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3,900 | Osama_bin_Laden | Osama bin Laden ( ; with numerous variations) (born 10 March 1957) is a member of the prominent Saudi bin Laden family and the founder of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda, best known for the September 11 attacks on the United States and is also the FBI's most wanted person in the world. http://www.fbi.gov/wanted/topten/fugitives/laden.htm Al-Qaeda has also been associated with numerous other mass-casualty attacks against civilian targets. Since 2001, Osama bin Laden and his organization have been major targets of the United States' "War on Terrorism." Bin Laden and fellow Al-Qaeda leaders are believed to be hiding in the border of Afghanistan and Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Variations of bin Laden's name Because there is no universally accepted standard in the West for transliterating Arabic words and names into English, bin Laden's name is spelled in many ways. The version often used by most English-language mass media is Osama bin Laden. Most American government agencies, including the FBI and CIA, use either "Usama bin Laden" or "Usama bin Ladin", both of which are often abbreviated to UBL. Less common renderings include "Ussamah Bin Ladin" and "Oussama Ben Laden" (French-language mass media). The latter part of the name can also be found as "Binladen" or (as used by his family in the West) "Binladin". Strictly speaking, Arabic linguistic conventions dictate that he be referred to as "Osama" or "Osama bin Laden", not "bin Laden," as "Bin Laden" is not used as a surname in the Western manner, but simply as part of his name, which in its long form means "Osama, son of Mohammed, son of 'Awad, son of Laden". Still, "bin Laden" has become nearly universal in Western references to him. Bin Laden's admirers commonly use several aliases and nicknames, including the Prince, the Sheikh, Al-Amir, Abu Abdallah, Sheikh Al-Mujahid, the Lion Sheik, In a New Video, Bin Laden Predicts U.S. Failure in Iraq - washingtonpost.com the Director, Imam Mehdi and Samaritan. Childhood, education and personal life Osama bin Laden was born in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. In a 1998 interview, he gave his birth date as 10 March 1957. His father Muhammed Awad bin Laden was a wealthy businessman with close ties to the Saudi royal family. Osama bin Laden was born the only son of Muhammed bin Laden's tenth wife, Hamida al-Attas. Letter From Jedda, Young Osama, How he learned radicalism, and may have seen America, by Steve Coll, The New Yorker Fact, Issue of 2005-12-12, Posted 2005-12-05 Osama's parents divorced soon after he was born; Osama's mother then married Muhammad al-Attas. The couple had four children, and Osama lived in the new household with three stepbrothers and one stepsister. Letter From Jedda, Young Osama, How he learned radicalism, and may have seen America, by Steve Coll, The New Yorker Fact, Issue of 2005-12-12, Posted 2005-12-05 Bin Laden was raised as a devout Wahhabi Muslim. From 1968 to 1976 he attended the "élite" secular Al-Thager Model School. Steve Coll, Young Osama. The New Yorker magazine, 12 December 2005. Bin Laden studied economics and business administration Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden, Verso, 2005, p.xii at King Abdulaziz University. Some reports suggest bin Laden earned a degree in civil engineering in 1979, Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement, Vol. 22. Gale Group, 2002 or a degree in public administration in 1981. Other sources describe him as having left university during his third year, never completing a college degree, though "hard working." At university, bin Laden's main interest was religion, where he was involved in both "interpreting the Quran and jihad" and charitable work. Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.79 He also writes poetry. Analysing Bin Laden's jihadi poetry, Michael Hirst, BBC News, 24 September 2008 In 1974, at the age of 17, bin Laden married his first wife Najwa Ghanem at Latakia. According to CNN national security correspondent David Ensore, as of 2002 bin Laden had married four women and fathered roughly 25 or 26 children. CNN.com - Transcripts Other sources report that he has fathered anywhere from 12 to 24 children. Osama bin Laden - A profile of Al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden Beliefs and ideology Bin Laden believes that the restoration of Sharia law will set things right in the Muslim world, and that all other ideologies—"pan-Arabism, socialism, communism, democracy"—must be opposed. Messages, 2005, p.218. "Resist the New Rome, audiotape