector will be used, usually with condensors between the ejector stages. Condensing of motive steam greatly improves ejector set efficiency. Both barometric and shell-and-tube surface condensers are used for this purpose. Construction materials Injectors or ejectors are fabricated in carbon steel, Stainless steel, titanium, PTFE, carbon and other materials. See also Aspirator De Laval nozzle Diffusion pump Nozzle Surface condenser Venturi effect References Additional reading External links Ejector Pumps and Theory Ejectors Use of Eductor for Lifting Water 1908 Lunkenheimer Injector Catalog | Injector |@lemmatized diagram:2 typical:2 modern:4 injector:23 ejector:16 steam:26 pump:7 like:1 device:3 use:16 venturi:3 effect:3 converge:2 diverge:2 nozzle:11 convert:5 pressure:20 energy:9 motive:10 fluid:18 velocity:6 create:4 low:4 zone:1 draw:2 entrain:3 suction:7 pass:2 throat:3 mixed:3 expands:1 reduce:2 result:2 recompressing:1 back:3 may:2 liquid:2 gas:4 entrained:1 slurry:2 dust:1 laden:1 stream:1 adjacent:1 depict:1 consist:2 inlet:5 outlet:4 water:10 air:2 high:5 provide:3 force:2 particular:1 case:1 bernoulli:2 principle:3 applies:1 operation:2 jet:6 convergent:4 divergent:5 point:1 mix:2 essence:1 kinetic:2 form:1 head:1 expand:1 diffuser:2 accordance:1 depend:1 specific:1 application:2 commonly:1 also:2 call:2 eductor:3 vacuum:5 aspirator:3 key:2 design:3 parameters:1 compression:2 ratio:5 define:2 entrainment:2 amount:2 kg:2 hr:2 require:2 compress:1 give:1 parameter:1 history:1 boiler:13 b:1 needle:2 valve:5 c:1 handle:1 combine:3 e:1 feed:1 f:1 cone:4 g:1 delivery:3 h:1 chamber:1 pipe:1 k:1 check:2 drawing:1 locomotive:5 invent:1 frenchman:1 henri:1 giffard:1 patent:1 united:1 kingdom:1 messrs:1 sharp:1 stewart:1 co:1 glasgow:1 suitable:1 originally:1 inject:2 feedwater:1 body:1 contain:1 series:1 three:1 con:1 tube:2 atmospheric:1 increase:1 fresh:1 enter:2 thoroughly:1 condense:1 condensate:1 mixture:1 slow:1 thus:1 build:1 overflow:2 excess:1 discharge:1 especially:1 start:1 least:1 one:2 exit:1 prevent:2 flow:1 usually:2 suck:1 initial:1 skepticism:1 unfamiliar:1 superficially:1 paradoxical:1 mode:1 widely:1 adopt:1 alternative:1 mechanical:1 driven:1 simple:1 reliable:1 thermally:1 efficient:1 efficiency:2 far:1 improve:2 development:1 multi:2 stage:3 power:2 live:1 exhaust:3 cylinder:1 thereby:1 make:1 residual:1 would:1 otherwise:1 go:1 waste:1 locomotives:1 dominate:1 rail:1 transport:1 mid:2 century:2 supersede:1 diesel:1 electric:1 various:1 industrial:1 become:1 quite:1 common:1 due:2 relative:1 simplicity:1 adaptability:1 example:1 chemical:2 drum:1 small:1 stationary:1 large:1 usage:1 dosing:1 possible:1 limited:1 thermal:1 station:1 removal:2 bottom:1 ash:3 fly:1 hopper:1 electrostatic:1 precipitator:1 remove:1 flue:1 turbine:1 condenser:3 produce:1 cool:1 system:1 bulk:1 handling:1 grain:1 granular:1 powdered:1 material:3 construction:2 industry:1 turbid:1 aircraft:1 mostly:1 earlier:1 attach:1 fuselage:1 gyroscopic:1 instrument:1 attitude:1 indicator:1 similar:1 base:1 operating:1 laboratory:1 partial:1 medical:1 mucus:1 bodily:1 practice:1 mbar:1 absolute:1 condensors:1 condensing:1 greatly:1 set:1 barometric:1 shell:1 surface:2 purpose:1 fabricate:1 carbon:2 steel:2 stainless:1 titanium:1 ptfe:1 see:1 de:1 laval:1 diffusion:1 reference:1 additional:1 reading:1 external:1 link:1 theory:1 lift:1 lunkenheimer:1 catalog:1 |@bigram injector_ejector:5 steam_ejector:2 injector_pump:1 venturi_effect:3 converge_diverge:2 suction_fluid:5 convergent_divergent:3 kinetic_energy:2 compression_ratio:2 steam_locomotive:3 steam_locomotives:1 flue_gas:1 steam_turbine:1 bodily_fluid:1 stainless_steel:1 diffusion_pump:1 external_link:1 |
4,151 | Geography_of_India | The geography of India describes the physical features of India, a country in South Asia that lies entirely on the Indian Plate in the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. The country lies to the north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of . India measures from north to south and from east to west. It has a land frontier of and a coastline of . India is bounded to the southwest by the Arabian Sea, to the southeast by the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean to the south. Cape Comorin constitutes the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, which narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean. The southernmost part of India is Indira Point in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Maldives, Sri Lanka and Indonesia are island nations to the south of India with Sri Lanka separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles (22 km) measured from the appropriate baseline. The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range where its political boundaries with China, Bhutan, and Nepal lie. Its western borders with Pakistan lie in the Punjab Plain and the Thar desert. In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma while its political border with Bangladesh is defined by the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the Khasi hills and Mizo Hills. The Ganges is the longest river in India and forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Ganges-Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. Along its western frontier is the Thar Desert, which is the seventh-largest desert in the world. Officially, India's highest point is K2 at , though this is in the Pakistani-administered Kashmir, a disputed region. Kanchenjunga in Sikkim at is the second-highest point in India. Climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to Alpine in the upper reaches of the Himalayas. Geological development The Indian Plate India is entirely contained on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland. About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm/yr (6 in/yr) . About 50 to 55 million years ago,in the Eocene epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of 2,000 to 3,000 km (1,200 to 1,900 mi), having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the reason the India Plate moved so quickly is that it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland. The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. As of 2009, The India Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/yr (2 in/yr), while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent." This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the India Plate to compress at a rate of 4 mm/yr (0.15 in/yr). Political geography India is divided into twenty-eight states (further subdivided into districts) and seven union territories. Indian Kashmir, LoC and LAC India's borders run a total length of 15,106.70 km (9,387 mi). Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends upto 3,323 km (2,065 mi), dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch. Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir. According to India's claim, it shares a 106 km (66 mi) border with Afghanistan in northwestern Kashmir, which is under Pakistani control. India's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70 km (2,546 mi). There are 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India are on Bangladeshi soil. The Teen Bigha Corridor is a strip of land formerly belonging to India on the West Bengal–Bangladesh border which has been leased indefinitely to Bangladesh so that it can access its Dehgram–Angalpota enclaves. The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Both nations lay claim to the Aksai Chin region of northeastern Kashmir, which fell into Chinese control during the Sino-Indian War of 1962.The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1,643 km (1,021 mi) along the southern borders of India's northeastern states. Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs 699 km (434 mi). The border with Nepal runs 1,751 km (1,088 mi) along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India. The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states. Physiographic regions Elevated regions in India India is divided into seven physiographic regions. They are The northern mountains including the Himalayas, which includes the Kuen Lun and the Karakoram ranges and the northeast mountain ranges. Indo-Gangetic plains Thar Desert Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau East Coast West Coast Bordering seas and islands Mountains Map of the hilly regions in India. A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern Indian subcontinent. These were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate that started around 50 million years ago. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a natural barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains, flow through the fertile Indo–Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones: the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone which includes the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Indonesia. India has eight major mountain ranges having peaks of over : The Himalayan range is considered as the world's highest mountain range, with its tallest peak Mt. Everest on the Nepal–China border. They form India's northeastern border, separating it from northeastern Asia. They are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges and extend almost uninterrupted for , covering an area of . The Himalayas extend from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Numerous Himalayan peaks rise over and the snow line ranges between in Sikkim to around in Kashmir. Kanchenjunga—on the Sikkim–Nepal border—is the highest point in the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Mt. Kanchenjunga in Sikkim. The Karakoram is situated in the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir. It has more than sixty peaks above , including K2, the second highest peak in the world . K2 is just smaller than the Mount Everest. The range is about in length and the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside of the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at and the Biafo Glacier at rank as the world's second and third-longest glaciers outside the polar regions. Baltoro and Batura Glaciers in the Karakoram are long, as is Bruggen or Pio XI Glacier in southern Chile. Measurements are from recent imagery, generally supplemented with Russian 1:200,000 scale topographic mapping as well as Jerzy Wala, Orographical Sketch Map: Karakoram: Sheets 1 & 2, Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Zurich, 1990. Just to the west of the northwest end of the Karakoram, lies the Hindu Raj range, beyond which is the Hindu Kush range. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Gilgit, Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas. The Patkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Myanmar. They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. The physical features of the Patkai mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the Patkai–Bum, the Garo–Khasi–Jaintia and the Lushai hills. The Garo–Khasi range lies in Meghalaya. Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji lying on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall. The Vindhyas in central India The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, extending . The average elevation of these hills is . They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains. Geographically, it separates northern India from southern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at Mirzapur. The Satpura Range begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. It extends with many peaks rising above . It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada rivers. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo–Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada. The Aravali Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately . The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak in this range is Mount Abu, rising to , lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with Gujarat. The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient fold mountain system that was once snow-capped. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravali–Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. Western Ghats near Matheran The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range runs approximately from south of the Tapti River near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border and across Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula. The average elevation is around . The Anai Mudi in the Anaimalai Hills in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and vivisected by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri. These mountains extend from West Bengal to Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, along the coast and parallel to the Bay of Bengal. Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over in height. The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats. Indo-Gangetic plain The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and draining most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of . The major rivers in this region are the Ganges and the Indus along with their tributaries–Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab. |Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia. The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions: The Bhabar belt — is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by the river streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 7 to 15 kms. The Terai belt — lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife. The Bangar belt — consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits. The Khadar belt — lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain. The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas. Thar Desert Desert tribes living in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer, India. The Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) is world's seventh largest desert; it forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 238,700 km² (92,200 mile²). The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area. About 10 percent of this ecoregion comprises sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consists craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from 0°C in the winter to over 50°C during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July-September southwest monsoon that brings around 100-500 mm of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 m below the ground level. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.72 inches) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.75 inches) eastward. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum. Highlands The Central Highlands comprise of three main plateaus — the Malwa Plateau in the west, the Deccan Plateau in the south (covering most of the Indian peninsula) and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the east. The Malwa Plateau is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The average elevation of the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north. Most of the region is drained by the Chambal River and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of the Mahi River. Deccan Plateau The Deccan Plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km² (735,000 mile²). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (1,000 to 2,000 ft). The average elevation of the plateau is 2,000 feet (600 m) above sea level. The surface slopes from 3,000 feet (900 m) in the west to 1,500 feet (450 m) in the east. It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Narmada, which drain into the Bay of Bengal. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot summers to mild winters. The Chota Nagpur Plateau is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. Its total area is approximately 65,000 km² (25,000 mile²) and is made up of three smaller plateaus — the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 ft). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. Vast reserves of metal ores and coal have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau. The Kathiawar peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat. The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula is xeric scrub, part of the Northwestern thorn scrub forests ecoregion. In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 20,000 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes. The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000. Other areas have a moderate to low risk chance of an earthquake occurring. Coasts Varkala beach on Kerala's coast The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains and their deltas occupy most of the area. The temperature in the coastal regions exceed 30 °C (86 °F) coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the northeast and southwest monsoon rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000 mm (40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130 km (62 to 80 miles). The plains are divided into six regions — the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast and sandy coastal. The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing and mostly perennial, leading to the formation of estuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. The coast is divided into 3 parts namely, Konkan, which is situated in Maharashtra,Goa and northern parts of Karnataka; the Kanara in Karnataka and the Malabar Coast in Kerala. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. Islands Aerial view of the Andaman Islands The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island possessions having the status of union territories. The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300 km (124 to 186 miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea with an area of 32 km² (11 sq mi). They officially consist of 12 atolls, 3 reefs and 5 submerged banks, with a total of about 36 islands and islets. The reefs are in fact also atolls, although mostly submerged, with only small unvegetated sand cays above the high water mark. Indira Point, India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189 km (117 miles) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,140 ft). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6o and 14o North latitude and 92o and 94o East longitude. They consist of 572 isles, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is located 1255 km (780 miles) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 miles) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman islands number 204 and have a total length of 352 km (220 miles). India's volcanoes lie in the Andaman islands. The Barren Island is an active volcano, having last erupted in May 2005. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Significant islands just off the Indian coast include Diu, a former Portuguese enclave; Majuli, Asia's largest freshwater island; Elephanta in the Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park. Water bodies Rivers in India. India has about 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways. Twelve of India's rivers are classified as major, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 km² (976,000 mile²). All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds: The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges Vindhya and Satpura range in central India Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and flow throughout the year. The other two networks are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into Pakistan are the Indus, Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Jhelum. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest catchment area of 1,100,000 km² (424,700 mile²). The Ganga originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand. It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganga in the plains. The Brahmaputra, another tributary of the Ganga, originates in Tibet and enters India through the far-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh. It proceeds westwards, unifying with the Ganga in Bangladesh. The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganga originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the Narmada and Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow. The Godavari River The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the Mahanadi River through the Mahanadi River Delta, Godavari River, Krishna River and Kaveri River, all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow. The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and displace millions. Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Mannar. Straits include the Palk Strait, which separates India from Sri Lanka and the Ten Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island towards the south. Important capes include the Cape Comorin, the southern tip of mainland India; Indira Point, the southernmost location of India; Rama's Bridge and Point Calimere. Arabian Sea is to the west of India. Bay of Bengal is to the eastern side of India while India Ocean is to the south of India. Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. There are four coral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Kutch. Important lakes include Chilka Lake, the country's largest saltwater lake in Orissa; Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh; Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir, Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan and the Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala. Wetlands A map of the Indian Sunderbans. India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks. Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of 4 461 km² (1,722 mile²), which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Sundarbans delta, the Gulf of Kutch and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers. The Sundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the Sundarbans National Park (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the Bengal Tiger. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering Sind province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of 27 900 km² (10,800 mile²). The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turns into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched. Climate Temperature averages in India; units are in degree Celsius. Based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different microclimates. The nation has four seasons: winter (January–February), summer (March–May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June–September) and a post-monsoon period (October–December). The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical. Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures exceed during the day. The coastal regions exceed coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed . The rain-bearing monsoon clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was in Alwar in 1955. The lowest was in Kashmir. Geology Geological regions of India India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation. The Precambrian formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India. The Paleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The Mesozoic Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity. The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan. Tertiary imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains. The Gondowana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam. The Pleistocene system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes. The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by 1 cm each year. Soils in India can be classified into 8 categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid & desert, saline & alkaline and peaty & organic soils. Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total land surface. It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley. Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric. Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive. Red soil are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis. These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called humus. Natural resources Indian coal production is the 3rd highest in the world according to the 2008 Indian Ministry of Mines estimates. Shown above is a coal mine in Jharkhand. India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km3/year. Its annual supply of usable and replenshable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres. Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised. About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways. Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soil have a wide diffusion of iron content. Most of India's estimated in oil reserves are located in the Mumbai High, upper Assam, Cambay, the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins. India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of natural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Orissa. Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy thermal springs for producing geothermal energy in seven "provinces" — the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic Barren Island.) India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings. India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barites and chromites. The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of iron ore. It is the fifth-largest producer of bauxite and crude steel, the seventh-largest of manganese ore and the eighth-largest of aluminium. India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone. India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically-viable thorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala. Gold had been mined in the now-defunct Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka. References Further reading . . . | Geography_of_India |@lemmatized geography:2 india:107 describe:1 physical:2 feature:4 country:6 south:11 asia:8 lie:21 entirely:2 indian:25 plate:18 northern:13 portion:2 indo:13 australian:2 north:17 equator:1 latitude:2 east:13 longitude:2 seventh:4 large:20 world:21 total:15 land:8 area:30 measure:2 west:17 frontier:3 coastline:2 bound:3 southwest:8 arabian:12 sea:19 southeast:5 bay:12 bengal:18 ocean:3 cape:4 comorin:2 constitute:7 southern:11 tip:3 peninsula:6 narrow:6 end:6 southernmost:3 part:15 indira:3 point:9 andaman:12 nicobar:10 island:31 maldives:1 sri:3 lanka:3 indonesia:2 nation:4 separate:9 channel:3 form:15 palk:2 strait:3 gulf:11 mannar:3 territorial:1 water:7 extend:10 distance:2 twelve:2 nautical:1 mile:8 km:19 appropriate:1 baseline:1 define:3 largely:2 himalayan:8 mountain:21 range:44 political:3 boundary:6 china:3 bhutan:3 nepal:6 western:31 border:23 pakistan:7 punjab:3 plain:29 thar:10 desert:18 far:5 northeast:7 chin:2 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4,152 | Alfred_the_Great | Alfred the Great (, "elf-advice"; 849 – 26 October 899), also spelled Ælfred, was king of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex from 871 to 899. Alfred is noted for his defence of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of southern England against the Vikings, becoming the only English king to be awarded the epithet "the Great". Cnut the Great, who ruled England from 1016 to 1035, was Danish. Alfred was the first King of the West Saxons to style himself "King of the Anglo-Saxons". Details of his life are described in a work by the Welsh scholar and Bishop, Asser. Alfred was a learned man, who encouraged education and improved his kingdom's legal system as well as its military structure. Childhood Alfred was born in 849 at Wantage, Oxfordshire (in the historic county of Berkshire). He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf of Wessex, by his first wife, Osburga. Alfred was the youngest of either four (Weir, Alison, Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy (1989), p.5) or five brothers, the primary record conflicting regarding whether Æthelstan of Wessex was a brother or uncle. In 868 Alfred married Ealhswith, daughter of Æthelred Mucil. The Life of King Alfred At five years old, Alfred is said to have been sent to Rome where, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he was confirmed by Pope Leo IV who "anointed him as king". Victorian writers interpreted this as an anticipatory coronation in preparation for his ultimate succession to the throne of Wessex. However, his succession could not have been foreseen at the time, as Alfred had three living elder brothers. A letter of Leo IV shows that Alfred was made a "consul"; a misinterpretation of this investiture, deliberate or accidental, could explain later confusion. Wormald, Patrick, 'Alfred (848/9-899)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004). It may also be based on Alfred's later having accompanied his father on a pilgrimage to Rome and spent some time at the court of Charles the Bald, King of the Franks, around 854–855. On their return from Rome in 856, Æthelwulf was deposed by his son Æthelbald. With civil war looming, the magnates of the realm met in council to hammer out a compromise. Æthelbald would retain the western shires (i.e. traditional Wessex), and Æthelwulf would rule in the east. King Æthelwulf died in 858; meanwhile Wessex was ruled by three of Alfred's brothers in succession. Bishop Asser tells the story of how as a child Alfred won a prize of a volume of poetry in English, offered by his mother to the first of her children able to memorise it. This story may be true, or it may be a myth intended to illustrate the young Alfred's love of learning (for ecclesiastical sources of the period frequently misrepresent events, in order to promote to later rulers the Church's view of how a monarch ought to behave towards it). Under Æthelred During the short reigns of his two eldest brothers, Æthelbald of Wessex and Æthelbert of Wessex, Alfred is not mentioned. However with the accession of the third brother, Æthelred of Wessex, in 866, the public life of Alfred begins. It is during this period that Bishop Asser applies to him the unique title of "secundarius", which may indicate a position akin to that of the Celtic tanist, a recognized successor closely associated with the reigning monarch. It is possible that this arrangement was sanctioned by Alfred's father, or by the Witan, to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should Æthelred fall in battle. The arrangement of crowning a successor as Royal prince and military commander is well-known among other Germanic tribes, such as the Swedes, with whom the Anglo-Saxons were closely related. In 868, Alfred is recorded fighting beside his brother Æthelred, in an unsuccessful attempt to keep the invading Danes out of the adjoining Kingdom of Mercia. For nearly two years, Wessex was spared attacks because Alfred paid the Vikings to leave him alone. However, at the end of 870 the Danes arrived in his homeland. The year which followed has been called "Alfred's year of battles". Nine engagements were fought with varying fortunes, though the place and date of two of these battles have not been recorded. In Berkshire a successful skirmish at the Battle of Englefield, on 31 December 870, was followed by a severe defeat at the siege and Battle of Reading on 5 January 871; and then, four days later, Alfred won a brilliant victory at the Battle of Ashdown on the Berkshire Downs, possibly near Compton or Aldworth. Alfred is particularly credited with the success of this latter battle. However, later that month, on 22 January, the English were again defeated at Basing and, on the 22nd of March at the Battle of Merton (perhaps Marden in Wiltshire or Martin in Dorset), in which Ethelred was killed. The two unidentified battles may also have occurred in between. King at war Early struggles, defeat and flight Coin of Alfred, king of Wessex, London, 880 (based upon a Roman model).Obv: King with royal band in profile, with legend: ÆLFRED REX "King Ælfred". In April 871 King Æthelred died, and Alfred succeeded to the throne of Wessex and the burden of its defence, despite the fact that Æthelred left two under-age sons, Æthelhelm and Æthelwold. This was in accordance with the agreement that King Æthelred and Alfred had made earlier that year in an assembly at Swinbeorg. The brothers had agreed that whichever of them lived longest would inherit the personal property that King Æthelwulf in his will had left jointly to his sons. The deceased's sons would receive only whatever property and riches their father had settled upon them and whatever additional lands their uncle had acquired. The unstated premise was that the surviving brother would be king. Given the ongoing Danish invasion and the youth of his nephews, Alfred's succession probably went uncontested. Tensions between Alfred and his nephews, however, would arise later in his reign. While he was busy with the burial ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the English in his absence at an unnamed spot, and then again in his presence at Wilton in May. The defeat at Wilton smashed any remaining hope that Alfred could drive the invaders from his kingdom. He was forced, instead, to ‘make peace’ with them. The sources do not tell us what the terms of the peace were. Bishop Asser, spinning gold out of straw, trumpets that the 'pagans' agreed to vacate the realm and made good their promise; and, indeed, the Viking army did withdraw from Reading in the fall of 871 to take up winter quarters in Mercian London. Although not mentioned by Asser or by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Alfred probably also paid the Vikings cash to leave, much as the Mercians were to do in the following year. Abels, Richard, Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England (1998), pp. 140-1. Hoards dating to the Viking occupation of London in 871/2 have been excavated at Croydon, Gravesend, and Waterloo Bridge; these finds hint at the cost involved in making peace with the Vikings. For the next five years, the Danes occupied other parts of England. Brooks, N.P. and J.A. Graham-Campbell, "Reflections on the Viking-age silver hoard from Croydon, Surrey," in Anglo-Saxon Monetary History: Essays in Memory of Michael Dolley (1986), pp. 91-110. However, in 876 under their new leader, Guthrum, the Danes slipped past the English army and attacked and occupied Wareham in Dorset. Alfred blockaded them but was unable to take Wareham by assault. Accordingly, he negotiated a peace which involved an exchange of hostages and oaths, which the Danes swore on a "holy ring" associated with the worship of Thor (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle). The Danes, however, broke their word and, after killing all the hostages, slipped away under cover of night to Exeter in Devon. There, Alfred blockaded them, and with a relief fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes were forced to submit. They withdrew to Mercia but, in January 878, made a sudden attack on Chippenham, a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been staying over Christmas, "and most of the people they reduced, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way by wood and swamp, and after Easter he made a fort at Athelney in the marshes of Somerset, and from that fort kept fighting against the foe" (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle). From his fort at Athelney, an island in the marshes near North Petherton, Alfred was able to mount an effective resistance movement, rallying the local militias from Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire. Statue of Alfred the Great at Wantage A popular legend, originating from 12th century chronicles, History of the Monarchy - The Anglo-Saxon Kings - Alfred 'The Great' tells how when he first fled to the Somerset Levels Alfred was given shelter by a peasant woman who, unaware of his identity, left him to watch some cakes she had left cooking on the fire. Preoccupied with the problems of his kingdom, Alfred accidentally let the cakes burn and was taken to task by the woman upon her return. Upon realizing the king's identity the woman apologized profusely, but Alfred insisted that he was the one who needed to apologize. Another story relates how Alfred disguised himself as a minstrel in order to gain entry to Guthrum's camp and discover his plans. These stories emphasize not only the piety and Christian humility of Alfred but also the desperate straits to which he had been reduced. This was the low water mark in the history of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. With all the other kingdoms having fallen to the Vikings, and the other Anglo-Saxon leaders having consequently perished, Wessex alone was still resisting. There would be other defeats, most notably under Ethelred the Unready; but at no other point would the fortunes of the Royal house sink so low. It was Alfred's great achievement that he preserved the culture - and, most importantly, the language - of the Anglo-Saxons, at this nadir in his fortunes, when he was the last surviving Anglo-Saxon king. And it is for this great achievement that he is principally remembered. Counterattack and victory In the seventh week after Easter [4-10 May 878], around Whitsuntide, Alfred rode to ‘Egbert’s Stone’ east of Selwood, where he was met by "all the people of Somerset and of Wiltshire and of that part of Hampshire which is on this side of the sea [that is, west of Southampton Water], and they rejoiced to see him" (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle). Alfred’s emergence from his marshland stronghold was part of a carefully planned offensive that entailed raising the fyrds of three shires. This meant not only that the king had retained the loyalty of ealdormen, royal reeves and king’s thegns (who were charged with levying and leading these forces), but that they had maintained their positions of authority in these localities well enough to answer Alfred’s summons to war. Alfred’s actions also suggest a finely-honed system of scouts and messengers. Alfred won a decisive victory in the ensuing Battle of Ethandun, which may have been fought near Westbury, Wiltshire. He then pursued the Danes to their stronghold at Chippenham and starved them into submission. One of the terms of the surrender was that Guthrum convert to Christianity; and three weeks later the Danish king and 29 of his chief men were baptized at Alfred's court at Aller, near Athelney, with Alfred receiving Guthrum as his spiritual son. The "unbinding of the chrism" took place with great ceremony eight days later at the royal estate at Wedmore in Somerset, after which Guthrum fulfilled his promise to leave Wessex. There is no contemporary evidence that Alfred and Guthrum agreed upon a formal treaty at this time; the so-called Treaty of Wedmore is an invention of modern historians. The Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum preserved in Old English in Corpus Christi College Cambridge (Manuscript 383), and in a Latin compilation known as Quadripartitus, was negotiated later, perhaps in 879 or 880, when King Ceolwulf II of Mercia was deposed. Abels, Alfred the Great, pp. 163. That treaty divided up the kingdom of Mercia. By its terms the boundary between Alfred’s and Guthrum’s kingdoms was to run up the Thames, to the Lea River; follow the Lea to its source (near Luton); from there extend in a straight line to Bedford; and from Bedford follow the Ouse River to Watling Street. In other words, Alfred succeeded to Ceolwulf’s kingdom, consisting of western Mercia; and Guthrum incorporated the eastern part of Mercia into an enlarged kingdom of East Anglia (henceforward known as the Danelaw). By terms of the treaty, moreover, Alfred was to have control over the Mercian city of London and its mints — at least for the time being. Blackburn, M.A.S. Blackburn, "The London mint in the reign of Alfred," in Kings, currency, and alliances : history and coinage of southern England in the ninth century, ed. M.A.S. Blackburn and D.N. Dumville (1998), pp. 105-24. The disposition of Essex, held by West Saxon kings since the days of Egbert, is unclear from the treaty, though, given Alfred’s political and military superiority, it would have been surprising if he had conceded any disputed territory to his godson. Restoration of London, King of the English For the next few years there was peace, with the Danes being kept busy in Francia. A raid on Kent in 884 or 885 close to Plucks Gutter, though successfully repelled, encouraged the East Anglian Danes to rise up. The measures taken by Alfred to repress this uprising culminated in the taking (or more probably, retaking) of London 886. Alfred apparently regarded this as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that "all of the English people (all Angelcyn) not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred." Asser added that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more." Asser's Life of King Alfred, ch. 83, trans. Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge, Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred & Other Contemporary Sources (Penguin Classics) (1984), pp. 97-8. Alfred "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan. Vince, Alan, Saxon London: An Archaeological Investigation, The Archaeology of London series (1990). It is probably at this point that Alfred assumed the new royal style 'King of the Anglo-Saxons.' Further Viking attacks repelled After another lull, in the autumn of 892 or 893, the Danes attacked again. Finding their position in Europe precarious, they crossed to England in 330 ships in two divisions. They entrenched themselves, the larger body at Appledore, Kent, and the lesser, under Haesten, at Milton also in Kent. The invaders brought their wives and children with them, indicating a meaningful attempt at conquest and colonization. Alfred, in 893 or 894, took up a position from whence he could observe both forces. While he was in talks with Haesten, the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck northwestwards. They were overtaken by Alfred's oldest son, Edward, and were defeated in a general engagement at Farnham in Surrey. They were obliged to take refuge on an island in the Hertfordshire Colne, where they were blockaded and were ultimately compelled to submit. The force fell back on Essex and, after suffering another defeat at Benfleet, coalesced with Haesten's force at Shoebury. Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed stronghold on the North Devon shore. Alfred at once hurried westward and raised the Siege of Exeter. The fate of the other place is not recorded. Meanwhile the force under Haesten set out to march up the Thames Valley, possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. But they were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wiltshire and Somerset, and made to head off to the northwest, being finally overtaken and blockaded at Buttington. Some identify this with Buttington Tump at the mouth of the River Wye, others with Buttington near Welshpool. An attempt to break through the English lines was defeated. Those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. Then after collecting reinforcements they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of Chester. The English did not attempt a winter blockade but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the neighborhood. Early in 894 (or 895), want of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of this year and early in 895 (or 896), the Danes drew their ships up the Thames and Lea and fortified themselves twenty miles (32 km) north of London. A direct attack on the Danish lines failed, but later in the year, Alfred saw a means of obstructing the river so as to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realised that they were outmaneuvered. They struck off northwestwards and wintered at Cwatbridge near Bridgnorth. The next year, 896 (or 897), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to Northumbria, some to East Anglia. Those who had no connections in England withdrew back to Europe. Military reorganization Alfred the great silver offering penny, 871-899. Legend: AELFRED REX SAXONUM "Ælfred King of the Saxon". Reconstituted fyrd The near disaster of the winter of 878 even more than the victory in the spring left its mark on the king and shaped his subsequent policies. Over the last two decades of his reign, Alfred undertook a radical reorganization of the military institutions of his kingdom, strengthened the West Saxon economy through a policy of monetary reform and urban planning and strove to win divine favor by resurrecting the literary glories of earlier generations of Anglo-Saxons. Alfred pursued these ambitious programes to fulfill, as he saw it, his responsibility as king. This justified the heavy demands he made upon his subjects' labor and finances. It even excused the expropriation of strategically located Church lands. Recreating the fyrd into a standing army, ringing Wessex with some thirty garrisoned fortified towns, and constructing new and larger ships for the royal fleet were costly endeavors that provoked resistance from noble and peasant alike. But they paid off. When the Vikings returned in force in 892 they found a kingdom defended by a standing, mobile field army and a network of garrisoned fortresses that commanded its navigable rivers and Roman roads. Alfred analyzed the defects of the military system that he had inherited and implemented changes to remedy them. Alfred's military reorganization of Wessex consisted of three elements: the building of thirty fortified and garrisoned towns (burhs) along the rivers and Roman roads of Wessex; the creation of a mobile (horsed) field force, consisting of his nobles and their warrior retainers, which was divided into two contingents, one of which was always in the field; and the enhancement of Wessex's seapower through the addition of larger ships to the existing royal fleet. Each element of the system was meant to remedy defects in the West Saxon military establishment exposed by the Viking invasions. If under the existing system he could not assemble forces quickly enough to intercept mobile Viking raiders, the obvious answer was to have a standing field force. If this entailed transforming the West Saxon fyrd from a sporadic levy of king's men and their retinues into a mounted standing army, so be it. If his kingdom lacked strongpoints to impede the progress of an enemy army, he would build them. If the enemy struck from the sea, he would counter them with his own naval power. Characteristically, all of Alfred's innovations were firmly rooted in traditional West Saxon practice, drawing as they did upon the three so-called ‘common burdens' of bridge work, fortress repair and service on the king's campaigns that all holders of bookland and royal loanland owed the Crown. Where Alfred revealed his genius was in designing the field force and ‘burhs' (as these fortified sites were called) to be parts of a coherent military system. Neither Alfred's reformed fyrd nor his burhs alone would have afforded a sufficient defence against the Vikings; together, however, they robbed the Vikings of their major strategic advantages: surprise and mobility. The burghal system; defence in depth Alfred, in effect, had created what modern strategists call a defense-in-depth system, and one that worked. Abels, Richard, Lordship and Military Obligation in Anglo-Saxon England (1988), pp. 58-78. Alfred's boroughs were not grand affairs like the massive stone late Roman shore forts that still dot the southern coast of England (e.g. Pevensey and Richborough 'Castle'). Rather, the borough defenses consisted mainly of massive earthworks, large earthen walls surrounded by wide ditches. The earthen wall probably were surmounted with wooden palisades, which, by the tenth century were giving way to stone walls. (The Alfredian defences are well preserved at Wareham, a town on the southern coast of England.) The size of the boroughs varied greatly, from tiny fortifications such as Pilton to large towns like Winchester. Many of the boroughs were, in fact, twin towns built on either side of a river and connected by a fortified bridge—much like Charles the Bald's fortifications a generation before. Such a double-borough would block passage on the river; the Vikings would have to row under a garrisoned bridge, risking being pelted with stones, spears, or shot with arrows, in order to go upstream. Alfred's thirty boroughs were distributed widely throughout the West Saxon kingdom and situated in such a manner that no part of the kingdom was more than twenty miles, a day's march, from a fortified center. They were also sited near fortified royal villas, to permit the king better control over his strongholds. What has not been recognized sufficiently, is how these boroughs dominated the kingdom's lines of communication, the navigable rivers, Roman roads, and major trackways. Alfred seems to have had "highways" (hereweges--"army roads") linking the boroughs to one another. An extensive beacon system to warn of approaching Viking fleets and armies was probably also instituted at this time. In short, the thirty boroughs formed an integrated system of fortification. The presence of well-garrisoned boroughs along the major travel routes of Wessex presented an obstacle for Viking invaders, especially those laden with booty. They also served as places of refuge for the populations of the surrounding countryside. But these fortresses were not mere static points of defense. They were designed to operate in conjunction with Alfred's mobile standing army. The army and the boroughs together deprived the Vikings of their major strategic advantages: surprise and mobility. It was dangerous for the Vikings to leave a borough intact astride their lines of communication, but it was equally dangerous to attempt to take one. Lacking siege equipment or a developed doctrine of siegecraft, the Vikings could not take these fortresses by storm. Rather, they reduced to the expedient of starving them into submission, which gave the king time to come to their relief with his mobile field army, or for the garrisons of neighboring boroughs to come to the aid of the besieged town. In a number of instances, the hunter became the hunted, as borough garrison and field force joined together to pursue the would-be raiders. In fact, the only recorded success Viking forces had against boroughs in the ninth century occurred in 892, when a Viking stormed a half-made, poorly garrisoned fortress up the Lympne estuary in Kent. Alfred's burghal system was revolutionary in its strategic conception and extraordinarily expensive in its execution. As Alfred’s biographer Asser makes clear, many nobles were reluctant to comply with what must have seemed to them outrageous and unheard of demands—even if they were for ‘the common needs of the kingdom’, as Asser reminded them. The cost of building the burhs was great in itself, but this paled before the cost of upkeep for these fortresses and the maintaining of their standing garrisons, which together amounted to 27,071 troops. (We know this because a remarkable early tenth-century document known as the Burghal Hidage provides a formula for determining how many men are needed to garrison a town based on the basis of one man for every 5.5 yards of wall.) Even if we assume that the mobile forces of Alfred were small—perhaps 3,000 or so horsemen—the manpower costs of his military establishment were considerable. Given that the population of Wessex in 890 could hardly have been greater than 550,000, the approximate population of this region in 1086 according to Domesday Book, the borough garrisons alone must have constituted 5% of the kingdom's total population. To put this in historical perspective, the Prussian military at the height of the Napoleonic Wars only absorbed 4% of that state's population. (An American military comprising 5% of the present population of the United States would be in excess of 15,000,000 troops.) Administration and taxation To obtain the needed garrison troops and workers to build and maintain the burhs' defenses, Alfred regularized and vastly expanded the existing (and, one might add, quite recent) obligation of landowners to provide ‘fortress work’ on the basis of the hidage assessed upon their lands. Abels, Alfred the Great, pp. 199-207. The allotments of the Burghal Hidage represent the creation of administrative districts for the support of the burhs. The landowners attached to Wallingford, for example, were responsible for producing and feeding 2,400 men, the number sufficient for maintaining 9,900 feet of wall. Each of the larger burhs became the centre of a territorial district of considerable size, carved out of the neighbouring countryside in order to support the town. In one sense, Alfred conceived nothing truly new here. The shires of Wessex went back at least to the reign of King Ine, who probably also imposed a hidage assessment upon each for food rents and other services owed the Crown. But, it is equally clear that Alfred did not allow the past to bind him. With the advice of his witan, he freely reorganized and modified what he had inherited. The result was nothing short of an administrative revolution, a reorganization of the West Saxon shire system to accommodate Alfred’s military needs. Even if one rejects the thesis crediting the "Burghal Hidage" to Alfred, what is undeniable is that, in the parts of Mercia acquired by Alfred from the Vikings, the shire system seems now to have been introduced for the first time. This is probably what prompted the legend that Alfred was the inventor of shires, hundreds and tithings. An English navy Alfred also tried his hand at naval design. In 896 he ordered the construction of a small fleet, perhaps a dozen or so longships, that, at 60 oars, were twice the size of Viking warships. This was not, as the Victorians were wont to believe, the birth of the English Navy. Wessex possessed a royal fleet before this. Alfred's brother King Athelstan of Kent and Ealdorman Eahlhere had defeated a Viking fleet in 851, capturing nine ships, and Alfred himself had conducted naval actions in 882 and 884. But clearly the author of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and probably Alfred himself regarded 896 as marking an important development in the naval power of Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicler flattered his royal patron by boasting that Alfred's ships were not only larger, but swifter, steadier, and rode higher in the water than either Danish or Frisian ships. Alfred had seapower in mind: if he could intercept raiding fleets before they landed, he could spare his kingdom from ravaging. In conception Alfred's ships may have been superior, but in practice they left a bit to be desired. Abels, Alfred the Great, pp. 305-7. Cf. the much more positive view of the capabilities of these ships in Gifford, Edwin; Gifford, Joyce, "Alfred's new longships," in Alfred the Great (Studies in early medieval Britain), ed. Timothy Reuter (2003), 281-89. His ships proved to be too large to maneuver well in the close waters of estuaries and rivers, the only places in which a 'naval' battle could occur. (The warships of the time were not designed to be ship killers but troop carriers. A naval battle entailed a ship coming alongside an enemy vessel, at which point the crew would lash the two ships together and board the enemy. The result was a land battle at sea.) In the one recorded naval engagement, Alfred's new fleet intercepted six Viking ships in the mouth of an unidentified river along the south of England. The Danes had beached half their ships, either to rest their rowers or to forage for food. Alfred's ships immediately moved to block their escape to the sea. The three Viking ships afloat attempted to break through the English lines. Only one made it. Alfred's ships intercepted the other two. Lashing the Viking boats to their own, the English crew boarded the enemy's vessels and proceeded to kill everyone on board. The one ship that escaped managed to do so only because all of Alfred's heavy ships became mired when the tide went out. What ensued was a land battle between the crews of the grounded ships. The Danes, heavily outnumbered, would have been wiped out if the tide had not risen. When that occurred, the Danes rushed back to their boats, which being lighter, with shallower drafts, were freed before Alfred's ships. Helplessly, the English watched as the Vikings rowed past them. But the pirates had suffered so many casualties (120 dead according to the Chronicle), that they had difficulties putting out to sea. Two of the three ships were driven against the Sussex coast. The shipwrecked sailors were brought before Alfred at Winchester and hanged. Legal reform In the late 880s or early 890s Alfred issued a long domboc or law code consisting of his "own" laws followed by a code issued by his late seventh-century predecessor King Ine of Wessex. Together these laws are arranged into 120 chapters. In his introduction Alfred explains that he gathered together the laws the laws he found in many 'synod-books' and "ordered to be written many of the ones that our forefathers observed--those that pleased me; and many of the ones that did not please me I rejected with the advice of my councillors, and commanded them to be observed in a different way." Alfred, Int. 49.9, trans. Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great, p. 164. Alfred singled out in particular the laws that he "found in the days of Ine, my kinsman, or Offa, king of the Mercians, or King Æthelbert of Kent, who first among the English people received baptism." It is difficult to know exactly what Alfred meant by this. He appended rather than integrated the laws of Ine into his code, and although he included, as had Æthelbert, a scale of payments in compensation for injuries to various body parts, the two injury tariffs are not aligned. And Offa is not known to have issued a law code,leading historian Patrick Wormald to speculate that Alfred had in mind the legatine capitulary of 786 that was presented to Offa by two papal legates. Wormald, Patrick, The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century (1999), pp. 280-1. About a fifth of the law code is taken up by Alfred's introduction, which includes translations into English of the Decalogue, a few chapters from the book of Exodus, and the so-called 'Apostolic Letter' from Acts of the Apostles (15:23-29). The Introduction may best be understood as Alfred's meditation upon the meaning of Christian law. It traces the continuity between God's gift of Law to Moses to Alfred's own issuance of law to the West Saxon people. By doing so it links the holy past to the historical present and represents Alfred's law-giving as a type of divine legislation. Abels, Alfred the Great, p. 248. This is the reason that Alfred divided his code into precisely 120 chapters: 120 was the age at which Moses died and in the number-symbolism of early medieval biblical exegetes 120 stood for law. Wormald, Making of English Law, p. 417. The link between the Mosaic Law and Alfred's code is the 'Apostolic Letter,' which explained that Christ "had come not to shatter or annul the Commandments but to fulfill them; and he taught mercy and meekness" (Intro, 49.1). The mercy that Christ infused into Mosaic Law underlies the injury tariffs that figure so prominently in barbarian law codes, since Christian synods "established, through that mercy which Christ taught, that for almost every misdeed at the first offense secular lords might with their permission receive without sin the monetary compensation, which they then fixed.". Alfred, Intro, 49.7, trans. Keynes and Lapidge, p. 164. The only crime that could not be compensated with a payment of money is treachery to a lord, "since Almighty God adjudged none for those who despised Him, nor did Christ, the Son of God, adjudge any for the one who betrayed Him to death; and He commanded everyone to love his lord as Himself." Ibid., pp. 164-5. Alfred's transformation of Christ's commandment from "Love your neighbor as yourself" (Matt. 22:39-40) to love your secular lord as you would love the Lord Christ himself underscores the importance that Alfred placed upon lordship, which he understood as a sacred bond instituted by God for the governance of man. Alfred's Pastoral Care, ch. 28, cited by Abels, Alfred the Great, p. 250. When one turns from the domboc'''s introduction to the laws themselves, it is difficult to uncover any logical arrangement. The impression one receives is of a hodgepodge of miscellaneous laws. The law code as it has been preserved is singularly unsuitable for use in law suits. In fact, several of Alfred's laws contradict the laws of Ine that form an integral part of the code. Patrick Wormald's explanation is that Alfred's law code should be understood not as a legal manual but as an ideological manifesto of kingship, "designed more for symbolic impact than for practical direction." Wormald, Making of English Law, p. 427. In practical terms, the most important law in the code may well be the very first: "We enjoin, what is most necessary, that each man keep carefully his oath and his pledge," which expresses a fundamental tenet of Anglo-Saxon law. Alfred, 2, in Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great, p. 164. Alfred devoted considerable attention and thought to judicial matters. Asser underscores his concern for judicial fairness. Alfred, according to Asser, insisted upon reviewing contested judgments made by his ealdormen and reeves, and "would carefully look into nearly all the judgements which were passed in his absence anywhere in the realm, to see whether they were just or unjust." Asser, chap. 106, in Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great, 109 A charter from the reign of his son Edward the Elder depicts Alfred as hearing one such appeal in his chamber, while washing his hands. The charter is Sawyer 1445, and is printed in English Historical Documents, vol. 1, ed. Dorothy Whitelock, 2nd edn (1979), pp. 544-6. Asser represents Alfred as a Solomonic judge, painstaking in his own judicial investigations and critical of royal officials who rendered unjust or unwise judgments. Although Asser never mentions Alfred's law code, he does say that Alfred insisted that his judges be literate, so that they could apply themselves "to the pursuit of wisdom." The failure to comply with this royal order was to be punished by loss of office. Asser, chap. 106, in Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great, 109-10. It is uncertain how seriously we should take this; Asser was more concerned to represent Alfred as a wise ruler than to report actual royal policy. Foreign relations Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign powers, but little definite information is available. His interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he made in his translation of Orosius. He certainly corresponded with Elias III, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, and possibly sent a mission to India. Contact was also made with the Caliph in Baghdad. Embassies to Rome conveying the English alms to the Pope were fairly frequent. Around 890, Wulfstan of Haithabu undertook a journey from Haithabu on Jutland along the Baltic Sea to the Prussian trading town of Truso. Alfred ensured he reported to him details of his trip. Alfred's relations with the Celtic princes in the western half of Britain are clearer. Comparatively early in his reign, according to Asser, the southern Welsh princes, owing to the pressure on them from North Wales and Mercia, commended themselves to Alfred. Later in the reign the North Welsh followed their example, and the latter cooperated with the English in the campaign of 893 (or 894). That Alfred sent alms to Irish as well as to European monasteries may be taken on Asser's authority. The visit of the three pilgrim "Scots" (i.e. Irish) to Alfred in 891 is undoubtedly authentic. The story that he himself in his childhood was sent to Ireland to be healed by Saint Modwenna, though mythical, may show Alfred's interest in that island. Religion and culture In the 880s, at the same time that he was 'cajoling and threatening' his nobles to build and man the burhs, Alfred, perhaps inspired by the example of Charlemagne a century before, undertook an equally ambitious effort to revive learning. It entailed the recruitment of clerical scholars from Mercia, Wales and abroad to enhance the tenor of the court and of the episcopacy; the establishment of a court school to educate his own children, the sons of his nobles, and intellectually promising boys of lesser birth; an attempt to require literacy in those who held offices of authority; a series of translations into the vernacular of Latin works the king deemed 'most necessary for all men to know'; the compilation of a chronicle detailing the rise of Alfred's kingdom and house; and the issuance of a law code that presented the West Saxons as a new people of Israel and their king as a just and divinely-inspired law-giver. Very little is known of the church under Alfred. The Danish attacks had been particularly damaging to the monasteries, and though Alfred founded monasteries at Athelney and Shaftesbury, the first new monastic houses in Wessex since the beginning of the eighth century, Yorke, Barbara, Wessex in the Early Middle Ages(1995), p. 201 and enticed foreign monks to England, monasticism did not revive significantly during his reign. Alfred undertook no systematic reform of ecclesiastical institutions or religious practices in Wessex. For him the key to the kingdom's spiritual revival was to appoint pious, learned, and trustworthy bishops and abbots. As king he saw himself as responsible for both the temporal and spiritual welfare of his subjects. Secular and spiritual authority were not distinct categories for Alfred. He was equally comfortable distributing his translation of Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care to his bishops so that they might better train and supervise priests, and using those same bishops as royal officials and judges. Nor did his piety prevent him from expropriating strategically sited church lands, especially estates along the border with the Danelaw, and transferring them to royal thegns and officials who could better defend them against Viking attacks. Fleming, Robin, "Monastic lands and England's defence in the Viking Age," English Historical Review 100 (1985): 247-65. The Danish raids had also a devastating impact on learning in England. Alfred lamented in the preface to his translation of Pope Gregory I's Pastoral Care that "learning had declined so thoroughly in England that there were very few men on this side of the Humber who could understand their divine services in English, or even translate a single letter from Latin into English: and I suppose that there were not many beyond the Humber either." Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great, p. 125. Alfred undoubtedly exaggerated for dramatic effect the abysmal state of learning in England during his youth. That Latin learning had not been obliterated is evidenced by the presence in his court of learned Mercian and West Saxon clerics such as Plegmund, Wæferth, and Wulfsige. But one should not discount entirely Alfred's account. Manuscript production in England dropped off precipitously around the 860s when the Viking invasions began in earnest, not to be revived until the end of the century. Dumville, David, Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar: Six Essays on Political, Cultural, and Ecclesiastical Revival (1992), p. 190. Numerous Anglo-Saxon manuscripts burnt up along with the churches that housed them. And a solemn diploma from Christ Church, Canterbury dated 873 is so poorly constructed and written that historian Nicholas Brooks posited a scribe who was either so blind he could not read what he wrote or who knew little or no Latin. "It is clear," Brooks concludes, "that the metropolitan church [of Canterbury] must have been quite unable to provide any effective training in the scriptures or in Christian worship." Brooks, Nicholas, The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 (1984), pp. 172-3. Following the example of Charlemagne, Alfred established a court school for the education of his own children, those of the nobility. and "a good many of lesser birth." There they studied books in both English and Latin and "devoted themselves to writing, to such an extent .... they were seen to be devoted and intelligent students of the liberal arts." Asser, chap. 75, in Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great, pp. 99-1. Cf. Codicology of the court school of Charlemagne: Gospel book production, illumination, and emphasised script (European university studies. Series 28, History of art) He recruited scholars from the Continent and from Britain to aid in the revival of Christian learning in Wessex and to provide the king personal instruction. Grimbald and John the Saxon came from Francia; Plegmund (whom Alfred appointed archbishop of Canterbury in 890), Bishop Werferth of Worcester, Æthelstan, and the royal chaplains Werwulf, from Mercia; and Asser, from St. David's in southwestern Wales. Alfred's educational ambitions seem to have extended beyond the establishment of a court school. Believing that without Christian wisdom there can be neither prosperity nor success in war, Alfred aimed "to set to learning (as long as they are not useful for some other employment) all the free-born young men now in England who have the means to apply themselves to it." Preface to Alfred's translation of Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care, in Keynes and Lapidge, p. 126. Conscious of the decay of Latin literacy in his realm, Alfred proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin. The problem, however, was that there were few "books of wisdom" written in English. Alfred sought to remedy this through an ambitious court-centered program of translating into English the books he deemed "most necessary for all men to know." Ibid. It is unknown when Alfred launched this program, but it may have been during the 880s when Wessex was enjoying a respite from Viking attacks. Apart from the lost Handboc or Encheiridion, which seems to have been a commonplace book kept by the king, the earliest work to be translated was the Dialogues of Gregory the Great, a book greatly popular in the Middle Ages. The translation was undertaken at Alfred's command by Werferth, Bishop of Worcester, with the king merely furnishing a preface. Remarkably, Alfred, undoubtedly with the advise and aid of his court scholars, translated four works himself: Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care, Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy, St. Augustine's Soliloquies, and the first fifty psalms of the Psalter. One might add to this list Alfred's translation in his law code of excerpts from the Vulgate Book of Exodus. The Old English versions of Orosius's Histories against the Pagans and Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People are no longer accepted by scholars as Alfred's own translations because of lexical and stylistic differences. Bately, Janet, "King Alfred and the Old English Translation of Orosius," Anglia 88 (1970): 433-60; idem, "'Those books that are most necessary for all men to know'. The Classics and late ninth-century England: a reappraisal," in The Classics in the Middle Ages, ed. Aldo S. Bernardo and Saul Levin (1990), pp. 45-78, Nonetheless, the consensus remains that they were part of the Alfredian program of translation. Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge suggest this also for Bald's Leechbook and the anonymous Old English Martyrology. Keynes and Lapide, Alfred the Great, pp. 33-4. Alfred's first translation was of Pope Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care, which he prefaced with an introduction explaining why he thought it necessary to translate works such as this one from Latin into English. Although he described his method as translating "sometimes word for word, sometimes sense for sense," Alfred's translation actually keeps very close to his original, although through his choice of language he blurred throughout the distinction between spiritual and secular authority. Alfred meant his translation to be used and circulated it to all his bishops. The Consolation of Philosophy of Boethius was the most popular philosophical handbook of the Middle Ages. Unlike his translation of the Pastoral Care, Alfred here deals very freely with his original and though the late Dr. G. Schepss Dr. G. Schepss, "Zu König Alfreds Boethius" in Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen, xciv (1895), pp. 149-160 showed that many of the additions to the text are to be traced not to Alfred himself, but to the glosses and commentaries which he used, still there is much in the work which is solely Alfred's and highly characteristic of his genius. It is in the Boethius that the oft-quoted sentence occurs: "My will was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good works." The book has come down to us in two manuscripts only. In one of these Oxford Bodleian Library MS Bodley 180 the writing is prose, in the other British Library Cotton MS Otho A. vi a combination of prose and alliterating verse. The latter manuscript was severely damaged in the 18th and 19th centuries, Kiernan, Kevin S., "Alfred the Great's Burnt Boethius". In Bornstein, George and Theresa Tinkle, eds., The Iconic Page in Manuscript, Print, and Digital Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998). and the authorship of the verse has been much disputed; but likely it also is by Alfred. In fact, he writes in the prelude that he first created a prose work and then used it as the basis for his poem, the Lays of Boethius, his crowning literary achievement. He spent a great deal of time working on these books, which he tells us he gradually wrote through the many stressful times of his reign to refresh his mind. Of the authenticity of the work as a whole there has never been any doubt. The last of Alfred's works is one to which he gave the name Blostman, i.e., "Blooms" or Anthology. The first half is based mainly on the Soliloquies of St Augustine of Hippo, the remainder is drawn from various sources, and contains much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for the noblest of English kings. "Therefore he seems to me a very foolish man, and truly wretched, who will not increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear." Alfred appears as a character in twelfth- or thirteenth-century poem The Owl and the Nightingale, where his wisdom and skill with proverbs is praised. The Proverbs of Alfred, a thirteenth century work, contains sayings that are not likely to have originated with Alfred but attest to his posthumous medieval reputation for wisdom. The Alfred jewel, discovered in Somerset in 1693, has long been associated with King Alfred because of its Old English inscription "AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN" (Alfred Ordered Me To Be Made). The Jewel is about 2½ inches (6.1 cm) long, made of filigreed gold, enclosing a highly polished piece of quartz crystal beneath which is set a cloisonné enamel plaque, with an enamelled image of a man holding floriate scepters, perhaps personifying Sight or the Wisdom of God. Pratt, David, The Political Thought of Alfred the Great (2007), pp. 189-91. It was at one time attached to a thin rod or stick based on the hollow socket at its base. The Jewel certainly dates from Alfred's reign. Although its function is unknown, it has been often suggested that the Jewel was one of the æstels--pointers for reading—that Alfred ordered sent to every bishopric accompanying a copy of his translation of the Pastoral Care. Each æstel was worth the princely sum of 50 mancuses, which fits in well with the quality workmanship and expensive materials of the Alfred Jewel. Historian Richard Abels sees Alfred's educational and military reforms as complementary. Restoring religion and learning in Wessex, Abels contends, was to Alfred's mind as essential to the defense of his realm as the building of the burhs. Abels, Alfred the Great, pp. 219-57. As Alfred observed in the preface to his English translation of Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care, kings who fail to obey their divine duty to promote learning can expect earthly punishments to befall their people. Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great, pp. 124-5. The pursuit of wisdom, he assured his readers of the Boethius, was the surest path to power: "Study Wisdom, then, and, when you have learned it, condemn it not, for I tell you that by its means you may without fail attain to power, yea, even though not desiring it". Sedgefield, W.J., King Alfred's Version of the Consolations of Boethius. Done into Modern English (1900), p. 35. The portrayal of the West Saxon resistance to the Vikings by Asser and the Chronicler as a Christian holy war was more than mere rhetoric or 'propaganda'. It reflected Alfred's own belief in a doctrine of divine rewards and punishments rooted in a vision of a hierarchical Christian world-order in which God is the Lord to whom kings owe obedience and through whom they derive their authority over their followers. The need to persuade his nobles to undertake work for the 'common good' led Alfred and his court scholars to strengthen and deepen the conception of Christian kingship that he had inherited by building upon the legacy of earlier kings such as Offa as well as clerical writers such as Bede, Alcuin and the other luminaries of the Carolingian renaissance. This was not a cynical use of religion to manipulate his subjects into obedience, but an intrinsic element in Alfred's world-view. He believed, as did other kings in ninth-century England and Francia, that God had entrusted him with the spiritual as well as physical welfare of his people. If the Christian faith fell into ruin in his kingdom, if the clergy were too ignorant to understand the Latin words they butchered in their offices and liturgies, if the ancient monasteries and collegiate churches lay deserted out of indifference, he was answerable before God, as Josiah had been. Alfred's ultimate responsibility was the pastoral care of his people. Veneration Alfred is venerated as a saint by the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church and is regarded as a hero of the Christian Church in the Anglican Communion, with a feast day of 26 October, and may often be found depicted in stained glass in Church of England parish churches. Also, Alfred University, in New York State, was named after him; a large statue of his likeness is in the center of campus. Family In 868, Alfred married Ealhswith, daughter of Ealdorman of the Gaini (who is also known as Aethelred Mucill), who was from the Gainsborough region of Lincolnshire. She appears to have been the maternal granddaughter of a King of Mercia. They had five or six children together, including Edward the Elder, who succeeded his father as king, Ætheflæd, who would become Queen of Mercia in her own right, and Ælfthryth who married Baldwin II the Count of Flanders. His mother was Osburga daughter of Oslac of the Isle of Wight, Chief Butler of England. Asser, in his Vita Ælfredi asserts that this shows his lineage from the Jutes of the Isle of Wight. This is unlikely as Bede tells us that they were all slaughtered by the Saxons under Cædwalla. However, ironically Alfred could trace his line via the House of Wessex itself, from King Wihtred of Kent, whose mother was the sister of the last island king, Arwald. NameBirthDeathNotesÆthelflæd918Married 889, Æthelred, Ealdorman of Mercia d 910; had issue.Edward87017 July 924Married (1) Ecgwynn, (2) Ælfflæd, (3) 919 EadgifuÆthelgifuAbbess of ShaftesburyÆlfthryth929Married Baldwin, Count of Flanders; had issueÆthelweard16 October 922(?) Married and had issue Ancestry <div style="clear: both; width: 100%; padding: 0; text-align: left; border: none;" class="NavFrame"> Ancestors of Alfred the Great <div class="NavContent" > Death, burial and legacy Alfred died on 26 October. The actual year is not certain, but it was not necessarily 901 as stated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. How he died is unknown, although he suffered throughout his life with a painful and unpleasant illness - probably Crohn's disease, which seems to have been inherited by his grandson King Edred. He was originally buried temporarily in the Old Minster in Winchester, then moved to the New Minster (perhaps built especially to receive his body). When the New Minster moved to Hyde, a little north of the city, in 1110, the monks transferred to Hyde Abbey along with Alfred's body. During the reign of Henry VIII his crypt was looted by the new, Anglican owners of the old church in which he had been laid to rest. His coffin was melted down for its lead and his bones were unceremoniously reburied in the churchyard. This grave was apparently excavated during the building of a new prison in 1788 and the bones scattered. However, bones found on a similar site in the 1860s were also declared to be Alfred's and later buried in Hyde churchyard. Extensive excavations in 1999 revealed what is believed to be his grave-cut, that of his wife Eahlswith, and that of their son Edward the Elder but barely any human remains. A number of educational establishments are named in Alfred's honour. These are: The University of Winchester was named 'King Alfred's College, Winchester' between 1840 and 2004, whereupon it was re-named "University College Winchester". Alfred University, as well as Alfred State College located in Alfred, NY, are both named after the king. In honour of Alfred, the University of Liverpool created a King Alfred Chair of English Literature. University College, Oxford is erroneously said to have been founded by King Alfred. King Alfred's College, a secondary school in Wantage, Oxfordshire. The Birthplace of Alfred. King's Lodge School, in Chippenham, Wiltshire is so named because King Alfred's hunting lodge is reputed to have stood on or near the site of the school. The King Alfred School & Specialist Sports Academy, Burnham Road, Highbridge is so named due to its rough proximity to Brent Knoll (a Beacon Site) and Athelney. The King Alfred School in Barnet, North London, UK. King Alfred's Middle School, Shaftesbury, Dorset [Now defunct after reorganisation] Wantage statue A statue of Alfred the Great, situated in the Wantage market place, was sculpted by Count Gleichen, a relative of Queen Victoria's, and unveiled on 14 July, 1877 by the Prince and Princess of Wales. The statue was vandalised on New Year's Eve 2007, losing part of its right arm and axe. After the arm and axe were replaced the statue was again vandalised on Christmas Eve 2008, once more losing its axe. See also British military history Kingdom of England Lays of Boethius Alfred Jewel References Further reading Keynes, Simon, and Lapidge, Michael, Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred & Other Contemporary Sources (Penguin Classics), 1984, ISBN 9780140444094 Abels, Richard, Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England, 1998, ISBN 9780582040472 Reuter, Timothy (ed.), Alfred the Great (Studies in early medieval Britain), 2003, ISBN 9780754609575 Pratt, David: The political thought of King Alfred the Great (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought: Fourth Series, 2007) ISBN 9780521803502 Wormald, Patrick, The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century, 1999, ISBN 9780631227403 Frantzen, Allen J., King Alfred the Great (Twayne's English Authors Series), 9780805769180 Parker, Joanne: England's Darling The Victorian Cult of Alfred the Great, 2007, ISBN 9780719073564 Pollard, Justin: Alfred the Great : the man who made England, 2006, ISBN 0719566665 Fry, Fred: Patterns of Power: The Military Campaigns of Alfred the Great, 2006, ISBN 9781905226931 Giles, J. A. (ed.): The Whole Works of King Alfred the Great (Jubilee Edition, 3 vols, Oxford and Cambridge, 1858)The whole works of King Alfred the Great, with preliminary essays, illustrative of the history, arts, and manners, of the ninth century, 1969, OCLC 28387 For a novelization of King Alfred's exploits, there is Bernard Cornwell's series, beginning with The Last Kingdom''. External links The Life of King Alfred translated by Dr. J.A. Giles (London, 1847). Britannia History Bishop Asser's Life of King Alfred Documentary - The Making of England: King Alfred An Illustrated Biography of Alfred the Great Alfred the Great official website of the British Monarchy King Alfred the Great Alfred Jewel Lays of Boethius Royal Berkshire History: King Alfred the Great Alfred's Palace | Alfred_the_Great |@lemmatized alfred:257 great:54 elf:1 advice:3 october:4 also:20 spell:1 ælfred:4 king:87 anglo:27 saxon:43 kingdom:26 wessex:32 note:1 defence:6 southern:5 england:29 viking:34 become:5 english:42 award:1 epithet:1 cnut:1 rule:3 danish:8 first:13 west:14 style:3 detail:3 life:12 describe:2 work:18 welsh:3 scholar:6 bishop:11 asser:26 learned:2 man:8 encourage:2 education:3 improve:1 legal:3 system:13 well:13 military:17 structure:1 childhood:2 bear:1 wantage:5 oxfordshire:2 historic:1 county:1 berkshire:4 young:4 son:12 æthelwulf:5 wife:3 osburga:2 either:6 four:3 weir:1 alison:1 britain:5 royal:21 family:2 complete:1 genealogy:1 p:14 five:4 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4,153 | House_of_Lords | The House of Lords (also known as House of peers for ceremonial purposes) is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is also commonly referred to as "the Lords". Parliament comprises the Sovereign, the House of Commons (which is the lower house of Parliament and referred to as "the Commons"), and the Lords. Membership of the House of Lords was once a right of birth to hereditary peers, but following a series of reforms the House now consists almost entirely of appointed members. the House of Lords has 738 members, 92 more than the 646 seat House of Commons. The House of Lords, like the House of Commons, assembles in the Palace of Westminster. The full, formal title of the House of Lords is The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. History Today's Parliament of the United Kingdom largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, though the 1706 Treaty of Union and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland. The Parliament of England developed from the council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the counties (afterwards, representatives of the boroughs as well). The first Parliament is often considered to be the "Model Parliament" (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined. For example, during much of the reign of Edward II (1307–1327), the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1322, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, but by an authoritative statute, passed by Parliament itself. Further developments occurred during the reign of Edward II's successor, Edward III. Most importantly, it was during this King's reign that Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the senior clergy and the nobility). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the early fifteenth century, both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons because of the great influence of the aristocrats and prelates of the realm. The power of the nobility suffered a decline during the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, known as the Wars of the Roses. Much of the nobility was killed on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, feudalism was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Henry VII (1485-1509) clearly established the supremacy of the monarch, symbolised by the 'Crown Imperial'. The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the Tudor monarchs in the 16th century. The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of Henry VIII (1509-1547). The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House did continue to grow in influence, reaching a zenith in relation to the House of Lords during the middle 17th century. Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the English Civil War during the 1640s. In 1649, after the defeat and execution of King Charles I, a republic (the Commonwealth of England) was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England. The House of Lords was reduced to a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government. On 19 March 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that "The Commons of England [find] by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England." The House of Lords did not assemble again until the Convention Parliament met in 1660 and the monarchy was restored. It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament—a position it would occupy until the 19th century. The 19th century was marked by several changes to the House of Lords. The House, once a body of only about 50 members, had been greatly enlarged by the liberality of George III and his successors in creating peerages. The individual influence of a Lord of Parliament was thus diminished. Moreover, the power of the House as a whole experienced a decrease, whilst that of the House of Commons grew. Particularly notable in the development of the Lower House's superiority was the Reform Bill of 1832. The electoral system of the House of Commons was not, at the time, democratic: property qualifications greatly restricted the size of the electorate, and the boundaries of many constituencies had not been changed for centuries. Entire cities such as Manchester were not represented by a single individual in the House of Commons, but the 11 voters of Old Sarum retained their ancient right to elect two Members of Parliament. A small borough was susceptible to bribery, and was often under the control of a patron, whose nominee was guaranteed to win an election. Some aristocrats were patrons of numerous "pocket boroughs", and therefore controlled a considerable part of the membership of the House of Commons. When, in 1831, the House of Commons passed a Reform Bill to correct some of these anomalies, the House of Lords rejected the proposal. The popular cause of reform, however, was not abandoned by the ministry, despite a second rejection of the bill in the Lords in 1832. The Prime Minister, Earl Grey, then advised the King to overwhelm the opposition to the bill in the House of Lords by creating about 80 new pro-Reform peers. William IV originally balked at the proposal, which effectively threatened the opposition of the House of Lords, but at length relented. Before the new peers were created, however, the Lords who opposed the bill admitted defeat, and abstained from the vote, allowing the passage of the bill. The crisis damaged the political influence of the House of Lords, but did not altogether end it. Over the course of the century, however, the power of the Upper House experienced further erosion, and the Commons gradually became the stronger House of Parliament. The rejection of the People's Budget, proposed by David Lloyd George (above), precipitated a political crisis in 1909. The status of the House of Lords returned to the forefront of debate after the election of a Liberal Government in 1906. In 1909, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced into the House of Commons the "People's Budget", which proposed a land tax targeting wealthy landowners. The popular measure, however, was defeated in the heavily Conservative House of Lords. Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were narrowly re-elected in January 1910. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. After a general election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The Parliament Act 1911 effectively abolished the power of the House of Lords to reject legislation, or to amend in a way unacceptable to the House of Commons: most bills could be delayed for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years. It was not meant to be a permanent solution; more comprehensive reforms were planned. Neither party, however, pursued the matter with much enthusiasm, and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary. In 1949, the Parliament Act reduced the delaying power of the House of Lords further to two sessions or one year. In 1958, the predominantly hereditary nature of the House of Lords was changed by the Life Peerages Act 1958, which authorised the creation of life baronies, with no numerical limits. The number of Life Peers then gradually increased, though not at a constant rate. The Labour Party had for most of the twentieth century a commitment, based on the party's historic opposition to class privilege, to abolish the House of Lords, or at least expel the hereditary element. In 1968, the Labour Government of Harold Wilson attempted to reform the House of Lords by introducing a system under which hereditary peers would be allowed to remain in the House and take part in debate, but would be unable to vote. This plan, however, was defeated in the House of Commons by a coalition of traditionalist Conservatives (such as Enoch Powell), and Labour members who continued to advocate the outright abolition of the Upper House (such as Michael Foot). When Michael Foot attained the leadership of the Labour Party, abolition of the House of Lords became a part of the party's agenda; under Neil Kinnock, however, a reformed Upper House was proposed instead. In the meantime, the creation of hereditary peerages (except for members of the Royal Family) has been arrested, with the exception of three creations during the administration of the Conservative Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. Whilst some hereditary peers were at best apathetic the Labour Party's clear commitments were not lost on Baron Sudeley who for decades had been considered an expert on the House of Lords. In December 1979 the Conservative Monday Club published his extensive paper entitled Lords Reform - Why tamper with the House of Lords? and in July 1980 The Monarchist (no. 57, p.27 - 34) carried another article by Lord Sudeley entitled Why Reform or Abolish the House of Lords?. In 1990 he authored a further booklet for The Monday Club entitled The Preservation of the House of Lords. The Labour Party included in its 1997 General Election Manifesto a commitment to remove the hereditary peerage from the House of Lords. Their subsequent election victory in 1997 under Tony Blair finally heralded the demise of the traditional House of Lords. The Labour Government introduced legislation to expel all hereditary peers from the Upper House as a first step in Lords reform. As a part of a compromise, however, it agreed to permit 92 hereditary peers to remain until the reforms were complete. Thus all but 92 hereditary peers were expelled under the House of Lords Act 1999 (see below for its provisions), making the House of Lords predominantly an appointed house. Since 1999 however, no further reform has taken place (see Lords Reform). The Wakeham Commission proposed introducing a 20% elected element to the Lords, but this plan was widely criticised. A Joint Committee was established in 2001 to resolve the issue, but it reached no conclusion and instead gave Parliament seven options to choose from (fully appointed, 20% elected, 40% elected, 50% elected, 60% elected, 80%, and fully elected). In a confusing series of votes in February 2003, all of these options were defeated although the 80% elected option fell by just three votes in the Commons. Socialist MPs favouring outright abolition voted against all the options. In 2005 a cross-party group of senior MPs (Ken Clarke, Paul Tyler, Tony Wright, Sir George Young and the late Robin Cook) published a report proposing that 70% of members of the House of Lords should be elected - each member for a single long term - by the single transferable vote system. Most of the remainder were to be appointed by a Commission to ensure a mix of "skills, knowledge and experience". This proposal was also not implemented. A cross-party campaign initiative called "Elect the Lords" was set up to make the case for a predominantly elected Second Chamber in the run up to the 2005 general election. At the 2005 election, the Labour Party proposed further reform of the Lords, but without specific details. The Conservative Party, which had, prior to 1997, opposed any tampering with the House of Lords, favoured an 80% elected Second Chamber, while the Liberal Democrats called for a fully elected Senate. During 2006, a cross-party committee discussed Lords reform, with the aim of reaching a consensus: its findings were published in early 2007. On 7 March 2007, Members of the House of Commons voted ten times on a variety of alternative compositions for the upper chamber. Outright abolition, a wholly appointed house, a 20% elected house, a 40% elected house, a 50% elected house and a 60% elected house were all defeated in turn. Finally the vote for an 80% elected chamber was won by 305 votes to 267, and the vote for a wholly elected chamber was won by an even greater margin: 337 to 224. Significantly this last vote represented an overall majority of MPs, giving it huge political authority. Furthermore, examination of the names of MPs voting at each division shows that, of the 305 who voted for the 80% elected option, 211 went on to vote for the 100% elected option. Given that this vote took place after the vote on 80% – whose result was already known when the vote on 100% took place – this shows a clear preference for a fully elected upper house among those who voted for the only other option that passed. But this was nevertheless only an indicative vote and many political and legislative hurdles remained to be overcome for supporters of an elected second chamber. The House of Lords, soon after, rejected this proposal and voted for an entirely appointed House of Lords. In July 2008 Jack Straw, the Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor, introduced a white paper to the House of Commons proposing to replace the House of Lords with an 80-100% elected chamber, with one third being elected at each general election, for a term of approximately 12–15 years. The white paper states that as the peerage would be totally separated from membership of the upper house, the name "House of Lords" would no longer be appropriate: It goes on to explain that there is cross-party consensus for the new chamber to be titled the Senate, however in order to ensure the debate remains on the role of the upper house rather than its title, the white paper is neutral on the title of the new house. Lords Spiritual Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual. Formerly, the Lords Spiritual were the majority in the House of Lords, including the Church of England's archbishops, diocesan bishops, abbots, and priors. After 1539, however, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, for the Dissolution of the Monasteries suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In 1642, during the English Civil War, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the Clergy Act 1661. The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and by later acts. Now, there can be no more than 26 Lords Spiritual, always including the five most ancient dioceses of the Church: the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham, and the Bishop of Winchester. Membership of the House of Lords also extends to the 21 longest-serving other diocesan bishops of the Church of England. The Church of Scotland is not represented by any Lords Spiritual; being a Presbyterian institution, it has no archbishops or bishops. The Church of Ireland did obtain representation in the House of Lords after the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801. Of the Church of Ireland's ecclesiastics, four (one archbishop and three bishops) were to sit at any one time, with the members rotating at the end of every parliamentary session (which normally lasted approximately one year). The Church of Ireland, however, was disestablished in 1871, and ceased to be represented by Lords Spiritual. The same is true for the Church in Wales which was disestablished in 1920. The current Lords Spiritual, therefore, represent only the Church of England. Other ecclesiastics have sat in the House of Lords in recent times: Immanuel Jakobovits, while he was Chief Rabbi, was appointed to the House of Lords with the consent of the Queen, who acted on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. In recognition of his work at reconciliation and in the Peace Process, the Archbishop of Armagh (the senior Anglican bishop in Northern Ireland), Lord Eames was appointed to the Lords by John Major. Other clergymen appointed include Reverend Donald Soper, Reverend Timothy Beaumont, and some Scottish clerics. There have been no Roman Catholic clergymen appointed, though it was rumoured that Cardinal Basil Hume was offered a peerage, but refused, and accepted instead the Order of Merit, a personal appointment of the Queen, shortly before his death. Roman Catholics who have received Holy Orders are forbidden by Canon Law from holding offices connected with the government of any state other than the Holy See, so it is unlikely that any Catholic cleric will ever sit in the House of Lords. In practice, although the Free Churches have never been represented by right in the Lords, some Methodist and other ministers sit as Lords Temporal. Other clerics such as the Chief Rabbi are also often elevated as Lords Temporal; and indeed the heads of various professions and learned societies, and notably the military, academic and legal professions, are customarily considered. Lords Temporal Since the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords. Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan, aligning themselves with one or another of the political parties that dominate the House of Commons. Publicly non-partisan Lords are called cross-benchers. Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hundred hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons (as well as Scottish Lords of Parliament). Such hereditary dignities can be created by the Crown, in modern times on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day. In 1999, the Labour government brought forward the House of Lords Act expelling several hundred hereditary peers from the House. The Act provided a temporary measure that only 92 individuals may continue to sit in the Upper House by virtue of hereditary peerages. Two hereditary peers remain in the House of Lords because they hold hereditary offices connected with Parliament: the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain. Of the remaining 90 hereditary peers in the House of Lords, 15 are elected by the whole House. Seventy-five hereditary peers are chosen by fellow hereditary in the House of Lords, grouped by party. The number of peers to be chosen by a party reflects the proportion of hereditary peers that belongs to that party (see current composition below). When an elected hereditary peer dies, a by-election is held, with a variant of the Alternative Vote system being used. If the recently deceased hereditary peer was elected by the whole House, then so is his or her replacement; a hereditary peer elected by a specific party is replaced by a vote of elected hereditary peers belonging to that party (whether elected as part of that party group or by the whole house). The Lords Temporal also include the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they may exercise its judicial functions. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, were first appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. They are selected by the Prime Minister, but are formally appointed by the Sovereign. A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary must retire at the age of 70, or, if his or her term is extended by the government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord cannot hear any further legal cases. The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who are no longer able to hear cases because of age restrictions) is limited to twelve, but may be changed by statutory instrument. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary traditionally do not participate in political debates, so as to maintain judicial independence. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary hold seats in the House of Lords for life, remaining members even after reaching the judicial retirement age of 70 or 75. Former Lord Chancellors and holders of other high judicial office may also sit as Law Lords under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, although in practice this right is infrequently exercised. After the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the existing Lords of Appeal in Ordinary will become judges of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and will be barred from sitting or voting until they retire as judges. One of the main justifications for the new Supreme Court was the establish a separation of powers between the judiciary and the legislature. It is therefore unlikely that future appointees to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom will be made Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are life peers. Life peers with seats in the House of Lords rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the Life Peerages Act 1958. Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister. By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to select some life peers so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords. Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by an independent House of Lords Appointments Commission. If an hereditary peer also holds a life peerage, he or she remains a member of the House of Lords without a need for an election. In 2000, the government announced it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under Lord Stevenson of Coddenham, to select fifteen so-called "People's Peers" for life peerages. However, when the choices were announced in April 2001, from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were "ordinary people" as some had originally hoped. In many historical instances, some peers were not permitted to sit in the Upper House. When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 representative peers to sit in the House of Lords; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election. A similar provision was enacted in respect of Ireland when that kingdom merged with Great Britain in 1801; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 representatives, who were to retain office for life. Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922, when most of Ireland became an independent state; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the Peerage Act 1963, under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House. Qualifications Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords. No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21. Furthermore, only Commonwealth citizens and citizens of the Republic of Ireland may sit in the House of Lords. The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, and prior to the British Nationality Act 1948, only natural-born subjects were qualified. Additionally, some bankruptcy-related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House. A person may not sit in the House of Lords if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). A final restriction bars an individual convicted of high treason from sitting in the House of Lords until completing his or her full term of imprisonment. An exception applies, however, if the individual convicted of high treason receives a full pardon. Note that an individual serving a prison sentence for an offence other than high treason is not automatically disqualified. Finally, some qualifications apply only in the case of the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. No person may be created a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary unless he or she has either held "high judicial office" for two years, or has been a practising barrister for fifteen years. The term "high judicial office" encompasses membership of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, of the Inner House of the Court of Session (Scotland), or of the Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland. Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act, passed in 1958 to address the declining number of active members, facilitated the creation of peerages for life. Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed. However, hereditary peeresses continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963. Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999, hereditary peeresses remain eligible for election to the Upper House; there are three among the 92 hereditary who continue to sit. Officers Traditionally the House of Lords did not elect its own speaker, unlike the House of Commons; rather, the ex officio presiding officer was the Lord Chancellor. With the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the post of Lord Speaker was created, a position to which a peer is elected by the House and subsequently appointed by The Crown. The first Lord Speaker, elected on 4 May 2006, is Baroness Hayman, a former Labour peer. As the Speaker is expected to be an impartial presiding officer, Baroness Hayman has resigned from the Labour Party. This reform of the post of Lord Chancellor was made due to the perceived constitutional anomalies inherent in the role. The Lord Chancellor was not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department, is now called the Ministry of Justice. The Lord Chancellor is no longer the head of the judiciary of England and Wales. Hitherto, the Lord Chancellor was part of all three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The overlap of the legislative and executive roles is a characteristic of the Westminster system, as the entire cabinet consists of members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords; however, in June 2003, the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor because of the office's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities. The abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 was thus amended to preserve the office of Lord Chancellor. The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords, and therefore allows the House of Lords to elect a speaker of their own. The Lord Chancellor wore black and gold robes whilst presiding over the House of Lords. The Lord Speaker may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies. The Chairman of Committees, the Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees, and several Deputy Chairmen of Committees are all deputies to the Lord Speaker, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself. By custom, the Crown appoints each Chairman, Principal Deputy Chairman, or Deputy Chairman to the additional office of Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords. There was previously no legal requirement that the Lord Chancellor or a Deputy Speaker be a member of the House of Lords, though the same has long been customary; thus the Woolsack upon which the Lord Chancellor sat was notionally not in the House of Lords, although situated in the middle of it. Whilst presiding over the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor traditionally wore ceremonial black and gold robes. This is no longer a requirement for the Speaker except for State occasions outside of the chamber. The Speaker or Deputy Speaker sits on the Woolsack, a large red seat stuffed with wool, at the front of the Lords Chamber. When the House of Lords resolves itself into committee (see below), the Chairman or a Deputy Chairman presides, not from the Woolsack, but from a chair at the Table of the House. The presiding officer has little power compared to the Speaker of the House of Commons. He or she only acts as the mouthpiece of the House, performing duties such as announcing the results of votes. This is because, unlike in the House of Commons where all statements are directed to "Mr/Madam Speaker", in the House of Lords they are directed to "My Lords", i.e. the entire body of the House. The Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker cannot determine which members may speak, or discipline members for violating the rules of the House; these measures may be taken only by the House itself. Unlike the politically neutral Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor and Deputy Speakers originally remained members of their respective parties, and may participate in debate, however this is no longer true of the new role of Lord Speaker. Another officer of the body is the Leader of the House of Lords, a peer selected by the Prime Minister. The Leader of the House is responsible for steering Government bills through the House of Lords, and is a member of the Cabinet. The Leader also advises the House on proper procedure when necessary, but such advice is merely informal, rather than official and binding. A Deputy Leader is also appointed by the Prime Minister, and takes the place of an absent or unavailable Leader. The Clerk of the Parliaments is the chief clerk and officer of the House of Lords (but is not a member of the House itself). The Clerk, who is appointed by the Crown, advises the presiding officer on the rules of the House, signs orders and official communications, endorses bills, and is the keeper of the official records of both Houses of Parliament. Moreover, the Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for arranging by-elections of hereditary peers when necessary. The deputies of the Clerk of the Parliaments (the Clerk Assistant and the Reading Clerk) are appointed by the Lord Speaker, subject to the House's approval. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod is also an officer of the House; he takes his title from the symbol of his office, a black rod. Black Rod (as the Gentleman Usher is normally known) is responsible for ceremonial arrangements, is in charge of the House's doorkeepers, and may (upon the order of the House) take action to end disorder or disturbance in the Chamber. Black Rod also holds the office of Serjeant-at-Arms of the House of Lords, and in this capacity attends upon the Lord Speaker. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod's duties may be delegated to the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod or to the Assistant Sergeant-at-Arms. Procedure Benches in the House of Lords Chamber are coloured red. In contrast, the House of Commons is decorated in green. See also the stages of a bill section in Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red; thus, the House of Lords is sometimes referred to as the "Red Chamber". The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; supporters of the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left. Neutral members, known as Cross-benchers, sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack. The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the State Opening of Parliament, held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During the State Opening, the Sovereign, seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session. In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons. If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion. Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole ("My Lords") rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House). Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as "you"), but rather use third person forms such as "the noble Duke", "the noble Earl", "the noble Lord", "my noble friend", "The most Reverend Primate" etc. Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end. Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion "that the noble Lord be no longer heard". It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion "that the Question be now put". This procedure is known as Closure, and is extremely rare. Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either "Content" (in favour of the motion) or "Not-Content" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a division follows. Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the "Content" lobby or the "Not-Content" lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords. The Lord Speaker may not take part in the vote. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it. The quorum of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation. If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid. Committees The Parliament of the United Kingdom uses committees for a variety of purposes; one common use is for the review of bills. Committees of both Houses consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. In the House of Lords, the committee most commonly used for the consideration of bills is the Committee of the Whole House, which, as its name suggests, includes all members of the House. The Committee meets in the Lords Chamber, and is presided over not by the Lord Speaker, but by the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman. Different procedural rules apply in the Committee of the Whole House than in normal sessions of the Lords; in particular, members are allowed to make more than one speech each on a motion. Similar to the Committee of the Whole House are the Grand Committees, bodies in which any member of the House may participate. A Grand Committee does not meet in the Lords Chamber, but in a separate committee room. No divisions are held in Grand Committees, and any amendments to the bill require the unanimous consent of the body. Hence, the Grand Committee procedure is used only for uncontroversial bills. Bills may also be committed to Public Bill Committees, which consist of between twelve and sixteen members each. A Public Bill Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill. A bill may also be referred to a Special Public Bill Committee, which, unlike the Public Bill Committee, has the power to hold hearings and collect evidence. These committees are used much less frequently than the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees. The House of Lords also has several Select Committees. The members of these committees are appointed by the House at the beginning of each session, and continue to serve until the next parliamentary session begins. The House of Lords may appoint a chairman for a committee; if it does not do so, the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees may preside instead. Most Select Committees are permanent, but the House may also establish ad hoc committees, which cease to exist upon the completion of a particular task (for instance, investigating the reform of the House of Lords). The primary function of Select Committees is to scrutinise and investigate Government activities; to fulfil these aims, they are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Select Committees, but are more often sent to the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees. The committee system of the House of Lords also includes several Domestic Committees, which supervise or consider the House's procedures and administration. One of the Domestic Committees is the Committee of Selection, which is responsible for assigning members to many of the House's other committees. Legislative functions The House of Lords meets in a lavishly decorated chamber, in the Gothic style, in the Palace of Westminster (above).Most legislation may be introduced in either House, but, most commonly, is introduced in the House of Commons. The power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts. Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for the Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords. The House of Lords cannot delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Other public bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and cannot have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years. A further restriction is a constitutional convention known as the Salisbury Convention, which means that the House of Lords does not oppose legislation promised in the Government's election manifesto. By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the House of Lords is further restrained insofar as financial bills are concerned. The House of Lords may neither originate a bill concerning taxation or Supply (supply of treasury or exchequer funds), nor amend a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision. (The House of Commons, however, often waives its privileges and allows the Upper House to make amendments with financial implications.) Moreover, the Upper House may not amend any Supply Bill. The House of Lords formerly maintained the absolute power to reject a bill relating to revenue or Supply, but this power was curtailed by the Parliament Acts, as aforementioned. Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful chamber of Parliament. In March 2006, it was reported that, among other reforms, the Government are considering removing the ability of the Lords to delay legislation that arises as a result of manifesto commitments, and reducing their ability to delay other legislation to a period of 60 days. class=htc href="LiveCall:93-8014445">93-8014445</A>fef7a.htm ePolitix.com - Lords reform moves up the agenda Judicial functions The judicial functions of the House of Lords originate from the ancient role of the Curia Regis as a body that addressed the petitions of the King's subjects. The judicial functions of the House of Lords are exercised not by the whole House, but by a committee of "Law Lords". The bulk of the House's judicial business is conducted by the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who are specifically appointed for this purpose under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The judicial functions may also be exercised by Lords of Appeal (other members of the House who happen to have held high judicial office). No Lord of Appeal in Ordinary or Lord of Appeal may sit judicially beyond the age of seventy-five. The judicial business of the Lords is supervised by the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and his or her deputy, the Second Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extends, in civil and in criminal cases, to appeals from the courts of England and Wales, and of Northern Ireland. From Scotland, appeals are possible only in civil cases; Scotland's High Court of Justiciary is the highest court in criminal matters. The House of Lords is not the United Kingdom's only court of last resort; in some cases, the Privy Council performs such a function. The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, however, is narrower than that of the House of Lords; it encompasses appeals from ecclesiastical courts, issues related to devolution, disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975, and a few other minor matters. Not all Law Lords sit to hear cases; rather, since World War II cases have been heard by panels known as Appellate Committees, each of which normally consists of five members (selected by the Senior Lord). An Appellate Committee hearing an important case may consist of even more members. Though Appellate Committees meet in separate committee rooms, judgement is given in the Lords Chamber itself. No further appeal lies from the House of Lords, although the House of Lords may refer a "preliminary question" to the European Court of Justice in cases involving an element of European Union law, and a case can be brought at the European Court of Human Rights if the House of Lords does not provide a satisfactory remedy in cases where the European Convention on Human Rights is relevant. A distinct judicial function—one in which the whole House, rather than just the Law Lords, may participate—is that of trying impeachments. Impeachments were brought by the House of Commons, and tried in the House of Lords; a conviction required only a majority of the Lords voting. Impeachments, however, are to all intents and purposes obsolete; the last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville in 1806. Similarly, the House of Lords was once the court that tried peers charged with high treason or felony. The House would be presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the Lord High Steward, an official especially appointed for the occasion of the trial. If Parliament was not in session, then peers could be tried in a separate court, known as the Lord High Steward's Court. Only peers, their wives, and their widows (unless remarried) were entitled to trials in the House of Lords or the Lord High Steward's Court; the Lords Spiritual were tried in Ecclesiastical Courts. In 1948, the right of peers to be tried in such special courts was abolished; now, they are tried in the regular courts. The last such trial in the House was of Edward Southwell Russell, 26th Baron de Clifford in 1935. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 will lead to the creation of a separate Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, to which the judicial function of the House of Lords, and some of the judicial functions of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, will be transferred. In addition, the office of Lord Chancellor has been reformed by the act, to remove his ability to act as both a government minister and a judge. This is motivated in part by concerns that the historical admixture of legislative, judicial, and executive power, may not be in conformance with the requirements of the European Convention on Human Rights (a judicial officer having legislative or executive power not being likely to be considered sufficiently impartial to provide a fair trial), and in any case are considered undesirable according to modern constitutional theory concerning the separation of powers. The new Supreme Court will be located in Middlesex Guildhall. Disciplinary powers By contrast with the House of Commons, the House of Lords has not had an established procedure for putting sanctions on its members. When the Cash for Influence scandal was referred to the Committee of Privileges in January 2009, the Leader of the House of Lords also asked the Privileges Committee to report on what sanctions the House had against its members. "The Powers of the House of Lords in respect of its Members", First Report of the Privileges Committee in session 2008-09, paragraph 2. After seeking advice from the Attorney General and the former Lord Chancellor Lord Mackay of Clashfern, the committee decided that the House "possessed an inherent power" to suspend errant members, although not to withhold a Writ of summons nor to expel a member permanently. "The Powers of the House of Lords in respect of its Members", First Report of the Privileges Committee in session 2008-09, paragraph 8. When the House subsequently suspended Lord Truscott and Lord Taylor of Blackburn for their role in the scandal, they were the first to meet this fate since 1642. Andrew Sparrow, "'Sullied' members suspend two peers in first case since 1642", The Guardian, 21 May 2009, p. 6. There are two other motions which have grown up through custom and practice and which govern questionable conduct within the House. They are brought into play by a member standing up, possibly intervening on another member, and moving the motion without notice. When the debate is getting excessively heated, it is open to a member to move "that the Standing Order on Asperity of Speech be read by the Clerk". The motion can be debated, "Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the proceedings of the House of Lords", October 2006, paragraph 4.58. but if agreed by the House the Clerk of the Parliaments will read out Standing Order 33 which provides "That all personal, sharp, or taxing speeches be forborn". "Standing Orders of the House of Lords", printed 16 July 2007. The Journals of the House of Lords record only four instances on which the House has ordered the Standing Order to be read since the procedure was invented in 1871. See Lords Journal vol. CIII p. 629, vol. CIV p. 381, vol. 182 p. 90, and vol. 231 p. 644 and 648-9. For more serious problems with an individual Lord, the option is available to move "That the noble Lord be no longer heard". This motion also is debatable, and the debate which ensues has sometimes offered a chance for the member whose conduct has brought it about to come to order so that the motion can be withdrawn. If the motion is passed, its effect is to prevent the member from continuing their speech on the motion then under debate. "Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the proceedings of the House of Lords", October 2006, paragraphs 4.59 and 4.60. The Journals identify eleven occasions on which this motion has been moved since 1884; four were eventually withdrawn, one was voted down, and six were passed. See Lords Journal vol. CXVI p. 162, vol. CXXIII p. 354, vol. 192 p. 231, vol. 215 p. 200-1, vol. 218 p. 119, vol. 221 p. 539, vol. 225 p. 194, vol. 226 p. 339, vol. 228 p. 308, vol. 229 p. 89, and vol. 233 p. 791. Relationship with the Government Unlike the House of Commons, the House of Lords does not control the term of the Prime Minister or of the Government. Only the Lower House may force the Prime Minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no-confidence or by withdrawing supply. Thus, the House of Lords' oversight of the government is limited. Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords. In particular, all Prime Ministers since 1902 have been members of the Lower House. (Alec Douglas-Home, who became Prime Minister in 1963 whilst still an Earl, disclaimed his peerage and was elected to the Commons soon after his term began.) In recent history, it has been very rare for major cabinet positions (except Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) to have been filled by peers. Exceptions include Lord Carrington, who was the Foreign Secretary between 1979 and 1982, Lord Young of Graffham (Minister without Portfolio, then Secretary of State for Employment and then Secretary of State for Trade and Industry from 1984 to 1989), The Lady Amos (International Development Secretary, 2003) and currently Lord Mandelson, who is serving as Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform and President of the Board of Trade. Lord Cockfield and the Earl of Gowrie both held Cabinet posts while members of the House of Lords, and George Robertson was briefly a peer whilst serving as Secretary of State for Defence. The House of Lords does remain a source for junior ministers, such as Lord Malloch-Brown (Foreign and Commonwealth Office). Since 1999 the Attorney-General has been a Lord; currently it is Lady Scotland of Asthal. The House of Lords also has a Chief Whip - currently Lord Bassam. Current composition The House of Lords, as of 1 May 2009: AffiliationLife peersHereditary peersLords spiritualTotalElected by party †Elected by whole houseRoyal office-holders Labour2102 2 --214 Conservative148399--196 Liberal Democrats6732--72 UKIP11---2 Crossbenchers1692922-202 Lords Spiritual----2626 Other141---15Total6097515226727 Note: These figures exclude 11 peers who are on leave of absence. †The number of hereditary peers "allocated" to each party, which is based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belongs to that party, is: Conservative Party: 39 peers (previously 42) Labour Party: 2 peers Liberal Democrats: 3 peers Crossbenchers: 28 peers Of the initial 42 hereditary peers elected as Conservatives, one (Lord Brabazon of Tara) now sits as a non-affiliated member, having become the House of Lords' Chairman of Committees, and another (Lord Willoughby de Broke) now sits as a UKIP member. In a move that had not occurred since the 17th century, the House voted to suspend two Labour peers, Lord Truscott and Lord Taylor of Blackburn, on the 20 May 2009, for the period to the end of the current session of Parliament. BBC News Lords vote to suspend two peers They remain members of the House of Lords, but are suspended from its meetings and voting. A report in 2007 stated that many members of the Lords (particularly the life peers) do not attend regularly - the average daily attendance was around 408. Current political leaders in the Lords Baroness Royall - Leader of the House of Lords and Lord President of the Council (Labour) Lord Strathclyde - Shadow Leader of the House of Lords (Conservative) Lord McNally - Liberal Democrats See also Speakership of the House of Lords Introduction ceremony Members of the House of Lords Reform of the House of Lords Wakeham Report Upper House Constitution Committee (House of Lords) House of Lords Library United States Senate References Bibliography Carmichael, Paul, Brice Dickson, and Guy Peters. (1999). The House of Lords: Its Parliamentary and Judicial Role. Oxford: Hart Publishing. Davies, Michael. (2003). Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords, 19th ed. London: HMSO. Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron. (1896). Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third, 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co. Longford, Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of. (1999). A History of the House of Lords. New edition. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. "Parliament" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press. Raphael, D. D., Donald Limon, and W. R. McKay. (2004). Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice, 23rd ed. London: Butterworths Tolley. Further reading External links Official website The Parliamentary Archives holds the historic records of the House of Lords. Guide to the Lords BBC History of Parliament The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). "A–Z of Parliament." The Guardian. (2005). "Special Report: House of Lords." The Parliament of the United Kingdom. House of Lords official website. The Parliament of the United Kingdom. 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4,154 | Bi-directional_text | Bi-directional text is used as some writing systems of the world, notably the Arabic (including variants such as Nasta'liq), Persian and Hebrew scripts, are written in a form known as right-to-left (RTL), in which writing begins at the right-hand side of a page and concludes at the left-hand side. This is different from the left-to-right (LTR) direction used by most languages in the world. When LTR text is mixed with RTL in the same paragraph, each type of text should be written in its own direction, which is known as bi-directional text. This can get rather complex when multiple levels of quotation are used. Many computer programs fail to display bi-directional text correctly. For example, the Hebrew name Sarah (שרה) should be spelled shin (ש) resh (ר) heh (ה) from right to left. Some Web browsers may display the Hebrew text in this article in the opposite direction. Languages using bi-directional text There are very few scripts that can be written in either direction. Such was the case with Egyptian hieroglyphics, where the signs had a distinct "head" that faced the beginning of a line and "tail" that faced the end. Chinese characters can also be written in either direction, especially in signs (but the orientation of the individual characters is never changed). This can often be seen on tour buses in China, where the company name customarily runs from the front of the vehicle to its rear - that is, from right to left on the right side of the bus, and from left to right on the left side of the bus. Another variety of writing style, called boustrophedon, was used in some ancient Greek inscriptions, Tuareg, and Hungarian runes. This method of writing alternates direction, and usually reverses the individual characters, on each successive line. Unicode support Bidirectional script support is the capability of a computer system to correctly display bi-directional text. The term is often shortened to the jargon term BiDi or bidi. Early computer installations were designed only to support a single writing system, typically for left-to-right scripts based on the Latin alphabet only. Adding new character sets and character encodings enabled a number of other left-to-right scripts to be supported, but did not easily support right-to-left scripts such as Arabic or Hebrew, and mixing the two was not practical. It is possible to simply flip the left-to-right display order to a right-to-left display order, but doing this sacrifices the ability to correctly display left-to-right scripts. With bidirectional script support, it is possible to mix scripts from different scripts on the same page, regardless of writing direction. In particular, the Unicode standard provides foundations for complete BiDi support, with detailed rules as to how mixtures of left-to-right and right-to-left scripts are to be encoded and displayed. In Unicode encoding, all non-punctuation characters are stored in writing order. This means that the writing direction of characters is stored within the characters. If this is the case, the character is called "strong". Punctuation characters however, can appear in both LTR and RTL languages. They are called "weak" characters because they do not contain any directional information. So it is up to the software to decide in which direction these "weak" characters will be placed. Sometimes (in mixed-directions text) this leads to display errors, caused by the bidi-algorithm that runs through the text and identifies LTR and RTL strong characters and assigns a direction to weak characters, according to the algorithm's rules. In the algorithm, each sequence of concatenated strong characters is called a "run". A weak character that is located between two strong characters with the same orientation will inherit their orientation. A weak character that is located between two strong characters with a different writing direction, will inherit the main context's writing direction (in an LTR document the character will become LTR, in an RTL document, it will become RTL). If a "weak" character is followed by another "weak" character, the algorithm will look at the first neighbouring "strong" character. Sometimes this leads to unintentional display errors. To correct or prevent these errors, you can use "pseudo-strong" characters. These Unicode control characters are called "marks". The mark (U+200E LTR or U+200F RTL) is to be inserted into a location to make an enclosed weak character inherit its writing direction. For example, to have the trademark symbol ™ (TM; U+2122) for an English name brand (LTR) in an Arabic (RTL) passage display correctly, you need to add an LTR mark after the trademark symbol if the symbol is not followed by LTR text. This is because if you do not add the LTR mark, the weak character ™ will be neighboured by a strong LTR character and a strong RTL character. Hence, in an RTL context, it will be considered to be RTL, and displayed in an incorrect order. See also Internationalization and localization Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts Writing system (section on directionality) References External links Unicode Standards Annex #9 The Bidirectional Algorithm W3C guidelines on authoring techniques for bi-directional text - includes examples and good explanations GNU FriBidi A free implementation of the Unicode bidirectional algorithm ICU International Components for Unicode contains an implementation of the bidirectional algorithm — along with other internationalization services UCData: "Pretty Good Bidi Algorithm Library" A small and fast bidirectional reordering algorithm that works pretty good, but not necessarily compliant to the Unicode algorithm Bidirectional Scripts in Desktop Software Working group for supporting BiDi in Free Software. Contains several links to readings and implementation regarding BiDi in computer systems. Another Wiki about BiDi Bidirectional text - Examples and practical advice .Net BiDi Implementation | Bi-directional_text |@lemmatized bi:6 directional:7 text:13 use:6 write:15 system:5 world:2 notably:1 arabic:3 include:2 variant:1 nasta:1 liq:1 persian:1 hebrew:4 script:13 form:1 know:2 right:15 left:7 rtl:11 begin:1 hand:2 side:4 page:2 concludes:1 different:3 leave:8 ltr:12 direction:14 language:3 mixed:2 paragraph:1 type:1 get:1 rather:1 complex:1 multiple:1 level:1 quotation:1 many:1 computer:4 program:1 fail:1 display:11 correctly:4 example:4 name:3 sarah:1 שרה:1 spell:1 shin:1 ש:1 resh:1 ר:1 heh:1 ה:1 web:1 browser:1 may:1 article:1 opposite:1 either:2 case:2 egyptian:1 hieroglyphic:1 sign:2 distinct:1 head:1 face:2 beginning:1 line:2 tail:1 end:1 chinese:1 character:29 also:2 especially:1 orientation:3 individual:2 never:1 change:1 often:2 see:2 tour:1 bus:3 china:1 company:1 customarily:1 run:3 front:1 vehicle:1 rear:1 another:3 variety:1 style:1 call:5 boustrophedon:1 ancient:1 greek:1 inscription:1 tuareg:1 hungarian:1 rune:1 method:1 alternate:1 usually:1 reverse:1 successive:1 unicode:8 support:8 bidirectional:8 capability:1 term:2 shorten:1 jargon:1 bidi:9 early:1 installation:1 design:1 single:1 writing:2 typically:1 base:1 latin:1 alphabet:1 add:3 new:1 set:1 encoding:2 enable:1 number:1 easily:1 mix:2 two:3 practical:2 possible:2 simply:1 flip:1 order:4 sacrifice:1 ability:1 regardless:1 particular:1 standard:2 provide:1 foundation:1 complete:1 detailed:1 rule:2 mixture:1 encode:1 non:1 punctuation:2 store:2 mean:1 within:1 strong:9 however:1 appear:1 weak:9 contain:2 information:1 software:3 decide:1 place:1 sometimes:2 lead:2 error:3 cause:1 algorithm:10 identifies:1 assign:1 accord:1 sequence:1 concatenate:1 locate:2 inherit:3 main:1 context:2 document:2 become:2 follow:2 look:1 first:1 neighbouring:1 unintentional:1 correct:1 prevent:1 pseudo:1 control:1 mark:4 u:3 insert:1 location:1 make:1 enclosed:1 trademark:2 symbol:3 tm:1 english:1 brand:1 passage:1 need:1 neighbour:1 hence:1 consider:1 incorrect:1 internationalization:2 localization:1 horizontal:1 vertical:1 east:1 asian:1 section:1 directionality:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 annex:1 guideline:1 author:1 technique:1 good:3 explanation:1 gnu:1 fribidi:1 free:2 implementation:4 icu:1 international:1 component:1 contains:1 along:1 service:1 ucdata:1 pretty:2 library:1 small:1 fast:1 reordering:1 work:2 necessarily:1 compliant:1 desktop:1 group:1 several:1 reading:1 regard:1 wiki:1 advice:1 net:1 |@bigram bi_directional:6 web_browser:1 egyptian_hieroglyphic:1 internationalization_localization:1 horizontal_vertical:1 external_link:1 |
4,155 | James_Tiptree,_Jr. | James Tiptree, Jr. (August 24, 1915 – May 19, 1987) was the pen name of American science fiction author Alice Bradley Sheldon, used from 1967 to her death. She also occasionally wrote under the pseudonym Raccoona Sheldon (1974–77). Tiptree/Sheldon was most notable for breaking down the barriers between writing perceived as inherently "male" or "female" — it was not publicly known until 1977 that James Tiptree, Jr. was a woman. Early life Bradley came from an intellectual family; her father was Herbert Bradley, a lawyer and naturalist, and her mother was Mary Hastings Bradley, a prolific writer of fiction and travel books. She travelled the world with her parents from an early age. She was a graphic artist and a painter, and an art critic for the Chicago Sun between 1941 and 1942. She was married to William Davey from 1934 to 1941. In 1942 she joined the United States Army and worked in the United States Army Air Forces photointelligence group. In 1945 she married her second husband, Huntington D Sheldon, and she was discharged from the military in 1946, at which time she set up a small business in partnership with her husband. The same year her first story ("The Lucky Ones") was published in the November 16, 1946 issue of The New Yorker, and credited to "Alice Bradley" in the magazine itself, but to "Alice Bradley Sheldon" in the magazine's DVD index. In 1952 she and her husband were invited to join the CIA. She resigned in 1955 to return to college. She studied for her Bachelor of Arts degree at American University (1957–59), going on to achieve a doctorate at George Washington University in Experimental Psychology in 1967. She wrote her doctoral dissertation on the responses of animals to novel stimuli in differing environments. Sheldon was bisexual. "I like some men a lot, but from the start, before I knew anything, it was always girls and women who lit me up." Houstonvoice.com The Seattle Times: Books: "James Tiptree, Jr.": The amazing lives of writer Alice B. Sheldon Science fiction career Unsure what to do with her new degrees and her new/old careers, Sheldon began to write science fiction. She adopted the pseudonym of James Tiptree Jr. in 1967. The name "Tiptree" came from a jar of marmalade. In an interview, she said: "A male name seemed like good camouflage. I had the feeling that a man would slip by less observed. I've had too many experiences in my life of being the first woman in some damned occupation." Profile in April 1983 issue of Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine. The pseudonym was successfully maintained until the late 1970s. This is partly due to the fact that though it was widely known that "Tiptree" was a pseudonym, it was generally understood that its use was intended to protect the professional reputation of an intelligence community official. Readers, editors and correspondents were permitted to assume gender, and generally, but not invariably, they assumed "male." There was speculation, based partially on the themes in her stories, that Tiptree might be female. "Tiptree" never made any public appearances, but she did correspond regularly with fans and other science fiction authors through the mail. When asked for biographical details, Tiptree/Sheldon was forthcoming in everything but gender. Many of the details given above (the Air Force career, the Ph.D.) were mentioned in letters "Tiptree" wrote, and also appeared in official author biographies. After the death of Mary Hastings Bradley in 1976, "Tiptree" mentioned that his mother, also a writer, had died in Chicago — details that led inquiring fans to find the obituary, with its reference to Alice Sheldon; soon all was revealed. Several prominent science fiction writers suffered some embarrassment. Robert Silverberg had written an introduction to Warm Worlds and Otherwise, arguing on the basis of selections from stories in the collection, that Tiptree could not possibly be a woman. And in an introduction to Tiptree's story in his Again, Dangerous Visions anthology, Harlan Ellison opined that "[Kate] Wilhelm is the woman to beat this year, but Tiptree is the man." Silverberg's article in particular, by taking one side, makes it clear that the gender of Tiptree was a topic of some debate. The revelation of her gender had less adverse impact on people's opinions of her talent than she had feared; her final Nebula Award (for "The Screwfly Solution," published under her other occasional pseudonym, Raccoona Sheldon) was awarded in 1977. Description of works Tiptree/Sheldon was an eclectic writer who worked in a variety of styles and subgenres, often combining the technological focus and hard-edged style of "hard" science fiction with the sociological and psychological concerns of "soft" SF, and some of the stylistic experimentation of the New Wave movement. After writing several stories in more conventional modes, she produced her first work to draw widespread acclaim, "The Last Flight of Doctor Ain", in 1969. One of her shortest stories, "Ain" is a sympathetic portrait of a scientist whose concern for Earth's ecological suffering leads him to destroy the entire human race. Many of her stories have a milieu reminiscent of the space opera and pulp tales she read in her youth, but typically with a much darker tone: the cosmic journeys of her characters are often linked to a drastic spiritual alienation, and/or a transcendent experience which brings fulfillment but also death. John Clute, noting Tiptree's "inconsolable complexities of vision", concluded that "It is very rarely that a James Tiptree story does not both deal directly with death and end with a death of the spirit, or of all hope, or of the race". Notable stories of this type include "Painwise", in which a space explorer has been altered to be immune to pain but finds such an existence intolerable, and "A Momentary Taste of Being", in which the true purpose of humanity, found on a distant planet, renders individual human life entirely pointless. Another major theme is the tension between free will and biological determinism, or reason and sexual desire. "Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death", one of the rare SF stories in which no humans appear, describes an alien creature's romantic rationalizations for the brutal instincts that drive its life cycle; "The Screwfly Solution" suggests that humans might similarly rationalize a plague of murderous sexual insanity. Sex in Tiptree's writing is frankly portrayed, a sometimes playful but more often threatening force. Before the revelation of Sheldon's identity, Tiptree was often referred to as unusually feminist for a male science fiction writer — particularly for "The Women Men Don't See", a story of two women who are visited by aliens and, rather than being abducted, go willingly to escape their limited opportunities on Earth. However, Sheldon's view of sexual politics could be ambiguous, as in the somewhat colorless and ruthless society of female clones in "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?" Sheldon's two novels, produced toward the end of her career, were not as critically well received as her best-known stories but continued to explore similar themes. Some of her best-regarded work can be found in the collection Her Smoke Rose Up Forever, available in paperback as of 2004. Death Sheldon continued writing under the Tiptree pen name for another decade. On May 19, 1987, at age 71, Sheldon took the life of her 84-year-old, nearly blind husband and then took her own. They were found dead, hand in hand in bed, in their Virginia home. According to biographer Julie Phillips, the suicide note Sheldon left was written years earlier, and saved until needed. In an interview with Charles Platt in the early 1980s Sheldon spoke of her emotional problems and previous suicide attempts. Much of her work contains dark and pessimistic elements, which in retrospect can be seen as reflective of her troubled emotions. Elms, A. C. (2000). Painwise in space: The psychology of isolation in Cordwainer Smith and James Tiptree, Jr. In G. Westfahl (Ed.), Space and Beyond: The Frontier Theme in Science Fiction. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 131-140. The James Tiptree, Jr. Award is given in her honor each year for a work of science fiction or fantasy that expands or explores our understanding of gender; funds for the award are raised in part by bake sales. Quotes about James Tiptree, Jr "James Tiptree's surface was often airy and at times hilarious, and her control of genre conventions allowed her to convey the bleakness of her abiding insights in tales that remain seductively readable; but she was, in the end, incapable of dissimulation." — from The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, by John Clute and Peter Nicholls "Sheldon was simply one of the best short-story writers of our day....She has already had an enormous impact on upcoming generations of SF writers. Her footprints are all over cyberpunk turf (...)" — Gardner Dozois, in Locus magazine, 1987 "Her stories and novels are humanistic, while her deep concern for male-female (even human-alien) harmony ran counter to the developing segregate-the-sexes drive amongst feminist writers; What her work brought to the genre was a blend of lyricism and inventiveness, as if some lyric poet had rewritten a number of clever SF standards and then passed them on to a psychoanalyst for final polish." — Brian Aldiss, Trillion Year Spree "'Tip' was a crucial part of modern SF's maturing process (...)'He'(...) wrote powerful fiction challenging readers' assumptions about everything, especially sex and gender." — Suzy McKee Charnas, The Women's Review of Books "[Tiptree's work is] proof of what she said, that men and women can and do speak both to and for one another, if they have bothered to learn how." — Ursula K. Le Guin, Khatru Bibliography Short story collections Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home (1973) Warm Worlds and Otherwise (1975) Star Songs of an Old Primate (1978) Out of the Everywhere and Other Extraordinary Visions (1981) Byte Beautiful: Eight Science Fiction Stories (1985) The Starry Rift (1986) (linked stories) Tales of the Quintana Roo (1986) (linked stories) Crown of Stars (1988) Her Smoke Rose Up Forever (omnibus collection) (1990) Timeline of Stories 1968 'The Mother Ship' (later retitled 'Mamma Come Home') (novelette) 'Pupa Knows Best' (later retitled 'Help') (novelette) 'Birth of a Salesman' (short story) 'Fault' (short story) 1969 'Beam Us Home' (short story) 'The Last Flight of Doctor Ain' (short story) 'Your Haploid Heart' (novelette) 'The Snows Are Melted, The Snows Are Gone' (novelette) 'Parimutuel Planet' (later retitled 'Faithful to Thee, Terra, in Our Fashion') (novelette) 1970 'Last Night and Every Night' (short story) 'The Man Doors Said Hello To' (short story) 'I’m Too Big But I Love to Play' (novelette) 'The Nightblooming Saurian' (short story) 1971 'The Peacefulness of Vivyan' (short story) 'I’ll Be Waiting for You When the Swimming Pool Is Empty' (short story) 'And So On, And So On' (short story) 'Mother in the Sky with Diamonds' (novelette) 1972 'The Man Who Walked Home' (short story) 'And I Have Come Upon This Place by Lost Ways' (novelette) 'And I Awoke and Found Me Here on the Cold Hill’s Side' (short story) 'On the Last Afternoon' (novella) 'Painwise' (novelette) 'Forever to a Hudson Bay Blanket' (short story) 'Filomena & Greg & Rikki-Tikki & Barlow & the Alien' (later retitled 'All the Kinds of Yes') (novelette) 'The Milk of Paradise' (short story) 'Amberjack' (short story) 'Through a Lass Darkly' (short story) 1973 'Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death' (short story) 'The Women Men Don’t See' (novelette) 'The Girl Who Was Plugged In' (novelette) Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home (collection of 15 stories, with an introduction by Harry Harrison) 1974 'Her Smoke Rose Up Forever' (novelette) 'Angel Fix' (novelette, under the name 'Raccoona Sheldon') 1975 'A Momentary Taste of Being' (novella) Warm Worlds and Otherwise (collection of 12 stories, with an introduction by Robert Silverberg) 1976 'Your Faces, O My Sisters! Your Faces Filled of Light!' (short story, under the name Raccoona Sheldon) 'Beaver Tears' (short story, under the name Raccoona Sheldon) 'She Waits for All Men Born' (short story) 'Houston, Houston, Do You Read?' (novella) 'The Psychologist Who Wouldn’t Do Awful Things to Rats' (novelette) 1977 'The Screwfly Solution' (novelette, under the name Raccoona Sheldon) 'Time-Sharing Angel' (short story) 1978 'We Who Stole the Dream' (novelette) Star Songs of an Old Primate (collection of 7 stories, with an introduction by Ursula K. Le Guin) 'Up the Walls of the World' (novel) 1980 'Slow Music' (novella) 'A Source of Innocent Merriment' (short story) 1981 'Excursion Fare' (novelette) 'Lirios: A Tale of the Quintana Roo' (later retitled 'What Came Ashore at Lirios') (novelette) Out of the Everywhere, and Other Extraordinary Visions (collection of eight previously published stories, plus 2 new stories:) 'Out of the Everywhere' (novelette) 'With Delicate Mad Hands' (novella) 1982 'The Boy Who Waterskied to Forever' (short story) 1983 'Beyond the Dead Reef' (novelette) 1985 'Morality Meat' (novelette, under the name Racoona Sheldon) 'The Only Neat Thing to Do' (novella) 'All This and Heaven Too' (novelette) Byte Beautiful: 8 Science Fiction Stories (collection of eight stories, with an introduction by Michael Bishop) 1986 'Our Resident Djinn' (short story) 'Good Night, Sweethearts' (novella) 'Collision' (novella) The Starry Rift (collection of three stories) Tales of the Quintana Roo (collection of three stories, set in the Yucatan peninsula) 1987 'Second Going' (novelette) 'Yanqui Doodle' (novelette) 'In Midst of Life' (novelette) 1988 'Backward, Turn Backward' (novella) 'The Earth Doth Like a Snake Renew'(novellette) 'The Color of Neanderthal Eyes' (novella) Crown of Stars (collection of nine previously published stories, plus one new story:) 'Come Live with Me' (novelette) 1990 Her Smoke Rose Up Forever (collection of 18 stories, with an introduction by John Clute) 1996 Neat Sheets: The Poetry of James Tiptree, Jr. (collection of 19 previously unpublished poems and a short play, with an introduction by Karen Joy Fowler) 2000 Meet Me at Infinity (a collection of three stories and 35 essays and articles, with an introduction by Jeffrey D. Smith, including two previously unpublished stories:) 'The Trouble Is Not in Your Set' (short story) 'Trey of Hearts' (short story) Novels Up the Walls of the World (1978) Brightness Falls from the Air (1985) Other collections Neat Sheets: The Poetry of James Tiptree, Jr. (1996) Meet Me at Infinity (a collection of previously uncollected and unpublished fiction, essays and other non-fiction, with much biographical information, edited by Tiptree's friend Jeffrey D. Smith) (2000) Adaptations "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?" (1990) - radio drama for the National Public Radio series Sci-Fi Radio. Originally aired as two half-hour shows, February 4 & 11. "Yanqui Doodle" (1990) - half-hour radio drama for the National Public Radio series Sci-Fi Radio. Aired March 18. "The Girl Who Was Plugged In" (1998) - television film for the series Welcome to Paradox "Weird Romance" (1992) - Off-Broadway musical by Alan Menken. Act 1 is based on "The Girl Who Was Plugged In". "The Screwfly Solution" (2006) - television film for the series Masters of Horror Major awards Hugo Awards: 1974 (Best Novella, "The Girl Who Was Plugged In") and 1977 (Best Novella, "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?") Nebula Awards: 1973 (Short Story, "Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death"), 1976 (Novella, "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?") and 1977 (Novelette, "The Screwfly Solution", published under the pseudonym Raccoona Sheldon.) World Fantasy Award: 1987 for the collection Tales of the Quintana Roo Locus Award: 1984 (short story) 'Beyond the Dead Reef', and 1986 (novella) 'The Only Neat Thing to Do' Science Fiction Chronicle Award: 1986 (novella) 'The Only Neat Thing to Do' Jupiter Award: 1977 (novella) 'Houston, Houston, Do You Read?' References Further reading Julie Phillips: James Tiptree, Jr: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon (2006) (St. Martin's Press) ISBN 0-312-20385-3. A thorough biography, with insight into Sheldon's life and work. Extensive quotation from her correspondence, journals, and other papers. Times Literary Supplement review Julie Phillips: "Dear Starbear: Letters Between Ursula K. Le Guin and James Tiptree Jr." in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, September 2006 issue. The James Tiptree Award Anthology 1 edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith. The James Tiptree Award Anthology 2 edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith. The James Tiptree Award Anthology 3 edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith. External links Biographical references Biography and resources at the James Tiptree, Jr. World Wide Website Site for Julie Phillips's biography of Tiptree New York Times review of JAMES TIPTREE, JR The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon By Julie Phillips Resources Sparks, Elisa Kay, Dr. A detailed bibliography of works by and about Tiptree (not updated since 1997) Lowry Pei. Poor Singletons: Definitions of Humanity in the Stories of James Tiptree, Jr. Aparta Krystian. Conventional Models of Time and Their Extensions in Science Fiction Master's thesis exploring conceptual blending in time travel, with case studies of four stories by James Tiptree, Jr. ("Backward! Turn Backward!," "Fault," "Forever to a Hudson Bay Blanket," and "The Man Who Walked Home") and the novel Brightness Falls. On-line Fiction The Women Men don't See Text of the short story Painwise Text of the short story Beam Us Home Text of the short story The Screwfly Solution Text of the short story Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death Text of the short story The Last Flight of Doctor Ain and The Screwfly Solution Pdf containing both short stories | James_Tiptree,_Jr. |@lemmatized james:19 tiptree:41 jr:15 august:1 may:2 pen:2 name:9 american:2 science:16 fiction:21 author:3 alice:7 bradley:7 sheldon:29 use:2 death:10 also:4 occasionally:1 write:10 pseudonym:6 raccoona:7 notable:2 break:1 barrier:1 perceive:1 inherently:1 male:5 female:4 publicly:1 know:5 jam:1 woman:11 early:3 life:10 come:6 intellectual:1 family:1 father:1 herbert:1 lawyer:1 naturalist:1 mother:4 mary:2 hastings:2 prolific:1 writer:9 travel:3 book:3 world:8 parent:1 age:2 graphic:1 artist:1 painter:1 art:2 critic:1 chicago:2 sun:1 marry:2 william:1 davey:1 join:2 united:2 state:2 army:2 work:11 air:5 force:3 photointelligence:1 group:1 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4,156 | Alexandria,_West_Dunbartonshire | Alexandria (Cathair Alastair in Gaelic) is a town in West Dunbartonshire, Scotland. The town is situated on the River Leven, four miles (6 km) north-west of Dumbarton. As of 2001, the population of the town is 13,444. It is the largest town in the Vale of Leven, the others being Balloch, Renton, Jamestown and Bonhill; their combined population is over 20,000. The town's traditional industry, most importantly cotton manufacturing, bleaching and printing, have been phased out. The town was redeveloped in the 1970s with a new town centre layout and traffic system. Local landmarks include the Christie Park, the Fountain (a traffic junction in the town centre, although there has not been a working fountain there for some years), Lomond Galleries, a former factory with an impressive dome & an even more impressive marble entrance hall & staircase. It was originally built for the Argyll car works. (A carving above the main door is of one such car). After the car factory decline, it was used by the M.O.D. for torpedo manufacture (Which were test fired in Loch Long) & then in the early 1970s was the scene of the Plessey sit-in. The town had the curious distinction of having the only unemployment benefit office in Britain with the insignia of King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom above the door until the building was closed and redeveloped as housing, the insignia was retained. It is also reputed to be the only UK town with A railway station and a pub in the middle of a roundabout. A. J. Cronin's paternal grandparents owned a pub in Bridge Street. Alexandria sits on the former A82 main road between Glasgow and Loch Lomond. There are regular bus services on the route and the town has a train station on the rail line between Balloch and Glasgow Queen Street. | Alexandria,_West_Dunbartonshire |@lemmatized alexandria:2 cathair:1 alastair:1 gaelic:1 town:11 west:2 dunbartonshire:1 scotland:1 situate:1 river:1 leven:2 four:1 mile:1 km:1 north:1 dumbarton:1 population:2 large:1 vale:1 others:1 balloch:2 renton:1 jamestown:1 bonhill:1 combined:1 traditional:1 industry:1 importantly:1 cotton:1 manufacturing:1 bleach:1 printing:1 phase:1 redevelop:2 new:1 centre:2 layout:1 traffic:2 system:1 local:1 landmark:1 include:1 christie:1 park:1 fountain:2 junction:1 although:1 work:2 year:1 lomond:2 gallery:1 former:2 factory:2 impressive:2 dome:1 even:1 marble:1 entrance:1 hall:1 staircase:1 originally:1 build:1 argyll:1 car:3 carving:1 main:2 door:2 one:1 decline:1 use:1 torpedo:1 manufacture:1 test:1 fire:1 loch:2 long:1 early:1 scene:1 plessey:1 sit:1 curious:1 distinction:1 unemployment:1 benefit:1 office:1 britain:1 insignia:2 king:1 edward:1 viii:1 united:1 kingdom:1 building:1 close:1 housing:1 retain:1 also:1 repute:1 uk:1 railway:1 station:2 pub:2 middle:1 roundabout:1 j:1 cronin:1 paternal:1 grandparent:1 bridge:1 street:2 sits:1 road:1 glasgow:2 regular:1 bus:1 service:1 route:1 train:1 rail:1 line:1 queen:1 |@bigram mile_km:1 paternal_grandparent:1 loch_lomond:1 |
4,157 | Interstellar_cloud | Interstellar cloud is the generic name given to an accumulation of gas, plasma and dust in our and other galaxies. Put differently, an interstellar cloud is a denser-than-average region of the interstellar medium. Depending on the density, size and temperature of a given cloud, the hydrogen in it can be neutral (H I regions), ionized (H II regions) (ie. a plasma), or molecular (molecular clouds). Neutral and ionized clouds are sometimes also called diffuse clouds, while molecular clouds are sometimes also referred to as dense clouds. Over 200 newly formed stars are scattered within a cavern-like, gaseous, interstellar cloud (NGC 604). The stars irradiate the gas with energetic ultraviolet light stripping electrons from atoms and exciting them—producing a characteristic nebular glow. Chemical compositions Analyzing the composition of interstellar clouds is achieved by studying electromagnetic radiation that we receive from them. Large radio telescopes scan the intensity in the sky of particular frequencies of electromagnetic radiation which are characteristic of certain molecules' spectra. Some interstellar clouds are cold and tend to give out EM radiation of large wavelengths. We can produce a map of the abundance of these molecules to produce an understanding of the varying composition of the clouds. In hot clouds, there are often ions of many elements, whose spectra can be seen in visible and ultraviolet light. Radio telescopes can also scan over the frequencies from one point in the map, recording the intensities of each type of molecule. Peaks of frequencies mean that an abundance of that molecule or atom is present in the cloud. The height of the peak is proportional to the relative percentage that it makes up. Unexpected chemicals detected in interstellar clouds Until recently the rates of reactions in interstellar clouds were expected to be very slow, with minimal products being produced due to the low temperature and density of the clouds. However, large organic molecules were observed in the spectra that scientists would not have expected to find under these conditions. The reactions needed to create them normally occur only at much higher temperatures and pressures. The fact that they were found indicates that these chemical reactions in interstellar clouds take place faster than suspected. These reactions are studied in the CRESU experiment. High-velocity cloud These interstellar clouds possess a velocity higher than can be explained by the rotation of the Milky Way. By definition, these clouds must have a vlsr greater than 90 km s-1, where vlsr is the local standard rest velocity. They are detected primarily in the 21 cm line of neutral hydrogen, and typically have a lower portion of heavy elements than is normal for interstellar clouds in the Milky Way. Theories intended to explain these unusual clouds include materials left over from the formation of our galaxy, or tidally-displaced matter drawn away from other galaxies or members of the Local Group. An example of the latter is the Magellanic Stream. To narrow down the origin of these clouds, a better understanding of their distances and metallicity is needed. High-velocity clouds are identified with an HVC prefix, as with HVC 127-41-330. See also Interstellar medium List of molecules in interstellar space Nebula External links High Velocity Cloud — The Swinburne Astronomy Online (SAO) encyclopedia. | Interstellar_cloud |@lemmatized interstellar:13 cloud:26 generic:1 name:1 give:3 accumulation:1 gas:2 plasma:2 dust:1 galaxy:3 put:1 differently:1 denser:1 average:1 region:3 medium:2 depend:1 density:2 size:1 temperature:3 hydrogen:2 neutral:3 h:2 ionize:1 ii:1 ie:1 molecular:3 ionized:1 sometimes:2 also:4 call:1 diffuse:1 refer:1 dense:1 newly:1 form:1 star:2 scatter:1 within:1 cavern:1 like:1 gaseous:1 ngc:1 irradiate:1 energetic:1 ultraviolet:2 light:2 strip:1 electron:1 atom:2 excite:1 produce:4 characteristic:2 nebular:1 glow:1 chemical:3 composition:3 analyze:1 achieve:1 study:2 electromagnetic:2 radiation:3 receive:1 large:3 radio:2 telescope:2 scan:2 intensity:2 sky:1 particular:1 frequency:3 certain:1 molecule:6 spectrum:3 cold:1 tend:1 em:1 wavelength:1 map:2 abundance:2 understanding:2 vary:1 hot:1 often:1 ion:1 many:1 element:2 whose:1 see:2 visible:1 one:1 point:1 record:1 type:1 peak:2 mean:1 present:1 height:1 proportional:1 relative:1 percentage:1 make:1 unexpected:1 detect:2 recently:1 rate:1 reaction:4 expect:2 slow:1 minimal:1 product:1 due:1 low:2 however:1 organic:1 observe:1 scientist:1 would:1 find:2 condition:1 need:2 create:1 normally:1 occur:1 much:1 high:5 pressure:1 fact:1 indicate:1 take:1 place:1 faster:1 suspect:1 cresu:1 experiment:1 velocity:5 possess:1 explain:2 rotation:1 milky:2 way:2 definition:1 must:1 vlsr:2 great:1 km:1 local:2 standard:1 rest:1 primarily:1 cm:1 line:1 typically:1 portion:1 heavy:1 normal:1 theory:1 intend:1 unusual:1 include:1 material:1 leave:1 formation:1 tidally:1 displaced:1 matter:1 draw:1 away:1 member:1 group:1 example:1 latter:1 magellanic:1 stream:1 narrow:1 origin:1 good:1 distance:1 metallicity:1 identify:1 hvc:2 prefix:1 list:1 space:1 nebula:1 external:1 link:1 swinburne:1 astronomy:1 online:1 sao:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram interstellar_cloud:10 molecular_cloud:2 electromagnetic_radiation:2 em_radiation:1 milky_way:2 external_link:1 |
4,158 | Anubis | Anubis Anubis is the Egyptian name Charles Russell Coulter, Patricia Turner, Encyclopedia of ancient deities, Mc Farland 2000, ISBN 0786403179, p.58 for a jackal-headed god associated with mummification and the afterlife in Egyptian mythology. In the ancient Greek language, Anubis is known as Inpu, (variously spelled Anupu, Ienpw etc.) The Gods of Ancient Egypt - Anubis . The oldest known mention of Anubis is in the Old Kingdom pyramid texts, where he is associated with the burial of the king. At this time, Anubis was the most important god of the Dead but he was replaced during the Middle Kingdom by Osiris. Charles Freeman, The Legacy of Ancient Egypt, Facts on File, Inc. 1997. p.91 He takes various names in connection with his funerary role, such as He who is upon his mountain, which underscores his importance as a protector of the deceased and their tombs, and the title He who is in the place of embalming, associating him with the process of mummification. Like many ancient Egyptian deities, Anubis assumes different roles in various contexts, and no public procession in Egypt would be conducted without an Anubis to march at the head. Portrayal Anubis was the god to protect the dead and bring them to the afterlife. He was usually portrayed as a half human, half jackal, or in full jackal form wearing a ribbon and holding a flail in the crook of its arm Ancient Egypt: the Mythology - Anubis . The jackal was strongly associated with cemeteries in ancient Egypt, since it was a scavenger which threatened to uncover human bodies and eat their flesh Freeman, op. cit., p.91 The distinctive black color of Anubis "did not have to do with the jackal [per se] but with the color of rotting flesh and with the black soil of the Nile valley, symbolizing rebirth." Anubis is depicted in funerary contexts where he is shown attending to the mummies of the deceased or sitting atop a tomb protecting it. In fact, during embalming, the "head embalmer" wore an Anubis costume. The critical weighing of the heart scene in Book of the Dead also show Anubis performing the measurement that determined the worthiness of the deceased to enter the realm of the dead (the underworld). New Kingdom tomb-seals also depict Anubis atop nine bows that symbolize his domination over the foes of Egypt. Anubis and Other Gods Originally, in the Ogdoad system, he was god of the underworld. He was said to have a wife, Anput (who was really just his female aspect, her name being his with an additional feminine suffix: the t), who was depicted exactly the same, though feminine. He is also said to have taken to wife the feminine form of Neheb Kau, Nehebka, and Kebechet, the goddess of purification of body organs specially placed in canopic jars during mummification. Kebechet is also shown as his daughter in some places. Anubis was the son of Osiris, the god of the underworld, and Nephthys, Set's sister and wife. Nephthys and Isis tricked Osiris one night. Nephthys never liked Seth (Set), but she had always felt an attraction towards Osiris. Since Nephthys and Isis were twins, they were able to trick Osiris into sleeping with Nephthys one night instead of Isis. As a result, Anubis was born. Nephthys was very angry since Set killed Osiris so she left him and assisted Isis, Osiris's wife and Nephthys ran away with her son, Anubis. Embalmer Life sized Anubis statue from the Tomb of Tutankhamun (Cairo Museum Anubis attending the mummy of the deceased Following the merging of the Ennead and Ogdoad belief systems, as a result of the identification of Atum with Ra, and their compatibility, Anubis became a lesser god in the underworld, giving way to the more popular Osiris during the Middle Kingdom. However, "Anubis was given a place in the family of gods as the...son of Osiris and Nephthys, and in this role he helped Isis mummify his dead father." . Indeed, when the Myth of Osiris and Isis emerged, it was said that when Osiris had died, Osiris' organs were given to Anubis as a gift. With this connection, Anubis became the patron god of embalmers: during the funerary rites of mummification, illustrations from the Book of the Dead often show a priest wearing the jackal mask supporting the upright mummy. Later perception Since he was more associated with beliefs concerning the weighing of the heart than had Osiris, Anubis retained this aspect, and became considered more the gatekeeper and ruler of the underworld, the "Guardian of the veil" (of "death"). Consequently, he was said to protect souls as they journeyed there, and thus be the patron of lost souls (and consequently orphans). Anubis was frequently depicted in editions of the Book of Dead as performing the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony on the mummy and statues of the deceased, as well as escorting the spirit of the deceased into the presence of Osiris in the underworld. Subsequently, the god is often shown weighing the heart of the deceased against the feather of truth (Ma'at) in the presence of Thoth (as scribe, writing down the recordings) and Osiris (as judge). Rather than god of death, he had become god of dying, and consequently funeral arrangements. It was as the god of death that his identity merged with that of Wepwawet, a similar jackal-headed god, associated with funerary practice, which had been worshiped in Lower Egypt, whereas Anubis' cult was centered in Upper Egypt. However, as lesser of the two gods of the underworld, he gradually became considered the son of Osiris, but Osiris' wife, Isis, was not considered his mother, since she too inappropriately was associated with life. Instead, his mother became considered to be Nephthys, who had become strongly associated with funerary practice, indeed had in some ways become the personification of mourning, and was said to supply bandages to the deceased. Subsequently, this apparent infidelity of Osiris was explained in myth, in which it was said that a sexually frustrated Nephthys had disguised herself as Isis in order to appeal to her husband, Set, but he did not notice her as he was infertile. However, Isis' husband Osiris mistook Nephthys for his wife, which resulted in Anubis' birth. Other versions of the myth depict Set as the father, and it remains unclear as to whether Set was truly infertile or not. Perception outside Egypt Statue of Hermanubis (Vatican Museums) In later times, during the Ptolemaic period, as their functions were similar, Anubis came to be identified as the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis Hermanubis Hermanubis | English | Dictionary & Translation by Babylon . The centre of this cult was in uten-ha/Sa-ka/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name simply means "city of dogs". In Book XI of "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in the heavens, and Cerberus in Hades. In his dialogues (e.g. Republic 399e, 592a), Plato has Socrates utter, "by the dog" (kai me ton kuna), "by the dog of Egypt","by the dog, the god of the Egyptians" (Gorgias, 482b), for emphasis. References External links Anubis – Archaeowiki.org Gods and godes...Anubis ''' | Anubis |@lemmatized anubis:34 egyptian:4 name:4 charles:2 russell:1 coulter:1 patricia:1 turner:1 encyclopedia:1 ancient:7 deity:2 mc:1 farland:1 isbn:1 p:3 jackal:7 head:5 god:21 associate:8 mummification:4 afterlife:2 mythology:2 greek:4 language:1 know:1 inpu:1 variously:1 spell:1 anupu:1 ienpw:1 etc:1 egypt:11 old:2 known:1 mention:1 kingdom:4 pyramid:1 text:1 burial:1 king:1 time:2 important:1 dead:7 replace:1 middle:3 osiris:19 freeman:2 legacy:1 fact:2 file:1 inc:1 take:2 various:2 connection:2 funerary:5 role:3 upon:1 mountain:1 underscore:1 importance:1 protector:1 decease:5 tomb:4 title:1 place:5 embalm:2 process:1 like:2 many:1 assumes:1 different:1 context:2 public:1 procession:1 would:1 conduct:1 without:1 march:1 portrayal:1 protect:3 bring:1 usually:1 portray:1 half:2 human:2 full:1 form:2 wear:3 ribbon:1 hold:1 flail:1 crook:1 arm:1 strongly:2 cemetery:1 since:5 scavenger:1 threaten:1 uncover:1 body:2 eat:1 flesh:2 op:1 cit:1 distinctive:1 black:2 color:2 per:1 se:1 rot:1 soil:1 nile:1 valley:1 symbolize:2 rebirth:1 depict:5 show:5 attend:2 mummy:4 deceased:3 sit:1 atop:2 embalmer:3 costume:1 critical:1 weighing:2 heart:3 scene:1 book:4 also:5 perform:2 measurement:1 determine:1 worthiness:1 enter:1 realm:1 underworld:7 new:1 seal:1 nine:1 bow:1 domination:1 foe:1 originally:1 ogdoad:2 system:2 say:6 wife:6 anput:1 really:1 female:1 aspect:2 additional:1 feminine:3 suffix:1 exactly:1 though:1 neheb:1 kau:1 nehebka:1 kebechet:2 goddess:1 purification:1 organ:2 specially:1 canopic:1 jar:1 daughter:1 son:4 nephthys:11 set:6 sister:1 isi:8 trick:2 one:2 night:2 never:1 seth:1 always:1 felt:1 attraction:1 towards:1 twin:1 able:1 sleep:1 instead:2 result:3 bear:1 angry:1 kill:1 leave:1 assist:1 run:1 away:1 life:2 size:1 statue:3 tutankhamun:1 cairo:1 museum:2 follow:1 merging:1 ennead:1 belief:2 identification:1 atum:1 ra:1 compatibility:1 become:9 less:1 give:3 way:2 popular:1 however:3 family:1 help:1 isis:1 mummify:1 father:2 indeed:3 myth:3 emerge:1 die:2 gift:1 patron:2 rite:1 illustration:1 often:2 priest:1 mask:1 support:1 upright:1 later:2 perception:2 associated:1 concern:1 retain:1 consider:4 gatekeeper:1 ruler:1 guardian:1 veil:1 death:3 consequently:3 soul:2 journey:1 thus:1 lose:1 orphan:1 frequently:1 edition:1 opening:1 mouth:1 ceremony:1 well:1 escort:1 spirit:1 presence:2 subsequently:2 weigh:1 feather:1 truth:1 thoth:1 scribe:1 write:1 recording:1 judge:1 rather:1 funeral:1 arrangement:1 identity:1 merge:1 wepwawet:1 similar:2 practice:2 worship:2 low:1 whereas:1 cult:2 center:1 upper:1 lesser:1 two:1 gradually:1 mother:2 inappropriately:1 personification:1 mourning:1 supply:1 bandage:1 apparent:1 infidelity:1 explain:1 sexually:1 frustrated:1 disguise:1 order:1 appeal:1 husband:2 notice:1 infertile:2 mistake:1 birth:1 version:1 remain:1 unclear:1 whether:1 truly:1 outside:1 hermanubis:5 vatican:1 ptolemaic:1 period:1 function:1 come:1 identify:1 hermes:1 english:1 dictionary:1 translation:1 babylon:1 centre:1 uten:1 ha:1 sa:1 ka:1 cynopolis:1 whose:1 simply:1 mean:1 city:1 dog:4 xi:1 golden:1 apuleius:1 find:1 evidence:1 maintain:1 rome:1 least:1 century:1 appear:1 alchemical:1 hermetical:1 literature:1 age:1 renaissance:1 although:1 roman:1 typically:1 scorn:1 animal:1 bizarre:1 primitive:1 mockingly:1 call:1 barker:1 sometimes:1 sirius:1 heaven:1 cerberus:1 hades:1 dialogue:1 e:1 g:1 republic:1 plato:1 socrates:1 utter:1 kai:1 ton:1 kuna:1 gorgias:1 emphasis:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 archaeowiki:1 org:1 godes:1 |@bigram op_cit:1 per_se:1 sit_atop:1 weighing_heart:2 canopic_jar:1 isi_osiris:1 osiris_isi:1 unclear_whether:1 plato_socrates:1 external_link:1 |
4,159 | Cinema_of_Japan | Humanity and Paper Balloons (Sadao Yamanaka) Tokyo Story (Yasujiro Ozu) Ugetsu (Kenji Mizoguchi) Seven Samurai (Akira Kurosawa) Godzilla (Ishirō Honda) The has a history that spans more than 100 years. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world. http://members.tripod.com/dennismichaeliannuzz/JapanCinema.html Thirty-two Japanese films or co-productions are represented in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die (the most of any Asian nation), namely 3-Iron, An Actor's Revenge, Akira, Audition, An Autumn Afternoon, The Ballad of Narayama, The Burmese Harp, The Crying Game, Dersu Uzala, Floating Weeds, Grave of the Fireflies, Hiroshima mon amour, Ikiru, In the Realm of the Senses, Naked Lunch, Onibaba, Princess Mononoke, Ran, Rashomon, Reversal of Fortune, Ring, Sansho the Bailiff, Seven Samurai, Spirited Away, The Story of the Last Chrysanthemums, Tampopo, Throne of Blood, Tokyo Olympiad, Tokyo Story, Ugetsu, Woman in the Dunes and Yi Yi: A One and a Two. Genres Anime: Animation. Anime refers to "Japanese animation" in English. Jidaigeki, period pieces set during the Edo period or earlier. Samurai cinema, a subgenre of jidaigeki, also known as chambara (onomatopoeia describing the sound of swords clashing). J-Horror, horror films such as Ring Cult Horror, such as Battle Royale or Suicide Club Kaiju: monster films, such as Godzilla Pink films, softcore pornographic films. Often more socially-engaged and aesthically well-crafted than simple pornography. Yakuza films: films about mobsters. Seishun eiga: films about teenagers History The Silent Era The first films produced in Japan were Bake Jizo (Jizo the Spook) and Shinin no sosei (Resurrection of a Corpse), both from 1898 Seek Japan | J-Horror: An Alternative Guide . The short Geisha no teodori (芸者の手踊り) was the first documentary, made in June 1899. Japan's first star was Matsunosuke Onoe, a kabuki actor who appeared in over 1,000 films, mostly shorts, between 1909 and 1926. He and director Shozo Makino helped to popularize the jidaigeki genre. A favorite romantic lead, similar in appeal to Rudolph Valentino, was Tokihiko Okada. The first female Japanese performer to appear in a film professionally was the dancer/actress Tokuko Nagai Takagi, who appeared in four shorts for the American-based Thanhouser Company between 1911 and 1914. Some of the most discussed silent films from Japan are those of Kenji Mizoguchi, whose later works (e.g., The Life of Oharu) are still highly regarded today. Most Japanese cinema theatres at the time employed benshi, narrators whose dramatic readings accompanied the film and its musical score which, like in the West, was often performed live. For more on benshi, see the books: The 1923 earthquake, the Allied bombing of Tokyo during World War II, as well as the natural effects of time and Japan's humidity on inflammable and unstable Nitrate film have resulted in a great dearth of surviving films from this period. A study of the gendaigeki (contemporary/modern film drama) and writing for film in Japan in the 1910s to early 1920s, with select translations of scripts (complete as well as excerpts) is available in "Writing in Light: The Silent Scenario and the Japanese Pure Film Movement" (Joanne Bernardi, Wayne State University Press, 2001). The 1930s Unlike the situation in the west, silent films were still being produced in Japan well into the 1930s. Notable talkies of this period include Kenji Mizoguchi's Sisters of the Gion (Gion no shimai, 1936), Osaka Elegy (1936) and The Story of the Last Chrysanthemums (1939), along with Sadao Yamanaka's Humanity and Paper Balloons (1937) and Mikio Naruse's Wife, Be Like A Rose! (Tsuma Yo Bara No Yoni, 1935), which was one of the first Japanese films to gain a theatrical release in the U.S. However, with increasing censorship, the left-leaning tendency films of directors such as Daisuke Ito also began to come under attack. A few Japanese sound shorts were made in the 1920s and 1930s, but Japan's first feature-length talkie was Fujiwara Yoshie no furusato (1930), which used the Mina Talkie System. In 1935, Yasujiro Ozu also directed An Inn in Tokyo, considered a precursor to the neorealism genre. The 1940s During this period when Japan was expanding its growing Empire the Second incredibly militaristic Japanese government saw cinema as the perfect propaganda tool to show to to the people the glory and Invincibility of the Empire of Japan. Thus many films from this period depict incredibly patriotic and miltaristic themes. Akira Kurosawa made his feature film debut with Sugata Sanshiro in 1943. With the SCAP occupation following the end of WWII, Japan was exposed to over a decade's worth of American animation that had been banned under the war-time government. Yasujiro Ozu directed the critically and commercially successful Late Spring in 1949. The 1950s The 1950s were the zenith, or Golden Age, of Japanese cinema. Three Japanese films from this decade (Rashomon, Seven Samurai, and Tokyo Story) made the Sight & Sound'''s 2002 Critics and Directors Poll for the best films of all time. BFI | Sight & Sound | Top Ten Poll 2002 The decade started with Akira Kurosawa's Rashomon (1950), which won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and marked the entrance of Japanese cinema onto the world stage. It was also the breakout role for legendary star Toshirō Mifune. , p.127. 1952 and 1953 saw another Kurosawa film, Ikiru, as well as Yasujiro Ozu's Tokyo Story. The first Japanese film in color is Carmen Comes Home directed by Keisuke Kinoshita and released in 1951. A black and white version of this film was also . The Gate of Hell directed by Teinosuke Kinugasa was released in 1953. This was the first movie that filmed using Eastmancolor film, Gate of Hell was both Daiei's first color film and the first Japanese color movie to be released outside of Japan, receiving an Oscar in 1954 for Best Costume Design created by Sanzo Wada. The year 1954 saw two of Japan's most influential films released. The first was the Kurosawa epic Seven Samurai, about a band of hired samurai who protect a helpless village from a rapacious gang of thieves, which was remade in the West as The Magnificent Seven. That same year Ishirō Honda released the anti-nuclear horror film Gojira, which was translated in the West as Godzilla. Though it was severely edited for its Western release, Godzilla became an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire industry of Kaiju films. In 1955, Hiroshi Inagaki won an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for Part I of his Samurai Trilogy. Kon Ichikawa directed two anti-war dramas: The Burmese Harp (1956), and Fires On The Plain (1959), along with Enjo (1958), which was adapted from Yukio Mishima's novel Temple Of The Golden Pavilion. Masaki Kobayashi made two of the three films which would collectively become known as the The Human Condition Trilogy: No Greater Love (1958), and The Road To Eternity (1959). The trilogy was completed in 1961, with A Soldier's Prayer. Kenji Mizoguchi directed The Life of Oharu (1952), Ugetsu (1953) and Sansho the Bailiff (1954). He won the Silver Bear at the Venice Film Festival for Ugetsu. Mikio Naruse made Repast (1950), Late Chrysanthemums (1954), The Sound of the Mountain (1954) and Floating Clouds (1955). Yasujiro Ozu directed Good Morning (1959) and Floating Weeds (1958), which was adapted from his earlier silent A Story of Floating Weeds (1934), and was shot by Rashomon/Sansho the Bailiff cinematographer Kazuo Miyagawa. The 1960s Akira Kurosawa directed the 1961 classic Yojimbo, which many believe was at least partially inspired by John Ford Westerns and film noir classics and in turn influenced Westerns that followed especially Sergio Leone's man-with-no-name Spaghetti Westerns. Yasujiro Ozu made his final film, An Autumn Afternoon, in 1962. Mikio Naruse directed the widescreen melodrama When a Woman Ascends the Stairs in 1960; his final film was Scattered Clouds, the second of two films he completed in 1967. Kon Ichikawa captured the watershed 1964 Olympics in his three-hour documentary Tokyo Olympiad (1965). Seijun Suzuki was fired by Nikkatsu for "making films that don't make any sense and don't make any money" after his surrealist yakuza flick Branded to Kill (1967). Nagisa Oshima, Kaneto Shindo, Susumu Hani and Shohei Imamura emerged as major filmmakers during the decade. Oshima's Cruel Story of Youth, Night and Fog in Japan and Death By Hanging became three of the better-known examples of Japanese New Wave filmmaking, alongside Shindo's Onibaba, Hani's She And He and Imamura's The Insect Woman. Hiroshi Teshigahara's Woman in the Dunes (1964) won the Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival, and was nominated for Best Director and Best Foreign Language Film Oscars. Masaki Kobayashi's Kwaidan (1965) also picked up the Special Jury Prize at Cannes. The 1970s Nagisa Oshima directed In the Realm of the Senses (1976), a film detailing a crime of passion involving Sada Abe it is set in the 1930s. Controversial for the explicit sexual content, it remains to be seen uncensored in Japan. However, the pink film industry became the stepping stone for young independent filmmakers of Japan. Yoji Yamada introduced the commercially successful Tora-San series, while also directing other films, notably the popular The Yellow Handkerchief. Kinji Fukasaku completed the epic Battles Without Honor and Humanity series of yakuza films. New wave filmmakers Susumu Hani and Shohei Imamura retreated to documentary work, though Imamura made a dramatic return to feature filmmaking with Vengeance Is Mine (1979). The 1980s Hayao Miyazaki adapted his manga series Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind into a feature film of the same name in 1984. Katsuhiro Otomo followed suit with his Akira in 1988. New anime movies were run every summer and winter with characters from popular TV anime. Mamoru Oshii released his landmark Angel's Egg in 1983. His Ghost in the Shell was one of the first anime feature films to receive widespread attention in the international market. Shohei Imamura won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival for The Ballad of Narayama (1983). Akira Kurosawa directed Kagemusha (1980) and Ran (1985). Likewise, Seijun Suzuki made a comeback, beginning with Zigeunerweisen in 1980. Kiyoshi Kurosawa (no relation to Akira Kurosawa) debuted, initially with pink films and genre horror, though growing beyond this (and generating international attention) beginning in the mid 1990s. Juzo Itami achieved both critical and box office success with his quirky "Japanese Noodle Western" comedy Tampopo in 1985, which remains popular. The 1990s Shohei Imamura again won the Golden Palm (shared with Iranian director Abbas Kiarostami), this time for The Eel (1997), joining Alf Sjöberg, Francis Ford Coppola and Bille August as only the fourth two-time recipient. Takeshi Kitano emerged as a significant filmmaker with works such as Sonatine (1993), Kids Return (1996) and Hana-bi (1997), which was given the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. Takashi Miike launched a prolific career, making up to 50 films in a decade, building up an impressive portfolio with titles such as, Audition (1999), Dead or Alive (1999) and The Bird People in China (1998). Former documentary filmmaker Hirokazu Koreeda launched an acclaimed feature career with Maborosi (1996) and After Life (1999). Hayao Miyazaki directed two mammoth box office and critical successes, Porco Rosso (1992) which beat E.T. (1982) as the highest-grossing film in Japan, and Princess Mononoke (1997) which also claimed the top box office spot until Titanic (1997) beat it. In addition, several new anime directors rose to widespread recognition, bringing with them newfound notions of anime as not only entertainment, but modern art: Mamoru Oshii released the internationally-acclaimed philosophical sci-fi action film Ghost in the Shell in 1996, based on the manga by Masamune Shirow. The film garnered great success and recognition in theatrical releases worldwide, and Oshii later went on to direct a sequel eight years later. Satoshi Kon directed the award-winning psychological thriller Perfect Blue, based on a novel by Toshiki Satō. The film was theatrically released to decent commercial and considerable critical success in America and several other countries around the world. Hideaki Anno also gained considerable recognition after the release of his hugely successful (and controversial) psychological sci-fi epic Neon Genesis Evangelion, which started as a TV series in 1995 and concluded with the theatrical release of The End of Evangelion, the series' postmodern, apocalyptic conclusion, in 1997. (The film was not released internationally until the early 2000s, and then in straight-to-DVD format.) Evangelion is widely considered to be one of the most influential anime of all time. 2000s In 2000 Battle Royale was released, based on a popular novel by the same name. In 2002, Dolls was released, followed by a high-budget remake, Zatoichi in 2003, both directed and written by Takeshi Kitano. The J-Horror films Ringu, Kairo, Dark Water, Yogen, and the Grudge series were remade in English and met with commercial success. In 2004, Godzilla: Final Wars, directed by Ryuhei Kitamura, was released to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Godzilla. In 2005, director Seijun Suzuki made his 56th film, Princess Raccoon. Hirokazu Koreeda claimed film festival awards around the world with two of his films Distance and Nobody Knows. Anime Hayao Miyazaki came out of retirement to direct Spirited Away in 2001, breaking Japanese box office records and winning the U.S. Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. In 2004, Mamoru Oshii released the anime movie Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence (known in Japan simply as "Innocence",) which, like the first film, received noteworthy critical praise around the world. Suicide Circles maverick director Sion Sono released four films, Strange Circus, Exte: Hair Extensions, HAZARD and the prequel/sequel to Suicide Circle, Noriko's Dinner Table. Satoshi Kon also released three quieter, but nonetheless highly successful films in 2001, 2003 and 2006 respectively: Millennium Actress, Tokyo Godfathers, and Paprika''. Anime films now account for 60 percent of Japanese film production. The 1990s and 2000s is considered to be "Japanese Cinema's Second Golden Age", due to the immense popularity of anime, both within Japan and overseas. Dave Kehr, Anime, Japanese Cinema's Second Golden Age, The New York Times, January 20, 2002. See also List of Japanese films genres: List of jidaigeki Japanese films about ninjas Samurai cinema Anime Tokusatsu History of cinema Japan Academy Prize Japanese television programs List of Japanese Actors List of Japanese Actresses List of Japanese Directors List of Japanese language films List of Japanese movie studios List of Japanese films Nuberu bagu (The Japanese New Wave) Seiyū Tendency film Notes References (review) and ) External links TOKI AKIHIRO & MIZUGUCHI KAORU (1996) A History of Early Cinema in Kyoto, Japan (1896-1912). Cinematographe and Inabata Katsutaro. Kato Mikiro (1996) A History of Movie Theaters and Audiences in Postwar Kyoto, the Capital of Japanese Cinema. Asia Society: The Cinema Scene - Asia Society's regular podcast program containing news, reviews and interviews related to Asian Film Japanese Movie Database (in Japanese) Midnight Eye Resources for the Study of Japanese Cinema at the University of Iowa Library Japanese Cinema to 1960 by Gregg Rickman The Problem of Identity in Contemporary Japanese Horror Films, discussion paper by Timothy Iles in the Electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies, 6 October 2005. Female Voices, Male Words: Problems of Communication, Identity and Gendered Social Construction in Contemporary Japanese Cinema, discussion paper by Timothy Iles in the *Reviews of Japanese Films, in the electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies Japan Cultural Profile - national cultural portal for Japan created by Visiting Arts/Japan Foundation | Cinema_of_Japan |@lemmatized humanity:3 paper:4 balloon:2 sadao:2 yamanaka:2 tokyo:9 story:8 yasujiro:6 ozu:6 ugetsu:4 kenji:4 mizoguchi:4 seven:5 samurai:8 akira:8 kurosawa:9 godzilla:6 ishirō:2 honda:2 history:5 span:1 year:4 japan:26 one:5 old:1 large:1 film:78 industry:3 world:6 http:1 member:1 tripod:1 com:1 dennismichaeliannuzz:1 japancinema:1 html:1 thirty:1 two:9 japanese:39 co:1 production:2 represent:1 book:2 movie:8 must:1 see:4 die:1 asian:2 nation:1 namely:1 iron:1 actor:3 revenge:1 audition:2 autumn:2 afternoon:2 ballad:2 narayama:2 burmese:2 harp:2 cry:1 game:1 dersu:1 uzala:1 float:4 weed:3 grave:1 firefly:1 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4,160 | Idealism | Idealism is the philosophical theory that maintains that the ultimate nature of reality is based on mind or ideas. It holds that the so-called external or "real world" is inseparable from mind, consciousness, or perception. In the philosophy of perception, idealism is contrasted with realism in which the external world is said to have a so-called absolute existence prior to, and independent of, knowledge and consciousness. Epistemological idealists (such as Kant), it is claimed, might insist that the only things which can be directly known for certain are just ideas (abstraction). In the philosophy of mind, idealism is contrasted with materialism, in which the ultimate nature of reality is based on physical substances. Idealism and materialism are both theories of monism as opposed to dualism and pluralism. Idealism also refers to a tradition in Western thought that represents things in an ideal form, or as they ought to be rather than as they really are, in the fields of ethics, morality, aesthetics, and value. In the ancient philosophy of the Vedas, idealism refers to the dynamic consciousness of living beings that emanates from the divine cosmic source. History of Western Philosophy Idealism is a philosophical movement in Western thought, and names a number of philosophical positions with sometimes quite different tendencies and implications in politics and ethics, for instance; although in general, at least in popular culture, philosophical idealism is associated with Plato and the school of platonism. Idealism and Ancient Philosophy Antiphon In his chief work Truth, Antiphon wrote: "Time is a thought or a measure, not a substance". This presents time as an ideational, internal, mental operation, rather than a real, external object. Plato is called an idealist because of his theory of Forms or doctrine of Ideas, which are "ideal" in the dictionary sense. Most interpreters, ancient and modern, hold that Plato does not describe the Forms as being in any mind. Instead, he describes them as having their own independent existence—for which the textual evidence is adduced from various translations of the dialogues. See especially Plato, Parmenides 132b3-c8. Indeed, some anti-idealist commentators say that in the dialogues Socrates often denies the reality of the material world. However, it is clear that the Platonic Socrates merely denies the ideal reality of the non-ideal realm, namely the world of appearances, which he sometimes compares to shadows. An exact interpretation of the dialogues, which are notoriously misrepresented, involves knowledge of linguistics, hermeneutics, philology, semantics, and the philosophy of language, as well as good grounding in classical studies. Athenian Greek philosophical terms, like most English abstract nouns, have more than one meaning. It seems clear that Plato is not, at any rate, a subjective idealist, like Berkeley. Plato's Allegory of the Cave is sometimes interpreted by anti-platonists as drawing attention to the modern European philosophical problem of knowing external objects—the question that is often attributed to Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and other early modern philosophers. According to certain materialistic interpretations of Plato, which construe matter as an entirely external reality, the Forms that the Cave-dwellers are ignorant of are not external to them in the way that so-called material objects are for modern thinkers. Again, some anti-idealistic readers hold that for Plato the Forms are true realities, but they are not outside of us in a spatial sense like material objects, which some natural scientists call physical bodies. For these interpreters, one might say, the issue that Plato's allegory addresses is the problem of how one can know what is truly real and good—a theme which apparently is opposed to the so-called modern question of our knowledge of the external world. However, speaking in the realm of pure abstract theory, even if Plato doesn't share the specific concerns of modern philosophy, and of George Berkeley, in particular, Plato could still be a non-subjective idealist. Plato could believe that matter has no so-called independent existence, that ultimate reality (distinct from mere appearance) is known only in the world of ideas—should we care to speculate in purely hypothetical terms. Bernard Williams and Myles Burnyeat have surmised that Greek philosophers never conceived of so-called idealism as an option, because they lacked Descartes's conception of an independently existing mind. Bernard Williams, "Philosophy," in M.I. Finley, ed., The Legacy of Greece: A New Appraisal (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), pp. 204-5; and Myles Burnyeat, "Idealism and Greek Philosophy: What Descartes Saw and Berkeley Missed," Philosophical Review 91 (1982), pp. 3-40. However, Plato could have held an idealism like Kant's, which argues from the nature of knowledge to the nature of the objects of knowledge; or he might have subscribed to a form of Absolute Idealism, which denies that matter is ultimately real—without perhaps (in either case) reducing so-called material objects to ideas in a mind or minds. Moreover, we conjecture, Plato's theory of the separation of soul and body could be seen as an earlier, primitive form of Cartesian dualism. Plotinus Nathaniel Alfred Boll wrote of this Neoplatonist philosopher: "With Plotinus there even appears, probably for the first time in Western philosophy, idealism that had long been current in the East even at that time, for it taught (Enneads, iii, lib. vii, c.10) that the soul has made the world by stepping from eternity into time, with the explanation: 'For there is for this universe no other place than the soul or mind' (neque est alter hujus universi locus quam anima), indeed the ideality of time is expressed in the words: 'We should not accept time outside the soul or mind' (oportet autem nequaquam extra animam tempus accipere)." (Parerga and Paralipomena, Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 7) Similarly, professor Ludwig Noiré wrote: "For the first time in Western philosophy we find idealism proper in Plotinus (Enneads, iii, 7, 10), where he says, "The only space or place of the world is the soul," and "Time must not be assumed to exist outside the soul." Ludwig Noiré, Historical Introduction to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason It is worth noting, however, that like Plato but unlike Schopenhauer and other modern philosophers, Plotinus does not worry about whether or how we can get beyond our ideas in order to know external objects. Modern Philosophy Malebranche Malebranche, a student of the Cartesian School of Rationalism, disagreed that if the only things that we know for certain are the ideas within our mind, then the existence of the external world would be dubious and known only indirectly. He declared instead that the real external world is actually God. All activity only appears to occur in the external world. In actuality, it is the activity of God. For Malebranche, we directly know internally the ideas in our mind. Externally, we directly know God's operations. This kind of idealism led to the pantheism of Spinoza. Leibniz Leibniz expressed a form of Idealism known as Panpsychism in his theory of monads, as exposited in his Monadologie. He held Monads are the true atoms of the universe, and are also entities having perception. The monads are "substantial forms of being" They are indecomposable, individual, subject to their own laws, un-interacting, and each reflecting the entire universe. Monads are centers of force; substance is force, while space, matter, and motion are phenomenal. For Leibniz, there is an exact pre-established harmony or parallel between the world in the minds of the alert monads and the external world of objects. God, who is the central monad, established this harmony and the resulting world is an idea of the monads’ perception. In this way, the external world is ideal in that it is a spiritual phenomenon whose motion is the result of a dynamic force. Space and time are ideal or phenomenal and their form and existence is dependent on the simple and immaterial monads. Leibniz's cosmology, with its central monad, embraced a traditional Christian Theism and was more of a Personalism than the naturalistic Pantheism of Spinoza. Arthur Collier Arthur Collier published the same assertions that were made by Berkeley. However, there seemed to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. Collier claimed that the represented image of an external object is the only knowable reality. Matter, as a cause of the representative image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world, as absolute matter, unrelated to an observer, does not exist for human perceivers. As an appearance in a mind, the universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind. Collier was influenced by John Norris's (1701) An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World. The idealist statements by Collier were generally dismissed by readers who were not able to reflect on the distinction between a mental idea or image and the object that it represents. Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant held that the mind shapes the world as we perceive it to take the form of space-and-time. It is said that Kant focused on the idea drawn from British empiricism (and its philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley, and Hume) that all we can know is the mental impressions, or phenomena, that an outside world, which may or may not exist independently, creates in our minds; our minds can never perceive that outside world directly. Kant made the distinction between things as they appear to an observer and things in themselves, "... that is, things considered without regard to whether and how they may be given to us ... ." Critique of Pure Reason, A 140 Kant's postscript to this added that the mind is not a blank slate, tabula rasa, (contra John Locke), but rather comes equipped with categories for organising our sense impressions. Perhaps this Kantian sort of idealism opens up a world of abstractions (i.e., the universal categories minds use to understand phenomena) to be explored by reason, but perhaps, in sharp contrast to Plato's, confirms uncertainties about a (un)knowable world outside our own minds. We cannot approach the noumenon, the "Thing in Itself" () outside our own mental world. (Kant's idealism is called transcendental idealism.) Apparently Kant distinguished his transcendental or critical idealism from previous varieties: Fichte Johann Fichte denied Kant's noumenon, and held that consciousness constitutes its own foundation, that the mental life of the Ego, of pure selfhood, relies upon nothing wholly external to itself, and that the hypothesis of an outer world of any kind is the same thing as admitting a Kantian realm. We may say that Fichte was the first German philosopher to make an attempt at a presuppositionless theory of knowledge, wherein nothing outside of thought is assumed to exist apart from the primordial analysis of the Ego. So that his philosophy could be solely grounded in itself, he assumed nothing without his Fichtean deductions from first principles, and elaborated what he called a Wissenschaftslehre. (Apparently Fichte's theory is very similar to Giovanni Gentile's Actual Idealism, except that Gentile's theory appears to go even further by denying any grounds, derived from pure thought, for the Ego or personality.) Schelling Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775 - 1854) claimed that the Fichte's "I" needs the Not-I, because there is no subject without object, and vice versa. So there is no difference between the subjective and the objective, that is, the ideal and the real. This is the Schelling's "absolute identity": the ideas or mental images in the mind are identical to the extended objects which are external to the mind. Hegel Hegel, another German philosopher whose dialectical system has been called idealistic. In his Science of Logic (1812-1814) Hegel argued that finite qualities are not fully "real," because they depend on other finite qualities to determine them. Qualitative infinity, on the other hand, would be more self-determining, and hence would have a better claim to be called fully real. Similarly, finite natural things are less "real"--because they're less self-determining—than spiritual things like morally responsible people, ethical communities, and God. So any doctrine, such as materialism, that asserts that finite qualities or merely natural objects are fully real, is mistaken. Hegel called his philosophy absolute idealism, in contrast to the "subjective idealism" of Berkeley and the "transcendental idealism" of Kant and Fichte, philosophies which were not based (like Hegel's idealism) on a critique of the finite, and a dialectical philosophy of history. Some commentators have maintained that Hegel's dialectical system most closely resembles that of Plato and Plotinus, however, there is an exact historical difference between ancient and modern thought, at least in the history of philosophy. One might say that none of these three thinkers associate their idealism with the so-called epistemological thesis that what we know are ideas in our minds. An interpretation of Hegel's critique of the finite, and of the "absolute idealism" which Hegel appears to base that critique, is found in Robert M. Wallace, Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). It is perhaps a noteworthy fact that some commentators of Hegel fail to distinguish Hegelian idealism from either the philosophy of Berkeley or Kant. One book devoted to showing that Hegel is neither a Berkeleyan nor a Kantian idealist is Kenneth Westphal, Hegel's Epistemological Realism (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1989). Hegel certainly intends to preserve what he takes to be true of German idealism, in particular Kant's insistence that ethical reason can and does go beyond finite inclinations. See Wallace, Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God, chapter 3, for details on how Hegel might preserve something resembling Kant's dualism of nature and freedom while defending it against skeptical attack. However, some commentators hold that Hegel does not endorse Kant's conception of the thing-in-itself, or the type of epistemological perplexities that led Kant to that view. Still less does Hegel endorse Berkeley's doctrine that to be is to perceive or to be perceived—in the purely Berkeleyian sense. The guiding ideal behind Hegel's absolute idealism is the scientific thought, which he shares with Plato and other great idealist thinkers, that the exercise of reason and intellect enables the philosopher to know ultimate historical reality, which in the Hegelian system is the phenomenological constitution of self-determination,--the dialectical development of self-awareness and personality in the realm of History. By giving this Ideal a central role in his philosophy, Hegel made a lasting contribution to that part of the Western mindset, beginning in earnest with Plato and his Pre-Socratic predecessors, which makes Idealism the basis of civilization and progress in the world. Schopenhauer In the first volume of his Parerga and Paralipomena, Schopenhauer wrote his "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real". He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective knowledge. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own consciousness. The world that appears is only a representation or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our mind. Schopenhauer's history is an account of the concept of the "ideal" in its meaning as "ideas in a subject's mind." In this sense, "ideal" means "ideational" or "existing in the mind as an image." He does not refer to the other meaning of "ideal" as being qualities of the highest perfection and excellence. In his On the Freedom of the Will, Schopenhauer noted the ambiguity of the word "idealism" by calling it a "term with multiple meanings." It is evident that Schopenhauer's "idealism" is based primarily on considerations having to do with the relation between our ideas and external reality, rather than being based (like Plato's, Plotinus's, or Hegel's "idealism") on considerations having to do with the nature of reality as such. British idealism British idealism enjoyed ascendancy in English-speaking philosophy in the later part of the 19th century. F. H. Bradley of Merton College, Oxford, saw reality as a monistic whole, which is apprehended through "feeling", a state in which there is no distinction between the perception and the thing perceived. Like Berkeley, Bradley thought that nothing can be known to exist unless it is known by a mind. Bradley was the apparent target of G. E. Moore's radical rejection of idealism. Moore claimed that Bradley did not understand the statement that something is real. We know for certain, through common sense and prephilosophical beliefs, that some things are real, whether they are objects of thought or not, according to Moore. In this way, he disagreed with Bradley's assertion that we cannot think of anything that really exists unless we have a thought of it in our mind. J. M. E. McTaggart of Cambridge University, argued that minds alone exist, and that they only relate to each other through love. Space, time and material objects are for McTaggart unreal. He argued, for instance, in The Unreality of Time that it was not possible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events in time, and that therefore time is an illusion. His book The Nature of Experience (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his Studies in Hegelian Cosmology, Cambridge, 1901, p. 196, he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "... thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it." The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 3, "Idealism," New York, 1967 For McTaggart, "...philosophy can give us very little, if any guidance in action... . Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge? Studies in Hegelian Cosmology, ibid. American philosopher Josiah Royce described himself as an objective idealist. Thomas Hill Green and Bernard Bosanquet are also prominent members of the British idealism movement. Karl Pearson In The Grammar of Science, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, Karl Pearson wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude materialism of the older physicists." This book influenced Einstein's regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the mind...." Also, "...the field of science is much more consciousness than an external world." Criticism of Idealism Immanuel Kant In the 1st edition (1781) of his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant described Idealism as such. In the 2nd edition (1787) of his Critique of Pure Reason, he wrote a section called Refutation of Idealism to distinguish his transcendental idealism from Descartes's Sceptical Idealism and Berkeley's Dogmatic Idealism. In addition to this refutation in both the 1781 & 1787 editions the section "Paralogisms of Pure Reason" is an implicit critique of Descartes' Problematic Idealism, namely the Cogito. He says that just from "the spontaneity of thought" (cf. Descartes' Cogito) it is not possible to infer the 'I' as an object. In his Notes and Fragments ( 6315,1790-91; 18:618) Kant defines idealism in the following manner: " The assertion that we can never be certain whether all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining is idealism " Søren Kierkegaard Kierkegaard's primary criticism against Hegel is based around Hegel's claim to have developed a fully comprehensive system that could explain the whole of reality. The quote commonly used to express this idea, whether fair to Hegel or not, is, "What is rational is actual; and what is actual is rational," in the Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821). Kierkegaard asserts that reality can be a system for God, but it cannot be so for any human individual, because both reality and humans are incomplete, and all philosophical systems imply completeness. Kierkegaard attacked Hegel's idealist philosophy in several of his works, but most succinctly in Concluding Unscientific Postscript (1846). In the Postscript, Kierkegaard, as the pseudonymous philosopher Johannes Climacus, argues that a logical system is possible but an existential system is impossible. Hegel argues that once one has reached an ultimate understanding of the logical structure of the world, one has also reached an understanding of the logical structure of God's mind. Climacus claims Hegel's absolute idealism mistakenly blurs the distinction between existence and thought. Climacus also argues that our mortal nature places limits on our understanding of reality. As Climacus argues: So-called systems have often been characterized and challenged in the assertion that they abrogate the distinction between good and evil, and destroy freedom. Perhaps one would express oneself quite as definitely, if one said that every such system fantastically dissipates the concept existence. ... Being an individual man is a thing that has been abolished, and every speculative philosopher confuses himself with humanity at large; whereby he becomes something infinitely great, and at the same time nothing at all. A major concern of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) and of the philosophy of Spirit that he lays out in his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817-1830) is the interrelation between individual humans, which he conceives in terms of "mutual recognition." However, what Climacus means by the aforementioned statement, is that Hegel, in the Philosophy of Right, believed the best solution was to surrender one's individuality to the customs of the State, identifying right and wrong in view of the prevailing bourgeois morality. Individual human will ought, at the State's highest level of development, to properly coincide with the will of the State. Climacus rejects Hegel's suppression of individuality by pointing out it is impossible to create a valid set of rules or system in any society which can adequately describe existence for any one individual. Submitting one's will to the State denies personal freedom, choice, and responsibility. In addition, Hegel does believe we can know the structure of God's mind, or ultimate reality. Hegel agrees with Kierkegaard that both reality and humans are incomplete, inasmuch as we are in time, and reality develops through time. But the relation between time and eternity is outside time and this is the "logical structure" that Hegel thinks we can know. Kierkegaard disputes this assertion, because it eliminates the clear distinction between ontology and epistemology. Existence and thought are not identical and one cannot possibly think existence. Thought is always a form of abstraction, and thus not only is pure existence impossible to think, but all forms in existence are unthinkable; thought depends on language, which merely abstracts from experience, thus separating us from lived experience and the living essence of all beings. In addition, because we are finite beings, we cannot possibly know or understand anything that is universal or infinite such as God, so we cannot know God exists, since that which transcends time simultaneously transcends human understanding. Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche was the first to mount a logically serious criticism of Idealism that has been popularised by David Stove (see below). He pre-empts Stove's GEM by arguing that Kant's argument for his transcendental idealism rests on a confusion between a tautology and/or petitio principii; therefore is an invalid argument. In his book Beyond Good and Evil, Part 1 On the Prejudice of Philosophers Section 11, he ridicules Kant for admiring himself because he had undertaken and (thought he) succeeded in tackling "the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics." Quoting Nietzsche's prose: "But let us reflect; it is high time to do so. 'How are synthetic judgements a priori possible?' Kant asked himself-and what really is his answer? 'By virtue of a faculty' - but unfortunately not in five words,...The honeymoon of German philosophy arrived. All the young theologians of the Tübingen seminary went into the bushes all looking for 'faculties.'...'By virtue of a faculty' - he had said, or at least meant. But is that an answer? An explanation? Or is it not rather merely a repetition of the question? How does opium induce sleep? 'By virtue of a faculty,' namely the virtus dormitiva, replies the doctor in Moliére." Thus Nietzsche contstructs Kant's Critique of Pure Reason as such. 'How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?' and Kant's answer to that question is 'By virtue of a faculty'. stock examples of answers that beg the question: "Why am I the boss? It's because I call the shots around here." "Of course I had a reason, or I wouldn't have done it." This argument Nietzsche advances can also be contructed to read that Kant was making a tautological argument (aka Necessarily True). An argument that has a necessarily true premise cannot make any synthetic a priori statments. Because the synthetic cannot be necessarily true. In addition to the Idealism of Kant, Nietzsche in the same book attacks the idealism of Schopenhauer and Descartes via a similar argument to Kant's original critique of Descartes. Quoting Nietzsche: There are still harmless self-observers who believe that there are "immediate certainties"; for example, "I think," or as the superstition of Schopenhauer put it, "I will"; as though knowledge here got hold of its objects purely and nakedly as "the thing in itself," without any falsification on the part of either the subject or the object. But that "immediate certainty," as well as "absolute knowledge" and the "thing in itself," involved a contradictio in adjecto, (contradiction between the noun and the adjective) I shall repeat a hundred times; we really ought to free ourselves from the seduction of words! G. E. Moore The first criticism of Idealism that falls within the analytic philosophical framework is by one of its co-founders G. E. Moore. This 1903 seminal article, The Refutation of Idealism. This one of the first demonstrations of Moore's commitment to analysis as the proper philosophical method. Moore proceeds by examining the Berkeleian aphorism esse est percipi: "to be is to be perceived". He examines in detail each of the three terms in the aphorism, finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are necessarily connected. So, he argues, for the idealist, "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are necessarily identical - to be yellow is necessarily to be experienced as yellow. But, in a move similar to the open question argument, it also seems clear that there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow". For Moore, the idealist is in error because "that esse is held to be percipi, solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it". Though far from a complete refutation, this was the first strong statement by analytic philosophy against its idealist predecessors—or at any rate against the type of idealism represented by Berkeley—this argument did not show that the GEM (in post Stove vernacular, see below) is logically invalid. Arguments advanced by Nietzsche (prior to Moore), Russell (just after Moore) & 80 years later Stove put a nail in the coffin for the "master" argument supporting (Berkeleyan) idealism. Bertrand Russell Despite Bertrand Russell's hugely popular book The Problems of Philosophy (this book was in its 17th printing by 1943) which was written for a general audience rather than academia, few ever mention his critique even though he completely anticipates David Stove's GEM both in form and content (see below for David Stove's GEM). In chapter 4 (Idealism) he highlights Berkeley's tautological premise for advancing idealism. Quoting Russell's prose (1912:42-43): "If we say that the things known must be in the mind, we are either un-duly limiting the mind's power of knowing, or we are uttering a mere tautology. We are uttering a mere tautology if we mean by 'in the mind' the same as by 'before the mind', i.e. if we mean merely being apprehended by the mind. But if we mean this, we shall have to admit that what, in this sense, is in the mind, may nevertheless be not mental. Thus when we realize the nature of knowledge, Berkeley's argument is seen to be wrong in substance as well as in form, and his grounds for supposing that 'idea'-i.e. the objects apprehended-must be mental, are found to have no validity whatever. Hence his grounds in favour of the idealism may be dismissed." A.C. Ewing Published in 1933, A. C. Ewing, according to David Stove, mounted the first full length book critique of Idealism, entitled Idealism; a critical survey. Stove does not mention that Ewing anticipated his GEM. David Stove The Australian philosopher David Stove argued in typical acerbic style that idealism rested on what he called "the worst argument in the world". From a logical point of view his critique is no different from Russell or Nietzsche's—but Stove has been more widely cited and most clearly highlighted the mistake of proponents (like Berkeley) of subjective idealism. He named the form of this argument - invented by Berkeley -- "the GEM". Berkeley claimed that "[the mind] is deluded to think it can and does conceive of bodies existing unthought of, or without the mind, though at the same time they are apprehended by, or exist in, itself". Stove argued that this claim proceeds from the tautology that nothing can be thought of without its being thought of, to the conclusion that nothing can exist without its being thought of. Alan Musgrave recently extended this argument to attack Conceptual Idealism. John Searle In The Construction of Social Reality, John Searle offers an attack on some versions of idealism. Searle conveniently summarises two important arguments for (subjective) idealism. The first is based on our perception of reality: 1. All we have access to in perception are the contents of our own experiences 2. The only epistemic basis we can have for claims about the external world are our perceptual experiences therefore, 3. the only reality we can meaningfully speak of is the reality of perceptual experiences (The Construction of Social Reality p. 172) Whilst agreeing with (2), Searle argues that (1) is false, and points out that (3) does not follow from (1) and (2). The second argument for (subjective) idealism runs as follows: Premise: Any cognitive state occurs as part of a set of cognitive states and within a cognitive system Conclusion 1: It is impossible to get outside of all cognitive states and systems to survey the relationships between them and the reality they are used to cognize Conclusion 2: No cognition is ever of a reality that exists independently of cognition (The Construction of Social Reality p. 174) Searle goes on to point out that conclusion 2 simply does not follow from its precedents. Alan Musgrave Alan Musgrave in an article titled Realism and Antirealism in R. Klee (ed), Scientific Inquiry: Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Oxford, 1998, 344-352 - later re-titled to Conceptual Idealism and Stove's GEM in A. Musgrave, Essays on Realism and Rationalism, Rodopi, 1999 also in M.L. Dalla Chiara et al. (eds), Language, Quantum, Music, Kluwer, 1999, 25-35 - Alan Musgrave argues in addition to Stove's GEM, Conceptual Idealists compound their mistakes with use/mention confusions and proliferation of unnecessary hyphenated entities. stock examples of use/mention confusions: Santa Claus (the person) does not exist. 'Santa Claus' (the name/concept/fairy tale) does exist; because adults tell children this every Christmas season. The distinction in philosophical circles is highlighted by putting quotations around the word when we want to refer only to the name and not the object. stock examples of hyphenated entities: things-in-itself (Immanuel Kant) things-as-interacted-by-us (Arthur Fine) Table-of-commonsense (Sir Arthur Eddington) Table-of-physics (Sir Arthur Eddington) Moon-in-itself Moon-as-howled-by-wolves Moon-as-conceived-by-Aristotelians Moon-as-conceived-by-Galileans Hyphenated entities are "warning signs" for conceptual idealism according to Musgrave because they over emphasise the epistemic (ways in which people come to learn about the world) activities and will more likely commit errors in use/mention. These entities do not exist (strictly speaking and are ersatz entities) but highlight the numerous ways in which people come to know the world. In Sir Arthur Eddington's case use/mention confusions compounded his problem when he thought he was sitting at two different tables in his study (table-of-commonsense and table-of-physics). In fact Eddington was sitting at one table but had two different perspectives or ways of knowing about that one table. Richard Rorty and Postmodernist Philosophy in general have been attacked by Musgrave for committing use/mention confusions. Musgrave argues that these confusions help proliferate GEM's in our thinking and serious thought should avoid GEM's. Philip J. Neujahr "Although it would be hard to legislate about such matters, it would perhaps be well to restrict the idealist label to theories which hold that the world, or its material aspects, are dependent upon the specifically cognitive activities of the mind or Mind in perceiving or thinking about (or 'experiencing') the object of its awareness." (Kant's Idealism, Ch. 1) Idealism in religious thought A broad enough definition of idealism could include most religious viewpoints. The belief that personal beings (e.g., God/s, angels & spirits) preceded the existence of insentient matter seems to suggest that an experiencing subject is a necessary reality. Also, the existence of an omniscient God suggests, regardless of the actual nature of matter, that all of nature is the object of at least one consciousness. Materialism sees no incoherence in a scenario of there being a cosmos where no sentient subject ever develops; a wholly unknown universe where neither any subject, nor any object of a subject's experience ever exists. Historically, Mechanistic Materialism has been the favorite viewpoint of Atheist philosophers. Still, idealistic viewpoints that have not included God, supernatural beings, or a post-mortem existence have sometimes been advanced. While many religious philosophies are indeed specifically idealist, for example, some Hindu denominations view regarding the nature of Brahman, souls, and the world are idealistic, some have favored a form of substance dualism. Early Buddhism was not subjective idealistic. Ian Charles Harris, The Continuity of Madhyamaka and Yogacara in Indian Mahayana Buddhism. E.J. Brill, 1991, page 133. Some have misinterpreted the Yogācāra school of Mahayana Buddhism that developed the consciousness-only approach as a form of metaphysical idealism, but this is incorrect. Yogācāra thinkers did not focus on consciousness to assert it as ultimately real (Yogācāra claims consciousness is only conventionally real since it arises from moment to moment due to fluctuating causes and conditions), but rather because it is the cause of the karmic problem they are seeking to eliminate. Dan Lusthaus, "What is and isn't Yogācāra." . Some Christian theologians have held idealist views, substance dualism has been the more common view of Christian authors, especially with the strong influence of the philosophy of Aristotle among the Scholastics. Several modern religious movements, for example the organizations within the New Thought Movement and the Unity Church, may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The theology of Christian Science includes a form of subjective idealism: it teaches that all that exists is God and God's ideas; that the world as it appears to the senses is a distortion of the underlying spiritual reality, a distortion that may be corrected by a reorientation (spiritualization) of thought. Such a reorientation, Christian Science teaches, results in healing, as the world of appearance adjusts to approximate more nearly to the underlying divine reality. Christian Science is consequently a form of monistic (theistic) idealism, since it teaches that there is in reality no matter: all is Spirit (God) and its manifestation. In Christian Science teaching, there is no ultimate division or dualism between Spirit and its expression (the spiritual universe including the true identity of each one of us) any more than there is between the sun and the light which shines forth from it. A Course in Miracles, a spiritual self-study course published in 1976, represents an explicitly idealist, pure nondualistic thought system. In the Course, only God and His Creation, which is Spirit and has nothing to do with the world, are real. The physical universe is an illusion and does not exist. The Course compares the world of perception with a dream. It arises from the projection of the dreamer, i.e. the mind ("projection makes perception," T-21.in.1:5), according to its wishes (perception "is the outward picture of a wish; an image that you wanted to be true," T-24.VII.8:10). The purpose of the perceptual world is to ensure our separate, individual existence apart from God but avoid the responsibility and project the guilt onto others. As we learn to give the world another purpose and recognize our perceptual errors, we also learn to look past them or "forgive," as a way to awaken gradually from the dream and finally remember our true Identity in God. The Course’s nondualistic metaphysics is similar to Advaita Vedanta. However, A Course in Miracles differs in that it adds a "motivation" for the illusory existence of the perceptual world (for a further discussion, see Wapnick, Kenneth: The Message of A Course in Miracles, 1997, ISBN 0-933291-25-6). Other uses In general parlance, "idealism" or "idealist" is also used to describe a person having high ideals, sometimes with the connotation that those ideals are unrealisable or at odds with "practical" life. The word "ideal" is commonly used as an adjective to designate qualities of perfection, desirability, and excellence. This is foreign to the epistemological use of the word "idealism" which pertains to internal mental representations. These internal ideas represent objects that are assumed to exist outside of the mind. See also Mentalism (philosophy) Anti-realism McTaggart, John The Unreality of Time, available at wikisource:The Unreality of Time Rationalism Solipsism, which is related to epistemological idealism Practical idealism German idealism Transcendental idealism Epistemological idealism Subjective idealism Phenomenalist Objective idealism Absolute idealism Panpsychism Hindu idealism Buddhist idealism Notes References Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason with an historical introduction by Ludwig Noiré, available at Neujahr, Philip J., Kant's Idealism, Mercer University Press, 1995 ISBN 0-86554-476-X Kierkegaard, Søren. Concluding Unscientific Postscript, Princeton, ISBN 978-0-691-02081-5 Watts, Michael. Kierkegaard, Oneworld, ISBN 978-1-85168-317-8 External links A.C. Grayling-Wittgenstein on Scepticism and Certainty Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy: idealism in religious thought 'The Triumph of Idealism', lecture by Professor Keith Ward offering a positive view of Idealism, at Gresham College, 13 March 2008 (available in text, audio, and video download) be-x-old:Ідэалізм | Idealism |@lemmatized idealism:94 philosophical:12 theory:11 maintain:2 ultimate:7 nature:13 reality:34 base:8 mind:46 idea:19 hold:13 call:20 external:22 real:17 world:41 inseparable:1 consciousness:10 perception:10 philosophy:38 contrast:4 realism:5 say:12 absolute:11 existence:17 prior:2 independent:3 knowledge:10 epistemological:7 idealist:20 kant:32 claim:11 might:5 insist:1 thing:20 directly:5 know:25 certain:5 abstraction:3 materialism:6 physical:3 substance:6 monism:1 oppose:2 dualism:6 pluralism:1 also:13 refer:3 tradition:1 western:6 thought:18 represent:5 ideal:20 form:20 ought:3 rather:7 really:4 field:2 ethic:2 morality:2 aesthetic:1 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4,161 | Array | An array is a systematic arrangement of objects, usually in rows and columns. Specifically, it may refer to several things. In computer science Generally, a collection of data items that can be selected by indices computed at run-time, including: Array data structure, an arrangement of items at equally spaced addresses in computer memory Array data type, used in a programming language to specify a variable that can be indexed Associative array, an abstract data structure model that generalizes arrays to arbitrary indices or various flavors of the above, such as Bit array or bit vector Dynamic array, allocated at run time Parallel array of records, with each field stored as a separate array Sparse array, with most elements omitted, to store a sparse matrix Variable-length array Ragged array, where the rows have different lengths individually or various related concepts: Array processor, a computer to process arrays of data (not to be confused with a processor array) Array programming, using matrix algebra notation in programs (not the same as array processing) Array slicing, the extraction of sub-arrays of an array Array Processing Language (APL) or also: Video Graphics Array (VGA), a display adapter and video format, and many variants thereof (EVGA, FWVGA, QVGA, QXGA, SVGA, SXGA, SXGA+, TXGA, UVGA, XGA, XGA+, ...) In mathematics and statistics An array or matrix of mathematical entities e.g. a Monge array, a Costas array A standard array in coding theory In statistics, arrays are a name for some kinds of :Category:Experimental design Intersection array a concept of category theory The thinned array curse or sparse array curse, a theorem about elecromagnetic waves In technology Various arrangements of multiple individual components to create a single system, such as: An antenna array, such as a phased array, a tower array, etc. A speaker array, used to produce directional Sound Asynchronous array of simple processors Ball grid array, pin grid array, and land grid array, ways to connect integrated circuits Cache Array Routing Protocol (CARP) Color filter array, placed over an imaging array Disk array, such as the Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) Field emitter array, an electron source Gate array, inclunding a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) Halbach array, an arrangement of magnets Linear diode array used in image scanners Microphone array, such as a line array Multielectrode array for biological monitoring Parametric array of transducers Phased array optics Photovoltaic array Processor array (not to be confused with an array processor) Programmable Array Logic (PAL), a systematic way to implement boolean functions. Reconfigurable datapath array, a flexible data processing architecture Staring array, an imaging sensor Systolic array, a hardware architecture Towed array sonar Wi-Fi Array, a wireless networking device etc. and also Array gain, a telecommunications parameter Array processing of multichannel signals (not to be confused with array programming) In astronomy A telescope array, also called astronomical interferometer, such as the: Very Large Array (VLA) in New Mexico, USA Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) etc. In biology Various kinds of multiple biological assays called microarrays (disambiguation article) Visual feature array, a model for the visual cortex In music Array, is a succession of aggregates in the twelve-tone technique and serialism Array system layout, in music theory Array mbira, a musical instrument Spiral array model, a music pitch space Other A Commission of Array, a commission for mustering a militia Array DVD magazine, focused on black actors and actresses ARRAY Magazine, about interior design Array Networks, a computer networking company | Array |@lemmatized array:77 systematic:2 arrangement:4 object:1 usually:1 row:2 column:1 specifically:1 may:1 refer:1 several:1 thing:1 computer:4 science:1 generally:1 collection:1 data:6 item:2 select:1 index:2 compute:1 run:2 time:2 include:1 structure:2 equally:1 spaced:1 address:1 memory:1 type:1 use:4 programming:2 language:2 specify:1 variable:2 indexed:1 associative:1 abstract:1 model:3 generalize:1 arbitrary:1 various:4 flavor:1 bit:2 vector:1 dynamic:1 allocate:1 parallel:1 record:1 field:3 store:2 separate:1 sparse:3 element:1 omit:1 matrix:3 length:2 rag:1 different:1 individually:1 related:1 concept:2 processor:5 process:1 confuse:3 algebra:1 notation:1 program:2 processing:4 slicing:1 extraction:1 sub:1 apl:1 also:3 video:2 graphic:1 vga:1 display:1 adapter:1 format:1 many:1 variant:1 thereof:1 evga:1 fwvga:1 qvga:1 qxga:1 svga:1 sxga:2 txga:1 uvga:1 xga:2 mathematics:1 statistic:2 mathematical:1 entity:1 e:1 g:1 monge:1 costas:1 standard:1 cod:1 theory:3 name:1 kind:2 category:2 experimental:1 design:2 intersection:1 thinned:1 curse:2 theorem:1 elecromagnetic:1 wave:1 technology:1 multiple:2 individual:1 component:1 create:1 single:1 system:2 antenna:1 phased:2 tower:1 etc:3 speaker:1 produce:1 directional:1 sound:1 asynchronous:1 simple:1 ball:1 grid:3 pin:1 land:1 way:2 connect:1 integrated:1 circuit:1 cache:1 rout:1 protocol:1 carp:1 color:1 filter:1 place:1 imaging:2 disk:2 redundant:1 inexpensive:1 raid:1 emitter:1 electron:1 source:1 gate:2 inclunding:1 programmable:2 fpga:1 halbach:1 magnet:1 linear:1 diode:1 image:1 scanner:1 microphone:1 line:1 multielectrode:1 biological:2 monitoring:1 parametric:1 transducer:1 optic:1 photovoltaic:1 logic:1 pal:1 implement:1 boolean:1 function:1 reconfigurable:1 datapath:1 flexible:1 architecture:2 star:1 sensor:1 systolic:1 hardware:1 tow:1 sonar:1 wi:1 fi:1 wireless:1 networking:1 device:1 gain:1 telecommunication:1 parameter:1 multichannel:1 signal:1 astronomy:1 telescope:1 call:2 astronomical:1 interferometer:1 large:1 vla:1 new:1 mexico:1 usa:1 long:1 baseline:1 vlba:1 biology:1 assay:1 microarrays:1 disambiguation:1 article:1 visual:2 feature:1 cortex:1 music:3 succession:1 aggregate:1 twelve:1 tone:1 technique:1 serialism:1 layout:1 mbira:1 musical:1 instrument:1 spiral:1 pitch:1 space:1 commission:2 muster:1 militia:1 dvd:1 magazine:2 focus:1 black:1 actor:1 actress:1 interior:1 network:2 company:1 |@bigram associative_array:1 phased_array:2 integrated_circuit:1 programmable_gate:1 wi_fi:1 wireless_networking:1 |
4,162 | Longmeadow,_Massachusetts | Longmeadow is a town in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 15,633 at the 2000 census. Its town government consists of a Select Board with 5 members. Longmeadow is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. History Longmeadow was first settled in 1644, and officially incorporated on October 17, 1783. The town was originally farmland within the limits of Springfield. It remained relatively pastoral until the street railway was built about 1910, when the population tripled over a fifteen-year period. After Interstate 91 was built in the wetlands on the west side of town, population tripled again between 1960 and 1975. Today it is one of the most affluent suburbs in the state west of Worcester, featuring the highest per capita income of any location in that region. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Longmeadow was best-known as the site from which Longmeadow brownstone was mined. Several famous American buildings, including Princeton University's Neo-Gothic library are made of Longmeadow brownstone. Johnny Appleseed once lived here, and Louisa May Alcott mentions a place called Longmeadow in Little Women. Longmeadow was also the home of Dr. Nathan Cooley Keep, a pioneer in the field of dentistry and the founding Dean of the Harvard School of Dental Medicine. Many recent celebrities are former Longmeadow residents, including actress Bridget Moynahan, actress Erinn Bartlett, former Total Request Live host Damien Fahey, as well as New England Revolution defenseman Jay Heaps. Aaron Lewis of the band Staind graduated from Longmeadow High School. Joey Santiago of the band Pixies graduated from Longmeadow High School. Author Anita Shreve is a current town resident. Geography Longmeadow is located in the western part of the state, just south of the city of Springfield, and is bordered on the west by the Connecticut River, to the east by East Longmeadow and to the south by Enfield, Connecticut. It extends approximately north to south and east to west. It is approximately north of Hartford. More than 30% of the town is permanent open space. Conservation areas on the west side of town include more than bordering the Connecticut River. The area supports a wide range of wildlife including deer, beaver, wild turkeys, foxes, and eagles. Springfield's Forest Park (Springfield), which at is the largest city park in New England, forms the northern border of the town. The private Twin Hills and public Franconia golf courses, plus town athletic fields and conservation land, cover nearly 2/3 of the eastern border of the town. Two large public parks, the Longmeadow Country Club, and three conservation areas account for the bulk of the remaining formal open space. Almost 20% of the houses in town are in close proximity to a "dingle", a tree-lined steep sided sandy ravine with a wetland at the bottom that provides a privacy barrier between yards. Longmeadow has a town common located along US Highway 5, on the west side of town. It is about 0.75 miles (1.2 kilometers) long. Roughly 100 houses date back before 1900, most of which are in the historic district near the town green. Houses along the photogenic main street are set back farther than in most towns of similar residential density. The town has three recently remodeled elementary schools, two secondary schools, and one high school. The commercial center of town is an area called "The Longmeadow Shops," including restaurants and clothing stores. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which, of it is land and of it (5.05%) is water. Demographics The census of 2000 shows there were 15,633 people, 5,734 households, and 4,432 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 5,879 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 95.42% White, 0.69% African American, 0.05% Native American, 2.90% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.26% from other races, and 0.62% from two or more races. 1.09% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 5,734 households out of which 37.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.1% were married couples living together, 6.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.7% were non-families. 20.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 14% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.09. In the town the population was spread out with 26,8% under the age of 18, 4,6% from 18 to 24, 22% from 25 to 44, 28.7% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 87.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.0 males. The median household income in the town was $75,461, and the median family income was $87,742. Males had a median income of $88,238 versus $40,890 for females. The per capita income for the town was $38,949. About 1.0% of families and 2.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 0.3% of those under age 18 and 8.3% of those age 65 or over. Athletics Longmeadow is also known for excellence in athletics, particularly their rivalry against neighboring suburb, East Longmeadow, and their Thanksgiving Day football game is very popular among residents of both towns. Longmeadow High School's team name is the Lancers. Other rivals include Minnechaug Regional High School, Agawam, Springfield Central, Westfield, and South Hadley. Approximately 85% of students are involved in sports at Longmeadow High School. Lacrosse Longmeadow is best known for their storied high school lacrosse tradition in both the boys' and girls' programs. Since 1970, the first year of varsity play for the Boy's Lacrosse program at Longmeadow, the team has established a tradition of excellence and earned a position as one of the top programs in the State, winning Massachusetts State Championships (a total of 17) in 1970, '74-'75, '77, '79-'81, '83-'86, '88-90, '92 and '97 and most recently 2008 (Boys), a win over Medfield (14-10). Longmeadow's Boys team has produced 33 All-American selections and 5 Academic All-American selections, and many of the lacrosse alumni have gone onto play lacrosse for top collegiate programs. Football Longmeadow High School's Football team has gone to twelve straight Western Mass-Central Mass Super Bowls under Head Coach Alex Rotsko. Longmeadow has won 8 of the 12 Western Mass-Central Mass Super Bowls (which began in 1997) and 10 overall since 1972. These Super Bowls can be broken down by: two Western Mass Super Bowls, three Division II Super Bowls, one Division IA, and four Division I Super Bowls. Four out of the last five seasons, the football team has gone undefeated, including back to back to back perfect seasons. The 2005 football (12-0) team beat Leominster in the Division 1 Super Bowl 21-20 in Holyoke. The 2006 team (12-0) beat Leominster again, but in a more dominant fashion, 42-0 at Worcester State College . The 2007 team finished 13-0, a school record due to the new playoff system, and beat Leominster 21-0 in the Division 1 Super Bowl at Westfield State College. Longmeadow now holds a 47-0 record over the past 4 seasons, the best current streak in the state. Recently losing to East Longmeadow High (ELHS) on 11/27/08 on the Thanksgiving day game ending their 48-0 streak with a 16-13 score Tennis Longmeadow's Boys Tennis program has won thirteen straight Western Mass titles In 2009 the M.I.A.A West Doubles Championship Trophy was taken home by Chandler Morehardt and Neal "Stir" Freyman of Longmeadow, MA Other Notable High School Sports In 2006 Longmeadow High School's Hockey Team was the Division III state champions and 2009 Western Mass Champions. In 2007, they lost to East Longmeadow in the semifinals and in 2008 lost to Westfield in the Western Mass finals. The 2004 Girls Lacrosse were Division I State Champions. The girls lacrosse team currently holds a streak of more than 100 games won against Western Massachusetts opponents. The 2005, 2006 (Framingham), 2007 (Framingham), and 2008 (West Wood) teams have all been State Finalists. The 2005 Girls Soccer team were Division I Western Massachusetts Champions. Truly an underdog going into the finals and seeded 5th. Beat Cathedral to earn the spot against Minnechaug the number one team. A shoot out determined the winner. Longmeadow went on to State Semi-Finals loosing to Nashoba with 1-0 final. The Boy's basketball team won their first ever Western Massachusetts championship over West Springfield in 2008 under head coach Tim Allen (a former standout at Longmeadow) The 2007 Girl's Volleyball team won their first ever Western Mass championship over Amherst, Massachusetts. In 2008, they repeated, and beat East Longmeadow in the Western Mass Finals. Both teams lost in the State-Semifinals, the 2008 team to Central Catholic. Sara Li of the Longmeadow High School Swim team currently holds eight Western Mass records, and all but two of the Longmeadow High School pool records Education The Longmeadow public school system comprises six schools. Blueberry Hill School, Center School, and Wolf Swamp Road School are K-5 elementary schools. Williams Middle School and Glenbrook Middle School serve grades 6-8. Longmeadow High School serves all students in the town between grades 9 and 12. Longmeadow is known for its outstanding public education. The high school newspaper talked to 172 seniors in 2007, of whom 10 have decided to enroll in Ivy League colleges, 13 more in other schools in the top quarter of the US News & World Report "Top National Universities," including the US Air Force Academy. Longmeadow also hosts a private parochial school, the Lubavitcher Yeshiva Academy (LYA). LYA was established in 1946 in response to the Greater Springfield Jewish community's need for a quality Jewish day school. In 1999, LYA became the first Jewish day school to be accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC). The more than 120 students that the school serves each year from across the spectrum of Jewish life includes orthodox, conservative, reform and unaffiliated families. Longmeadow is also known for its phenomenal music program. Approximately 50% of the students at Longmeadow High School participate in the music program. The choruses have won gold medals at the MICCA competition. The jazz ensemble has won numerous gold medals as well, but no longer competes. The wind ensemble and symphony orchestra have had the honor of performing in Indianapolis, Boston (Boston Symphony Hall), and New York (Carnegie Hall). However, the music program's crowning achievement has been receiving three national Grammy Awards based on the high level of excellence maintained throughout all groups in the music program. The physical facilities of the Longmeadow school system are considered to be a weakness by many parents and students. The town's elementary schools were recently rebuilt, but plans for improvements to the two middle schools and Longmeadow High School were not filed with the Massachusetts School Building Authority until 2007. The New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC) recently lifted a 'warning' about the schools' physical condition, citing the filing of these plans with the MSBA, support from the Longmeadow Educational Excellence Foundation (LEEF), a plan by the town to study all town buildings, and reorganization of the town's building maintenance budget including the schools. Notable Residents Jay Heaps - Professional soccer player for the New England Revolution and walk-on to Duke men's basketball team, where he played from 1996-1999 Kathryn Bridget Moynahan - Model and movie star known for her performances in Coyote Ugly (2000), I Robot (2004) and her connection to Tom Brady Steven Purugganan - two time sport stacking world champion and world recold holder of 3 stacking disciplines (3-3-3, 3-6-3 and cycle) References | Longmeadow,_Massachusetts |@lemmatized longmeadow:45 town:29 hampden:1 county:1 massachusetts:8 united:2 state:14 population:7 census:3 government:1 consist:1 select:1 board:1 member:1 part:2 springfield:8 metropolitan:1 statistical:1 area:6 history:1 first:5 settle:1 officially:1 incorporate:1 october:1 originally:1 farmland:1 within:1 limit:1 remain:2 relatively:1 pastoral:1 street:2 railway:1 build:3 triple:2 fifteen:1 year:6 period:1 interstate:1 wetland:2 west:9 side:4 today:1 one:5 affluent:1 suburb:2 worcester:2 feature:1 high:19 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4,163 | Chapterhouse:_Dune | Chapterhouse Dune is a science fiction novel by Frank Herbert, last in his series of six Dune novels. Published in 1985, it is also known variously as Chapterhouse: Dune, Chapter House Dune and Chapter House: Dune. The Bene Gesserit still find themselves questioning the Golden Path of humanity set by the the God Emperor Leto II. Now they must survive the Honored Matres, whose reckless conquest of the Old Empire threatens Bene Gesserit survival. The Sisters must reassess their timeless methods: does ultimate survival go beyond calculated manipulation? Is there greater purpose to life than consolidating power? Plot summary Introduction The situation is desperate for the Bene Gesserit as they find themselves the targets of the Honored Matres, whose conquest of the Old Empire is almost complete. The Matres are seeking to assimilate the technology and developed methods of the Bene Gesserit, their "last enemy in the million planets" (i.e. the Old Empire before The Scattering). Given the strength and record of the Matres, the Bene Gesserit need a plan. In charge of this plan is Mother Superior Darwi Odrade, successor of Taraza. Her prescient visions show an unknown axeman stalking her — an adequate analogy to the Bene Gesserit situation. The Bene Gesserit are also creating a new Dune on the planet Chapterhouse. Sheeana, in charge of the Worm project, expects a sandworm soon. The Honored Matres conquest destroyed the Bene Tleilax, who falsely assumed that their control of spice production guaranteed their protection. The Matres, we come to see, are surprisingly impulsive in their use of violence. A single Tleilaxu Master remains, albeit in Bene Gesserit captivity. He yields a secret of the Tleilaxu: ghola production. The technology compromises Bene Gesserit ethics; the Tleilaxu method requires a human womb — turning women into "tanks" fit for ghola production. The first ghola produced is that of Miles Teg, the great military commander introduced in Heretics of Dune. The Bene Gesserit have three important prisoners on Chapterhouse, held in a no-ship: Scytale, Duncan Idaho and Murbella (the Matre introduced in Heretics). The Bene Gesserit considers them valuable keys to the present predicament. This mode of thinking — that people are tools fit for a task — makes the prisoners uncooperative, despite the shared threat of the Matres. The Bene Gesserit intend to wring more secrets of the Tleilaxu from Scytale; namely, how to create spice from the axlotl tanks. Scytale bitterly regrets supplying the Bene Gesserit with ghola technology, but he must barter with them; he is their prisoner. Within Scytale's chest is a nullentropy tube, containing the cells of all Tleilaxu masters and various significant figures of the last few millennia, including Paul Atreides himself Herbert, Frank. Chapterhouse Dune. "Scytale rubbed his breast, reminding himself of what was hidden there with such skill that not even a scar marked the place. Each Master had carried this resource — a nullentropy capsule preserving the seed cells of a multitude: fellow Masters of the central kehl, Face Dancers, technical specialists and others he knew would be attractive to the women of Shaitan . . . and to many weakling powindah! Paul Atreides and his beloved Chani were there. (Oh what that had cost in searching garments of the dead for random cells!) The original Duncan Idaho was there with other Atreides minions — the Mentat Thufir Hawat, Gurney Halleck, the Fremen Naib Stilgar . . . enough potential servants and slaves to people a Tleilaxu universe." . Potentially capable of recreating the Bene Tleilax, he retains his sense of destiny. Additionally, Scytale also wields the mind-controlling whistling language imprinted in all gholas; what ends could Duncan Idaho achieve for Scytale? Duncan Idaho and Murbella are living together. The bond created by their mutual imprinting in Heretics has made them somewhat reluctant lovers, as their sexual addiction leads to genuine affection. The Bene Gesserit have accepted Murbella as a novice and are training her to be a Sister, despite their suspicion that she intends to steal their secrets and escape back to the Honored Matres. The Bene Gesserit wonder about Idaho's capabilities and potential; they suspect he remembers more than this ghola existence because they see signs of his being a Mentat, a talent not taught to him. They also wonder why Leto II consistently resurrected Duncan; was it his genetic potential? Indeed, he remembers his serial ghola lives, which mystifies him. His mentat awareness tells him that the Bene Tleilax could not have accomplished this, implying that his awareness is linked beyond genetics. Body Lampadas, a center for Bene Gesserit education, has been destroyed by the Honored Matres. One Sister, Lucilla, who served as vice chancellor, manages to escape the disaster. She carries the salvation of destroyed Lampadas, later called the Lampadas Horde: the shared-minds of its millions of murdered Reverend Mothers. Unfortunately, Lucilla's ship is damaged by a mine and she makes a forced landing on Gammu. Lucilla seeks refuge with an underground group that she knows will be sympathetic to the Bene Gesserit: Jews. Long ago, Jews went underground to escape the repeated pogroms against them. They continued to practice their religion in secret, under cover as "religious revivalists," to conceal their unbroken connection to ancient history. They were so successful that they have survived for 26,000 years while history believed them long since annihilated. The Bene Gesserit — with their memories of the past — were not deceived, and have developed a clandestine relationship with the Jews. The Rabbi, trapped in the web of mutual obligation, gives Lucilla temporary sanctuary, but in order to save his organization he must deliver Lucilla to the Matres. To Lucilla's shock he reveals Rebecca, a "wild" Reverend Mother who has gained her Other Memories without Bene Gesserit training. Lucilla shares minds with Rebecca, who promises to take the memories of Lampadas safely back to the Sisterhood. Lucilla is then "betrayed" to the Honored Matres. Back on Chapterhouse, Odrade's plans are reaching fruition. She confronts Duncan Idaho and forces him to admit that he is a Mentat, proving he retains memories of many ghola lives. To some degree this is a relief to Duncan, as he no longer has to disguise his abilities, but he realizes this makes his position still more precarious. He also does not reveal that he has been having sporadic mysterious visions of two strangers; an anonymous man and a woman named Marty, who seem to be aware of Duncan when he sees them. Lucilla is taken before the Great Honored Matre Dama, and to her surprise she is not killed outright. A game of words begins, and the Matre tries to persuade her to join the Honored Matres, preserving her life in exchange for Bene Gesserit secrets. It becomes known that the Matres dearly want to learn to modify their biochemistry as the Bene Gesserit do. It is speculated that the Matres were driven from The Scattering by an enemy who used biological weapons. Meanwhile, Murbella collapses under the pressure of Bene Gesserit training and pregnancy, giving in to "word weapons" that the Bene Gesserit planted to undermine her earlier Honored Matre identity. Murbella realizes that she really admires and wants to be Bene Gesserit, and sees her former Matres as ignorant children. The words of her initiation are repeated with an emphasis not in the original. Dortujla, the head of a Sisterhood keep on Buzzell, arrives on Chapterhouse reporting that Handlers and their half-man/half-cat enslaved Futars have offered alliance, though Dortujla's Mentat analysis suggests they intend dominance. She speculates that if the Handlers found Buzzell then Matres may too; smugglers would have sold their information indiscriminately. Why have the Honored Matres not already attacked? Odrade sees an opportunity and orders Dortujla to return to Buzzell with the Sisterhood's offer of surrender. Dortujla is to set up a meeting at Junction — the old Spacing Guild complex — which the Matres control. Unbeknownst to them, Miles Teg has intimate experience with Junction from his human life. Lucilla's verbal battles with the Great Honored Matre continue for weeks. When she reveals to Dama that although the Bene Gesserit know how to manipulate and control the populace, they practice and believe in democracy, Dama's desire to destroy the Sisterhood is redoubled; the Bene Gesserit teach dangerous knowledge and believe in ridiculous ideas like democracy! Dama kills Lucilla. Odrade decides that the task of awakening Teg's human memory is best suited to Duncan Idaho, and so he and Murbella take over Teg's training. It is a job that Duncan excels at, but he has reservations regarding the traditional way of awakening a ghola, remembering the pain he went through to release his own memories. Odrade and Tamalane tour Chapterhouse and visit Sheeana to consider promotion. Arriving at the inland sea of Chapterhouse, Odrade is dismayed to see how small it has become. As she swims, she accepts the ruthlessness of some decisions, and returns to the shore with the decision to accelerate the terraforming by removing the last sea on the planet. Arriving at Desert Watch station, Odrade confronts Sheeana as a test of her suitability for promotion. But Odrade is undermined by her lingering affection for Sheeana and so does not force the full truth out of her, but discovers that Duncan and Sheeana have been allied together for some time and have exchanged much information. Sheeana does not reveal that they have been considering the option of reawakening Teg's memory through Imprinting, nor does Odrade discover that Sheeana has the keys to Duncan's no-ship prison. While Odrade is away, Bellonda (a chief advisor to Odrade) decides to get rid of Duncan Idaho, whom she believes is too dangerous. However, she underestimates Duncan's capabilities; when she confronts him he protects himself with Teg, since Teg would never serve them after witnessing the murder of his teacher and friend. With his centuries of awareness — his serial lives — Duncan manipulates Bellonda by revealing his genius as a Mentat. He chides the Sisterhood by focusing on things that they refuse to face, arguing that their emergency plan of Scattering is flawed. Nobody sent to the Scattering has ever returned; therefore they are being trapped. Bellonda leaves, realizing not only that Duncan is too useful to kill, but also that Odrade probably manipulated her into this precise situation. She releases the blocks on Duncan's information flow, giving him full access to the data on the no-ship's computers. "If you have a tool, use it properly," she admits to herself. Odrade's molding of Scytale continues apace. She points out to him that his dream of Scytale's great revival is fatally flawed, because the Tleilaxu who scattered are no longer true to his beliefs and indeed serve the Matres. Scytale is amazed and terrified when Sheeana arrives with a baby sandworm. The Bene Gesserit have assured their own long term supply of spice, destroying Scytale's main bargaining card. At Duncan's suggestion, Teg is awakened by Sheeana using imprinting techniques. Teg's mother had conditioned in him a resistance to imprinting; under Sheeana's sensual assault, his old conditioning is triggered and his memories are awakened. In his awakening he cannot help but reveal the new physical abilities given to him by the T-Probe, the device used by the Honored Matres to torture him in Heretics. Odrade frees and appoints him again as Bashar of the military forces of the Sisterhood for the assault on the Honored Matres. Finally it is decided that Murbella is ready to become a Reverend Mother. Odrade relaxes the strictures, and for the first time ever, a man — Duncan — is allowed to watch a spice ceremony. Duncan is filled with trepidation, first because he fears Murbella will not survive the ritual, and second because he wonders whether she will still love him after going through such a life changing experience. Odrade watches with equal trepidation because Murbella is vital to her plan to deal with the Honored Matres and to reform the Sisterhood. Odrade believes that the Bene Gesserit made a mistake in fearing emotion, and that in order to evolve, the Bene Gesserit must learn to accept emotions. Murbella, Odrade is pleased to find, takes and survives the hard path to becoming a Reverend Mother. Murbella goes through a manic phase after becoming a Reverend Mother, and her feelings for Duncan are not the same — a fact that worries Odrade as much as Duncan. Whether it is a temporary effect of the experience or a permanent one is unknown. Conclusion Odrade calls a Convocation (a meeting of all the Bene Gesserit) announcing her plan to attack the Honored Matres. She tells them that this attack will be led by Teg. She also announces candidates to succeed her as Mother Superior; she will share her memories with Murbella and Sheeana before she leaves. Odrade goes to meet the Great Honored Matre with Dortujla and Tamalane. To Odrade's surprise Dama seems cooperative; Odrade wonders whether she was wise to have prearranged the attack. After a while she realizes that Dama intends no reasonable negotiation. Under cover of Odrade's diplomacy, the Bene Gesserit forces under Teg attack Gammu with tremendous force. Teg uses his secret ability to see no-ships to secure control of the system. Survivors of the attack flee to Junction, and Teg follows them there and carries all with him. Victory for the Bene Gesserit seems inevitable. In the midst of this battle, the Jews (including Rebecca with her precious memories) take refuge with the Bene Gesserit fleet. Logno — chief advisor to Dama — assassinates Dama with poison and assumes control of the Honored Matres. Her first act surprises Odrade greatly; she surrenders to Odrade. Teg arrives, and reports come in. Too late Odrade and Teg realize they have fallen into a trap, and the Honored Matres use a mysterious weapon hinted at throughout the book to turn defeat into victory. Murbella saves as much of the Bene Gesserit force as she can and they begin to withdraw to Chapterhouse. Odrade, however, had planned for the possible failure of the Bene Gesserit attack and left Murbella instructions for a last desperate gamble. Murbella pilots a small craft down to the surface, announcing herself as an Honored Matre who, in the confusion, has managed to escape the Bene Gesserit with all their secrets. She arrives on the planet and immediately announces her intentions by killing an overeager Honored Matre with a blinding speed enhanced by Bene Gesserit training that makes her faster than any Honored Matre before her. Murbella is taken to the Great Honored Matre and immediately declares herself hostile. Unable to control her anger, Logno attacks but is disposed of by Murbella, who becomes Great Honored Matre by having killed her predecessor. Awed by her physical prowess, the remaining Honored Matres are forced to accept her as their new leader. Odrade is also killed in the melee and Murbella Shares with her, thereby also becoming Reverend Mother Superior. Murbella's ascension to the leadership of the Honored Matres and the Bene Gesserit is not accepted as victory by all the Bene Gesserit. Some feel that she will suborn the spirit of the Bene Gesserit and many worry that her plan of merging the two orders is doomed to failure. Some then decide to flee Chapterhouse, notably Sheeana, who has a vision of her own. They ask Duncan if he wishes to join them, and upon his agreement escape in the giant no-ship, with Scytale, Teg and the Jews from Gammu still aboard. Murbella recognizes their plan at the last minute, but is powerless to stop them, realizing at the same time that Duncan's departure solves many problems for her. Watching this escape with interest are Daniel and Marty, the observers Duncan had been having visions of, who by all indications are independent Face Dancers. The story ends on a cliffhanger with several questions left unanswered regarding the merging of the Honored Matres and Bene Gesserit, the fates of those on the escaped no-ship (including the role of Scytale, the development of Idaho and Teg, and the role of the Jews), the identity of the god-like characters in the book's final chapter and the ultimate mystery of what chased the Honored Matres back into the Old Empire. 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4,164 | Armed_Forces_of_Belarus | The Armed Forces of Belarus consist of the Army and the Air Force, all under the command of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Belarus. Colonel General Leonid Maltsev is currently the Minister of Defense. Being a landlocked country, Belarus has no navy. The previous Belarusian National Republic of March 1918 to 1919 did not have time to create armed forces in its brief existence, although attempts to create a military have been documented. Selected Bibliography of works on the struggle for Belarusian Independence 1900-1921 in the Francis Skaryna Belarusian Library in London Unlike the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus has conducted effective military reforms within the last decade which have reshaped its armed forces as a relatively effective force for a small state in somewhat difficult economic conditions. Dr Steven J Main, The Belarusian Armed Forces: A Military-Political History 1991-2003, Conflict Studies Research Centre, RMA Sandhurst, 2003. This is the definitive work in English on the recent history of Belarus's armed forces. History On September 20, 1991 the Supreme Soviet of Belarus passed resolution "On the formation of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus" and on January 11, 1992 resolution "On the Armed Forces deployed in the territory of the Republic of Belarus." Practical steps followed the declarative resolutions. On March 18, 1992 the parliament passed resolution "On the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus" that bound the government "to start the formation of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus as of March 20, 1992" and "to submit to the Supreme Soviet for approval the suggested structure of the Armed Forces, their size and order of their material and technical supplies". On November 3, 1992, Belarus passed the law "On the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus" defining the status, structure and guiding principles of the Armed Forces. Pavel Bykovsky & Alexander Vasilevich, Military Development and the Armed Forces of Belarus, Moscow Defence Brief, CAST, 2007 After the introduction of presidency the law was amended twice: on September 4, 1996 and on November 9, 1999 but on the whole the law retains its initial contents. Organization Symbol of the Belarusian Ministry of Defense. Until 1992 the Belorussian Military District of the USSR comprised the 5th Guards Tank Army, the 7th tank army, the 28th army, the 120th Guards Motor Rifle Division, the 51st Guards aviation division, the 72nd Guards United Training Center and also logistical units and formations. In addition to these troops Belarus was the area of deployment for units subordinated directly to the USSR Defense Ministry and chief commanders of different Armed Forces services, namely the 103rd Guards air-borne division, the 38th Guards air-borne brigade, the 11th corps of the 2nd Separate Air Defense Army, the 26th Air Army and also units and formations of the Strategic Rocket Forces, Long Range Aviation, the Navy and special forces. In May 1992 the Belorussian Military District was abolished, and on January 1, 1993 all service personnel on Belarussian soil were required to either take an oath of loyalty to Belarus, or leave. This oath however did not alleviate concerns regarding loyalty to Russia in time of crisis, especially since nearly 50% of all military personnel were ethnically Russian at the end of 1992. Current personnel in the armed forces number 72,940 (IISS 2007), although a reduction to 60,000 is planned. Most soldiers are conscripts serving for a period 12 months (with higher education) or 18 month (without). The branches are as follows Routledge, IISS Military Balance 2007, p.158-159 : Army: 29,600 (6th Guards Mechanized Brigade (Grodno), 11th Guards Mechanized Brigade (Slonim) 120th Guards Mechanized Brigade (Minsk), two mobilization brigades (mech), One of the equipment storage bases is the 19th, the former 19th Guards Tank Division at Zaslonovo in the Lepiel region. On October 1, 2003 the base has strongly added in "weight". From other bases of storage of arms and techniques now we are distinguished favourably by new structure. Besides a battalion of protection, storage and service, motor-rifle and tank battalions were added. http://www8.brinkster.com/vad777/sng/belorussia%5Cbelorusia.htm 5th Separate Spetznaz Brigade, five artillery brigades and four regiments, two MRL regiments, 15th, 29th, 115th, 120th and 302nd SAM Brigades, two SSM brigades, two brigades and one regiment of engineers, 8th NBC independent brigade, two signals brigades, 40th independent NBC battalion. Army equipment includes 1800 MBT, 2600 AFV/APC. The weapons and equipment storage bases include the 50th (Brest), 19th, 34th & 37th (former tank divisions), 3rd, and 28th (Baranovichi). Weapons storage bases that have been disbanded include the 29th, 30th, 193rd, and the storage base that used to be the 8th Guards Tank Division at Marina Gorka. Air Force and Air Defense Forces: 18,170 (two fighter/interceptor bases, four FGA/reconnaissance squadrons, one transport air base, training aircraft, and attack and support helicopters, SAM units). Air Force equipment included in 2004 260 FGA/training aircraft and 80 Attack Helicopters. Joint: 25,170 (Centrally controlled units (including 72nd Guards Unified Training Center?), MOD staff) Internal Troops Three independent brigades and seven independent battalions (consecutively numbered) On 21 December 2001, a major reorganization of the Ground Forces produced two operational-territorial commands, formed from two former corps headquarters. Main, 2003 All Belarus air and ground forces are now grouped within these two commands, the Western Operational Command at Grodno, former from the previous 28th Army Corps, the former Soviet 28th Army, and the North Western Operational Command, the former 65th Army Corps, at Borisov. In 1995 the Military Academy of Belarus was set up on the basis of two military educational institutions - the Minsk Air Defense and Rocket School of the Air Defense Forces and the Minsk Higher Military Command School. Its 10 departments train officers of 38 specialties for practically all arms of service. Also in 1995 it was given the status of a government institution of secondary special military education for young men. Since about 2001, territorial defense forces, which as of 2002 number around 150,000, have been forming, organized into battalions, companies, and platoons spread across Belarus. Equipment Belarus-Transporting T-72 The military forces of Belarus are exclusively armed with Soviet-era equipment inherited from the Soviet Union. Although large in numbers some Western experts consider some of it outdated. The MBTs are of Russian type T-72, T-62, and T-55, and AFVs are of Russian type MT-LB, BMP-2, BMP-1, and the BMD-1, and Russian type trucks are the GAZ-66 and the KAMAZ-6560. The Air Force is equipped with MiG-29, Su-27 fighters,Su-24, Su-25 bombers, as well as Mi-8, Mi-24, and the Polish built Mi-2 attack helicopters. In December 2005 Belarus bought 10 L-39 jet trainer aircraft from Ukraine, and plans were announced to buy 18 used Su-30K fighters. In 2006 four batteries ('divisions' in Russian terminology; about 6 systems each) of S-300 anti-aircraft systems were acquired from Russia to reinforce the united CIS air defense system (:ru:Объединённая система ПВО СНГ) Light equipment Makarov PM Pistol AK-74 Assault Rifle AKM Assault Rifle RPD Light Machine Gun RPK Light Machine Gun PK General Purpose Machine Gun NSV Heavy Machine Gun DShK Heavy Machine Gun Dragunov SVD Sniper Rifle RPG-7 Anti-Tank Rocket Launcher AGS-17 Automatic Grenade Launcher SPG-9 Recoilless Rifle Armored Ground Vehicles MBTs T-55 (29; in reserve) T-62 (170; in reserve) T-72 (1,465) T-80 (92) AFVs BMD-1 (154) BMP-1 (109) BMP-2 (1,164) BTR-60 (188) BTR-70 (446) BTR-80 (194) MT-LB (66) Artillery BM-21 D-30 122 mm D-20 152 mm 2A36 152 mm 2S1 122 mm 2S3 152 mm 2S5 152 mm 2S9 120 mm Air Defense SA-8 SA-11 SA-12 SA-13 Military doctrine The military goals of the armed forces of Belarus are to defend the interests of the Belarusian state. This however is at times ambiguous, and is made even more complex with the various agreements that have been recently signed with Russia. Membership in the Commonwealth of Independent States, as well as the 1996 treaty on the Union of Russia and Belarus and the Treaty of the Formation of a Union State in 1999, has confirmed a close partnership with Russia. Much of the air defense system is integrated into the Russian defense network, and in 2006 the two nations signed an agreement on the creation of a unified air defense system. Russia, Belarus to sign agreement on joint air defense system, GlobalSecurity.org, 2006 References External links Official Website of the Ministry of Defense of Belarus Belarus Air Force pictures Military exercise code-named "Union Shield 2006" wiki on Belarusian Air Force at Scramble.nl | Armed_Forces_of_Belarus |@lemmatized armed:13 force:31 belarus:23 consist:1 army:11 air:20 command:6 ministry:3 defense:16 republic:8 colonel:1 general:2 leonid:1 maltsev:1 currently:1 minister:1 landlocked:1 country:1 navy:2 previous:2 belarusian:7 national:1 march:3 time:3 create:2 brief:2 existence:1 although:3 attempt:1 military:16 document:1 select:1 bibliography:1 work:2 struggle:1 independence:1 francis:1 skaryna:1 library:1 london:1 unlike:1 russian:7 federation:1 conduct:1 effective:2 reform:1 within:2 last:1 decade:1 reshape:1 relatively:1 small:1 state:4 somewhat:1 difficult:1 economic:1 condition:1 dr:1 steven:1 j:1 main:2 arm:6 political:1 history:3 conflict:1 study:1 research:1 centre:1 rma:1 sandhurst:1 definitive:1 english:1 recent:1 september:2 supreme:1 soviet:5 pass:3 resolu:1 tion:1 formation:5 bela:2 ru:3 january:2 resolution:2 deploy:1 terri:1 tory:1 practical:1 step:1 follow:2 de:2 clarative:1 parliament:1 reso:1 lution:1 bind:1 government:2 start:1 submit:1 su:5 preme:1 approval:1 suggested:1 struc:1 ture:1 size:1 order:1 material:1 technical:1 supply:1 november:2 law:3 define:1 status:2 structure:2 guide:1 principle:1 pavel:1 bykovsky:1 alexander:1 vasilevich:1 development:1 moscow:1 defence:1 cast:1 intro:1 duction:1 presidency:1 amend:1 twice:1 whole:1 retain:1 ini:1 tial:1 content:1 organization:1 symbol:1 belorussian:2 district:2 ussr:2 comprise:1 guard:12 tank:7 motor:2 rifle:6 division:7 aviation:2 united:2 training:4 center:2 also:3 logistical:1 unit:5 addition:1 troop:2 bel:1 arus:1 area:1 deployment:1 sub:1 ordinate:1 directly:1 mini:1 try:1 chief:1 commander:1 different:1 service:4 namely:1 borne:2 bri:1 gade:1 corp:4 separate:2 strategic:1 rocket:3 long:1 range:1 special:2 may:1 abolish:1 personnel:3 belarussian:1 soil:1 require:1 either:1 take:1 oath:2 loyalty:2 leave:1 however:2 alleviate:1 concern:1 regard:1 russia:6 crisis:1 especially:1 since:2 nearly:1 ethnically:1 end:1 current:1 number:4 iiss:2 reduction:1 plan:2 soldier:1 conscript:1 serve:1 period:1 month:2 high:2 education:2 without:1 branch:1 routledge:1 balance:1 p:1 mechanize:3 brigade:12 grodno:2 slonim:1 minsk:3 two:11 mobilization:1 mech:1 one:3 equipment:7 storage:6 base:8 former:6 zaslonovo:1 lepiel:1 region:1 october:1 strongly:1 add:2 weight:1 technique:1 distinguish:1 favourably:1 new:1 besides:1 battalion:5 protection:1 http:1 brinkster:1 com:1 sng:1 belorussia:1 htm:1 spetznaz:1 five:1 artillery:2 four:3 regiment:3 mrl:1 sam:2 ssm:1 engineer:1 nbc:2 independent:5 signal:1 include:5 mbt:1 afv:1 apc:1 weapon:2 brest:1 baranovichi:1 disband:1 use:1 marina:1 gorka:1 fighter:3 interceptor:1 fga:2 reconnaissance:1 squadron:1 transport:2 aircraft:4 attack:3 support:1 helicopter:3 joint:2 centrally:1 control:1 unified:2 mod:1 staff:1 internal:1 three:1 seven:1 consecutively:1 december:2 major:1 reorganization:1 ground:3 produce:1 operational:3 territorial:2 form:2 headquarters:1 group:1 western:3 north:1 borisov:1 academy:1 set:1 basis:1 educational:1 stitutions:1 school:2 partments:1 train:1 officer:1 specialty:1 practically:1 give:1 institution:1 secondary:1 young:1 men:1 around:1 organize:1 company:1 platoon:1 spread:1 across:1 exclusively:1 era:1 inherit:1 union:4 large:1 expert:1 consider:1 outdated:1 mbts:2 type:3 afvs:2 mt:2 lb:2 bmp:4 bmd:2 truck:1 gaz:1 kamaz:1 equip:1 mig:1 bomber:1 well:2 mi:3 polish:1 build:1 buy:2 l:1 jet:1 trainer:1 ukraine:1 announce:1 used:1 battery:1 terminology:1 system:6 anti:2 acquire:1 reinforce:1 ci:1 объединённая:1 система:1 пво:1 снг:1 light:3 makarov:1 pm:1 pistol:1 ak:1 assault:2 akm:1 rpd:1 machine:5 gun:5 rpk:1 pk:1 purpose:1 nsv:1 heavy:2 dshk:1 dragunov:1 svd:1 sniper:1 rpg:1 launcher:2 ags:1 automatic:1 grenade:1 spg:1 recoilless:1 armor:1 vehicle:1 reserve:2 btr:3 bm:1 mm:7 sa:4 doctrine:1 goal:1 defend:1 interest:1 ambiguous:1 make:1 even:1 complex:1 various:1 agreement:3 recently:1 sign:3 membership:1 commonwealth:1 treaty:2 confirm:1 close:1 partnership:1 much:1 integrate:1 network:1 nation:1 creation:1 globalsecurity:1 org:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 picture:1 exercise:1 code:1 name:1 shield:1 wiki:1 scramble:1 nl:1 |@bigram iiss_military:1 soviet_union:1 mig_su:1 su_su:1 ak_assault:1 assault_rifle:2 sniper_rifle:1 rocket_launcher:1 grenade_launcher:1 recoilless_rifle:1 btr_btr:2 mm_mm:6 sa_sa:3 globalsecurity_org:1 external_link:1 |
4,165 | Wikipedia:Status_of_the_porting_of_the_CIA_World_Factbook | There is now a 2009 CIA - The World Factbook available online. Most of our entries are from the 2000 edition. Anyone with a lot of time and a sense of purpose is encouraged to update our articles with the new data. Please state the World Factbook year to which the country has been updated when updating this list (i.e. "updated to 2007" not "finished"). Pieces of information ported not country-by-country Table of historical exchange rates Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook (2002 edition; not entirely ported to List of general acronyms) Countries Please annotate the list below with the current status of the port from the CIA web site to the Wikipedia __NOTOC__ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A Afghanistan (updated to 2007) —Cronholm144 11:37, 15 August 2007 (UTC) Akrotiri (updated to 2007) —Cronholm144 11:37, 15 August 2007 (UTC) Albania (updated to 2007) —Cronholm144 15:25, 15 August 2007 (UTC) Algeria (Updated to 2003) Regulus 11:05, 6 Sep 2003 (UTC) American Samoa Andorra Angola (updated to 2003) Greenman 31 Oct 2003 Anguilla Antarctica Antigua and Barbuda Arctic Ocean Argentina Armenia Aruba Ashmore and Cartier Islands Atlantic Ocean Australia Austria Azerbaijan B Bahamas, The Bahrain Baker Island Beginning with the 2006 edition of The World Factbook, the entry for this territory has been merged in the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry. Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Benin (geography done) Bermuda (updated all the stats in Economy of Bermuda by Scratchdawg 16:37, 16 February 2007 (UTC)) Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina (partly 2000, partly 2003) Botswana (updated to 2003) Greenman 2 Nov 2003 Bouvet Island Brazil British Indian Ocean Territory British Virgin Islands (Geography updated to 2004) Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burma Burundi C Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Cayman Islands Central African Republic Chad Chile China Christmas Island Clipperton Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Colombia Comoros (just added, Aug. 1 '01) Congo, Democratic Republic of the (updated to 2003) Greenman 31 Oct 2003 Congo, Republic of the Cook Islands Coral Sea Islands Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Croatia (updated to 2003) Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic D Denmark Dhekelia Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic E Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea (updated to 2006) Estonia Ethiopia (updated to 2006) European Union F Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) (info as CIA factbook of 10 January, 2006, extended) Faroe Islands Fiji Finland France French Polynesia French Southern and Antarctic Lands G Gabon Gambia, The Gaza Strip See also: Palestine Georgia (Updated to 2004) Germany Ghana Gibraltar Greece Greenland Grenada Guam Guatemala Guernsey Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana H Haiti Heard Island and McDonald Islands Holy See (Vatican City) Honduras Hong Kong Howland Island Hungary I Iceland India (updated to 2003 (Transportation/Communication) Indian Ocean Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Isle of Man Israel See also: Palestine Italy J Jamaica Jan Mayen Japan Jarvis Island Jersey Johnston Atoll Jordan K Kazakhstan Kenya Kingman Reef Kiribati Korea, North Korea, South Kosovo Kuwait Kyrgyzstan L Laos Latvia Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg M Macau Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Mexico Micronesia, Federated States of Midway Islands Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Montserrat Morocco Mozambique (updated to 2003) Greenman 8 Nov 2003 N Namibia (updated to 2003) Greenman 2 Nov 2003 Nauru Navassa Island Nepal Netherlands Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand (Updated to 2003) RossA 07:07, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC) Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Niue Norfolk Island Northern Mariana Islands Norway O Oman P Pacific Ocean Pakistan Palau Palmyra Atoll Panama Papua New Guinea (geography updated) Paracel Islands Paraguay Peru Philippines Pitcairn Islands Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Q Qatar R Romania Russia Rwanda S Saint Barthelemy Saint Helena Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa San Marino São Tomé and Príncipe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia - almost updated to 2003 data; have not done demographics or government) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Hoshie (talk • contribs) . Seychelles Sierra Leone (updated to 2003) Greenman 15 November 2003 Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Southern Ocean Spain Spratly Islands Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Svalbard Swaziland (updated to 2003) Greenman 12 Nov 2003 Sweden Switzerland Syria T Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Timor-Leste Togo Tokelau Tonga Trinidad and Tobago (updated to 2008) Christianwelsh 25 April 2008 Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Turks and Caicos Islands Tuvalu U Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges Uruguay Uzbekistan V Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands W Wake Island Wallis and Futuna West Bank See also: Palestine Western Sahara "World" entry under Earth Y Yemen Z Zambia (updated to 2003) Greenman 13 Dec 2003 Zimbabwe (updated to 2003) Greenman 13 Nov 2003 Naming issues: Myanmar - entry is under Burma Palestine - separate entries under West Bank and Gaza Strip The Department of State info is at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/ ; I'm going about adding that alphabetically, as well; it's taking some time because not all of the text can be cut and pasted directly, at least not without looking sloppy. Much of it has to be integrated or left unadded, and some of their information, oddly enough, conflicts with the CIA info, esp. in re: economic figures. The status of that is here See also : CIA World Factbook Notes Environmental Agreements (Appendix C in the CIA World Factbook) Basel Convention - updated to Convention on Biological Diversity - updated to Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas - updated to Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution - updated to Nitrogen Oxide Protocol - updated to POP Air Pollution Protocol - updated to Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol - updated to Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol - updated to Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna - updated to Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter - updated to Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques - updated to Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat - updated to International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling - updated to International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983 - updated to International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994 - updated to Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer - updated to Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 - updated to Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty - updated to Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water - updated to United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea - updated to United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification - updated to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change - updated to | Wikipedia:Status_of_the_porting_of_the_CIA_World_Factbook |@lemmatized cia:7 world:7 factbook:7 available:1 online:1 entry:6 edition:3 anyone:1 lot:1 time:2 sense:1 purpose:1 encourage:1 update:50 article:1 new:5 data:2 please:2 state:7 year:1 country:4 list:3 e:3 finish:1 piece:1 information:2 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4,166 | Dallas_Cowboys | The Dallas Cowboys are a professional American football team in the Eastern Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). They are based in the suburb of Arlington, Texas which is between Fort Worth and Dallas. The team is scheduled to play its home games at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington beginning in the 2009 season. The Cowboys joined the NFL as a 1960 expansion team. The team's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive games in front of sold-out stadiums. The Cowboys' streak of 160 sold-out regular and post-season games began in 1990, and included 79 straight sellouts at their home, Texas Stadium, and 81 straight sell-outs on the road. An article from Forbes Magazine, dated September 10, 2008, lists the Cowboys as the most valuable sports franchise in the United States, and second in the world (behind the United Kingdom's Manchester United), with an estimated value of approximately $1.612 billion, ahead of the Washington Redskins ($1.538 billion) and the New England Patriots ($1.324 billion). They are also one of the wealthiest teams in the NFL, generating almost $269 million in annual revenue. The Cowboys have been one of the most successful teams of the modern era (since 1960). The team has won five Super Bowls and eight conference championships. The Cowboys have more victories (41) on Monday Night Football than any other NFL team; the Miami Dolphins are second with 39 and the San Francisco 49ers are third with 38. They hold NFL records for the most consecutive winning seasons (20, from 1966 to 1985) and most seasons with at least ten wins (25). The team has earned the most post-season appearances (29), a league record of 56 post-season games (winning 32 of them), the most division titles with 20, the most appearances in the NFC Championship Game (14), and the most Super Bowl appearances (8). The Cowboys also played in two NFL championship games before the NFL's 1970 merger with the American Football League. The Cowboys became the first team in NFL history to win three Super Bowls in just four years (a feat that has been matched only once since, by the New England Patriots). They are second only to the Pittsburgh Steelers with most Super Bowl wins (tied with the San Francisco 49ers with five each). The Cowboys' success and popularity has earned them the nickname "America's Team". Before the 2008 season an ESPN's Page 2 statistical comparison of all teams since the AFL-NFL merger had the Cowboys narrowly beat out the Pittsburgh Steelers for the top of its Ultimate Power Ranking. Page 2's ultimate NFL power rankings, Nos. 1-10 at ESPN.com, 17 September 2008 Franchise history Originally, the formation of an NFL expansion team in Texas was met with strong opposition by Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall. This came as little surprise to the would-be Dallas team owners, Clint Murchison, Jr. and Bedford Wynne, for Marshall's Redskins had enjoyed a monopoly as the only NFL team to represent the Southern States of the US for several decades. To ensure the birth of their expansion team, the men bought the rights to the Redskins fight song, "Hail to the Redskins" and threatened to refuse to allow Marshall to play the song at games. Needing the song, which was a staple for his "professional football team of Dixie," Marshall capitulated, and the city of Dallas, Texas, was granted an NFL franchise on January 28, 1960. This early confrontation between the two franchises was an omen of what would become one of the more significant rivalries in the NFL, which continues to this day. 1960s and 1970s The team was first known as the Dallas Steers, then the Dallas Rangers before settling on the name "Cowboys" for the 1960 season. The new Dallas owners, Murchison and Wynne, subsequently hired Tex Schramm as general manager, Tom Landry as head coach, and Gil Brandt as player personnel director. The team acquired players from existing franchises though in 1960 NFL Expansion Draft. The Cowboys began play in the Cotton Bowl in 1960 and finished winless in their first season with a record of 0–11–1 (with a tie vs the New York Giants). They made their first regular NFL draft selection the following year, choosing Texas Christian University defensive tackle Bob Lilly with the 13th pick in the draft. During the early and mid 1960s, the Cowboys gradually built a contender. Quarterback Don Meredith was acquired in 1960, running back Don Perkins, linebacker Chuck Howley and Lilly were added in 1961, linebacker Lee Roy Jordan in 1963, cornerback Mel Renfro in 1964, and wide receiver Bob Hayes in 1965. In 1966 the Cowboys posted their first winning record and playoff appearance (10–3–1, beginning an NFL-record 20 consecutive winning seasons), and sent eight players to the Pro Bowl, including Hayes, Howley, Meredith, Perkins, Lilly and Renfro. The 1966 and 1967 seasons ended with dramatic losses of 34–27 and 21–17 respectively to the Green Bay Packers in the NFL Championship Game, the latter loss referred to as the Ice Bowl game, the coldest weathered professional sports game in US history. The 1966 season would mark the start of an NFL-record-setting eight consecutive postseason appearances (The Cowboys later broke their own record with nine consecutive trips to the playoffs between 1975–1983). The Cowboys established themselves in the Dallas community. The team competed for the affections of Dallasites with Lamar Hunt's Dallas Texans of the American Football League (AFL). Although the AFL's Texans had a much better record than the NFL's Cowboys, in 1963 Hunt moved the Texans to Kansas City, Missouri, where they became the Chiefs. By 1969, ground was being broken on a new stadium for the Cowboys to replace the Cotton Bowl. Texas Stadium in Irving, a Dallas suburb, was completed during the 1971 season. Although Meredith and Perkins retired after the 1968 season, important new players joined the organization during the late 1960s and early 1970s, including offensive tackle Rayfield Wright in 1967, quarterback Roger Staubach, tight end Mike Ditka, and running back Calvin Hill in 1969, and cornerback Herb Adderly, and safeties Cliff Harris and Charlie Waters in 1970. Led by quarterback Craig Morton, the Cowboys made it to their first Super Bowl, a mistake-filled Super Bowl V, where they lost 16-13 to the Baltimore Colts on a field goal by Colts' kicker Jim O'Brien with five seconds remaining in the contest. The Cowboys moved from the Cotton Bowl to Texas Stadium in week six of the 1971 season, won their last seven regular season games, and advanced through the playoffs to defeat the upstart Miami Dolphins, 24-3, in Super Bowl VI, which remains the only Super Bowl in which a team held its opponent without a touchdown. During the rest of the 1970s, the Cowboys grew in popularity, not just in Dallas, but nationwide. The Cowboys also continued to add new talent to their roster, including defensive ends Harvey Martin and Ed "Too Tall" Jones, wide receiver Drew Pearson, and defensive tackle Randy White and running back Tony Dorsett. The fresh influx of talent helped the Cowboys win Super Bowl XII and make appearances in Super Bowls X and XIII. Dallas ended the 1970s as the winningest NFL team of the decade. 1980s and 1990s Danny White became the Cowboys' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterback Roger Staubach retired. White led the Cowboys to the playoffs five times and won two Division Championships. However, despite playing in the NFC Championship Game three consecutive years (1980–1982), the Cowboys did not reach the Super Bowl during the 1980s. In 1984, H.R. "Bum" Bright purchased the Dallas Cowboys from Murchison. As the Cowboys suffered through progressively poorer seasons (from 10–6 in 1985 to 7–9 in 1986, 7–8 in 1987, and 3–13 in 1988), Bright became disenchanted with the team. During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was "horrified" at Landry's play calling. Bright sold the Cowboys to Jerry Jones on February 25, 1989. Jones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him with University of Miami head coach Jimmy Johnson. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected UCLA quarterback Troy Aikman. Later that same year, they would trade veteran running back Herschel Walker to the Minnesota Vikings for five veteran players and eight draft choices. Although the Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1–15 record, the worst record since the team's inception, "The Trade" later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team. Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL's elite. Skillful drafts added fullback Daryl Johnston and center Mark Stepnoski in 1989, running back Emmitt Smith in 1990, defensive tackle Russell Maryland and offensive tackle Erik Williams in 1991, and safety Darren Woodson in 1992. The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiver Michael Irvin, guard Nate Newton, linebacker Ken Norton Jr, and offensive lineman Mark Tuinei, and veteran pickups such as tight end Jay Novacek and defensive end Charles Haley. In 1992 Dallas set a team record for regular season wins with a 13–3 mark. In January 1993, only three years after their 1–15 season, the Cowboys earned their first Super Bowl trip in 14 seasons. Dallas crushed the Buffalo Bills 52–17 in Super Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers. Johnson became the first coach to claim a National Championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football. The following season, they again defeated the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII, 30–13. The Cowboys sent a then-NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safety Thomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski, and Williams. Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation. Jones then hired former University of Oklahoma head coach Barry Switzer to replace Johnson. The Cowboys finished 12-4 in 1994, but missed the Super Bowl by losing to the San Francisco 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 38-28. In 1995, Jones lured All-Pro cornerback Deion Sanders away from San Francisco, and Dallas once again posted a 12-4 regular season record. The Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27-17 at Sun Devil Stadium in Super Bowl XXX for their fifth world championship. Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football National Championship and a Super Bowl. Yet the glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age and injuries began taking their toll. The Cowboys went 6-10 in 1997, with discipline and off-field problems becoming major distractions. As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinator Chan Gailey was hired to take his place. Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10-6 record in 1998 and an NFC East Division championship, but was let go after an 8-8 playoff season in 1999, becoming the first Cowboys coach who did not win a Super Bowl. In 1998, the Cowboys suffered an embarrassing 20 to 7 home loss to the division rival Arizona Cardinals. In 1999, they suffered a 27 to 10 first round loss to the Minnesota Vikings. Oddly, the last Dallas playoff win was a 40 to 15 win against Minnesota following the 1996 season. Nonetheless, the Cowboys posted more wins in the 1990s than any other NFL team. 2000s Defensive coordinator Dave Campo was promoted to head coach, but he could only post three consecutive 5-11 seasons. Many fans and media were beginning to blame Jerry Jones for the team's ills, noting that he refused to hire a strong coach or general manager, preferring to hire coaches who did not want to be involved with personnel duties so that Jones himself, as GM, could manage them. Jones then lured Bill Parcells out of retirement to coach the Cowboys. The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season, posting a 10-6 record and a playoff berth by having the best overall defense in the NFL. However, during the next two seasons, the Parcells-led Cowboys missed the playoffs. The Cowboys then finished an up-and-down 2006 season with a 9-7 record and a playoff appearance, but after a last second loss in the Wild Card Game against the Seattle Seahawks, Parcells retired and was succeeded by Wade Phillips. In his first season as head coach, Phillips and his coaching staff led the franchise to its best seasonal start ever, a conference-best 13-3 record, and the franchise's 16th NFC East championship title, the most of any team in that division. (Washington, New York and Philadelphia are tied for second with seven championships each.) The Cowboys were eliminated by the (eventual Super Bowl Champion) Giants in the divisional round of the playoffs, the first NFC #1 seed to so falter since the playoff re-alignment. On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys practice facility collapsed during a wind storm. The collapse left 12 Cowboys players and coaches injured. The most serious injuries were special teams coach Joe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team's 33-year-old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed. Logos and uniforms Logo The Dallas Cowboys' blue star logo is associated with the team is one of the best known logos in sports. The blue star originally was a sold shape until a white line and blue border was added in 1964. The logo has remanded the same since. Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones' AFL team, the Dallas Desperados that have a similar logo based off of the Cowboys. The blue star also is used on other enties like an imaging facility and storage facility. Uniforms The Dallas Cowboys' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 280 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black. The home' pants, according to the Dallas Cowboys official media guide, are a unique metallic silver-green color (PMS 8280 C) that help bring out the blue in the uniform. The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the "Stars and Stripes" jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes. A white/gray/white stripe are on each sleeve as well as the collared V-neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes. A "Cowboys" chest crest is directly under the NFL shield. The away pants are a pearlish metallic-silver color (PMS 8001 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms. The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates. The team's helmets are also a unique silver with a tint of blue known as "Metallic Silver Blue" (PMS 8240 C) and have a blue/white/blue vertical stripe placed upon the center of the crown. The Cowboys are also one of the few, if not the only, team that attach blue Dymo tape with the player's name on the backside of the white portion of the blue/white/blue decal. Uniform history When the Dallas Cowboys franchise debuted in 1960, the team's uniform included a white helmet adorned with a simple blue star and a blue-white-blue stripe down the center crown. The team donned blue jerseys with white sleeves and a small blue star on each shoulder for home games and the negative opposite for away games. Their socks also had two horizontal white stripes overlapping the blue. In 1964 through 1965, the Cowboys opted for a simpler look (and essentially the team's current uniform) by changing their jersey/socks to one solid color with three horizontal blue stripes on the sleeves. The star-shouldered jerseys were replaced with shoulder "TV" numbers. The pants and helmet were changed from white to silver and a white border was added to the blue star. In 1966, the team narrowed the stripes to two per sleeve/sock and the following year in 1967, the white border was moved farther into the blue star and was now a white pinstripe. The logo and this version of the uniform has seen little change to the present day. The only notable changes in the last 40 years were: from 1970–1973 when the "TV" numbers were moved from the shoulders to the sleeves above the stripes from 1981–1988 the pants featured a white uniform number in an elliptical blue circle worn near the hip. the removal of the indented serifs on the front and back jersey numbers in the early 1980s (seen currently on the throwback jersey) from 1981–1994 the dark jerseys sported numbers that were gray with white borders and a blue pinstripe. The stripes on the sleeves and socks also used the same gray with white border scheme (sans navy pinstripe). the 1996 addition of the word "Cowboys" in the center of the neckline which lasted until 1998 on the white jersey but currently remains on the blue jersey. During the 1976 season, the blue-white-blue stripe on the crown of the helmets were temporarily changed to red-white-blue to commemorate the United States' bicentennial anniversary. In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back-to-back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white "Double-Star" jersey on Thanksgiving Day. This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994–1995 playoffs. During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960–63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league-wide "throwback" policy. During the 1995 season, the team wore the navy "Double-Star" jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform). The navy "Double-Star" jersey was not seen again until the NFL's Classic Throwback Weekend on Thanksgiving Day 2001–2003. In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960–1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day. This uniform now serves as the team's alternate or "third jersey" and is usually worn at least once a year, although this uniform hasn't been worn on Thanksgiving Day since 2006. The team has used their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008. The Cowboys were the first NFL team to primarily wear their white jersey at home, as it was an unofficial rule that teams wear their colored jersey at home. This tradition was started in the 1960s by Tex Schramm, who wanted fans to see a variety of opponents' colors at home games. Since then, a number of other teams have worn their white uniforms at home, including the Washington Redskins and Miami Dolphins. Throughout the years, the Cowboys' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be "jinxed" because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them. This curse purportedly became popular after the team lost Super Bowl V, when they were forced to wear their colored jersey because they were the designated home team. Since then, the rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey. Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jersey when they visit Washington, Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jersey at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities. Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse, as when the Philadelphia Eagles hosted the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game. Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse. Rivalries Washington Redskins Historically, the Washington Redskins have been the Cowboys' greatest rival. Divisional opponents in the NFC East, Dallas and Washington have played each other twice each season since the early 1960s, fueling the rivalry. Redskins coach George Allen enhanced the rivalry during the 1970s. Philadelphia Eagles The Cowboys also have strong rivalries with the other NFC East teams, the New York Giants and the Philadelphia Eagles. The competition with Philadelphia has been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long-moribund Eagles returned to contention. In 1981, the two teams faced off in that year's NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning, 20-7 (The Eagles subsequently lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV). A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coach Buddy Ryan. Among these were the 1989 "Bounty Bowls," in which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kicker Luis Zendejas and Veterans Stadium fans pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris. (Among those fans throwing snowballs was former Philadelphia District Attorney Ed Rendell, who would later serve as Philadelphia's mayor and is currently the governor of Pennsylvania.) A 1999 game at Philadelphia saw Eagles fans cheering as Michael Irvin lay motionless and possibly paralyzed on the field.In 2008 the rivalry became more intense when the Philadelphia Eagles clinched a playoff spot defeating the Cowboys 44-6 (The Eagles would lose to the Arizona Cardinals in the NFC Championship). San Francisco 49ers The San Francisco 49ers have been another major Cowboy rival. Dallas has played seven postseason games against San Francisco. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game, when Roger Staubach threw two touchdown passes with less than two minutes remaining for a 30-28 win. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers' Joe Montana complete a game-winning pass to Dwight Clark in the final minute (now known as "The Catch"), is one of the most famous games in NFL history. San Francisco subsequently won their first of five Super Bowls. During the 1992-1994 seasons, Dallas and San Francisco faced each other in the NFC Championship Game. Dallas won the first two match-ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of the three seasons, the game's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. LA/St. Louis Rams The Los Angeles Rams were a major rival of the Cowboys although this rivalry has cooled somewhat since the Rams moved to St. Louis. The Cowboys and Rams have met eight or nine times in postseason games, more than any other teams in the NFL. The meetings include 2 NFC Championship games, 3 division playoff games and 2 wild card games. The Rams wore their white jerseys in certain home games when the team was in Los Angeles, especially against the Cowboys, forcing Dallas to wear their "jinxed" blue jerseys, although since the move to St. Louis the Rams have worn their blue jerseys in most home games. The Rams did, however, make one exception and wore their white jerseys at home in their most recent meeting in 2008, forcing the Cowboys to wear their "jinxed" blue jerseys. Dallas lost 34-14 Romo-less Cowboys lose to Rams to a Rams team that wouldn't win another game that year and finished 2-14 (Which would be the second worst record in the NFL that year; only the historically winless Detroit Lions were worse.), while the loss cost the Cowboys a playoff spot that season. Green Bay Packers The Cowboys have a lesser rivalry with the Green Bay Packers that began in the 1960s. The two teams have faced each other in the postseason six times. Green Bay defeated Dallas in the 1966 and 1967 NFL Championship games (the latter, known as the "Ice Bowl", is another of pro football's most famous games). Dallas, in turn, defeated Green Bay in the second round of the 1982 playoffs, the 1993 and 1994 NFC Divisional Playoff games, and the 1995 NFC Championship Game. Texas Stadium is one of the few places where the Packers quarterback Brett Favre has never won; he is 0–9 at Dallas. The rivalry was renewed during the 2007 season, when both teams met in a late-season matchup. Anticipations ran high as both teams boasted 10–1 records, and battled for first place in the NFC playoff hunt. Dallas prevailed, winning 37–27, and clinched the top seed a few weeks later. Many people expected a rematch in the NFC Championship game, and while Green Bay advanced, Dallas lost to the New York Giants in a Divisional Playoff game. Pittsburgh Steelers Some consider the Pittsburgh Steelers a rival. The two teams met in the first regular season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35–28 loss to the Steelers), the first-ever regular season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of which were close. The Steelers won Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds. The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX in 1996. It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrasts of the teams: The Cowboys, being more of a "flashy" team with Roger Staubach's aerial attack and the "flex" defense-based Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a "blue-collar" team with a strong running game and the 1930s-esque Steel Curtain defense, a contrast that still exists today. http://www.timesonline.com/articles/2008/12/06/sports/steelers/doc493b5cd78829a110461455.txt In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels. The all-time series is currently tied 15-15. Intrastate rivalry with Houston The Houston Texans and the Houston Oilers were considered by some to be rivals of the Cowboys because of the in-state affiliation. Almost every year since 1967, the Cowboys have played their downstate rival during preseason play for "bragging rights" and the Governor's Cup trophy, but beyond that, no real rivalry has yet developed. Season-by-season records Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers Troy Aikman Class of 2006 (QB 1989–2000) Tony Dorsett Class of 1994 (RB 1977–87) Michael Irvin Class of 2007 (WR 1988–1999) Tom Landry Class of 1990 (Head Coach 1960–88) Bob Lilly Class of 1980 (DT 1961–74) Mel Renfro Class of 1996 (S/CB 1964–77) Tex Schramm Class of 1991 (Pres/GM 1960–89) Roger Staubach Class of 1985 (QB 1969–79) Randy White Class of 1994 (DT 1975–88) Rayfield Wright Class of 2006 (OT 1967–1979) Bob Hayes Class of 2009 (WR 1965–1975) Super Bowl MVPs Although the Cowboys are tied with the 49ers for the second most Super Bowl victories (Steelers have 6), Dallas actually holds the record for the most Super Bowl games played (8) and the most Super Bowl MVPs with 7: Linebacker Chuck Howley - Super Bowl V - Howley was named the MVP for Super Bowl V despite the Cowboys' loss to the Baltimore Colts. He is the only member of a losing team to win the award. In recording two interceptions and a fumble recovery during the game, Howley was the first defensive player to win the honor. Quarterback Roger Staubach - Super Bowl VI - Staubach became the fifth quarterback overall to be awarded the MVP trophy after Dallas' win over the Miami Dolphins. He completed 12 out of 19 passes for , threw 2 touchdown passes, and rushed 5 times for . (Tie) Defensive tackle Randy White and defensive end Harvey Martin - Super Bowl XII - Super Bowl XII marked the first time that two players won MVP honors. White and Martin, who helped the Cowboys defeat the Denver Broncos, became the first defensive linemen to win the award. See #3 Quarterback Troy Aikman - Super Bowl XXVII - Aikman became the second Cowboys quarterback to earn the MVP honor as he led the Cowboys to victory against the Buffalo Bills. He completed 22 of 30 passes for and 4 touchdowns, while also rushing for . Running back Emmitt Smith - Super Bowl XXVIII - Smith's 30 carries for , 4 receptions for , and two touchdowns led Dallas to a victory over the Buffalo Bills. In that same year, Smith became the first player to win the Super Bowl, the NFL rushing title (i.e. lead the league in rushing), the NFL Most Valuable Player Award, and the Super Bowl MVP all in one season. Cornerback Larry Brown - Super Bowl XXX - Brown became the first cornerback to be named Super Bowl MVP, recording two interceptions for a total of 77 return yards. The Cowboys sealed the victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers by converting both of Brown's interceptions into touchdowns. Ring of Honor Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a "Ring of Honor", which is on permanent display encircling the field at Texas Stadium in Irving. The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager/president. Although the team does not officially retire jersey numbers, some are kept "unofficially inactive", so it is uncommon to find any current players wearing the number of one of the "Ring of Honor" inductees. For instance, the jersey numbers of inductees Aikman (8), Staubach (12), Hayes and Smith (22), Perkins and Harris (43), Irvin (88), and Lilly (74) were not worn during the 2008 season. The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years. Tex Schramm was believed to be a "one-man committee" in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebacker Lee Roy Jordan because of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan's playing days. When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm's Ring of Honor "power" and immediately inducted Jordan. Jones also had controversy. For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction. Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame). In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year's Cowboys-Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants). In 2003, Jones finally chose to induct Tex Schramm. Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction. Unfortunately, Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys-Eagles game that fall. The most recent inductees were Troy Aikman, all-time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as "The Triplets". The Cowboys waited until Smith had retired as a player before inducting Aikman and Irvin, so all three could be inducted together, which occurred during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the arch-rival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005. All-time first-round draft picks Head coaches and staff Head coaches Current staff Radio and television As of 2007, the Cowboys' flagship radio stations were KDBN-FM (93.3 The Bone) and KTCK (1310 The Ticket). Both are owned by Cumulus Media. Brad Sham returns as the team's longtime play-by-play voice. Working alongside him in 2007 is former Cowboy quarterback Babe Laufenberg, who returns after a one-year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters. The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters. However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the "Blue Star Network," which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks. The anchor station is KTVT, the CBS owned and operated station in Dallas. Previous stations which aired Cowboys games included KVIL-FM, KRLD, and KLUV-FM. Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts. During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach's show with late veteran sportscaster Frank Glieber and later with Brad Sham. Landry's show was famous for his analysis of raw game footage and for he and his co-host making their NFL "predictions" at the end of each show. Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along with Bill Mercer, famous for calling the Ice Bowl of 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI. Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator of World Class Championship Wrestling in the 1980s. Upon Mercer's departure, Verne Lundquist joined the network, and became their play-by-play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill-in for Lundquist. Longtime WFAA-TV sports anchor Dale Hansen was the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play-by-play announcer from 1985-1996. Other broadcasters with Cowboy ties Additionally, several former players and coaches for the Dallas Cowboys picked up the broadcast microphone: Don Meredith - became a color commentator for ABC's Monday Night Football beginning in 1970. For years, he was paired alongside Frank Gifford and Howard Cosell. Meredith retired from sportscasting after the 1984 season, one year after Cosell's retirement. Meredith's last game for ABC was Super Bowl XIX, ABC's first Super Bowl broadcast. Meredith was also a color commentator for Super Bowl IX and Super Bowl XI while at NBC. In the early 1980s, Roger Staubach worked for a short time as a color commentator for CBS Sports. Drew Pearson - has worked exclusively as a sportscaster for such networks as CBS, HBO and NBC5 in Dallas/Ft. Worth since his retirement in 1983. Daryl Johnston - aka "Moose" is a color commentator for the NFL on Fox telecasts, teaming with Kenny Albert and Tony Siragusa on the sidelines. Troy Aikman - joined Fox's NFC telecasts as a color commentator for the 2001 season. A year later, he was named to the network's lead announcing crew, teaming with Joe Buck and Cris Collinsworth. Aikman received an Emmy Award nomination for his television work in 2004, and worked Fox's broadcast of Super Bowl XXXIX in January 2005. Aikman also hosts a weekly sports radio show which airs on Thursday from 5 p.m.–6 p.m. ET on Sporting News Radio along with Brad Sham, who was instrumental in starting Aikman's broadcasting career. After 12 seasons with the Dallas Cowboys, Michael Irvin co-hosted NBC Sports studio coverage of Arena Football League games in 2003. Irvin co-anchored the widely-viewed Sunday football pre-game show Sunday NFL Countdown and Monday Night Countdown on ESPN from 2003 through the 2006 season. As of 2008, he hosts his own radio show (with Kevin Kiley) on 103.3 FM ESPN Radio, called the Michael Irvin Show http://stations.espn.go.com/stations/espn1033/show?showId=irvinshow , and he's made numerous guest appearances on NFL Network. He's also starred in a major motion picture, "The Longest Yard" with comedian Adam Sandler. Emmitt Smith - signed on to serve as a studio analyst on the NFL Network show, NFL Total Access in August 2005. Smith was hired by ESPN in March 2007 to replace Michael Irvin. He also appeared on the TV series "Dancing with the Stars" in which he won the competition. Deion Sanders - worked as a sports pre-game commentator for CBS' The NFL Today after retiring from the NFL in 2001. He remained with CBS until 2004 when contract negotiations failed. Sanders frequently made guest appearances on ESPN, especially on the ESPN Radio Dallas affiliate, and briefly hosted a show called The New American Sportsman. In 2004, he returned to professional football, playing for the Baltimore Ravens before retiring again after the 2005 season. He has returned to broadcasting by working as an analyst for the NFL Network on NFL GameDay. Jimmy Johnson - became a TV analyst for Fox Sports after retiring from coaching in 1999, and (as of 2006) he is part of their pregame show. Butch Davis - after a stint as head coach of the Cleveland Browns, the former Defensive Coordinator and coach of the Dallas Cowboys Defensive Line was seen on NFL Playbook, an NFL Network program, until his hiring on November 14, 2006 as coach of the University of North Carolina football program. Darren Woodson - worked as a color analyst for two NFL Europe games in the summer of 2004, before signing on as an occasional studio analyst with ESPN. Nate Newton - is a co-host of "Talkin' Cowboys", a daily radio program James Washington - co-host of one of fastest growing Sports Talk Radio programs (Out of Bounds) available on Fox Sports Radio Keyshawn Johnson - retired in May 2007 after 11 years in the NFL (2 seasons with the Cowboys) to join the ESPN crew of Sunday NFL Countdown and Monday Night Countdown as an analyst. He contributed to a weekly ESPN Radio NFL show hosted by Chris Mortensen and former Dallas Cowboys head coach Bill Parcells during the 2007 season. Joe Avezzano is an NFL analyst for Dale Hansen's Sports Special on WFAA-TV. He appears weekly during football season with Dale Hansen. Bill Parcells - after retiring following the 2006 season, he joined ESPN's NFL commentary staff, joining former Cowboys Emmitt Smith and Keyshawn Johnson, the latter of whom played for Parcells during his New York Jets and Cowboys coaching tenures of the late-1990s and mid-2000s. But is now a part of the Miami Dolphins organization. See also List of Dallas Cowboys players Dynasty (sports) NFL Cheerleading References NFL 2002 Record & Fact Book ISBN 0761126430 External links Official website Sports E-Cyclopdia.com Dallas Cowboys Video on ESPN Video Archive Dallas Cowboys Video on FoxSports Video Archive Dallas Cowboys on SportsIllustrated.com | Dallas_Cowboys |@lemmatized dallas:55 cowboy:93 professional:5 american:4 football:22 team:76 eastern:1 division:7 national:7 conference:4 nfc:21 league:7 nfl:59 base:4 suburb:2 arlington:2 texas:10 fort:1 worth:2 schedule:1 play:21 home:20 game:58 cowboys:24 stadium:11 beginning:2 season:55 join:10 expansion:5 following:5 might:1 best:6 represent:2 record:26 consecutive:7 front:2 sell:4 streak:1 regular:7 post:8 begin:7 include:9 straight:2 sellout:1 road:3 article:2 forbes:1 magazine:1 date:1 september:3 list:2 valuable:2 sport:17 franchise:9 united:3 state:4 second:11 world:4 behind:1 kingdom:1 manchester:1 unite:1 estimate:1 value:1 approximately:1 billion:3 ahead:1 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4,167 | Economy_of_American_Samoa | This is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the United States, with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing and processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna being the primary export. Transfers from the U.S. federal government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a developing sector, may be held back by the current financial difficulties in East Asia. Numbers GDP: purchasing power parity - $500 million (2000 est.) GDP - real growth rate: NA% GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $8,000 (2000 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: NA% industry: NA% services: NA% (2002) Population below poverty line: NA% (2002 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% (2003 est.) Labor force: 14,000 (1996) Labor force - by occupation: government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990) Unemployment rate: 6% (2000) Budget: revenues: $121 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants) expenditures: $127 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97) Industries: tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 130 GWh (2001) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001) Electricity - consumption: 120.9 GWh (2001) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2001) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2001) Oil - production: 0 barrel/day (2001 est.) Oil - consumption: 3,800 barrel/day (604 m³/d) 2001 Oil - exports: NA Oil - imports: NA Agriculture - products: bananas, coconuts, vegetables, taro, breadfruit, yams, copra, pineapples, papayas; dairy products, livestock Exports: $30 million (2002) Exports - commodities: canned tuna 93% Exports - partners: Indonesia 70%, Australia 6.7%, Japan 6.7%, Samoa 6.7% (2002) Imports: $123 million (2002) Imports - commodities: materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% Imports - partners: Australia 36.6%, New Zealand 20.3%, South Korea 16.3%, Mauritius 4.9% (2002) Debt - external: $NA (2002 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $NA; note - important financial support from the US, more than $40 million in 1994 Currency: US dollar (USD) Currency code: USD Exchange rates: US dollar is used Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September See also American Samoa | Economy_of_American_Samoa |@lemmatized traditional:1 polynesian:1 economy:2 land:1 communally:1 economic:3 activity:1 strongly:1 link:1 united:1 state:1 american:3 samoa:5 conduct:1 great:1 bulk:1 foreign:2 trade:1 tuna:5 fishing:2 processing:1 plant:1 backbone:1 private:1 sector:3 canned:1 primary:1 export:6 transfer:1 u:5 federal:1 government:3 add:1 substantially:1 well:1 attempt:1 develop:1 large:1 broad:1 restrain:1 remote:1 location:1 limited:1 transportation:1 devastating:1 hurricane:1 tourism:1 developing:1 may:1 hold:1 back:1 current:1 financial:2 difficulty:1 east:1 asia:1 number:1 gdp:4 purchasing:2 power:2 parity:2 million:6 est:6 real:1 growth:2 rate:5 na:14 per:1 caput:1 composition:1 agriculture:2 industry:2 service:1 population:1 poverty:1 line:1 household:1 income:1 consumption:3 percentage:1 share:1 low:1 high:1 inflation:1 consumer:1 price:1 labor:2 force:2 occupation:1 canneries:1 unemployment:1 budget:1 revenue:2 local:1 grant:1 expenditures:1 include:1 capital:1 expenditure:1 cannery:2 largely:1 dependent:1 vessel:1 handicrafts:1 industrial:1 production:4 electricity:5 gwh:2 source:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 kwh:2 import:5 oil:4 barrel:2 day:2 product:3 banana:1 coconut:1 vegetable:1 taro:1 breadfruit:1 yam:1 copra:1 pineapple:1 papaya:1 dairy:1 livestock:1 commodity:2 partner:2 indonesia:1 australia:2 japan:1 material:1 food:1 petroleum:1 machinery:1 part:1 new:1 zealand:1 south:1 korea:1 mauritius:1 debt:1 external:1 aid:1 recipient:1 note:1 important:1 support:1 currency:2 dollar:2 usd:2 code:1 exchange:1 use:1 fiscal:1 year:1 october:1 september:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 per_caput:1 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 expenditure_na:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_kwh:1 kwh_electricity:1 import_kwh:1 dairy_product:1 export_commodity:1 |