delivered to al-Jazeera and broadcast by it on 4 January 2004 These beliefs, along with violent expansive jihad, have sometimes been called Qutbism. Qutbism: An Ideology of Islamic-Fascism by Dale C. Eikmeier. From Parameters, Spring 2007, pp. 85-98. He believes Afghanistan under the rule of Mullah Omar's Taliban was "the only Islamic country" in the Muslim world. Messages, (2005), p.143. from an interview published in Al-Quds Al-Arabi in London 12 November 2001 (originally published in Pakistani daily, Ausaf, Nov. 7 Bin Laden has consistently dwelt on the need for violent jihad to right what he believes are injustices against Muslims perpetrated by the United States and sometimes by other non-Muslim states, Messages to the World, (2005), pp.xix, xx, editor Bruce Lawrence the need to eliminate the state of Israel, and the necessity of forcing the US to withdraw from the Middle East. He has also called on Americans to "reject the immoral acts of fornication (and) homosexuality, intoxicants, gambling, and usury," in an October 2002 letter. 6 October 2002. Appeared in Al-Qala'a website and then the London Observer 24 November 2002. Probably the most infamous part of Bin Laden's ideology is that civilians, including women and children, are legitimate targets of jihad. Messages, (2005) p.70. Al Jazeera interview, December 1998, following Kenya and Tanzania embassy attacks. Messages, (2005), p.119, 21 October 2001 interview with Taysir Alluni of Al Jazeera Bin Laden is antisemitic, and has delivered warnings against alleged Jewish conspiracies: "These Jews are masters of usury and leaders in treachery. They will leave you nothing, either in this world or the next." Messages, (2005), p.190. from 53-minute audiotape that "was circulated on various websites." dated 14 February 2003. "Among a Band of Knights." Shia Muslims have been listed along with "Heretics, ... America and Israel," as the four principal "enemies of Islam" at ideology classes of bin Laden's Al-Qaeda organization. from interview with Ali Soufan - a Lebanese Sunni FBI]agent - by Wright, Wright, Looming Tower (2006), p.303 In keeping with Wahhabi beliefs, bin Laden opposes music on religious grounds, Wright, Looming Tower (2006), p.167 and his attitude towards technology is mixed. He is interested in "earth-moving machinery and genetic engineering of plants", on the one hand, but rejects "chilled water" on the other. Wright, Looming Tower (2006), p.172 His viewpoints and methods of achieving them have led to him been designated as a terrorist by scholars, Osama: The Making of a Terrorist John Randal I B Tauris & Co Ltd (4 October 2005) A Capitol Idea Donald E. Abelson p. 208 journalists from the New York Times, The New York Times July 8, 2007 The New York Times September 17, 2001 the British Broadcasting Corporation, BBC 21 May 2008Is global terror threat falling?, BBC News, 21 May 2008 and Qatari news station Al Jazeera, "Osama bin Laden's operation" has "perpetrated the worst act of terrorism ever witnessed on US soil." analysts such as Peter Bergen, The Osama bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of al Qaeda's Leader, Peter Bergen Free Press 8 August 2006 Michael Scheuer, Through Our Enemies' Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America Michael Scheuer Potomac Books Inc. January 15, 2006 Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century Marc Sageman University of Pennsylvania Press January 3, 2008 and Bruce Hoffman "...bin Laden himself is perhaps best viewed as a terrorist CEO." A Devil's Triangle: Terrorism, Weapons Of Mass Destruction, And Rogue States Peter Brookes Rowman & Littlefield, 2005 and he was indicted on terrorism charges by law enforcement agencies in Madrid, New York City, and Tripoli. Militant activity Mujahideen in Afghanistan After leaving college in 1979 bin Laden joined Abdullah Azzam to fight the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and lived for a time in Peshawar. Retrieved on 2007-04-21. By 1984, with Azzam, bin Laden established Maktab al-Khadamat, which funneled money, arms and Muslim fighters from around the Arabic world into the Afghan war. Through al-Khadamat, bin Laden's inherited family fortune Lawrence Wright estimates his "share of the Saudi Binladin Group" circa fall 1989 as "amounted to 27 million Saudi riyals - a little more than [US]$ 7 million." Wright, (2006), p.145) paid for air tickets and accommodation, dealt with paperwork with Pakistani authorities and provided other such services for the jihad fighters. He moved to Peshawar in 1994, and during this time met his future collaborator Ayman al-Zawahiri, who encouraged Osama to split away from Azzam. Osama established a camp in Afghanistan, and with other volunteers fought the Soviets. It was during his time in Peshawar that he began to wear camouflage-print jackets and carrying a captured Soviet assault rifle, which urban legends claimed he had obtained by killing a Russian soldier with his bare hands. Katz, Samuel M. "Relentless Pursuit: The DSS and the manhunt for the al-Qaeda terrorists", 2002 Formation and structuring of Al-Qaeda By 1988, bin Laden had split from Maktab al-Khidamat; while Azzam acted as support for Afghan fighters, Laden wanted a more military role. One of the main leading points to the split and the creation of al-Qaeda was the insistence of Azzam that Arab fighters be integrated among the Afghan fighting groups instead of forming their separate fighting force. The Osama bin Laden I Know by Peter L. Bergen, pp.74–88. ISBN 0-7432-7892-5 Bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia in 1990 as a hero of jihad, who along with his Arab legion, "had brought down the mighty superpower" of the Soviet Union. Wright, Lawrence, Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, by Lawrence Wright, NY, Knopf, 2006 p.146 However, during this time Iraq invaded Kuwait and Laden met with Sultan, Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia, and told him not to depend on non-Muslim troops and offered to help defend Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden's offer was rebuffed and after the American offer to help was accepted he publicly denounced Saudi Arabia's dependence on the US military. Bin Laden's criticism of the Saudi monarchy led that government to attempt to silence him. Balkan wars One of the former State Department officials has described Bosnia and Herzegovina of that time as a safe haven for terrorists, after it was revealed that militant elements of the former Sarajevo government were protecting extremists include hard-core terrorists, some with ties to Osama bin Laden. Bosnia — base for terrorism In 1997, Rzeczpospolita, one of the largest Polish daily newspapers, reported that intelligence services of the Nordic-Polish SFOR Brigade suspected that a center for training terrorists from Islamic countries was located in the Bocina Donja village near Maglaj in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1992, hundreds of volunteers joined an "all-mujahedeen unit" called El Moujahed, which was headquartered in Zenica in an abandoned hillside factory, a compound with a hospital and prayer hall. According to Middle East intelligence reports. Bin Laden financed small convoys of recruits from the Arab world through his businesses in Sudan. Among them was Karim Said Atmani who was identified by authorities as the document forger for a group of Algerians accused of plotting the bombings in the USA. Smith, Jeffrey. Washington Post, "A Bosnian Village's Terrorist Ties", March 11 2000 He is a former roommate of Ahmed Ressam, the man arrested at the Canadian-U.S. border in mid-December 1999 with a car full of nitroglycerin and bomb-making materials. Canadian Security Intelligence Service, Summary of the Security Intelligence Report concerning Hassan Almrei, February 22, 2008. Baravalle, Giorgio. "Rethink: Cause and Consequences of September 11", 2004 He was convicted of colluding with Osama bin Laden by a French court. Assyrian International News Agency, "Jihadists find convenient base in Bosnia", August 17 2005 A Bosnian government search of passport and residency records, conducted at the urging of the United States, revealed other former mujahideen who are linked to the same Algerian group or to other suspected terrorist groups and who have lived in this area 60 miles north of Sarajevo, the capital, in the past few years. Khalil al-Deek, was arrested in Jordan in late December 1999 on suspicion of involvement in a plot to blow up tourist sites; a second man with Bosnian citizenship, Hamid Aich, lived in Canada at the same time as Atmani and worked for a charity associated with Osama Bin Laden. In its 26 June 1997 Report on the bombing of the Al Khobar building in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the New York Times noted that those arrested confessed to serving with Bosnian Muslims forces. Further, the terrorists also admitted to ties with Osama Bin Laden. In 1999 it was revealed that Osama bin Laden and his Tunisian assistant Mehrez Aodouni were granted citizenship and Bosnian passport in 1993 by the Government in Sarajevo. This information was denied by Bosnian government following the 9/11 attacks but it was later found out that Aodouni was arrested in Turkey and that at that time he possessed the Bosnian passport. Following this revelation