4,168 | Expert_witness | An expert witness or professional witness is a witness, who by virtue of education, training, skill, or experience, is believed to have knowledge in a particular subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially (and legally) rely upon the witness's specialized (scientific, technical or other) opinion about an evidence or fact issue within the scope of their expertise, referred to as the expert opinion, as an assistance to the fact-finder. See, e.g., Federal Rule of Evidence 702 (As amended April 17, 2000, effective December 1, 2000) Expert witnesses may also deliver expert evidence about facts from the domain of their expertise. Black's Law Dictionary, articles "Evidence", "Expert", "Witness" At times, their testimony may be rebutted with a learned treatise, sometimes to the detriment of their reputations. Experts in the real world Typically, experts are relied on for opinions on severity of injury, degree of insanity, cause of failure in a machine or other device, loss of earnings, care costs, and the like. In an intellectual-property case, an expert may be shown two music scores, book texts, or circuit boards and asked to ascertain their degree of similarity. The tribunal itself, or the judge, can in some systems call upon experts to technically evaluate a certain fact or action, in order to provide the court with a complete knowledge on the fact/action it is judging. The expertise has the legal value of an acquisition of data. The results of these experts are then compared to those by the experts of the parties. The expert has a heavy responsibility, especially in penal trials, and perjury by an expert is a severely punished crime in most countries. The use of expert witnesses is sometimes criticized in the United States because in civil trials, they are often used by both sides to advocate differing positions, and it is left up to a jury of laymen to decide which expert witness to believe. Sometimes one side has utilized an expert witness to provide fraudulent or junk science testimony in order to convince a jury. Such experts are commonly disparaged as "hired guns." Duties of experts In England and Wales, under the Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (CPR), an expert witness is required to be independent and address his or her expert report to the Court. A witness may be jointly instructed by both sides if the parties agree to this, especially in cases where the liability is relatively small. Under the CPR, expert witnesses are usually instructed to produce a joint statement detailing points of agreement and disagreement to assist the court or tribunal. The meeting is held quite independently of instructing lawyers, and often assists in resolution of a case, especially if the experts review and modify their opinions. When this happens, substantial trial costs can be saved when the parties to a dispute agree to a settlement. In most systems, the trial (or the procedure) can be suspended in order to allow the experts to study the case and produce their results. More frequently, meetings of experts occur before trial. Experts charge a professional fee which is paid by the party commissioning the report (both parties for joint instructions) although the report is addressed to the Court. The fee must not be contingent on the outcome of the case. Expert witnesses may be subpoenaed, although this is normally a formality to avoid court date clashes. History The earliest known use of an expert witness in English law came in 1782, when a court that was hearing litigation relating to the silting-up of Wells harbour in Norfolk accepted evidence from a leading civil engineer, John Smeaton. This decision by the court to accept Smeaton's evidence is widely cited as the root of modern rules on expert evidence. However, it was still such an unusual feature in court that in 1957 in the Old Bailey, Lord Justice Patrick Devlin could describe the case of suspected serial killer Dr John Bodkin Adams thus: "It is a most curious situation, perhaps unique in these courts, that the act of murder has to be proved by expert evidence." Cullen, Pamela V., "A Stranger in Blood: The Case Files on Dr John Bodkin Adams", London, Elliott & Thompson, 2006, ISBN 1-904027-19-9 On the other hand, expert evidence is often the most important component of many civil and criminal cases today. Fingerprint examination, blood analysis and DNA fingerprinting are common kinds of expert evidence heard in serious criminal cases. In civil cases, the work of accident analysis, forensic engineers, and forensic accountants is usually important, the latter to assess damages and costs in long and complex cases. Intellectual property and medical negligence cases are typical examples Non-testifying experts In the U.S., a party can hire experts to help him/her evaluate the case. For example, a car maker may hire an experienced mechanic to decide if its cars were built to specification. This kind of expert opinion will be protected from discovery. If the expert finds something that is against its client, the opposite party will not know it. This privilege is similar to the work product protected by the attorney/client privilege. Testifying experts If the witness needs to testify in court, the privilege is no longer protected. The expert witness's identity and nearly all documents used to prepare the testimony will become discoverable. Usually an experienced lawyer will advise the expert not to take notes on documents because all of the notes will be available to the other party. An expert testifying in court must satisfy the requirements of Fed. R. Evid. 702. http://www.federalevidence.com/rules-of-evidence#Rule702 Generally, under Rule 702, an expert is a person with “scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge" who can "assist the trier of fact,” which is typically a jury. A qualified expert may testify “in the form of an opinion or otherwise” so long as: “(1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case.” Although experts can testify in any case in which their expertise is relevant, criminal cases are more likely to use forensic scientists or forensic psychologists, whereas civil cases, such as personal injury, may use forensic engineers, forensic accountants, employment consultants or care experts. Senior physicians — U.K., Ireland, and Commonwealth consultants, U.S. attending physicians — are frequently used in both the civil and criminal courts. The Federal Court of Australia has issued guidelines for experts appearing in Australia courts Guidelines for Expert Witnesses in Proceedings in the Federal Court of Australia, Practice Direction, (Federal Court of Australia, 2007) . This covers the format of the expert's written testimony as well as their behaviour in court. Similar procedures apply in non-court forums, such as the Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission The accidental expert witness, Tom Worthington, Information Age (IDG, 2005) . See also Ambush defence Daubert Standard and Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Death of an Expert Witness - a novel Employment consultant Expert shopping Expertpages Forensic engineering Forensic science Forensic psychology Gibson's law In limine Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael Questioned document examination R. v. Mohan — Canadian caselaw establishing qualifications for expert witnesses Ultimate issue Vehicular accident reconstruction References Bibliography Bronstein, DA, Law for the Expert Witness, CRC Press,2nd Ed (1999). Reynolds, MP and King, PSD, The Expert Witness and his Evidence, Blackwell (1992). Smith, D, Being an Effective Expert Witness, Thames Publishing (1993). External links Expert Testimony in Federal Civil Trials: A Preliminary Analysis (pdf) (Federal Judicial Center, 2000) Project on Scientific Knowledge and Public Policy. Daubert-The Most Influential Supreme Court Ruling You've Never Heard Of (pdf) Kenton K. Yee, Dueling Experts and Imperfect Verification, 28.4 International Review of Law and Economics, 246-255 (2008) | Expert_witness |@lemmatized expert:55 witness:24 professional:2 virtue:1 education:1 training:1 skill:1 experience:1 believe:2 knowledge:4 particular:1 subject:1 beyond:1 average:1 person:2 sufficient:2 others:1 may:9 officially:1 legally:1 rely:2 upon:3 specialize:1 scientific:3 technical:2 opinion:6 evidence:12 fact:8 issue:3 within:1 scope:1 expertise:4 refer:1 assistance:1 finder:1 see:2 e:1 g:1 federal:6 rule:6 amend:1 april:1 effective:2 december:1 also:2 deliver:1 domain:1 black:1 law:5 dictionary:1 article:1 time:1 testimony:7 rebut:1 learned:1 treatise:1 sometimes:3 detriment:1 reputation:1 real:1 world:1 typically:2 severity:1 injury:2 degree:2 insanity:1 cause:1 failure:1 machine:1 device:1 loss:1 earnings:1 care:2 cost:3 like:1 intellectual:2 property:2 case:17 show:1 two:1 music:1 score:1 book:1 text:1 circuit:1 board:1 ask:1 ascertain:1 similarity:1 tribunal:2 judge:2 system:2 call:1 technically:1 evaluate:2 certain:1 action:2 order:3 provide:2 court:19 complete:1 legal:1 value:1 acquisition:1 data:2 result:2 compare:1 party:8 heavy:1 responsibility:1 especially:3 penal:1 trial:6 perjury:1 severely:1 punished:1 crime:1 country:1 use:7 criticize:1 united:1 state:1 civil:8 often:3 side:3 advocate:1 differ:1 position:1 leave:1 jury:3 layman:1 decide:2 one:1 utilize:1 fraudulent:1 junk:1 science:2 convince:1 commonly:1 disparage:1 hire:3 gun:1 duty:1 england:1 wale:1 procedure:3 cpr:2 require:1 independent:1 address:2 report:3 jointly:1 instruct:3 agree:2 liability:1 relatively:1 small:1 usually:3 produce:2 joint:2 statement:1 detail:1 point:1 agreement:1 disagreement:1 assist:3 meeting:2 hold:1 quite:1 independently:1 lawyer:2 resolution:1 review:2 modify:1 happen:1 substantial:1 save:1 dispute:1 settlement:1 suspend:1 allow:1 study:1 frequently:2 occur:1 charge:1 fee:2 pay:1 commission:2 instruction:1 although:3 must:2 contingent:1 outcome:1 subpoenaed:1 normally:1 formality:1 avoid:1 date:1 clash:1 history:1 early:1 know:2 english:1 come:1 hear:1 litigation:1 relate:1 silt:1 well:2 harbour:1 norfolk:1 accept:2 lead:1 engineer:3 john:3 smeaton:2 decision:1 widely:1 cite:1 root:1 modern:1 however:1 still:1 unusual:1 feature:1 old:1 bailey:1 lord:1 justice:1 patrick:1 devlin:1 could:1 describe:1 suspect:1 serial:1 killer:1 dr:2 bodkin:2 adam:2 thus:1 curious:1 situation:1 perhaps:1 unique:1 act:1 murder:1 prove:1 cullen:1 pamela:1 v:4 stranger:1 blood:2 file:1 london:1 elliott:1 thompson:1 isbn:1 hand:1 important:2 component:1 many:1 criminal:4 today:1 fingerprint:1 examination:2 analysis:3 dna:1 fingerprinting:1 common:1 kind:2 heard:2 serious:1 work:2 accident:2 forensic:9 accountant:2 latter:1 assess:1 damage:1 long:2 complex:1 medical:1 negligence:1 typical:1 example:2 non:2 testify:5 u:3 help:1 car:2 maker:1 experienced:2 mechanic:1 build:1 specification:1 protect:3 discovery:1 find:1 something:1 client:2 opposite:1 privilege:3 similar:2 product:2 attorney:1 need:1 longer:1 identity:1 nearly:1 document:3 prepare:1 become:1 discoverable:1 advise:1 take:1 note:2 available:1 testifying:1 satisfy:1 requirement:1 fed:1 r:2 evid:1 http:1 www:1 federalevidence:1 com:1 generally:1 specialized:1 trier:1 qualified:1 form:1 otherwise:1 base:1 reliable:1 principle:2 method:2 apply:2 reliably:1 relevant:1 likely:1 scientist:1 psychologist:1 whereas:1 personal:1 employment:2 consultant:3 senior:1 physician:2 k:2 ireland:1 commonwealth:1 attend:1 australia:4 guideline:2 appear:1 proceeding:1 practice:1 direction:1 cover:1 format:1 write:1 behaviour:1 forum:1 australian:1 human:1 right:1 equal:1 opportunity:1 accidental:1 tom:1 worthington:1 information:1 age:1 idg:1 ambush:1 defence:1 daubert:3 standard:1 merrell:1 dow:1 pharmaceutical:1 death:1 novel:1 shopping:1 expertpages:1 engineering:1 psychology:1 gibson:1 limine:1 kumho:1 tire:1 co:1 carmichael:1 question:1 mohan:1 canadian:1 caselaw:1 establish:1 qualification:1 ultimate:1 vehicular:1 reconstruction:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 bronstein:1 da:1 crc:1 press:1 ed:1 reynolds:1 mp:1 king:1 psd:1 blackwell:1 smith:1 thames:1 publish:1 external:1 link:1 preliminary:1 pdf:2 judicial:1 center:1 project:1 public:1 policy:1 influential:1 supreme:1 never:1 kenton:1 yee:1 duel:1 imperfect:1 verification:1 international:1 economics:1 |@bigram junk_science:1 john_smeaton:1 serial_killer:1 john_bodkin:2 bodkin_adam:2 http_www:1 daubert_standard:1 crc_press:1 external_link:1 supreme_court:1 |
4,169 | Professional_certification | __TOC__ Professional certification, trade certification, or professional designation, often called simply certification or qualification, is a designation earned by a person to assure qualification to perform a job or task. Many certifications are used as post-nominal letters indicating an earned privilege from an oversight professional body acting to safeguard the public interest. Overview Certifications are earned from a Professional society and, in general, must be renewed periodically, or may be valid for a specific period of time (e.g., the life-time of the product upon which the individual is certified). As a part of a complete renewal of an individual's certification, it is common for the individual to show evidence of continued learning — often termed continuing education — or earning continuing education units (CEU). It is important to note that certifications are usually earned from a professional society, not the government. If a demonstration of ability or knowledge is required by law before being allowed to perform a task or job, this is referred to as licensure. In the United States, professional licenses are usually issued by state agencies. The assessment process is often similar, even the same; certification and licensure differ only in terms of legal status. Certifications are very common in aviation, construction, technology and other industrial sectors, as well as health care and finance. In USA, the Federal Aviation Administration regulates aviator certifications. The National Organization for Competency Assurance (NOCA) is a US-based organization that helps certification bodies, primarily in healthcare and related fields, by providing them with information on the latest trends and issues of concern to practitioners and organizations focused on certification, obtaining licenses, and human resource development. Many members of the Association of Test Publishers (ATP) are also certification organizations. Types of certifications There are three general types of certification. Listed in order of development level and portability, they are: corporate (internal), product-specific, and profession-wide. Corporate, or internal certifications, are made by a corporation or low-stakes organization for internal purposes. For example, a corporation might require a one-day training course for all sales personnel, after which they receive a certificate. While this certificate has limited portability - to other corporations, for example - it also is the simplest to develop. Product-specific certifications are more involved, and are intended to be referenced to a product across all applications. This approach is very prevalent in the information technology (IT) industry, where personnel are certified on a version of software or hardware. This type of certification is portable across locations (for example, different corporations that use that software), but not across other products. The most general type of certification is profession-wide. In order to apply professional standards, increase the level of practice, and possibly protect the public (though this is also the domain of licensure), a professional organization might establish a certification. This is intended to be portable to all places a certificant might work. Of course, this generalizability increases the cost of such a program; the process to establish a legally defensible assessment of an entire profession is very extensive. An example of this is a certified public accountant, who would not be certified for just one corporation or one piece of accountancy software but for general work in the profession. Areas of certification In accountancy Accountants are the accountancy and financial experts that are legally certified in different jurisdictions to work only in public practices, selling advice and services to other individuals and businesses. Today, however, many work within private corporations, financial industry, and government bodies. There are many professional bodies for accountants throughout the world; some of them are legally recognized in their jurisdictions. Accounting British qualified accountants: ACA, FCA or CA (Chartered Accountant) conferred by Institute of Chartered Accountants in England & Wales (ICAEW), the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS), and the Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland (ICAI) ACMA or FCMA (Associate or Fellow Chartered Management Accountant) conferred by Chartered Institute of Management Accountants* Associate or Fellow Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA or FCCA) conferred by Association of Chartered Certified Accountants AAIA or FAIA (Associate or Fellow International Accountant) conferred by Association of International Accountants American qualified accountants CPA (Certified Public Accountant) conferred by American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) CIA (Certified Internal Auditor) conferred by Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) CCSA (Certification in Control Self Assessment) There are non-statutory accountancy qualifications that are established by the industries, such as: CMA (Certified Management Accountant) conferred by Institute of Certified Management Accountants (ICMA in Australia), Institute of Management Accountants (IMA in US) CCA (Chartered Cost Accountant) designation from the American Academy of Financial Management (AAFM) CCC (Chartered Cost Controller) conferred by the American Academy of Financial Management (AAFM) CFE (Certified Fraud Examiner) conferred by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) Finance Personal Finance CFMP (Certified Financial Management Planner) conferred by The Hong Kong Institute of Bankers (HKIB) CFP (Certified Financial Planner) conferred by Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards CWM (Chartered Wealth Manager) founded and conferred by the American Academy of Financial Management]] (AAFM) Public Finance CCMT (Certified California Municipal Treasurer) conferred by California Municipal Treasurers Association (CMTA) CGAP (Certified Government Auditing Professional) conferred by Institute of Internal Auditors CGFM (Certified Government Financial Manager) conferred by Association of Government Accountants (AGA) CGFO (Certified Government Finance Officer) conferred by Government Finance Officers Association of Texas (GFOAT) CMA (Certified Management Accountant) conferred by Institute of Management Accountants CPFO (Certified Public Finance Officer) conferred by Government Finance Officers Association CPFA (Certified Public Finance Administrator) conferred by Association of Public Treasurers, United States and Canada (APTUSC) In aviation Aviators (Aviation Pilots) are certified through theoretical and in-flight examinations. Requirements for certifications are quite equal in most countries and regulated by each National Aviation Authority. The existing certificates or pilot licenses are: PPL (Private Pilot License) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities) CPL (Commercial Pilot Licence) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities) ATP (Airline Transport Pilot)conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities) Licensing in these categories require not only examinations but also a minimum of flight hours. All categories are available for Fixed-Wing Aircraft (airplanes) and Rotatory-Wing Aircraft (helicopters). Within each category, aviators may also obtain certifications in: Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Multiengine aircraft Turbojet Engines Jet Engines Experimental aircraft Amphibious aircraft Seaplanes Usually, aviators must be certified also in their log books for the type and model of aircraft they are allowed to fly. Currency checks as well as regular medical check-ups with a frequency of 6 months, 12 months, or 36 months, depending on the type of flying permitted, are obligatory . An aviator can fly only if holding: A valid pilot license A valid medical certificate Valid certifications for the type of aircraft and type of flight. In Europe, the ANSP, ATCO & ANSP technicians are certified according to ESARRs (according to regulation 2096/2004 "Common Requirements"). In business see main article at Professional certification (Business) In computer technology see main article at Professional certification (Computer technology) Certification is often used in the professions of software engineering and information technology. In economic development The International Economic Development Council, IEDC, International Economic Development Council based in Washington, D.C. recognizes economic developers around the world who have achieved a level of excellence in their understanding of the tools and programs of economic development. In order to become a Certified Economic Developer (CEcD) one must sit through the exam and fulfill a number of requirements [ International Economic Development Council ] In health sector Certified Nursing Assistants (CNA) and Certified Opticians are a couple of the many types of career health certificates below the level of a licensed practitioner that are able to give some recognition for achievement of educational requirements in their fields. These are introductory certifications only, and recognition of higher achievements in the health sciences are usually given by an affiliated association, school, or board of practitioners. Other professional certifications include certifications such as medical licenses, Membership of the Royal College of Physicians, nursing board certification, diplomas in social work. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists that are knowledgeable about principles of geriatric pharmacotherapy and the provision of pharmaceutical care to the elderly. The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies administers a voluntary accreditation program for law enforcement agencies. See also Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists Fellow of the American College of Emergency Physicians Fellow of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons Fellow of West African College of Physicians (FWACP) Membership of the College of Emergency Medicine Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography In language teaching TESOL is a large field of employment with widely-varying degrees of regulation. Most provision worldwide is through the state school system of each individual country, and as such the instructors tend to be trained primary- or secondary-school teachers that are native speakers of the language of their pupils, not English. Though native speakers of English have been working in non-English speaking countries in this capacity for years, it was not until the last twenty-five years or so that there was any widespread focus on training particularly for this field. Previously, workers in this sort of job were anyone from backpackers hoping to earn some extra travel money to well-educated professionals in other fields doing volunteer work, or retired people. These sort of people are certainly still to be found, but there are many who consider TESOL their main profession. One of the problems facing these full-time teachers is the absence of international governing body for the certification or licenture of English language teachers. However, Cambridge University and its subsidiary body UCLES are pioneers in trying to get some degree of accountability and quality control to consumers of English courses, through their CELTA and DELTA programs. Trinity College, London has roughly equivalent programs, the CertTESOL and the LTCL DipTESOL. They offer initial certificates in teaching, in which candidates are trained in language awareness and classroom techniques, and given a chance to practice teaching, after which feedback is reported. Both institutions have as a follow-up a professional diploma, usually taken after a year or two in the field. Although the initial certificate is available to anyone with a high school education, the diploma is meant to be a post-graduate qualification and in fact can be incorporated into a Master's degree program. In legal affairs An increasing number of lawyers are choosing to be recognized as having special knowledge and experience by becoming certified specialists in certain fields of law. According to the American Bar Association, a lawyer that is a certified specialist has been recognized by an independent professional certifying organization as having an enhanced level of skill and expertise, as well as substantial involvement in an established legal specialty. These organizations require a lawyer to demonstrate special training, experience and knowledge to ensure that the lawyer's recognition as a certified specialist is meaningful and reliable. Lawyer conduct with regard to specialty certification is regulated by the states. In logistics & transport Logistician is the Profession in the logistics & transport sectors, including sea, air, land and rail modes. Professional qualification for logisticians usually carry post-nominal letters. Common examples include: MILT (Member Institute of Logistics and Transport) conferred by The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) How to Become a Chartered Member, CILT , CMILT (Chartered Member, Institute of Logistics and Transport) conferred by The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) FCILT (Chartered Fellow, Institute of Logistics and Transport) conferred by The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) CPL/CTP conferred by Transport & Logistics Certification Council (TLCC) of Australia, EJLog/ESLog/EMLog conferred by the European Logistics Association (ELA), CML/CPL conferred by the International Society of Logistics (SOLE), JrLog/Log/SrLog conferred by the China Federation of Logistics & Purchasing (CFLP), FHKLA/MHKLA conferred by the Hong Kong Logistics Association (HKLA), PLS/CTL/DLP conferred by the American Society of Transportation & Logistics (AST&L) CPIM/CSCP conferred by the Association for Operations Management (APICS), In project management Certification is of significant importance in the project management (PM) industry. Certification refers to the evaluation and recognition of the skills, knowledge, and/or competence of a practitioner in the field. Project management certifications come in a variety of flavors: Competence-based programs wherein an individual must provide evidence of actual, on-the-job performance Knowledge-based programs wherein an individual must pass an exam Experience-based programs wherein an individual must provide evidence of training or education in the field. PM organizations which run certification programmes include: International Project Management Commission (IPMC) American Academy of Project Management AAPM Stanford University Advanced Project Management (SAPM) Association for Project Management (APM) Project Management Institute (PMI) International Project Management Association (IPMA) Australian Institute of Project Management (AIPM) In security ASIS International administers the Certified Protection Professional - Board-Certified in Security Management (CPP) ASIS International administers the Physical Security Professional, Board-Certified (PSP) ASIS International administers the Professional Certified Investigator, Board-Certified (PCI) Association of Certified Fraud Examiners administers the Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) International Foundation of Protection Officers administers the Certified Protection Officer (CPO) Society of Payment Security Professionals (SPSP) administers the Certified Payment-Card Industry Security Manager Other applications The Certified Beer Judge Program (BJCP) has certified over 2000 amateur brewers and beer-lovers, mainly in the United States Certified Professional Ergonomist (CPE) and Certified Human Factors Professional (CHFP). The International Marina Institute (IMI) has certified over 180 marina management professionals globally through its Certified Marina Managers (CMM) program. The Association of Pool & Spa Professionals (APSP) certifies pool builders and service technicians. Help Desk Institute certifies for the Help desk service industry The Telecommunications Certification Organization provides vendor-independent certification of telecommunications, VoIP, networking, IP and wireless technology knowledge for individuals and employers. The Council-certified Indoor Environmental Consultant (CIEC) certification covers a wide range of indoor environmental quality disciplines focusing on managing indoor environmental quality in relation to building design, maintenance and operations to ensure an optimal environment for building occupants. The Society of Permanent Cosmetic Professionals (SPCP) certifies permanent cosmetic professionals worldwide (CPCP). The Canadian Association of Family Resource Programs certifies family life educators in Canada through their Certified Canadian Family Educator (CCFE) program. Criticisms Computer technologies The current proliferation of IT certifications (both offered and attained), like the FSI's IT baseline protection certification, has led some technologists to question their value. Proprietary content that has been distributed on the Internet allows some to gain credentials without the implied depth or breadth of expertise. Certifying agencies have responded in various ways: Some now incorporate hands-on elements, anti-cheating methodologies or have expanded their content. Others have expired and restructured their certificate programs, and/or raised their fees to deter abuse. Certification programs that take into account length of service, and demonstrated experience, via industry peer and/or employer recommendation avoid some of the issues associated with purely passing an examinations; however, certification remains a contentious issue. Also, most professional certifications require a criminal record check for the certification to be approved. The presence of a criminal history when applying for certification may be grounds for denial of certification. See also Product certification European professional qualification directives Homologation Nursing board certification An alphabetical listing of Professional certifications Professional Certification User Templates Category Pages References External links ABA Standing Committee on Specialization Association of Professionals in Business Management (APBM) | Professional_certification |@lemmatized professional:32 certification:55 trade:1 designation:3 often:4 call:1 simply:1 qualification:6 earn:5 person:1 assure:1 perform:2 job:4 task:2 many:6 use:3 post:3 nominal:2 letter:2 indicate:1 earned:1 privilege:1 oversight:1 body:6 act:1 safeguard:1 public:10 interest:1 overview:1 society:6 general:4 must:6 renew:1 periodically:1 may:3 valid:4 specific:3 period:1 time:3 e:1 g:1 life:2 product:6 upon:1 individual:9 certify:28 part:1 complete:1 renewal:1 common:4 show:1 evidence:3 continued:1 learn:1 term:2 continue:2 education:4 unit:1 ceu:1 important:1 note:1 usually:6 government:8 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4,170 | Carlos_Valderrama | Carlos Alberto Valderrama Palacio (born September 2, 1961 in Santa Marta, Colombia) also known as Carlos "El Pibe" Valderrama, or just "El Pibe" Valderrama is a former Colombian football player. He was instantly recognisable for the mass of blond, permed hair that he habitually sported. Valderrama captained the Colombia national football team during the 1990, 1994 and 1998 World Cups. Between 1985 and 1998 he represented Colombia in 111 full internationals and scored 11 times, making him the most capped player in the country's history. He is generally regarded as Colombia's finest player ever. Playing style Nicknamed El Pibe ("The kid"), Valderrama was a unique footballer in a changing game that increasingly relied on physical strength, speed and athleticism; his astonishing close control and astute passing skills more than making up for a lack of pace and physical presence. In some ways he was a throwback to a bygone era; never flustered and rarely breaking into a run he nonetheless managed to dictate entire matches with his sharp footballing brain and ability to control the ball instantly and effortlessly and dispatch it to a teammate before opposing players could close him down. Career He won the Colombian championship with Atlético Junior in 1993 and 1995. One example of excellent field vision was in the 1990 World Cup in Italy. In the game against Germany, Valderrama passed the ball to Freddy Rincon who was open for a pass. Rincon then scored through the legs of German goalkeeper Bodo Illgner. This goal tied the match at 1-1 and sent Colombia to the second round of the World Cup for the first time in its history and the only team Germany could not beat on their way to the championship. He began his career at Unión Magdalena of the Colombian First Division in 1981. He also played for Millonarios and Deportivo Cali before joining Montpellier of the French First Division in 1988. to play for Independiente Medellín and Atlético Junior from 1993-96 before going to the US in 1996 to play for the Tampa Bay Mutiny (1996-97, 2000-01), Miami Fusion (1998-99), and Colorado Rapids (2001-02). In Major League Soccer, Valderrama scored relatively few goals (16) for a midfielder, but is the league's second all-time leader in assists (114) after Steve Ralston (121), a former teammate. In 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI. He was also named one of the top players of the 20th century by Pelé in 1999. Retirement as player In February 2004, Valderrama ended his 22-year career in a tribute match at the Metropolitan stadium of Barranquilla, with some of the most important football players of South America, such as Diego Maradona, Enzo Francescoli and José Luis Chilavert. Valderama has since become assistant manager of Atlético Junior. On November 1 2007, Valderrama accused a referee of corruption by waving cash in the face of Oscar Julian Ruiz when the official awarded a penalty to América de Cali. Atlético lost the match 4-1, which ended the club's hopes of playoff qualification. AP (2007), Valderrama expelled from match for taunting referee with cash, USA Today, 1 November 2007, usatoday.com. Retrieved 10 July 2008. Personal life He is married and has three children. Valderrama was the only Colombian to feature in FIFA's 125 Top Living Football Players list in March 2004. Honours Club Montpellier HSC French Cup: 1990 Atlético Junior Colombian Championship: 1993, 1995 Tampa Bay Mutiny MLS Supporters' Shield: 1996 Individual South American Footballer of the Year: 1987, 1993 MLS All-Star of the Year: 1996 Major League Soccer MVP: 1996 MLS All-time leader in assists Other recognition Statue honoring 'Carlos "el pibe" Valderrama' in Santa Marta, Colombia Valderrama appeared on the cover of Nintendo 64 and Konami game International Superstar Soccer '98, as well as in the PlayStation conversion. In the N64 game, the player based on him is the only one whose name is not similar to the real-life counterpart; instead, he is called "El Pibe". He was also in the computer game "Backyard Soccer 2001". In 2006 a 22-foot tall bronze statue of Valderrama was placed by the Eduardo Santos stadium in his hometown Santa Marta, created by Colombian artist Amilkar Ariza. Statistics |- |1981||rowspan="3"|Unión Magdalena|||||||||||||| |- |1982|||||||||||||| |- |1983|||||||||||||| |- |1984||Millonarios|||||||||||||| |- |1985||rowspan="3"|Deportivo Cali|||||||||||||| |- |1986|||||||||||||| |- |1987|||||||||||||| |- |1988-89||rowspan="3"|Montpellier||rowspan="3"|Division 1||24||1|||||||| |- |1989-90||18||1|||||||| |- |1990-91||35||2|||||||| |- |1990-91||Real Valladolid||La Liga||17||1|||||||| |- |1992||Independiente Medellín|||||||||||||| |- |1993||rowspan="3"|Atlético Junior||||35||4|||||||| |- |1994||||18||1|||||||| |- |1995||||29||0|||||||| |- |1996||rowspan="2"|Tampa Bay Mutiny||rowspan="2"|Major League Soccer||23||4|||||||| |- |1997||20||3|||||||| |- |1998||rowspan="2"|Miami Fusion||rowspan="2"|Major League Soccer||18||2|||||||| |- |1999||4||1|||||||| |- |1999||rowspan="3"|Tampa Bay Mutiny||rowspan="3"|Major League Soccer||27||3|||||||| |- |2000||32||1|||||||| |- |2001||12||1|||||||| |- |2001||rowspan="3"|Colorado Rapids||rowspan="3"|Major League Soccer||12||0|||||||| |- |2002||27||1|||||||| |- |2003||0||0|||||||| |||||||||| 77||4|||||||| 17||1|||||||| 175||16|||||||| |||||||||| |} References External links Career details at National Football Teams International statistics at rsssf Link for Valderrama | Carlos_Valderrama |@lemmatized carlos:3 alberto:1 valderrama:15 palacio:1 born:1 september:1 santa:3 marta:3 colombia:6 also:4 know:1 el:5 pibe:5 former:2 colombian:6 football:5 player:9 instantly:2 recognisable:1 mass:1 blond:1 perm:1 hair:1 habitually:1 sport:1 captain:1 national:2 team:3 world:3 cup:4 represent:1 full:1 international:3 score:3 time:5 make:2 capped:1 country:1 history:2 generally:1 regard:1 fine:1 ever:1 play:4 style:1 nickname:1 kid:1 unique:1 footballer:2 changing:1 game:5 increasingly:1 rely:1 physical:2 strength:1 speed:1 athleticism:1 astonish:1 close:2 control:2 astute:1 passing:1 skill:1 lack:1 pace:1 presence:1 way:2 throwback:1 bygone:1 era:1 never:1 fluster:1 rarely:1 break:1 run:1 nonetheless:1 manage:1 dictate:1 entire:1 match:5 sharp:1 footballing:1 brain:1 ability:1 ball:2 effortlessly:1 dispatch:1 teammate:2 oppose:1 could:2 career:4 win:1 championship:3 atlético:6 junior:5 one:3 example:1 excellent:1 field:1 vision:1 italy:1 germany:2 pass:1 freddy:1 rincon:2 open:1 pas:1 leg:1 german:1 goalkeeper:1 bodo:1 illgner:1 goal:2 tie:1 send:1 second:2 round:1 first:3 beat:1 begin:1 unión:2 magdalena:2 division:3 millonarios:2 deportivo:2 cali:3 join:1 montpellier:3 french:2 independiente:2 medellín:2 go:1 u:1 tampa:4 bay:4 mutiny:4 miami:2 fusion:2 colorado:2 rapid:2 major:6 league:7 soccer:8 relatively:1 midfielder:1 leader:2 assist:2 steve:1 ralston:1 name:3 ml:4 best:1 xi:1 top:2 century:1 pelé:1 retirement:1 february:1 end:2 year:3 tribute:1 metropolitan:1 stadium:2 barranquilla:1 important:1 south:2 america:1 diego:1 maradona:1 enzo:1 francescoli:1 josé:1 luis:1 chilavert:1 valderama:1 since:1 become:1 assistant:1 manager:1 november:2 accuse:1 referee:2 corruption:1 wave:1 cash:2 face:1 oscar:1 julian:1 ruiz:1 official:1 award:1 penalty:1 américa:1 de:1 lose:1 club:2 hope:1 playoff:1 qualification:1 ap:1 expel:1 taunt:1 usa:1 today:1 usatoday:1 com:1 retrieve:1 july:1 personal:1 life:2 married:1 three:1 child:1 feature:1 fifa:1 living:1 list:1 march:1 honour:1 hsc:1 supporter:1 shield:1 individual:1 american:1 star:1 mvp:1 recognition:1 statue:2 honor:1 appear:1 cover:1 nintendo:1 konami:1 superstar:1 well:1 playstation:1 conversion:1 base:1 whose:1 similar:1 real:2 counterpart:1 instead:1 call:1 computer:1 backyard:1 foot:1 tall:1 bronze:1 place:1 eduardo:1 santos:1 hometown:1 create:1 artist:1 amilkar:1 ariza:1 statistic:2 rowspan:13 valladolid:1 la:1 liga:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 detail:1 rsssf:1 |@bigram carlos_alberto:1 santa_marta:3 el_pibe:5 atlético_junior:5 tampa_bay:4 josé_luis:1 usatoday_com:1 bronze_statue:1 la_liga:1 external_link:1 |
4,171 | Old_English | Old English (also called Anglo-Saxon, The term Anglo-Saxon came to refer to all things of the early English period by the 16th century, including language, culture, and people. While this is still the preferred term for the latter two aspects, the language starting from the 19th century began to be called Old English. This is because the language itself began to be studied in detail, and scholars recognised the continued development of the English language from the Anglo-Saxon period to Middle English and through to the present day. However many authors still use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language. Englisc by its speakers) is an early form of the English language that was spoken and written in parts of what are now England and south-eastern Scotland between the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century. What survives through writing represents primarily the literary register of Anglo-Saxon. It is a West Germanic language and is closely related to Old Frisian. It also experienced heavy influence from Old Norse, a member of the related North Germanic group of languages. Development Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of approximately 700 years See Timeline of the Anglo-Saxon invasion and takeover of Britain – from the Anglo-Saxon migrations that created England in the 5th century to some time after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when the language underwent a dramatic transition. During this early period it assimilated some aspects of the languages with which it came in contact, such as the Celtic languages and the two dialects of Old Norse from the invading Vikings, who occupied and controlled large tracts of land in northern and eastern England, which came to be known as the Danelaw. Germanic origins The most important force in shaping Old English was its Germanic heritage in its vocabulary, sentence structure and grammar, which it shared with its sister languages in continental Europe. Some of these features are shared with the other West Germanic languages with which Old English is grouped, while some other features are traceable to the reconstructed Proto-Germanic language from which all Germanic languages are believed to have derived. Like other Germanic languages of the period, Old English was fully inflected with five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental, though the instrumental was very rare), which had dual plural forms for referring to groups of two objects (but only in the personal pronouns) in addition to the usual singular and plural forms. It also assigned gender to all nouns, including those that describe inanimate objects: for example, sēo sunne (the Sun) was feminine, while se mōna (the Moon) was masculine (cf. modern German die Sonne and der Mond). Latin influence A large percentage of the educated and literate population of their time (monks, clerics, etc.) were competent in Latin, which was the scholarly and diplomatic lingua franca of Europe at the time. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the entry of individual Latin words into Old English based on which patterns of linguistic change they have undergone. There were at least three notable periods of Latin influence. The first occurred before the ancestral Saxons left continental Europe for Britain. The second began when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity and Latin-speaking priests became widespread. The third and largest single transfer of Latin-based words happened after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when an enormous number of Norman words began to influence the language. Most of these Oïl language words were themselves derived from Old French and ultimately from classical Latin, although a notable stock of Norse words were introduced or re-introduced in Norman form. The Norman Conquest approximately marks the end of Old English and the advent of Middle English. One of the ways the influence of Latin can be seen is that many Latin words for activities came to also be used to refer to the people engaged in those activities, an idiom carried over from Anglo-Saxon but using Latin words. This can be seen in words like militia, assembly, movement, and service. The language was further altered by the transition away from the runic alphabet (also known as futhorc or fuþorc) to the Latin alphabet, which was also a significant factor in the developmental pressures brought to bear on the language. Old English words were spelt as they were pronounced. The "silent" letters in many Modern English words were pronounced in Old English: for example, the c in cniht, the Old English ancestor of the modern knight, was pronounced. Another side-effect of spelling words phonetically was that spelling was extremely variable – the spelling of a word would reflect differences in the phonetics of the writer's regional dialect, and also idiosyncratic spelling choices which varied from author to author, and even from work to work by the same author. Thus, for example, the word and could be spelt either and or ond. Norse influence The second major source of loanwords to Old English was the Scandinavian words introduced during the Viking invasions of the 9th and 10th centuries. In addition to a great many place names, these consist mainly of items of basic vocabulary, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control, which included extensive holdings all along the eastern coast of England and Scotland). The Vikings spoke Old Norse, a language related to Old English in that both derived from the same ancestral Proto-Germanic language. It is very common for the intermixing of speakers of different dialects, such as those that occur during times of political unrest, to result in a mixed language, and one theory holds that exactly such a mixture of Old Norse and Old English helped accelerate the decline of case endings in Old English. Apparent confirmation of this is the fact that simplification of the case endings occurred earliest in the north and latest in the southwest, the area farthest away from Viking influence. Regardless of the truth of this theory, the influence of Old Norse on the English language has been profound: responsible for such basic vocabulary items as sky, leg, the pronoun they, the verb form are, and hundreds of other words. Celtic influence Traditionally, many maintain that the influence of Celtic on English has been small, citing the small number of Celtic loanwords taken into the language. The number of Celtic loanwords is of a lower order than either Latin or Scandinavian. However, a minority view is that distinctive Celtic traits can be discerned in syntax from the post-Old English period. Dialects Old English should not be regarded as a single monolithic entity just as Modern English is also not monolithic. Within Old English, there was language variation. Thus, it is misleading, for example, to consider Old English as having a single sound system. Rather, there were multiple Old English sound systems. Old English has variation along regional lines as well as variation across different times. For example, the language attested in Wessex during the time of Æthelwold of Winchester, which is named Late West Saxon (or Æthelwoldian Saxon), is considerably different from the language attested in Wessex during the time of Alfred the Great's court, which is named Early West Saxon (or Classical West Saxon or Alfredian Saxon). Furthermore, the difference between Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon is of such a nature that Late West Saxon is not directly descended from Early West Saxon (despite what the similarity in name implies). The four main dialectal forms of Old English were Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish, and West Saxon. Each of those dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the island. Of these, all of Northumbria and most of Mercia were overrun by the Vikings during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia and all of Kent that were successfully defended were then integrated into Wessex. After the process of unification of the diverse Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in 878 by Alfred the Great, there is a marked decline in the importance of regional dialects. This is not because they stopped existing; regional dialects continued even after that time to this day, as evidenced both by the existence of Middle and Modern English dialects later on, and by common sense – people do not spontaneously adopt another dialect when there is a sudden change of political power. However, the bulk of the surviving documents from the Anglo-Saxon period are written in the dialect of Wessex, Alfred's kingdom. It seems likely that with consolidation of power, it became necessary to standardise the language of government to reduce the difficulty of administering the more remote areas of the kingdom. As a result, paperwork was written in the West Saxon dialect. Not only this, but Alfred was passionate about the spread of the vernacular and brought many scribes to his region from Mercia in order that previously unwritten texts be recorded. Moore, Samuel, and Thomas A. Knott. The Elements of Old English. 1919. Ed. James R. Hulbert. 10th ed. Ann Arbor, Michigan: George Wahr Publishing Co., 1958. The Church was affected likewise, especially since Alfred initiated an ambitious programme to translate religious materials into English. In order to retain his patronage and ensure the widest circulation of the translated materials, the monks and priests engaged in the programme worked in his dialect. Alfred himself seems to have translated books out of Latin and into English, notably Pope Gregory I's treatise on administration, "Pastoral Care". Because of the centralisation of power and the Viking invasions, there is little or no written evidence for the development of non-Wessex dialects after Alfred's unification. Modern-day Received Pronunciation is not a direct descendant of the best-attested dialect, Late West Saxon. It is rather a descendant of a Mercian dialect — either East Mercian or South-East Mercian. Thus, Late West Saxon had little influence on the development of Modern English (by which is meant RP or some similar dialect, e.g. General American) and the developments occurring in its antecedent, Middle English. Grammar Phonology The inventory of classical Old English (i.e. Late West Saxon) surface phones, as usually reconstructed, is as follows. BilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPostalveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStop Affricate Nasal Fricative Approximant Lateral approximant The sounds marked in parentheses in the chart above are allophones: is an allophone of occurring after and when geminated is an allophone of occurring before and are allophones of respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants are allophones of occurring in coda position after front and back vowels respectively is an allophone of occurring after a vowel, and, at an earlier stage of the language, in the syllable onset. Monophthongs Short Long Front Back Front Back Close Mid Open The front mid rounded vowels occur in some dialects of Old English, but not in the best attested Late West Saxon dialect. Diphthongs Short (monomoraic) Long (bimoraic) First element is close It is uncertain whether the diphthongs spelt ie/īe were pronounced or . The fact that this diphthong was merged with in many dialects suggests the former. Both elements are mid Both elements are open Morphology Unlike modern English, Old English is a language rich with morphological diversity and is spelled essentially as it is pronounced. It maintains several distinct cases: the nominative, accusative, genitive, dative and (vestigially) instrumental, remnants of which survive only in a few pronouns in modern English. Syntax Word order The word order of Old English is widely believed to be subject-verb-object (SVO) as in modern English and most Germanic languages. The word order of Old English, however, was not overly important due to the aforementioned morphology of the language. As long as declension was correct, it did not matter whether you said, "My name is..." as "Mīn nama is..." or "Nama mīn is..." Questions Due to its similarity with Old Norse, it is believed that the word order of Old English changed when asking a question, from SVO to VSO; i.e. swapping the verb and the subject. "I am..." becomes "Am I...?" "Ic eom..." becomes "Eom ic...?" Orthography Old English was first written in runes (futhorc) but shifted to a (minuscule) half-uncial script of the Latin alphabet introduced by Irish Christian missionaries. This was replaced by insular script, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental Carolingian minuscule (also known as Caroline) replaced the insular. The letter yogh was adapted from Irish ecclesiastical forms of Latin < > ; the letter ðæt < > (called eth or edh in modern English) was an alteration of Latin < >, and the runic letters thorn and wynn are borrowings from futhorc. Also used was a symbol for the conjunction and, a character similar to the number seven (< >, called a Tironian note), and a symbol for the relative pronoun þæt, a thorn with a crossbar through the ascender (< >). Macrons < > over vowels were rarely used to indicate long vowels. Also used occasionally were abbreviations for following m’s or n’s. All of the sound descriptions below are given using IPA symbols. Conventions of modern editions A number of changes are traditionally made in published modern editions of the original Old English manuscripts. Some of these conventions include the introduction of punctuation and the substitutions of symbols. The symbols < > are used in modern editions, although their shapes in the insular script are considerably different. The insular symbol that is substituted by modern < > resembles the elongated esh < >. Insular < > Insular < > is not equivalent to Middle English yogh < >. is usually substituted with modern < > (which is ultimately a Carolingian symbol). Additionally, modern manuscripts often distinguish between a velar and palatal < > and < > with diacritic dots above the putative palatals: < >, < >. The wynn symbol < > is usually substituted with < >. Kentish < > is usually substituted with modern < >. Macrons are usually found in modern editions to indicate putative long vowels, while they are usually lacking in the originals. The decision to add macrons is usually etymologically based as they are printed even when these vowels are in unstressed positions where they would most probably be short. The alphabetical symbols found in Old English writings and their substitute symbols found in modern editions are listed below: Symbol Description and notes Short . Spelling variations like < ~ > "land" suggest it may have had a rounded allophone before in some cases) Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. Short . Before 800 the digraph < > is often found instead of < >. During the 8th century < > began to be used more frequently was standard after 800. In 9th century Kentish manuscripts, a form of < > that was missing the upper hook of the < > part was used. Kentish < > may be either or although this is difficult to determine. Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. Represented . Also represented in early texts before 800. For example, the word "sheaves" is spelled < > in an early text but later (and more commonly) as < >. Except in the digraphs < >, either or . The pronunciation is sometimes written with a diacritic by modern editors: most commonly < >, sometimes < > or < >. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always ; word-finally after < > it is always . Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See The distribution of velars and palatals in Old English for details.) (the surface pronunciation of geminate ); occasionally also for Represented . In the earliest texts, it also represented but was soon replaced by < > and < >. For example, the word meaning "thought" (lit. mood-i-think, with -i- as in "handiwork") was written < > in a Northumbrian text dated 737, but later as < > in a 10th century West Saxon text. Represented and its allophone . Called in Old English (now called eth in Modern English), < > is found in alternation with the thorn < > symbol (both representing the same sound) although it is more common in texts dating before Alfred. Replaced earlier < > and < > (along with < >). First attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century. After the beginning of Alfred's time, < > was used more frequently for medial and final positions while < > became increasingly used in initial positions (although both still varied). Some modern editions attempt to regularise the variation between < > by using only < >. See also Pronunciation of English th. Short . Either Kentish or although this is difficult to determine. A modern editorial substitution for a form of < > missing the upper hook of the < > found in 9th century texts. Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. Short ; after < >, sometimes or . Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. After < >, sometimes . Short ; after < >, sometimes Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. and its allophone Mostly absent in Old English works, but used as a substitute for < > in modern editions. and its allophone ; and its allophone (when after < >). In modern printed editions of Old English works, the symbol < > is used instead of the more common < >. The and pronunciations are sometimes written < > or < > by modern editors. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always (word-initially) or (after a vowel). Word-finally after < > it is always . Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See The distribution of velars and palatals in Old English for details.) and its allophones . In the combinations < >, the second consonant was certainly voiceless. Short . Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. Short ; after < >, sometimes . Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. After < >, sometimes . (rarely used) ; probably velarised (as in Modern English) when in coda position. and its allophone Short . Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. Short (in dialects with this sound). Long (in dialects with this sound). Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. A rare spelling of , which was usually written as < > (= < > in modern editions). The spelling < > is much more common in later Middle English. ; the exact nature of r is not known. It may have been an alveolar approximant , as in most Modern English accents, an alveolar flap , or an alveolar trill . A substitution for an insular symbol resembling < > that is used in modern printed editions of Old English works. It represents and its allophone . or occasionally . Represented in the earliest texts but was soon replaced by < > and < >. For example, the word meaning "thought" (lit. mood-i-think, with -i- as in "handiwork") was written < > in a 6th century Northumbrian text, but later as < > in a 10th century West Saxon text. An alternate symbol called thorn used instead of < >. Represents and its allophone . Replaced earlier < > and < > (along with < >). First attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 8th century. Less common than < > before the Alfred's time. From the beginning of Alfred's time and onward, < > was used increasingly more frequently than < > at the beginning of words while its occurrence at the end and in the middle of words was rare. Some modern editions attempt to regularise the variation between < > by using only < >. and in early texts of continental scribes. The < > was eventually replaced by < > outside of the north of the island. Short in early texts of continental scribes. Outside of the north, it was generally replaced by < >. Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. . A modern substitution for < >. Runic wynn. Represents , replaced in modern print by < > to prevent confusion with < >. (but according to some authors, ) Short . Long . Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short < > in modern editions. . A rare spelling for < >. Example: "best" is rarely spelled < > for more common < >. Doubled consonants are geminated; the geminate fricatives ðð/þþ, ff and ss cannot be voiced. Literature Old English literature, though more abundant than literature of the continent before AD 1000, is nonetheless scanty. In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, Dr. James Hulbert writes: In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogs of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts. Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down. Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are Beowulf, an epic poem; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a record of early English history; and Caedmon's Hymn, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as Bede and Caedmon. Comparison with other historical forms of EnglishOld English is often erroneously used to refer to any form of English other than Modern English. The term Old English does not refer to varieties of Early Modern English such as are found in Shakespeare or the King James Bible, nor does it refer to Middle English, the language of Chaucer and his contemporaries. The following timeline helps place the history of the English language in context. The dates used are approximate dates. Language change is gradual, and cannot be as easily demarcated as are historical or political events. 450–1100: Old English (Anglo-Saxon) – The language of Beowulf and Alfred the Great. 1100–1500: Middle English – The language of Chaucer. 1500–1650: Early Modern English (or Renaissance English) – The language of Shakespeare and the King James Bible. 1650–present: Modern English (or Present-Day English) – The language as spoken today. Examples Beowulf The first example is taken from the opening lines of the epic poem Beowulf. This passage describes how Hrothgar's legendary ancestor Scyld was found as a baby, washed up on the shore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is quite literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem. The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in parentheses are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how what is used by the poet where a word like lo or behold would be expected. This usage is similar to what-ho!, both an expression of surprise and a call to attention. Line Original Translation [1] Hwæt! wē Gār-Dena in geār-dagum, What! We [of] Gar-Danes (lit. spear-danes) in yore-days, [2] þeod-cyninga, þrym gefrunon, [of] people-kings, trim (glory) afrained(have learned of by asking), [3] hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. how those athelings (princes) arm-strong feats framed (made/performed). [4] Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, Oft Scyld Scefing, [from] scathers (enemies) [in] threats (armed bands), [5] monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah, [from] many magths (clans, groups of sons, cf. Irish cognate Mac-), mead-settles took, [6] egsode eorl. Syððan ærest wearð awed earls (leaders of men). Sith (since) erst (first) [he] worth (came to be) [7] feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad, fewshiped (helpless, in "fewship") founden, he [in a state of] loving care abode (lived), [8] weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah, wex (waxed) under welkin (the clouds), [in] mind's-worth (honour) thrived, [9] oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra oth that (until that) [to] him each [of] those [who were] by-sitting ("sitting" or dwelling roundabout) [10] ofer hronrade hyran scolde, over whale-road (kenning for sea) hear (obedience) should (owed), [11] gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning! gifts [to] yield. That was [a] good king! A semi-fluid translation in Modern English would be: Listen! We have heard of the glory of the Spear-Danes, of the kings of the people, in days of yore, [and] how those princes did deeds of glory. Often Scyld Scefing deprived armed bands of foes, many clans of mead-benches, [and] terrified warriors. Since he first was found helpless (he experienced comfort for that), he grew under the heavens, thrived with honours, until each of the nearby peoples over the sea were obliged to pay him tribute. That was a good king! The Lord's Prayer This text of The Lord's Prayer is presented in the standardised West Saxon literary dialect Line Original Translation [1] Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum, Father ours, thou that art in heaven, [2] Si þin nama gehalgod. Be thy name hallowed. [3] To becume þin rice, Come thy rich (kingdom), [4] gewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swa swa on heofonum. Worth (manifest) thy will, on earth also as in heaven. [5] Urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg, Our daily loaf sell (give) us today, [6] and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum. And forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilty (lit. 'guiltend' meaning 'person or persons in the act of sinning', from the participial adj. meaning 'in the act of sinning'; cf. Latin cognate particpial suffix -ant, thus "guiltant ones"). [7] And ne gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfele. And lead thou us not in temptation, but loose (release) us of evil. [8] Soþlice. Soothly. Charter of Cnut This is a proclamation from King Canute the Great to his earl Thorkell the Tall and the English people written in AD 1020. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the pilcrows represent the original division. Original Translation ¶ Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and læwede, on Englalande freondlice. ¶ Cnut, king, greeteth his archbishops and his people's-bishops and Þurcyl, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater (having a 1200 shilling weregild) and lesser (200 shilling weregild), hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England friendly.And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre woroldlage.And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be [a] hold(civilised) lord and unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to [the] rights(laws) worldly. ¶ Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið wyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan wolde. ¶ I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise) uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might that me God would(wished) [to] sell'(give). ¶ Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hwile þe eow unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume þæt totwæmde mid minum scattum. ¶ Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my shot(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I, mid(with) God's support, that [unfrith] totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my shot(financial contribution).Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us wel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam mannum þe me mid foron into Denmearcon, þe eow mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.Tho(then) [a] man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled) I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me fore(travelled), into Denmark that [to] you most harm came of(from): and that[harm] have [I], mid(with) God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth. Bibliography Sources Whitelock, Dorothy. (1955). English historical documents c. 500-1042. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. General Baugh, Albert C.; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). A history of the English language (4th ed.). London: Routledge. Hogg, Richard M. (Ed.). (1992). The Cambridge history of the English language: The beginnings to 1066 (Vol. 1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (Eds.). (2006). A history of the English language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jespersen, Otto. (1909-1949). A modern English grammar on historical principles (Vols. 1-7). Heidelberg: C. Winter. Lass, Roger. (1987). The shape of English: Structure and history. London: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, C. L. (1957). An Old English grammar (2nd ed.). London: Methuen. Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970). A history of English. London: Methuen. External history Stenton, F. M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Orthography/Palaeography Bourcier, Georges. (1978). L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Elliott, Ralph W. V. (1959). Runes: An introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung. Berlin: Mayer & Müller. Ker, N. R. (1957). A catalogue of manuscripts containing Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Page, R. I. (1973). An introduction to English runes. London: Methuen. Scragg, Donald G. (1974). A history of English spelling. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Phonology Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977). Phonological structure and the history of English. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland. Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Girvan Ritchie. (1931). Angelsaksisch Handboek. E. L. Deuschle (Transl.). Oudgermaansche Handboeken (No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink. Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). English stress: Its form, its growth, and its role in verse. New York: Harper & Row. Hockett, Charles F. (1959). The stressed syllabics of Old English. Language, 35 (4), 575-597. Hogg, Richard M. (1992). A grammar of Old English, I: Phonology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Kuhn, Sherman M. (1961). On the syllabic phonemes of Old English. Language, 37 (4), 522-538. Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). On the consonantal phonemes of Old English. In J. L. Rosier (Ed.), Philological essays: Studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt (pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton. Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). Old English phonology. Cambridge studies in linguistics (No. 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Luick, Karl. (1914-1940). Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache. Stuttgart: Bernhard Tauchnitz. Maling, J. (1971). Sentence stress in Old English. Linguistic Inquiry, 2, 379-400. McCully, C. B.; & Hogg, Richard M. (1990). An account of Old English stress. Journal of Linguistics, 26, 315-339. Moulton, W. G. (1972). The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants). In F. van Coetsem & H. L. Kurfner (Eds.), Toward a grammar of Proto-Germanic (pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. Sievers, Eduard. (1893). Altgermanische Metrik. Halle: Max Niemeyer. Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. Morphology Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. Syntax Brunner, Karl. (1962). Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung (Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. van Kemenade, Ans. (1982). Syntactic case and morphological case in the history of English. Dordrecht: Foris. MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). Old English syntax: A handbook. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). Old English syntax (Vols. 1-2). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). A history of English syntax: A transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Visser, F. Th. (1963-1973). An historical syntax of the English language (Vols. 1-3). Leiden: E. J. Brill. Lexicon Bosworth, J.; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). An Anglo-Saxon dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Cameron, Angus, et al. Dictionary of Old English. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project Centre for Medieval Studies University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1986/1994. Campbell, A. (1972). An Anglo-Saxon dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Clark Hall, J. R.; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). A concise Anglo-Saxon dictionary (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). An Anglo-Saxon dictionary: Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Notes See also Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law Anglo-Saxon literature Beowulf Old English declension Old English pronouns Dictionary of Old English Exeter Book Go (verb) Grendel's mother History of the English language History of the Scots language I-mutation List of generic forms in British place names List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents External links Old English/Modern English Translator The Electronic Introduction to Old English First steps in Old English - a course for absolute beginners Old English (Anglo-Saxon) alphabet Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary Downloadable Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary Application Old English - Modern English dictionary Old English Glossary Shakespeare's English vs Old English Easy no fuss guide for MS Windows computers and Old English Guide to using Old English computer characters (Unicode, HTML entities, etc.) The Germanic Lexicon Project An overview of the grammar of Old English be-x-old:Стараангельская мова | 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4,172 | Equal_temperament | Equal temperament is a musical temperament, or a system of tuning in which every pair of adjacent notes has an identical frequency ratio. In equal temperament tunings an interval — usually the octave — is divided into a series of equal steps (equal frequency ratios). For modern Western music, the most common tuning system is twelve-tone equal temperament, inconsistently abbreviated as 12-TET, 12TET, 12tET, or 12tet, which divides the octave into 12 (logarithmically) equal parts. It is usually tuned relative to a standard pitch of 440 Hz, called A 440. Other equal temperaments exist (some music has been written in 19-TET and 31-TET for example, and Arabian music is based on 24-TET), but in western countries when people use the term equal temperament without qualification, it is usually understood that they are talking about 12-TET. Equal temperaments may also divide some interval other than the octave, a pseudo-octave, into a whole number of equal steps. An example is an equally-tempered Bohlen-Pierce scale. To avoid ambiguity, the term equal division of the octave, or EDO is sometimes preferred. According to this naming system, 12-TET is called 12-EDO, 31-TET is called 31-EDO, and so on; however, when composers and music-theorists use "EDO" their intention is generally that a temperament (i.e., a reference to just intonation intervals) is not implied. History Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo Galilei) was one of the first advocates of twelve-tone equal temperament in a 1581 treatise, along two sets of dance suites on each of the 12 notes of the chromatic scale, and 24 ricercars in all the "major/minor keys". His countryman and fellow lutenist Giacomo Gorzanis had written music based on this temperament by 1567. Gorzanis was not the only lutenist to explore all modes or keys: Francesco Spinacino wrote a "Recercare de tutti li Toni" as early as 1507. In the 17th century lutenist-composer John Wilson wrote a set of 26 preludes including 24 in all the major/minor keys. Historically, there was a seven-equal temperament or hepta-equal temperament practice in ancient Chinese tradition. Findings of new literatures concerning the hepta - equal temperament "七平均律"琐谈--兼及旧式均孔曲笛制作与转调 (abstract of About "Seven- equal- tuning System") The first person known to have attempted a numerical specification for 12-TET is probably Zhu Zaiyu (朱載堉) a prince of the Ming court, who published a theory of the temperament in 1584. It is possible that this idea was spread to Europe by way of trade, which intensified just at the moment when Zhu Zaiyu published his calculations. Within fifty-two years of Zhu's publication, the same ideas had been published by Marin Mersenne and Simon Stevin. From 1450 to about 1800 plucked instrument players (lutenists and guitarists) generally favored equal temperament. Wind and keyboard musicians expected much less mistuning (than that of equal temperament) in the most common keys, such as C major. They used approximations that emphasized the tuning of thirds or fifths in these keys, such as meantone temperament. Among the 17th century keyboard composers Girolamo Frescobaldi advocated equal temperament. Some theorists, such as Giuseppe Tartini, were opposed to the adoption of equal temperament; they felt that degrading the purity of each chord degraded the aesthetic appeal of music, although Andreas Werckmeister emphatically advocated equal temperament in his 1707 treatise published posthumously. String ensembles and vocal groups, who have no mechanical tuning limitations, often use a tuning much closer to just intonation, as it is naturally more consonant. Other instruments, such as some wind, keyboard, and fretted instruments, often only approximate equal temperament, where technical limitations prevent exact tunings. Other wind instruments, that can easily and spontaneously bend their tone, most notably double-reeds, use tuning similar to string ensembles and vocal groups. J. S. Bach wrote The Well-Tempered Clavier to demonstrate the musical possibilities of well temperament, where in some keys the consonances are even more degraded than in equal temperament. It is reasonable to believe that when composers and theoreticians of earlier times wrote of the moods and "colors" of the keys, they each described the subtly different dissonances made available within a particular tuning method. However, it is difficult to determine with any exactness the actual tunings used in different places at different times by any composer. (Correspondingly, there is a great deal of variety in the particular opinions of composers about the moods and colors of particular keys.) Twelve tone equal temperament took hold for a variety of reasons. It conveniently fit the existing keyboard design, and was a better approximation to just intonation than the nearby alternative equal temperaments. It permitted total harmonic freedom at the expense of just a little purity in every interval. This allowed greater expression through enharmonic modulation, which became extremely important in the 18th century in music of such composers as Francesco Geminiani, Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach and Johann Gottfried Müthel. Equal temperament became the standard gradually during the Romantic era. A precise equal temperament was not attainable until Johann Heinrich Scheibler developed a tuning fork tonometer in 1834 to accurately measure pitches. The use of this device was not widespread, and it was not until 1917 that William Braid White published a practical aural method of tuning the piano to equal temperament. It is in the environment of equal temperament that the new styles of symmetrical tonality and polytonality, atonal music such as that written with the twelve tone technique or serialism, and jazz (at least its piano component) developed and flourished. General properties In an equal temperament, the distance between each step of the scale is the same interval. Because the perceived identity of an interval depends on its ratio, this scale in even steps is a geometric sequence of multiplications. (An arithmetic sequence of intervals would not sound evenly-spaced, and would not permit transposition to different keys.) Specifically, the smallest interval in an equal tempered scale is the ratio: where the ratio r divides the ratio p (often the octave, which is 2/1) into n equal parts. (See Twelve-tone equal temperament below.) Scales are often measured in cents, which divide the octave into 1200 equal intervals (each called a cent). This logarithmic scale makes comparison of different tuning systems easier than comparing ratios, and has considerable use in Ethnomusicology. The basic step in cents for any equal temperament can be found by taking the width of p above in cents (usually the octave, which is 1200 cents wide), called below w, and dividing it into n parts: In musical analysis, material belonging to an equal temperament is often given an integer notation, meaning a single integer is used to represent each pitch. This simplifies and generalizes discussion of pitch material within the temperament in the same way that taking the logarithm of a multiplication reduces it to addition. Furthermore, by applying the modular arithmetic where the modulo is the number of divisions of the octave (usually 12), these integers can be reduced to pitch classes, which removes the distinction (or acknowledges the similarity) between pitches of the same name, e.g. 'C' is 0 regardless of octave register. The MIDI encoding standard uses integer note designations. Twelve-tone equal temperament In twelve-tone equal temperament, which divides the octave into 12 equal parts, the ratio of frequencies between two adjacent semitones is the twelfth root of two: This interval is equal to 100 cents. (The cent is sometimes for this reason defined as one hundredth of a semitone.) Calculating absolute frequencies To find the frequency, Pn, of a note in 12-TET, the following definition may be used: In this formula Pn refers to the pitch, or frequency (usually in hertz), you are trying to find. Pa refers to the frequency of a reference pitch (usually 440Hz). n and a refer to numbers assigned to the desired pitch and the reference pitch, respectively. These two numbers are from a list of consecutive integers assigned to consecutive semitones. For example, A4 (the reference pitch) is the 49th key from the left end of a piano (tuned to 440 Hz), and C4 (middle C) is the 40th key. These numbers can be used to find the frequency of C4: Comparison to just intonation The intervals of 12-TET closely approximate some intervals in Just intonation. In particular, it approximates just fourths, fifths, thirds, and sixths better than any equal temperament with fewer divisions of the octave. Its fifths and fourths in particular are almost indistinguishably close to just. In general the next lowest viable equal temperament (as an approximation to just) is 19-TET, which has better thirds and sixths, but weaker fourths and fifths than 12-TET. In the following table the sizes of various just intervals are compared against their equal tempered counterparts, given as a ratio as well as cents. NameExact value in 12-TETDecimal value in 12-TETCentsJust intonation intervalCents in just intonationDifferenceUnison (C)1.000000 0 = 1.000000 0.0000 0Minor second (C♯)1.059463 100 = 1.066667 111.73 11.73Major second (D)1.122462 200 = 1.125000 203.91 3.91Minor third (D♯)1.189207 300 = 1.200000 315.64 15.64Major third (E)1.259921 400 = 1.250000 386.31 −13.69Perfect fourth (F)1.334840 500 = 1.333333 498.04 −1.96Augmented fourth (F♯)1.414214 600 = 1.400000 582.51 −17.49Perfect fifth (G)1.498307 700 = 1.500000 701.96 1.96Minor sixth (G♯)1.587401 800 = 1.600000 813.69 13.69Major sixth (A)1.681793 900 = 1.666667 884.36 −15.64Minor seventh (A♯)1.781797 1000 = 1.750000 968.826 −31.17Major seventh (B)1.887749 1100 = 1.875000 1088.27 −11.73Octave (C)2.000000 1200 = 2.000000 1200.0 0 (These mappings from equal temperament to just intonation are by no means unique. The minor seventh, for example, can be meaningfully said to approximate 9/5, 7/4, or 16/9 depending on context. The 7/4 ratio is used to emphasize this tuning's poor fit to the 7th partial in the harmonic series.) Other equal temperaments 5 and 7 tone temperaments in ethnomusicology Five and seven tone equal temperament (5-TET and 7-TET), with 240 and 171 cent steps respectively, are fairly common. A Thai xylophone measured by Morton (1974) "varied only plus or minus 5 cents," from 7-TET. A Ugandan Chopi xylophone measured by Haddon (1952) was also tuned to this system. Indonesian gamelans are tuned to 5-TET according to Kunst (1949), but according to Hood (1966) and McPhee (1966) their tuning varies widely, and according to Tenzer (2000) they contain stretched octaves. It is now well-accepted that of the two primary tuning systems in gamelan music, slendro and pelog, only slendro somewhat resembles five-tone equal temperament while pelog is highly unequal; however, Surjodiningrat et al. (1972) has analyzed pelog as a seven-note subset of nine-tone equal temperament. A South American Indian scale from a preinstrumental culture measured by Boiles (1969) featured 175 cent equal temperament, which stretches the octave slightly as with instrumental gamelan music. Various Western equal temperaments Many systems that divide the octave equally can be considered relative to other systems of temperament. 19-TET and especially 31-TET are extended varieties of Meantone temperament and approximate most just intonation intervals considerably better than 12-TET. They have been used sporadically since the 16th century, with 31-TET particularly popular in the Netherlands, there advocated by Christiaan Huygens and Adriaan Fokker. 31-TET, like most Meantone temperaments, has a less accurate fifth than 12-TET. There are in fact five numbers by which the octave can be equally divided to give progressively smaller total mistuning of thirds, fifths and sixths (and hence minor sixths, fourths and minor thirds): 12, 19, 31, 34 and 53. The sequence continues with 118, 441, 612..., but these finer divisions produce improvements that are not audible. A comparison of some equal temperament scales. Sethares compares several equal temperament scales in a graph with axes reversed from the axes here. (fig. 4.6, p. 58) The graph spans one octave horizontally, and each shaded rectangle is the width of one step in a scale. The just interval ratios are separated in rows by their prime limits. In the 20th century, standardized Western pitch and notation practices having been placed on a 12-TET foundation made the quarter tone scale (or 24-TET) a popular microtonal tuning. Though it only improved non-traditional consonances, such as 11/4, 24-TET can be easily constructed by superimposing two 12-TET systems tuned half a semitone apart. It is based on steps of 50 cents, or . 29-TET is the lowest number of equal divisions of the octave which produces a better perfect fifth than 12-TET; however, it does not contain a good approximation of the pure major third, and so it is not widely used. 41-TET is the second lowest number of equal divisions which produces a better perfect fifth than 12-TET. It is not often used, however. (One of the reasons 12-TET is so widely favoured among the equal temperaments is that it is very practical in that with an economical number of keys it achieves better consonance than the other systems with a comparable number of tones.) 53-TET is better at approximating the traditional just consonances than 12, 19 or 31-TET, but has had only occasional use. Its extremely good perfect fifths make it interchangeable with an extended Pythagorean tuning, but it also accommodates schismatic temperament, and is sometimes used in Turkish music theory. It does not, however, fit the requirements of meantone temperaments which put good thirds within easy reach via the cycle of fifths. In 53-TET the very consonant thirds would be reached instead by strange enharmonic relationships. (Another tuning which has seen some use in practice and is not a meantone system is 22-TET.) Another extension of 12-TET is 72-TET (dividing the semitone into 6 equal parts), which though not a meantone tuning, approximates well most just intonation intervals, even less traditional ones such as 7/4, 9/7, 11/5, 11/6 and 11/7. 72-TET has been taught, written and performed in practice by Joe Maneri and his students (whose atonal inclinations interestingly typically avoid any reference to just intonation whatsoever). Other equal divisions of the octave that have found occasional use include 15-TET, 34-TET, 41-TET, 46-TET, 48-TET, 99-TET, and 171-TET. Equal temperaments of non-octave intervals The equal tempered version of the Bohlen-Pierce scale consists of the ratio 3:1, 1902 cents, conventionally a perfect fifth wider than an octave, called in this theory a tritave (), and split into a thirteen equal parts. This provides a very close match to justly tuned ratios consisting only of odd numbers. Each step is 146.3 cents (), or . Wendy Carlos discovered three unusual equal temperaments after a thorough study of the properties of possible temperaments having a step size between 30 and 120 cents. These were called alpha, beta, and gamma. They can be considered as equal divisions of the perfect fifth. Each of them provides a very good approximation of several just intervals. THREE ASYMMETRIC DIVISIONS OF THE OCTAVE by Wendy Carlos Their step sizes: alpha: (78.0 cents) beta: (63.8 cents) gamma: (35.1 cents) Alpha and Beta may be heard on the title track of her 1986 album Beauty in the Beast. See also Physics of music Mathematics of musical scales Microtuner Microtonal music Piano key frequencies Piano tuning Semitone List of meantone intervals Diatonic and chromatic Electronic tuner Notes References Burns, Edward M. (1999). "Intervals, Scales, and Tuning", The Psychology of Music second edition. Deutsch, Diana, ed. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-213564-4. Cited: Ellis, C. (1965). "Pre-instrumental scales", Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 9, 126-144. Cited in Burns (1999). Morton, D. (1974). "Vocal tones in traditional Thai music", Selected reports in ethnomusicology (Vol. 2, p.88-99). Los Angeles: Institute for Ethnomusicology, UCLA. Cited in Burns (1999). Haddon, E. (1952). "Possible origin of the Chopi Timbila xylophone", African Music Society Newsletter, 1, 61-67. Cited in Burns (1999). Kunst, J. (1949). Music in Java (Vol. II). The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff. Cited in Burns (1999). Hood, M. (1966). "Slendro and Pelog redefined", Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology, Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA, 1, 36-48. Cited in Burns (1999). Temple, Robert K. G. (1986)."The Genius of China". ISBN 0-671-62028-2. Cited in Burns (1999). Tenzer, (2000). Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Twentieth-Century Balinese Music. ISBN 0-226-79281-1 and ISBN 0-226-79283-8. Cited in Burns (1999). Boiles, J. (1969). "Terpehua though-song", Ethnomusicology, 13, 42-47. Cited in Burns (1999). Wachsmann, K. (1950). "An equal-stepped tuning in a Ganda harp", Nature (Longdon), 165, 40. Cited in Burns (1999). Cho, Gene Jinsiong. (2003). The Discovery of Musical Equal Temperament in China and Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. Jorgensen, Owen. Tuning. Michigan State University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-87013-290-3 Surjodiningrat, W., Sudarjana, P.J., and Susanto, A. (1972) Tone measurements of outstanding Javanese gamelans in Jogjakarta and Surakarta, Gadjah Mada University Press, Jogjakarta 1972. Cited on http://web.telia.com/~u57011259/pelog_main.htm, accessed May 19, 2006. Stewart, P. J. (2006) "From Galaxy to Galaxy: Music of the Spheres" Khramov, Mykhaylo. "Approximation of 5-limit just intonation. Computer MIDI Modeling in Negative Systems of Equal Divisions of the Octave", Proceedings of the International Conference SIGMAP-2008, 26-29 July 2008, Porto, pp. 181–184, ISBN 978-989-8111-60-9 External links Explaining the Equal Temperament An Introduction to Historical Tunings Huygens-Fokker Foundation Centre for Microtonal Music Telemann's New Musical System A.D. Fokker: Simon Stevin's views on music Music of Sacred Temperament A.Orlandini: Music Acoustics "Temperament" from A supplement to Mr. Chambers's cyclopædia (1753) Tuned Piano - a web piano tuned to equal temperament. 12TET Frequency Table Maker - Creates a frequency table (Hz.) for all 12TET pitches Brief description of Scheibler's tonometer Barbieri, Patrizio. Enharmonic instruments and music, 1470-1900. 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4,173 | Hertz | The hertz (symbol: Hz) is a unit of frequency. It is defined as the number of cycles per second. It is the basic unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), and is used worldwide in both general-purpose and scientific contexts. Hertz can be used to measure any periodic event; the most common uses for hertz are to describe radio and audio frequencies, more or less sinusoidal contexts in which case a frequency of 1 Hz is equal to one cycle per second. The unit hertz is defined by the International System of Units (SI) such that the hyperfine splitting in the ground state of the caesium 133 atom is exactly 9 192 631 770 hertz, (hfs Cs) = 9 192 631 770 Hz. BIPM definition Equivalently, 1 Hz = (hfs Cs). This definition is derived from the SI definition of the second. Hertz are inverse, s-1. In practice, the hertz simply replaced the older cycle per second. In English, hertz is used as both singular and plural. As any SI unit, Hz can be prefixed; commonly used multiples are kHz (kilohertz, 103 Hz), MHz (megahertz, 106 Hz), GHz (gigahertz, 109 Hz) and THz (terahertz, 1012 Hz). One hertz simply means "one cycle per second" (typically that which is being counted is a complete cycle); 100 Hz means "one hundred cycles per second", and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, or a human heart might be said to beat at 1.2 Hz. Neither the cycle per second nor the hertz, however, are regularly used in nonsinusoidal contexts. The "frequency" (activity) of aperiodic or stochastic events, especially radioactive decay, is expressed in becquerels. To avoid confusion, periodically varying angles are typically not expressed in hertz, but rather in an appropriate angular unit such as radians per second. A disc rotating at 60 revolutions per minute (RPM) can thus be said to be rotating at ≈6.283 rad/s or 1 Hz, where the latter reflects the number of complete revolutions per second. The conversion between a frequency f measured in hertz and an angular frequency ω measured in radians/s are: and . History The hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 1930. IEC History It was adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) (Conférence générale des poids et mesures) in 1960, replacing the previous name for the unit, cycles per second (cps), along with its related multiples, primarily kilocycles per second (kc/s) and megacycles per second (Mc/s), and occasionally kilomegacycles per second (kMc/s). The term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970s. The term "gigahertz", most commonly used in computer processor speed and radio frequency (RF) applications, can be pronounced either , with a hard sound, or or , with a soft or . The prefix "giga-" is derived directly from the Greek "" and hence the preferred pronunciation is . Applications Vibration Sound is a traveling wave which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive frequency of sound waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a particular frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infant's ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 16 Hz to 20,000 Hz; the average human can hear sounds between 20 Hz and 16,000 Hz. Dominant spectral region The range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular vibrations extends into the megahertz range and well beyond. Electromagnetic radiation Electromagnetic radiation is often described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is usually measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz; this is why radio dials are commonly labeled with kHz, MHz, and GHz. Light is electromagnetic radiation that is even higher in frequency, and has frequencies in the range of tens (infrared) to thousands (ultraviolet) of terahertz. Electromagnetic radiation with frequencies in the low terahertz range, (intermediate between those of the highest normally-usable radio frequencies and long-wave infrared light), is often called terahertz radiation. Even higher frequencies exist, such as that of gamma rays, which can be measured in exahertz. (For historical reasons, the frequencies of light and higher frequency electromagnetic radiation are more commonly specified in terms of their wavelengths or photon energies: for a more detailed treatment of this and the above frequency ranges, see electromagnetic spectrum.) Computing In computing, most central processing units (CPU) are labeled in terms of their clock speed expressed in megahertz or gigahertz (109 hertz). This number refers to the frequency of the CPU's master clock signal ("clock speed"). This signal is simply an electrical voltage which changes from low to high and back again at regular intervals. Hertz has become the primary unit of measurement accepted by the general populace to determine the speed of a CPU, but many experts have criticized this approach, which they claim is an easily manipulable benchmark. Good Riddance, Gigahertz For home-based personal computers, the CPU has ranged from approximately 1 megahertz in the late 1970s (Atari, Commodore, Apple computers) to nearly 4 GHz in the present. This can be increased even further by increasing the frequency of the CPU (overclocking) in the BIOS or other software. (Likewise, speed can also be decreased, or underclocked.) Various computer buses, such as the front-side bus connecting the CPU and northbridge, also operate at different frequencies in the megahertz range (for modern products). SI multiples Frequencies not expressed in hertz Even higher frequencies are believed to occur naturally, in the frequencies of the quantum-mechanical wave functions of high-energy (or, equivalently, massive) particles, although these are not directly observable, and must be inferred from their interactions with other phenomena. For practical reasons, these are typically not expressed in hertz, but in terms of the equivalent quantum energy, which is proportional to the frequency by the factor of Planck's constant. References See also Frequency changer Orders of magnitude (frequency) Signal bandwidth Radian per second Electronic tuner External links BIPM Cesium ion fCs definition National Research Council of Canada: Generation of the Hz National Research Council of Canada: Cesium fountain clock National Physical Laboratory: Trapped ion optical frequency standards National Research Council of Canada: Optical frequency standard based on a single trapped ion National Research Council of Canada: Optical frequency comb One Hertz in Radians per Second (Google). 