new explanation was given that bin Laden "did not personally collect his Bosnian passport" and that officials at the Bosnian embassy in Vienna, which issued the passport, could not have known who bin Laden was at the time. Bin Laden’s Balkan Connections BIN LADEN WAS GRANTED BOSNIAN PASSPORT, Agence France Presse September 24, 1999 Outsiders Bring Islamic Fervor To the Balkans The Bosnian daily Oslobođenje published in 2001 that three men, believed linked to be linked to Osama Bin Laden, were arrested in Sarajevo in July 2001. The three, one of whom was identified as Imad El Misri, were Egyptian nationals. The paper said that two of the suspects were holding Bosnian passports. Bin Laden’s Balkan Connections In 1998 it was reported that bin Laden is operating his terrorist network out of Albania. The Charleston Gazette quoted Fatos Klosi, the head of the Albanian intelligence service, as saying a network run by Saudi exile Osama Bin Laden sent units to fight in the Serbian province of Kosovo. Confirmation of these activities came from Claude Kader, a French national who said he was a member of Bin Laden's Albanian network. He claimed he had visited Albania to recruit and arm fighters for Kosovo. 'The Charleston Gazette.' November 30, 1998 - Page 2A In 2000 bin Laden was operating from Kosovo planning the terrorist activities during the Insurgency in the Preševo Valley. 'The Canberra Times'. 28 April 2000 - Page 8 Connections between bin Laden and National Liberation Army, an insurgent, terrorist, and guerrilla organization that operated in the Republic of Macedonia in 2001 were also drawn. According to the Washington Times the NLA was fighting to keep control over the region’s drug trafficking, which had grown into a large, lucrative enterprise since the Kosovo war and that in addition to drug money, the NLA also had another prominent venture capitalist, Osama Bin Laden. According to a documents written by the chief commander of the Macedonian Security Forces, bin Laden was financing the rebel group through a representative in Macedonia. Osama Bin Laden, paid $6 to $7 million for the needs of the National Liberation Army through his representative. Osama Bin Laden was planning to gain control over Macedonia so that he could control the distribution of oil to the United States through the pipeline that was planned to stretch from Bulgaria to Albania ports. ['Washington Times' June 22, 2001, "Bin Laden´s new special envoys"] Sudan Bin Laden moved to Sudan in 1992 and established a new base for Mujahideen operations in Khartoum. Due to bin Laden's continuous verbal assault on King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, on 5 March 1994 Fahd sent an emissary to Sudan demanding bin Laden's passport. His family was persuaded to cut off his monthly stipend, the equivalent of $7 million a year. Wright, Looming Towers (2006), p.195 By now bin Laden was strongly associated with Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ), which made up the core of al-Qaeda. In 1995 the EIJ attempted to assassinate Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The attempt failed and the EIJ was expelled from Sudan. The 9/11 Commission Report concludes, "In February 1996, Sudanese officials began approaching officials from the United States and other governments, asking what actions of theirs might ease foreign pressure. In secret meetings with Saudi officials, Sudan offered to expel bin Laden to Saudi Arabia and asked the Saudis to pardon him. US officials became aware of these secret discussions, certainly by March. Saudi officials apparently wanted bin Laden expelled from Sudan. They had already revoked his citizenship, however, and would not tolerate his presence in their country. Also bin Laden may have no longer felt safe in Sudan, where he had already escaped at least one assassination attempt that he believed to have been the work of the Egyptian or Saudi regimes, or both." The 9/11 Commission Report further states, "In late 1995, when Bin Laden was still in Sudan, the State Department and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) learned that Sudanese officials were discussing with the Saudi government the possibility of expelling Bin Laden. US Ambassador Timothy Carney encouraged the Sudanese to pursue this course. The Saudis, however, did not want Bin Laden, giving as their reason their revocation of his citizenship. Sudan’s minister of defense, Fatih Erwa, has claimed that Sudan offered to hand Bin Laden over to the United States. The Commission has found no credible evidence that this was so. Ambassador Carney had instructions only to push the Sudanese to expel Bin Laden. Ambassador Carney had no legal basis to ask for more from the Sudanese since, at the time, there was no indictment outstanding." In May 1996, under increasing pressure from Saudi Arabia, Egypt and the United States on Sudan, bin Laden returned to Jalalabad, Afghanistan aboard a chartered jet and forged a close relationship with Mullah Mohammed Omar. Los Angeles Times, Fighters hunt former ally, December 6, 2001 In Afghanistan, bin Laden and Al-Qaeda raised money from "donors from the days of the Soviet jihad", and from Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI). Wright, Looming Towers (2006), p.250 When Bin Laden left Sudan, he and his organization were significantly weakened, despite his ambitions and organizational skills. Early attacks and aid for attacks It is believed that the first bombing attack involving bin Laden was the 29 December 1992 bombing of the Gold Mihor Hotel in Aden in which two people were killed. It was after this bombing that al-Qaeda was reported to have developed its justification for the killing of innocent people. According to a fatwa issued by Mamdouh Mahmud Salim, the killing of someone standing near the enemy is justified because any innocent bystander will find their proper reward in death, going to Paradise if they were good Muslims and to hell if they were bad or non-believers. testimony of Jamal al-Fadl, US v. Usama bin Laden, et al. The fatwa was issued to al-Qaeda members but not the general public. In the 1990s bin Laden's al-Qaeda assisted jihadis financially and sometimes militarily in Algeria, Egypt and Afghanistan. In 1992 or 1993 bin Laden sent an emissary, Qari el-Said, with $40,000 to Algeria to aid the Islamists and urge war rather than negotiation with the government. Their advice was heeded but the war that followed killed 150,000-200,000 Algerians and ended with Islamist surrender to the government. Another effort by bin Laden was the funding of the Luxor massacre of November 17 1997, Jailan Halawi, `bin Laden behind Luxor Massacre?` Al-Ahram Weekly, May 20-26, 1999. which killed sixty two civilians, but so revolted the Egyptian public that it turned against Islamist terror. In mid-1997, the Northern Alliance threatened to overrun Jalalabad, causing Bin Laden to abandon his Nazim Jihad compound and move his operations to Tarnak Farms in the south. Testimony of Abdurahman Khadr as a witness in the trial against Charkaoui, July 13, 2004 A later effort that did succeed was an attack on the city of Mazar-e-Sharif in Afghanistan. Bin Laden helped cement his alliance with his hosts the Taliban by sending several hundred of his Afghan Arab fighters along to help the Taliban kill between five and six thousand Hazaras overrunning the city. Rashid, Taliban, p.139 In 1998, Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri co-signed a fatwa in the name of the World Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders which declared the killing of the North Americans and their allies an "individual duty for every Muslim" to "liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque (in Jerusalem) and the holy mosque (in Mecca) from their grip". English language version of the fatwa translated by the Federation of American Scientists of the original Arabic document published in the newspaper al-Quds al-Arabi (London, U.K.) on 23 February 1998, p.3 At the public announcement of the fatwa bin Laden announced that North Americans are "very easy targets." He told the attending journalists, "You will see the results of this in a very short time." September 11, 2001 attacks Osama bin Laden has claimed responsibility for the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. The attacks involved the hijacking of United Airlines Flight 93, United Airlines Flight 175, American Airlines Flight 11, and American Airlines Flight 77; the subsequent destruction of those planes and the World Trade Center in New York City, New York; severe damage to The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia; and the deaths of 2,974 people excluding the nineteen hijackers. ****** In response to the attacks, the United States launched a War on Terrorism to depose the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and capture al-Qaeda operatives, and several countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation to preclude future attacks. The Federal Bureau of Investigation has stated that evidence linking Al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks of September 11 is clear and irrefutable. The Government of the United Kingdom reached the same conclusion regarding Al Qaeda and Osama bin Laden's culpability for the September 11, 2001, attacks. Bin Laden initially