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4,174 | Horror_film | Horror films are movies that strive to elicit the emotions of fear, horror and terror from viewers. Their plots frequently involve themes of death, the supernatural or mental illness. Many horror movies also include a central villain. Early horror movies are largely based on classic literature of the gothic/horror genre, such as Dracula, Frankenstein, The Wolf Man, Phantom of the Opera and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. More recent horror films, in contrast, often draw inspiration from the insecurities of life after World War II, giving rise to the three distinct, but related, sub-genres: the horror-of-personality Psycho film, the horror-of-armageddon Invasion of the Body Snatchers film, and the horror-of-the-demonic The Exorcist film. The last sub-genre may be seen as a modernized transition from the earliest horror films, expanding on their emphasis on supernatural agents that bring horror to the world. Horror films have been dismissed as violent, low budget B-movies and exploitation films. Nonetheless, all the major studios and many respected directors, including Alfred Hitchcock, Roman Polanski, Stanley Kubrick, William Friedkin, Richard Donner, Francis Ford Coppola, and George Romero have made forays into the genre. Serious critics have analyzed horror films through the prisms of genre theory and the auteur theory. Some horror films incorporate elements of other genres such as science fiction, fantasy, mockumentary, black comedy, and thrillers. History 1890s-1920s Lon Chaney, Sr. in The Phantom of the Opera The first depictions of supernatural events appear in several of the silent shorts created by film pioneers such as Georges Méliès in the late 1890s, the most notable being his 1896 Le Manoir du diable (aka "The House of the Devil") which is sometimes credited as being the first horror film. Another of his horror projects was 1898's La Caverne maudite (aka "The Cave of the Demons", literally "the accursed cave"). The True Origin of the Horror Film Japan made early forays into the horror genre with Bake Jizo and Shinin no Sosei, both made in 1898. Seek Japan:: J-Horror: An Alternative Guide In 1910, Edison Studios produced the first film version of Frankenstein, thought lost for many years, film collector Alois Felix Dettlaff Sr. found a copy and had a 1993 rerelease. Edison's Frankenstein The early 20th century brought more milestones for the horror genre including the first monster to appear in a full-length horror film, Quasimodo, the hunchback of Notre-Dame who had appeared in Victor Hugo's novel, "Notre-Dame de Paris" (published in 1831). Films featuring Quasimodo included Alice Guy's Esmeralda (1906), The Hunchback (1909), The Love of a Hunchback (1910) and Notre-Dame de Paris (1911). The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939)- Moria The Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Review Many of the earliest feature length 'horror films' were created by German film makers in 1910s and 1920s, during the era of German Expressionist films. Many of these films would significantly influence later Hollywood films. Paul Wegener's The Golem (1915) was seminal; in 1920 Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, with its Expressionist style, would influence film-makers from Orson Welles to Tim Burton and many more for decades. The era also produced the first vampire-themed feature, F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu (1922), an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stoker's Dracula. http://silentmoviemonsters.tripod.com/germanexpressionism.html Early Hollywood dramas dabbled in horror themes, including versions of The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923) and The Monster (1925) (both starring Lon Chaney, Sr., the first American horror movie star). His most famous role, however, was in The Phantom of the Opera (1925), perhaps the true predecessor of Universal's famous horror series. Horror Films 1930s-1940s Boris Karloff as Frankenstein's MonsterIt was in the early 1930s that American film producers, particularly Universal Pictures Co. Inc., popularized the horror film, bringing to the screen a series of successful Gothic features including Dracula (1931), and The Mummy (1932), some of which blended science fiction films with Gothic horror, such as James Whale's The Invisible Man (1933). Tod Browning, director of Dracula, also made the extremely controversial Freaks based on Spurs by Ted Robbins. Browning's film about a band of circus freaks was so controversial the studio burned about 30 minutes and disowned it. These films, while designed to thrill, also incorporated more serious elements, and were influenced by the German expressionist films of the 1920s. Some actors began to build entire careers in such films, most notably Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi. The iconic make-up designs were then created by Universal Studios, Jack Pierce. In 1931, Fritz Lang released his epic thriller M, which chillingly told the story of a serial killer of children, played by Peter Lorre. Other studios of the day had less spectacular success, but Rouben Mamoulian's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (Paramount, 1931) and Michael Curtiz's Mystery of the Wax Museum (Warner Brothers, 1933) were both important horror films. Universal's horror films continued into the 1940s with The Wolf Man 1941, not the first werewolf film, but certainly the most influential. Throughout the decade Universal also continued to produce more sequels in the Frankenstein series, as well as a number of films teaming up several of their monsters. Also in that decade, Val Lewton would produce atmospheric B-pictures for RKO Pictures, including Cat People (1942), I Walked with a Zombie (1943) and The Body Snatcher (1945). The first horror film produced by an Indian film industry was Mahal, a 1949 Hindi film. It was a supernatural thriller and the earliest known film dealing with the theme of reincarnation. 1950s-1960s With advances in technology that occurred in the 1950s, the tone of horror films shifted from the gothic toward concerns that some saw as being more relevant to the late-Century audience. The horror film was seen to fall into three sub-genres: the horror-of-personality film, the horror-of-armageddon film and the horror-of-the-demonic film. Charles Derry, Dark Dreams: A Psychological History of the Modern Horror Film; A S Barnes & Co, 1977. A stream of low-budget productions featured humanity overcoming threats from "outside": alien invasions and deadly mutations to people, plants, and insects, most notably in films imported from Japan, whose society had first-hand knowledge of the effects of nuclear radiation. In some cases, when Hollywood co-opted the popularity of the horror film, the directors and producers found ample opportunity for audience exploitation, with gimmicks such as 3-D and "Percepto" (producer William Castle's pseudo-electric-shock technique used for 1959's The Tingler). Some directors of horror films of this period, including The Thing from Another World (1951; attributed on screen to Christian Nyby but widely considered to be the work of Howard Hawks) and Don Siegel's Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) managed to channel the paranoia of the Cold War into atmospheric creepiness without resorting to direct exploitation of the events of the day. Filmmakers continued to merge elements of science fiction and horror over the following decades. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0412/is_1_29/ai_73036226 One of the most notable films of the era was 1957's The Incredible Shrinking Man, from Richard Matheson's existentialist novel. While more of a "science-fiction" story, the film conveyed the fears of living in the "Atomic Age" and the terror of social alienation. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, production companies focused on producing horror films, including the British company Hammer Film Productions. Hammer enjoyed huge international success from full-blooded technicolor films involving classic horror characters, often starring Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee, such as The Curse of Frankenstein (1957), Dracula (1958), and The Mummy (1959) and many sequels. Hammer, and director Terence Fisher, are widely acknowledged as pioneers of the modern horror movie. Other companies also contributed to a boom in horror film production in Britain in the 1960s and '70s, including Tigon-British and Amicus, the latter best known for their anthology films like Dr Terror's House of Horrors (1965). American International Pictures (AIP) also made a series of Edgar Allan Poe–themed films produced by Roger Corman and starring Vincent Price. Some contend that these sometimes controversial productions paved the way for more explicit violence in both horror and mainstream films. Teaming with Tigon British Film Productions, AIP would make Michael Reeves' Witchfinder General. Released in 1968, it was retitled for American audiences as The Conqueror Worm, most likely in an attempt to capitalize upon the success of AIP's earlier Poe-themed offerings, but the tale of witch hunter Matthew Hopkins (played by an uncharacteristically humorless Vincent Price) was more sadistic than supernatural. In Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960), for example,which had the feature-length original, two feature-length films, two television movies, and a feature-length remake of the original. The horror has a human explanation, steeped in Freudian psychology and repressed sexual desires. Other examples include Peeping Tom (Michael Powell, 1960), Homicidal (William Castle, 1961), What Ever Happened to Baby Jane (Robert Aldrich, 1962), Hush, Hush, Sweet Charlotte (Robert Aldrich, 1964), Pretty Poison (Noel Black, 1968), and The Collector (William Wyler, 1965). Films of the horror-of-personality sub-genre continue to appear through the turn of the century, with 1991's The Silence of the Lambs an example. Some believe that these films further blur the distinction between horror film and crime or thriller genre. Ghosts and monsters still remained popular, but many films that still rely upon supernatural monsters express a horror of the demonic. The Innocents (Jack Clayton, 1961) and The Haunting (Robert Wise, 1963) are two such horror-of-the-demonic films from the early 1960s. In Rosemary's Baby by (Roman Polanski, 1968), the devil is made flesh. Zombies in Romero's influential Night of the Living Dead. Hitchcock's The Birds (1963) has a more modern backdrop; its menace stems from nature gone mad, and the film is one of the first American examples of the horror-of-Armageddon sub-genre. An influential horror films of the late 1960s was George Romero's Night of the Living Dead (1968). Produced and directed by Romero, on a budget of $114,000, it grossed $12 million domestically and $30 million internationally. This horror-of-Armageddon film about zombies was later deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" enough to be preserved by the United States National Film Registry. Blending psychological insights with gore, it moved the genre even further away from the gothic horror trends of earlier eras and brought horror into everyday life. National Film Registry: 1989-2007 Low-budget gore-shock films from the likes of Herschell Gordon Lewis also appeared. Examples include 1963's Blood Feast (a devil-cult story) and 1964's Two Thousand Maniacs (a ghost town inhabited by psychotic cannibals), which featured splattering blood and bodily dismemberment. 1970s-1980s With the end of the Production Code of America in 1964, and the financial successes of the low-budget gore films of the ensuing years, the 1970s started referencing the occult, occultism; the genre also included gory horror movies with sexual overtones, made as "A-movies" (as opposed to "B movies" exploitation films and grindhouse cinema). Some of these films were made by respected auteurs. Horror Films Halloween (1978) The critical and popular success of Rosemary's Baby (1968), directed by Roman Polanski and starring Mia Farrow (who played the Satanic nanny in The Omen remake in 2006), led to the release of more films with occult themes in the 1970s, such as The Exorcist (1973) (directed by William Friedkin and written by William Peter Blatty, who also wrote the novel), and scores of other horror films in which the Devil represented the supernatural evil, often by impregnating women or possessing children. "Evil children" and reincarnation became popular subjects (as in Robert Wise's 1977 film Audrey Rose, which dealt with a man who claims his daughter is the reincarnation of another dead person). Alice, Sweet Alice (1976), is another Catholic themed horror slasher about a little girl's murder and her sister being the prime suspect. Another popular Satanic horror movie was The Omen (1976), where a man realizes his five year old adopted son is the Antichrist. Invincible to human intervention, Satan became the villain in many horror films with a postmodern style and a dystopian worldview. Another example is The Sentinel, which is not to be confused with the Michael Douglas/Kiefer Sutherland film of the same name, as a fashion model discovers her new brownstone residence may actually be a portal to Hell. The movie includes seasoned actors such as Ava Gardner, Burgess Meredith and Eli Wallach and such future stars as Christopher Walken, Jeff Goldblum and Nana Visitor. The ideas of the 1960s began to influence horror films, as the youth involved in the counterculture began exploring the medium. Wes Craven's The Last House on the Left (1972) and Tobe Hooper's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) recalled the Vietnam war; George Romero satirised the consumer society in his 1978 zombie sequel, Dawn of the Dead ; Canadian director David Cronenberg featured the "mad scientist" movie subgenre by exploring contemporary fears about technology and society, and reinventing "body horror", starting with Shivers (1975). like your films with a little more aaargggh!!!??? acmi presents the horror for halloween Also in the 1970s, horror author Stephen King debuted on the film scene as many of his books were adapted for the screen, beginning with Brian DePalma's adaptation of King's first published novel, Carrie (1976), which was nominated for Academy Awards. John Carpenter, who had previously directed the sci-fi comedy Dark Star (1974) and the Howard Hawks-inspired action film Assault on Precinct 13 (1976), created the hit Halloween (1978), about the same time that Sean Cunningham made Friday the 13th. This subgenre would be mined by dozens of increasingly violent movies throughout the subsequent decades, and Halloween became a successful independent film. Other notable '70s slasher films include Bob Clark's Black Christmas (1974), which was released before Halloween, and was another start of the sub-genre. In 1975, Steven Spielberg began his ascension to fame with Jaws. The film kicked off a wave of killer animal stories such as Orca, and Up From The Depths. Jaws is often credited as being one of the first films to use traditionally B movie elements such as horror and mild gore in a big-budget Hollywood film. 1979's Alien combined the naturalistic acting and graphic violence of the 1970s with the monster movie plots of earlier decades, and used science fiction. European horror films include Italian filmmakers like Mario Bava, Dario Argento and Lucio Fulci, and Spanish filmmakers like Jacinto Molina (aka Paul Naschy) and Jess Franco, which were dubbed into English and filled drive-in theaters that could not necessarily afford the expensive rental contracts of the major producers. These films were influenced by the success of Hammer in the 1960s and early '70s, and generally featured traditional horror subjects--e. g., vampires, werewolves, psycho-killers, demons, zombies--but treated them with a distinctive European style that included copious gore and sexuality (of which mainstream American producers overall were still a little skittish). Notable national outputs were the "giallo" films from Italy and the Jean Rollin romantic/erotic films from France. Bright Lights Film Journal | European Sex and Horror Films Hong Kong resulted from filmmakers' us of Hammer and European horror themes to produce exploitation horror movies with an Asian twist. Shaw Studios produced Legend of the Seven Golden Vampires (1973) in collaboration with Hammer, and went on to create their own original films. The genre boomed at the start of the 1980s, with Sammo Hung's Close Encounters of the Spooky Kind (1981) launching the sub-genre of "kung-fu comedy horror", a sub-genre prominently featuring hopping corpses and tempting ghostly females known as fox spirits (or kitsune), of which the best known examples were Mr. Vampire (1985) and A Chinese Ghost Story (1987). GreenCine | Hong Kong Horror Comedies But Hammer Film Productions would stop making movies in the 1970s as the demand for slasher films increased, following the success of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and Halloween, among others. The 1980s were marked by the growing popularity of horror movie sequels. 1982's Poltergeist (directed by Tobe Hooper) was followed by two sequels and a television series. The seemingly-endless sequels to Halloween, Friday the 13th (1980), and Wes Craven's successful supernatural slasher A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) were the popular face of horror films in the 1980s. Another popular horror film of the '80s, Stephen King and George A. Romero's Creepshow, spawned two sequels in 1987 and 1990 respectively, Creepshow 2 and Tales from the Darkside: The Movie (aka. Creepshow 3) as did The Evil Dead (1981). Another trend that appeared in the 80s was the infusion of blatant comedic elements, most commonly but not exclusively "one-liner" punchlines, into such films as John Landis's American Werewolf in London (1981), Tom Holland's Fright Night (1985) and Night of the Demons (1988). As the cinema box office returns for serious, gory modern horror began to dwindle (as exemplified by John Carpenter's The Thing in 1982), the genre found a new audience in the growing home video market, although the new generation of films was less sombre in tone. Motel Hell (1980) was among the first 1980s films to campily mock the dark conventions of the previous decade. David Cronenberg's graphic and gory remake of The Fly, was released in 1986, about a few weeks from the James Cameron film Aliens, Stuart Gordon's Re-Animator, and Lloyd Kaufman's The Toxic Avenger (all 1985), soon followed. In Evil Dead II (1987), Sam Raimi's explicitly slapstick sequel to the relatively sober The Evil Dead (1981), the laughs were often generated by the gore, defining the archetypal splatter comedy. New Zealand director Peter Jackson followed in Raimi's footsteps with the ultra-gory micro-budget feature Bad Taste (1987). The same year, from Germany's Jörg Buttgereit, came Nekromantik, a disturbing film about the life and death of a necrophiliac. Horror films continued to cause controversy: in the United Kingdom, the growth in home video led to growing public awareness of horror films of the types described above, and concern about the ease of availability of such material to children. Many films were dubbed "video nasties" and banned (notably foreign films such as The Anthropophagus Beast, A Blade in the Dark, The New York Ripper and Tenebre but US and Canadian films like Madman, Nightmares in a Damaged Brain, Don't Go in the House & Maniac). In the USA, Silent Night, Deadly Night, a very controversial film from 1984, failed at theatres and was eventually withdrawn from distribution due to its subject matter: a killer Santa Claus. 1990s-2000s In the first half of the 1990s, the genre continued many of the themes from the 1980s. Sequels from the Child's Play and Leprechaun series enjoyed some commercial success. The slasher films A Nightmare on Elm Street, Friday the 13th, and Halloween all saw sequels in the 1990s, most of which met with varied amounts of success at the box office, but all were panned by fans and critics, with the exception of Wes Craven's New Nightmare. New Nightmare, with In the Mouth of Madness, The Dark Half, and Candyman, were part of a mini-movement of self-reflective horror films. Each film touched upon the relationship between fictional horror and real-world horror. Candyman, for example, examined the link between an invented urban legend and the realistic horror of the racism that produced its villain. In the Mouth of Madness took a more literal approach, as its protagonist actually hopped from the real world into a novel created by the madman he was hired to track down. This reflective style became more overt and ironic with the arrival of Scream. In 1994's Interview with the Vampire, the "Theatre de Vampires" (and the film itself, to some degree) envoked the Grand Guignol style, perhaps to further remove the undead performers from humanity, morality and class. The horror movie soon continued its search for new and effective frights. In 1985's novel The Vampire Lestat by author Anne Rice (who penned Interview...'s screenplay and the 1976 novel of the same name) suggests that its antihero Lestat inspired and nurtured the Grand Guignol style and theatre. Two main problems pushed horror backward during this period: firstly, the horror genre wore itself out with the proliferation of nonstop slasher and gore films in the eighties. Secondly, the adolescent audience which feasted on the blood and morbidity of the previous decade grew up, and the replacement audience for films of an imaginative nature were being captured instead by the explosion of science-fiction and fantasy, courtesy of the special effects possibilities with computer-generated imagery. Horror Films in the 1980s To re-connect with its audience, horror became more self-mockingly ironic and outright parodic, especially in the latter half of the 1990s. Peter Jackson's Braindead (1992) (known as Dead Alive in the USA) took the splatter film to ridiculous excesses for comic effect. Francis Ford Coppola's Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), featured an ensemble cast and the style of a different era, harking back to the sumptuous look of 1960s Hammer Horror, and a plot focusing just as closely on the romance elements of the Dracula tale as on the horror aspects. Wes Craven's Scream (written by Kevin Williamson) movies, starting in 1996, featured teenagers who were fully aware of, and often made reference to, the history of horror movies, and mixed ironic humour with the shocks. Along with I Know What You Did Last Summer (written by Kevin Williamson as well) and Urban Legend, they re-ignited the dormant slasher film genre. Among the popular English-language horror films of the late 1990s, only 1999's surprise independent hit The Blair Witch Project attempted straight-ahead scares. But even then, the horror was accomplished in the context of a mockumentary, or mock-documentary. Japanese horror films, such as Hideo Nakata's Ringu in 1998, also found success internationally with a similar formula. The start of the 2000s saw a quiet period for the genre. The re-release of a restored version of The Exorcist in September 2000 was successful despite the film having been available on home video for years. Franchise films such as Freddy vs. Jason also made a stand in theaters. Final Destination (2000) marked a successful revival of clever, teen-centered horror, and spawned two sequels with a third sequel coming out in 2009. Some notable trends have marked horror films in the 2000s. A French horror film Brotherhood of the Wolf became the second-highest-grossing French-language film in the United States in the last two decades. The Others (2001) was a successful horror film of that year. That film was the first horror in the decade to rely on psychology to scare audiences, rather than gore. A minimalist approach which was equal parts Val Lewton's theory of "less is more" (usually employing low-budget techniques seen on 1999's The Blair Witch Project) has been evident, particularly in the emergence of Asian horror movies which have been remade into successful Americanized versions, such as The Ring (2002), and The Grudge (2004). There has been a major return to the zombie genre in horror movies made after 2000. Russell, 192 The Resident Evil video game franchise was adapted into a film released in March 2002. Two sequels have followed. The British film 28 Days Later (2002) featured an update on the genre with a new style of aggressive zombie. The film later spawned a sequel: 28 Weeks Later. An updated remake of Dawn of the Dead (2004) soon appeared as well as the zombie comedy Shaun of the Dead (2004). This resurgence lead George A. Romero to return to his Living Dead series with Land of the Dead (2005), Diary of the Dead (2007), and the upcoming ...Of the Dead. A larger trend is a return to the extreme, graphic violence that characterized much of the type of low-budget, exploitation horror from the Seventies and the post-Vietnam years. Films like Audition (1999), Wrong Turn (2003), and the Australian film Wolf Creek (2005), took their cues from The Last House on the Left (1972), The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974), and The Hills Have Eyes (1977). An extension of this trend was the emergence of a type of horror with emphasis on depictions of torture, suffering and violent deaths, (variously referred to as "horror porn", "torture porn", Splatterporn, and even "gore-nography") with films such as FeardotCom, and Captivity, and more recently Saw and Hostel and their respective sequels in particular being frequently singled out as examples of emergence of this sub-genre. Remakes of late 1970s horror movies became routine in the 2000s. In addition to 2004's remake of Dawn of the Dead and 2003's remake of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, in 2007 Rob Zombie wrote and directed a remake of John Carpenter's Halloween. The film focused more on Michael's backstory than the original did, devoting the first half of the film to Michael's childhood. It was critically panned by most, Halloween - Rotten Tomatoes. Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2007-09-07 Halloween (2007): Reviews. Metacritic. Retrieved 2007-09-07 but was a success in its theatrical run. This success lead to the remakes, or "reimaginings" of other popular horror franchises with films such as Friday the 13th, A Nightmare on Elm Street, Hellraiser, and Children of the Corn. Other remakes include The Hills Have Eyes (2006), The Last House on the Left (2009), and The Wolfman (2009). Remakes were not limited to American films. Another trend was a remaking of Asian films, particularly J-Horror. Notable examples are The Ring (2002) and The Grudge (2004). References See also Cannibalism in popular culture Exploitation film Fangoria Final girl German underground horror Giallo K-Horror J-Horror Monster movie Psychological horror Slasher film Survival horror Splatter film Thriller (genre) Vampire films Werewolf films Zombies in popular culture List of comedy horror films List of horror films External links IMDb Entry on Best/Worst "Horror" Titles Horror Film Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) China Bans Horror Movies - Shanghai Daily, March 2008 I Spit on Your Horror Movie Remakes - MSNBC 2005 opinion piece on horror remakes Box Office for Horror Movies Is Weak: Verging on Horrible: New York Times, June 11, 2007 | Horror_film |@lemmatized horror:122 film:146 movie:30 strive:1 elicit:1 emotion:1 fear:3 terror:3 viewer:1 plot:3 frequently:2 involve:3 theme:8 death:3 supernatural:8 mental:1 illness:1 many:12 also:15 include:18 central:1 villain:3 early:13 largely:1 base:2 classic:2 literature:1 gothic:5 genre:27 dracula:7 frankenstein:6 wolf:4 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4,175 | Kraftwerk | Kraftwerk (, German for "power plant" or "power station") is an influential electronic music band from Düsseldorf, Germany. The signature Kraftwerk sound combines driving, repetitive rhythms with catchy melodies, mainly following a Western classical style of harmony, with a minimalistic and strictly electronic instrumentation. The group's simplified lyrics are at times sung through a vocoder or generated by computer-speech software. In the early to late 1970s and the early 1980s, Kraftwerk's distinctive sound was revolutionary for its time, and it has had a lasting impact across many genres of modern popular music. The Guardian, Desperately Seeking Kraftwerk NME, Kraftwerk: Minimum-Maximum Live John McCready on Kraftwerk Biography Band formation Kraftwerk were formed in 1970 by Florian Schneider (flutes, synthesizers, electro-violin) and Ralf Hütter (electronic organ, synthesizers). The two had met as students at the Düsseldorf Conservatory in the late 1960s, participating in the German experimental music scene of the time, which the British music press dubbed "Krautrock". Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 17 The duo had originally performed together in a quintet known as Organisation. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 19 This ensemble released one album, titled Tone Float (issued on RCA Records in the UK) Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 23 but the unit split shortly thereafter. Early Kraftwerk line-ups from 1970–1974 fluctuated, as Hütter and Schneider worked with around a half-dozen other musicians over the course of recording three albums and sporadic live appearances; most notably guitarist Michael Rother and drummer Klaus Dinger, who left to form Neu!. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 32 The input, expertise, and influence of producer/engineer Konrad "Conny" Plank was highly significant in the early years of Kraftwerk and Plank also worked with many of the other leading German electronic acts of the period, including members of Can, Neu!, Cluster and Harmonia. As a result of his work with Kraftwerk, Plank's studio near Köln became one of the most sought-after studios in the late 1970s. Plank co-produced the first four Kraftwerk albums. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 33 1974 - 1975 The release of Autobahn in 1974 Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 55 saw the band moving away from the sound of their earlier albums. They invested in newer technology such as a Minimoog, helping give them a newer, disciplined sound. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 50 Autobahn would also be the last album that Conny Plank would engineer. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 67 After the commercial success of Autobahn, the band invested money into updating their studio. This meant they no longer had to rely on outside producers. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 163 At this time the painter and graphic artist Emil Schult became a regular collaborator with the band, working alongside the band. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 45 Schult designed artwork in addition to later writing lyrics and accompanying the group on tour. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 45 The now regarded classic line-up of Kraftwerk was formed in 1975 for the Autobahn tour. During this time, the band were presented as a quartet, with Hütter and Schneider joined by Wolfgang Flür and Karl Bartos, hired as electronic percussionists. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 61 This quartet would be the band's public persona for its renowned output of the latter 1970s and early 1980s. Flür had already joined the band in 1973, in preparation for a television appearance to promote Kraftwerk's third album. Flür, W, I Was A Robot, Sanctuary Publishing, 2001, page 48 After the 1975 Autobahn tour, Kraftwerk began work on a follow up album, Radio-Activity. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 67 After further investment of new equipment, their Kling Klang studio was now a fully working recording studio. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 67 It was decided that the new album would have a central theme. This theme came from their interest in radio communication, which had become enhanced on their last tour of America. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 68 While Emil Schult began working on artwork and lyrics for the new album, the band began to work on the music. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 69 Radio-Activity didn't live up to its predecessor and was less successful in the UK and American markets, but it did open up the European market for the band, gaining them a gold disc in France. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 74 Kraftwerk produced some promotional videos and performed several European live dates to promote the album. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 76 With the release of Autobahn and Radio-Activity, Kraftwerk had left behind their avant-garde experimentations and had moved forward toward electronic pop tunes. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 78 1976 - 1982 In 1976 Kraftwerk began recording Trans-Europe Express at Kling Klang studio. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 79 At this time a technical innovation was happening at Kling Klang studio. Hütter and Schneider had commissioned Matten & Wiechers, a Bonn based synthesiser studio, to design and build a sixteen track music sequencer. Flür, W, I Was A Robot, Sanctuary Publishing, 2001, page 96 The music sequencer controlled the band’s Minimoog creating the albums rhythmic sound. Flür, W, I Was A Robot, Sanctuary Publishing, 2001, page 96 Trans-Europe Express was mixed at the Record Plant Studios in Los Angeles and found the location to have a stimulating atmosphere. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 79 It was around this time that Hütter and Schneider met David Bowie at Kling Klang studio. A music collaboration was also mentioned in an interview with Hütter, but it never materialised. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 81 Kraftwerk had previously been offered a support slot on Bowie's Station to Station tour, but they turned it down. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 79 The release of Trans-Europe Express was marked with an extravagant train journey used as a press conference by EMI France. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 88 The album was released in 1977. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 89 Trans-Europe Express marked the band's complete transformation into an electronic pop band. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 94 In May 1978 Kraftwerk released The Man-Machine. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 95 The album was recorded at Kling Klang. During the recording of the album the band would sit behind the Kling Klang mixing console and let the sequencers and studio equipment play melodies. Florian Schneider would then stand up and move toward a sequencer and launch another musical sequence. This was Kraftwerk’s style of “jamming”. This process would be repeated until the tracks were built up into songs. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 97 Due to the complexity of the recording the album was mixed at Studio Rudas in Düsseldorf. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 95 Two mixing engineers Joschko Rudas and Leanard Jackson, from LA, were employed to mix the album. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 95 The cover to the new album was produced in black, white and red, the artwork was inspired by Russian artist El Lissitzky. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 100 The image of the band on the front cover was photographed by Gunther Frohling. This showed the band dressed in red shirts and black ties. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 45 Following the release of The Man-Machine Kraftwerk would not release an album for another three years. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 107 In May 1981 Kraftwerk released the album Computer World on EMI records. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 109 The album was recorded at Kling Klang Studio between 1978 and 1981. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 109 A lot of this time was spent modifying the Kling Klang Studio so the band could take it on tour with them. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 109 Some of the electronic vocals on Computer World were created using a Texas Instruments Language Translator http://www.datamath.org/Speech/LanguageTranslator.htm Datamath.org Retrieved on 06-02-07 "Computer Love" was released as a single from the album backed with an earlier Kraftwerk track titled "The Model". Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 115 Radio DJs were more interested in the b-side so the single was repackaged by EMI and re-released with "The Model" as the a-side. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 115 The single reached the number one position in the UK making "The Model" Kraftwerk’s most successful record in the UK. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 115 1983 - 1989 In 1983 EMI released the single Tour de France. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 127 The original 12” release was delayed by the record company until they had further news of a new album. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 127 In the end EMI released the 12” with no news of a new album. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 127 It was at this time that the band took up cycling. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 128 Ralf Hütter had been looking for a new form of exercise. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 128 Kraftwerk decided to take on the new image of the bicycle. Tour de France included sounds that followed this theme including bicycle chains, gear mechanisms and even the breathing of the cyclist. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 129 At the time of the single’s release Ralf Hütter tried to persuade the rest of the band that they should record a whole album based around cycling. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 131 The other members of the band were not so convinced. The theme was left to the single alone. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 131 The most familiar version of the song was recorded using French vocals. These vocals were recorded on the Kling Klang Studio stairs to create the right atmosphere. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 132 During the recording of Tour de France Ralf Hütter was involved in a serious cycling accident. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 133 He suffered serious head injuries and was left in a coma for a few days. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 133 Tour de France featured in the 1984 film Breakin' showing the influence that Kraftwerk had on black American dance music. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 134 Following his recovery Ralf Hütter threw himself back into his obsession with cycling. Bussey, P, Kraftwerk - Man Machine & Music, SAF Publishing 1993, page 134 During 1983 Wolfgang Flür was beginning to spend less time in the studio. Since the band began using sequencers his role as a drummer was becoming less frequent. Flür, W, I Was A Robot, Sanctuary Publishing, 2001, page 159 He preferred to spend his time traveling with his girlfriend. Flür, W, I Was A Robot, Sanctuary Publishing, 2001, page 159 Flür was also experiencing artistic difficulties with the band. Flür, W, I Was A Robot, Sanctuary Publishing, 2001, page 159 After his final work on the 1986 album Electric Café he hardly returned to the Kling Klang Studio. Flür, W, I Was A Robot, Sanctuary Publishing, 2001, page 171 1990 - present During the early nineties Kraftwerk's line up changed several times. In 1990 Fritz Hilpert replaced Wolfgang Flür on electronic percussion and sound effects, Discogs, Kraftwerk Technopop - "Formations" Retrieved on March 05 2009 and in early 1991 Fernando Abrantes replaced Karl Bartos on electronic percussion and sound effects. Later in 1991 Abrantes was again replaced by a more permanent member, Henning Schmitz. Discogs, Kraftwerk Technopop - "Formations" Retrieved on March 05 2009 In 1990, after years of withdrawal from live performance, Kraftwerk began to tour Europe again regularly, including a famous appearance at the 1997 dance festival Tribal Gathering held in England. 2 Cents: Kraftwerk, Tribal Gathering (May 25, 1997). Retrieved on March 05 2009 During the 1998 tour Kraftwerk appeared in the United States and Japan. Kraftworld, Kraftwerk 1998 Tour Retrieved on March 05 2009 In July 1999 the single "Tour de France" was reissued in Europe by EMI after it had been out of print for several years. Discogs, Kraftwerk - Tour de France 1999 Retrieved on March 05 2009 It was released for the first time on CD in addition to a repressing of the twelve inch vinyl single. Both versions feature slightly altered artwork that removed the faces of Flür and Bartos from the four man cycling paceline depicted on the original cover. Discogs, Kraftwerk - Tour de France 1999 Retrieved on March 05 2009 The single "Expo 2000" was released in December 1999. Discogs, Kraftwerk - Expo 2000 Retrieved on March 05 2009 The track was remixed and re-released as "Expo Remix" in November 2000. Discogs, Kraftwerk - Expo Remix Retrieved on March 05 2009 In 1999 ex-member Flür published his autobiography in Germany, Ich war ein Roboter. Yamomusic - News Retrieved on March 06 2009 Later English-language editions of the book were titled Kraftwerk: I Was a Robot. Yamomusic - News Retrieved on March 06 2009 In August 2003 the band released Tour de France Soundtracks, its first album of new material since 1986's Electric Café. Discogs, Kraftwerk - Tour de France Soundtracks Retrieved on March 09 2009 In 2004 a box set titled 12345678, subtitled The Catalogue, was planned for a full release. It was to feature remastered editions of the group's albums from Autobahn to Tour de France Soundtracks. The item was put on hold for a release schedule. Discogs, Kraftwerk - 12345678 Retrieved on March 09 2009 The item now only exists as a promotional copy. Discogs, Kraftwerk - 12345678 Retrieved on March 09 2009 More and more remastered Kraftwerk eight-CD promo boxed sets auctioned via eBay . Ralf Hütter, however, said in an interview to the Brazilian television that Kraftwerk will resume their work on the box set once they finish their current 2008/2009 tour. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMi7WAyIIF0 In June 2005 the band's first-ever official live album, Minimum-Maximum, which was compiled from the shows during the band's tour of spring 2004, received extremely positive reviews. Discogs, Kraftwerk - Minimum - Maximum Retrieved on March 09 2009 The album contained reworked tracks from existing studio albums. This included a track titled Planet Of Visions that was a reworking of "Expo 2000". Discogs, Kraftwerk - Minimum - Maximum Retrieved on March 09 2009 The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Electronic/Dance Album. Metro Weekly - Soundwaves Retrieved on March 09 2009 In December 2005, the Minimum-Maximum two-DVD set was released to accompany the album, featuring live footage of the band performing the Minimum-Maximum tracks in various venues all over the world. Discogs, Kraftwerk - Minimum Maximum DVD Retrieved on March 09 2009 April 2008 saw the band back on tour in the United States leading up to its previously announced show at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. Kraftwerk announce US tourdates Kraftwerk lost a lawsuit in Germany's high court on 20 November determining whether artists should have the right to sample other bands' music without infringing on copyright. Kraftwerk sued rap producer Moses Pelham for sampling two seconds of their 1977 song "Metal On Metal" in the track "Nur Mir" by Sabrina Setlur. Court rules against Kraftwerk in sampling case On 22 November Kraftwerk were scheduled to headline the Global Gathering Festival in Melbourne Australia but had to cancel at the last minute due to a heart problem of Fritz Hilpert. On March 17 2009, it was announced that Kraftwerk would play their only (indoor) United Kingdom show at the Manchester Velodrome as part of the 2009 Manchester International Festival. The Band are confirmed to be one of the headliners of Bestival on the Isle of Wight, Uk on the 11th-13th September 2009. Band Members Current members Ralf Hütter – synthesizers, organ, lead vocals; bass guitar, drums, percussion (early period) Fritz Hilpert – sound engineering, electronic percussion Henning Schmitz – sound engineering, electronic percussion, live keyboards. Stefan Pfaffe – video technician Past members Karl Bartos – electronic percussion (1975–1991), live vibraphone (1975), keyboards on Computer World tour (1981) Klaus Dinger – drums (1970-1971) Wolfgang Flür – electronic percussion (1973–1987) Andreas Hohmann – drums (1970) Klaus Röder – guitar, electro-violin (1974) Michael Rother – guitar (1971) Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, computer-generated vocals; flutes, guitar, percussion, violin (early period) (1970-2008) Musicians who have played in live performances with the group include: Fernando Abrantes – electronic percussion Emil Schult – guitar, electro-violin (later employed as a painter/graphic designer and lyricist) Plato Kostic (a.k.a. Plato Riviera) – bass guitar. Peter Schmidt – drums Houschäng Néjadepour – guitar Charly Weiss – drums Thomas Lohmann - drums Eberhard Kranemann – bass guitar Departure of Florian Schneider Florian Schneider, one of the two original co-founders of the pioneering German electronic group Kraftwerk left on 21 November 2008. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/4144592/Kraftwerks-co-founder-Florian-Schneider-leaves-band.html Commenting shortly after Schneider left the band, the Independent newspaper had this to say about Schneider's departure: "There is something brilliantly Kraftwerkian about the news that Florian Schneider, a founder member of the German electronic pioneers, is leaving the band to pursue a solo career. Many successful bands break up after just a few years. It has apparently taken Schneider and his musical partner, Ralf Hütter, four decades to discover musical differences." Editorial, "Nice werk" [sic] (2007, 7 January.) The Independent: 28. Music Like many other Krautrock bands, Kraftwerk was heavily influenced by the pioneering compositions of Karlheinz Stockhausen; the minimalism and non-R&B rhythms of the Velvet Underground, as well as Frank Zappa, Jimi Hendrix, and the Stooges. Hütter has also listed The Beach Boys as a major influence, thing.de Retrieved on 10-10-07 which is apparent in its 1975 chart smash, Autobahn. Hütter stated that the Beach Boys made music that sounded like California, and that Kraftwerk wanted to make music that sounded like Germany. Their first three albums were more free-form experimental rock without the pop hooks or the more disciplined strong structure of its later work. Kraftwerk, released in 1970, and Kraftwerk 2, released in 1972, were mostly exploratory jam music, played on a variety of traditional instruments including guitar, bass, drums, electric organ, flute and violin. Post-production modifications to these recordings were then used to distort the sound of the instruments, particularly audio-tape manipulation and multiple dubbings of one instrument on the same track. Both albums are purely instrumental. With Ralf und Florian, released in 1973, the band began to move closer to its classic sound, relying more heavily on synthesizers and drum machines. Although almost entirely instrumental, the album marks Kraftwerk's first use of the vocoder, which would, in time, become one of its musical signatures. Kraftwerk's lyrics deal with post-war European urban life and technology—traveling by car on the Autobahn, traveling by train, using home computers, and the like. Usually, the lyrics are very minimal but reveal both an innocent celebration of, and a knowing caution about, the modern world, as well as playing an integral role in the rhythmic structure of the songs. Many of Kraftwerk's songs express the paradoxical nature of modern urban life—a strong sense of alienation existing side-by-side with a celebration of the joys of modern technology. All of Kraftwerk's albums from Trans-Europe Express onward have been recorded in separate versions: one with German vocals for sale in Germany, Switzerland and Austria and one with English vocals for the rest of the world, with occasional variations in other languages when conceptually appropriate. Live shows Live performance has always played an important part in Kraftwerk's activities. Also, despite its live shows generally being based around formal songs and compositions, live improvisation often plays a noticeable role in its performances. This trait can be traced back to the group's roots in the experimental Krautrock scene of the late 1960s, but, significantly, it has continued to be a part of its playing even as it makes ever greater use of digital and computer-controlled sequencing in its performances. Some of the band's familiar compositions have been observed to have developed from live improvisations at its concerts or sound-checks. 1970–1974 Early in the group's career, between 1970 and 1974, the group made sporadic live appearances. These shows were mainly in its native Germany, with occasional shows in France, featuring a variety of line-ups. A few of these performances were for television broadcasts. The only constant figure in these line-ups was Schneider, whose main instrument at the time was the flute; at times also playing violin and guitar, all processed through a varied array of electronic effects. Hütter, who left the band for six months in 1971 to pursue studies in architecture, played synthesizer keyboards (including Farfisa organ and electric piano). Various other musicians who appeared on stage as part of the group during these years included Klaus Dinger (acoustic drums), Andreas Hohmann (acoustic drums), Thomas Lohmann (acoustic drums), Michael Rother (electric guitar), Charly Weiss (drums), Eberhard Kranemann (bass-guitar), Plato Kostic (bass-guitar), Emil Schult (electro-violin, electric guitar) and Klaus Roeder (electric violin, electric guitar). Later performances from 1972–73 were made as a duo, using a simple beat-box-type electronic drum machine, with preset rhythms taken from an electric organ. Later in 1973, Wolfgang Flür joined the group for rehearsals, and the unit performed as a trio on the television show, Aspekte, for German television network ZDF. Documentation of this period in the group's history is sparse, with Hütter and Schneider not keen to talk about it in later interviews. A few bootleg recordings are in circulation. The only officially released material is the band's 1971 performance on the German Beat Club TV show, which is available on DVD. 1975–1981 The year 1975 saw a turning point in Kraftwerk's live shows. With financial support from Phonogram in the US, it was able to undertake a multi-date tour to promote the Autobahn album. This tour took them to the US, Canada and the UK for the first time. The tour also saw a new, stable, live line-up in the form of a quartet. Hütter and Schneider both mainly played keyboard parts on synthesizers such as the Minimoog and ARP Odyssey, with Schneider's use of flute diminishing. The pair also sang vocals on stage for the first time, with Schneider also using a vocoder live. Wolfgang Flür and new recruit Karl Bartos performed live electronic percussion using custom-made (and, at the time, unique) sensor pads hit with metal sticks to complete a circuit and trigger analog synthetic percussion circuits (initially cannibalized from the aforementioned organ beat box). Bartos also used a Deagan Vibraphone on stage. The Hütter-Schneider-Bartos-Flür line-up would remain in place until the late 1980s. Emil Schult generally fulfilled the role of tour manager. By the late 1970s the band's live set focused increasingly on song-based material, with greater use of vocals, less acoustic instrumentation, and the use of sequencing equipment for percussion and musical lines. The approach taken by the group was to use the sequencing equipment interactively, thus allowing room for improvisation. In 1976, the group went out on tour in support of the Radio-Activity album. This tour also tested out an experimental light-beam-activated drum cage allowing Flür to trigger electronic percussion through arm and hand movements. Unfortunately, the device did not work as planned, and it was quickly abandoned. Despite the new innovations in touring, the band took a break from live performances after the Radioactivity tour of 1976. The band did, however, appear on television shows to promote the albums Trans Europe Express and The Man-Machine. The band returned to the live scene with the Computer World tour of 1981, where the band effectively packed up its entire Kling Klang studio and took it on the road with them. Around this time, Wolfgang Flür was heavily involved in designing customized modular housing and packaging for the group's touring equipment. The band also developed an increasing use of visual elements in the live shows during this period. This included back-projected slides and films, increasingly synchronized with the music as the technology developed, the use of hand-held miniaturized instruments during the set, and, perhaps most famously, the use of replica mannequins of themselves to perform onstage during the song "The Robots". Several bootleg recordings of this period have been widely available, some even in major retail stores, particularly from the Autobahn and Computer World tours. Post 1981 The completion of the Computer World tour in the winter of 1981 precipitated an almost decade-long hiatus in Kraftwerk's live activities. Wolfgang Flür left the band in 1987 and was replaced by Fritz Hilpert. The unit did not perform live again until February 1990, with a few secret shows in Italy. Karl Bartos left the band shortly afterwards. The next proper tour was in 1991, for the album The Mix. Hütter and Schneider wished to continue the synth-pop quartet style of presentation, and recruited Fernando Abrantes as a replacement for Bartos. Abrantes was dismissed shortly after. In late 1991 Henning Schmitz was brought in to finish the remainder of the tour and to complete a new version of the quartet that remained active until 2008. In 1998, the group toured the US and Japan for the first time since 1981, along with shows in Brazil and Argentina. Three new songs were performed during this period, which remain unreleased. Following this trek, the group decided to take another break. In 2002 the band was touring again in Europe and Japan, using four customized Sony VAIO laptop computers, effectively leaving the entire Kling Klang studio at home in Germany. The group also obtained a new set of transparent video panels to replace its four large projection screens. This greatly streamlined the running of all of the group's sequencing, sound-generating, and visual-display software. From this point, the band's equipment increasingly reduced manual playing, replacing it with interactive control of sequencing equipment. Hütter retains the most manual performance, still playing selected musical lines by hand on a controller keyboard and singing live vocals and having a repeating ostinato. Much of Schneider's live vocoding has been replaced by software-controlled speech-synthesis techniques. In January and February 2003, prior to the release of the album Tour de France Soundtracks, the group performed in Australia and New Zealand at several dates on the Big Day Out festival. In November, the group made a surprising appearance at the MTV European Music Awards in Edinburgh, Scotland, featuring a visually stunning performance of Aerodynamik. In 2004 the band toured worldwide in support of Tour de France Soundtracks. In 2005 the group released its first official live album, Minimum-Maximum, recorded on the aforementioned 2004 world tour. In support of this release, Kraftwerk made another quick sweep around the globe with dates in Serbia, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Turkey, and Greece. In December, the DVD release of Minimum-Maximum was made available. In 2006 a small number of festivals were played in Norway, the Czech Republic, Spain, Belgium and Germany. In April 2008 the group played three shows in US cities Minneapolis, Milwaukee, and Denver, and was a co-headliner at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. This was its second appearance at the festival since 2004. The touring quartet consisted of Ralf Hütter, Henning Schmitz, Fritz Hilpert, and video technician Stefan Pfaffe. Original member Florian Schneider was absent from the lineup. Hütter stated that he was working on other projects. In Fall and Winter 2008, shows were performed in Ireland, Poland, Ukraine, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and Singapore. Kraftwerk's headline set that was to be played at Global Gathering in Melbourne, Australia on November 22, 2008 was cancelled moments before it was scheduled to begin. There was a commotion on and around the stage at approximately 8:25. No gear was present on the stage and at the moment the show was to begin, Ralf Hütter appeared on the stage with an MC. The MC explained that the band was unable to perform due to the ill health of Fritz Hilpert. Ralf then spoke to the crowd. He apologized and said the band would do all they could to try re-schedule the show(s). He also mentioned something about Fritz having a heart condition or mild heart attack but that he was ok. The MC then told the crowd that Kraftwerk's set would be replaced by the Gorillaz Sound System. On the next day, Future Entertainment released a statement Illness forces Kraftwerk to miss Melbourne Global Gathering, inthemix.com.au (2008-11-23) , which says that Fritz Hilpert has been cleared to fly and Kraftwerk will not reschedule rest of Australian tour, because Fritz is now able to play. They're booked to play UK festival, Bestival, in September 2009, Kraftwerk to headline Bestival, ventnorblog.com (2009-02-26) as well as playing a series of live shows with Radiohead in a series of Central/South American concerts happening in March http:www.radiohead.com A Romania concert was also confirmed, on 12 June 2009 in Bucharest at the Sala Palatului Hall, as well as Zagreb INmusic festival concert on 24th and 25th June 2009. For the 2009 Manchester International Festival, the band will be performing at the Manchester Velodrome on the 2 July. Recently, the band performed concerts in Wolfsburg, Germany, with 3D background graphics and the spectators could watch this multimedia part of the show with 3D glasses, which were given out. This was a premiere, as the 3D concept was never present in any Kraftwerk gig. Influence on other musicians Kraftwerk's music has directly influenced many popular artists from many diverse genres of music. SamplesDB - Kraftwerk's Tracks. Retrieved on April 04 2009 Kraftwerk's "Trans Europe Express" sampling can be heard in the music of electronic music successes such as Gary Numan, Depeche Mode, and Softcell. Kraftwerk would also go on to influence other forms of music such as hip hop, house, and jungle music. Most notably, "Trans Europe Express" was sampled in the 1982 hit song "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa & The Soul Sonic Force. "Planet Rock" would later go Gold and was one of the earliest hip hop hits that utilized a Kraftwerk sample. Kraftwerk's pioneering work in incorporating looping and sampling would become commonplace in hip hop and many other genres of music. http://www.kexp.org/learn/docu_pop_goes_electronic.asp#2 Kraftwerk were also a major influence on Chicago house Music. Keith Farley's (Farley "Jackmaster" Funk of the Hot Mix 5) recording "Funkin With the Drums Again" are influenced by Kraftwerk's "Home Computer" and "It's More Fun to Compute". While touring after the release of Astronaut in 2005, Duran Duran would signify its arrival on stage by playing "The Robots". This track appeared on the album Nick Rhodes and John Taylor present Only after Dark (2006). When Duran Duran played Broadway in November 2007, and the Lyceum in London in December 2007, they performed "Showroom Dummies" as part of its electro set. Kraftwerk have also influenced celtic fusion music, most notably in the use of electronic sounds to complement traditional instruments in the music of bands such as the Peatbog Faeries; their fourth album was called Croftwork and featured the track "Trans-Island Express". In their song "Sunshine", Jay-Z and Foxy Brown used the riff from Kraftwerk's song "The Man Machine". U2 recorded a cover version of Neon Lights as a B-side for their 2004 Vertigo single; it is also included in their 2009 fan-club compilation of rarities, Medium, Rare and Remastered. Coldplay received permission from Kraftwerk to use the tune from Computer Love as the opening guitar riffs and basis of their 2005 single Talk. They also credited Kraftwerk as a major influence on their 2005 album, X&Y. Kraftwerk has spawned a large number of tribute bands over the course of their lengthy career. One of the most notable of these was established by Uwe Schmidt aka Senor Coconut or Atom. Performing as Senor Coconut, Schmidt in 2000 released El Baile Alemán, which was intended as a salute to, and a parody of, Kraftwerk. This remarkable album reworked a number of major Kraftwerk songs with Latin instrumentation in such a way that they could potentially be performed live as Latin dance numbers. Discography Main article: Kraftwerk discography. Bibliography 1994 : "Kraftwerk: Man, Machine and Music" by Pascal Bussy 1998 : "Kraftwerk: From Düsseldorf to the Future" by Tim Barr 1999 : "Kraftwerk: I Was a Robot" by Wolfgang Flür 2000 : "A Short Introduction to Kraftwerk" by Vanni Neri & Giorgio Campani 2002 : "Kraftwerk: The Music Makers" by Albert Koch 2005 : "Kraftwerk Photobook" by Kraftwerk (included in the Minimum-Maximum Notebook set) Sheet music Printed and digital 1981 : "Computer World" double-page published in Electronics & Music Maker magazine, September 1981 issue 1983 : "Tour de France" folded sheet, sub-published by EMI Music Publishing Ltd 2003 : "The Model" digital download, published by Music Sales Ltd 2009 : "Kraftwerk Songbook", 88 page book, published by Bosworth Music GmbH See also Kraftwerk discography Organisation - Tone Float References Footnotes External links Kraftwerk.com—The official Kraftwerk Web site. Technopop—Official Kraftwerk Fan Site. Kraftwerk FAQ.com—The Kraftwerk FAQ: Frequently asked questions and answers. Kraftwerk International Discography—Comprehensive list of official releases worldwide. 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4,176 | MPEG-4 | MPEG-4 is a collection of methods defining compression of audio and visual (AV) digital data. It was introduced in late 1998 and designated a standard for a group of audio and video coding formats and related technology agreed upon by the ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) under the formal standard ISO/IEC 14496. Uses of MPEG-4 include compression of AV data for web (streaming media) and CD distribution, voice (telephone, videophone) and broadcast television applications. MPEG-4 absorbs many of the features of MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 and other related standards, adding new features such as (extended) VRML support for 3D rendering, object-oriented composite files (including audio, video and VRML objects), support for externally-specified Digital Rights Management and various types of interactivity. AAC (Advanced Audio Codec) was standardized as an adjunct to MPEG-2 (as Part 7) before MPEG-4 was issued. MPEG-4 is still a developing standard and is divided into a number of parts. Companies promoting MPEG-4 compatibility do not always clearly state which "part" level compatibility they are referring to. The key parts to be aware of are MPEG-4 part 2 (including Advanced Simple Profile, used by codecs such as DivX, Xvid, Nero Digital and 3ivx and by Quicktime 6) and MPEG-4 part 10 (MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 or Advanced Video Coding, used by the x264 codec, by Nero Digital AVC, by Quicktime 7, and by next-gen video medium formats like HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc). Most of the features included in MPEG-4 are left to individual developers to decide whether to implement them. This means that there are probably no complete implementations of the entire MPEG-4 set of standards. To deal with this, the standard includes the concept of "profiles" and "levels", allowing a specific set of capabilities to be defined in a manner appropriate for a subset of applications. Initially, MPEG-4 was aimed primarily at low bit-rate video communications; however, its scope was later expanded to be much more of a multimedia coding standard. MPEG-4 is efficient across a variety of bit-rates ranging from a few kilobits per second to tens of megabits per second. MPEG-4 provides the following functionalities: Improved coding efficiency Ability to encode mixed media data (video, audio, speech) Error resilience to enable robust transmission Ability to interact with the audio-visual scene generated at the receiver Overview MPEG-4 provides a series of technologies for developers, for various service-providers and for end users: MPEG-4 enables different software and hardware developers to create multimedia objects possessing better abilities of adaptability and flexibility to improve the quality of such services and technologies as digital television, animation graphics, the World Wide Web and their extensions. This standard enables developers to better control their content and to fight more effectively against copyright violations. Data network providers can use MPEG-4 for data transparency. With the help of standard procedures, MPEG-4 data can be interpreted and transformed into other signal types compatible with any available network. The MPEG-4 format provides the end users with a wide range of interaction with various animated objects. Standardized Digital Rights Management signaling, otherwise known in the MPEG community as Intellectual Property Management and Protection (IPMP). The MPEG-4 format can perform various functions, among which might be the following: Multiplexes and synchronizes data, associated with media objects, in such a way that they can be efficiently transported further via network channels. Interaction with the audio-visual scene, which is formed on the side of the receiver. Profiles and Levels MPEG-4 provides a large and rich set of tools for encoding. Subsets of the MPEG-4 tool sets have been provided for use in specific applications. These subsets, called 'Profiles', limit the size of the tool set a decoder is required to implement. In order to restrict computational complexity, one or more 'Levels' are set for each Profile. A Profile and Level combination allows: RFC 3640, p.31 A codec builder to implement only the subset of the standard he needs, while maintaining interworking with other MPEG-4 devices that implement the same combination. Checking whether MPEG-4 devices comply with the standard, referred to as conformance testing. MPEG-4 parts MPEG-4 consists of several standards—termed "parts"—including the following: Part Number Title Description Part 1 ISO/IEC 14496-1 Systems Describes synchronization and multiplexing of video and audio. For example Transport stream. Part 2 ISO/IEC 14496-2 Visual A compression codec for visual data (video, still textures, synthetic images, etc.). One of the many "profiles" in Part 2 is the Advanced Simple Profile (ASP). Part 3 ISO/IEC 14496-3 Audio A set of compression codecs for perceptual coding of audio signals, including some variations of Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) as well as other audio/speech coding tools. Part 4 ISO/IEC 14496-4 Conformance Describes procedures for testing conformance to other parts of the standard. Part 5 ISO/IEC 14496-5 Reference Software Provides software for demonstrating and clarifying the other parts of the standard. Part 6 ISO/IEC 14496-6 Delivery Multimedia Integration Framework (DMIF). Part 7 ISO/IEC 14496-7 Optimized Reference Software Provides examples of how to make improved implementations (e.g., in relation to Part 5). Part 8 ISO/IEC 14496-8 Carriage on IP networks Specifies a method to carry MPEG-4 content on IP networks. Part 9 ISO/IEC 14496-9 Reference Hardware Provides hardware designs for demonstrating how to implement the other parts of the standard. Part 10 ISO/IEC 14496-10 Advanced Video Coding (AVC) A codec for video signals which is technically identical to the ITU-T H.264 standard. Part 11 ISO/IEC 14496-11 Scene description and Application engine("BIFS") Can be used for rich, interactive content with multiple profiles, including 2D and 3D versions. Part 12 ISO/IEC 14496-12 ISO Base Media File Format A file format for storing media content. Part 13 ISO/IEC 14496-13 Intellectual Property Management and Protection (IPMP) Extensions. Part 14 ISO/IEC 14496-14 MPEG-4 File Format The designated container file format for MPEG-4 content, which is based on Part 12. Part 15 ISO/IEC 14496-15 AVC File Format For storage of Part 10 video based on Part 12. Part 16 ISO/IEC 14496-16 Animation Framework eXtension (AFX). Part 17 ISO/IEC 14496-17 Timed Text subtitle format. Part 18 ISO/IEC 14496-18 Font Compression and Streaming (for OpenType fonts). Part 19 ISO/IEC 14496-19 Synthesized Texture Stream. Part 20 ISO/IEC 14496-20 Lightweight Application Scene Representation (LASeR). Part 21 ISO/IEC 14496-21 MPEG-J Graphical Framework eXtension (GFX) (not yet finished - at "FCD" stage in July 2005, FDIS January 2006). Part 22 ISO/IEC 14496-22 Open Font Format Specification (OFFS) based on OpenType (not yet finished - reached "CD" stage in July 2005) Part 23 ISO/IEC 14496-23 Symbolic Music Representation (SMR) (not yet finished - reached "FCD" stage in October 2006) Profiles are also defined within the individual "parts", so an implementation of a part is ordinarily not an implementation of an entire part. MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-7 and MPEG-21 are other suites of MPEG standards. Licensing MPEG-4 contains patented technologies that require licensing in countries that acknowledge software algorithm patents. Patents covering MPEG-4 are claimed by over two dozen companies. The MPEG Licensing Authority MPEG Licensing Authority – MPEG-4 Visual: Introduction licenses patents required for MPEG-4 Part 2 Visual from a wide range of companies (audio is licensed separately) and lists all of its licensors and licensees on the site. New licenses for MPEG-4 System patents are under development MPEG Licensing Authority – MPEG-4 Systems: Introduction and no new licenses are being offered while holders of its old MPEG-4 Systems license are still covered under the terms of that license for the patents listed (MPEG LA – Patent List). AT&T is trying to sue companies such as Apple Inc. over alleged MPEG-4 patent infringement. The terms of Apple's Quicktime 7 license for users Apple Quicktime 7 Software License (PDF) describes in paragraph 14 the terms under Apple's existing MPEG-4 System Patent Portfolio license from MPEGLA. See also MPEG MPEG-4 Structured Audio MPEG-4 SLS References External links MPEG-4: The Next Generation MPEG-4 Audio: AAC MPEG Industry Forum (MPEGIF) MPEG-4 page MPEG Industry Forum (MPEGIF) MPEG-4 White Paper Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) Official Website JM MPEG-4 AVC /H.264 Reference Code OpenIPMP: Open Source DRM Project for MPEG-4 MPEG-4 part 20: LASeR Encoder/Decoder for .NET Framework | MPEG-4 |@lemmatized mpeg:66 collection:1 method:2 define:3 compression:5 audio:15 visual:7 av:2 digital:6 data:8 introduce:1 late:1 designate:1 standard:17 group:3 video:11 coding:6 format:11 related:2 technology:4 agree:1 upon:1 iso:26 iec:25 move:2 picture:2 expert:2 formal:1 us:1 include:8 web:2 stream:3 medium:6 cd:2 distribution:1 voice:1 telephone:1 videophone:1 broadcast:1 television:2 application:5 absorbs:1 many:2 feature:3 add:1 new:3 extend:1 vrml:2 support:2 rendering:1 object:5 orient:1 composite:1 file:6 externally:1 specify:2 right:2 management:4 various:4 type:2 interactivity:1 aac:3 advanced:5 codec:5 standardize:2 adjunct:1 part:45 issue:1 still:3 developing:1 divide:1 number:2 company:4 promote:1 compatibility:2 always:1 clearly:1 state:1 level:5 refer:2 key:1 aware:1 advance:1 simple:2 profile:10 use:5 codecs:2 divx:1 xvid:1 nero:2 quicktime:4 avc:5 h:3 next:2 gen:1 like:1 hd:1 dvd:1 blu:1 ray:1 disc:1 leave:1 individual:2 developer:4 decide:1 whether:2 implement:5 mean:1 probably:1 complete:1 implementation:4 entire:2 set:7 deal:1 concept:1 allow:2 specific:2 capability:1 manner:1 appropriate:1 subset:4 initially:1 aim:1 primarily:1 low:1 bit:2 rate:2 communication:1 however:1 scope:1 later:1 expand:1 much:1 multimedia:3 cod:2 efficient:1 across:1 variety:1 range:3 kilobit:1 per:2 second:2 ten:1 megabit:1 provide:8 following:3 functionality:1 improve:2 efficiency:1 ability:3 encode:2 mixed:1 speech:2 error:1 resilience:1 enable:2 robust:1 transmission:1 interact:1 scene:4 generate:1 receiver:2 overview:1 series:1 service:2 provider:2 end:2 user:3 enables:1 different:1 software:6 hardware:3 create:1 possess:1 good:2 adaptability:1 flexibility:1 quality:1 animation:2 graphic:1 world:1 wide:3 extension:4 control:1 content:5 fight:1 effectively:1 copyright:1 violation:1 network:5 transparency:1 help:1 procedure:2 interpret:1 transform:1 signal:3 compatible:1 available:1 interaction:2 animated:1 signaling:1 otherwise:1 know:1 community:1 intellectual:2 property:2 protection:2 ipmp:2 perform:1 function:1 among:1 might:1 multiplex:1 synchronize:1 associate:1 way:1 efficiently:1 transport:2 via:1 channel:1 form:1 side:1 large:1 rich:2 tool:4 call:1 limit:1 size:1 decoder:2 require:3 order:1 restrict:1 computational:1 complexity:1 one:2 combination:2 rfc:1 p:1 builder:1 need:1 maintain:1 interworking:1 device:2 check:1 comply:1 conformance:3 testing:1 consists:1 several:1 term:4 title:1 description:2 system:5 describes:2 synchronization:1 multiplexing:1 example:2 textures:1 synthetic:1 image:1 etc:1 asp:1 perceptual:1 variation:1 well:1 test:1 reference:5 demonstrate:2 clarify:1 delivery:1 integration:1 framework:4 dmif:1 optimized:1 make:1 improved:1 e:1 g:1 relation:1 carriage:1 ip:2 carry:1 design:1 technically:1 identical:1 itu:1 engine:1 bifs:1 interactive:1 multiple:1 version:1 base:4 store:1 designated:1 container:1 storage:1 afx:1 time:1 text:1 subtitle:1 font:3 streaming:1 opentype:2 synthesized:1 texture:1 lightweight:1 representation:2 laser:2 j:1 graphical:1 gfx:1 yet:3 finish:3 fcd:2 stage:3 july:2 fdis:1 january:1 open:2 specification:1 offs:1 reach:2 symbolic:1 music:1 smr:1 october:1 also:2 within:1 ordinarily:1 suite:1 license:13 contains:1 patented:1 licensing:1 country:1 acknowledge:1 algorithm:1 patent:8 cover:2 claim:1 two:1 dozen:1 authority:3 introduction:2 separately:1 list:3 licensors:1 licensee:1 site:1 development:1 offer:1 holder:1 old:1 la:1 try:1 sue:1 apple:4 inc:1 alleged:1 infringement:1 pdf:1 describe:1 paragraph:1 exist:1 portfolio:1 mpegla:1 see:1 structured:1 sl:1 external:1 link:1 generation:1 industry:2 forum:2 mpegif:2 page:1 white:1 paper:1 official:1 website:1 jm:1 code:1 openipmp:1 source:1 drm:1 project:1 encoder:1 net:1 |@bigram iso_iec:25 mpeg_mpeg:6 audio_codec:1 mpeg_avc:2 hd_dvd:1 dvd_blu:1 blu_ray:1 kilobit_per:1 megabit_per:1 computational_complexity:1 compression_codec:1 perceptual_coding:1 iec_mpeg:2 patent_infringement:1 external_link:1 mpeg_audio:1 encoder_decoder:1 |
4,177 | Alarums_and_Excursions | Alarums and Excursions (A&E), is an amateur press association started in June 1975 by Lee Gold (at the request of Bruce Pelz, who felt that discussion of Dungeons & Dragons was taking up too much space in Apa-L, the APA of the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society) Bretts RPG Magazine and Zine Index, entry on Alarums & Excursions, retrieved September 2007 . It was the first publication to focus solely on role-playing games. Each issue is a collection of contributions from different authors, often featuring game design discussions, rules variants, write-ups of game sessions, reviews, and comments on others contributions. It was a four-time winner of the Charles Roberts/Origins Award, winning "Best Amateur Adventure Gaming Magazine" in 1984 The Charles Roberts Awards 1984, retrieved September 2007 , "Best Amateur Game Magazine" in 1999 Origins Awards 1999, retrieved September 2007 , and "Best Amateur Game Periodical" in 2000 Origins Awards 2000, retrieved September 2007 and 2001. Although game reports and social reactions are common parts of many A&E contributions, it has also, over the years, become a testing ground for new ideas on the development of the RPG as a genre and an art form. The idea that role-playing games are an art form took strong root in this zine, and left a lasting impression on many of the RPG professionals who contributed. The January, 2009 issue of Alarums and Excursions was #400. Over the years, contributors have included: Wilf K. Backhaus Greg Costikyan John M. Ford E. Gary Gygax David A. Hargrave Rob Heinsoo Robin Laws Steve Marsh Phil McGregor Dave Nalle Mark Rein•Hagen John T. Sapienza, Jr. Edward E. Simbalist Jonathan Tweet Erick Wujcik John Nephew Spike Y Jones Doc Cross Scott Bennie Ken Rolston Nicole Lindroos The role-playing game Over the Edge was inspired by discussions in A&E. "Alarums and excursions" is a stage direction for the moving of soldiers across a stage, used in Elizabethan drama. alarums and excursions - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary References External links http://thestarport.org/xeno/aande.html | Alarums_and_Excursions |@lemmatized alarum:5 excursion:5 e:5 amateur:4 press:1 association:1 start:1 june:1 lee:1 gold:1 request:1 bruce:1 pelz:1 felt:1 discussion:3 dungeon:1 dragon:1 take:2 much:1 space:1 apa:2 l:1 los:1 angeles:1 science:1 fantasy:1 society:1 bretts:1 rpg:3 magazine:3 zine:2 index:1 entry:1 retrieve:4 september:4 first:1 publication:1 focus:1 solely:1 role:3 playing:3 game:9 issue:2 collection:1 contribution:3 different:1 author:1 often:1 featuring:1 design:1 rule:1 variant:1 write:1 ups:1 session:1 review:1 comment:1 others:1 four:1 time:1 winner:1 charles:2 roberts:2 origin:3 award:4 win:1 best:3 adventure:1 periodical:1 although:1 report:1 social:1 reaction:1 common:1 part:1 many:2 also:1 year:2 become:1 testing:1 ground:1 new:1 idea:2 development:1 genre:1 art:2 form:2 strong:1 root:1 leave:1 lasting:1 impression:1 professional:1 contribute:1 january:1 contributor:1 include:1 wilf:1 k:1 backhaus:1 greg:1 costikyan:1 john:3 ford:1 gary:1 gygax:1 david:1 hargrave:1 rob:1 heinsoo:1 robin:1 law:1 steve:1 marsh:1 phil:1 mcgregor:1 dave:1 nalle:1 mark:1 rein:1 hagen:1 sapienza:1 jr:1 edward:1 simbalist:1 jonathan:1 tweet:1 erick:1 wujcik:1 nephew:1 spike:1 jones:1 doc:1 cross:1 scott:1 bennie:1 ken:1 rolston:1 nicole:1 lindroos:1 edge:1 inspire:1 stage:2 direction:1 moving:1 soldier:1 across:1 use:1 elizabethan:1 drama:1 definition:1 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 dictionary:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 thestarport:1 org:1 xeno:1 aande:1 html:1 |@bigram alarum_excursion:5 dungeon_dragon:1 los_angeles:1 lasting_impression:1 erick_wujcik:1 merriam_webster:1 external_link:1 |
4,178 | Neuromyotonia | Neuromyotonia, also known as Isaacs' Syndrome, is spontaneous muscular activity resulting from repetitive motor unit action potentials of peripheral origin. Causes It develops as a result of both acquired or hereditary diseases. Acquired form is more frequent and is usually caused by antibodies against neuromuscular junction. Autoreactive antibodies can be detected in a variety of peripheral (e.g. myasthenia gravis, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome) and central nervous system (e.g. paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis) disorders. Their causative role has been established in some of these diseases but not all. Neuromyotonia is considered to be one of these with accumulating evidence for autoimmune origin over the last few years. Some neuromyotonia cases do not only improve after plasma exchange but they may also have antibodies in their serum samples against voltage-gated potassium channels. Moreover, these antibodies have been demonstrated to reduce potassium channel function in neuronal cell lines. Presentation As a result of muscular hyperactivity patients may present with muscle cramps, myotonia-like symptoms, excessive sweating, myokymia and fasciculations. A very small proportion of cases with neuromyotonia may develop central nervous system findings in their clinical course, causing a disorder called Morvan's syndrome and they may also have antibodies against potassium channels in their serum samples. Sleep disorder is only one of a variety of clinical conditions observed in Morvan's syndrome cases ranging from confusion and memory loss to hallucinations and delusions. Treatment There is no known cure for neuromyotonia. The long-term prognosis for individuals with the disorder is uncertain. Anticonvulsants, including phenytoin and carbamazepine, usually provide significant relief from the stiffness, muscle spasms, and pain associated with neuromyotonia. Plasma exchange may provide short-term relief for patients with some forms of the acquired disorder. References | Neuromyotonia |@lemmatized neuromyotonia:6 also:3 know:1 isaac:1 syndrome:4 spontaneous:1 muscular:2 activity:1 result:3 repetitive:1 motor:1 unit:1 action:1 potential:1 peripheral:2 origin:2 cause:3 develop:2 acquire:3 hereditary:1 disease:2 form:2 frequent:1 usually:2 antibody:5 neuromuscular:1 junction:1 autoreactive:1 detect:1 variety:2 e:2 g:2 myasthenia:1 gravis:1 lambert:1 eaton:1 myasthenic:1 central:2 nervous:2 system:2 paraneoplastic:2 cerebellar:1 degeneration:1 limbic:1 encephalitis:1 disorder:5 causative:1 role:1 establish:1 consider:1 one:2 accumulate:1 evidence:1 autoimmune:1 last:1 year:1 case:3 improve:1 plasma:2 exchange:2 may:5 serum:2 sample:2 voltage:1 gated:1 potassium:3 channel:3 moreover:1 demonstrate:1 reduce:1 function:1 neuronal:1 cell:1 line:1 presentation:1 hyperactivity:1 patient:2 present:1 muscle:2 cramp:1 myotonia:1 like:1 symptom:1 excessive:1 sweating:1 myokymia:1 fasciculation:1 small:1 proportion:1 finding:1 clinical:2 course:1 call:1 morvan:2 sleep:1 condition:1 observe:1 range:1 confusion:1 memory:1 loss:1 hallucination:1 delusion:1 treatment:1 known:1 cure:1 long:1 term:2 prognosis:1 individual:1 uncertain:1 anticonvulsant:1 include:1 phenytoin:1 carbamazepine:1 provide:2 significant:1 relief:2 stiffness:1 spasm:1 pain:1 associate:1 short:1 reference:1 |@bigram neuromuscular_junction:1 myasthenia_gravis:1 voltage_gated:1 muscle_cramp:1 muscle_spasm:1 |
4,179 | Continuum_hypothesis | In mathematics, the continuum hypothesis (abbreviated CH) is a hypothesis, advanced by Georg Cantor, about the possible sizes of infinite sets. Introduction Cantor introduced the concept of cardinality to compare the sizes of infinite sets, and he gave two proofs that the cardinality of the set of integers is strictly smaller than that of the set of real numbers. His proofs, however, give no indication of the extent to which the cardinality of the natural numbers is less than that of the real numbers. Cantor proposed the continuum hypothesis as a possible solution to this question. It states: There is no set whose cardinality is strictly between that of the integers and that of the real numbers. In light of Cantor's theorem that the sizes of these sets cannot be equal, this hypothesis states that the set of real numbers has minimal possible cardinality which is greater than the cardinality of the set of integers. The name of the hypothesis comes from the term the continuum for the real numbers. Equivalently, as the cardinality of the integers is ("aleph-null") and the cardinality of the real numbers is , the continuum hypothesis says that there is no set for which Assuming the axiom of choice, there is a smallest cardinal number greater than , and the continuum hypothesis is in turn equivalent to the equality There is also a generalization of the continuum hypothesis called the generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) which says that for all ordinals As the first Hilbert problem In 1900, David Hilbert posed the question of whether the continuum hypothesis holds; it was the first of the celebrated Hilbert problems. Kurt Gödel showed in 1939 that the continuum hypothesis could not be disproved in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC). In 1963, Paul Cohen established that the continuum hypothesis is not provable within ZFC. Gödel and Cohen's negative results are not universally accepted as disposing of the hypothesis, and Hilbert's problem remains an active topic of contemporary research (see Woodin 2001a). The size of a set To state the hypothesis formally, we need a definition: we say that two sets S and T have the same cardinality or cardinal number if there exists a bijection between S and T. Intuitively, this means that it is possible to "pair off" elements of S with elements of T in such a fashion that every element of S is paired off with exactly one element of T and vice versa. Hence, the set {banana, apple, pear} has the same cardinality as {yellow, red, green}. With infinite sets such as the set of integers or rational numbers, this becomes more complicated to demonstrate. Consider the set of all rational numbers. One might naively suppose that there are more rational numbers than integers, and fewer rational numbers than real numbers, thus disproving the continuum hypothesis. However, it turns out that the rational numbers can be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the integers, and therefore the set of rational numbers is the same size as the set of integers: they are both countable sets. Cantor's diagonal argument shows that the integers and the continuum do not have the same cardinality. The continuum hypothesis states that every infinite subset of the continuum (the real numbers) either has the same cardinality as the integers or the same cardinality as the continuum. Impossibility of proof and disproof (in ZFC) Cantor believed the continuum hypothesis to be true and tried for many years to prove it, in vain. It became the first on David Hilbert's list of important open questions that was presented at the International Congress of Mathematicians in the year 1900 in Paris. Axiomatic set theory was at that point not yet formulated. Kurt Gödel showed in 1940 that the continuum hypothesis (CH for short) cannot be disproved from the standard Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF), even if the axiom of choice is adopted (ZFC). Paul Cohen showed in 1963 that CH cannot be proven from those same axioms either. Hence, CH is independent of ZFC. Both of these results assume that the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms themselves do not contain a contradiction; this assumption is widely believed to be true. The continuum hypothesis was not the first statement shown to be independent of ZFC. An immediate consequence of Gödel's incompleteness theorem, which was published in 1931, is that there is a formal statement expressing the consistency of ZFC that is independent of ZFC. This consistency statement is of a metamathematical, rather than purely mathematical, character. The continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice were among the first mathematical statements shown to be independent of ZF set theory. These independence proofs were not completed until Paul Cohen developed forcing in the 1960s. The continuum hypothesis is closely related to many statements in analysis, point set topology and measure theory. As a result of its independence, many substantial conjectures in those fields have subsequently been shown to be independent as well. So far, CH appears to be independent of all known large cardinal axioms in the context of ZFC. Arguments for and against CH Gödel believed that CH is false and that his proof that CH is consistent only shows that the Zermelo-Frankel axioms are defective. Gödel was a platonist and therefore had no problems with asserting the truth and falsehood of statements independent of their provability. Cohen, though a formalist, also tended towards rejecting CH. Historically, mathematicians who favored a "rich" and "large" universe of sets were against CH, while those favoring a "neat" and "controllable" universe favored CH. Parallel arguments were made for and against the axiom of constructibility, which implies CH. More recently, Matthew Foreman has pointed out that ontological maximalism can actually be used to argue in favor of CH, because among models that have the same reals, models with "more" sets of reals have a better chance of satisfying CH (Maddy 1988, p. 500). Another viewpoint is that the conception of set is not specific enough to determine whether CH is true or false. This viewpoint was advanced as early as 1923 by Skolem, even before Gödel's first incompleteness theorem. Skolem argued on the basis of what is now known as Skolem's paradox, and it was later supported by the independence of CH from the axioms of ZFC, since these axioms are enough to establish the elementary properties of sets and cardinalities. In order to argue against this viewpoint, it would be sufficient to demonstrate new axioms that are supported by intuition and resolve CH in one direction or another. Although the axiom of constructibility does resolve CH, it is not generally considered to be intuitively true any more than CH is generally considered to be false. At least two other axioms have been proposed that have implications for the continuum hypothesis, although these axioms have not currently found wide acceptance in the mathematical community. In 1986, Chris Freiling presented an argument against CH by showing that the negation of CH is equivalent to Freiling's axiom of symmetry, a statement about probabilities. Freiling believes this axiom is "intuitively true" but others have disagreed. A difficult argument against CH developed by W. Hugh Woodin has attracted considerable attention since the year 2000 (Woodin 2001a, 2001b). Foreman (2003) does not reject Woodin's argument outright but urges caution. The generalized continuum hypothesis The generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) states that if an infinite set's cardinality lies between that of an infinite set S and that of the power set of S, then it either has the same cardinality as the set S or the same cardinality as the power set of S. That is, for any infinite cardinal there is no cardinal such that An equivalent condition is that for every ordinal The beth numbers provide an alternate notation for this condition: for every ordinal This is a generalization of the continuum hypothesis since the continuum has the same cardinality as the power set of the integers. Like CH, GCH is also independent of ZFC, but Sierpiński proved that ZF + GCH implies the axiom of choice (AC), so choice and GCH are not independent in ZF; there are no models of ZF in which GCH holds and AC fails. Kurt Gödel showed that GCH is a consequence of ZF + V=L (the axiom that every set is constructible relative to the ordinals), and is consistent with ZFC. As GCH implies CH, Cohen's model in which CH fails is a model in which GCH fails, and thus GCH is not provable from ZFC. W. B. Easton used the method of forcing developed by Cohen to prove Easton's theorem, which shows it is consistent with ZFC for arbitrarily large cardinals to fail to satisfy . Much later, Foreman and Woodin proved that (assuming the consistency of very large cardinals) it is consistent that holds for every infinite cardinal . Later Woodin extended this by showing the consistency of for every . A recent result of Carmi Merimovich shows that, for each n≥1, it is consistent with ZFC that for each κ, 2κ is the nth successor of κ. On the other hand, Laszlo Patai proved, that if γ is an ordinal and for each infinite cardinal κ, 2κ is the γth successor of κ, then γ is finite. For any infinite sets A and B, if there is an injection from A to B then there is an injection from subsets of A to subsets of B. Thus for any infinite cardinals A and B, . If A and B are finite, the stronger inequality holds. GCH implies that this strict, stronger inequality holds for infinite cardinals as well as finite cardinals. Implications of GCH for cardinal exponentiation Although the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis refers directly only to cardinal exponentiation with 2 as the base, one can deduce from it the values of cardinal exponentiation in all cases. It implies that is: when α ≤ β+1; when β+1 < α and where cf is the cofinality operation; and when β+1 < α and . See also Aleph number Beth number Cardinality Ω-logic References Gödel, K.: What is Cantor's Continuum Problem?, reprinted in Benacerraf and Putnam's collection Philosophy of Mathematics, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983. An outline of Gödel's arguments against CH. Martin, D. (1976). "Hilbert's first problem: the continuum hypothesis," in Mathematical Developments Arising from Hilbert's Problems, Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics XXVIII, F. Browder, editor. American Mathematical Society, 1976, pp. 81–92. ISBN 0-8218-1428-1 | Continuum_hypothesis |@lemmatized mathematics:3 continuum:28 hypothesis:27 abbreviated:1 ch:26 advance:2 georg:1 cantor:7 possible:4 size:5 infinite:12 set:35 introduction:1 introduce:1 concept:1 cardinality:19 compare:1 give:2 two:3 proof:5 integer:11 strictly:2 small:2 real:10 number:20 however:2 indication:1 extent:1 natural:1 less:1 propose:2 solution:1 question:3 state:5 whose:1 light:1 theorem:4 cannot:3 equal:1 minimal:1 great:2 name:1 come:1 term:1 equivalently:1 aleph:2 null:1 say:3 assume:3 axiom:19 choice:6 cardinal:15 turn:2 equivalent:3 equality:1 also:4 generalization:2 call:1 generalized:4 gch:12 ordinal:5 first:7 hilbert:7 problem:7 david:2 pose:1 whether:2 hold:5 celebrated:1 kurt:3 gödel:10 show:13 could:1 disprove:3 zermelo:4 fraenkel:3 theory:5 zfc:15 paul:3 cohen:7 establish:2 provable:2 within:1 negative:1 result:4 universally:1 accept:1 disposing:1 remain:1 active:1 topic:1 contemporary:1 research:1 see:2 woodin:6 formally:1 need:1 definition:1 exist:1 bijection:1 intuitively:3 mean:1 pair:2 element:4 fashion:1 every:7 exactly:1 one:6 vice:1 versa:1 hence:2 banana:1 apple:1 pear:1 yellow:1 red:1 green:1 rational:6 become:2 complicated:1 demonstrate:2 consider:3 might:1 naively:1 suppose:1 thus:3 place:1 correspondence:1 therefore:2 countable:1 diagonal:1 argument:7 subset:3 either:3 impossibility:1 disproof:1 believe:4 true:5 try:1 many:3 year:3 prove:6 vain:1 list:1 important:1 open:1 present:2 international:1 congress:1 mathematician:2 paris:1 axiomatic:1 point:3 yet:1 formulate:1 short:1 standard:1 zf:6 even:2 adopt:1 independent:9 contain:1 contradiction:1 assumption:1 widely:1 statement:7 immediate:1 consequence:2 incompleteness:2 publish:1 formal:1 express:1 consistency:4 metamathematical:1 rather:1 purely:1 mathematical:5 character:1 among:2 independence:3 complete:1 develop:3 force:2 closely:1 related:1 analysis:1 topology:1 measure:1 substantial:1 conjecture:1 field:1 subsequently:1 well:2 far:1 appear:1 know:2 large:4 context:1 false:3 consistent:5 frankel:1 defective:1 platonist:1 assert:1 truth:1 falsehood:1 provability:1 though:1 formalist:1 tend:1 towards:1 reject:2 historically:1 favor:4 rich:1 universe:2 neat:1 controllable:1 parallel:1 make:1 constructibility:2 imply:3 recently:1 matthew:1 foreman:3 ontological:1 maximalism:1 actually:1 use:2 argue:3 model:5 good:1 chance:1 satisfy:2 maddy:1 p:1 another:2 viewpoint:3 conception:1 specific:1 enough:2 determine:1 early:1 skolem:3 basis:1 paradox:1 later:3 support:2 since:3 elementary:1 property:1 order:1 would:1 sufficient:1 new:1 intuition:1 resolve:2 direction:1 although:3 generally:2 least:1 implication:2 currently:1 find:1 wide:1 acceptance:1 community:1 chris:1 freiling:3 negation:1 symmetry:1 probability:1 others:1 disagree:1 difficult:1 w:2 hugh:1 attract:1 considerable:1 attention:1 outright:1 urges:1 caution:1 lie:1 power:3 condition:2 beth:2 provide:1 alternate:1 notation:1 like:1 sierpiński:1 ac:2 fails:2 v:1 l:1 constructible:1 relative:1 implies:2 fail:2 b:6 easton:2 method:1 arbitrarily:1 much:1 extend:1 recent:1 carmi:1 merimovich:1 n:1 κ:4 nth:1 successor:2 hand:1 laszlo:1 patai:1 γ:2 γth:1 finite:3 injection:2 strong:2 inequality:2 strict:1 exponentiation:3 refers:1 directly:1 base:1 deduce:1 value:1 case:1 α:3 β:3 cf:1 cofinality:1 operation:1 ω:1 logic:1 reference:1 k:1 reprint:1 benacerraf:1 putnam:1 collection:1 philosophy:1 ed:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 outline:1 martin:1 development:1 arise:1 proceeding:1 symposium:1 pure:1 xxviii:1 f:1 browder:1 editor:1 american:1 society:1 pp:1 isbn:1 |@bigram continuum_hypothesis:22 georg_cantor:1 aleph_null:1 axiom_choice:5 generalized_continuum:4 hypothesis_gch:2 kurt_gödel:3 zermelo_fraenkel:3 universally_accept:1 vice_versa:1 apple_pear:1 cantor_diagonal:1 cardinality_continuum:2 proof_disproof:1 gödel_incompleteness:1 incompleteness_theorem:2 closely_related:1 zermelo_frankel:1 truth_falsehood:1 consistent_zfc:3 cardinal_κ:1 cardinal_exponentiation:3 α_β:1 |
4,180 | Political_philosophy | Political philosophy is the study of questions about the city, government, politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown—if ever. In a vernacular sense, the term "political philosophy" often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics that does not necessarily belong to the technical discipline of philosophy. Political philosophy can also be understood by analysing it through the perspectives of metaphysics, epistemology and axiology thereby unearthing the ultimate reality side, the knowledge or methodical side and the value aspects of politics. Three central concerns of political philosophy have been the political economy by which property rights are defined and access to capital is regulated, the demands of justice in distribution and punishment, and the rules of truth and evidence that determine judgments in the law. History of political philosophy Antiquity Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), from a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers. As an academic discipline, Western political philosophy has its origins in ancient Greek society, when city-states were experimenting with various forms of political organization including monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, oligarchy, and democracy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's The Republic, which was followed by Aristotle's Politics. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, and the Roman statesman Cicero wrote on political philosophy. Independently, Confucius, Mencius, Mozi and the Legalist school in China, and the Laws of Manu Sir William Jones´s translation is available online as The Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Manu, Calcutta: Sewell & Debrett, 1796. and Chanakya in India, all sought to find means of restoring political unity and political stability; in the case of the former three through the cultivation of virtue, in the last by imposition of discipline. In India, Chanakya, in his Arthashastra, developed a viewpoint which recalls both the Legalists and Niccolò Machiavelli. Ancient Chinese civilization and Indian civilization resembled Greek civilization in that there was a unified culture divided into rival states. In the case of China, philosophers found themselves obliged to confront social and political breakdown, and seek solutions to the crisis that confronted their entire civilization. The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was by and large a rewrite of Plato in a Christian context. The main change that Christian thought brought was to moderate the Stoicism and theory of justice of the Roman world, and emphasize the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's City of God is an influential work of this period that refuted the thesis, after the First Sack of Rome, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth at all - a view many Christian Romans held. Medieval Islam The rise of Islam, based on both the Qur'an and Muhammad strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth - in effect all philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more Greek view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the Caliphate. By the late medieval period, however, the Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam, i.e. the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the words and practices of Muhammad. However, in the Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, cemaa -and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an, i.e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and ulama posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the Ehl-i Sunna and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character. The 14th century Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist Ernest Gellner considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of government, "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory. Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book (1988), p. 239 Islamic political philosophy did not cease in the classical period. Despite the fluctuations in its original character during the medieval period, it has lasted even in the modern era. Especially with the emergence of Islamic radicalism as a political movement, political thought has revived in the Muslim world. The political ideas of Abduh, Afgani, Kutub, Mawdudi, Shariati and Khomeini has caught on an ethusiasm especially in Muslim youth in the 20th century. Medieval Europe Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics also subordinated philosophy to theology. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been preserved by the Muslims, along with the commentaries of Averroes. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda for scholastic political philosophy, dominated European thought for centuries. European Renaissance During the Renaissance secular political philosophy began to emerge after about a century of theological political thought in Europe. While the Middle Ages did see secular politics in practice under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, the academic field was wholly scholastic and therefore Christian in nature. One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, written between 1511-12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of the classical period, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) could interpret The Prince as a satire meant to give the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the di Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end, i.e. the secure and powerful state. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the English Renaissance. John Locke in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work Two Treatises of Government. In it Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system! European Age of Enlightenment Eugene Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time where old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.During the Enlightenment period, new theories about what the human was and is and about the definition of reality and the way it was perceived, along with the discovery of other societies in the Americas, and the changing needs of political societies (especially in the wake of the English Civil War, the American Revolution and the French Revolution) led to new questions and insights by such thinkers as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu and John Locke. These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied, and indeed still occupy the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states which nevertheless must be considered in political terms. Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. In the Ottoman Empire, these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into common thought until much later. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the New World and the advanced civilizations of the Aztec, Maya, Inca, Mohican, Delaware, Huron and especially the Iroquois. The Iroquois philosophy in particular gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the United States: for example, Benjamin Franklin was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy, and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives. Industrialization and the Modern Era Karl Marx and his theory of Communism developed along with Friedrich Engels proved to be one of the most influential political ideologies of the 20th century.The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the socialist movement began to form. In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of anarchism and syndicalism also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the century. World War I was a watershed event in human history. The Russian Revolution of 1917 (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought communism - and in particular the political theory of Leninism, but also on a smaller level Luxemburgism (gradually) - on the world stage. At the same time, social democratic parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage. However, a group of central European economists lead by Austrians Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek identified the collectivist underpinnings to the various new socialist and fascist doctrines of government power as being different brands of political totalitarianism. What is Austrian Economics?, Ludwig Von Mises Institute. Richard M. Ebeling, Austrian Economics and the Political Economy of Freedom, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, 163-179 ISBN 1840649402, 9781840649406. Contemporary political philosophy After World War II political philosophy moved into a temporary eclipse in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. The 1950s saw pronouncements of the 'death' of the discipline, followed by debates about that thesis. A handful of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including Hannah Arendt, Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar—encouraged continued study in the field, but in the 1950s and 60s they and their students remained somewhat marginal in their disciplines. Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 60s. Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The rise of feminism and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant. In Anglo-American academic political philosophy the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, which a won a National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints. David Lewis Schaefer, Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia, The New York Sun, April 30, 2008. Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Many of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. The Situationists were more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation. Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. The liberalism-communitarianism debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspectives. Today some debates regarding punishment and law center on the question of natural law and the degree to which human constraints on action are determined by nature, as revealed by science in particular. Other debates focus on questions of cultural and gender identity as central to politics. Influential political philosophers A larger list of political philosophers is intended to be closer to exhaustive. Listed below are a few of the most canonical or important thinkers, and especially philosophers whose central focus was in political philosophy and/or who are good representatives of a particular school of thought. Confucius : The first thinker to relate ethics to the political order. Chanakya : Founder of an independent political thought in India, laid down rules and guidelines for social, law and political order in society. Mozi : Eponymous founder of the Mohist school, advocated a strict utilitarianism. Socrates/Plato: Named their practice of inquiry "philosophy", and thereby stand at the head of a prominent (often called "Western") tradition of systematic intellectual analysis. Set as a partial basis to that tradition the relation between knowledge on the one hand, and a just and good society on the other. Socrates is widely considered founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato. Aristotle: Wrote his Politics as an extension of his Nicomachean Ethics. Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the polis (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals. His political theory is based upon an ethics of perfectionism (as is Marx's, on some readings). Mencius : One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled. Han Feizi : The major figure of the Chinese Fajia (Legalist) school, advocated government that adhered to laws and a strict method of administration. Thomas Aquinas : In synthesizing Christian theology and Peripatetic teaching, Aquinas contends that God's gift of higher reason, coupled with divine virtues and human law, provides the foundation for righteous government. Niccolò Machiavelli: First systematic analyses of: (1) how consent of a populace is negotiated between and among rulers rather than simply a naturalistic (or theological) given of the structure of society; (2) precursor to the concept of ideology in articulating the epistemological structure of commands and law. Thomas Hobbes: Generally considered to have first articulated how the concept of a social contract that justifies the actions of rulers (even where contrary to the individual desires of governed citizens), can be reconciled with a conception of sovereignty. Baruch Spinoza: Set forth the first analysis of "rational egoism", in which the rational interest of self is conformance with pure reason. To Spinoza's thinking, in a society in which each individual is guided of reason, political authority would be superfluous. John Locke: Like Hobbes, described a social contract theory based on citizens' fundamental rights in the state of nature. He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property. His arguments may have been deeply influential to the formation of the United States Constitution. Baron de Montesquieu: Analyzed protection of liberty by a "balance of powers" in the divisions of a state. David Hume: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement. Hume was a realist in recognizing the role of force to forge the existence of states and that consent of the governed was merely hypothetical. He also introduced the concept of utility, later picked up on and developed by Jeremy Bentham. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Analyzed the social contract as an expression of the general will, and controversially argued in favor of absolute democracy where the people at large would act as sovereign. Immanuel Kant: Argued that participation in civil society is undertaken not for self-preservation, as per Thomas Hobbes, but as a moral duty. First modern thinker who fully analyzed structure and meaning of obligation. Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace. Adam Smith: Often said to have founded modern economics; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior ("the invisible hand") of artisans and traders. While praising its efficiency, Smith also expressed concern about the effects of industrial labor (e.g. repetitive activity) on workers. His work on moral sentiments sought to explain social bonds outside the economic sphere. Edmund Burke: Irish member of the British parliament, Burke is credited with the creation of conservative thought. Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France is the most popular of his writings where he denounced the French revolution. Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution. John Adams: Enlightenment writer who defended the American cause for independence. Adams was a Lockean thinker, who was appalled by the French revolution. Adams is known for his outspoken commentary in favor of the American revolution. He defended the American form of republicanism over the French liberal democracy. Adams is considered the founder of American conservative thought. Thomas Paine: Enlightenment writer who defended liberal democracy, the American Revolution, and French Revolution in Common Sense and The Rights of Man. Jeremy Bentham: The first thinker to analyze social justice in terms of maximization of aggregate individual benefits. Founded the philosophical/ethical school of thought known as utilitarianism. John Stuart Mill: A utilitarian, and the person who named the system; he goes further than Bentham by laying the foundation for liberal democratic thought in general and modern, as opposed to classical, liberalism in particular. Articulated the place of individual liberty in an otherwise utilitarian framework. Thomas Hill Green: modern liberal thinker and early supporter of positive freedom. Karl Marx: In large part, added the historical dimension to an understanding of society, culture and economics. Created the concept of ideology in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions. Analyzed the fundamental nature of class as a mechanism of governance and social interaction. Giovanni Gentile: Known as the 'Philosopher of Fascism' and ghostwrote the Doctrine of Fascism with Benito Mussolini and argued that the Fascist State is an ethical and educational state and that the individual should put the interests of the State first. John Dewey: Co-founder of pragmatism and analyzed the essential role of education in the maintenance of democratic government. Antonio Gramsci: Instigated the concepts hegemony and social formation. Fused the ideas of Marx, Engels, Spinoza and others within the so-called dominant ideology thesis (the ruling ideas of society are the ideas of its rulers). Herbert Marcuse: One of the principal thinkers within the Frankfurt School, and generally important in efforts to fuse the thought of Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx. Introduced the concept of repressive desublimation, in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire. Analyzed the role of advertising and propaganda in societal consensus. Friedrich Hayek: He argued that central planning was inefficient because members of central bodies could not know enough to match the preferences of consumers and workers with existing conditions. Hayek further argued that central economic planning - a mainstay of socialism - would lead to a "total' state with dangerous power. He advocated free-market capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the rule of law. Hannah Arendt: Analyzed the roots of totalitarianism and introduced the concept of the "banality of evil" (how ordinary technocratic rationality comes to deplorable fruition). Brought distinctive elements of and revisions to the philosophy of Martin Heidegger into political thought. Georg Hegel: Emphasized history and continuity, influenced Marx and Oakeschott. Isaiah Berlin: Developed the distinction between positive and negative liberty Leo Strauss: Strauss is known for his writings on the classical and modern philosophers and for denouncing modern politics. John Rawls: Revitalised the study of normative political philosophy in Anglo-American universities with his 1971 book A Theory of Justice, which uses a version of social contract theory to answer fundamental questions about justice and to criticise utilitarianism. Robert Nozick: Criticized Rawls, and argued for libertarianism, by appeal to a hypothetical history of the state and the real history of property. Michael Oakeshott: Provided a conservative philosophy anchored in history and Hegelianism. Some notable contemporary political philosophers are Amy Gutmann, Seyla Benhabib, G.A. Cohen, George Kateb, Wendy Brown, Stephen Macedo, Martha Nussbaum, Ronald Dworkin, Thomas Pogge, Will Kymlicka, Charles Taylor, Philippe Van Parijs and Michael Walzer. References See also Anarchist schools of thought Consensus decision making Consequentialist justifications of the state The justification of the state Majoritarianism Panarchism Progressivism Political media Social criticism Further reading Academic Journals dedicated to Political Philosophy include: Political Theory, Philosophy and Public Affairs, Contemporary Political Theory, Theory & Event, Constellations (journal), and Journal of Political Philosophy The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Political Philosophy Developing political philosophy for the 21st century | Political_philosophy |@lemmatized political:81 philosophy:38 study:4 question:8 city:7 government:13 politics:10 liberty:5 justice:9 property:4 right:7 law:13 enforcement:1 legal:1 code:1 authority:3 even:4 need:4 make:4 legitimate:2 freedom:4 protect:1 form:7 take:5 duty:2 citizens:1 owe:1 may:2 legitimately:1 overthrown:1 ever:1 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4,181 | Albedo | The albedo of an object is the extent to which it diffusely reflects light from the Sun. It is therefore a more specific form of the term reflectivity. Albedo is defined as the ratio of diffusely reflected to incident electromagnetic radiation. It is a unitless measure indicative of a surface's or body's diffuse reflectivity. The word is derived from Latin albedo "whiteness", in turn from albus "white", and was introduced into optics in by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria. The range of possible values is from 0 (dark) to 1 (bright). Percentage of diffusely reflected sun light in relation to various surface conditions of the Earth The albedo is an important concept in climatology and astronomy. In climatology it is sometimes expressed as a percentage. Its value depends on the frequency of radiation considered: unqualified, it usually refers to some appropriate average across the spectrum of visible light. In general, the albedo depends on the direction and directional distribution of incoming radiation. Exceptions are Lambertian surfaces, which scatter radiation in all directions in a cosine function, so their albedo does not depend on the incoming distribution. In realistic cases, a bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) is required to characterize the scattering properties of a surface accurately, although albedos are a very useful first approximation. Terrestrial albedo + Sample albedos Surface TypicalAlbedo Fresh asphalt 0.04 Conifer forest(Summer) 0.08, 0.09 to 0.15 Worn asphalt 0.12 Deciduous trees 0.15 to 0.18 Bare soil 0.17 Green grass 0.25 Desert sand 0.40 New concrete 0.55 Ocean Ice 0.5–0.7 Fresh snow 0.80–0.90 Albedos of typical materials in visible light range from up to 90% for fresh snow, to about 4% for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a blackbody. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, while desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. Albedo - from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics The average albedo of the Earth is about 30%. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. Human activities have changed the albedo (via forest clearance and farming, for example) of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult. The classic example of albedo effect is the snow-temperature feedback. If a snow-covered area warms and the snow melts, the albedo decreases, more sunlight is absorbed, and the temperature tends to increase. The converse is true: if snow forms, a cooling cycle happens. The intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of insolation; for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics. The Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments onboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. As the total amount of reflected radiation cannot be directly measured by satellite, a mathematical model of the BRDF is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance. White-sky and black-sky albedo It has been shown that for many applications involving terrestrial albedo, the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle can reasonably be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, , and the bi-hemispherical reflectance, the proportion concerned being defined as the proportion of diffuse illumination . Albedo can then be given as: Directional-hemispherical reflectance is sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo and bi-hemispherical reflectance as white sky albedo. These terms are important because they allow the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface. Astronomical albedo The albedos of planets, satellites and asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer solar system objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, while unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metallic content in asteroids. Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the solar system, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 86%. Many objects in the outer solar system and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 5%. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds. The overall albedo of the Moon is around 7%, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. A discussion of Lunar albedos While such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless solar system bodies. Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is: , where is astronomical albedo, is diameter in kilometres, and H is the absolute magnitude. Other types of albedo Single scattering albedo - is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle(s), and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. Albedo also refers to the white, spongy inner lining of a citrus fruit rind. wordsmith.org According to Dr. Renee M. Goodrich, associate professor of food science and human nutrition at the University of Florida, the albedo is rich in the soluble fiber pectin and contains vitamin C. Some examples of terrestrial albedo effects The tropics Although the albedo-temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of Earth, because more snow falls there, it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight. When ranchers cut down dark, tropical rainforest trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops, the average temperature of the area increases up to 3 °C (5.4 °F) year-round, Dickinson, R. E., and P. J. Kennedy, 1992: Impacts on regional climate of Amazon deforestation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1947–1950. http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/final/characterization/abiotic_water.html Project Amazonia: Characterization - Abiotic - Water although part of the effect is due to changed evaporation (latent heat flux). Small scale effects Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. People who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of heatstroke than those who wear lighter color clothes. Health and Safety: Be Cool! (8/97) Trees Because trees tend to have a low albedo, removing forests would tend to increase albedo and thereby could produce localized climate cooling. Cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 while coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. The difference between deciduous and coniferous is because coniferous trees are darker in general and have cone-shaped crowns. The shape of these crowns trap radiant energy more effectively than deciduous trees. Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming. Betts, R.A. (2000) Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo, Nature, Volume 408, Issue 6809, pp. 187-190. Snow Snow albedos can be as high as 90%; this, however, is for the ideal example: fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape. Over Antarctica they average a little more than 80%. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt (the ice-albedo positive feedback). Water Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations (see graph). Reflectivity of smooth water at 20 C (refractive index=1.333) At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle. Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it increases tremendously at high angles of incident light such as occur on the illuminated side of the Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Since the light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up (not smooth at the scale of the wavelength of light) so the Fresnel equations do not apply. Fresh ‘black’ ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Clouds Clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation. Different types of clouds have different albedo values, theoretically ranging from a minimum of near 0% to a maximum in the high 70s. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth." Baffled Scientists Say Less Sunlight Reaching Earth | LiveScience Albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. http://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields by Saddam Hussein showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10oC colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies. The Kuwait oil fires as seen by Landsat Aerosol effects Aerosol (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) has two effects, direct and indirect. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as CCNs and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis Aerosol radiative forcing. Aerosols can modify the Earth’s radiative balance through the aerosol direct and indirect effects. —Aerosol direct effect. Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. —Aerosol indirect effect. Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Increased CCN concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations (CDNC). A greater number of cloud droplets leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (first indirect effect). Increased CDNC also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (second indirect effect). DOMINICK V. SPRACKLEN, BORIS BONN, AND KENNETH S. CARSLAW. 2008. Boreal forests, aerosols and the impacts on clouds and climate. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. doi:10.1098/rsta.2008.0201. http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~eardvs/papers/spracklen08c.pdf Black carbon Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the IPCC say that their "estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for BC aerosols from fossil fuels is ... +0.2 W m-2 (from +0.1 W m-2 in the SAR) with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m...-2". Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis Popular References Albedo 0.39 concept album by Vangelis See also Bond albedo Global dimming Irradiance Insolation Reflectivity Solar Radiation Management References External links Albedo - Encyclopedia of Earth NASA MODIS Terra BRDF/albedo product site NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations A discussion of Lunar albedos | Albedo |@lemmatized albedo:80 object:4 extent:1 diffusely:4 reflect:11 light:17 sun:2 therefore:1 specific:1 form:2 term:4 reflectivity:9 define:3 ratio:1 incident:7 electromagnetic:3 radiation:10 unitless:1 measure:4 indicative:3 surface:16 body:5 diffuse:2 word:1 derive:2 latin:1 whiteness:1 turn:1 albus:1 white:6 introduce:1 optic:1 johann:1 heinrich:1 lambert:1 work:2 photometria:1 range:5 possible:1 value:6 dark:6 bright:1 percentage:2 relation:1 various:2 condition:2 earth:11 important:2 concept:2 climatology:2 astronomy:2 sometimes:2 express:2 depend:5 frequency:1 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4,182 | Luxembourg | Luxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (, , ), is a small, landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. Luxembourg has a population of under half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (999 sq mi). The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Luxembourg is a parliamentary representative democracy with a constitutional monarch; it is ruled by a Grand Duke. It is the world's only remaining sovereign Grand Duchy. The country has a highly developed economy, with the highest Gross Domestic Product per capita in the world as per IMF and WB. Its historic and strategic importance dates back to its founding as a Roman era fortress site and Frankish count's castle site in the Early Middle Ages. It was an important bastion along the Spanish road when Spain was the principal European power influencing the whole western hemisphere and beyond in the 16th–17th centuries. Luxembourg is a founding member of the European Union, NATO, OECD, the United Nations, Benelux, and the Western European Union, reflecting the political consensus in favour of economic, political, and military integration. The city of Luxembourg, the capital and largest city, is the seat of several institutions and agencies of the European Union. Luxembourg lies on the cultural divide between Romance Europe and Germanic Europe, borrowing customs from each of the distinct traditions. Luxembourg is a trilingual country; German, French and Luxembourgish are official languages. Although a secular state, Luxembourg is predominantly Roman Catholic. History Charles IV, the 14th century Holy Roman Emperor and king of Bohemia from the House of Luxembourg. Emperor Charles IV elected Greatest Czech of all time, Radio Prague The three Partitions of Luxembourg have greatly reduced Luxembourg's territory. The recorded history of Luxembourg begins with the acquisition of Lucilinburhuc Kreins (2003), p. 20 (today Luxembourg Castle) by Siegfried, Count of Ardennes in 963. Around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a small state of great strategic value. In the 14th and early 15th centuries three members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors. In 1437, the House of Luxembourg suffered a succession crisis, precipitated by the lack of a male heir to assume the throne, that led to the territory being sold to Philip the Good of Burgundy. Kreins (2003), p. 39 In the following centuries, Luxembourg's fortress was steadily enlarged and strengthened by its successive occupants, the Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns, and the French, among others. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands. The Congress of Vienna formed Luxembourg as a Grand Duchy in personal union with the Netherlands. Luxembourg also became a member of the German Confederation, with a Confederate fortress manned by Prussian troops. Kreins (2003), p. 70 The Belgian Revolution of 1830–1839 reduced Luxembourg's territory by more than half, as the predominantly francophone western part of the country was transferred to Belgium. Luxembourg's independence was reaffirmed by the 1839 First Treaty of London. In the same year, Luxembourg joined the Zollverein. Kreins (2003), p. 76 Luxembourg's independence and neutrality were again affirmed by the 1867 Second Treaty of London, after the Luxembourg Crisis nearly led to war between Prussia and France. Kreins (2003), pp. 80–81 After the latter conflict, the Confederate fortress was dismantled. Kreins (2003), p. 81 The King of the Netherlands remained Head of State as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, maintaining personal union between the two countries until 1890. At the death of William III, the Dutch throne passed to his daughter Wilhelmina, while Luxembourg (at that time restricted to male heirs by the Nassau Family Pact) passed to Adolph of Nassau-Weilburg. Kreins (2003), p. 84 Luxembourg is part of the eurozone since 1999. Luxembourg was invaded and occupied by Germany during the First World War, but was allowed to maintain its independence and political mechanisms. It was again invaded and subject to German occupation in the Second World War in 1940, and was formally annexed into the Third Reich in 1942. During World War II, Luxembourg abandoned its policy of neutrality, when it joined the Allies in fighting Germany. Its government, exiled to London, set up a small group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion. It became a founding member of the United Nations in 1946, and of NATO in 1949. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the European Union), and, in 1999, it joined the euro currency area. In 2005, a referendum on the EU treaty establishing a constitution for Europe was held in Luxembourg. Timeline: Luxembourg - A chronology of key events BBC News Online, 9 September 2006. Retrieved 8 October 2006. Government and politics Districts of Luxembourg Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy headed by a constitutional monarch. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is exercised by the Grand Duke and the cabinet, which consists of several other ministers. The Governor has the power to dissolve the legislature and reinstate a new one, as long as the Grand Duke has judicial approval. However, since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the Supreme Court. Legislative power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, a unicameral legislature of sixty members, who are directly elected to five-year terms from four constituencies. A second body, the Council of State (Conseil d'État), composed of twenty-one ordinary citizens appointed by the Grand Duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation. The Grand Duchy has three lower tribunals (justices de paix; in Esch-sur-Alzette, the city of Luxembourg, and Diekirch), two district tribunals (Luxembourg and Diekirch) and a Superior Court of Justice (Luxembourg), which includes the Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation. There is also an Administrative Tribunal and an Administrative Court, as well as a Constitutional Court, all of which are located in the capital. Districts, cantons, and communes Luxembourg is divided into 3 districts, which are further divided into 12 cantons and then 116 communes. Twelve of the communes have city status, of which the city of Luxembourg is the largest. The districts are 1. Diekirch 2. Grevenmacher 3. Luxembourg Military Luxembourg's contribution to its defence and to NATO consists of a small army (currently consisting of around 800 people). As a landlocked country, it has no navy, and it has no air force, except for the fact that the seventeen NATO AWACS aeroplanes are registered as aircraft of Luxembourg for convenience. In a joint agreement with Belgium, both countries have put forth funding for one A400M military cargo plane, currently on order. Luxembourg still jointly maintains three NATO Boeing 707 model TCAs for cargo and training purposes based in NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen. Geography and climate The largest towns are Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Dudelange, and Differdange. Luxembourg is one of the smallest countries in Europe, and ranked 175th in size of all the 194 independent countries of the world; the country is about 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi) in size, and measures 82 km (51 miles) long and 57 km (35 miles) wide. To the east, Luxembourg borders the German Bundesländer of Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland, and, to the south, it borders the French région of Lorraine. The Grand Duchy borders the Belgian Walloon Region, in particular the latter's provinces of Luxembourg and Liège, more in particular the German-speaking Community of Belgium, to the west and to the north respectively. The northern third of the country is known as the 'Oesling', and forms part of the Ardennes. It is dominated by hills and low mountains, including the Kneiff, which is the highest point, at 560 metres (1,837 ft). The region is sparsely populated, with only one town (Wiltz) with a population of more than four thousand people. Countryside of Alscheid. The southern two-thirds of the country is called the "Gutland", and is more densely populated than the Oesling. It is also more diverse, and can be divided into five geographic sub-regions. The Luxembourg plateau, in south-central Luxembourg, is a large, flat, sandstone formation, and the site of the city of Luxembourg. Little Switzerland, in the east of Luxembourg, has craggy terrain and thick forests. The Moselle valley is the lowest-lying region, running along the south-eastern border. The Red Lands, in the far south and southwest, are Luxembourg's industrial heartland and home to many of Luxembourg's largest towns. The border between Luxembourg and Germany is formed by three rivers: the Moselle, the Sauer, and the Our. Other major rivers are the Alzette, the Attert, the Clerve, and the Wiltz. The valleys of the mid-Sauer and Attert form the border between the Gutland and the Oesling. Luxembourg has a marine west coast climate (Köppen: Cfb), marked by high precipitation, particularly in late summer. Demographics Ethnicity The people of Luxembourg are called Luxembourgers. Luxembourg Presidency - Being a Luxembourger The native population has a Celtic base with a French and Germanic blend. CIA World Factbook: Luxembourg Retrieved 14 October 2007. The immigrant population increased in the twentieth century due to the arrival of immigrants from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and Portugal, with the majority coming from this last country. In 2001 census, there were 58,657 inhabitants with Portuguese nationality. Since the beginning of the Yugoslav wars, Luxembourg has seen many immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. Annually, over 10,000 new immigrants arrive in Luxembourg, mostly from EU states, as well and Eastern Europe. As of 2000, there were 162,000 immigrants in Luxembourg, accounting for 37% of the total population. There were an estimated 5,000 undocumented immigrants, including asylum seekers, in Luxembourg as of 1999. Language Three languages are recognised as official in Luxembourg: French, German, and Luxembourgish, a Franconian language of the Moselle region very similar to the local German dialect spoken in the neighbouring part of Germany, except that it includes more borrowings from French. So in principle Luxembourgish is a High German dialect with the status of a national language. Apart from being one of the three official languages, Luxembourgish is also considered the national language of the Grand Duchy; it is the mother tongue or "language of the heart" for nearly all Luxembourgers. Each of the three languages is used as the primary language in certain spheres. Luxembourgish is the language that Luxembourgers generally speak to each other, but it is not often written down. Most official (written) business is carried out in French. German is usually the first language taught in school and is the language of much of the media and of the church. In fact, around 85% of all articles published in Luxembourg are in the German language, 12% are in French and only 3% in Luxembourgish. Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German, while secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French. However, as proficiency in all three languages is required for graduation from secondary school, half the students leave school without a certified qualification, with the children of immigrants being particularly disadvantaged. In addition to the three official languages, English is taught in the compulsory schooling and much of the population of Luxembourg can speak English, at any rate in Luxembourg City. Portuguese and Italian, the languages of the two largest immigrant communities, are also spoken by large parts of the population, but by relatively few from outside their respective communities. Religion Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg. Luxembourg is a secular state, but the state recognises certain religions as officially-mandated religions. This gives the state a hand in religious administration and appointment of clergy, in exchange for which the state pays certain running costs and wages. Currently, religions covered by such arrangements are Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Greek Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Russian Orthodoxy, Protestantism and Islam. Since 1980 it has been illegal for the government to collect statistics on religious beliefs or practices. It is estimated by the CIA Factbook that 87% of Luxembourgers are Catholics, the remaining 13% being made up of Protestants, Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims and those of other or no religion. According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 44% of Luxembourg citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 28% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 22% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". Economy Luxembourg's stable, high-income economy features moderate growth, low inflation, and low unemployment. The industrial sector, which was dominated until the 1960s by steel, has diversified to include chemicals, rubber, and other products. During the past decades, growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline in steel. Services, especially banking and other financial exports, account for the majority of economic output. Luxembourg is the world's second largest investment fund center (after the USA), the most important private banking center in the Eurozone and Europe's leading center for reinsurance companies. Moreover, the Luxembourgish government has tried to attract internet start-ups. Skype, Jajah and eBay are only a few of the many internet companies that have shifted their local or global headquarters to Luxembourg. Agriculture is based on small, family-owned farms. Luxembourg has especially close trade and financial ties to Belgium and the Netherlands (see Benelux), and as a member of the EU it enjoys the advantages of the open European market. Luxembourg possesses the highest GDP per capita in the world (US$87,995 as of 2006), the eighteenth highest Human Development Index, and the fourth highest rated in the quality of life index. As of March 2006, unemployment is 4.8% of the labor force. For the fiscal year of 2005 and 2006, Luxembourg has run a budget deficit for the first time in many years, mostly because of slower international economic growth. Transport Luxembourg has efficient road, rail and air transport facilities and services. The road network has been significantly modernised in recent years with 147 km of motorways connecting the capital to adjacent countries. The advent of the high-speed TGV link to Paris has led to renovation of the city's railway station while a new passenger terminal at Luxembourg Airport has recently been opened. There are plans to introduce trams in the capital and light-rail lines in adjacent areas within the next few years. Culture Edward Steichen, Luxembourgish photographer and painter. Luxembourg has been overshadowed by the culture of its neighbours, although, having been for much of its history a profoundly rural country, it retains a number of folk traditions. There are several notable museums, mostly located in the capital; these include the National Museum of History and Art (MNHA), the History Museum of the City of Luxembourg, and the new Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art (Mudam). The National Museum of Military History (MNHM) in Diekirch is especially known for its representations of the Battle of the Bulge. The city of Luxembourg itself is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, on account of the historical importance of its fortifications. The country has produced some internationally known artists, including the painters Joseph Kutter and Michel Majerus, as well as the photographer Edward Steichen. Steichen's The Family of Man exhibition is now permanently housed in Clervaux, and it has been placed on UNESCO's Memory of the World register. Luxembourg was the first city to be named European Capital of Culture twice. The first time was in 1995. In 2007, the European Capital of Culture was to be a cross-border area consisting of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Rheinland-Pfalz and Saarland in Germany, the Walloon Region and the German-speaking part of Belgium, and the Lorraine area in France. The event was an attempt to promote mobility and the exchange of ideas, crossing borders in all areas, physical, psychological, artistic and emotional. Media For many people in other parts of Europe, Luxembourg is best known for its radio and television stations, Radio Luxembourg and the RTL Group, Europe's largest TV, radio and production company. It is also the uplink home of SES Astra, carrier of major European satellite services for Germany and Britain. Studies show that the country Luxembourg consumes the most alcohol, according to Guinness World Records 2008. In the year 2003, on average 2.8 gallons (12.6 litres) of pure alcohol was purchased per citizen. This however is a statistical phenomenon, not actual, as the low taxes on alcohol, cigarettes and petrol in Luxembourg mean that Belgians, French and Germans living close to the border buy these products in Luxembourg, and increase the sales without being counted as consumers in the statistical analyses. See also References https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/lu.html Footnotes External links Government Official Governmental Site Portal for the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Luxembourg information from the United States Department of State Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress Luxembourg at UCB Libraries GovPubs Official Website for Luxembourg Travel Luxembourg National Tourist Office Luxembourg National Tourist Office in London Luxembourg City Tourist Guide Luxembourg Geography Luxembourg European Capital of Culture 2007 Over 200 images of important sights in Luxembourg Other History of Luxembourg: Primary Documents Worldwide Governance Indicators for Luxembourg, 1996-2006 be-x-old:Люксэмбург | Luxembourg |@lemmatized luxembourg:102 officially:2 grand:15 duchy:9 small:6 landlocked:2 country:18 western:4 europe:9 border:10 belgium:7 france:4 germany:8 population:7 half:3 million:1 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4,183 | Probability_distribution | In probability theory and statistics, a probability distribution identifies either the probability of each value of an unidentified random variable (when the variable is discrete), or the probability of the value falling within a particular interval (when the variable is continuous). B.S. Everitt. 2006. The Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics, Third Edition. pp. 313–314. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0521690277 The probability distribution describes the range of possible values that a random variable can attain and the probability that the value of the random variable is within any (measurable) subset of that range. The Normal distribution, often called the "bell curve" When the random variable takes values in the set of real numbers, the probability distribution is completely described by the cumulative distribution function, whose value at each real x is the probability that the random variable is smaller than or equal to x. The concept of the probability distribution and the random variables which they describe underlies the mathematical discipline of probability theory, and the science of statistics. There is spread or variability in almost any value that can be measured in a population (e.g. height of people, durability of a metal, etc.); almost all measurements are made with some intrinsic error; in physics many processes are described probabilistically, from the kinetic properties of gases to the quantum mechanical description of fundamental particles. For these and many other reasons, simple numbers are often inadequate for describing a quantity, while probability distributions are often more appropriate. There are various probability distributions that show up in various different applications. One of the more important ones is the normal distribution, which is also known as the Gaussian distribution or the bell curve and approximates many different naturally occurring distributions. The toss of a fair coin yields another familiar distribution, where the possible values are heads or tails, each with probability 1/2. Formal definition In the measure-theoretic formalization of probability theory, a random variable is defined as a measurable function X from a probability space to its observation space . A probability distribution is the pushforward measure X*P = PX −1 on . In other words, a probability distribution is a probability measure over the observation space instead of the underlying probability space. Probability distributions of real-valued random variables Because a probability distribution Pr on the real line is determined by the probability of a real-valued random variable X being in a half-open interval (-∞, x], the probability distribution is completely characterized by its cumulative distribution function: Discrete probability distribution A probability distribution is called discrete if its cumulative distribution function only increases in jumps. More precisely, a probability distribution is discrete if there is a finite or countable set whose probability is 1. For many familiar discrete distributions, the set of possible values is topologically discrete in the sense that all its points are isolated points. But, there are discrete distributions for which this countable set is dense on the real line. Discrete distributions are characterized by a probability mass function, such that Continuous probability distribution By one convention, a probability distribution is called continuous if its cumulative distribution function is continuous, which means that it belongs to a random variable X for which Pr[ X = x ] = 0 for all x in R. Another convention reserves the term continuous probability distribution for absolutely continuous distributions. These distributions can be characterized by a probability density function: a non-negative Lebesgue integrable function defined on the real numbers such that Discrete distributions and some continuous distributions (like the devil's staircase) do not admit such a density. Terminology The support of a distribution is the smallest closed interval/set whose complement has probability zero. It may be understood as the points or elements that are actual members of the distribution. A discrete random variable is a random variable whose probability distribution is discrete. Similarly, a continuous random variable is a random variable whose probability distribution is continuous. Simulated sampling If one is programming and one wishes to sample from a probability distribution (either discrete or continuous), the following algorithm lets one do so. This algorithm assumes that one has access to the inverse of the cumulative distribution (easy to calculate with a discrete distribution, can be approximated for continuous distributions) and a computational primitive called "random()" which returns a arbitrary-precision floating-point-value in the range of [0,1). define function sampleFrom(cdfInverse (type="function")): // input: // cdfInverse(x) - the inverse of the CDF of the probability distribution // example: if distribution is [[Gaussian]], one can use a [[Taylor approximation]] of the inverse of [[erf]](x) // example: if distribution is discrete, see explanation below pseudocode // output: // type="real number" - a value sampled from the probability distribution represented by cdfInverse r = random() while(r == 0): (make sure r is not equal to 0; discontinuity possible) r = random() return cdfInverse(r) For discrete distributions, the function cdfInverse (inverse of cumulative distribution function) can be calculated from samples as follows: for each element in the sample range (discrete values along the x-axis), calculating the total samples before it. Normalize this new discrete distribution. This new discrete distribution is the CDF, and can be turned into an object which acts like a function: calling cdfInverse(query) returns the greatest x-value such that the CDF is less than the query. define function dataToCdfInverse(discreteDistribution (type="dictionary")) // input: // discreteDistribution - a mapping from possible values to frequencies/probabilities // example: {0 -> 1-p, 1 -> p} would be a [[Bernoulli distribution]] with chance=p // example: setting p=0.5 in the above example, this is a [[fair coin]] where P(X=1)->"heads" and P(X=0)->"tails" // output: // type="function" - a function that represents (CDF^-1)(x) define function cdfInverse(x): integral = 0 go through mapping (key->value) in sorted order, adding value to integral... stop when integral > x (or integral >= x, doesn't matter) return last key we added return cdfInverse Note that often, mathematics environments and computer algebra systems will have some way to represent probability distributions and sample from them. This functionality might even have been developed in third-party libraries. Such packages greatly facilitate such sampling, most likely have optimizations for common distributions, and are likely to be more elegant than the above bare-bones solution. Some properties The probability density function of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of each of their density functions. The probability density function of the difference of two independent random variables is the cross-correlation of their density functions. Probability distributions are not a vector space – they are not closed under linear combinations, as these do not preserve non-negativity or total integral 1 – but they are closed under convex combination, thus forming a convex subset of the space of functions (or measures). List of probability distributions See also Random variable Copula (statistics) Cumulative distribution function Maxwell distribution Likelihood function List of statistical topics Probability density function Histogram Inverse transform sampling Riemann-Stieltjes integral: Application to probability theory Notes External links Interactive Discrete and Continuous Probability Distributions A Compendium of Common Probability Distributions Statistical Distributions - Overview Probability Distributions in Quant Equation Archive, sitmo A Probability Distribution Calculator Distribution Explorer a mixed C++ and C# Windows application that allows you to explore the properties of 20+ statistical distributions, and calculate CDF, PDF & quantiles. Written using open-source C++ from the Boost Math Toolkit library. | Probability_distribution |@lemmatized probability:50 theory:4 statistic:4 distribution:63 identifies:1 either:2 value:18 unidentified:1 random:20 variable:19 discrete:19 fall:1 within:2 particular:1 interval:3 continuous:12 b:1 everitt:1 cambridge:3 dictionary:2 third:2 edition:1 pp:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 describe:5 range:4 possible:5 attain:1 measurable:2 subset:2 normal:2 often:4 call:5 bell:2 curve:2 take:1 set:5 real:8 number:4 completely:2 cumulative:7 function:25 whose:5 x:20 small:2 equal:2 concept:1 underlies:1 mathematical:1 discipline:1 science:1 spread:1 variability:1 almost:2 measure:5 population:1 e:1 g:1 height:1 people:1 durability:1 metal:1 etc:1 measurement:1 make:2 intrinsic:1 error:1 physic:1 many:4 process:1 probabilistically:1 kinetic:1 property:3 gas:1 quantum:1 mechanical:1 description:1 fundamental:1 particle:1 reason:1 simple:1 inadequate:1 quantity:1 appropriate:1 various:2 show:1 different:2 application:3 one:8 important:1 also:2 know:1 gaussian:2 approximate:2 naturally:1 occur:1 toss:1 fair:2 coin:2 yield:1 another:2 familiar:2 head:2 tail:2 formal:1 definition:1 theoretic:1 formalization:1 define:5 space:6 observation:2 pushforward:1 p:7 px:1 word:1 instead:1 underlying:1 pr:2 line:2 determine:1 half:1 open:2 characterize:3 increase:1 jump:1 precisely:1 finite:1 countable:2 topologically:1 sense:1 point:4 isolated:1 dense:1 mass:1 convention:2 mean:1 belong:1 r:6 reserve:1 term:1 absolutely:1 density:7 non:2 negative:1 lebesgue:1 integrable:1 like:2 devil:1 staircase:1 admit:1 terminology:1 support:1 closed:1 complement:1 zero:1 may:1 understand:1 element:2 actual:1 member:1 similarly:1 simulate:1 sample:8 program:1 wish:1 following:1 algorithm:2 let:1 assume:1 access:1 inverse:5 easy:1 calculate:4 computational:1 primitive:1 return:5 arbitrary:1 precision:1 float:1 samplefrom:1 cdfinverse:8 type:4 input:2 cdf:5 example:5 use:2 taylor:1 approximation:1 erf:1 see:2 explanation:1 pseudocode:1 output:2 represent:3 sure:1 discontinuity:1 follow:1 along:1 axis:1 total:2 normalize:1 new:2 turn:1 object:1 act:1 query:2 great:1 less:1 datatocdfinverse:1 discretedistribution:2 mapping:2 frequency:1 would:1 bernoulli:1 chance:1 setting:1 integral:6 go:1 key:2 sort:1 order:1 add:2 stop:1 matter:1 last:1 note:2 mathematics:1 environment:1 computer:1 algebra:1 system:1 way:1 functionality:1 might:1 even:1 develop:1 party:1 library:2 package:1 greatly:1 facilitate:1 sampling:1 likely:2 optimization:1 common:2 elegant:1 bare:1 bone:1 solution:1 sum:1 two:2 independent:2 convolution:1 difference:1 cross:1 correlation:1 vector:1 close:2 linear:1 combination:2 preserve:1 negativity:1 convex:2 thus:1 form:1 list:2 copula:1 maxwell:1 likelihood:1 statistical:3 topic:1 histogram:1 transform:1 riemann:1 stieltjes:1 external:1 link:1 interactive:1 compendium:1 overview:1 quant:1 equation:1 archive:1 sitmo:1 calculator:1 explorer:1 mixed:1 c:3 window:1 allow:1 explore:1 pdf:1 quantiles:1 write:1 source:1 boost:1 math:1 toolkit:1 |@bigram probability_distribution:29 random_variable:17 measurable_subset:1 cumulative_distribution:7 quantum_mechanical:1 lebesgue_integrable:1 integrable_function:1 closed_interval:1 inverse_cdf:1 riemann_stieltjes:1 stieltjes_integral:1 external_link:1 |
4,184 | Antiprism | Set of uniform antiprismsHeptadecagonal antiprismTypeuniform polyhedronFaces2 p-gons, 2p trianglesEdges4pVertices2pVertex configuration3.3.3.pSchläfli symbols{2,p}Coxeter-Dynkin diagramImage:CDW_hole.pngImage:CDW_p.pngImage:CDW_hole.pngImage:CDW_2.pngImage:CDW_hole.pngSymmetry groupDpdDual polyhedrontrapezohedronPropertiesconvex, semi-regular vertex-transitiveNet An n-sided antiprism is a polyhedron composed of two parallel copies of some particular n-sided polygon, connected by an alternating band of triangles. Antiprisms are a subclass of the prismatoids. Antiprisms are similar to prisms except the bases are twisted relative to each other, and that the side faces are triangles, rather than quadrilaterals. In the case of a regular n-sided base, one usually considers the case where its copy is twisted by an angle 180°/n. Extra regularity is obtained by the line connecting the base centers being perpendicular to the base planes, making it a right antiprism. It has, apart from the base faces, 2n isosceles triangles as faces. A uniform antiprism has, apart from the base faces, 2n equilateral triangles as faces. They form an infinite series of vertex-uniform polyhedra, as do the uniform prisms. For n=2 we have as degenerate case the regular tetrahedron, and for n=3 the non-degenerate regular octahedron. The dual polyhedra of the antiprisms are the trapezohedra. Their existence was first discussed and their name was coined by Johannes Kepler. Cartesian coordinates Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a right antiprism with n-gonal bases and isosceles triangles are with k ranging from 0 to 2n-1; if the triangles are equilateral, . Symmetry The symmetry group of a right n-sided antiprism with regular base and isosceles side faces is Dnd of order 4n, except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger symmetry group Td of order 24, which has three versions of D2d as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group Oh of order 48, which has four versions of D3d as subgroups. The symmetry group contains inversion if and only if n is odd. The rotation group is Dn of order 2n, except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger rotation group T of order 12, which has three versions of D2 as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger rotation group O of order 24, which has four versions of D3 as subgroups. See also Prismatic uniform polyhedron Triangular antiprism (Octahedron) Square antiprism Pentagonal antiprism Hexagonal antiprism Octagonal antiprism Decagonal antiprism Dodecagonal antiprism Apeirogonal antiprism Prism (geometry) External links Nonconvex Prisms and Antiprisms Paper models of prisms and antiprisms | Antiprism |@lemmatized set:1 uniform:5 antiprismsheptadecagonal:1 antiprismtypeuniform:1 p:2 gons:1 pschläfli:1 symbol:1 coxeter:1 dynkin:1 diagramimage:1 pngimage:4 pngsymmetry:1 groupdpddual:1 polyhedrontrapezohedronpropertiesconvex:1 semi:1 regular:5 vertex:3 transitivenet:1 n:9 sided:2 antiprism:13 polyhedron:4 compose:1 two:1 parallel:1 copy:2 particular:1 side:4 polygon:1 connect:2 alternate:1 band:1 triangle:6 antiprisms:5 subclass:1 prismatoid:1 similar:1 prisms:1 except:3 base:8 twisted:1 relative:1 face:6 rather:1 quadrilateral:1 case:5 one:1 usually:1 consider:1 twist:1 angle:1 extra:1 regularity:1 obtain:1 line:1 center:1 perpendicular:1 plane:1 make:1 right:3 apart:2 isosceles:3 equilateral:2 form:1 infinite:1 series:1 prism:4 degenerate:2 tetrahedron:3 non:1 octahedron:4 dual:1 trapezohedron:1 existence:1 first:1 discuss:1 name:1 coin:1 johannes:1 kepler:1 cartesian:2 coordinate:2 gonal:1 k:1 range:1 symmetry:5 group:7 dnd:1 order:6 large:4 td:1 three:2 version:4 subgroup:4 oh:1 four:2 contain:1 inversion:1 odd:1 rotation:3 dn:1 see:1 also:1 prismatic:1 triangular:1 square:1 pentagonal:1 hexagonal:1 octagonal:1 decagonal:1 dodecagonal:1 apeirogonal:1 geometry:1 external:1 link:1 nonconvex:1 paper:1 model:1 |@bigram pngimage_pngimage:3 isosceles_triangle:2 equilateral_triangle:1 uniform_polyhedron:2 regular_tetrahedron:1 regular_octahedron:1 dual_polyhedron:1 johannes_kepler:1 cartesian_coordinate:2 external_link:1 prism_antiprisms:2 |
4,185 | Atomic_clock | NIST-F1 Caesium fountain atomic clock, serving as the US time and frequency standard, with an uncertainty of 5.10-16 (as of 2005). An atomic clock is a type of clock that uses an atomic resonance frequency standard as its timekeeping element. They are the most accurate time and frequency standards known, and are used as primary standards for international time distribution services, and to control the frequency of television broadcasts and GPS satellite signals. Atomic clocks do not use radioactivity, but rather the precise microwave signal that electrons in atoms emit when they change energy levels. Early atomic clocks were masers with attached equipment. Currently the most accurate atomic clocks are based on absorption spectroscopy of cold atoms in atomic fountains such as the NIST-F1. National standards agencies maintain an accuracy of 10-9 seconds per day (approximately 1 part in 1014), and a precision set by the radio transmitter pumping the maser. The clocks maintain a continuous and stable time scale, International Atomic Time (TAI). For civil time, another time scale is disseminated, Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). UTC is derived from TAI, but synchronized, by using leap seconds, to UT1, which is based on actual rotations of the earth with respect to the mean sun. History The first atomic clock was an ammonia maser device built in 1949 at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now NIST). It was less accurate than existing quartz clocks, but served to demonstrate the concept. The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK. L.Essen, J.V.L.Parry, "An Atomic Standard of Frequency and Time Interval: A Cæsium Resonator", Nature (London) vol.176, p.280 (13 Aug 1955) Calibration of the cesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale ephemeris time (ET). W Markowitz, R G Hall, L Essen, J V L Parry (1958), 'Frequency of cesium in terms of ephemeris time', Phys Rev Letters v1 (1958), 105-107. This led to the internationally agreed definition of the latest SI second being based on atomic time. Equality of the ET second with the (atomic clock) SI second has been verified to within 1 part in 1010. Wm Markowitz (1988), 'Comparisons of ET(Solar), ET(Lunar), UT and TDT', in (eds.) A K Babcock & G A Wilkins, 'The Earth's Rotation and Reference Frames for Geodesy and Geophysics', IAU Symposia #128 (1988), at pp 413-418 Wm Markowitz (1988) at pages 413-4, gives the information that the SI second was made equal to the second of ephemeris time as determined from lunar observations, and was later verified in this relation, to 1 part in 1010. The SI second thus inherits the effect of decisions by the original designers of the ephemeris time scale, determining the length of the ET second. Since the beginning of development in the 1950s, atomic clocks have been made based on the hyperfine (microwave) transitions in hydrogen-1, caesium-133, and rubidium-87. For decades, scientific-instrument companies such as Hewlett-Packard have been making caesium-beam clocks and hydrogen masers for entities like NIST and USNO. In the late 1990's four factors contributed to major advances in clocks: Laser cooling and trapping of atoms So-called high-finesse Fabry-Perot cavities for narrow laser line widths Precision laser spectroscopy Convenient counting of optical frequencies using optical combs In August 2004, NIST scientists demonstrated a chip-scaled atomic clock. According to the researchers, the clock was believed to be one-hundredth the size of any other. It was also claimed that it requires just 75 mW, making it suitable for battery-driven applications. This device could conceivably become a consumer product. In March 2008, physicists at NIST demonstrated optical atomic clocks based on individual mercury and aluminium ions. These two clocks are the most accurate that have been constructed to date, with neither clock gaining nor losing at a rate that would exceed a second in over a billion years. Mechanism Since 1967, the International System of Units () has defined the second as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation corresponding to the transition between two energy levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. This definition makes the caesium oscillator (often called an atomic clock) the primary standard for time and frequency measurements (see caesium standard). Other physical quantities, like the volt and metre, rely on the definition of the second as part of their own definitions. The core of the atomic clock is a tunable microwave cavity containing the gas. In a hydrogen maser clock the gas emits microwaves (mases) on a hyperfine transition, the field in the cavity oscillates, and the cavity is tuned for maximum microwave amplitude. Alternatively, in a caesium or rubidium clock, the beam or gas absorbs microwaves and the cavity contains an electronic amplifier to make it oscillate. For both types the atoms in the gas are prepared in one electronic state prior to filling them into the cavity. For the second type the number of atoms which change electronic state is detected and the cavity is tuned for a maximum of detected state changes. This adjustment process is where most of the work and complexity of the clock lies. The adjustment tries to correct for unwanted side-effects, such as frequencies from other electron transitions, temperature changes, and the "spreading" in frequencies caused by ensemble effects. One way of doing this is to sweep the microwave oscillator's frequency across a narrow range to generate a modulated signal at the detector. The detector's signal can then be demodulated to apply feedback to control long-term drift in the radio frequency. In this way, the quantum-mechanical properties of the atomic transition frequency of the caesium can be used to tune the microwave oscillator to the same frequency, except for a small amount of experimental error. When a clock is first turned on, it takes a while for the oscillator to stabilize. In practice, the feedback and monitoring mechanism is much more complex than described above. Historical accuracy of atomic clocks from NIST. A number of other atomic clock schemes are in use for other purposes. Rubidium standard clocks are prized for their low cost, small size (commercial standards are as small as 400 cm³) and short-term stability. They are used in many commercial, portable and aerospace applications. Hydrogen masers (often manufactured in Russia) have superior short-term stability compared to other standards, but lower long-term accuracy. Often, one standard is used to fix another. For example, some commercial applications use a Rubidium standard periodically corrected by a GPS receiver. This achieves excellent short-term accuracy, with long-term accuracy equal to (and traceable to) the U.S. national time standards. The lifetime of a standard is an important practical issue. Modern rubidium standard tubes last more than ten years, and can cost as little as US$50[Citation needed]. Caesium reference tubes suitable for national standards currently last about seven years and cost about US$35,000. The long-term stability of hydrogen maser standards decreases because of changes in the cavity's properties over time. Modern clocks use magneto-optical traps to cool the atoms for improved precision. Application Atomic clocks are used to generate standard frequencies. They are installed at sites of time signals, LORAN-C, and Alpha navigation transmitters. They are also installed at some longwave and mediumwave broadcasting stations to deliver a very precise carrier frequency, which can also function as standard frequency. Further, atomic clocks are used for long-baseline interferometry in radioastronomy. Atomic clocks are the basis of the GPS navigation system. The GPS master clock is a weighted average of atomic clocks at the ground stations and onboard the GPS satellites, each of which has several atomic clocks. Power consumption Power consumption varies enormously, but there is a crude scaling with size. Chip scale atomic clocks can use power on the order of 100 mW; NIST-F1 uses power orders of magnitude greater. Research Chip-scale atomic clock unveiled by NIST Most research focuses on the often conflicting goals of making the clocks smaller, cheaper, more accurate, and more reliable. New technologies, such as femtosecond frequency combs, optical lattices and quantum information, have enabled prototypes of next generation atomic clocks. These clocks are based on optical rather than microwave transitions. A major obstacle to developing an optical clock is the difficulty of directly measuring optical frequencies. This problem has been solved with the development of self-referenced mode-locked lasers, commonly referred to as femtosecond frequency combs. Before the demonstration of the frequency comb in 2000, terahertz techniques were needed to bridge the gap between radio and optical frequencies, and the systems for doing so were cumbersome and complicated. With the refinement of the frequency comb these measurements have become much more accessible and numerous optical clock systems are now being developed around the world. Like in the radio range absorption spectroscopy is used to stabilize an oscillator — in this case a laser. When the optical frequency is divided down into a countable radio frequency using a femtosecond comb, the bandwidth of the phase noise is also divided by that factor. Although the bandwidth of laser phase noise is generally greater than stable microwave sources, after division it is less. The two primary systems under consideration for use in optical frequency standards are single ions isolated in an ion trap and neutral atoms trapped in an optical lattice. These two techniques allow the atoms or ions to be highly isolated from external perturbations, thus producing an extremely stable frequency reference. Optical clocks have already achieved better stability and lower systematic uncertainty than the best microwave clocks. This puts them in a position to replace the current standard for time, the caesium fountain clock. Atomic systems under consideration include but are not limited to Al3+, Hg+/2+, Hg, Sr, Sr+, In3+, Ca3+, Ca, Yb2+/3+ and Yb. Radio clocks Modern radio clocks can be referenced to atomic clocks, and provide a way of getting high-quality atomic-derived time over a wide area using inexpensive equipment. However, radio clocks are not appropriate for high-precision scientific work. Many retailers market radio clocks as "atomic clocks"; though the radio signals they receive usually come from true atomic clocks, they are not atomic clocks themselves. There are a number of longwave radio transmitters around the world, in particular DCF77 (Germany), HBG (Switzerland), JJY (Japan), MSF (United Kingdom), TDF (France) and WWVB (United States). Many other countries can receive these signals (JJY can sometimes be received even in Western Australia and Tasmania at night), but it depends on time of day and atmospheric conditions. There is also a transit delay of approximately 1 ms for every 300 kilometers (186 mi) the receiver is from the transmitter. When operating properly and when correctly synchronized, better brands of radio clocks are normally accurate to the second. Typical radio "atomic clocks" require placement in a location with a relatively unobstructed atmospheric path to the transmitter, perform synchronization once a day during the night-time, and need fair to good atmospheric conditions to successfully update the time. The device that keeps track of the time between, or without, updates is usually a cheap and relatively inaccurate quartz-crystal clock, since it is thought that an expensive precise time keeper is not necessary with automatic atomic clock updates. The clock may include an indicator to alert users to possible inaccuracy when synchronization has not been successful within the last 24 to 48 hours. See also Atomichron Atomic fountain Optical Clockwork GPS International Atomic Time Magneto-optical trap Network Time Protocol NIST-F1 Primary Atomic Reference Clock in Space Sense of time Télé Distribution Française References External links What is a Cesium atom clock? National Research Council of Canada: Optical frequency standard based on a single trapped ion United States Naval Observatory Time Service Department PTB Braunschweig, Germany - with link in English language National Physical Laboratory (UK) time website NIST Internet Time Service (ITS): Set Your Computer Clock Via the Internet NIST press release about chip-scaled atomic clock NIST website Web pages on atomic clocks by The Science Museum (London) Optical Atomic Clock BBC, 2005 Optical lattice clock; Journal of the Physical Society of Japan The atomic fountain See, for example, Optical frequency comb for dimensional metrology, atomic and molecular spectroscopy, and precise time keeping. | Atomic_clock |@lemmatized nist:13 caesium:12 fountain:5 atomic:46 clock:66 serve:2 u:5 time:33 frequency:29 standard:26 uncertainty:2 type:3 use:20 resonance:1 timekeeping:1 element:1 accurate:7 know:1 primary:4 international:4 distribution:2 service:3 control:2 television:1 broadcast:1 gps:6 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atomichron:1 clockwork:1 network:1 protocol:1 space:1 sense:1 télé:1 française:1 link:2 council:1 canada:1 trapped:1 naval:1 observatory:1 department:1 ptb:1 braunschweig:1 english:1 language:1 website:2 internet:2 computer:1 via:1 press:1 release:1 web:1 science:1 museum:1 bbc:1 journal:1 society:1 dimensional:1 metrology:1 molecular:1 |@bigram atomic_clock:33 absorption_spectroscopy:2 utc_utc:1 w_markowitz:1 phys_rev:1 geodesy_geophysics:1 hewlett_packard:1 hydrogen_maser:4 could_conceivably:1 microwave_cavity:2 microwave_oscillator:2 modulated_signal:1 quantum_mechanical:1 gps_receiver:1 magneto_optical:2 weighted_average:1 sr_sr:1 quartz_crystal:1 external_link:1 |
4,186 | California_Department_of_Transportation | The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) is a government department in the U.S. state of California. Its mission is to improve mobility across the state. It manages the state highway system and is actively involved with public transportation systems within the state. The department falls under the state cabinet-level California Business, Transportation and Housing Agency. History The earliest predecessor of Caltrans was the Bureau of Highways, which was created by the California Legislature and signed into law by Governor James Budd in 1895. Raymond Forsyth and Joseph Hagwood, One Hundred Years of Progress (Sacramento: California Transportation Foundation, 1996): 11 This agency consisted of three commissioners who were charged with analyzing the state road system and making recommendations. After the commissioners submitted their report to the Governor on November 25, 1896, the Legislature replaced the Bureau with the Department of Highways. Id., at 12. Due to the state's weak fiscal condition and corrupt politics, little progress was made until 1907, when the Legislature replaced the Department of Highways with the Department of Engineering, within which there was a Division of Highways. Id. The voters approved a $18 million bond issue for the construction of a state highway system in 1910 and the first Highway Commission was convened in 1911. Id. On August 7, 1912, the Department broke ground on its first construction project, the section of El Camino Real between South San Francisco and Burlingame (now part of California State Route 82). Id., at 13. 1912 also saw the founding of the Transportation Laboratory and the creation of seven administrative divisions (the predecessors of the 12 district offices that exist today). Id. In 1913, the Legislature started requiring vehicle registration and allocated the resulting funds to support regular highway maintenance, which began the next year. Id. In 1921, the Legislature turned the Department of Engineering into the Department of Public Works. Id., at 32. In late 1972, the Legislature approved a reorganization (suggested by a study initiated by Governor Ronald Reagan), in which the Department of Public Works was merged with the Department of Aeronautics to become the modern Department of Transportation. Id., at 128. Caltrans headquarters in Sacramento Administration For administrative purposes, Caltrans has divided the state of California into 12 districts supervised by district offices. Most districts cover multiple counties; District 12 (Orange County) is the only district with one county. The largest districts are District 4 (San Francisco Bay Area) and District 7 (Los Angeles and Ventura counties). As a state agency, its main headquarters are located in Sacramento, which is covered by District 3. Current projects Several important projects include Interstate 105, the reconstruction of the SR 91/SR 60/I-215 interchange, the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge (East Span), and the Devil's Slide tunnel scheduled to be completed in 2011. See also District 7 Headquarters, Los Angeles, birds-eye view (designed by Thom Mayne (2004)) FasTrak U.S. Department of Transportation List of roads and highways State highways in California Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge (Caltrans-related controversy) Caltrans Division of Rail, also known as Amtrak California External links California Department of Transportation official website References | California_Department_of_Transportation |@lemmatized california:10 department:14 transportation:8 caltrans:6 government:1 u:2 state:12 mission:1 improve:1 mobility:1 across:1 manage:1 highway:10 system:4 actively:1 involve:1 public:3 within:2 fall:1 cabinet:1 level:1 business:1 housing:1 agency:3 history:1 early:1 predecessor:2 bureau:2 create:1 legislature:6 sign:1 law:1 governor:3 james:1 budd:1 raymond:1 forsyth:1 joseph:1 hagwood:1 one:2 hundred:1 year:2 progress:2 sacramento:3 foundation:1 consist:1 three:1 commissioner:2 charge:1 analyze:1 road:2 make:2 recommendation:1 submit:1 report:1 november:1 replace:2 id:8 due:1 weak:1 fiscal:1 condition:1 corrupt:1 politics:1 little:1 engineering:2 division:3 voter:1 approve:2 million:1 bond:1 issue:1 construction:2 first:2 commission:1 convene:1 august:1 break:1 ground:1 project:3 section:1 el:1 camino:1 real:1 south:1 san:4 francisco:4 burlingame:1 part:1 route:1 also:3 saw:1 founding:1 laboratory:1 creation:1 seven:1 administrative:2 district:11 office:2 exist:1 today:1 start:1 require:1 vehicle:1 registration:1 allocate:1 result:1 fund:1 support:1 regular:1 maintenance:1 begin:1 next:1 turn:1 work:2 late:1 reorganization:1 suggest:1 study:1 initiate:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 merge:1 aeronautics:1 become:1 modern:1 headquarters:3 administration:1 purpose:1 divide:1 supervise:1 cover:2 multiple:1 county:4 orange:1 large:1 bay:3 area:1 los:2 angeles:2 ventura:1 main:1 locate:1 current:1 several:1 important:1 include:1 interstate:1 reconstruction:1 sr:2 interchange:1 oakland:2 bridge:2 east:1 span:2 devil:1 slide:1 tunnel:1 schedule:1 complete:1 see:1 bird:1 eye:1 view:1 design:1 thom:1 mayne:1 fastrak:1 list:1 eastern:1 replacement:1 relate:1 controversy:1 rail:1 know:1 amtrak:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 reference:1 |@bigram sacramento_california:1 el_camino:1 camino_real:1 san_francisco:4 ronald_reagan:1 los_angeles:2 sr_sr:1 external_link:1 |
4,187 | Jerome_K._Jerome | Jerome Klapka Jerome (2 May 1859 – 14 June 1927) was an English writer and humorist, best known for the humorous travelogue Three Men in a Boat. Jerome was born in Caldmore, Walsall, England, where there is now a museum in his honour, and was brought up in poverty in London. Other works include the essay collections Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow and Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow; Three Men on the Bummel, a sequel to Three Men in a Boat; and several other novels. Early life Jerome was the fourth child of Jerome Clapp (who later renamed himself Jerome Clapp Jerome), an ironmonger and lay preacher who dabbled in architecture, and Marguerite Jones. He had two sisters, Paulina and Blandina, and one brother, Milton, who died at an early age. Jerome was registered, like his father's amended name, as Jerome Clapp Jerome, and the Klapka appears to be a later variation (after the exiled Hungarian general György Klapka). Due to bad investments in the local mining industry, the family suffered poverty, and debt collectors often visited, an experience Jerome described vividly in his autobiography My Life and Times . The young Jerome wished to go into politics or be a man of letters, but the death of both his parents in 1872, when he was 13 years old, forced him to quit his studies and find work to support himself. He was employed at the London and North Western Railway, initially collecting coal that fell along the railway, and remained there for four years. Acting career and early literary works In 1877, inspired by his older sister Blandina’s love for the theatre, Jerome had decided to try his hand at acting, under the stage name Harold Crichton. He joined a repertory troupe who tried to produce plays on a shoestring budget, often drawing on the meagre resources of the actors themselves to purchase costumes and props. Jerome had later comically reflected on this period in On the Stage — and Off, where it is apparent that he was penniless at the time. After three years on the road and with no evident success, a 21 year old Jerome decided he had had enough with stage life, and sought other occupations. He tried to become a journalist, writing essays, satires and short stories, but most of these were rejected. Over the next few years he was a school teacher, a packer, and a solicitor’s clerk. Finally, in 1885, he had some success with On the Stage — and Off, a humorous book whose publication opened the door for more plays and essays. Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow, a collection of humorous essays, followed in 1886. On 21 June 1888, Jerome married Georgina Elizabeth Henrietta Stanley Marris (a.k.a. Ettie), nine days after she had divorced her first husband. She had a daughter from a previous, five-year marriage, nicknamed Elsie (her actual name was also Georgina). The honeymoon took place on the Thames "in a little boat," Joseph Connolly. Jerome K. Jerome, p. 183. a fact which was to have a significant influence on his next, and most important work, Three Men in a Boat. Three Men in a Boat and later career Jerome sat down to write Three Men in a Boat as soon as the couple returned from their honeymoon. In the novel, his wife was replaced by his longtime friends George Wingrave (George) and Carl Hentschel (Harris). This allowed him to create comic (and non-sentimental) situations which were nonetheless intertwined with the history of the Thames region. The book, published in 1889, became an instant success and has remained in print until the present. Its popularity was such that the number of registered Thames boats went up fifty percent in the year following its publication, and it contributed significantly to the Thames becoming a tourist attraction. In its first twenty years alone, the book sold over a million copies worldwide. It has been adapted to movies, TV and radio shows, stage plays, and even a musical. Its writing style influenced many humorists and satirists in England and elsewhere. Its endurance can probably be attributed to the style and choice of a relatively unchanged location, which prevents the work from appearing dated. With the financial security the sales of the book provided, Jerome was able to dedicate all of his time to writing. He wrote a number of plays, essays and novels, but was never able to recapture the success of Three Men in a Boat. In 1892 he was chosen by Robert Barr to edit The Idler (over Rudyard Kipling). The magazine was an illustrated satirical monthly catering to gentlemen (who, following the theme of the publication, appreciated idleness). In 1893 he founded To-Day, but had to withdraw from both publications because of financial difficulties and a libel suit. In 1898, a short stay in Germany inspired Three Men on the Bummel, the sequel to Three Men in a Boat. While reintroducing the same characters in the setting of a foreign bicycle tour, the book was nonetheless unable to capture the life-force and historic roots of its predecessor, and it enjoyed only a mild success. In 1902 he published the novel Paul Kelver, which is widely regarded as autobiographical. His 1908 play The Passing of the Third Floor Back introduced a more sombre and religious Jerome. This was a tremendous commercial success but was condemned by critics - Max Beerbohm described it as "vilely stupid" and as written by a "tenth-rate writer". World War I and last years Jerome volunteered to serve his country at the outbreak of the war but, being 56 years old, was rejected by the British Army. Eager to serve in some capacity, he volunteered as an ambulance driver for the French Army. The war experience was said to have dampened his spirit, as did the death in 1921 of his stepdaughter, Elsie. In 1926, Jerome published his autobiography, My Life and Times. Shortly afterwards, the Borough of Walsall conferred on him the title Freeman of the Borough. In June 1927, on a motoring tour from Devon to London via Cheltenham and Northampton, Jerome suffered a paralytic stroke and a cerebral haemorrhage. He lay in Northampton General Hospital for two weeks before succumbing on 14 June. Jerome K. Jerome: The Man, from the Jerome K. Jerome Society. Accessed 6 April 2007 He was cremated at Golders Green and his ashes buried at St Mary's Church, Ewelme, Oxfordshire. Elsie, Ettie, and his sister Blandina are buried beside him. A museum dedicated to his life and works now exists at his birth home in Walsall. Notes There is a French graphic novel series named Jerome K. Jerome Bloche after the author. George Wingrave is described in Three Men in A Boat as a bank clerk. Later in his career he became a senior manager in Barclays Bank. The route up the Thames of Three Men in a Boat was reproduced in a 2005 BBC documentary by comedians Dara Ó Briain, Rory McGrath and Griff Rhys Jones. Jerome was good friends with J. M. Barrie, H. G. Wells, Rudyard Kipling, Arthur Conan Doyle, Thomas Hardy, and Israel Zangwill. There is a street named after him called Jerome Road in Alumwell. Three Men in a Boat is well-known in India (for example http://www.cisce.org/syllabus.htm), Russia and Pakistan, because the book or excerpts from it had been required reading in public schools. Connie Willis's time-travel novel To Say Nothing of the Dog has the characters of Three Men in a Boat make a brief appearance while they were on their Thames trip. The reference is to the full title of the original book; Three Men in a Boat - To Say Nothing of the Dog!. Bibliography Novels Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow (1886) Three Men in a Boat (1889) Diary of a Pilgrimage (and Six Essays) (1891) (full text) Novel Notes (1893) Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow (1898) Three Men on the Bummel (aka Three Men on Wheels) (1900) Paul Kelver, a novel (1902) Tommy and Co (1904) They and I (1909) All Roads Lead to Calvary (1919) Anthony John (1923) The Love of Ulrich Nebendahl (1909) The Philosopher's Joke (1909) Collections Told After Supper (1891) John Ingerfield: And Other Stories (1894) Sketches in Lavender, Blue and Green (1895) The Observations of Henry (1901) The Angel and the Author and Others (1904) American Wives and Others (1904) The Passing of the Third Floor Back: And Other Stories (1907) Malvina of Brittany (1916) A miscellany of sense and nonsense from the writings of Jerome K. Jerome. Selected by the author with many apologies, with forty-three illustrations by Will Owen. 1924 Three Men in a Boat and Three Men on the Bummel (1974) After Supper Ghost Stories: And Other Tales (1985) Autobiography My Life and Times (1926) Anthologies containing stories by Jerome K. Jerome Great Short Stories of Detection, Mystery and Horror 1st Series (1928) A Century of Humour (1934) The Mammoth Book of Thrillers, Ghosts and Mysteries (1936) Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1957) Famous Monster Tales (1967) The 5th Fontana Book of Great Ghost Stories (1969) The Rivals of Frankenstein (1975) The 17th Fontana Book of Great Ghost Stories (1981) Stories in the Dark (1984) Gaslit Nightmares (1988) Horror Stories (1988) 100 Tiny Tales of Terror (1996) Knights of Madness: Further Comic Tales of Fantasy (1998) 100 Hilarious Little Howlers (1999) Short stories The Haunted Mill (1891) The New Utopia (1891) The Dancing Partner (1893) Evergreens Christmas Eve in the Blue Chamber Silhouettes The Skeleton The Snake The Woman of the Saeter Plays The Maister of Wood Barrow: play in three acts (1890) The Night of Feb. 14th. 1899: a play in nine scenes Miss Hobbs: a comedy in four acts (1902) Fanny and the Servant Problem, a quite possible play in four acts (1909)The Master of Mrs. Chilvers: an improbable comedy, imagined by Jerome K. Jerome (1911) The Celebrity: a play in three acts (1926) Robina's Web ("The Dovecote," or "The grey feather"): a farce in four acts The Passing of the Third Floor Back References External links Works by or about Jerome K. Klapka at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) The Jerome K. Jerome Society Jerome K. Jerome Short Stories Jerome K. Jerome Quotes subject-wise Jerome K. Jerome on Find-A-Grave Jerome K. Jerome in 1881 Audio versions of Jerome K. Jerome's works on Librivox | Jerome_K._Jerome |@lemmatized jerome:51 klapka:4 may:1 june:4 english:1 writer:2 humorist:2 best:1 know:2 humorous:3 travelogue:1 three:23 men:19 boat:16 bear:1 caldmore:1 walsall:3 england:2 museum:2 honour:1 bring:1 poverty:2 london:3 work:8 include:1 essay:6 collection:3 idle:8 thought:5 fellow:5 second:2 bummel:4 sequel:2 several:1 novel:9 early:3 life:7 fourth:1 child:1 clapp:3 later:4 rename:1 ironmonger:1 lay:2 preacher:1 dabble:1 architecture:1 marguerite:1 jones:2 two:2 sister:3 paulina:1 blandina:3 one:1 brother:1 milton:1 die:1 age:1 register:1 like:1 father:1 amend:1 name:5 appear:2 late:1 variation:1 exiled:1 hungarian:1 general:2 györgy:1 due:1 bad:1 investment:1 local:1 mining:1 industry:1 family:1 suffer:2 debt:1 collector:1 often:2 visit:1 experience:2 describe:3 vividly:1 autobiography:3 time:6 young:1 wish:1 go:2 politics:1 man:2 letter:1 death:2 parent:1 year:10 old:4 force:2 quit:1 study:1 find:2 support:1 employ:1 north:1 western:1 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4,188 | Grand_jury | In the common law, a grand jury is a type of jury that determines whether there is enough evidence for a trial. Grand juries carry out this duty by examining evidence presented to them by a prosecutor and issuing indictments, or by investigating alleged crimes and issuing presentments. A grand jury is traditionally larger than and distinguishable from a petit jury, which is used during a trial. History The first instance of a grand jury can be traced back to the Assize of Clarendon, an 1166 act of Henry II of England. Medieval Sourcebook: Assize of Clarendon 1166 In fact, Henry's chief contribution to the development of the English monarchy was to increase the jurisdiction of the royal courts at the expense of the feudal courts. Itinerant justices on regular circuits were sent out once each year to enforce the "King's Peace." To make this system of royal criminal justice more effective, Henry employed the method of inquest used by William the Conqueror in the Domesday Book. In each shire a body of important men was sworn (jure) to report to the sheriff all crimes committed since the last session of the circuit court. Thus originated the modern grand jury that presents information for an indictment. The Making of Modern Britain The grand jury was later recognized by King John in the Magna Carta in 1215 on demand of the nobility. The Grand Jury In the early decades of the United States grand juries played a major role in public matters. During that period counties followed the traditional practice of requiring all decisions be made by at least 12 of the grand jurors, so that for a size of 23 a bare majority would be 12. Any citizen could bring a matter before it directly, from a public work that needed repair, to a delinquent official, to a complaint of a crime, and they could conduct their own investigations. In that era most criminal prosecutions were conducted by private parties, either a law enforcement officer, a lawyer hired by a crime victim or his family, or even by laymen, who could bring a bill of indictment to the grand jury, and if the grand jury found there was sufficient evidence for a trial, that the act was a crime under law, and that the court had jurisdiction, then by returning the indictment to the complainant, it appointed him to exercise the authority of an attorney general, that is, one having a general power of attorney to represent the state in the case. The grand jury served to screen out incompetent or malicious prosecutions. The Grand Jury, George J. Edwards (1906) The advent of official public prosecutors in the later decades of the 19th century largely displaced private prosecutions, but also led to their capturing grand juries and using them in ways for which they were not originally intended. If It's Not a Runaway, It's Not a Real Grand Jury, Roger Roots, Creighton L.R., Vol. 33, No. 4, 1999-2000, 821 In Ireland grand juries were active from medieval times in the English-controlled parts of the island, mainly functioning as local government authorities at the county level, as well as having a pre-trial judicial function for serious criminal cases. Members were usually wealthy landowners, farmers and merchants, who selected new members. From 1691 to 1793 Roman Catholics were excluded from membership. They were replaced by democratically-elected County Councils by the Act of 1898. Today Grand juries are today virtually unknown outside the United States. England abandoned grand juries in 1933 and instead uses a committal procedure, as do all Australian jurisdictions. In Australia, although the State of Victoria maintains provisions for a grand jury in the Crimes Act 1958 under section 354 Indictments, it has been used on rare occasions by individuals to bring other persons to court seeking them to be committed for trial on indictable offenses. New Zealand abolished the grand jury in 1961. Canada abolished it in the 1970s. Today approximately half of the states in the U.S. employ them, and only twenty-two require their use, to varying extents. Most jurisdictions have abolished grand juries, replacing them with the preliminary hearing at which a judge hears evidence concerning the alleged offenses and makes a decision on whether the prosecution can proceed. A grand jury is meant to be part of the system of checks and balances, preventing a case from going to trial on a prosecutor's bare word. A prosecutor must convince the grand jury, an impartial panel of ordinary citizens, that there exists reasonable suspicion, probable cause, or a prima facie case that a crime has been committed. The grand jury can compel witnesses to testify before them. Unlike the trial itself, the grand jury's proceedings are secret; the defendant and his or her counsel are generally not present for other witnesses' testimony. The grand jury's decision is either a "true bill" (meaning that there is a case to answer), or "no true bill". In the state of Louisiana there is a third option, "By pretermitting entirely the matter investigated". This requires nine of the twelve grand jurors to determine there is not enough evidence presented to determine if a person should or should not be charged with a crime. www.16jda.com The Grand Jury Proceedure; What action may a grand jury take after hearing evidence in a case? #3. retrieved 2009-01-02 Jurors typically are drawn from the same pool of citizens as a petit jury, and participate for a specific time period. Grand Juries in the United States Federal grand juries Charges involving "capital or infamous crimes" under federal jurisdiction must be presented to a grand jury, under the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. This has been interpreted to permit bypass of the grand jury for misdemeanor offenses, which can be charged by prosecutor's information. State grand juries Unlike many other provisions of the Bill of Rights, the Supreme Court has ruled Hurtado v. California, 110 U.S. 516 (1884) and Hurtado v. California that this requirement was not incorporated to apply to state courts via the Fourteenth Amendment, and states therefore may elect not to use grand juries. Runaway grand jury Grand juries rarely aggressively go beyond the control of the prosecuting attorney. When the grand jury does this it's called a runaway grand jury. Runaway grand juries sometimes happen in government corruption or organized crime cases, if the grand jury comes to believe that the prosecutor himself has been improperly influenced. Such cases were common in the 19th century, but have become infrequent since the 1930s. One of the most famous cases was the 1935 Runaway Grand Jury in New York City, which was investigating gambling and mobster Dutch Schultz. Jury members complained in open court, which was widely reported by the press, that prosecutors were not pursuing obvious leads and hinted that the district attorney was possibly receiving payoffs. Thomas E. Dewey was appointed as an independent prosecutor and would rocket to fame on his prosecutors. Fighting Organized Crime: Politics, Justice, and the Legacy of Thomas E. Dewey by Mary M. Stolberg (Northeastern (October 5, 1995) ISBN 1555532454 Criticism Jon Roland has argued that most grand juries as they are set up and used today are unconstitutional, and that there should be a return to grand jury practices closer to those that prevailed during the founding era. This would mean grand juries of 23 unpaid citizens each serving no more than 3,000 people, open to having anyone bring any matter before them, with no preferential treatment of public prosecutors, and deciding every question by a vote of at least 12. Opening the Grand Jury, Jon Roland Professor Kevin K. Washburn has made a somewhat similar claim, arguing that grand juries that drawn from actual communities would better fulfill the promise of representing "the community" in criminal justice and serve as more weighty and cohesive counterparts to expert prosecutors. Kevin K. Washburn, Restoring the Grand Jury, 76 Fordham L. Rev. 2333(2008), available at Cato Institute writers argued that grand juries as conducted today are unjust as the defendant is not represented by counsel and/or does not have the right to call witnesses. Intended to serve as a check on prosecutors, the opportunity it presents them to compel testimony can in fact prove useful in building up the case they will present at the final trial. http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa476.pdf, A Grand Façade: How the Grand Jury Was Captured by Government, by W. Thomas Dillard, Stephen R. Johnson, and Timothy Lynch Many jurisdictions in the United States have replaced the formality of a grand jury with a procedure in which the prosecutor can issue charges by filing an information (also known as an accusation), which is followed by a preliminary hearing before a judge at which both the defendant and his or her counsel are present. New York has amended procedures governing the formation of grand juries so that grand jurors are no longer required to have previous jury experience. Contrary to what some might expect, in some jurisdictions grand jurors are selected to serve by the local prosecutor, rather than by random selection from the community. Many who serve have done so many times and have a proven "record" to indict. No state has a provision to limit the number of grand juries a prosecutor can form to finally get the indictment he wants. If the first one doesn't indict he can form another. Sol Wachtler, the former Chief Judge of New York State, jokingly observed that a prosecutor could persuade a grand jury to "indict a ham sandwich." This issue was identified nationally when a Texas prosecutor, Ronnie Earle, organized three grand juries before he could get an indictment on Congressman Tom Delay. The issue is mitigated by the fact that each subsequent grand jury may be called to view additional evidence, and not to merely revisit evidence that was already presented; but in the Earle/DeLay case, the third grand jury handed down its indictment less than a week after the second grand jury handed down a "no bill" decision. In his two page Op/Ed in the Houston Chronicle, Joseph Gutheinz, a Texas attorney, former Harris County grand jury member and a member of the Republican National Lawyers Association went against members of his own party by condemning the way grand juries are selected in Harris County, Texas. He said that "Harris County grand juries are too white and too conservative." Gutheinz called the "Harris County grand jury...a throwback to our segregated past." Gutheinz said that the problem with the Harris County grand jury is that it is largely drawn from a pool of volunteers, and that Commissioners picked by the Republican judges get to pick what individuals ultimately get to serve on grand juries, and then the judges pick the grand jury foremen from that list. Grand Jury System's a Bad Joke on Justice: Harris County grand juries are too white, too right. Minorities, Democrats pay unfair price, Joseph Richard Gutheinz, Jr. Houston Chronicle, page E-1 and E5, June 1, 2008. { http://www.hpjc.org/CWPP_Newsletter080701.pdf } Evidence Keeps Mounting: No Justice in Harris County Justice System. The Newsletter of the Coalition of Working People and the Poor, Volume 2, No 2, July 2008. { http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/01/us/01texas.html?ex=1372651200&en=849acdaef3a9ceac&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink } Grand Jury Clears Texan in the Killing of 2 Burglars, by Adam B. Ellick. New York Times, July 1, 2008. The Constitutionality of contemporary grand jury practices has been brought before the Supreme Court six times in history; however, the court has yet to allow a case to be heard. In all U.S. jurisdictions retaining the grand jury, a potential defendant has the right under the Fifth Amendment not to give self-incriminating testimony. However, the prosecutor can call a potential defendant to testify, which may require that person to then assert his or her Fifth Amendment right. In New York and some other states, a witness testifying about crimes he has committed is immune to prosecution for those crimes, unless he previously waives immunity. County grand juries in California, Massachusetts, Minnesota, and Nevada In the U.S., the states of California, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, and Oregon have grand juries at the county level. In California, each county is required by the state constitution to have at least one grand jury impaneled at all times. Grand Juries are governed by Title 4 of the California Penal Code, as well as other more general provisions. Grand juries are not subject to the Brown Act. Most grand juries are seated on a fiscal cycle, i.e. July through June. Most counties have panels consisting of 19 jurors, some have as few as 11 jurors, others have as many as 23 (see California Penal Code Section 888.2). All actions by a grand jury require a two-thirds vote. Jurors are usually selected on a volunteer basis. These county-level grand juries primarily focus on oversight of government institutions at the county level and lower. Almost any entity that receives public money can be examined by the grand jury, including county government, cities, and special districts. Each panel selects the topics that it wishes to examine each year. A jury is not allowed to continue an oversight from a previous panel. If a jury wishes to look at a subject that a prior jury was examining, it must start its own investigation and independently verify all information. It may use information obtained from the prior jury but this information must be verified before it can be used by the current jury. Upon completing its investigation, the jury may, but is not required to, issue a report detailing its findings and recommendations. The grand jury is required to publish a minimum of one report containing a minimum of one finding and one recommendation. The published reports are the only public record of the grand jury's work; there is no minority report. Each published report includes a list of those public entities that are required or requested to respond. The format of these responses is dictated by California Penal Code Section 933.05, as is the time span in which they must respond. County grand juries develop areas to examine by two avenues: juror interests, and public complaints. Complaints filed by the public are kept confidential. The protection of whistleblowers is one of the primary reasons for the confidential nature of the grand jury's work. Most county grand juries in California do not consider criminal matters, though by law they are able to. The decision of whether or not to present criminal cases to the grand jury is made by the county District Attorney. The law governing county grand juries may differ in Nevada. Hennepin County, Minnesota (which contains Minneapolis) keeps a Grand Jury impaneled at all times. Each Grand Jury serves a term of four months. The Grand Jury typically meets one day each week. It focuses almost exclusively on homicide cases. Circuit Grand Juries in Kentucky In Kentucky, grand jurors are empaneled in each county, at the Circuit level (felonies only) for a four-month term (3 panels per year). During the trial jury orientation for the given four-month term, the grand jurors are selected from the trial jury pool, although the method of selection is not necessarily random. The meetings are twice a month (however, grand juries in more populous counties generally meet more often), with each meeting usually going through 20-30 cases in a 4-5 hour period. The indictment rate is about 98-99%; the grand jury can broaden (about 1% of the time) or narrow (about 3% of the time) the counts in the indictment as well. Usually, 15 or so grand jurors are required to report to meetings; the hope is that 12 will show to each meeting, which is the number of jurors required to hear cases (extra jurors can leave). It takes 9 yes votes to the question of probable cause to sign a true bill of indictment. Less than 9 yes votes either causes a no true bill or a narrowing of the indictment (depending on the votes per count). The rules are very similar to the federal process; the grand jury only hears from law enforcement personnel, with the exception of property crimes, where store detectives or actual victims of theft or vandalism are called to testify. The only cases brought to the grand jury are those initiated from the Commonwealth's Attorney's office (the prosecutor for felonies). For the vast majority of cases, the grand jurors generally only hear a recitation of facts from the police report, crime laboratory reports, and other documentation generated during the evidence gathering process. Grand jurors can ask factual questions of the witnesses and legal questions of the prosecutors. The ability to broaden or narrow indictments does technically allow for grand juries to open new avenues of investigation, although since it is dependent on prosecutors for facts, this seems very rarely done, if ever. Rules of confidentiality apply to grand jurors, which are similar to the federal rules. See also Preliminary hearing Committal procedure References External links Grand Jury FAQ from the American Bar Association Grand Juries and Government Harassment of Activists The California Grand Jurors' Association "Federal Grand Jury", a website from a professor at the University of Dayton More on Grand Jury reform, from the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers How Federal Grand Juries Work NPR. Accessed 2008-09-06. Grand juror handbooks from the court system: Federal (in PDF format) Virginia Hennepin County (Minnesota) Illinois Who invented the grand jury? from the Straight Dope Questioning Double Jeopardy Grand Juries The Grand Jury, Hugh Turley, Hyattsville Life and Times, January, 2007 | Grand_jury |@lemmatized common:2 law:6 grand:114 jury:113 type:1 determine:3 whether:3 enough:2 evidence:10 trial:10 carry:1 duty:1 examine:5 present:10 prosecutor:21 issuing:1 indictment:13 investigate:3 allege:2 crime:15 issue:5 presentment:1 traditionally:1 large:1 distinguishable:1 petit:2 use:10 history:2 first:2 instance:1 trace:1 back:1 assize:2 clarendon:2 act:5 henry:3 ii:1 england:2 medieval:2 sourcebook:1 fact:5 chief:2 contribution:1 development:1 english:2 monarchy:1 increase:1 jurisdiction:8 royal:2 court:11 expense:1 feudal:1 itinerant:1 justice:7 regular:1 circuit:4 send:1 year:3 enforce:1 king:2 peace:1 make:5 system:5 criminal:7 effective:1 employ:2 method:2 inquest:1 william:1 conqueror:1 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4,189 | Impressionism | Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise), 1872, oil on canvas, Musee Marmottan Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement that began as a loose association of Paris-based artists exhibiting their art publicly in the 1860s. The name of the movement is derived from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, Sunrise (Impression, soleil levant), which provoked the critic Louis Leroy to coin the term in a satiric review published in Le Charivari. Characteristics of Impressionist paintings include visible brush strokes, open composition, emphasis on light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, the inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience, and unusual visual angles. The emergence of Impressionism in the visual arts was soon followed by analogous movements in other media which became known as Impressionist music and Impressionist literature. Impressionism also describes art created in this style, but outside of the late 19th century time period. Overview Alfred Sisley, Bridge at Villeneuve-la-Garenne, 1872, Metropolitan Museum of Art Radicals in their time, early Impressionists broke the rules of academic painting. They began by giving colours, freely brushed, primacy over line, drawing inspiration from the work of painters such as Eugène Delacroix. They also took the act of painting out of the studio and into the modern world. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes had usually been painted indoors. Exceptions include Canaletto, who painted outside and may have used the camera obscura. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air. Painting realistic scenes of modern life, they emphasized vivid overall effects rather than details. They used short, "broken" brush strokes of pure and unmixed colour, not smoothly blended, as was customary, in order to achieve the effect of intense colour vibration. Although the rise of Impressionism in France happened at a time when a number of other painters, including the Italian artists known as the Macchiaioli, and Winslow Homer in the United States, were also exploring plein-air painting, the Impressionists developed new techniques that were specific to the movement. Encompassing what its adherents argued was a different way of seeing, it was an art of immediacy and movement, of candid poses and compositions, of the play of light expressed in a bright and varied use of colour. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if it did not receive the approval of the art critics and establishment. By re-creating the sensation in the eye that views the subject, rather than recreating the subject, and by creating a welter of techniques and forms, Impressionism became a precursor seminal to various movements in painting which would follow, including Neo-Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism. Beginnings Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (Le Bal au Moulin de la Galette), 1876, In an atmosphere of change as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris and waged war, the Académie des Beaux-Arts dominated the French art scene in the middle of the 19th century. The Académie was the upholder of traditional standards for French painting, both in content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued (landscape and still life were not), and the Académie preferred carefully finished images which mirrored reality when examined closely. Colour was somber and conservative, and the traces of brush strokes were suppressed, concealing the artist's personality, emotions, and working techniques. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Girl with a Hoop, 1885 The Académie held an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries reflected the values of the Académie, represented by the highly polished works of such artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme and Alexandre Cabanel. Some younger artists painted in a lighter and brighter manner than painters of the preceding generation, extending further the realism of Gustave Courbet and the Barbizon school. They were more interested in painting landscape and contemporary life than in recreating scenes from history. Each year, they submitted their art to the Salon, only to see the juries reject their best efforts in favour of trivial works by artists working in the approved style. A core group of young realists, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, and Frédéric Bazille, who had studied under Charles Gleyre, became friends and often painted together. They soon were joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, and Armand Guillaumin. "Vincent Van Gogh" Oxford Art Online Pierre-Auguste Renoir, On the Terrace, oil on canvas, 1881, Art Institute of Chicago In 1863, the jury rejected The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe) by Édouard Manet primarily because it depicted a nude woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While nudes were routinely accepted by the Salon when featured in historical and allegorical paintings, the jury condemned Manet for placing a realistic nude in a contemporary setting. Denvir (1990), p.133. The jury's sharply worded rejection of Manet's painting, as well as the unusually large number of rejected works that year, set off a firestorm among French artists. Manet was admired by Monet and his friends, and led the discussions at Café Guerbois where the group of artists frequently met. Claude Monet, Woman with a Parasol, (Camille and Jean Monet), 1875, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. After seeing the rejected works in 1863, Emperor Napoleon III decreed that the public be allowed to judge the work themselves, and the Salon des Refusés (Salon of the Refused) was organized. While many viewers came only to laugh, the Salon des Refusés drew attention to the existence of a new tendency in art and attracted more visitors than the regular Salon. Denvir (1990), p.194. Artists' petitions requesting a new Salon des Refusés in 1867, and again in 1872, were denied. In the latter part of 1873, Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley organized the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs ("Cooperative and Anonymous Association of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers") for the purpose of exhibiting their artworks independently. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, and Edgar Degas, were expected to forswear participation in the Salon. The organizers invited a number of other progressive artists to join them in their inaugural exhibition, including the slightly older Eugène Boudin, whose example had first persuaded Monet to take up plein air painting years before. Denvir (1990), p.32. Another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar. Claude Monet, The Cliff at Étretat after the Storm, 1885, Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, Massachusetts The critical response was mixed, with Monet and Cézanne bearing the harshest attacks. Critic and humorist Louis Leroy wrote a scathing review in the Le Charivari newspaper in which, making wordplay with the title of Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise (Impression, soleil levant), he gave the artists the name by which they would become known. Derisively titling his article The Exhibition of the Impressionists, Leroy declared that Monet's painting was at most, a sketch, and could hardly be termed a finished work. He wrote, in the form of a dialog between viewers, Impression — I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it … and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more finished than that seascape. Rewald (1973), p. 323. Claude Monet, Haystacks, (sunset), 1890-1891, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The term "Impressionists" quickly gained favour with the public. It was also accepted by the artists themselves, even though they were a diverse group in style and temperament, unified primarily by their spirit of independence and rebellion. They exhibited together—albeit with shifting membership—eight times between 1874 and 1886. Monet, Sisley, Morisot, and Pissarro may be considered the "purest" Impressionists, in their consistent pursuit of an art of spontaneity, sunlight, and colour. Degas rejected much of this, as he believed in the primacy of drawing over colour and belittled the practice of painting outdoors. Gordon; Forge (1988), pp. 11-12. Renoir turned against Impressionism for a time in the 1880s, and never entirely regained his commitment to its ideas. Édouard Manet, despite his role as a leader to the group, never abandoned his liberal use of black as a colour, and never participated in the Impressionist exhibitions. He continued to submit his works to the Salon, where his Spanish Singer had won a 2nd class medal in 1861, and he urged the others to do likewise, arguing that "the Salon is the real field of battle" where a reputation could be made. Richardson (1976), p. 3. Camille Pissarro, Boulevard Montmartre, 1897, the Hermitage, St. Petersburg Among the artists of the core group (minus Bazille, who had died in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870), defections occurred as Cézanne, followed later by Renoir, Sisley, and Monet, abstained from the group exhibitions in order to submit their works to the Salon. Disagreements arose from issues such as Guillaumin's membership in the group, championed by Pissarro and Cézanne against opposition from Monet and Degas, who thought him unworthy. Denvir (1990), p.105. Degas invited Mary Cassatt to display her work in the 1879 exhibition, but he also caused dissention by insisting on the inclusion of Jean-François Raffaëlli, Ludovic Lepic, and other realists who did not represent Impressionist practices, leading Monet in 1880 to accuse the Impressionists of "opening doors to first-come daubers". Rewald (1973), p. 603. The group divided over the invitation of Signac and Seurat to exhibit with them in 1886. Pissarro was the only artist to show at all eight Impressionist exhibitions. The individual artists saw few financial rewards from the Impressionist exhibitions, but their art gradually won a degree of public acceptance. Their dealer, Durand-Ruel, played a major role in this as he kept their work before the public and arranged shows for them in London and New York. Although Sisley would die in poverty in 1899, Renoir had a great Salon success in 1879. Financial security came to Monet in the early 1880s and to Pissarro by the early 1890s. By this time the methods of Impressionist painting, in a diluted form, had become commonplace in Salon art. Rewald, (1973), p. 475-476. Impressionist techniques Berthe Morisot, The Cradle, 1872, Musée d'Orsay Short, thick strokes of paint are used to quickly capture the essence of the subject, rather than its details. The paint is often applied impasto. Colours are applied side-by-side with as little mixing as possible, creating a vibrant surface. The optical mixing of colours occurs in the eye of the viewer. Grays and dark tones are produced by mixing complementary colours. In pure Impressionism the use of black paint is avoided. Wet paint is placed into wet paint without waiting for successive applications to dry, producing softer edges and an intermingling of colour. Painting in the evening to get effets de soir - the shadowy effects of the light in the evening or twilight. Impressionist paintings do not exploit the transparency of thin paint films (glazes) which earlier artists built up carefully to produce effects. The surface of an Impressionist painting is typically opaque. The play of natural light is emphasized. Close attention is paid to the reflection of colours from object to object. In paintings made en plein air (outdoors), shadows are boldly painted with the blue of the sky as it is reflected onto surfaces, giving a sense of freshness and openness that was not captured in painting previously. (Blue shadows on snow inspired the technique.) Mary Cassatt, Lydia Leaning on Her Arms (in a theatre box), 1879 Painters throughout history had occasionally used these methods, but Impressionists were the first to use all of them together, and with such boldness. Earlier artists whose works display these techniques include Frans Hals, Diego Velázquez, Peter Paul Rubens, John Constable, and J. M. W. Turner. French painters who prepared the way for Impressionism include the Romantic colourist Eugène Delacroix, the leader of the realists Gustave Courbet, and painters of the Barbizon school such as Théodore Rousseau. The Impressionists learned much from the work of Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot and Eugène Boudin, who painted from nature in a style that was close to Impressionism, and who befriended and advised the younger artists. Impressionists took advantage of the mid-century introduction of premixed paints in lead tubes (resembling modern toothpaste tubes) which allowed artists to work more spontaneously, both outdoors and indoors. Previously, painters made their own paints individually, by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil, which were then stored in animal bladders. Renoir and the Impressionist Process, The Phillips Collection Content and composition Camille Pissarro, Hay Harvest at Éragny, 1901, National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario Prior to the Impressionists, other painters, notably such 17th-century Dutch painters as Jan Steen, had focused on common subjects, but their approaches to composition were traditional. They arranged their compositions in such a way that the main subject commanded the viewer's attention. The Impressionists relaxed the boundary between subject and background so that the effect of an Impressionist painting often resembles a snapshot, a part of a larger reality captured as if by chance. Rosenblum (1989), p. 228. Photography was gaining popularity, and as cameras became more portable, photographs became more candid. Photography inspired Impressionists to capture the moment, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but in the day-to-day lives of people. Berthe Morisot, Reading, 1873, Cleveland Museum of Art The rise of the impressionist movement can be seen in part as a reaction by artists to the newly established medium of photography. The taking of fixed or still images challenged painters by providing a new medium with which to capture reality. Initially photography's presence seemed to undermine the artist's depiction of nature and their ability to mirror reality. Both portrait and landscape paintings were deemed somewhat deficient and lacking in truth as photography "produced lifelike images much more efficiently and reliably". Alfred Sisley, View of the Saint-Martin Canal, Paris, 1870, Musée d'Orsay In spite of this, photography actually inspired artists to pursue other means of artistic expression, and rather than competing with photography to emulate reality, artists focused "on the one thing they could inevitably do better than the photograph – by further developing into an art form its very subjectivity in the conception of the image, the very subjectivity that photography eliminated". The Impressionists sought to express their perceptions of nature, rather than create exacting reflections or mirror images of the world. This allowed artists to subjectively depict what they saw with their "tacit imperatives of taste and conscience". Sontag, Susan (1977) On Photography, Penguin, London Photography encouraged painters to exploit aspects of the painting medium, like colour, which photography then lacked; "the Impressionists were the first to consciously offer a subjective alternative to the photograph". Levinson, Paul (1997) The Soft Edge; a Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution, Routledge, London and New York Another major influence was Japanese art prints (Japonism), which had originally come into France as wrapping paper for imported goods. The art of these prints contributed significantly to the "snapshot" angles and unconventional compositions which would become characteristic of the movement. Edgar Degas was both an avid photographer and a collector of Japanese prints. Baumann; Karabelnik, et al. (1994), p. 112. His The Dance Class (La classe de danse) of 1874 shows both influences in its asymmetrical composition. The dancers are seemingly caught off guard in various awkward poses, leaving an expanse of empty floor space in the lower right quadrant. Main Impressionists Camille Pissarro, Hoarfrost, 1873, Musee d'Orsay, Paris Berthe Morisot, The Harbor at Lorient, 1869, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. The central figures in the development of Impressionism in France, listed alphabetically, were: Frédéric Bazille, (1841-1870) Gustave Caillebotte (who, younger than the others, joined forces with them in the mid 1870s), (1848-1894) Mary Cassatt (American-born, she lived in Paris and participated in four Impressionist exhibitions), (1844-1926) Paul Cézanne (although he later broke away from the Impressionists), (1839-1906) Edgar Degas (a realist who despised the term Impressionist, but is considered one, due to his loyalty to the group), (1834-1917) Armand Guillaumin, (1841-1927) Édouard Manet (who did not regard himself as an Impressionist, but is generally considered one), (1832-1883) Claude Monet (the most prolific of the Impressionists and the one who most clearly embodies their aesthetic), Denvir (1990), p.140. (1840-1926) Berthe Morisot, (1841-1895) Camille Pissarro, (1830-1903) Joseph Vickers de Ville (1856-1925) Pierre-Auguste Renoir, (1841-1919) Alfred Sisley, (1839-1899) Gallery Timeline The Impressionists Associates and influenced artists Among the close associates of the Impressionists were several painters who adopted their methods to some degree. These include Giuseppe De Nittis, an Italian artist living in Paris who participated in the first Impressionist exhibit at the invitation of Degas, although the other Impressionists disparaged his work. Denvir (1990), p.152. Federico Zandomeneghi was another Italian friend of Degas who showed with the Impressionists. Eva Gonzalès was a follower of Manet who did not exhibit with the group. James Abbott McNeill Whistler was an American-born painter who played a part in Impressionism although he did not join the group and preferred grayed colours. Walter Sickert, an English artist, was initially a follower of Whistler, and later an important disciple of Degas; he did not exhibit with the Impressionists. In 1904 the artist and writer Wynford Dewhurst wrote the first important study of the French painters to be published in English, Impressionist Painting: its genesis and development, which did much to popularize Impressionism in Great Britain. By the early 1880s, Impressionist methods were affecting, at least superficially, the art of the Salon. Fashionable painters such as Jean Beraud and Henri Gervex found critical and financial success by brightening their palettes while retaining the smooth finish expected of Salon art. Rewald (1973), p.476-477. Works by these artists are sometimes casually referred to as Impressionism, despite their remoteness from Impressionist practice. Beyond France As the influence of Impressionism spread beyond France, artists, too numerous to list, became identified as practitioners of the new style. Some of the more important examples are: The American Impressionists, including Frederick Carl Frieseke, Childe Hassam, Willard Metcalf, Lilla Cabot Perry, Theodore Robinson, Edmund Charles Tarbell, John Henry Twachtman, and J. Alden Weir Lovis Corinth, Max Liebermann, and Max Slevogt in Germany Konstantin Korovin and Valentin Serov in Russia Francisco Oller y Cestero, a native of Puerto Rico and a friend of Pissarro and Cézanne William McTaggart in Scotland. Laura Muntz Lyall, a Canadian artist Władysław Podkowiński, a Polish Impressionist and symbolist Nazmi Ziya Güran, who brought Impressionism to Turkey Chafik Charobim in Egypt Eliseu Visconti in Brazil Martins Krumins in Latvia, Germany and the United States. Sculpture, photography and film The sculptor Auguste Rodin is sometimes called an Impressionist for the way he used roughly modeled surfaces to suggest transient light effects. Pictorialist photographers whose work is characterized by soft focus and atmospheric effects have also been called Impressionists. Examples are Kirk Clendinning, Alvin Langdon Coburn, Robert Farber, Eduard Steichen, Alfred Stieglitz, and Clarence H. White. French Impressionist Cinema is a term applied to a loosely defined group of films and filmmakers in France from 1919-1929, although these years are debatable. French Impressionist filmmakers include Abel Gance, Jean Epstein, Germaine Dulac, Marcel L’Herbier, Louis Delluc, and Dmitry Kirsanoff. Music and literature Claude Monet, Water Lilies, 1916, The National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo Musical Impressionism is the name given to a movement in European classical music that arose in the late 19th century and continued into the middle of the 20th century. Originating in France, musical Impressionism is characterized by suggestion and atmosphere, and eschews the emotional excesses of the Romantic era. Impressionist composers favored short forms such as the nocturne, arabesque, and prelude, and often explored uncommon scales such as the whole tone scale. Perhaps the most notable innovations used by Impressionist composers were the first uses of major 7th chords and the extension of chord structures in 3rds to five and six part harmonies. The influence of visual Impressionism on its musical counterpart is debatable. Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel are generally considered the greatest Impressionist composers, but Debussy disavowed the term, calling it the invention of critics. Erik Satie was also considered to be in this category although his approach was considered to be less serious, more of musical novelty in nature. Paul Dukas is another French composer sometimes considered to be an Impressionist but his style is perhaps more closely aligned to the late Romanticists. Musical Impressionism beyond France includes the work of such composers as Ralph Vaughan Williams and Ottorino Respighi. The term Impressionism has also been used to describe works of literature in which a few select details suffice to convey the sensory impressions of an incident or scene. Impressionist literature is closely related to Symbolism, with its major exemplars being Baudelaire, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, and Verlaine. Authors such as Virginia Woolf and Joseph Conrad have written works which are Impressionistic in the way that they describe, rather than interpret, the impressions, sensations and emotions that constitute a character's mental life. Post-Impressionism Camille Pissarro, Children on a Farm, 1887 Post-Impressionism developed from Impressionism. From the 1880s several artists began to develop different precepts for the use of colour, pattern, form, and line, derived from the Impressionist example: Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. These artists were slightly younger than the Impressionists, and their work is known as post-Impressionism. Some of the original Impressionist artists also ventured into this new territory; Camille Pissarro briefly painted in a pointillist manner, and even Monet abandoned strict plein air painting. Paul Cézanne, who participated in the first and third Impressionist exhibitions, developed a highly individual vision emphasizing pictorial structure, and he is more often called a post-Impressionist. Although these cases illustrate the difficulty of assigning labels, the work of the original Impressionist painters may, by definition, be categorized as Impressionism. See also American Impressionism Art periods Expressionism (as a reaction to Impressionism) French Impressionist Cinema Heidelberg School Impasto Pictorialism Macchiaioli Notes References Baumann, Felix; Karabelnik, Marianne, et al. (1994). Degas Portraits. London: Merrell Holberton. ISBN 1-85894-014-1 Denvir, Bernard (1990). The Thames and Hudson Encyclopaedia of Impressionism. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20239-7 Gordon, Robert; Forge, Andrew (1988). Degas. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-1142-6 Gowing, Lawrence, with Adriani, Götz; Krumrine, Mary Louise; Lewis, Mary Tompkins; Patin, Sylvie; Rewald, John (1988). Cézanne: The Early Years 1859-1872. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Moskowitz, Ira; Sérullaz, Maurice (1962). French Impressionists: A Selection of Drawings of the French 19th Century. Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-58560-2 Rewald, John (1973). The History of Impressionism (4th, Revised Ed.). New York: The Museum of Modern Art. ISBN 0-87070-360-9 Richardson, John (1976). Manet (3rd Ed.). Oxford: Phaidon Press Ltd. ISBN 0-7148-1743-0 Rosenblum, Robert (1989). Paintings in the Musée d'Orsay. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang. ISBN 1-55670-099-7 External links Hecht Museum Mauclair, Camille (1903): Kapos, Martha (ed.): The Impressionists. A Retrospective, a detailed timeline Impressionism: Paintings collected by European Museums (1999) was an art exhibition co-organized by the High Museum of Art, Atlanta, the Seattle Art Museum, and the Denver Art Museum, touring from May through December 1999. 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4,190 | Algorithm | Flowcharts are often used to graphically represent algorithms. In mathematics, computing, linguistics, and related subjects, an algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions, an explicit, step-by-step procedure for solving a problem, often used for calculation and data processing. It is formally a type of effective method in which a list of well-defined instructions for completing a task, will when given an initial state, proceed through a well-defined series of successive states, eventually terminating in an end-state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as probabilistic algorithms, incorporate randomness. A partial formalization of the concept began with attempts to solve the Entscheidungsproblem (the "decision problem") posed by David Hilbert in 1928. Subsequent formalizations were framed as attempts to define "effective calculability" (Kleene 1943:274) or "effective method" (Rosser 1939:225); those formalizations included the Gödel-Herbrand-Kleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, Alonzo Church's lambda calculus of 1936, Emil Post's "Formulation 1" of 1936, and Alan Turing's Turing machines of 1936–7 and 1939. Etymology Al-Khwārizmī, Persian astronomer and mathematician, wrote a treatise in 825 AD, On Calculation with Hindu Numerals. (See algorism). It was translated into Latin in the 12th century as Algoritmi de numero Indorum (al-Daffa 1977), whose title was likely intended to mean "Algoritmi on the numbers of the Indians", where "Algoritmi" was the translator's rendition of the author's name; but people misunderstanding the title treated Algoritmi as a Latin plural and this led to the word "algorithm" (Latin algorismus) coming to mean "calculation method". The intrusive "th" is most likely due to a false cognate with the Greek (arithmos) meaning "number". Why algorithms are necessary: an informal definition For a detailed presentation of the various points of view around the definition of "algorithm" see Algorithm characterizations. For examples of simple addition algorithms specified in the detailed manner described in Algorithm characterizations, see Algorithm examples. While there is no generally accepted formal definition of "algorithm", an informal definition could be "a process that performs some sequence of operations." For some people, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually. For others, a program is only an algorithm if it stops before a given number of calculation steps. A prototypical example of an "algorithm" is Euclid's algorithm to determine the maximum common divisor of two integers (X and Y)which are greater than one: We follow a series of steps: In step i, we divide X by Y and find the remainder, which we call R1. Then we move to step i + 1, where we divide Y by R1, and find the remainder, which we call R2. If R2=0, we stop and say that R1 is the greatest common divisor of X and Y. If not, we continue, until Rn=0.Then Rn-1 is the max common division of X and Y. This procedure is known to stop always and the number of subtractions needed is always smaller than the larger of the two numbers. We can derive clues to the issues involved and an informal meaning of the word from the following quotation from (boldface added): No human being can write fast enough or long enough or small enough to list all members of an enumerably infinite set by writing out their names, one after another, in some notation. But humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets: They can give explicit instructions for determining the nth member of the set, for arbitrary finite n. Such instructions are to be given quite explicitly, in a form in which they could be followed by a computing machine, or by a human who is capable of carrying out only very elementary operations on symbols The words "enumerably infinite" mean "countable using integers perhaps extending to infinity." Thus Boolos and Jeffrey are saying that an algorithm implies instructions for a process that "creates" output integers from an arbitrary "input" integer or integers that, in theory, can be chosen from 0 to infinity. Thus we might expect an algorithm to be an algebraic equation such as y = m + n — two arbitrary "input variables" m and n that produce an output y. As we see in Algorithm characterizations — the word algorithm implies much more than this, something on the order of (for our addition example): Precise instructions (in language understood by "the computer") for a "fast, efficient, good" process that specifies the "moves" of "the computer" (machine or human, equipped with the necessary internally-contained information and capabilities) to find, decode, and then munch arbitrary input integers/symbols m and n, symbols + and = ... and (reliably, correctly, "effectively") produce, in a "reasonable" time, output-integer y at a specified place and in a specified format. The concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of decidability. That notion is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a small set of axioms and rules. In logic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, as it is not apparently related with our customary physical dimension. From such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete (in some sense) and abstract usage of the term. Formalization Algorithms are essential to the way computers process information. Many computer programs contain algorithms that specify the specific instructions a computer should perform (in a specific order) to carry out a specified task, such as calculating employees’ paychecks or printing students’ report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a Turing-complete system. Authors who assert this thesis include Savage (1987) and Gurevich (2000): ...Turing's informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis: every algorithm can be simulated by a Turing machine (Gurevich 2000:1)...according to Savage [1987], an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine. (Gurevich 2000:3) Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data is read from an input source, written to an output device, and/or stored for further processing. Stored data is regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures. For any such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear (and computable). Because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation will always be critical to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting "from the top" and going "down to the bottom", an idea that is described more formally by flow of control. So far, this discussion of the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of imperative programming. This is the most common conception, and it attempts to describe a task in discrete, "mechanical" means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation, setting the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of "memory" as a scratchpad. There is an example below of such an assignment. For some alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm see functional programming and logic programming . Termination Some writers restrict the definition of algorithm to procedures that eventually finish. In such a category Kleene places the "decision procedure or decision method or algorithm for the question" (Kleene 1952:136). Others, including Kleene, include procedures that could run forever without stopping; such a procedure has been called a "computational method" (Knuth 1997:5) or "calculation procedure or algorithm" (Kleene 1952:137); however, Kleene notes that such a method must eventually exhibit "some object" (Kleene 1952:137). Minsky makes the pertinent observation, in regards to determining whether an algorithm will eventually terminate (from a particular starting state): But if the length of the process is not known in advance, then "trying" it may not be decisive, because if the process does go on forever — then at no time will we ever be sure of the answer (Minsky 1967:105). As it happens, no other method can do any better, as was shown by Alan Turing with his celebrated result on the undecidability of the so-called halting problem. There is no algorithmic procedure for determining of arbitrary algorithms whether or not they terminate from given starting states. The analysis of algorithms for their likelihood of termination is called termination analysis. See the examples of (im-)"proper" subtraction at partial function for more about what can happen when an algorithm fails for certain of its input numbers — e.g., (i) non-termination, (ii) production of "junk" (output in the wrong format to be considered a number) or no number(s) at all (halt ends the computation with no output), (iii) wrong number(s), or (iv) a combination of these. Kleene proposed that the production of "junk" or failure to produce a number is solved by having the algorithm detect these instances and produce e.g., an error message (he suggested "0"), or preferably, force the algorithm into an endless loop (Kleene 1952:322). Davis does this to his subtraction algorithm — he fixes his algorithm in a second example so that it is proper subtraction (Davis 1958:12-15). Along with the logical outcomes "true" and "false" Kleene also proposes the use of a third logical symbol "u" — undecided (Kleene 1952:326) — thus an algorithm will always produce something when confronted with a "proposition". The problem of wrong answers must be solved with an independent "proof" of the algorithm e.g., using induction: We normally require auxiliary evidence for this (that the algorithm correctly defines a mu recursive function), e.g., in the form of an inductive proof that, for each argument value, the computation terminates with a unique value (Minsky 1967:186). Expressing algorithms Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including natural languages, pseudocode, flowcharts, and programming languages. Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous, and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode and flowcharts are structured ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the ambiguities common in natural language statements, while remaining independent of a particular implementation language. Programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer, but are often used as a way to define or document algorithms. There is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given Turing machine program as a sequence of machine tables (see more at finite state machine and state transition table), as flowcharts (see more at state diagram), or as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code called "sets of quadruples" (see more at Turing machine). Sometimes it is helpful in the description of an algorithm to supplement small "flow charts" (state diagrams) with natural-language and/or arithmetic expressions written inside "block diagrams" to summarize what the "flow charts" are accomplishing. Representations of algorithms are generally classed into three accepted levels of Turing machine description (Sipser 2006:157): 1 High-level description: "...prose to describe an algorithm, ignoring the implementation details. At this level we do not need to mention how the machine manages its tape or head" 2 Implementation description: "...prose used to define the way the Turing machine uses its head and the way that it stores data on its tape. At this level we do not give details of states or transition function" 3 Formal description: Most detailed, "lowest level", gives the Turing machine's "state table". For an example of the simple algorithm "Add m+n" described in all three levels see Algorithm examples. Implementation Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, the human brain implementing arithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit, or in a mechanical device. Example One of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in an (unsorted) list of numbers. The solution necessarily requires looking at every number in the list, but only once at each. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in a high-level description English prose, as: High-level description: Assume the first item is largest. Look at each of the remaining items in the list and if it is larger than the largest item so far, make a note of it. The last noted item is the largest in the list when the process is complete. (Quasi-)formal description: Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code: Input: A non-empty list of numbers L. Output: The largest number in the list L. largest ← L0 for each item in the list L≥1, do if the item > largest, then largest ← the item return largest For a more complex example of an algorithm, see Euclid's algorithm for the greatest common divisor, one of the earliest algorithms known. Algorithmic analysis It is frequently important to know how much of a particular resource (such as time or storage) is required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers; for example, the algorithm above has a time requirement of O(n), using the big O notation with n as the length of the list. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the largest number found so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore it is said to have a space requirement of O(1), if the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, or O(n) if it is counted. Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or 'effort' than others. For example, a binary search algorithm will usually outperform a brute force sequential search when used for table lookups on sorted lists. Abstract versus empirical The analysis and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science, and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific programming language or implementation. In this sense, algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses on the underlying properties of the algorithm and not on the specifics of any particular implementation. Usually pseudocode is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation. However, ultimately, most algorithms are usually implemented on particular hardware / software platforms and their algorithmic efficiency is eventually put to the test using real code. Empirical testing is useful because it may uncover unexpected interactions that affect performance. For instance an algorithm that has no locality of reference may have much poorer performance than predicted because it thrashes the cache. Classification There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits. By implementation One way to classify algorithms is by implementation means. Recursion or iteration: A recursive algorithm is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition matches, which is a method common to functional programming. Iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs like loops and sometimes additional data structures like stacks to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one implementation or the other. For example, towers of hanoi is well understood in recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa. Logical: An algorithm may be viewed as controlled logical deduction. This notion may be expressed as: Algorithm = logic + control (Kowalski 1979). The logic component expresses the axioms that may be used in the computation and the control component determines the way in which deduction is applied to the axioms. This is the basis for the logic programming paradigm. In pure logic programming languages the control component is fixed and algorithms are specified by supplying only the logic component. The appeal of this approach is the elegant semantics: a change in the axioms has a well defined change in the algorithm. Serial or parallel or distributed: Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers. An algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to parallel algorithms or distributed algorithms. Parallel algorithms take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time, whereas distributed algorithms utilize multiple machines connected with a network. Parallel or distributed algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and collect the results back together. The resource consumption in such algorithms is not only processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead between the processors. Sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are generally parallelizable. Some problems have no parallel algorithms, and are called inherently serial problems. Deterministic or non-deterministic: Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm whereas non-deterministic algorithm solve problems via guessing although typical guesses are made more accurate through the use of heuristics. Exact or approximate: While many algorithms reach an exact solution, approximation algorithms seek an approximation that is close to the true solution. Approximation may use either a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems. By design paradigm Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. There is a certain number of paradigms, each different from the other. Furthermore, each of these categories will include many different types of algorithms. Some commonly found paradigms include: Divide and conquer. A divide and conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually recursively) until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of divide and conquer is merge sorting. Sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in the conquer phase by merging the segments. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called a decrease and conquer algorithm, that solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so conquer stage will be more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms. An example of decrease and conquer algorithm is the binary search algorithm. Dynamic programming. When a problem shows optimal substructure, meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems, and overlapping subproblems, meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called dynamic programming avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For example, the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted graph can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and memoization go together. The main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is that subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, whereas subproblems overlap in dynamic programming. The difference between dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls. When subproblems are independent and there is no repetition, memoization does not help; hence dynamic programming is not a solution for all complex problems. By using memoization or maintaining a table of subproblems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity. The greedy method. A greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm, but the difference is that solutions to the subproblems do not have to be known at each stage; instead a "greedy" choice can be made of what looks best for the moment. The greedy method extends the solution with the best possible decision (not all feasible decisions) at an algorithmic stage based on the current local optimum and the best decision (not all possible decisions) made in previous stage. It is not exhaustive, and does not give accurate answer to many problems. But when it works, it will be the fastest method. The most popular greedy algorithm is finding the minimal spanning tree as given by Kruskal. Linear programming. When solving a problem using linear programming, specific inequalities involving the inputs are found and then an attempt is made to maximize (or minimize) some linear function of the inputs. Many problems (such as the maximum flow for directed graphs) can be stated in a linear programming way, and then be solved by a 'generic' algorithm such as the simplex algorithm. A more complex variant of linear programming is called integer programming, where the solution space is restricted to the integers. Reduction. This technique involves solving a difficult problem by transforming it into a better known problem for which we have (hopefully) asymptotically optimal algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose complexity is not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithm's. For example, one selection algorithm for finding the median in an unsorted list involves first sorting the list (the expensive portion) and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap portion). This technique is also known as transform and conquer. Search and enumeration. Many problems (such as playing chess) can be modeled as problems on graphs. A graph exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes search algorithms, branch and bound enumeration and backtracking. The probabilistic and heuristic paradigm. Algorithms belonging to this class fit the definition of an algorithm more loosely. Probabilistic algorithms are those that make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly); for some problems, it can in fact be proven that the fastest solutions must involve some randomness. Genetic algorithms attempt to find solutions to problems by mimicking biological evolutionary processes, with a cycle of random mutations yielding successive generations of "solutions". Thus, they emulate reproduction and "survival of the fittest". In genetic programming, this approach is extended to algorithms, by regarding the algorithm itself as a "solution" to a problem. Heuristic algorithms, whose general purpose is not to find an optimal solution, but an approximate solution where the time or resources are limited. They are not practical to find perfect solutions. An example of this would be local search, tabu search, or simulated annealing algorithms, a class of heuristic probabilistic algorithms that vary the solution of a problem by a random amount. The name "simulated annealing" alludes to the metallurgic term meaning the heating and cooling of metal to achieve freedom from defects. The purpose of the random variance is to find close to globally optimal solutions rather than simply locally optimal ones, the idea being that the random element will be decreased as the algorithm settles down to a solution. By field of study Every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms. Related problems in one field are often studied together. Some example classes are search algorithms, sorting algorithms, merge algorithms, numerical algorithms, graph algorithms, string algorithms, computational geometric algorithms, combinatorial algorithms, machine learning, cryptography, data compression algorithms and parsing techniques. Fields tend to overlap with each other, and algorithm advances in one field may improve those of other, sometimes completely unrelated, fields. For example, dynamic programming was originally invented for optimization of resource consumption in industry, but is now used in solving a broad range of problems in many fields. By complexity Algorithms can be classified by the amount of time they need to complete compared to their input size. There is a wide variety: some algorithms complete in linear time relative to input size, some do so in an exponential amount of time or even worse, and some never halt. Additionally, some problems may have multiple algorithms of differing complexity, while other problems might have no algorithms or no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. Owing to this, it was found to be more suitable to classify the problems themselves instead of the algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity of the best possible algorithms for them. By computing power Another way to classify algorithms is by computing power. This is typically done by considering some collection (class) of algorithms. A recursive class of algorithms is one that includes algorithms for all Turing computable functions. Looking at classes of algorithms allows for the possibility of restricting the available computational resources (time and memory) used in a computation. A subrecursive class of algorithms is one in which not all Turing computable functions can be obtained. For example, the algorithms that run in polynomial time suffice for many important types of computation but do not exhaust all Turing computable functions. The class of algorithms implemented by primitive recursive functions is another subrecursive class. Burgin (2005, p. 24) uses a generalized definition of algorithms that relaxes the common requirement that the output of the algorithm that computes a function must be determined after a finite number of steps. He defines a super-recursive class of algorithms as "a class of algorithms in which it is possible to compute functions not computable by any Turing machine" (Burgin 2005, p. 107). This is closely related to the study of methods of hypercomputation. Legal issues See also: Software patents for a general overview of the patentability of software, including computer-implemented algorithms. Algorithms, by themselves, are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals do not constitute "processes" (USPTO 2006) and hence algorithms are not patentable (as in Gottschalk v. Benson). However, practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in Diamond v. Diehr, the application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed patentable. The patenting of software is highly controversial, and there are highly criticized patents involving algorithms, especially data compression algorithms, such as Unisys' LZW patent. Additionally, some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions (see export of cryptography). History: Development of the notion of "algorithm" Origin of the word The word algorithm comes from the name of the 9th century Persian mathematician Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi whose works introduced Indian numerals and algebraic concepts. He worked in Baghdad at the time when it was the centre of scientific studies and trade. The word algorism originally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Arabic numerals but evolved via European Latin translation of al-Khwarizmi's name into algorithm by the 18th century. The word evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems or performing tasks. Discrete and distinguishable symbols Tally-marks: To keep track of their flocks, their sacks of grain and their money the ancients used tallying: accumulating stones or marks scratched on sticks, or making discrete symbols in clay. Through the Babylonian and Egyptian use of marks and symbols, eventually Roman numerals and the abacus evolved (Dilson, p.16–41). Tally marks appear prominently in unary numeral system arithmetic used in Turing machine and Post-Turing machine computations. Manipulation of symbols as "place holders" for numbers: algebra The work of the ancient Greek geometers, Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (often considered the "father of algebra" and from whose name the terms "algorism" and "algorithm" are derived), and Western European mathematicians culminated in Leibniz's notion of the calculus ratiocinator (ca 1680): "A good century and a half ahead of his time, Leibniz proposed an algebra of logic, an algebra that would specify the rules for manipulating logical concepts in the manner that ordinary algebra specifies the rules for manipulating numbers" (Davis 2000:1) Mechanical contrivances with discrete states The clock: Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven clock as “The key invention [of Europe in the Middle Ages]", in particular the verge escapement (Bolter 1984:24) that provides us with the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. “The accurate automatic machine” (Bolter 1984:26) led immediately to "mechanical automata" beginning in the thirteenth century and finally to “computational machines" – the difference engine and analytical engines of Charles Babbage and Countess Ada Lovelace (Bolter p.33–34, p.204–206). Jacquard loom, Hollerith punch cards, telegraphy and telephony — the electromechanical relay: Bell and Newell (1971) indicate that the Jacquard loom (1801), precursor to Hollerith cards (punch cards, 1887), and “telephone switching technologies” were the roots of a tree leading to the development of the first computers (Bell and Newell diagram p. 39, cf Davis 2000). By the mid-1800s the telegraph, the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world, its discrete and distinguishable encoding of letters as “dots and dashes” a common sound. By the late 1800s the ticker tape (ca 1870s) was in use, as was the use of Hollerith cards in the 1890 U.S. census. Then came the Teletype (ca 1910) with its punched-paper use of Baudot code on tape. Telephone-switching networks of electromechanical relays (invented 1835) was behind the work of George Stibitz (1937), the inventor of the digital adding device. As he worked in Bell Laboratories, he observed the “burdensome’ use of mechanical calculators with gears. "He went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a binary adding device". (Valley News, p. 13). Davis (2000) observes the particular importance of the electromechanical relay (with its two "binary states" open and closed): It was only with the development, beginning in the 1930s, of electromechanical calculators using electrical relays, that machines were built having the scope Babbage had envisioned." (Davis, p. 14). Mathematics during the 1800s up to the mid-1900s Symbols and rules: In rapid succession the mathematics of George Boole (1847, 1854), Gottlob Frege (1879), and Giuseppe Peano (1888–1889) reduced arithmetic to a sequence of symbols manipulated by rules. Peano's The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method (1888) was "the first attempt at an axiomatization of mathematics in a symbolic language" (van Heijenoort:81ff). But Heijenoort gives Frege (1879) this kudos: Frege’s is "perhaps the most important single work ever written in logic. ... in which we see a " 'formula language', that is a lingua characterica, a language written with special symbols, "for pure thought", that is, free from rhetorical embellishments ... constructed from specific symbols that are manipulated according to definite rules" (van Heijenoort:1). The work of Frege was further simplified and amplified by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell in their Principia Mathematica (1910–1913). The paradoxes: At the same time a number of disturbing paradoxes appeared in the literature, in particular the Burali-Forti paradox (1897), the Russell paradox (1902–03), and the Richard Paradox (Dixon 1906, cf Kleene 1952:36–40). The resultant considerations led to Kurt Gödel’s paper (1931) — he specifically cites the paradox of the liar — that completely reduces rules of recursion to numbers. Effective calculability: In an effort to solve the Entscheidungsproblem defined precisely by Hilbert in 1928, mathematicians first set about to define what was meant by an "effective method" or "effective calculation" or "effective calculability" (i.e., a calculation that would succeed). In rapid succession the following appeared: Alonzo Church, Stephen Kleene and J.B. Rosser's λ-calculus, (cf footnote in Alonzo Church 1936a:90, 1936b:110) a finely-honed definition of "general recursion" from the work of Gödel acting on suggestions of Jacques Herbrand (cf Gödel's Princeton lectures of 1934) and subsequent simplifications by Kleene (1935-6:237ff, 1943:255ff). Church's proof (1936:88ff) that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable, Emil Post's definition of effective calculability as a worker mindlessly following a list of instructions to move left or right through a sequence of rooms and while there either mark or erase a paper or observe the paper and make a yes-no decision about the next instruction (cf "Formulation I", Post 1936:289-290). Alan Turing's proof of that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable by use of his "a- [automatic-] machine"(Turing 1936-7:116ff) -- in effect almost identical to Post's "formulation", J. Barkley Rosser's definition of "effective method" in terms of "a machine" (Rosser 1939:226). S. C. Kleene's proposal of a precursor to "Church thesis" that he called "Thesis I" (Kleene 1943:273–274), and a few years later Kleene's renaming his Thesis "Church's Thesis" (Kleene 1952:300, 317) and proposing "Turing's Thesis" (Kleene 1952:376). Emil Post (1936) and Alan Turing (1936-7, 1939) Here is a remarkable coincidence of two men not knowing each other but describing a process of men-as-computers working on computations — and they yield virtually identical definitions. Emil Post (1936) described the actions of a "computer" (human being) as follows: "...two concepts are involved: that of a symbol space in which the work leading from problem to answer is to be carried out, and a fixed unalterable set of directions. His symbol space would be "a two way infinite sequence of spaces or boxes... The problem solver or worker is to move and work in this symbol space, being capable of being in, and operating in but one box at a time.... a box is to admit of but two possible conditions, i.e., being empty or unmarked, and having a single mark in it, say a vertical stroke. "One box is to be singled out and called the starting point. ...a specific problem is to be given in symbolic form by a finite number of boxes [i.e., INPUT] being marked with a stroke. Likewise the answer [i.e., OUTPUT] is to be given in symbolic form by such a configuration of marked boxes.... "A set of directions applicable to a general problem sets up a deterministic process when applied to each specific problem. This process will terminate only when it comes to the direction of type (C ) [i.e., STOP]." (U p. 289–290) See more at Post-Turing machine Alan Turing’s work (1936, 1939:160) preceded that of Stibitz (1937); it is unknown whether Stibitz knew of the work of Turing. Turing’s biographer believed that Turing’s use of a typewriter-like model derived from a youthful interest: “Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; Mrs. Turing had a typewriter; and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'" (Hodges, p. 96). Given the prevalence of Morse code and telegraphy, ticker tape machines, and Teletypes we might conjecture that all were influences. Turing — his model of computation is now called a Turing machine — begins, as did Post, with an analysis of a human computer that he whittles down to a simple set of basic motions and "states of mind". But he continues a step further and creates a machine as a model of computation of numbers (Turing 1936-7:116). "Computing is normally done by writing certain symbols on paper. We may suppose this paper is divided into squares like a child's arithmetic book....I assume then that the computation is carried out on one-dimensional paper, i.e., on a tape divided into squares. I shall also suppose that the number of symbols which may be printed is finite.... "The behavior of the computer at any moment is determined by the symbols which he is observing, and his "state of mind" at that moment. We may suppose that there is a bound B to the number of symbols or squares which the computer can observe at one moment. If he wishes to observe more, he must use successive observations. We will also suppose that the number of states of mind which need be taken into account is finite... "Let us imagine that the operations performed by the computer to be split up into 'simple operations' which are so elementary that it is not easy to imagine them further divided" (Turing 1936-7:136). Turing's reduction yields the following: "The simple operations must therefore include: "(a) Changes of the symbol on one of the observed squares "(b) Changes of one of the squares observed to another square within L squares of one of the previously observed squares. "It may be that some of these change necessarily invoke a change of state of mind. The most general single operation must therefore be taken to be one of the following: "(A) A possible change (a) of symbol together with a possible change of state of mind. "(B) A possible change (b) of observed squares, together with a possible change of state of mind" "We may now construct a machine to do the work of this computer." (Turing 1936-7:136) A few years later, Turing expanded his analysis (thesis, definition) with this forceful expression of it: "A function is said to be "effectively calculable" if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process. Although it is fairly easy to get an intuitive grasp of this idea, it is neverthessless desirable to have some more definite, mathematical expressible definition . . . [he discusses the history of the definition pretty much as presented above with respect to Gödel, Herbrand, Kleene, Church, Turing and Post] . . . We may take this statement literally, understanding by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine. It is possible to give a mathematical description, in a certain normal form, of the structures of these machines. The development of these ideas leads to the author's definition of a computable function, and to an identification of computability † with effective calculability . . . . "† We shall use the expression "computable function" to mean a function calculable by a machine, and we let "effectively calculabile" refer to the intuitive idea without particular identification with any one of these definitions."(Turing 1939:160) J. B. Rosser (1939) and S. C. Kleene (1943) J. Barkley Rosser boldly defined an ‘effective [mathematical] method’ in the following manner (boldface added): "'Effective method' is used here in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely determined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps. With this special meaning, three different precise definitions have been given to date. [his footnote #5; see discussion immediately below]. The simplest of these to state (due to Post and Turing) says essentially that an effective method of solving certain sets of problems exists if one can build a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer. All three definitions are equivalent, so it doesn't matter which one is used. Moreover, the fact that all three are equivalent is a very strong argument for the correctness of any one." (Rosser 1939:225–6) Rosser's footnote #5 references the work of (1) Church and Kleene and their definition of λ-definability, in particular Church's use of it in his An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory (1936); (2) Herbrand and Gödel and their use of recursion in particular Gödel's use in his famous paper On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I (1931); and (3) Post (1936) and Turing (1936-7) in their mechanism-models of computation. Stephen C. Kleene defined as his now-famous "Thesis I" known as the Church-Turing thesis. But he did this in the following context (boldface in original): "12. Algorithmic theories... In setting up a complete algorithmic theory, what we do is to describe a procedure, performable for each set of values of the independent variables, which procedure necessarily terminates and in such manner that from the outcome we can read a definite answer, "yes" or "no," to the question, "is the predicate value true?”" (Kleene 1943:273) History after 1950 A number of efforts have been directed toward further refinement of the definition of "algorithm", and activity is on-going because of issues surrounding, in particular, foundations of mathematics (especially the Church-Turing Thesis) and philosophy of mind (especially arguments around artificial intelligence). For more, see Algorithm characterizations. See also Abstract machine Algorithm characterizations Algorithm design Algorithm engineering Algorithm examples Algorithmic efficiency (describes ways of estimating, measuring and improving an algorithms speed) Algorithmic music Garbage In, Garbage Out Algorithmic Synthesis Algorithmic trading Computability theory (computer science) Computational complexity theory Data structure Heuristics Introduction to Algorithms Important algorithm-related publications List of algorithm general topics List of algorithms List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures Parameterized complexity Partial function Performance analysis measuring the actual performance of an algorithm Run-time analysis (non-intuitive) estimation of run times, not analysis at run-time! (see Performance analysis above Theory of computation References Axt, P. (1959) On a Subrecursive Hierarchy and Primitive Recursive Degrees, Transactions of the American Mathematical Society 92, pp. 85–105 . Includes an excellent bibliography of 56 references. : cf. Chapter 3 Turing machines where they discuss "certain enumerable sets not effectively (mechanically) enumerable". Burgin, M. Super-recursive algorithms, Monographs in computer science, Springer, 2005. ISBN 0387955690 Campagnolo, M.L., Moore, C., and Costa, J.F. (2000) An analog characterization of the subrecursive functions. In Proc. of the 4th Conference on Real Numbers and Computers, Odense University, pp. 91–109 Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 89ff. The first expression of "Church's Thesis". See in particular page 100 (The Undecidable) where he defines the notion of "effective calculability" in terms of "an algorithm", and he uses the word "terminates", etc. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 110ff. Church shows that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable in about 3 pages of text and 3 pages of footnotes. Davis gives commentary before each article. Papers of Gödel, Alonzo Church, Turing, Rosser, Kleene, and Emil Post are included; those cited in the article are listed here by author's name. Davis offers concise biographies of Leibniz, Boole, Frege, Cantor, Hilbert, Gödel and Turing with von Neumann as the show-stealing villain. Very brief bios of Joseph-Marie Jacquard, Babbage, Ada Lovelace, Claude Shannon, Howard Aiken, etc. Yuri Gurevich, Sequential Abstract State Machines Capture Sequential Algorithms, ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, Vol 1, no 1 (July 2000), pages 77–111. Includes bibliography of 33 sources. Presented to the American Mathematical Society, September 1935. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 237ff. Kleene's definition of "general recursion" (known now as mu-recursion) was used by Church in his 1935 paper An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory that proved the "decision problem" to be "undecidable" (i.e., a negative result). Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 255ff. Kleene refined his definition of "general recursion" and proceeded in his chapter "12. Algorithmic theories" to posit "Thesis I" (p. 274); he would later repeat this thesis (in Kleene 1952:300) and name it "Church's Thesis"(Kleene 1952:317) (i.e., the Church thesis). Excellent — accessible, readable — reference source for mathematical "foundations". Kosovsky, N. K. Elements of Mathematical Logic and its Application to the theory of Subrecursive Algorithms, LSU Publ., Leningrad, 1981 A. A. Markov (1954) Theory of algorithms. [Translated by Jacques J. Schorr-Kon and PST staff] Imprint Moscow, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954 [i.e., Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1961; available from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington] Description 444 p. 28 cm. Added t.p. in Russian Translation of Works of the Mathematical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, v. 42. Original title: Teoriya algerifmov. [QA248.M2943 Dartmouth College library. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, number OTS 60-51085.] Minsky expands his "...idea of an algorithm — an effective procedure..." in chapter 5.1 Computability, Effective Procedues and Algorithms. Infinite machines." Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 289ff. Post defines a simple algorithmic-like process of a man writing marks or erasing marks and going from box to box and eventually halting, as he follows a list of simple instructions. This is cited by Kleene as one source of his "Thesis I", the so-called Church-Turing thesis. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 223ff. Herein is Rosser's famous definition of "effective method": "...a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps... a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer" (p. 225–226, The Undecidable) Cf in particular the first chapter titled: Algorithms, Turing Machines, and Programs. His succinct informal definition: "...any sequence of instructions that can be obeyed by a robot, is called an algorithm" (p. 4). . Corrections, ibid, vol. 43(1937) pp.544–546. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 116ff. Turing's famous paper completed as a Master's dissertation while at King's College Cambridge UK. Reprinted in The Undecidable'', p. 155ff. Turing's paper that defined "the oracle" was his PhD thesis while at Princeton USA. United States Patent and Trademark Office (2006), 2106.02 **>Mathematical Algorithms< - 2100 Patentability, Manual of Patent Examining Procedure (MPEP). Latest revision August 2006 Secondary references , ISBN 0-8078-4108-0 pbk. , ISBN 0-312-10409-X (pbk.) , 3rd edition 1976[?], ISBN 0-674-32449-8 (pbk.) , ISBN 0-671-49207-1. Cf Chapter "The Spirit of Truth" for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof. External links The Stony Brook Algorithm Repository Algorithms in Everyday Mathematics Sortier- und Suchalgorithmen (German) Jeff Erickson Algorithms course material be-x-old:Альгарытм | Algorithm |@lemmatized flowchart:4 often:6 use:48 graphically:1 represent:1 algorithm:190 mathematics:6 compute:6 linguistics:1 related:2 subject:1 finite:9 sequence:8 instruction:14 explicit:2 step:15 procedure:13 solve:21 problem:54 calculation:7 data:13 processing:3 formally:3 type:4 effective:17 method:22 list:23 well:5 define:17 complete:9 task:5 give:19 initial:1 state:28 proceed:2 series:2 successive:3 eventually:8 terminate:6 end:2 transition:3 one:34 next:2 necessarily:4 deterministic:7 know:11 probabilistic:4 incorporate:1 randomness:2 partial:3 formalization:5 concept:6 begin:5 attempt:6 entscheidungsproblem:5 decision:10 pose:1 david:1 hilbert:3 subsequent:2 frame:1 calculability:6 kleene:31 rosser:10 include:15 gödel:9 herbrand:4 recursive:11 function:17 alonzo:4 church:18 lambda:1 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4,191 | Vladimir_Harkonnen | The Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is a fictional character from the Dune universe created by Frank Herbert. He is primarily featured in the 1965 novel Dune, but is also a major character in the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy (1999-2001) by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. The character is brought back as a ghola in the Herbert/Anderson sequels which conclude the original series, Hunters of Dune (2006) and Sandworms of Dune (2007). "Appendix IV: The Almanak en-Ashraf (Selected Excerpts of the Noble Houses)" in Dune says of him (in part): VLADIMIR HARKONNEN (10,110-10,193) Commonly referred to as Baron Harkonnen, his title is officially Siridar (planetary governor) Baron. Vladimir Harkonnen is the direct-line male descendant of the Bashar Abulurd Harkonnen who was banished for cowardice after the Battle of Corrin. The return of House Harkonnen to power generally is ascribed to adroit manipulation of the whale fur market and later consolidation with melange wealth from Arrakis. In Dune, Herbert notes that the Baron possesses a "basso voice" and is so "grossly and immensely fat" that he requires anti-gravity devices known as suspensors to support his weight. From Dune: "As [Baron Vladimir Harkonnen] emerged from the shadows, his figure took on dimension — grossly and immensely fat. And with subtle bulges beneath folds of his dark robes to reveal that all this fat was sustained partly by portable suspensors harnessed to his flesh. He might weigh two hundred Standard kilos in actuality, but his feet would carry no more than fifty of them." It is implied by Margot Fenring that the Baron has allowed himself to become obese. From Dune: "Lady Fenring, noting [Feyd]'s poise and the sure flow of muscles beneath the tunic thought: Here's one who won't let himself go to fat." As ruthless and cruel as he is intelligent and cunning, the Baron's greatest skill is his talent for the subtle and clever manipulation of others through their weaknesses or his understanding of human nature. His sexual preference for young men is implied in Dune and Children of Dune. From Dune: "I'll be in my sleeping chambers," the Baron said. "Bring me that young fellow we bought on Gamont, the one with the lovely eyes. Drug him well. I don't feel like wrestling." From Dune: "Why haven't you ever bought a Bene Gesserit, Uncle?" Feyd-Rautha asked. "With a Truthsayer at your side —" "You know my tastes!" the Baron snapped. The Baron says to Feyd in Dune: "This old fool saw through the shielded needle you'd planted in that slave boy's thigh. Right where I'd put my hand on it, eh?" It is noted, however, that he "once permitted himself to be seduced" in the liaison which produced his secret daughter. Paul says to Jessica in Dune, "And, mother mine, there's a thing you don't know and should — we are Harkonnens ... take my word for it. I've walked the future, I've looked at a record, I've seen a place, I have all the data. We're Harkonnens ... You're the Baron's own daughter," he said, and watched the way she pressed her hands to her mouth. "The Baron sampled many pleasures in his youth, and once permitted himself to be seduced. But it was for the genetic purposes of the Bene Gesserit, by one of you." Character's background Dune As Dune begins, a longstanding feud exists between the Harkonnens of Giedi Prime and the Atreides of Caladan. The Baron's intent to exterminate the Atreides line seems close to fruition as Duke Leto Atreides is lured to the desert planet Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the valuable melange operation there. The Baron has an agent in the Atreides household: Leto's own physician, the trusted Suk doctor Wellington Yueh. Though Suk Imperial Conditioning supposedly makes the subject incapable of inflicting harm, the Baron's twisted Mentat Piter De Vries notes: It's assumed that ultimate conditioning cannot be removed without killing the subject. However, as someone once observed, given the right lever you can move a planet. We found the lever that moved the doctor. The Baron has taken Yueh's wife Wanna prisoner, threatening her torture and death unless Yueh complies with his demands. Harkonnen also distracts Leto's Mentat Thufir Hawat from discovering Yueh by guiding Hawat toward another suspect: Leto's Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica. The Atreides are soon attacked by Harkonnen forces (secretly supplemented by the seemingly unstoppable Imperial Sardaukar) as Yueh disables the protective shields around the Atreides palace on Arrakis. As instructed, Yueh takes Leto prisoner; however, suspecting that the Baron has already killed Wanna, Yueh provides the captive Leto with a fake tooth filled with poisonous gas as a means to kill the Baron (though Leto would die as well). De Vries kills Yueh but he also dies with Leto in the assassination attempt; however Harkonnen survives. The Baron then manipulates Hawat into his service, insuring his control over the Mentat by secretly administering to him a residual poison invented by De Vries; to avoid death, the antidote for this poison must be taken regularly and continuously. Leto and Jessica's son Paul Atreides flees into the desert with Jessica, and both are presumed dead. Paul's prescience helps him determine the identity of Jessica's father, the "maternal grandfather who cannot be named" — the Baron himself. Over the next two years, Harkonnen learns that both of his nephews Glossu Rabban and Feyd-Rautha are conspiring against him to obtain his throne; he lets them continue to do so, reasoning that they have to somehow learn to organize a conspiracy. As punishment for a failed assassination attempt against him, Harkonnen forces Feyd to single-handedly slaughter all the female slaves who serve as Feyd's lovers. He explains that Feyd has to learn the price of failure. The Baron's plan to assure Feyd's power is to install him as ruler of Arrakis after a period of tyrannical misrule by Rabban, making Feyd appear to be the savior of the people. However, a crisis on Arrakis begins when the mysterious Muad'Dib emerges as a leader of the native Fremen tribes against the rule of the Harkonnens. Eventually, a series of Fremen victories against Beast Rabban threaten to disrupt the trade of the spice. The Padishah Emperor Shaddam Corrino IV decides to intervene himself and arrives on Arrakis along with five legions of Sardaukar forces. Shaddam and the Baron are shocked to learn that Muad'Dib is, of course, a very-much-alive Paul Atreides. The Imperial forces fall prey to a surprise attack by the Fremen. Part of the Fremen/Atreides strategy is to wait until a sandstorm shorts out the force field shields of the Harkonnen/Imperial transport ships, disable them with projectile weapons, and then attack with a vast assault force, using giant sandworms under cover of the severe weather to break the enemy lines. The Sardaukar and Harkonnen forces are trapped on the planet, astonished at the sandworm mounts and vast numbers of their attackers. Their past ruthlessness gives them little hope of quarter from the enraged Fremen. Rabban dies in the initial part of the battle; the Harkonnen army is massacred to the last man and almost all the Imperial Sardaukar are killed. Baron Harkonnen himself is poisoned with a gom jabbar by Paul's young sister Alia Atreides, his own granddaughter, and dies at the age of 83. Paul then kills Feyd in ritual combat. House Harkonnen's virtual extermination removes it as a galactic power, but Paul's ascension to the Imperial throne in Shaddam's place guarantees that Vladimir's descendants will long reign as the Imperial House Atreides. Children of Dune Alia had been born with her ancestral memories in the womb, a circumstance the Bene Gesserit call Abomination, because in their experience it is inevitable that the individual will become possessed by the personality of one of their ancestors. In Children of Dune, Alia falls victim to this prediction when she shares control of her body with the ego-memory of the Baron Harkonnen, and eventually falls under his power. Alia eventually commits suicide, realizing that Harkonnen's consciousness has surpassed her abilities to contain him. Prelude to Dune Vladimir Harkonnen from The Dune Encyclopedia In the Prelude to Dune prequel series by Brian Herbert and Anderson, it is established that Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is the son and heir of Dmitri Harkonnen and his wife Victoria. Harkonnen's father had been the head of House Harkonnen and ruled the planet Giedi Prime. Trained since youth as a possible successor, Vladimir had been eventually chosen over his half-brother Abulurd (namesake of the original). Unhappy with his brother's doings, Abulurd eventually marries Emmi Rabban and renounces the family name and his rights to the title. Under the name Abulurd Rabban, he reigns as governor of the secondary Harkonnen planet Lankiveil. Abulurd and his wife have two sons: Glossu Rabban (later nicknamed "Beast Rabban" after he murders his own father) and Feyd-Rautha; Vladimir later adopts the boys back into House Harkonnen, and Feyd becomes his designated heir. The Baron's most prominent political rival is Duke Leto Atreides; the Harkonnens and the Atreides have been bitter enemies for millennia, since the Battle of Corrin that ended the Butlerian Jihad. When Emperor Shaddam IV orchestrates a plot to destroy the "Red Duke" Leto, the Baron eagerly lends his aid. The young Baron Vladimir is described as an exceedingly handsome man, possessing red hair and a near-perfect physique. The Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam is instructed by the Sisterhood to collect the genetic material of Baron Vladimir Harkonnen (through conception) for their breeding program. As the Baron's homosexuality is something of an open secret, Mohiam blackmails him into having sexual relations with her and conceives his child. When that daughter proves genetically undesirable, Mohiam kills her and returns to Harkonnen for a second try; at this point he drugs and viciously rapes her. She exacts her retribution by infecting him with a rare disease that later causes his obesity. Mohiam's second child with Harkonnen is Jessica. According to the authors, the revelation that Mohiam is Jessica's mother was pulled directly from Frank Herbert's working notes for the original Dune series. See: In Dune: House Harkonnen, the deteriorating Baron at first walks with the assistance of a cane, then relies on belt-mounted suspensors to retain mobility. He consults numerous doctors in the expanse of time between the Dune: House Atreides and Dune: House Harkonnen, up to and including his future instrument Dr. Yueh, all of whom are ultimately no help. To conceal this debilitation, he pretends that his obesity is due to intentional overindulgence, lest the Landsraad remove him from power. When he determines that Mohiam inflicted him with the disease, he attempts to coerce her into revealing the cure, but soon discovers that there is none. The Baron, Duke Leto, and Jessica herself are unaware that Jessica is secretly the Baron's daughter or that he has even fathered one; in the year 10,176, the Baron's grandson Paul is born to Leto and Jessica. Hunters of Dune In Hunters of Dune (2006), the continuation of the original series by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, the Baron is resurrected as a ghola (5,029 years after the death of Alia) by the Lost Tleilaxu Uxtal, acting on orders from the Face Dancer Khrone. Khrone intends to use the Baron ghola to manipulate a ghola of Paul Atreides, named Paolo. Khrone tries various torture techniques for three years to awaken the 12-year-old Baron's genetic memories; these methods fail due to the Baron's sadomasochistic nature. Khrone finds with success when he imprisons the Baron in a sensory deprivation tank for a prolonged period; the Baron's memories for his former life return. Ironically, the reincarnated Baron is soon haunted by the voice of Alia in his mind. In adaptations In David Lynch's 1984 film, Baron Harkonnen was portrayed by Kenneth McMillan. In this characterization, he is grotesquely overweight, dressed in filthy garments and covered in large, black pustules which require constant draining and treatment. This version of the character is more overtly unstable than in the novel, screaming and laughing incoherently at any given moment and even drinking the blood of a servant after removing a "heart plug." British actor Ian McNeice's interpretation of the Baron in the 2000 Sci-Fi Channel miniseries Frank Herbert's Dune (and its sequel, 2003's Children of Dune) is, though dramatic, somewhat lighter and more eloquent in comparison to Lynch's version, and therefore more consistent with the novel. Though the Baron still takes sadistic enjoyment in the suffering of others, he is portrayed as somewhat flamboyant, pompous and self-indulgent, with a tendency to speak in rhyme when the mood strikes him. Though Herbert's novel Dune seems to describe Harkonnen's suspensor belt as simply enabling him to stand and walk upright rather than actually "fly," both the 1984 film and the 2000 miniseries feature the Baron utilizing the suspensors to levitate off the ground and float through the air in a flying-like manner. The later Prelude to Dune prequels also employ this floating ability. Herbert does, however, note Harkonnen floating slightly off the floor after he is killed. From Dune: "He rolled sideways in his suspensors, a sagging mass of flesh supported inches off the floor with head lolling and mouth hanging open." Other media The video game Emperor: Battle for Dune, whose in-game cut scenes are visually inspired by David Lynch's film, features a character named Baron Rakan Harkonnen, portrayed by Michael McShane. This Harkonnen is nearly identical to the film's version of Vladimir in both appearance (minus the belt-mounted suspensors) and personality, and also dies by poisoning. Notes and references External links | Vladimir_Harkonnen |@lemmatized baron:46 vladimir:12 harkonnen:36 fictional:1 character:6 dune:34 universe:1 create:1 frank:3 herbert:10 primarily:1 feature:3 novel:4 also:5 major:1 prelude:4 prequel:2 trilogy:1 brian:3 kevin:2 j:2 anderson:4 bring:2 back:2 ghola:4 sequel:2 conclude:1 original:4 series:5 hunter:3 sandworms:2 appendix:1 iv:3 almanak:1 en:1 ashraf:1 select:1 excerpt:1 noble:1 house:9 say:5 part:3 commonly:1 refer:1 title:2 officially:1 siridar:1 planetary:1 governor:2 direct:1 line:3 male:1 descendant:2 bashar:1 abulurd:5 banish:1 cowardice:1 battle:4 corrin:2 return:3 power:5 generally:1 ascribe:1 adroit:1 manipulation:2 whale:1 fur:1 market:1 late:3 consolidation:1 melange:2 wealth:1 arrakis:6 note:7 possess:3 basso:1 voice:2 grossly:2 immensely:2 fat:4 require:2 anti:1 gravity:1 device:1 know:3 suspensor:7 support:2 weight:1 emerge:2 shadow:1 figure:1 take:7 dimension:1 subtle:2 bulge:1 beneath:2 fold:1 dark:1 robe:1 reveal:2 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4,192 | Freyja | "Heimdallr returns the necklace Brísingamen to Freyja" by Swedish painter Nils Blommér. Freyja (sometimes anglicized as Freya), cognate to Sanskrit Priya, is a major goddess in Norse Paganism, a subset of Germanic Paganism. Because the documented source of this religious tradition, the Norse Mythology, was transmitted and altered by Christian medieval historians, Microsoft Encarta 2007, "Norse Mythology" Williams, Gareth (2001) "We know almost nothing about pagan religious practices in the Viking Age... Occasional references to paganism in the Viking sagas were written down 200 years after the conversion to Christianity." "And it is not always clear where the compilers of the sagas used earlier material and where they simply made things up. There is a further problem that the sagas are primarily works of literature. Both events and particularly speech might well be rewritten to give a particular literary effect." W. A. Craigie, "Religion of Ancient Scandinavia" (1914), p.2: "These works, were written in Iceland during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and most of them are separated by more than a century and a half from the period of time to which they relate. As the authors were in every case Christians, and many of them were ecclesiastics, it is obvious that the late evidence thus afforded us is not to be absolutely relied upon." the actual role, heathen practices and worship of the goddess are uncertain. In the Eddas, Freya is portrayed as a goddess of love Microsoft Encarta 2007, "Freya" , beauty, and fertility. Blonde, Frithiof's Saga: A song of Valhal's brightness, And all its gods and goddesses, He'd think: "Yes!" yellow's Freyja's hair, A corn-land sea, breeze-waved so fair. blue-eyed, Frithiof's Saga: And blue are Freyja's eyes to see, Blue as heaven's cloudless canopy! But I know eyes to whose bright beams The light blue spring-day darksome seems. and beautiful, Freyja is described as the fairest of all goddesses, Henry A. Bellows. (Trans.). (1936). The Poetic Edda. Princeton University Press 1936. (HTML version transcribed by Ari Odhinnsen available at Northvegr: Lore: Poetic Edda - Bellows Trans.) and people prayed to her for happiness in love. Steinsland, G. & Meulengracht Sørensen, P. (1998): Människor och makter i vikingarnas värld. ISBN 9173245917 p.72 She was also called on to assist childbirths The Poetic Edda, Oddrúnargrátr. Undersökningar i Germanisk Mythologi by Viktor Eydberg (1889) and prayed to for good seasons. Saga of Håkon the Good. Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jättar i tro och tradition by Ebbe Schön. Freyja was also associated with , battle, death, magic, prophecy, and wealth. She is cited as receiving half of the dead lost in battle in her hall Fólkvangr, whereas Odin would receive the other half at Valhalla. The Prose Edda, Gylfaginning. The Poetic Edda, Grímnismál. The origin of Seid was ascribed to Freyja. Heimskringla or Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, Book I. Lee M. Hollander, transl. University of Texas Press (1964). The Religion of the Northmen by Rudolf Keyser. Barclay Pennock, transl. (1854) Chapter XXIV "Sorcery". Frigg and Freyja are the two principal goddesses in Norse religion, Keyser, Rudolph, History Professor of University of Norway, "Nordmændenes Religionsforfatning I hedendommen" (1854), Pennock, Barclay. Transl. and described as the highest amongst the Asynjur. The Younger Edda. Rasmus B. Anderson transl. (1897). Gylfaginning (35) Frigg is the foremost... the sixth is Freyja, who is ranked with Frigg Freyja is the goddess most honoured after or along with Frigg, and her worship seems to have been even the more prevalent and important of the two. Grimm, Jacob. Deutsche Mythologie (1835) S. Stallybras transl. (2004) "Teutonic Mythology", Dover Publications ISBN 0-486-43615-2 In the Droplaugarsona Saga, it is described that in a temple at Ölvusvatn, Iceland, statues of Frigg and Freyja have been seated upon higher thrones opposite those of Thor and Freyr. These statues were arrayed in drapery and ornaments of gold and silver. In Heimskringla, Freyja is also presented as a mythological Princess of Sweden. Her father Njörðr is seen as the second mythological King of Sweden, and her brother Freyr is the third. Freyr and Freyja's mother is Njörðr's sister (who has been often linked to the ancient Germanic goddess Nerthus Ellis Davidson, H.R. Gods And Myths Of Northern Europe (1965) ISBN 0140136274 ), as it is a custom of the Vanir and allowed by their laws. Further in Heimskringla, it is written that many temples and statues of native pagan gods and goddesses were raided and destroyed by Olaf Tryggvason and Saint Olaf during the gradual and violent process of the Christianization of Scandinavia. During and after the extent that the process of Christianization was complete, Freyja and many things associated with her were demonized It is written in the Septuagint that "All the Gods of the heathens are devils!", Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton's translation. by the growing influence of Christian missionaries. After Christian influence was cemented in law, traces of belief went increasingly underground into mainly rural areas, surviving into modern times in Germanic folklore and most recently reconstructed to varying degrees in Germanic neopaganism. Etymology A silver decoration showing Freyja, in the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in Stockholm. The names Freyr and Freyja come from Germanic words meaning "the Lord" and "the Lady" respectively (Germanic cognates include Gothic Fráuja "lord, master", Fráujo "lady, mistress", Old Norse Frú "mistress, lady, woman", Danish Frue, Swedish Fru, German Frau "miss, woman, wife", Old High German Frouwa, Anglo-Saxon Freo, Frea). Like the French word "Dame" (from Latin "domina"), whose masculine form (Latin "dominus") had perished, the meaning of "Lord" is also no longer in use, while the title "Frau" still survives today in many Germanic languages. Poetic Edda Freyja appears in various poems of the Poetic Edda, a compilation of poems composed around the 9th to the 11th century. Grímnismál Grímnismál ("The Sayings of Grímnir") features stanzas devoted to describing the realms of major Norse deities. Fólkvangr, Freyja's dwelling, is among the twelve abodes of the gods mentioned in the poem: "Fólkvangr is the ninth, there Freyja directs the sittings in the hall. She half the fallen chooses each day, but Odin the other half." Thorpe, Benjamin. (Trans.). (1866). Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða: The Edda Of Sæmund The Learned. (2 vols.) London: Trübner & Co. 1866. (HTML version transcribed by Ari Odhinnsen available at Northvegr: Lore: Poetic Edda - Thorpe Trans.) It was written by Snorri Sturluson in the Prose Edda that "whenever she rides to the strife, she has one-half of the slain". The stanza above describes Freyja's realm. The name Fólkvangr can be translated to "People-Field" or "Army-Field"). Her hall, Sessrúmnir, can be translated as "Seats-Roomy". These names indicate a parallel to Valhalla, which houses the Einherjar, an army of the dead preparing for Ragnarök. Völuspá Völuspá ("Prophecy of the Seeress") is the first and one of the primary poems of the Poetic Edda. In the poem, a Völva ("Seeress") professes much information about past and future events to Odin. Freyja is mentioned briefly in the poem: "Then sought the gods their assembly-seats, The holy ones, and council held, To find who with venom the air had filled, Or had given Óðr's bride [Freyja] to the giants' brood. In swelling rage then rose up Thor, Seldom he sits when he such things hears, And the oaths were broken, the words and bonds The mighty pledges between them made." Henry A. Bellows. (Trans.). (1936). The Poetic Edda. Princeton University Press 1936. (HTML version transcribed by Ari Odhinnsen available at Northvegr: Lore: Poetic Edda - Bellows Trans.) These two stanzas are part of the story mentioned in the Prose Edda, when the gods tried to break the deal with the owner of Svadilfari in order to protect Freyja. Here Freyja is mentioned as "Óðr's bride", and the one with "venom the air had filled" is Loki. Parts of this script were lost because the Völuspá manuscript, like most other Eddic Poems, was in very poor shape. In his books<ref name=RYDBERG>Rydberg, Viktor (1889). "Teutonic Mythology". Rasmus B. Anderson transl. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. (2001), Elibron Classics. ISBN 1-4021-9391-2. "Fädernas Gudasaga (Our Fathers' Godsagas) (1887). William P. Reaves transl. iUniverse (2003) ISBN 0-595-29978-4</ref> , Viktor Rydberg had another idea. He thinks that these stanzas are connected to the story of the execution of Gullveig (which is mentioned right before this part), and that Gullveig was executed because she gave Freyja to Jötunheim. Rydberg's explanation is not unsupportable, because given Völuspá's poor state, many Eddic editors sorted the poem differently. ÞrymskviðaÞrymskviða ("The Song of Thrymr") is arguably the best and oldest of all Eddic poems. The poem begins with Thor one day finding his legendary hammer, Mjolnir, stolen. Thor goes with Loki to Fólkvangr to borrow Freyja's hawk's plumage. Thor: "Wilt thou me, Freyja,thy feather-garment lend,that perchance my hammerI may find?" Freyja: "That I would give thee,although of gold it were,and trust it to thee,though it were of silver." Loki then used the feathered cloak to transform into a bird to seek for Thor's hammer. He met Thrymr, King of the Rime Jötuns, who admitted that he had hidden the hammer somewhere, and demanded to marry Freyja in return. Thrymr: "I have Hlorridi'shammer hiddeneight rastsbeneath the earth;it shall no manget again,unless he bring meFreyja to wife." Loki came back to Asgard and went to Fólkvangr again. Loki: "Bind thee, Freyja,in bridal raiment,for we two must driveto Jötunheim." Freyja was so wrathful that all the gods' dwellings were shaken and the necklace Brísingamen broke off from her neck.Wroth then was Freyja,and with anger chafed,all the Æsir’s hallsbeneath her trembled:in shivers flew the famedBrisinga-necklace. (Brisinga: flaming, twinkling; -men: necklace, jewery) Onsell, Birgitta. 'Världens vackraste smycke.' in Jordens moder i Norden. Stockholm: Carlssons, 1994. p. 111-2. Freyja: "Know me to beof women lewdest,if with thee I driveto Jötunheim." Since Freyja refused, gods and goddesses hold a council. And following Heimdallr's advice, Thor and Loki borrowed Brísingamen. They went to the wedding disguised as "Freyja and her maid", where Thrymr jubilantly welcomed his new bride. Thrymr: "Rise up, Jötuns!and the benches deck,now they bring meFreyja to wife,Njörðr's daughter,from Noatún.Hither to our court let bringgold-horned cows,all-black oxen,for the Jötuns' joy.Treasures I have many,necklaces many,Freyja aloneseemed to me wanting." At the banquet, Thrymr was shocked as "Freyja" ate an ox, eight salmon, and drank three casks of mead, but Loki was quick to make lies. Thrymr: "Where hast thou seen brideseat more voraciously?I never saw bridesfeed more amply,nor a maiden drink more mead." "The maid": "Freyja has nothing eaten for eight nights, so eager was she for Jötunheim." Thrymr: "Why are so piercing Freyja's looks? Methinks that fire burns from her eyes." "The maid": "Freyja for eight nights has not slept, so eager was she for Jötunheim." The Jötuns eventually gave "Freyja" the hammer. Thrymr: "Bring the hammer in, the bride to consecrate; lay Mjöllnir on the maiden's knee; unite us each with other by the hand of Vör." Thor took back his hammer, sprang out from his disguise, slew Thrymr and all his kin. This myth is also recorded in a Swedish folksong called the Thor song (18th Century), where Freyja is called miss Frojenborg, "den väna solen" (the fair sun). The Thor song (Swedish) Lokasenna Lokasenna ("Loki's Wrangling") was found only in one edition of the Poetic Edda, the Regius. Most references in this poem are not mentioned anywhere else either, and whether the poet was influenced by Christianity or not is debated, because he seems not to have any respect for pagan deities. Following the events of Hymiskviða, Ægir obtained a mighty kettle, brewed mead and invited the Æsir and the Alfar. Of all the gods came Odin, Njörðr, Freyr, Bragi, Týr, Heimdallr, Vidar. Of all the goddesses came Frigg, Freyja, Gefjun, Iðunn, Skaði, and Sif. Although not invited, Loki appears. There, he kills one of Ægir's servants and accuses the gods and goddesses of various vices. Gods and goddesses exchange hurtful comments with Loki, and the poem continues until Thor intervenes. At the end of the poem, a prose ending part relates that shortly afterward, Loki is caught by the gods and bound to a rock until Ragnarök. The exchange between Freyja and Loki reads as follows: Loki: "Be thou silent, Frigg! Thou art Fjorgyn's daughter, (Fjorgyn: the earth.) and ever hast been lustful, since Ve and Vili, it is said, thou, Vidrir's wife, didst (Vidrir: another name of Odin, and Vili: Odin's brothers) both to thy bosom take." Freyja: "Mad art thou, Loki! in recounting thy foul misdeeds. Frigg, I believe, knows all that happens, although she says it not." Loki: "Be thou silent, Freyja! I know thee full well; thou art not free from vices: of the Æsir and the Alfar, that are herein, each has been thy paramour." Freyja: "False is thy tongue. Henceforth it will, I think, prate no good to thee. Wroth with thee are the Æsir, and the Asyniur. Sad shalt thou home depart." Loki: "Be silent, Freyja! Thou art a sorceress, and with much evil blended; since against thy brother thou the gentle powers excited. And then, Freyja! what didst thou do?" Njörðr: "It is no great wonder, if silk-clad dames get themselves husbands, lovers; but 'tis a wonder that a wretched man, that has borne children, (i.e. the horse Sleipnir) should herein enter." Beside Frigg and Freyja; other goddesses like Iðunn, Gefjun, Sif, Skaði, and even Týr's wife (who is unknown) are also insulted by Loki in the same way. Lee M. Hollander theorized that Lokasenna was intended to be humorous and that the accusations thrown by Loki in the poem are not necessarily to be taken as "generally accepted lore" at the time it was composed. Rather they are charges that are easy for Loki to make and difficult for his targets to disprove, or which they do not care to refute. The Poetic Edda (2nd edition), Lee M. Hollander, transl. University of Texas Press (1990). Hyndluljóð "Freyja awakes Hyndla" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. Freyja is nuzzled by Hildisvíni while gesturing to Hyndla (1895) by Lorenz Frølich. "The Ancestry of Ottar" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. Hyndluljóð ("The Lay of Hyndla") was found only in a late edition of the Poetic Edda (around 1400), where it is preserved in a very poor shape. The poem is in fact two poems mixed up together, the semi-historical "Lay of Hyndla" and another labelled by Snorri as "The lesser Völuspá". The date it was composed is generally accepted as around 12th century. In this poem, Freyja rode on her boar Hildisvini to enlist the help of the giantess Hyndla (She-Dog) to find the pedigree of Óttar, her protégé. Óttar here is maybe another name of Freyja's husband, Óðr. Freyja arrived at Hyndla's cave and called her to Valhalla. But Hyndla quickly realized that the boar is Óttar in disguise. Hyndla: "False art thou, Freyja! who tempest me: by thy eyes thou showest it, so fixed upon us; while thou thy man hast on the dead-road, (i.e. the road to Valhalla) the young Óttar, Innstein's son." Freyja: "Dull art thou, Hyndla! methinks thou dreamest, since thou sayest that my man is on the dead-road with me; there where my hog sparkles with its golden bristles, hight Hildisvini, which for me made the two skilful dwarfs, Dain and Nabbi." Hyndla came with Freyja, riding on a wolf. On the road, Freyja explained her duty, and how Óttar had induced her to help him: "For me he built a hörgr with rocks; those stones are now turned to glass; as he reddened it with fresh blood of cattle". (Hörg hann mér gerði hlaðinn steinum; nú er grjót þat at gleri orðit; rauð hann í nýju nauta blóði). Freyja: "They have contested for the dead's gold, Óttar the young and Angantir. A duty 'tis to act so that the young prince his paternal heritage may have, after his kindred. An offer-stead to me he raised, with stones constructed; now is that stone as glass become. With the blood of oxen he newly sprinkled it. Óttar ever trusted in the Asyniur. Now let us reckon up the ancient families, and the races of exalted men." Hyndla gave a very long list of heroes' names as Óttar's ancestors (this is the main part and purpose of the poem). Freyja then confirmed that the boar is Óttar in disguise. She further requested Hyndla to give Óttar a potion that would enable him to remember all that he had been told. But the giantess refused. Hyndla: "Go thou quickly hence, I long to sleep; more of my wondrous power thou gettest not from me. Thou runnest, my hot friend, out at nights, as among he goats the she goat goes." Freyja: "Fire I strike over thee, dweller of the wood! so that thou goest not ever away from hence." Hyndla was forced to give the memory-mead, but did not forget to curse it first. Hyndla: "Bear thou the cup to Óttar's hand, the mead with venom mingled, in an evil hour!" Freyja: "Thy malediction shall be powerless; although thou, Jötun maid! dost evil threaten. He shall drink delicious draughts. All the gods I pray to favour Óttar." Oddrúnargrátr Oddrúnargrátr ("Oddrún's Laments") belongs to the myths of heroes. In this heroic lay, after giving birth, Princess Borgny called upon Frigg and Freyja to bless Oddrún. At last were born a boy and girl, Son and daughter of Hogni's slayer; Then speech the woman so weak began, Nor said she aught ere this she spake: "So may the holy ones thee help, Frigg and Freyja and favoring gods, As thou hast saved me from sorrow now." Prose Edda "Freya" (1901) by Johannes Gehrts. The Prose Edda, a large collection of Norse tales and pagan lore written down by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson around 1220, contains numerous references to Freyja. Snorri quotes many Skaldic poems rooted in much older oral tradition as basis. Gylfaginning In Gylfaginning, the first book of the Prose Edda after the prologue, Freyja is introduced as follows: Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja. Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug. [...] Freyja er ágætust af ásynjum, hon á þann bœ á himni er Fólkvangar heita, ok hvar sem hon ríðr til vígs, þá á hon hálfan val, en hálfan Óðinn [...] Salr hennar, Sessrýmnir, hann er mikill ok fagr. En er hon ferr, þá ekr hon köttum tveim ok sitr í reið. Hon er nákvæmust mönnum til á at heita, ok af hennar nafni er þat tignarnafn er ríkiskonur eru kallaðar fróvur. Henni líkaði vel mansöngr. Á hana er gott at heita til ásta. Gylfaginning, (Björnsson's Edition) The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson (Eysteinn Björnsson's Edition) in original Old Norse text. Online version can be found here: Njördr in Nóatún begot afterward children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja; they were fair of face and mighty. [...] Freyja is the most renowned of the goddesses; she has in heaven the dwelling called Fólkvangr, and where so ever she rides to the strife, she has one-half of the kill, and Odin half [...] Her hall Sessrúmnir is great and fair. When she goes forth, she drives her cats and sits in a chariot; she is most conformable to man's prayers, and from her name comes the name of honor, Frú, by which noblewomen are called. Songs of love are well-pleasing to her; it is good to call on her for furtherance in love. Gylfaginning, (Brodeur's Translation) Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist. (Trans.) The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson (1916) Transcribed by Alfta Lothursdottir and available online via the Northvegr Foundation here: Freyja er tignust með Frigg. Hon giftist þeim manni, er Óðr heitir. Dóttir þeira er Hnoss. Hon er svá fögr, at af hennar nafni eru hnossir kallaðar, þat er fagrt er ok gersimligt. Óðr fór í braut langar leiðir, en Freyja grætr eftir, en tár hennar er gull rautt. Freyja á mörg nöfn, en sú er sök til þess, at hon gaf sér ýmis heiti, er hon fór með ókunnum þjóðum at leita Óðs. Hon heitir Mardöll ok Hörn, Gefn, Sýr. Freyja átti Brísingamen. Hon er ok kölluð Vanadís. Gylfaginning, (Björnsson's Edition) The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson (Eysteinn Björnsson's Edition) in original Old Norse text. Online version can be found here: Freyja is most gently born (together with Frigg): she is wedded to the man named Óðr. Their daughter is Hnoss: she is so fair, that those things which are fair and precious are called hnossir. Óðr went away on long journeys, and Freyja weeps for him, and her tears are red gold. Freyja has many names, and this is the cause thereof: that she gave herself sundry names, when she went out among unknown peoples seeking Óðr: she is called Mardöll and Hörn, Gefn, Sýr. Freyja had the necklace Brísingamen. She is also called Lady of the Vanir. Gylfaginning, (Brodeur's Translation) The three minor goddesses mentioned immediately after Freyja in Gylfaginning (section 35) are often regarded as her attendants: Sjöfn (a goddess of love), Lofn (a goddess of marriage), and Vár (a goddess of oaths between men and women). Skáldskaparmál In Skáldskaparmál, various informative kennings are written for Freyja: "How should one paraphrase Freyja? Thus: by calling her Daughter of Njörðr, Sister of Freyr, Wife of Óðr, Mother of Hnoss, Possessor of the Slain, of Sessrúmnir, of the Gib-Cats, and of Brísingamen; Goddess of the Vanir, Lady of the Vanir, Goddess Beautiful in Tears, Goddess of Love." (Skáldskaparmál (20)) Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist. (Trans.) The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson (1916) Transcribed by Alfta Lothursdottir and available online via the Northvegr Foundation here: Further, in Skáldskaparmál, various kennings for Freyja focus on the tears she weeps, which are made of red gold: "How should gold be paraphrased? Thus: by calling it Ægir's Fire, and Needles of Glasir, Hair of Sif, Snood of Fulla, Freyja's Tears [...] Rain or Shower of Draupnfir, or of Freyja's Eyes [...]" (Skáldskaparmál (32)) "Gold is called Freyja's Tears, as was said before. So sang Skúli Þórsteinsson: Many a fearless swordsman Received the Tears of Freyja The more the morn when foemen We murdered; we were present. And as Einarr Skúlason sang: Where, mounted 'twixt the carvings, The Tear of Mardöll lieth, We bear the axe shield-splitting, Swollen with Serpent's lair-gold." (Skáldskaparmál (37)) Appearances in Myths Freyja appears in many myths recorded in the Prose Edda. Divine twins born after the war of the gods: The war between the Æsir and the Vanir was ignited by the ill treatments of the Æsir to Gullveig, as written in Völuspá. The war ended in a peace treaty, and both sides exchanged hostages. Njörðr was chosen by the Vanir, and sent from Vanaheim to Asgard where he later begot two fair children, as written in Gylfaginning (23 & 24): Hinn þriði áss er sá er kallaðr er Njörðr, hann býr á himni þar sem heitir Nóatún. Hann ræðr fyrir göngu vinds ok stillir sjá ok eld. Á hann skal heita til sæfara ok til veiða. Hann er svá auðigr ok fésæll at hann má gefa þeim auð landa eða lausafjár er á hann heita til þess. Eigi er Njörðr ása ættar. Hann var upp fœddr í Vanaheimum, en vanir gísluðu hann goðunum ok tóku í mót at ása gísli gu þann er Hœnir heitir. Hann varð at sætt með goðunum ok vönum. Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja...The third among the Æsir is Njörðr: he dwells in heaven, in the abode called Nóatún. He rules the course of the wind, and stills sea and fire; on him shall men call for voyages and for hunting. He is so prosperous and abounding in wealth, that he may give them great plenty of lands or of gear; and him shall men invoke for such things. Njörðr is not of the race of the Æsir: he was reared in Vanaheim, but the Vanir delivered him as hostage to the gods, and took for hostage in exchange him that men call Hœnir; he became an atonement between the gods and the Vanir. Njörðr in Nóatún begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja... The feast of the Æsir: When Ægir came to Asgard, the Æsir invited him in to their banquet. Many gods and goddesses are mentioned here: "And in the high-seats sat them down those twelve Æsir who were appointed to be judges; these were their names: Thor, Njörðr, Freyr, Týr, Heimdallr, Bragi, Vidar, Váli, Ullr, Hœnir, Forseti, Loki; and in like manner the Asynjur: Frigg, Freyja, Gefjun, Iðunn, Gerd, Sigyn, Fulla, Nanna... The man seated next to Ægir was Bragi, and they took part together in drinking and in converse: Bragi told Ægir of many things which had come to pass among the Æsir." (Skáldskaparmál (1)) The robbery of Brísingamen: The skaldic poem Húsdrápa partially preserved in Skáldskaparmál relates the story of the theft of Brísingamen by Loki: "One day when Freyja wakes up and finds Brísingamen missing, she enlists the help of Heimdallr to help her search for it. Eventually they find the thief, who turns out to be Loki who has transformed himself into a seal. Heimdallr turns into a seal as well and fights Loki. After a lengthy battle at Singasteinn, Heimdallr wins and returns Brísingamen to Freyja." The rivalry of Loki and Heimdallr for Brísingamen is an important event, as they are destined to fight again and slay each other at the end of Ragnarök. Snorri quoted this poem, saying that because of that legend, Heimdallr is called "Seeker of Brísingamen" and Loki is called "Thief of Brísingamen": "How should one periphrase Heimdallr? By calling him Son of Nine Mothers, or Watchman of the Gods [...] or White God, Foe of Loki, Seeker of Freyja's Necklace [...] Heimdallr is the Possessor of Gulltoppr; he is also Frequenter of Vágasker and Singasteinn, where he contended with Loki for the Necklace Brísingamen, he is also called Vindlér." (Skáldskaparmál (8)) "How should one periphrase Loki? [...] Thief of the Giants, of the Goat, of Brísingamen, and of Iðunn's Apples, Kinsman of Sleipnir, Husband of Sigyn, Foe of the Gods, Harmer of Sif's Hair, Forger of Evil, the Sly God." (Skáldskaparmál (16)) This myth, which takes place at the sea, is maybe related to the origin of Freyja's name "Mardöll" (Sea-Bright), the bright here is maybe the glittering of the stolen Brísingamen (brísinga means "glittering, twinkling, flaming"). In Heimdallr's name, the word dallr (light) is masculine of döll, and heim means "earth" or "land" (cf. Vanaheim, Alfheim). This is maybe one of the lost tales of Freyja's journey in search for her husband (as Snorri wrote: "She has a great variety of names, for having gone over many countries in search of Óðr, each people gave her a different name".) In Gesta Danorum is another story of a beautiful woman named Sýr (Latinized as Syritha) seeking for Óðr/Óttar (Latinized as Otharus). The owner of Svadilfari: This giant came to offer to build a citidel for the gods in three seasons. He demanded to marry fair Freyja, also the sun and the moon as his rewards. Following Loki's ill advice, the gods accepted the deal, but they later urged Loki to deceive the giant to protect Freyja. Loki turned into a mare and seduced Svadilfari, the huge steed of the giant. Without his horse, the giant could not complete his job, he was enraged, insulted the gods, and eventually got slain by Thor before the deal was completed. Loki's prank ultimately backfired on him, and he bore the son of the horse Svadilfari, Sleipnir. (Gylfaginning (42)) The abduction of Iðunn: The giant Thjazi captured Loki and forced him to lure Iðunn out to kidnap her along with the golden apples. Without the apples of youth, the gods grew old and they soon found out that Iðunn was missing. She was last seen going with Loki, so they cornered the giant and threathened to slay him. Loki had to borrow the hawk's plumage of Freyja to go and free Iðunn. Thjazi chased after them in eagle form, but he was roasted by the gods' fire. Thjazi is father of Skaði, who later became Freyr and Freyja's stepmother. Skaði's march to Asgard for vengeance ended in a marriage with Njörðr. (Skáldskaparmál (1)) Thor's duel: After his race with Odin, which he lost, the champion of the giants, Hrungnir, came to Asgard. Thor is absent, so he boasted that he would destroy Valhalla, slay all the gods, and take Freyja and Sif home with him. Of all goddesses, Freyja alone was brave enough to stand and pour ale for the giant to waste time while Thor is summoned. The god of thunder, with the help of his clever servant Þjálfi, later slew Hrungnir in a duel, but Thor himself was struck by the giant's horn and also wounded. This is one of the reasons why the Hill Giants are amongst the gods' enemies at the final battle. (Skáldskaparmál (17)) Baldur's funeral: Baldur, the best of the Æsir, can not be harmed by anything. Loki turned himself into a woman to trick Frigg into revealing that Baldur can only be hurt by the mistletoes. Loki then tricked the blind god Hödr to shoot his brother with a mistletoe twig, thus Baldur was murdered by the evil giant Loki's trickery. "People of many races visited this burning. First is to be told of Odin, how Frigg and the Valkyries went with him, and his ravens; but Freyr drove in his chariot with the boar called Gold-Mane, or Fearful-Tusk, and Heimdallr rode the horse called Gold-Top, and Freyja drove in her chariot drawn by cats..." (Gylfaginning (49)) Sagas of Icelanders The various Sagas of Icelanders contain numerous mentions of Freyja. Heimskringla According to the Ynglinga saga: "Dóttir Njarðar var Freyja, hon var blótgyðja, ok hon kendi fyrst með Ásum seið, sem Vönum var títt. Þá er Njörðr var með Vönum, þá hafði hann átta systr sína því at þat váru þar lög; váru þeirra börn Freyr ok Freyja. En þat var bannat með Ásum at byggja svá náit at frændsemi.""Njörðr's daughter Freyja was priestess of the sacrifices, and first taught the Æsir the magic art, as it was in use and fashion among the Vanir. While Njörðr was with the Vanir he had taken his own sister in marriage, for that was allowed by their law; and their children were Freyr and Freyja. But among the Æsir it was forbidden to intermarry with such near relations." After the deaths of Odin, Njörðr, and Freyr: "Freyja hélt þá upp blótum, því at hon ein lifði þá eptir goðanna, ok varð hon þá hin frægsta, svá at með hennar nafni skyldi kalla allar konur tignar, svá sem nú heita frúvor. Svá heitir ok hver freyja yfir sinni eign, en sú húsfreyja, er bú á. Freyja var heldr marglynd; Óðr hét bóndi hennar, dætr hennar hétu Hnoss ok Gersemi; þær váru fagrar mjög: af þeirra nafni eru svá kallaðir hinir dýrstu gripir.""Freyja alone remained of the gods, and she became on this account so celebrated that all women of distinction were called by her name, whence they now have the title Frú (Frau in German); so that every woman is called frú (frau in German), or mistress over her property, and the wife is called the house-Frú (Ehefrau in German). Freyja continued the blood-sacrifices. Freyja had also many other names. Her husband was called Óðr, and her daughters Hnoss and Gersemi. They were so very beautiful, that afterwards the most precious jewels were called by their names." The Ynglinga saga. Samuel Laing transl. London (1844). In King Håkon the Good's saga, Freyja is mentioned twice. First, regarding the sacrifices for the goddess (16): And first Odin's goblet was emptied for victory and power to his king. Thereafter, Njörðr's and Freyja's goblets for peace and a good season Secondly, Freyja's golden tears for her husband are referenced: Although the king had gained of old Enough of Freyja's tears of gold, He spared himself no more than tho'''He'd had no well-filled purse to show. Book V of Heimskringla or The Chronicle of the Kings of Norway by Snorri Sturlson, Samuel Laing transl. (1844). Other Sagas In Egils saga, when Þorgerðr threatened to commit suicide, she said: "No supper have I had, and none will I have till I sup with Freyja. I can do no better than does my father: I will not overlive my father and brother." In Hálfs saga, Queen Signy, wife of King Alfrek, prayed for the help of Freyja in an ale-brewing contest. Her opponent, Geirhild, however, had the help of Odin, who gave her his drools as yeast. And so Signy lost.Frithiof's Saga mentions the tale of Freyja and Óðr:Freyja one dayFalcon-wings took, and through space hied away.Northward and southward she sought herDearly-loved Oder.According to Njáls saga: "There had been a change of rulers in Norway, Earl Hacon was dead and gone, but in his stead was come Olaf Tryggvason. Along with that was heard that there had been a change of faith in Norway; they had cast off the old faith, but King Olaf had christened the western lands, Shetland, and the Orkneys, and the Faroe Isles. Then many men spoke so that Njal heard it, that it was a strange and wicked thing to throw off the old faith..." Then, Hjalti Skeggiason, an Icelander newly converted to Christianity, wished to express his contempt for the native gods, so he sang: "Ever will I Gods blasphemeFreyja methinks a dog does seem,Freyja a dog? Aye! Let them beBoth dogs together Odin and she!" Njál's Saga or The Story of Burnt Njal, George W. DaSent transl. (1861). Hjalti was found guilty of blasphemy for his infamous verse and he ran to Norway with his father-in-law, Gizur the White. Later, with Olaf Tryggvason's support, Gizur and Hjalti came back to Iceland to invite those assembled at the Althing to convert to Christianity. W. A. Craigie, "Religion of Ancient Scandinavia" (1914) T. Kendrick, "History of the Vikings" (1930), p.349, 350. The Saga of King Olaf Tryggvason, composed around 1300, describes that following King Olaf Tryggvason's orders, to prove their piety, people must insult and ridicule major heathen deities when they are newly converted into Christianity. Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld, who was reluctantly converted from paganism to Christianity by Olaf, also had to make a poem to forsake pagan deities. Freyja is named among those major deities. The Greatest Saga of Olaf Tryggvason, Fornmanna sögur Historically, during the Christianization of Norway, King Olaf Tryggvason used elaborate ways to kill those who refused to Christianize. Flateyjarbók Sörla þáttr is a short story in the later and extended version of the Saga of Olaf Tryggvason The Younger Edda. Rasmus B. Anderson transl. (1897) Chicago: Scott, Foresman & Co. (1901). in the manuscript of the Flateyjarbók, which is written and compiled by two Christian priests, Jon Thordson and Magnus Thorhalson, in 14th-15th century. Rasmus B. Anderson, Introduction to the The Flatey Book. Norræna Society, London (1908). The story borrows parts of Heimskringla (of how heathen deities are euhemerised), parts of the poem Lokasenna (of Gefjun sleeping with a boy for a necklace), parts of the Húsdrápa poem (of Loki stealing Brisingamen), and the eternal battle Hjaðningavíg. In the end of the story, the arrival of Christianity dissolves the old curse that traditionally was to endure until Ragnarök. "Freyja was a human in Asia and was the favorite concubine of Odin, King of Asialand. When this woman wanted to buy a golden necklace (no name given) forged by four dwarves (named Dvalinn, Alfrik, Berling, and Grer), she offered them gold and silver but they replied that they would only sell it to her if she would lie a night by each of them. She came home afterward with the necklace and kept silent as if nothing happened. But a man called Loki somehow knew it, and came to tell Odin. King Odin commanded Loki to steal the necklace, so Loki turned into a fly to sneak into Freyja's bower and stole it. When Freyja found her necklace missing, she came to ask king Odin. In exchange for it, Odin ordered her to make two kings, each served by twenty kings, fight forever unless some christened men so brave would dare to enter the battle and slay them. She said yes, and got that necklace back. Under the spell, king Högni and king Heðinn battled for one hundred and forty-three years, as soon as they fell down they had to stand up again and fight on. But in the end, the great Christian lord Olaf Tryggvason arrived with his brave christened men, and whoever slain by a Christian would stay dead. Thus the pagan curse was finally dissolved by the arrival of Christianity. After that, the noble man, king Olaf, went back to his realm." This short story is also known as "The Saga of Högni and Hedinn". English translation can be found at Northvegr: Three Northern Love Stories and Other Tales. This late work of Christian saga authors is quite obviously a propaganda, and does not represent an authentic pagan tradition (here Odin, the chief pagan god, somehow talked about Christianity, the religion that considers Odin and other pagan deities "devils" Old Saxon Baptismal vow in Vatican Codex pal. 577: "I renounce all the words and works of the devil, Thunear (Thor), Woden (Odin), and Seaxneat, and all those fiends that are their associates." (Thorpe, Benjamin (1851). "Northern mythology". ) ). The Christian priests Jon Thordson and Magnus Thorhalson, who respectively wrote and revised the Olaf sagas in the Flateyjarbók, put this line in their manuscript: "May God Almighty and the Virgin Mary bless both the one that wrote and the one that dictated!" The battle of Högni and Heðinn is recorded in the skaldic poem Ragnarsdrápa and in Skáldskaparmál (section 49): king Högni's daughter, Hildr, is kidnapped by king Heðinn. When Högni comes to fight Heðinn on an island, Hildr comes to offer her father a necklace on behalf of Heðinn for peace; but the two kings still battle, and Hildr resurrects the fallen to make them fight until Ragnarök. Both these earlier sources never mention Odin or Freyja, much less king Olaf Tryggvason, the historical figure who Christianized Norway and Iceland in the 10th Century. The stealing of Brísingamen is recorded in the skaldic poem Húsdrápa and Skáldskaparmál of the Prose Edda: Loki one day steals Brísingamen, Heimdall contends with Loki at Singasteinn, where he wins and returns Brísingamen to Freyja. Here the story is borrowed and changed that Heimdall is removed. In both the Elder Edda and the Younger Edda, as well as many old skadic poems preserved in Skáldskaparmál, Freyja is the wife of Óðr, The Poetic Edda, the poem Völuspá. The Prose Edda, Gylfaginning (section 35) and Skáldskaparmál (various kennings) not a concubine of Odin. The part of how Freyja obtained a golden necklace does not exist in any sources beside Sörla þáttr, and curiously, in Lokasenna, when Loki accuses goddesses for various vices, he does not even mention that. On the other hand, Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum wrote a somewhat similar story about Frigg sleeping with a servant to obtain a device to steal Odin's gold; in both stories, the chief pagan god Odin is depicted as a cuckold. But Saxo, as a follower of Archbishop Absalon, repeatedly stated that "Odin is a false god and together with Thor and others they borrowed the name and divinity of Latin and Greek gods to trick Scandinavians into recognizing them as a gods", and his accounts are heavily romanticized such as Baldr (Balderus) and Höðr (Høtherus) were not brothers, but love rivals over Nanna (in this account is a princess of Norway). Saxo Grammaticus, "The Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus", Oliver Elton transl. Norroena Society, New York (1905). Gesta Danorum In Saxo Grammaticus's Gesta Danorum, Freyja is theorized as appearing under the name of Sýr (Syritha), a beautiful woman wanted for marriage by a giant, and she travelled seeking for Óðr (Otharus) who had slain the giant to save her. Oral Traditions Rural Scandinavians remained dependent on the forces of nature, fertility gods remained important and in rural 19th century Sweden, Freyja retained elements of her role as a fertility goddess. Schön, Ebbe. (2004). Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jättar i tro och tradition. Fält & Hässler, Värnamo. p. 227-228. In the province of Småland, there is an account of how she was connected with sheet lightning in this respect: Jag minns en söndag på 1880-talet, det var några gubbar ute och gick bland åkrarna och tittade på rågen som snart var mogen. Då sa Måns i Karryd: "Nu ä Fröa ute å sir ätter om råjen är mogen." [...] När jag som liten pojke satt hos den gamla Stolta-Katrina, var jag som alla dåtida barn mycket rädd för åskan. När kornblixtarna syntes om kvällarna, sade Katrina: "Du sa inte va rädd barn lella, dä ä bara Fröa som ä ute å slår ell med stål å flenta för å si etter om kornet ä moet. Ho ä snäll ve folk å gör dä bare för å hjälpa, ho gör inte som Tor, han slår ihjäl både folk å fä, när han lynna [...] Jag har sedan hört flera gamla tala om samma sak, på ungefär samma sätt. The writer Johan Alfred Göth, cited in Schön, Ebbe. (2004). Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jättar i tro och tradition. Fält & Hässler, Värnamo. p. 227-228.) I remember a Sunday in the 1880s, when some men were walking in the fields looking at the rye which was about to ripen. Then Måns in Karryd said: "Now Freyja is out watching if the rye is ripe" [...] When as a boy I was visiting the old Proud-Katrina, I was afraid of lightning like all boys in those days. When the sheet lightning flared in the nights, Katrina said: "Don't be afraid little child, it is only Freyja who is out making fire with steel and flintstone to see if the rye is ripe. She is kind to people and she is only doing it to be of service, she is not like Thor, he slays both people and livestock, when he is in the mood" [...] I later heard several old folks talk of the same thing in the same way. Translation provided by Wikipedia editors. In Värend, Freyja could also arrive at Christmas night and she used to shake the apple trees for the sake of a good harvest and consequently people left some apples in the trees for her sake. Moreover, it was dangerous to leave the plough outdoors, because if Freyja sat on it, it would no longer be of any use. Potential continental Germanic Sources Recorded during the 9th or 10th century, though dating to an unknown earlier time, one of the two Merseburg Incantations, from Merseburg, Germany mentions a figure named Frîia or Frûa (Frôwa), who places an enchantment on the wounded horse of Balder and Wodan (Odin). This figure has been theorized as Freyja Jeep, John. 'Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia'. (2001) Routledge. p.112. ISBN 0-8240-7644-3 and as Frigg. Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs (2001) Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0. More to this confusion, the Origo Gentis Langobardorum (Origin of the Lombards, written in the 7th Century) mentions Frea, a goddess of love; and Historia Langobardorum (History of the Lombards, written in the 8th Century) also mentions the story of Frea (Freja) Paulus Diaconus, History of the Langobards, Book I, Chapter VIII. William Foulke, transl. University of Pennsylvania (1907). and how she gave the Lombards their name. But this goddess is described as the wife of Godan (Odin), which in Norse accounts is Frigg. On the other hand, it is Freyja, not Frigg, who is the goddess of love in Norse accounts. The Prose Edda, Skáldskaparmál (Section XX). Tacitus in his work Germania (1st Century) briefly mentioned the worship of a mother goddess, a female Freyr, that is Freyja. Tacitus also mentioned the goddess Nerthus, whom has been linked to Njörðr, Freyja, and Freyr. Receiver of half the slain Freyja receives half of the spirits of warriors who had died bravely in battle. Snorri writes in Gylfaginning (24) that "wherever she rides to battle, she gets half the slain". Snorri Sturluson's Edda, Anthony Faulkes, transl. (1995) London: Everyman ISBN 0-460-87616-3. Further, from Grímnismál:The ninth is Fólkvangr, where bright Freyja decreeswhere in the hall warriors shall sit:Some of the fallen belong to her, And some belong to Odin.Freyja is also called Eigandi valfalls (Possessor of the slain) 'Snorra Edda, Guðni Jónsson's Edition. and Valfreyja Njál's Saga or The Story of Burnt Njal , Mistress of the slain and of the Valkyries in general. In Egil's Saga, Thorgerda (Þorgerðr), threatens to commit suicide in the wake of her brother's death, saying: "I shall not eat until I sup with Freyja". This should be taken to mean that she expected to pass to Freyja's hall upon her death. Another point of view explains a difference between Odin's Einherjar and Freyja's; the oral tradition, or Óðal property, explains that Odin's warriors are "the offensive", or those who dedicate their life to fighting. Freyja’s warriors are "the defensive", or those who only fight to protect their families, clans or goods. The historian Else Roesdahl noticed that a difference between the two cultures in regards to burials containing weapons. In those in Norway the buried warriors had defensive shields, and in Denmark they had only offensive weapons. Anne Nissen Jaubert. Vikings, investigation into the secrecies of the Masters of the sea. Science and life n°80 April 2004. National Institute of Preventive Archaeological Research Possessions Freyja, depicted in a painting by J. Penrose. Surviving tales regarding Freyja often associate Freyja with numerous enchanted possessions. Brísingamen Brísingamen is Freyja's famous necklace reputedly made of gold and amber, which also appears in Beowulf. In some mythological writings, Brísingamen is assigned to Frigg. In Skáldskaparmál (31), it is written that women often wore "stone-necklaces" as a part of a woman's apparels, to indicate their social status. That is the reason why woman is periphrased with reference to jewels and agates. Falcon Cloak Freyja owns a cloak of falcon feathers, which can give her the ability to change into the guise of any birds, and to fly between worlds. It is called Valshamr, the "hawk's plumage", "falcon skin", or "falcon-feathered cloak" in different translations. The same magical cloak was also assigned to Frigg in some tales. Cat-drawn Chariot A depiction of Freyja riding a cat-driven chariot and flanked by Italian Renaissance-inspired putti by Swedish painter Nils Blommér. Freyja often rides on a chariot drawn by a pair of large cats. She rode this chariot to Baldur's funeral. These cats are called Gib-cats in the Prose Edda. They are thought to be either Norwegian forest cats Microsoft Encarta 2007, "Norwegian Forest Cats" or Lynx. Cats are sacred to Freyja, just as wolves are to Odin. "When a bride goes to the wedding in fine weather, they say 'she has fed the cat well,' not offended the favourite of the love-goddess." Freyja is considered a warrior goddess among her many roles. The chariot also is a warlike attribute and often given to exalted deities only. This does not mean that every exalted Germanic deity must have a wagon, but most of them have special rides. Odin and Heimdallr have horses, Thor has a chariot drawn by goats, Freyr has a boar, but Freyja has both chariot and boar. Hildisvini Freyja also rides a golden-bristled boar called Hildisvini (Battle-Swine) which appeared only in the poem Hyndluljóð. Later we are told that the boar is her protégé, Óttar, but it seems that Óttar was temporarily disguised as Hildisvini, not that Hildisvini is Óttar. The boar has special associations within Norse Mythology, both relative to the notion of fertility and also as a protective talisman in war. In Skáldskaparmál (14), Freyr is described as riding on another golden-bristled boar, Gullinbursti, which may be one and the same with Freyja's.The battle-bold Freyr ridethFirst on the golden-bristledBarrow-boar to the bale-fireOf Baldur, and leads the people.Other names Forms of "Freyja" Freyja Freyju Freja - common Danish and literary Swedish form. Freia Freya Frya - Frisian form Frea - History of the Langobards Freo Frowa Froya - Faroese form Frøya, Fröa - common Norwegian, and rural Swedish form. Fröe - a Danish form Froijenborg - Swedish folk song, in which she is referred to as the fair sun "den väna solen" (Vana: from "Vanir", means beautiful Snorri's Edda, I. A. Blackwell, transl. Foot notes. ) Friia, Frīa - second Merseburg Charm Frija - variant of Friia Freija - Finnish form Freya Baird - English form Other forms Härnevi which means "Hörn's shrine" was once a sacred location dedicated to Freyja, in Uppland, Sweden. According to Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, Freyja also bore the following names: Vanadís, which means "Dís of the Vanir" or "fair goddess" (väna means beautiful); Mardöll, which means "sea-bright" (mar: "sea", döll: feminine of dallr "bright light", cf. Heimdallr); Hörn, which may be related to the word hörr meaning "flax", "linen"; Gefn, which means "the giver", is a suitable name for a fertility goddess; Sýr, whose translation is "sow", illustrates the association of the Vanir with pigs and fertility. In the famous Njal's Saga, another title of Freyja is mentioned: Valfreyja, which means "Mistress of the Chosen", "Mistress of the Slain" (cf. Valfaðir "Father of the Slain" (Odin), Valkyrja "Chooser of the Slain"). Kennings KenningsGold is called Tears of Freyja: Many a fearless swordsman Received the Tears of Freyja The more the morn when foemen We murdered; we were present Ródi's Roof's great Ice-Lump For the Rain of Freyja's Eyelids Grows not less, my fair axe-head; His age my lord so useth. I received the Ice of Wed Rims, With Freyja's golden Eye-Thaw,From the upright prince high-hearted;We bear in hand the Helm's Hurt.Gold is called Tears of Mardöll: Where, mounted 'twixt the carvings, The Tear of Mardöll lieth, We bear the axe shield-splitting, Swollen with Serpent's lair-gold. ... The free-handed Lord gave, The heroes accepted, Sif's firm-grown tresses, Ice of the bow-force, Otter-gild unwilling, Weeping of Mardöll, Fire-flame of Órun, Idi's fine Speeches. Gold is called Tears of Óðr's Bride: The shield, tempest's strong roof-ice, With tear-gold is unminished, The Eye-rain of Óðr's Bride: His age the King so useth. Jewel is called Child of Hörn: Hörn's Child, the glorious adornment, I own, gold-wound a jewel Most fair to the shield's rim Fast is the golden Sea-Flame: Gem is called Niece of Freyr, Gold is called Tears of Hnoss's Mother: On the gem, Freyr's Niece, the tear-drift Of the fore-head of her Mother She bears; the Raven-Feeder Gave me Fródi's seed-gold's fostering. Gem is called Child of Njörðr's Daughter: A defence of songs full goodly He freely gave me, neighbor Of sea-scales: I praise gladly Njörðr's Daughter's golden gem-child. Fair things are called Daughter of Freyja: The awesome Stately Urger Of Odin, he who raises The struggle stern, gave to me The courage-stalwart daughter Of the Vana-Bride, my fair axe; The valorous sword-mote's Ruler Led Gefn's girl to the Skald's bed, Set with the sea-flame's gold-work. "It is proper to join 'tears' with all the names of Freyja, and to call gold by such terms; and in divers ways these periphrases have been varied, so that gold is called Hail, or Rain, or Snow-Storm, or Drops, or Showers, or Water falls of Freyja's Eyes, or Cheeks, or Brows, or Eyelids." (The Prose Edda, The poesy of Skalds or Poetical Diction (37), Snorri's teachings of how Freyja and Hnoss's names can be used as kennings for fair things like gold, jewels, and gems). Eponyms People A painting named "Freja" (1901) by Swedish painter Anders Zorn. Freya (and its variant forms) is a common Scandinavian female name. In 2005, the name Freja was the 5th most popular given name for Danish girls born that year. Statistics Denmark. For 2005, see: The following year, 2006, the name became even more popular in Denmark, having risen to the 3rd most popular given name for girls born in 2006; Statistics Denmark. For 2006, see: but it dropped to 4th place in 2007. Statistics Denmark. For 2007, see: The name Freya was the 23rd (in 2006) and 25th (in 2007) most common given name for baby girls in England and Wales. As per the Office for National Statistics' official website, viewable online here: Places Many farms in Norway have Frøy- as the first element in their names, and the most common are the name Frøyland (13 farms). But whether Frøy- in these names are referring to the goddess Freyja (or the god Freyr) is questionable and uncertain. The first element in the name Frøyjuhof, in Udenes parish, are however most probably the genitive case of the name Freyja. (The last element is hof 'temple', and a church was built on the farm in the Middle Ages, which indicates the spot as an old holy place.) The same name, Frøyjuhof, also occur in the parishes Hole and Stjørdal. There are also two islands named Frøya in Norway. In the parish of Seim, in the county of Hordaland, Norway, lies the farm Ryland (Norse Rýgjarland). The first element is the genitive case of rýgr 'lady' (identical with the meaning of the name Freyja, see above). Since the neighbouring farms have the names Hopland (Norse Hofland 'temple land') and Totland (Norse Þórsland 'Thor's land') it is possible that rýgr (lady) here are referring to a goddess. (And in that case most probably Freyja.) A sideform of the word (rýgja) may occur in the name of the Norwegian municipality Rygge. There's Horn in Iceland and Hoorn in Holland, various places in the German lands are called Freiburg (burg meaning something like settlement). Plants Freyja's hair - Polygala vulgaris - a species of the genus Polygala. Several plants were named after Freyja, such as Freyja's tears and Freyja's hair (Polygala vulgaris), but after the introduction of Christianity, they were renamed after the Virgin Mary in order to more fully eradicate the native traditions. Schön, Ebbe. (2004). Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jättar i tro och tradition. Fält & Hässler, Värnamo. p. 228. Friday The name Friday comes from the Old English frigedæg, meaning the day of Frige the Anglo-Saxon form of Frigg, a West Germanic translation of Latin dies Veneris, "day (of the planet) Venus." However, in most Germanic languages the day is named after Freyja—such as Frīatag in Old High German, Freitag in Modern German, Freyjudagr in Old Norse, Vrijdag in Dutch, Fredag in Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish—but Freyja and Frigg are frequently identified with each other. From these languages, the name has also been adopted by Estonian language as reede. Misc The chemical element Vanadium is named after Freyja via her alternative name Vanadís. The Orion constellation was called Frigg's distaff or Freyja's distaff (Frejerock). Homologues It has been proposed that Freyja may be the most direct mythological descendant from Nerthus. Nerthus, a goddess associated with a number of Germanic tribes as described by Tacitus in the 1 AD in his work Germania, is sometimes identified with Njörðr through etymological connections. The first name is the exact older linguistical stage of the latter. Njörðr married his sister; they have a son, Freyr, and a daughter, Freyja. This secondary pair of deities may be an "emanation" of the first. The Cult of Nerthus (1913), by Gudmund Schütte. Like Freyja's chariot, the early Germanic goddess Nerthus was also often described as riding a wagon. Britt-Mari Näsström posits in her "Freyja: the Great Goddess of the North" that there is a tenable connection from Freyja to other goddesses worshiped along the migration path of the Indo-Europeans who consistently appeared with either one or two cats/lions as companions, usually in the war goddess aspect but occasionally also as a love goddess. These would include: Durga, Ereshkegal, Sekhmet, Menhit, Bast, Anat, Asherah, Nana, Cybele, Rhea, and others. Näsström, Britt-Mari. Freyja: the Great Goddess of the North. University of Lund, 1995. Harwich Port: Clock & Rose, 2003. ISBN 1-59386-019-6. Freyja in Modern Culture Der Ring des Nibelungen Freyja and the apple tree at the end of the world as depicted in an illustration by Arthur Rackham. Freyja taken away by the giants as depicted in an illustration by Arthur Rackham. Freyja, in her German variant name "Freia", appears in Richard Wagner's massive opera cycle, Der Ring des Nibelungen which includes Das Rheingold, Die Walküre, Siegfried, and Götterdämmerung. This has led to many portrayals based on Wagner's interpretation, although some are closer to pre-Wagnerian models. Since Wagner's time, numerous depictions and references have entered popular culture to varying extents. In Wagner's depiction, Freyja is Frigg's sister. She is the goddess of beauty who guards the golden apples. When she was captured by two giants Fasolt and Fafnir, the gods quickly became old and ugly, and Odin had to pay the giants a hefty ransom including the Tarnhelm and the Ring of the Nibelung which he robbed from Alberich to get her back. Thor, Freyr, Frigg, Odin, and Loki became old due to the loss of Freyja and her apples as depicted in an illustration by Arthur Rackham. Sagan om Valhalla Freyja (in her common Swedish name "Freja") is the central character of Johanne Hildebrandt's book trilogy "Sagan om Valhalla", a fictional account of how Norse mythology took shape. In the novels the gods are ordinary people, their characters built with the myths as inspiration. Freyja is a mighty priestess who can foretell the future, heal the sick and aid warriors in battle. She has a passionate love affair with Thor (although the myths never suggest that the two were lovers), but their love is doomed, as their people are at war with each other. Freyja and Thor are the parents of Iðunn, which they were not in the myths. Potential connections Frigg Frigg is the highest goddess of the Æsir, while Freyja is the highest goddess of the Vanir. Many arguments have been made both for and against the idea that Frigg and Freyja are really the same goddess, avatars of one another. Davidson, Hilda Ellis. (1998). Roles of the Northern Goddess, page 10. London: Routlege. Grundy, Stephen, Freyja and Frigg, pages 56-67. Nasstrom, Näsström. Freyja, a goddess with many names, pages 68-77. Billington, Sandra & Green, Miranda (Eds.) (1996). The Concept of the Goddess. London: Routlege. Some arguments are based on linguistic analysis, others on the fact that Freyja wasn't known in southern Germany, only in the north, and in some places the two goddesses were considered to be the same, while in others they were considered to be different. Welsh, Lynda. (2001). Goddess of the North, page 75. York Beach: Weiser Books. Gefjun Some modern scholars think that the minor goddess Gefjun is an avatar of Frigg or Freyja because of their many similarities. Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess (1998). Gullveig Due to a number of similarities, a hypothesis supported by Gabriel Turville-Petre Turville, Petre. E.O.G. Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1964. is that Gullveig, a seeress mentioned in Völuspá'' is another name for Freyja. See also Blót Hörgr List of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture References | Freyja |@lemmatized heimdallr:15 return:4 necklace:18 brísingamen:22 freyja:207 swedish:12 painter:3 nil:2 blommér:2 sometimes:2 anglicize:1 freya:8 cognate:2 sanskrit:1 priya:1 major:4 goddess:56 norse:18 paganism:4 subset:1 germanic:13 documented:1 source:4 religious:2 tradition:10 mythology:8 transmit:1 alter:1 christian:8 medieval:2 historian:3 microsoft:3 encarta:3 williams:1 gareth:1 know:8 almost:1 nothing:3 pagan:10 practice:2 viking:4 age:4 occasional:1 reference:7 saga:27 write:18 year:4 conversion:1 christianity:10 always:1 clear:1 compiler:1 use:8 earlier:1 material:1 simply:1 make:12 thing:10 problem:1 primarily:1 work:7 literature:2 event:4 particularly:1 speech:3 might:1 well:7 rewrite:1 give:25 particular:1 literary:2 effect:1 w:5 craigie:2 religion:7 ancient:5 scandinavia:4 p:10 iceland:5 twelfth:1 thirteenth:1 century:12 separate:1 half:11 period:1 time:6 relate:5 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4,193 | Punch_(magazine) | Cover of the first Punch or The London Charivari depicts Punch hanging a caricatured Devil, 1841 Punch was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire published from 1841 to 1992 and from 1996 to 2002. Punch material was also collected in book formats as early as the 1800s, including Pick of the Punch annuals with cartoons and text features, Punch and the War a 1941 collection of WWII-related cartoons, and A Big Bowl of Punch which was republished a number of times. Many Punch cartoonists of the late 20th century published collections of their own work partly based on Punch contributions. History Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells. At its founding it was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon. Initially it was subtitled The London Charivari, this being a reference to a satirical humour magazine published in France under the title Le Charivari. Reflecting their satiric and humorous intent, the two editors took for their name and masthead the anarchic glove puppet, Mr. Punch; the name also referred to a joke made early on about one of the magazine's first editors, Lemon, that "punch is nothing without lemon". Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became "suggestor in chief" until he severed his connection in 1845. Punch was responsible for the modern use of the word "cartoon" to refer to a comic drawing. The illustrator Archibald Henning designed the cover of the magazine's first issues. The cover design varied in the early years, though Richard Doyle designed what became the magazine's masthead in 1849. In the 1860s and 1870s, conservative Punch faced competition from upstart liberal journal Fun, but after about 1874, Fun'''s fortunes faded. At Evans's café in London, the two journals had "Round tables" in competition with each other. See Schoch, Richard, Performing Bohemia (2004) (copy downloaded 13 October 2006). [[Image:True humility.png|thumb|370px|right|"True Humility": Bishop: "I'm afraid you've got a bad egg, Mr Jones"; Curate: "Oh, no, my Lord, I assure you that parts of it are excellent!"George du Maurier, originally published in 1895]] After months of financial difficulty and a relative lack of initial market success, Punch became a staple for British drawing rooms because of its sophisticated humour and absence of offensive material, especially when viewed against the satirical press of the time. The Times used small pieces from Punch as column fillers, giving the magazine free publicity and indirectly granting a degree of respectability, a privilege not enjoyed by any other comic publication. Punch would share a friendly relationship with not only The Times but also journals aimed at intellectual audiences such as the Westminster Review, which published a fifty-three page illustrated article on Punch's first two volumes. Historian Richard Altick writes that "To judge from the number of references to it in the private letters and memoirs of the 1840s...Punch had become a household word within a year or two of its founding, beginning in the middle class and soon reaching the pinnacle of society, royalty itself". See Altick, Richard. Punch: The Lively Youth of a British Institution, 1841-1851 (Ohio State University Press, 1997), 17. Increasing in readership and popularity throughout the remainder of the 1840s and 1850s, Punch was the success story of a threepenny weekly paper that had become one of the most talked-about and enjoyed periodicals of its time. Punch enjoyed an audience on both sides of the Atlantic, including: Elizabeth Barrett, Robert Browning, Thomas Carlyle, Edward FitzGerald, Charlotte Brontë, Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Emily Dickinson, Herman Melville, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and James Russell Lowell. Punch gave several phrases to the English language, including The Crystal Palace, and the "Curate's egg" (first seen in an 1895 cartoon). Several British humour classics were first serialised in Punch, such as the Diary of a Nobody and 1066 and All That. Circulation peaked during the 1940s at 175,000 and declined thereafter, until the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years of publication. Gallery of selected early covers 1996 resurrection In early 1996, the Egyptian businessman Mohamed Al-Fayed bought the rights to the name, and it was re-launched later that year. It was reported that the magazine was intended to be a spoiler aimed at Private Eye, which had published many items critical of Fayed. The magazine never became profitable in its new incarnation, and at the end of May 2002 it was announced that Punch would once more cease publication. Press reports at the time quoted a total loss to its owner of some £16 million (about $28 million U.S.) over the six years of publication, with only 6,000 subscribers at the end. Whereas the earlier version of Punch had prominently featured the clownish character Punchinello (a.k.a. Punch of Punch and Judy) performing various antics on each issue's front cover (in a manner later copied by Mad magazine's character Alfred E. Neuman), the resurrected Punch magazine did not use this character at all, but prominently featured on its weekly covers a photograph of a boxing glove, thus informing its readers that the new magazine intended its name to mean "punch" in the sense of a punch in the eye. In 2004, much of the archive, including the famous Punch table, was acquired by the British Library. Contributors Editorial meeting of Punch magazine in the late 19th century Editors of Punch were: Mark Lemon (1809-1870) Henry Mayhew (1841-1842) Charles William Shirley Brooks (1870-1874) Tom Taylor (1874-1880) Sir Francis Burnand (1880-1906) Sir Owen Seaman (1906-1932) E.V. Knox (1932-1949) Kenneth Bird (1949-1952) Malcolm Muggeridge (1953-1957) Bernard Hollowood (1958-1968) William Davis (1969-1977) Alan Coren (1978-1987) David Taylor (editor) (1988) David Thomas (editor) (1989-1992) Peter McKay (journalist) (September 1996-1997) Paul Spike (1997) James Steen (1997-2001) Richard Brass (2001-2002) Cartoonists who worked for the magazine included: Acanthus (Frank Hoar) Anton (Antonia Yeoman) Edward Ardizzone Nicolas Bentley Murray Ball Quentin Blake Russell Brockbank Richard Doyle (who also illustrated Charles Dickens' Xmas books) Rowland Emett ffolkes (Michael Davies) Fougasse (Kenneth Bird) Alex Graham (creator of Fred Basset) J.B. Handelsman Leslie Illingworth John Jensen Charles Keene David Langdon Larry (Terrence Parkes) John Leech George du Maurier Phil May Nick Newman Bernard Partridge Pont (Graham Laidler) Matt Pritchett Arthur Rackham Edward Linley Sambourne Gerald Scarfe Ronald Searle E.H. Shepard (who also illustrated Winnie-the-Pooh) Robert Sherriffs William Sillince George Sprod John Tenniel (who also illustrated Alice in Wonderland) Norman Thelwell Bill Tidy (who attempted to buy Punch when it went out of publication) Trog (Wally Fawkes) E A Worthington Notable authors who contributed at one time or another include Kingsley Amis, Alex Atkinson, John Betjeman, Willard R. Espy, A.P. Herbert, Thomas Hood, Douglas William Jerrold (1841-1857), James Leavey, George du Maurier, George Melly, John McCrae, A.A. Milne, Anthony Powell, W.C. Sellar and R.J. Yeatman, William Makepeace Thackeray, Sir Henry Lucy, John Hollingshead, Artemus Ward, Somerset Maugham, P.G. Wodehouse, Keith Waterhouse, Quentin Crisp, Olivia Manning, Sylvia Plath, Joyce Grenfell, E.M. Delafield, Stevie Smith, Virginia Graham, Joan Bakewell, Penelope Fitzgerald, Peter Dickinson. Influence Punch gave its name to the Lucknow-based satirical Urdu weekly Awadh Punch (1877-1936), which in turn inspired dozens of other "Punch" periodicals in India. Notes External links Punch cartoon library, including a history of the magazine Gallery of Punch cartoons at Punchcartoons.com List of issues available on-line from Project Gutenberg The History of "Punch" by Marion H. 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4,194 | Merlot | Merlot is a red wine grape that is used as both a blending grape and for varietal wines. Merlot-based wines usually have medium body with hints of berry, plum, and currant. Its softness and "fleshiness", combined with its earlier ripening, makes Merlot a popular grape for blending with the sterner, later-ripening Cabernet Sauvignon, which tends to be higher in tannin. Along with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec and Petit Verdot, Merlot is one of the primary grapes in Bordeaux wine where it is the most widely planted grape. Merlot is also one of the most popular red wine varietals in many markets. This flexibility has helped to make it one of the world's most planted grape varieties. , Merlot was estimated to be the third most grown variety at globally, with an increasing trend. J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition, Oxford University Press 2006, pg. 746: "Vine varieties", ISBN 0-19-860990-6 This put Merlot just behind Cabernet Sauvignon's . History Researchers at University of California, Davis believe that Merlot is an offspring of Cabernet Franc and is a sibling of Carménère and Cabernet Sauvignon. The earliest recorded mention of Merlot was in the notes of a local Bordeaux official who in 1784 labeled wine made from the grape in the Libournais region as one of the area's best. The name comes from the Occitan word "merlot", which means "young blackbird" ("merle" is the French word for several kinds of thrushes, including blackbirds); the naming came either because of the grape's beautiful dark-blue color, or due to blackbirds' fondness for grapes. By the 19th century it was being regularly planted in the Médoc on the "Left Bank" of the Gironde. Oz Clarke Encyclopedia of Grapes pg 129-133 Harcourt Books 2001 ISBN 0151007144 After a series of setbacks that includes a severe frost in 1956 and several vintages in the 1960s lost to rot, French authorities in Bordeaux banned new plantings of Merlot vines between 1970 and 1975. J. Robinson Vines, Grapes & Wines pg 91-94 Mitchell Beazley 1986 ISBN 1-85732-999-6 It was first recorded in Italy around Venice under the synonym Bordò in 1855. The grape was introduced to the Swiss, from Bordeaux, sometime in the 19th century and was recorded in the Swiss canton of Ticino between 1905 and 1910. In the 1990s, Merlot saw a upswing of popularity in the United States. Red wine consumption, in general, increased in the US following the airing of the 60 Minutes report on the French Paradox and the potential health benefits of wine and the chemical resveratrol. The popularity of Merlot stemmed in part from the relative ease in pronouncing the wine as well as it softer, fruity profile that it made more approachable to some wine drinkers. E. Goldstein "Perfect Pairings" pg 148-152University of California Press 2006 ISBN 9780520243774 Viticulture Merlot leaf. Merlot grapes are identified by their loose bunches of large berries. The color has less of a blue/black hue than Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and with a thinner skin and fewer tannins. Also compared to Cabernet, Merlot grapes tends to have higher sugar content and lower malic acid. Merlot thrives in cold soil, particularly ferrous clay. The vine tends to bud early which gives it some risk to cold frost and its thin skin increases its susceptibility to rot. If bad weather occurs during flowering, the Merlot vine is prone to develop coulure. J. Robinson Jancis Robinson's Wine Course Third Edition pg 142-143 Abbeville Press 2003 ISBN 0789208830 It normally ripens up to two weeks earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon. Water stress is important to the vine with it thriving in well drained soil more so than at base of a slope. Pruning is a major component to the quality of the wine that is produced. Wine consultant Michel Rolland is a major proponent for reducing the yields of Merlot grapes to improve quality. The age of the vine is also important, with older vines contributing character to the resulting wine. A characteristic of the Merlot grape is the propensity to quickly overripen once it hits its initial ripeness level, sometimes in a matter of a few days. There are two schools of thought on the right time to harvest Merlot. The wine makers of Château Pétrus favor early picking to best maintain the wine's acidity and finesse as well as its potential for aging. Others, such as Rolland, favor late picking and the added fruit body that comes with a little bit of over-ripeness. Major regions France is home to nearly two thirds of the world's total plantings of Merlot. Beyond France it is also grown in Italy (where it is the country's 5th most planted grape), California, Romania, Australia, Argentina, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, South Africa, Switzerland, Croatia, Hungary, Montenegro, Slovenia, and other parts of the United States such as Washington and Long Island. It grows in many regions that also grow Cabernet Sauvignon but tends to be cultivated in the cooler portions of those areas. In areas that are too warm, Merlot will ripen too early. France Vineyards and winery exterior of Chateau Petrus. Merlot is the most commonly grown grape variety in France. In 2004, total French plantations stood at . BKWine Brief nr 35, May 2006: France’s most planted grape varieties It is most prominent in Southwest France in regions like Bordeaux, Bergerac and Cahors where it is often blended with Malbec. The largest recent increase in Merlot plantations has occurred in the south of France, such as Languedoc-Roussillon where it is often made as a varietal Vin de Pays wine. Merlot can also be found in significant quantities in Provence, Loire Valley, Savoie, Ardèche, Charente, Corrèze, Drôme, Isère and Vienne. In the traditional Bordeaux blend, Merlot's role is to add body and softness. Despite accounting for 50-60% of overall plantings in Bordeaux, the grape tends to account for an average of 25% of the blends-especially in the Bordeaux wine regions of Graves and Médoc. Of these Left Bank regions, the commune of St-Estephe uses the highest percentage of Merlot in the blends. However, Merlot is much more prominent on the Right Bank of the Gironde in the regions of Pomerol and Saint-Emilion where it will commonly comprises the majority of the blend. One of the most famous and rare wines in the world, Château Pétrus, is almost all Merlot. In Pomerol, where Merlot usually accounts for around 80% of the blend, the iron-clay soils of the region give Merlot more a tannic backbone than what is found in other Bordeaux regions. It was in Pomerol that the garagiste movement began with small scale production of highly sought after Merlot based wines. In the sandy, clay-limestone based soils of Saint-Emilion, Merlot accounts for around 60% of the blend and is usually blended with Cabernet Franc. In limestone, Merlot tends to develop more perfume notes while in sandy soils the wines are generally softer than Merlot grown in clay dominant soils. Rest of Europe Merlot grapes in the Spanish wine region of La Mancha. In Italy, a large portion of Merlot is planted in the Friuli wine region where it is made as a varietal or sometimes blended with Cabernet Sauvignon or Cabernet Franc. In other parts of Italy, such as Tuscany, it is often blended with Sangiovese to give the wine a similar softening effect as the Bordeaux blends. Merlot's low acidity serves as a balance for the higher acidity in many Italian wine grapes with the grape often being used in blends in the Veneto, Alto Adige and Umbria. The Strada del Merlot is a popular tourist route through Merlot wine countries along the Isonzo river. Italian Merlots are often characterized by their light bodies and herbal notes. In Hungary, Merlot complements Kékfrankos, Kékoportó and Kadarka as a component in Bull's Blood. It is also made into varietal wine known as Egri Médoc Noir which is noted for its balanced acid levels and sweet taste. In the Eastern European countries of Bulgaria, Moldova, Croatia and Romania, Merlot is often produced as a full bodied wine that can be very similar to Cabernet Sauvignon. In Switzerland, Merlot accounts for nearly 85% of the wine production in Ticino where it is often made in a pale "white Merlot" style. In Spain, winemakers are petitioning authorities to allow Merlot to be a permitted grape in the red wines of the Rioja region. Plantings of Merlot has increased in recent years in the Austrian wine region of Burgenland where vineyards previously growing Welschriesling are being uprooted to make room for more plantings. United States A Californian Merlot. In the early history of California wine, the Merlot was used primarily as a 100% varietal wine until wine maker Warren Winiarski encouraged taking the grape back to its blending roots with Bordeaux style blends. G. Taber Judgement of Paris pg 108 Scribner 2005 ISBN 0743247515 In California, Merlot can range from very fruity simple wines (sometimes referred to by critics as a "red Chardonnay") to more serious, barrel aged examples. It can also be used a primary component in Meritage blends. While Merlot is grown throughout the state, it is particularly prominent in Napa, Monterey and Sonoma County. In Napa, examples from Carneros, Mount Veeder, Oakville and Rutherford tend to show ripe blackberry and black raspberry notes. Sonoma Merlots from Alexander Valley, Carneros and Dry Creek Valley tend to show plum, tea leaf and black cherry notes. In the 1980s, Merlot helped put the Washington wine industry on the world's wine map. Prior to this period there was a general perception that the climate of Washington State was too cold to produce red wine varietals. Merlots from Leonetti Cellar, Andrew Will, Columbia Crest and Chateau Ste Michelle demonstrated that areas of the Eastern Washington were warm enough for red wine production. Today it is the most widely grown red wine grape in the state and accounts for nearly one fifth of the state's entire production. It is widely planted throughout the Columbia Valley AVA but has earned particular notice from plantings grown in Walla Walla, Red Mountain and the Horse Heaven Hills. P. Gregutt "Washington Wines and Wineries: The Essential Guide" pg 70 University of California Press 2007 ISBN 0520248694 Washington Merlots are noted for their deep color and balanced acidity. The state's climate lends itself towards long days and hours of sunshine with cool nights that contributes to a significant diurnal temperature variation and produces wines with New World fruitiness and Old World structure. Other US regions producing significant quantities of Merlot include New York State's Long Island AVA, Virginia's Shenandoah Valley AVA and Oregon's Rogue Valley AVA. Other New World regions A Chilean Merlot. In Argentina, Merlot plantings have been increasing in the Mendoza region with the grape showing an affinity to the Tupungato region of the Uco Valley. Argentine Merlots grown in the higher elevations of Tunpungato have shown a balance of ripe fruit, tannic structure and acidty. In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawkes Bay area, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux style wine. The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland and Marlborough. In Australia, some vineyards labeled as "Merlot" were discovered to actually be Cabernet Franc (a similar discovery was made in best vineyards of Californian Merlot producer Duckhorn Vineyards). In South Africa, plantings of Merlot has focused on cooler sites within the Paarl and Stellenbosch regions. Chile and Carménère In Chile, Merlot thrives in the Apalta region of Colchagua. It is also grown in significant quantities in Curico, Casablanca and the Maipo Valley. Until the early 1990s, the Chilean wine industry mistakenly sold a large quantity of wine made from the Carmenere grape as Merlot. Following the discovery that many Chilean vineyards thought to be planted with Sauvignon blanc was actually Sauvignonasse, the owners of the Chilean winery Domaine Paul Bruno (who previously worked with Chateau Margaux and Chateau Cos d'Estournal) invited ampelographers to comb through their vineyards to make sure that their wines were properly identified. Genetic studies discovered that much of what had been grown as Merlot was actually Carménère, an old French variety that had gone largely extinct in France due to its poor resistance to phylloxera. While the vines, leaves and grapes look very similar, both grapes produce wines with distinct characteristics – Carménère being more strongly flavored with green pepper notes and Merlot having softer fruit with chocolate notes. The labeling Chilean Merlot is a catch-all to include wine that is made from a blend of indiscriminate amounts of Merlot and Carmenere. With Merlot ripening 3 weeks earlier than Carménère, these wines differ greatly in quality depending on harvesting. Wines A Californian White Merlot. As a varietal wine, Merlot can make soft, velvety wines with plum flavors. While Merlot wines tend to mature faster than Cabernet Sauvignon, some examples can continue to develop in the bottle for decades. There are three main styles of Merlot-a soft, fruity, smooth wine with very little tannins, a fruity wine with more tannic structure and, finally, a brawny, highly tannic style made in the profile of Cabernet Sauvignon. Some of the fruit notes commonly associated with Merlot include cassis, black and red cherries, blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, mulberry, ollalieberry and plum. Vegetable and earthy notes include black and green olives, cola nut, bell pepper, fennel, humus, leather, mushrooms, rhubarb and tobacco. Floral and herbal notes commonly associated with Merlot include green and black tea, eucalyptus, laurel, mint, oregano, pine, rosemary, sage, sarsaparilla and thyme. When Merlot has spent significant time in oak, the wine may show notes of caramel, chocolate, coconut, coffee bean, dill weed, mocha, molasses, smoke, vanilla and walnut. White Merlot White Merlot is made the same way as White Zinfandel. The grapes are crushed, and after very brief skin contact, the resulting pink juice is run off the must to then be fermented. Some producers of White Merlot include Sutter Home Winery, Forest Glen, and Beringer. It normally has a hint of raspberry. White Merlot was reputedly first marketed in the late 1990s, and should not be confused with wines made from the white mutant of the grape. In Switzerland, a type of White Merlot is made in the Ticino region but has been considered more a rosé. Food pairing Cooler climate Merlots, such as these wines from the Okanagan Valley in Canada, tend to have more acidity and versatility in food pairing. In food and wine pairings, the diversity of Merlot can lend itself to a wide array of matching options. Cabernet-like Merlots pair well with many of the same things that Cabernet Sauvignon would pair well with such as grilled and charred meats. Softer, fruitier Merlots (particularly those with higher acidity from cooler climate regions like Washington State and Northeastern Italy) share many of the same food pairing affinities with Pinot noir and go well with dishes like salmon, mushroom based dishes and greens like chard and radicchio. Light bodied Merlots can go well with shellfish like prawns or scallops, especially if wrapped in a protein-rich food such as bacon or prosciutto. Merlot tends not to go well with strong and blue veined cheeses that can overwhelm the fruit flavors of the wine. The capsaicins of spicy foods can accentuate the perception of alcohol in Merlot and make it taste more tannic and bitter. See also International variety References | Merlot |@lemmatized merlot:90 red:10 wine:62 grape:35 use:5 blending:1 varietal:8 base:5 usually:3 medium:1 body:4 hint:2 berry:2 plum:4 currant:1 softness:2 fleshiness:1 combine:1 early:7 ripening:1 make:19 popular:3 blend:17 sterner:1 later:1 ripen:5 cabernet:20 sauvignon:14 tend:10 high:6 tannin:3 along:2 franc:5 malbec:2 petit:1 verdot:1 one:6 primary:2 bordeaux:12 widely:3 plant:5 also:10 many:6 market:2 flexibility:1 help:2 world:7 planted:3 variety:7 estimate:1 third:4 grown:2 globally:1 increase:7 trend:1 j:3 robinson:4 ed:1 oxford:2 companion:1 edition:2 university:3 press:4 pg:7 vine:9 isbn:7 put:2 behind:1 history:2 researcher:1 california:6 davis:1 believe:1 offspring:1 sibling:1 carménère:5 recorded:1 mention:1 note:13 local:1 official:1 labeled:1 libournais:1 region:21 area:5 best:3 name:1 come:3 occitan:1 word:2 mean:1 young:1 blackbird:3 merle:1 french:5 several:2 kind:1 thrush:1 include:9 naming:1 either:1 beautiful:1 dark:1 blue:3 color:3 due:3 fondness:1 century:2 regularly:1 médoc:3 leave:1 bank:3 gironde:2 oz:1 clarke:1 encyclopedia:1 harcourt:1 book:1 series:1 setback:1 severe:1 frost:2 vintage:1 lose:1 rot:2 authority:2 ban:1 new:7 planting:10 mitchell:1 beazley:1 first:2 record:2 italy:5 around:3 venice:1 synonym:1 bordò:1 introduce:1 swiss:2 sometime:1 canton:1 ticino:3 saw:1 upswing:1 popularity:2 united:3 state:10 consumption:1 general:2 u:2 follow:2 airing:1 minute:1 report:1 paradox:1 potential:2 health:1 benefit:1 chemical:1 resveratrol:1 stem:1 part:3 relative:1 ease:1 pronounce:1 well:8 soft:6 fruity:5 profile:2 approachable:1 drinker:1 e:1 goldstein:1 perfect:1 pairing:3 viticulture:1 leaf:3 identify:2 loose:1 bunch:1 large:4 less:2 black:6 hue:1 thinner:1 skin:3 compare:1 sugar:1 content:1 low:2 malic:1 acid:2 thrives:2 cold:3 soil:6 particularly:4 ferrous:1 clay:4 bud:1 give:3 risk:1 thin:1 susceptibility:1 bad:1 weather:1 occur:2 flowering:1 prone:1 develop:3 coulure:1 jancis:1 course:1 abbeville:1 normally:2 two:3 week:2 earlier:2 water:1 stress:1 important:2 thrive:1 drain:1 slope:1 pruning:1 major:3 component:3 quality:3 produce:7 consultant:1 michel:1 rolland:2 proponent:1 reduce:1 yield:1 improve:1 age:3 old:3 contribute:2 character:1 result:2 characteristic:2 propensity:1 quickly:1 overripen:1 hit:1 initial:1 ripeness:2 level:2 sometimes:3 matter:1 day:2 school:1 thought:1 right:2 time:2 harvest:2 maker:2 château:2 pétrus:2 favor:3 pick:1 maintain:1 acidity:6 finesse:1 others:1 late:2 picking:1 added:1 fruit:5 little:2 bit:1 france:8 home:2 nearly:3 total:2 beyond:1 grow:12 country:3 romania:2 australia:2 argentina:2 canada:2 chile:3 zealand:3 south:3 africa:2 switzerland:3 croatia:2 hungary:2 montenegro:1 slovenia:1 washington:7 long:3 island:2 cultivate:1 cooler:4 portion:2 warm:2 vineyard:7 winery:4 exterior:1 chateau:4 petrus:1 commonly:4 plantation:2 stand:1 bkwine:1 brief:2 nr:1 may:2 prominent:3 southwest:1 like:6 bergerac:1 cahors:1 often:7 recent:2 languedoc:1 roussillon:1 vin:1 de:1 pay:1 find:2 significant:6 quantity:4 provence:1 loire:1 valley:9 savoie:1 ardèche:1 charente:1 corrèze:1 drôme:1 isère:1 vienne:1 traditional:1 role:1 add:1 despite:1 account:6 overall:1 average:1 especially:2 graf:1 left:1 commune:1 st:1 estephe:1 percentage:1 however:1 much:2 pomerol:3 saint:2 emilion:2 comprise:1 majority:1 famous:1 rare:1 almost:1 iron:1 tannic:5 backbone:1 garagiste:1 movement:1 begin:1 small:1 scale:1 production:4 highly:2 seek:1 sandy:2 limestone:2 tends:1 perfume:1 generally:1 dominant:1 rest:1 europe:1 spanish:1 la:1 mancha:1 friuli:1 tuscany:1 sangiovese:1 similar:4 softening:1 effect:1 serve:1 balance:2 italian:2 veneto:1 alto:1 adige:1 umbria:1 strada:1 del:1 tourist:1 route:1 isonzo:1 river:1 characterize:1 light:2 herbal:2 complement:1 kékfrankos:1 kékoportó:1 kadarka:1 bull:1 blood:1 know:1 egri:1 noir:2 balanced:2 sweet:1 taste:2 eastern:2 european:1 bulgaria:1 moldova:1 full:1 bodied:2 pale:1 white:9 style:5 spain:1 winemaker:1 petition:1 allow:1 permitted:1 rioja:1 year:1 austrian:1 burgenland:1 previously:2 welschriesling:1 uproot:1 room:1 californian:3 primarily:1 warren:1 winiarski:1 encourage:1 take:1 back:1 root:1 g:1 taber:1 judgement:1 paris:1 scribner:1 range:1 simple:1 refer:1 critic:1 chardonnay:1 serious:1 barrel:1 example:3 meritage:1 throughout:2 napa:2 monterey:1 sonoma:2 county:1 carneros:2 mount:1 veeder:1 oakville:1 rutherford:1 show:6 ripe:2 blackberry:2 raspberry:2 alexander:1 dry:1 creek:1 tea:2 cherry:2 industry:2 map:1 prior:1 period:1 perception:2 climate:4 leonetti:1 cellar:1 andrew:1 columbia:2 crest:1 ste:1 michelle:1 demonstrate:1 enough:1 today:1 fifth:1 entire:1 ava:4 earn:1 particular:1 notice:1 walla:2 mountain:1 horse:1 heaven:1 hill:1 p:1 gregutt:1 essential:1 guide:1 deep:1 lend:2 towards:1 hour:1 sunshine:1 cool:1 night:1 diurnal:1 temperature:1 variation:1 fruitiness:1 structure:3 york:1 virginia:1 shenandoah:1 oregon:1 rogue:1 regions:1 chilean:5 mendoza:1 affinity:2 tupungato:1 uco:1 argentine:1 elevation:1 tunpungato:1 acidty:1 hawkes:1 bay:1 gimblett:1 gravel:1 ability:2 among:1 producer:3 good:1 green:5 flavor:4 auckland:1 marlborough:1 label:1 discover:2 actually:3 discovery:2 duckhorn:1 focus:1 site:1 within:1 paarl:1 stellenbosch:1 apalta:1 colchagua:1 curico:1 casablanca:1 maipo:1 mistakenly:1 sell:1 carmenere:2 think:1 blanc:1 sauvignonasse:1 owner:1 domaine:1 paul:1 bruno:1 work:1 margaux:1 co:1 estournal:1 invite:1 ampelographers:1 comb:1 sure:1 properly:1 genetic:1 study:1 go:4 largely:1 extinct:1 poor:1 resistance:1 phylloxera:1 look:1 distinct:1 strongly:1 pepper:2 chocolate:2 labeling:1 catch:1 indiscriminate:1 amount:1 differ:1 greatly:1 depend:1 velvety:1 mature:1 fast:1 continue:1 bottle:1 decade:1 three:1 main:1 smooth:1 finally:1 brawny:1 associate:2 cassis:1 blueberry:1 boysenberry:1 mulberry:1 ollalieberry:1 vegetable:1 earthy:1 olive:1 cola:1 nut:1 bell:1 fennel:1 humus:1 leather:1 mushroom:2 rhubarb:1 tobacco:1 floral:1 eucalyptus:1 laurel:1 mint:1 oregano:1 pine:1 rosemary:1 sage:1 sarsaparilla:1 thyme:1 spend:1 oak:1 caramel:1 coconut:1 coffee:1 bean:1 dill:1 weed:1 mocha:1 molasses:1 smoke:1 vanilla:1 walnut:1 way:1 zinfandel:1 crush:1 contact:1 pink:1 juice:1 run:1 must:1 ferment:1 sutter:1 forest:1 glen:1 beringer:1 reputedly:1 confuse:1 mutant:1 type:1 consider:1 rosé:1 food:6 pair:4 okanagan:1 versatility:1 diversity:1 wide:1 array:1 match:1 option:1 thing:1 would:1 grilled:1 charred:1 meat:1 northeastern:1 share:1 pinot:1 dish:2 salmon:1 chard:1 radicchio:1 shellfish:1 prawn:1 scallop:1 wrap:1 protein:1 rich:1 bacon:1 prosciutto:1 strong:1 vein:1 cheese:1 overwhelm:1 capsaicin:1 spicy:1 accentuate:1 alcohol:1 bitter:1 see:1 international:1 reference:1 |@bigram wine_grape:4 cabernet_sauvignon:13 cabernet_franc:5 planting_merlot:5 swiss_canton:1 merlot_grape:5 malic_acid:1 abbeville_press:1 loire_valley:1 sandy_soil:1 la_mancha:1 alto_adige:1 sweet_taste:1 sonoma_county:1 walla_walla:1 shenandoah_valley:1 ripe_fruit:1 coffee_bean:1 |
4,195 | Jaggies | "Jaggies" is the informal name for artifacts in raster images, most frequently from aliasing, Mitchell, Don, "The Antialiasing Problem in Ray Tracing", Advanced Topics in Ray Tracing, Course Notes, SIGGRAPH 90. which in turn is often caused by non-linear mixing effects producing high-frequency components and/or missing or poor anti-aliasing filtering prior to sampling. Jaggies are stairlike lines that appear where there should be smooth straight lines or curves. They can occur for a variety of reasons, the most common being that the output device (display monitor or printer) does not have enough resolution to portray a smooth line. In addition, jaggies often occur when a bit-mapped image is converted to a different resolution. This is one of the advantages that vector graphics has over bit-mapped graphics — the output looks the same regardless of the resolution of the output device. The effect of jaggies can be reduced somewhat by a graphics technique known as anti-aliasing. Anti-aliasing smooths out jagged lines by surrounding the jaggies with shaded pixels. This can be done in a computer or in a printer. The origin of the term is believed to come from the Atari 8-bit game Rescue on Fractalus!, published by Lucasfilm Games in 1985. The graphics depicting the cockpit of the player's spacecraft contains two window struts, which are not anti-aliased and are therefore very "jagged". The developers made fun of this and named the in-game enemies "Jaggi", and the game itself in its prototype form bore the name Behind Jaggi Lines! Interview with David Fox (from: James Hague: Halcyon Days: Interviews with Classic Computer and Video Game Programmers) . This is believed to be the first time the term "jaggies" was used to refer to jagged computer graphics. In gaming, consoles that have jaggies are the sixth generation Playstation 2 in component mode, PSP, and most fifth generation 32-bit systems that are capable of rendering polygons. Sony's Playstation 2 has a unique system architecture which takes advantage of the high performance of its Emotion Engine and is capable of rendering vertex shaders but lacks full screen anti-aliasing and bump mapping capabilities. Older consoles identify jaggies with texture mapped renditions instead of polygons. Current consoles such as the Xbox 360, Playstation 3, and Wii can render high quality graphics using separately custom graphics processing units (GPUs). GPU manufactures of consoles such as ATI and Nvidia do not have jaggies, indicating the slow conformity in the market to PCs in general. In the future software problems are most likely going to be eliminated for the needs of the consumer. Note: jaggies should not be confused with most compression artifacts, which are a different phenomenon. A dogleg occurs when a nominally straight, un-aliased line steps across one pixel. The human eye is very perceptive of small irregular changes. References See also Rescue on Fractalus! Anti-aliasing Temporal posterization | Jaggies |@lemmatized jaggies:10 informal:1 name:3 artifact:2 raster:1 image:2 frequently:1 aliasing:6 mitchell:1 antialiasing:1 problem:2 ray:2 trace:1 advance:1 topic:1 tracing:1 course:1 note:2 siggraph:1 turn:1 often:2 cause:1 non:1 linear:1 mixing:1 effect:2 produce:1 high:3 frequency:1 component:2 miss:1 poor:1 anti:6 filter:1 prior:1 sample:1 stairlike:1 line:6 appear:1 smooth:3 straight:2 curve:1 occur:3 variety:1 reason:1 common:1 output:3 device:2 display:1 monitor:1 printer:2 enough:1 resolution:3 portray:1 addition:1 bit:4 map:3 convert:1 different:2 one:2 advantage:2 vector:1 graphic:7 look:1 regardless:1 reduce:1 somewhat:1 technique:1 know:1 jag:3 surround:1 shaded:1 pixel:2 computer:3 origin:1 term:2 believe:2 come:1 atari:1 game:5 rescue:2 fractalus:2 publish:1 lucasfilm:1 depict:1 cockpit:1 player:1 spacecraft:1 contain:1 two:1 window:1 strut:1 aliased:2 therefore:1 developer:1 make:1 fun:1 enemy:1 jaggi:2 prototype:1 form:1 bore:1 behind:1 interview:2 david:1 fox:1 james:1 hague:1 halcyon:1 day:1 classic:1 video:1 programmer:1 first:1 time:1 use:2 refer:1 gaming:1 console:4 sixth:1 generation:2 playstation:3 mode:1 psp:1 fifth:1 system:2 capable:2 render:3 polygon:2 sony:1 unique:1 architecture:1 take:1 performance:1 emotion:1 engine:1 vertex:1 shaders:1 lack:1 full:1 screen:1 bump:1 mapping:1 capability:1 old:1 identify:1 texture:1 rendition:1 instead:1 current:1 xbox:1 wii:1 quality:1 separately:1 custom:1 process:1 unit:1 gpus:1 gpu:1 manufacture:1 ati:1 nvidia:1 indicate:1 slow:1 conformity:1 market:1 pcs:1 general:1 future:1 software:1 likely:1 go:1 eliminate:1 need:1 consumer:1 confuse:1 compression:1 phenomenon:1 dogleg:1 nominally:1 un:1 step:1 across:1 human:1 eye:1 perceptive:1 small:1 irregular:1 change:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 temporal:1 posterization:1 |@bigram ray_tracing:1 anti_aliasing:5 gaming_console:1 sony_playstation:1 xbox_playstation:1 |
4,196 | GNU_Debugger | The GNU Debugger, usually called just GDB, is the standard debugger for the GNU software system. It is a portable debugger that runs on many Unix-like systems and works for many programming languages, including Ada, C, C++, FreeBASIC, and Fortran. History GDB was first written by Richard Stallman in 1986 as part of his GNU system, after his GNU Emacs was "reasonably stable". GDB is free software released under the GNU General Public License (GPL). It was modeled after the Dbx debugger, which came with Berkeley Unix distributions. From 1990 to 1993 it was maintained by John Gilmore while he worked for Cygnus Solutions. Now it is maintained by the GDB Steering Committee which is appointed by the Free Software Foundation. Technical details Features GDB offers extensive facilities for tracing and altering the execution of computer programs. The user can monitor and modify the values of programs' internal variables, and even call functions independently of the program's normal behavior. GDB target processors (as of 2003) include: Alpha, ARM, AVR, H8/300, System/370, System 390, X86 and its 64-bit extension X86-64, IA-64 "Itanium", Motorola 68000, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SuperH, SPARC, and VAX. Lesser-known target processors supported in the standard release have included A29K, ARC, ETRAX CRIS, D10V, D30V, FR-30, FR-V, Intel i960, M32R, 68HC11, Motorola 88000, MCORE, MN10200, MN10300, NS32K, Stormy16, V850, and Z8000. (Newer releases will likely not support some of these.) GDB has compiled-in simulators for even lesser-known target processors such like M32R or V850. GDB is still actively developed. As of early 2007, the focus is on adding "reversible debugging" support — allowing a debugging session to step backwards, much like rewinding a crashed program to see what happened. Adding reversible debugging is one of the High Priority Free Software Projects. Remote debugging GDB offers a 'remote' mode often used when debugging embedded systems. Remote operation is when GDB runs on one machine and the program being debugged runs on another. GDB can communicate to the remote 'stub' which understands GDB protocol via Serial or TCP/IP. The same mode is also used by KGDB for debugging a running Linux kernel on the source level with gdb. With kgdb, kernel developers can debug a kernel in much the same way as they debug application programs. It makes it possible to place breakpoints in kernel code, step through the code and observe variables. On architectures where hardware debugging registers are available, watchpoints can be set which trigger breakpoints when specified memory addresses are executed or accessed. kgdb requires an additional machine which is connected to the machine to be debugged using a serial cable or ethernet. On FreeBSD, it is also possible to debug using Firewire DMA. Limitations The debugger does not contain its own graphical user interface, and defaults to a command-line interface. Several front-ends have been built for it, such as Xxgdb, DDD, KDbg, Qt Creator, Xcode debugger, and GDBtk/Insight. IDEs such GPS. Eclipse and Netbeans can interface with GDB. GNU Emacs has a "GUD mode" and several tools for VIM exist. These offer facilities similar to debuggers found in integrated development environments. Some other debugging tools have been designed to work with GDB, such as memory leak detectors. Examples of commands $ gdb prog.out debug prog.out (from the shell) gdb> run -v run the loaded program with the parameters gdb> bt backtrace (in case the program crashed) gdb> info registers dump all registers gdb> disass $pc-32 $pc+32 disassemble An example session This is an example GDB session on the example program in Stack trace: GNU gdb Red Hat Linux (6.3.0.0-1.21rh) Copyright 2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc. GDB is free software, covered by the GNU General Public License, and you are welcome to change it and/or distribute copies of it under certain conditions. Type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB. Type "show warranty" for details. This GDB was configured as "i386-redhat-linux-gnu"...Using host libthread_db library "/lib/libthread_db.so.1". (gdb) run Starting program: /home/sam/programming/crash Reading symbols from shared object read from target memory...done. Loaded system supplied DSO at 0xc11000 This program will demonstrate gdb Program received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation fault. 0x08048428 in function_2 (x=24) at crash.c:22 22 return *y; (gdb) edit (gdb) shell gcc crash.c -o crash -gstabs+ (gdb) run The program being debugged has been started already. Start it from the beginning? (y or n) y warning: cannot close "shared object read from target memory": File in wrong format `/home/sam/programming/crash' has changed; re-reading symbols. Starting program: /home/sam/programming/crash Reading symbols from shared object read from target memory...done. Loaded system supplied DSO at 0xa3e000 This program will demonstrate gdb 24 Program exited normally. (gdb) quit The program is being run. After the cause of the segmentation fault is found, the program is edited to use the correct behavior. The corrected program is recompiled with GCC and then run. See also Binary File Descriptor library (libbfd) dbx debugger References External links GDB homepage kgdb, the gdb backend for debugging the Linux kernel Documentation Richard M. Stallman, Roland Pesch, Stan Shebs, et al., Debugging with GDB (Free Software Foundation, 2002) ISBN 1-882114-88-4 GDB Internals Tutorials Peter Jay Salzman's GDB guide: Using GNU's GDB Debugger | GNU_Debugger |@lemmatized gnu:10 debugger:9 usually:1 call:2 gdb:38 standard:2 software:7 system:8 portable:1 run:10 many:2 unix:2 like:3 work:3 programming:1 language:1 include:3 ada:1 c:4 freebasic:1 fortran:1 history:1 first:1 write:1 richard:2 stallman:2 part:1 emacs:2 reasonably:1 stable:1 free:6 release:3 general:2 public:2 license:2 gpl:1 model:1 dbx:2 come:1 berkeley:1 distribution:1 maintain:2 john:1 gilmore:1 cygnus:1 solution:1 steer:1 committee:1 appoint:1 foundation:3 technical:1 detail:2 feature:1 offer:3 extensive:1 facility:2 trace:2 alter:1 execution:1 computer:1 program:22 user:2 monitor:1 modify:1 value:1 internal:1 variable:2 even:2 function:1 independently:1 normal:1 behavior:2 target:6 processor:3 alpha:1 arm:1 avr:1 bit:1 extension:1 ia:1 itanium:1 motorola:2 mips:1 pa:1 risc:1 powerpc:1 superh:1 sparc:1 vax:1 less:2 know:2 support:3 arc:1 etrax:1 cris:1 fr:2 v:2 intel:1 mcore:1 new:1 likely:1 compile:1 simulator:1 still:1 actively:1 developed:1 early:1 focus:1 add:2 reversible:2 debug:15 allow:1 session:3 step:2 backwards:1 much:2 rewinding:1 crashed:1 see:3 happen:1 debugging:2 one:2 high:1 priority:1 project:1 remote:4 mode:3 often:1 use:7 embed:1 operation:1 machine:3 another:1 communicate:1 stub:1 understand:1 protocol:1 via:1 serial:2 tcp:1 ip:1 also:3 kgdb:4 linux:4 kernel:5 source:1 level:1 developer:1 way:1 application:1 make:1 possible:2 place:1 breakpoints:2 code:2 observe:1 architecture:1 hardware:1 register:3 available:1 watchpoints:1 set:1 trigger:1 specify:1 memory:5 address:1 execute:1 access:1 require:1 additional:1 connect:1 cable:1 ethernet:1 freebsd:1 firewire:1 dma:1 limitation:1 contain:1 graphical:1 interface:3 default:1 command:2 line:1 several:2 front:1 end:1 build:1 xxgdb:1 ddd:1 kdbg:1 qt:1 creator:1 xcode:1 gdbtk:1 insight:1 ides:1 gps:1 eclipse:1 netbeans:1 gud:1 tool:2 vim:1 exist:1 similar:1 find:2 integrated:1 development:1 environment:1 design:1 leak:1 detector:1 example:4 prog:2 shell:2 loaded:3 parameter:1 bt:1 backtrace:1 case:1 crash:7 info:1 dump:1 disa:1 pc:2 disassemble:1 stack:1 red:1 hat:1 copyright:1 inc:1 cover:1 welcome:1 change:2 distribute:1 copy:2 certain:1 condition:2 type:2 show:2 absolutely:1 warranty:2 configure:1 redhat:1 host:1 library:2 lib:1 start:4 home:3 sam:3 reading:3 symbol:3 share:3 object:3 read:3 supply:2 dso:2 demonstrate:2 receive:1 signal:1 sigsegv:1 segmentation:2 fault:2 x:1 return:1 edit:2 gcc:2 gstabs:1 already:1 beginning:1 n:1 warning:1 cannot:1 close:1 file:2 wrong:1 format:1 exit:1 normally:1 quit:1 cause:1 correct:1 corrected:1 recompiled:1 binary:1 descriptor:1 libbfd:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 backend:1 documentation:1 roland:1 pesch:1 stan:1 shebs:1 et:1 al:1 isbn:1 internals:1 tutorial:1 peter:1 jay:1 salzman:1 guide:1 |@bigram richard_stallman:2 gnu_emacs:2 license_gpl:1 pa_risc:1 tcp_ip:1 linux_kernel:2 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 memory_leak:1 segmentation_fault:2 external_link:1 et_al:1 |
4,197 | Mathematical_induction | A formal description of mathematical induction can be illustrated by reference to the sequential effect of falling dominoes. Mathematical induction is a method of mathematical proof typically used to establish that a given statement is true of all natural numbers. It is done by proving that the first statement in the infinite sequence of statements is true, and then proving that if any one statement in the infinite sequence of statements is true, then so is the next one. The method can be extended to prove statements about more general well-founded structures, such as trees; this generalization, known as structural induction, is used in mathematical logic and computer science. Mathematical induction in this extended sense is closely related to recursion. Mathematical induction should not be misconstrued as a form of inductive reasoning, which is considered non-rigorous in mathematics (see Problem of induction for more information). In fact, mathematical induction is a form of deductive reasoning and is rigorous. History In 370 BC, Plato’s Parmenides may have contained the first inductive proof ever. Mathematical Induction: The Basis Step of Verification and Validation in a Modeling and Simulation Course The earliest implicit traces of mathematical induction can be found in Euclid's proof that the number of primes is infinite and in Bhaskara's "cyclic method". Cajori (1918), p. 197"The process of reasoning called "Mathematical Induction" has had several independent origins. It has been traced back to the Swiss Jakob (James) Bernoulli, the Frenchman B. Pascal and P. Fermat, and the Italian F. Maurolycus. [...] By reading a little between the lines one can find traces of mathematical induction still earlier, in the writings of the Hindus and the Greeks, as, for instance, in the "cyclic method" of Bhaskara, and in Euclid's proof that the number of primes is infinite." The earliest implicit proof by mathematical induction for arithmetic sequences was introduced in the al-Fakhri written by al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who used it to prove the binomial theorem, Pascal's triangle, and the sum formula for integral cubes. Katz (1998), p. 255: "Another important idea introduced by al-Karaji and continued by al-Samaw'al and others was that of an inductive argument for dealing with certain arithmetic sequences. Thus al-Karaji used such an argument to prove the result on the sums of integral cubes already known to Aryabhata [...] Al-Karaji did not, however, state a general result for arbitrary n. He stated his theorem for the particular integer 10 [...] His proof, nevertheless, was clearly designed to be extendable to any other integer. His proof was the first to make use of the two basic components of an inductive proof, "namely the truth of the statement for n = 1 (1 = 13) and the deriving of the truth for n = k from that of n = k − 1. Of course, this second component is not explicit since, in some sense, al-Karaji's argument is in reverse; this is, he starts from n = 10 and goes down to 1 rather than proceeding upward." Katz (1998), p. 255: "Al-Karaji's argument includes in essence the two basic components of a modern argument by induction, namely the truth of the statement for n = 1 (1 = 13) and the deriving of the truth for n = k from that of n = k − 1. Of course, this second component is not explicit since, in some sense, al-Karaji's argument is in reverse; this is, he starts from n = 10 and goes down to 1 rather than proceeding upward. Nevertheless, his argument in al-Fakhri is the earliest extant proof of the sum formula for integral cubes." Shortly afterwards, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) used the inductive method to prove the sum of fourth powers, and by extension, the sum of any integral powers. Victor J. Katz (1995), p. 165–169. Katz (1998), pp. 255–259. He only stated it for particular integers, but his proof for those integers was by induction and generalizable. Ibn Yahyā al-Maghribī al-Samaw'al came closest to a modern proof by mathematical induction in pre-modern times, which he used to extend the proof of the binomial theorem and Pascal's triangle previously given by al-Karaji. Al-Samaw'al's inductive argument was only a short step from the full inductive proof of the general binomial theorem. Katz (1998), p. 259: "Like the proofs of al-Karaji and ibn al-Haytham, al-Samaw'al's argument contains the two basic components of an inductive proof. He begins with a value for which the result is known, here n = 2, and then uses the result for a given integer to derive the result for the next. Although al-Samaw'al did not have any way of stating, and therefore proving, the general binomial theorem, to modern readers there is only a short step from al-Samaw'al's argument to a full inductive proof of the binomial theorem." None of these ancient mathematicians, however, explicitly stated the inductive hypothesis. Another similar case (contrary to what Vacca has written, as Freudenthal carefully showed) was that of Francesco Maurolico in his Arithmeticorum libri duo (1575), who used the technique to prove that the sum of the first n odd integers is n2. The first explicit formulation of the principle of induction was given by Pascal in his Traité du triangle arithmétique (1665). Another Frenchman, Fermat, made ample use of a related principle, indirect proof by infinite descent. The inductive hypothesis was also employed by the Swiss Jakob Bernoulli, and from then on it became more or less well known. The modern rigorous and systematic treatment of the principle came only in the 19th century, with Giuseppe Peano and above all with Richard Dedekind. Description The simplest and most common form of mathematical induction proves that a statement involving a natural number n holds for all values of n. The proof consists of two steps: The basis (base case): showing that the statement holds when n = 0 or n = 1. The inductive step: showing that if the statement holds for some n, then the statement also holds when n + 1 is substituted for n. The assumption in the inductive step that the statement holds for some n is called the induction hypothesis (or inductive hypothesis). To perform the inductive step, one assumes the induction hypothesis and then uses this assumption to prove the statement for n + 1. The description above of the basis applies when 0 is considered a natural number, as is common in the fields of combinatorics and mathematical logic. If, on the other hand, 1 is taken to be the first natural number, then the base case is given by n = 1. This method works by first proving the statement is true for a starting value, and then proving that the process used to go from one value to the next is valid. If these are both proven, then any value can be obtained by performing the process repeatedly. It may be helpful to think of the domino effect; if one is presented with a long row of dominoes standing on end, one can be sure that: The first domino will fall Whenever a domino falls, its next neighbor will also fall, so it is concluded that all of the dominoes will fall, and that this fact is inevitable. Another analogy can be to consider an infinite set of identical lily pads, all equally spaced on a pond. If a frog wishes to traverse the pond, he must: Determine if the first lily pad will hold his weight. Prove that he can jump from one lily pad to another. Thus, he can conclude that he can jump to all of the lily pads. Axiom of induction The basic assumption or axiom of induction (accepted not proved) is, in logical symbols, where P is the proposition in question and k and n are both natural numbers. In other words, the basis P(0) being true along with the inductive case ("P(k) is true implies P(k + 1) is true" for all natural k) being true together imply that P(n) is true for any natural number n. A proof by induction is then a proof that these two conditions hold, thus implying the required conclusion. This works because k is used to represent an arbitrary natural number. Then, using the inductive hypothesis, i.e. that P(k) is true, show P(k + 1) is also true. This allows us to "carry" the fact that P(0) is true to the fact that P(1) is also true, and carry P(1) to P(2), etc., thus proving P(n) holds for any n up to infinity. Example Mathematical induction can be used to prove that the statement holds for all natural numbers n. It gives a formula for the sum of the natural numbers less than or equal to number n. The proof that the statement is true for all natural numbers n proceeds as follows. Call this statement P(n). Basis: Show that the statement holds for n = 0. P(0) amounts to the statement: In the left-hand side of the equation, the only term is 0, and so the left-hand side is simply equal to 0. In the right-hand side of the equation, 0·(0 + 1)/2 = 0. The two sides are equal, so the statement is true for n = 0. Thus it has been shown that P(0) holds. Inductive step: Show that if P(n) holds, then also holds. This can be done as follows. Assume P(n) holds (for some unspecified value of n). It must be shown that then holds, that is: Using the induction hypothesis that P(n) holds, the left-hand side can be rewritten from: to: Algebra will now establish that thereby showing that indeed holds. Since both the basis and the inductive step have been proved, it has now been proved by mathematical induction that P(n) holds for all natural n. Q.E.D. Variants In practice, proofs by induction are often structured differently, depending on the exact nature of the property to be proved. Starting at some other number If we want to prove a statement not for all natural numbers but only for all numbers greater than or equal to a certain number b then: Showing that the statement holds when n = b. Showing that if the statement holds for n = m ≥ b then the same statement also holds for n = m + 1. This can be used, for example, to show that n2 > 2n for n ≥ 3. A more substantial example is a proof that In this way we can prove that P(n) holds for all n ≥1, or even n ≥−5. This form of mathematical induction is actually a special case of the previous form because if the statement that we intend to prove is P(n) then proving it with these two rules is equivalent with proving P(n + b) for all natural numbers n with the first two steps. Building on n = 2 In mathematics, many standard functions, including operations such as "+" and relations such as "=", are binary, meaning that they take two arguments. Often these functions possess properties that implicitly extend them to more than two arguments. For example, once addition a + b is defined and is known to satisfy the associativity property (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), then the trinary addition a + b + c makes sense, either as (a + b) + c or as a + (b + c). Similarly, many axioms and theorems in mathematics are stated only for the binary versions of mathematical operations and relations, and implicitly extend to higher-arity versions. Suppose that we wish to prove a statement about an n-ary operation implicitly defined from a binary operation, using mathematical induction on n. Then it should come as no surprise that the n = 2 case carries special weight. Here are some examples. Example: product rule for the derivative In this example, the binary operation in question is multiplication (of functions). The usual product rule for the derivative taught in calculus states: or in logarithmic derivative form This can be generalized to a product of n functions. One has or in logarithmic derivative form In each of the n terms of the usual form, just one of the factors is a derivative; the others are not. When this general fact is proved by mathematical induction, the n = 0 case is trivial, (since the empty product is 1, and the empty sum is 0). The n = 1 case is also trivial, And for each n ≥ 3, the case is easy to prove from the preceding n − 1 case. The real difficulty lies in the n = 2 case, which is why that is the one stated in the standard product rule. Example: Pólya's proof that there is no "horse of a different color" In this example, the binary relation in question is an equivalence relation applied to horses, such that two horses are equivalent if they are the same color. The argument is essentially identical to the one above, but the crucial n = 2 case fails, causing the entire argument to be invalid. In the middle of the 20th century, a commonplace colloquial locution to express the idea that something is unexpectedly different from the usual was "That's a horse of a different color!". George Pólya posed the following exercise: Find the error in the following argument, which purports to prove by mathematical induction that all horses are of the same color: Basis: If there is only one horse, there is only one color. Induction step: Assume as induction hypothesis that within any set of n horses, there is only one color. Now look at any set of n + 1 horses. Number them: 1, 2, 3, ..., n, n + 1. Consider the sets {1, 2, 3, ..., n} and {2, 3, 4, ..., n + 1}. Each is a set of only n horses, therefore within each there is only one color. But the two sets overlap, so there must be only one color among all n + 1 horses. Beginning the induction at 1, the n = 1 case is trivial (any horse is the same color as itself), and the inductive step is correct in all cases n ≥ 3. However, the logic of the inductive step is incorrect when n = 2, because the statement that "the two sets overlap" is false. Indeed, the n = 2 case is clearly the crux of the matter; if one could prove the n = 2 case, then all higher cases would follow from the transitive property of the equivalence relation. Induction on more than one counter It is sometimes desirable to prove a statement involving two natural numbers, n and m, by iterating the induction process. That is, one performs a basis step and an inductive step for n, and in each of those performs a basis step and an inductive step for m. See, for example, the proof of commutativity accompanying addition of natural numbers. More complicated arguments involving three or more counters are also possible. Infinite descent Another variant of mathematical induction – the method of infinite descent – was one of Pierre de Fermat's favorites. This method of proof works in reverse, and can assume several slightly different forms. For example, it might begin by showing that if a statement is true for a natural number n it must also be true for some smaller natural number m (m < n). Using mathematical induction (implicitly) with the inductive hypothesis being that the statement is false for all natural numbers less than or equal to m, we can conclude that the statement cannot be true for any natural number n. Complete induction Another generalization, called complete induction (or strong induction or course of values induction), says that in the second step we may assume not only that the statement holds for n = m but also that it is true for n less than or equal to m. In complete induction it is not necessary to list the base case as a separate assumption. When considering the first case, it is vacuously true that the statement holds for all previous cases; the inductive step of complete induction in this situation corresponds to the base case in ordinary induction. Thus the proof then of the inductive step in complete induction needs to be able to work with an empty antecedent; the first proof above is not of this kind (but can be converted). Complete induction is most useful when several instances of the inductive hypothesis are required for each inductive step. For example, complete induction can be used to show that where is the nth Fibonacci number and (the golden ratio) and are the roots of . By using the definition , the identity above can be verified by direct calculation for if we assume that it already holds for both and . To complete the proof, the identity must be verified in the two base cases n = 0 and n = 1. Another proof by complete induction uses the hypothesis that the statement holds for all smaller n more thoroughly. Consider the statement that "every natural number greater than 1 is a product of prime numbers", and assume that for a given m > 1 it holds for all smaller n > 1. If m is prime then it is certainly a product of primes, and if not, then by definition it is a product: m = n1 n2, where neither of the factors is equal to 1; hence neither is equal to m, and so both are smaller than m. The induction hypothesis now applies to n1 and n2, so each one is a product of primes. Then m is a product of products of primes; i.e. a product of primes. Note both that the base case (m equal to 2) was never explicitly considered, and that the hypothesis that all smaller numbers than m are products of primes was used, since the factors of m are a priori unknown. This generalization, complete induction, can be derived from the ordinary mathematical induction described above. Suppose P(n) is the statement that we intend to prove by complete induction. Let Q(n) mean P(m) holds for all m such that 0 ≤ m ≤ n. Apply mathematical induction to Q(n). Since Q(0) is just P(0), we have the base case. Now suppose Q(n) is given and we wish to show Q(n+1). Notice that Q(n) is the same as P(0) and P(1) and ... and P(n). The hypothesis of complete induction tells us that this implies P(n+1). If we add P(n+1) to Q(n), we get P(0) and P(1) and ... and P(n) and P(n+1), which is just Q(n+1). So using mathematical induction, we get that Q(n) holds for all natural numbers n. But Q(n) implies P(n), so we have the conclusion of strong induction, namely that P(n) holds for all natural numbers n. Transfinite induction The last two steps can be reformulated as one step: Showing that if the statement holds for all n < m then the same statement also holds for n = m. This is in fact the most general form of mathematical induction and it can be shown that it is not only valid for statements about natural numbers, but for statements about elements of any well-founded set, that is, a set with an irreflexive relation < that contains no infinite descending chains. This form of induction, when applied to ordinals (which form a well-ordered and hence well-founded class), is called transfinite induction. It is an important proof technique in set theory, topology and other fields. Proofs by transfinite induction typically distinguish three cases: when m is a minimal element, i.e. there is no element smaller than m when m has a direct predecessor, i.e. the set of elements which are smaller than m has a largest element when m has no direct predecessor, i.e. m is a so-called limit-ordinal Strictly speaking, it is not necessary in transfinite induction to prove the basis, because it is a vacuous special case of the proposition that if P is true of all n < m, then P is true of m. It is vacuously true precisely because there are no values of n < m that could serve as counterexamples. Proof or reformulation of mathematical induction The principle of mathematical induction is usually stated as an axiom of the natural numbers; see Peano axioms. However, it can be proved in some logical systems. For instance, it can be proved if one assumes: The set of natural numbers is well-ordered. Every natural number is either zero, or n+1 for some natural number n. For any natural number n, n+1 is greater than n. To derive simple induction from these axioms, we must show that if P(n) is some proposition predicated of n, and if: P(0) holds and whenever P(k) is true then P(k+1) is also true then P(n) holds for all n. We first show that if P(k) is true for all k < m, then P(m) is also true. If m is zero, then P(m) is true. If m = k + 1, then P(k) is true because k < m and so P(k+1) is true which means that P(m) is true. The rest follows from applying the principle transfinite induction (see below). See also Combinatorial proof Recursion Structural induction Recursion (computer science) Notes References <div class="references-2column"> Introduction (Section 1.2.1: Mathematical Induction, pp. 11–21.) (Section 1.3.8: Transfinite induction, pp. 28–29.) (Ch. 8.) 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4,198 | Exabyte | An exabyte (derived from the SI prefix exa-) is a unit of information or computer storage equal to one quintillion bytes. It is commonly abbreviated EB. When used with byte multiples, the SI prefix may indicate a power of either 1000 or 1024, so the exact number may be either: 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes — 1018; or 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes — 260. The term exbibyte, using a binary prefix, has been proposed as an unambiguous reference to the latter value. In principle, the 64-bit microprocessors found in many computers can address up to 16 exabytes of memory. Exabyte in use , the global monthly Internet traffic is estimated to be 5 to 8 exabytes. Minnesota Internet Traffic Studies (MINTS) , the size of the internet itself has been roughly estimated to be 500 billion gigabytes, or 500 exabytes. According to an IDC paper sponsored by EMC Corporation, 161 exabytes of data were created in 2006, "3 million times the amount of information contained in all the books ever written," with the number expected to hit 988 exabytes in 2010. According to CSIRO, in the next decade, astronomers expect to be processing 10 petabytes of data every hour from the Square Kilometre Array telescope. The array is thus expected to generate approximately one exabyte every four days of operation. Practical comparisons Comparison to a drop of water If each byte of data were represented by one molecule of water, 1018 water molecules would weigh just under 3 hundredths of a milligram (0.0299 mg) and the spherical droplet of this amount of water would have a diameter of only 0.385 millimeters. "All words ever spoken" A popular expression claims that "all words ever spoken by human beings" could be stored in approximately 5 exabytes of data, (login) often citing a project at the UC Berkeley School of Information in support. The 2003 University of California Berkeley report credits the estimate to the website of Caltech researcher Roy Williams, where the statement can be found as early as May 1999. This statement has been criticized. Mark Liberman calculated the storage requirements for all human speech at 42 zettabytes, if digitized as 16 kHz 16-bit audio, although he did "freely confess that maybe the authors [of the exabyte estimate] were thinking about text." Earlier Berkeley studies estimated that by the end of 1999, the sum of human-produced information (including all audio, video recordings and text/books) was about 12 exabytes of data. The 2003 Berkeley report stated that in 2002 alone, "telephone calls worldwide on both landlines and mobile phones contained 17.3 exabytes of new information if stored in digital form" and that "it would take 9.25 exabytes of storage to hold all U.S. [telephone] calls each year." International Data Corporation estimates that approximately 160 exabytes of digital information were created, captured, and replicated worldwide in 2006. Exaflood The word exabyte is the basis for the term exaflood, a neologism created by Bret Swanson of the Discovery Institute in a January 2007 Wall Street Journal editorial. Exaflood refers to the rapidly increasing torrent of data transmitted over the Internet. The amount of information people upload, download and share on the Internet—known as internet traffic—is growing (due in large part to video, audio and photo applications) at an exponential rate, while the capacity of the Internet, its bandwidth, is limited and susceptible to a "flood" of data equal to multiple exabytes. "One exabyte is the equivalent of about 50,000 years of DVD quality video." See also Exabit Petabyte Zettabyte Orders of magnitude (data) References External links exabyte (whatis.com definition) be-x-old:Эксабайт | Exabyte |@lemmatized exabyte:18 derive:1 si:2 prefix:3 exa:1 unit:1 information:7 computer:2 storage:3 equal:2 one:4 quintillion:1 bytes:1 commonly:1 abbreviate:1 eb:1 use:3 byte:4 multiple:2 may:3 indicate:1 power:1 either:2 exact:1 number:2 term:2 exbibyte:1 binary:1 propose:1 unambiguous:1 reference:2 latter:1 value:1 principle:1 bit:2 microprocessor:1 find:2 many:1 address:1 memory:1 global:1 monthly:1 internet:7 traffic:3 estimate:6 minnesota:1 study:2 mint:1 size:1 roughly:1 billion:1 gigabyte:1 accord:2 idc:1 paper:1 sponsor:1 emc:1 corporation:2 data:9 create:3 million:1 time:1 amount:3 contain:2 book:2 ever:3 write:1 expect:3 hit:1 csiro:1 next:1 decade:1 astronomer:1 process:1 petabyte:2 every:2 hour:1 square:1 kilometre:1 array:2 telescope:1 thus:1 generate:1 approximately:3 four:1 day:1 operation:1 practical:1 comparison:2 drop:1 water:4 represent:1 molecule:2 would:3 weigh:1 hundredth:1 milligram:1 mg:1 spherical:1 droplet:1 diameter:1 millimeter:1 word:3 speak:2 popular:1 expression:1 claim:1 human:3 could:1 store:2 login:1 often:1 cite:1 project:1 uc:1 berkeley:4 school:1 support:1 university:1 california:1 report:2 credit:1 website:1 caltech:1 researcher:1 roy:1 williams:1 statement:2 early:1 criticize:1 mark:1 liberman:1 calculate:1 requirement:1 speech:1 zettabyte:2 digitize:1 khz:1 audio:3 although:1 freely:1 confess:1 maybe:1 author:1 think:1 text:2 earlier:1 end:1 sum:1 produce:1 include:1 video:3 recording:1 state:1 alone:1 telephone:2 call:2 worldwide:2 landline:1 mobile:1 phone:1 new:1 digital:2 form:1 take:1 hold:1 u:1 year:2 international:1 capture:1 replicate:1 exaflood:3 basis:1 neologism:1 bret:1 swanson:1 discovery:1 institute:1 january:1 wall:1 street:1 journal:1 editorial:1 refers:1 rapidly:1 increase:1 torrent:1 transmit:1 people:1 upload:1 download:1 share:1 know:1 grow:1 due:1 large:1 part:1 photo:1 application:1 exponential:1 rate:1 capacity:1 bandwidth:1 limited:1 susceptible:1 flood:1 equivalent:1 dvd:1 quality:1 see:1 also:1 exabit:1 order:1 magnitude:1 external:1 link:1 whatis:1 com:1 definition:1 x:1 old:1 эксабайт:1 |@bigram si_prefix:2 square_kilometre:1 uc_berkeley:1 landline_mobile:1 mobile_phone:1 upload_download:1 external_link:1 |
4,199 | Draw_(poker) | A poker player is drawing if he has a hand that is incomplete and needs further cards to become valuable. The hand itself is called a draw or drawing hand. For example, in seven-card stud, if four of a player's first five cards are all spades, but the hand is otherwise weak, he is drawing to a flush. In contrast, a made hand already has value and does not necessarily need to draw to win. A made starting hand with no help can lose to an inferior starting hand with a favorable draw. If an opponent has a made hand that will beat the player's draw, then the player is drawing dead; even if he makes his desired hand, he will lose. Not only draws benefit from additional cards; many made hands can be improved by catching an out — and may have to in order to win. Outs An unseen card that would improve a drawing hand to a likely winner is an out. Playing a drawing hand has a positive expectation if the probability of catching an out is greater than the pot odds offered by the pot. The probability of catching an out with one card to come is: The probability of catching at least one out with two cards to come is: A dead out is a card that would normally be considered an out for a particular drawing hand, but should be excluded when calculating the probability of catching an out. Outs can be dead for two reasons: A dead out may work to improve an opponent's hand to a superior hand. For example, if Ted has a spade flush draw and Alice has an outside straight draw, any spades that complete Alice's straight are dead outs because they would also give Ted a flush. A dead out may have already been seen. In some game variations such as stud poker, some of the cards held by each player are seen by all players. Types of draws Flush draw A flush draw, or four flush, is a hand with four cards of the same suit that may improve to a flush. For example, K♣ 9♣ 8♣ 5♣ x. A flush draw has nine outs (thirteen cards of the suit less the four already in the hand). If you have a four flush in Hold'em, the probability to flush the hand in the end is 34.97 percent if there are two more cards to come, and 19.57 percent if there is only one more card to come. Outside straight draw An outside straight draw, also called up and down or open-end(ed) straight draw, is a hand with four of the five needed cards in sequence (and could be completed on either end) that may improve to a straight. For example, x-9-8-7-6-x. An outside straight draw has eight outs (four cards to complete the top of the straight and four cards to complete the bottom of the straight). Straight draws including an ace are not outside straight draws, because the straight can only be completed on one end (has four outs). Inside straight draw An inside straight draw, or gutshot draw or belly buster draw, is a hand with four of the five cards needed for a straight, but missing one in the middle. For example, 9-x-7-6-5. An inside straight draw has four outs (four cards to fill the missing internal rank). Because straight draws including an ace only have four outs, they are also considered inside straight draws. For example, A-K-Q-J-x or A-2-3-4-x. The probability of catching an out for an inside straight draw is half that of catching an out for an outside straight draw. Double inside straight draw A double inside straight draw, or double gutshot draw or double gut buster draw can occur in 11-card games when either of two ranks will make a straight, but both are "inside" draws. For example, 9-x-7-Joker-5-x-3, or 9-8-x-6-5-x-3-2. The probability of catching an out for a double inside straight draw is the same as for an outside straight draw. Other draws Sometimes a made hand needs to draw to a better hand. For example, if a player has two pair or three of a kind, but an opponent has a straight or flush, to win the player must draw an out to improve to a full house. There are a multitude of potential situations where one hand needs to improve to beat another, but the expected value of most drawing plays can be calculated by counting outs, computing the probability of winning, and comparing the probability of winning to the pot odds. Backdoor draw A backdoor draw, or runner-runner draw, is a drawing hand that needs to catch two outs to win. For example, a hand with three cards of the same suit has a backdoor flush draw because it needs two more cards of the suit. The probability of catching two outs with two cards to come is: For example, if after the flop in Texas hold 'em, a player has a backdoor flush draw (e.g., three spades), the probability of catching two outs on the turn and river is (10 ÷ 47) × (9 ÷ 46) = 4.16 percent. Backdoor draws are generally unlikely; with 43 unseen cards, it is equally likely to catch two out of seven outs as to catch one out of one. A backdoor outside straight draw (such as J-10-9) is equally likely as a backdoor flush, but any other 3-card straight combination isn't worth even one out. Drawing dead A player is said to be drawing dead when the hand he hopes to complete will nonetheless lose to a player who already has a better one. For example, drawing to a straight or flush when the opponent already has a full house. See also Poker jargon Poker probability Poker probability (Texas hold 'em) Poker probability (Omaha) Poker strategy Pot odds Aggressive plays Bluffing plays Check-raise plays Defense plays Isolation plays Position plays Protection plays Slow plays Stealing plays References | Draw_(poker) |@lemmatized poker:7 player:11 draw:53 hand:26 incomplete:1 need:8 card:24 become:1 valuable:1 call:2 example:11 seven:2 stud:2 four:13 first:1 five:3 spade:4 otherwise:1 weak:1 flush:15 contrast:1 make:6 already:5 value:2 necessarily:1 win:6 start:2 help:1 lose:3 inferior:1 favorable:1 opponent:4 beat:2 dead:8 even:2 desired:1 benefit:1 additional:1 many:1 improve:7 catch:13 may:5 order:1 unseen:2 would:3 likely:3 winner:1 play:11 positive:1 expectation:1 probability:14 great:1 pot:4 odds:3 offer:1 one:10 come:5 least:1 two:11 normally:1 consider:2 particular:1 drawing:1 exclude:1 calculate:2 reason:1 work:1 superior:1 ted:2 alice:2 outside:8 straight:29 complete:6 also:4 give:1 see:3 game:2 variation:1 hold:4 type:1 suit:4 k:2 x:10 nine:1 thirteen:1 less:1 em:3 end:4 percent:3 open:1 ed:1 sequence:1 could:1 either:2 eight:1 top:1 bottom:1 draws:1 include:2 ace:2 inside:9 gutshot:2 belly:1 buster:2 miss:2 middle:1 fill:1 internal:1 rank:2 q:1 j:2 half:1 double:5 gut:1 occur:1 joker:1 sometimes:1 made:1 good:2 pair:1 three:3 kind:1 must:1 full:2 house:2 multitude:1 potential:1 situation:1 another:1 expected:1 count:1 compute:1 compare:1 backdoor:7 runner:2 flop:1 texas:2 e:1 g:1 turn:1 river:1 generally:1 unlikely:1 equally:2 combination:1 worth:1 say:1 hop:1 nonetheless:1 jargon:1 omaha:1 strategy:1 aggressive:1 bluff:1 check:1 raise:1 defense:1 isolation:1 position:1 protection:1 slow:1 steal:1 reference:1 |@bigram pot_odds:3 stud_poker:1 straight_flush:2 expected_value:1 backdoor_draw:3 poker_jargon:1 jargon_poker:1 |
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