denied involvement in the September 11, 2001 attacks. On 16 September 2001, bin Laden read a statement later broadcast by Qatar's Al Jazeera satellite channel denying responsibility for the attack. In a videotape recovered by US forces in November 2001 in Jalalabad, bin Laden was seen discussing the attack with Khaled al-Harbi in a way that indicates foreknowledge. The tape was broadcast on various news networks on 13 December 2001. The merits of this translation have been disputed. Arabist Dr. Abdel El M. Husseini stated: "This translation is very problematic. At the most important places where it is held to prove the guilt of bin Laden, it is not identical with the Arabic." In the 2004 Osama bin Laden video, bin Laden abandoned his denials without retracting past statements. In it he stated he had personally directed the nineteen hijackers. —"In the tape, bin Laden—wearing traditional white robes, a turban and a tan cloak—reads from papers at a lectern against a plain brown background. Speaking quietly in an even voice, he tells the American people that he ordered the September 11 attacks because “we are a free people” who wanted to "regain the freedom" of their nation." In the 18-minute tape, played on Al-Jazeera, four days before the American presidential election, bin Laden accused U.S. President George W. Bush of negligence on the hijacking of the planes on September 11. According to the tapes, bin Laden claimed he was inspired to destroy the World Trade Center after watching the destruction of towers in Lebanon by Israel during the 1982 Lebanon War. Excerpts: Bin Laden video. BBC Online/ In two other tapes aired by Al Jazeera in 2006, Osama bin Laden announces, I am the one in charge of the nineteen brothers … I was responsible for entrusting the nineteen brothers … with the raids [5 minute audiotape broadcast 23 May 2006], Newsday and is seen with Ramzi Binalshibh, as well as two of the 9/11 hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-Shehri, as they make preparations for the attacks (videotape broadcast 7 September 2006). Criminal charges On 16 March 1998, Libya issued the first official international Interpol arrest warrant against Bin Laden and three other people for killing two German citizens in Libya on 10 March 1994, one of which is thought to have been a German counter-intelligence officer. Bin Laden is still wanted by the Libyan government. Interpol Arrest Warrant File No. 1998/20232, Control No. A-268/5-1998. Brisard Jean-Charles, Dasquie Guillaume. “Forbidden Truth.” (New York: Thunder Mouth Press, 2002), p. 156. Osama bin Laden was first indicted by the United States on 8 June 1998, when a grand jury indicted Osama bin Laden on charges of killing five Americans and two Indians in the 14 November 1995 truck bombing of a US-operated Saudi National Guard training center in Riyadh. Bin Laden was charged with "conspiracy to attack defense utilities of the United States" and prosecutors further charged that bin Laden is the head of the terrorist organization called al Qaeda, and that he was a major financial backer of Islamic fighters worldwide. Bin Laden denied involvement but praised the attack. On November 4, 1998, Osama bin Laden was indicted by a Federal Grand Jury in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, on charges of Murder of US Nationals Outside the United States, Conspiracy to Murder US Nationals Outside the United States, and Attacks on a Federal Facility Resulting in Death for his alleged role in the 1998 United States embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania. The evidence against bin Laden included courtroom testimony by former Al Qaeda members and satellite phone records. Bin Laden became the 456th person listed on the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list, when he was added to the list on 7 June 1999, following his indictment along with others for capital crimes in the 1998 embassy attacks. Attempts at assassination and requests for the extradition of bin Laden from the Taliban of Afghanistan were met with failure prior to the bombing of Afghanistan in October 2001. In 1999, US President Bill Clinton convinced the United Nations to impose sanctions against Afghanistan in an attempt to force the Taliban to extradite him. Years later, on 10 October 2001, bin Laden appeared as well on the initial list of the top 22 FBI Most Wanted Terrorists, which was released to the public by the President of the United States George W. Bush, in direct response to the attacks of 9/11, but which was again based on the indictment for the 1998 embassy attack. Bin Laden was among a group of thirteen fugitive terrorists wanted on that latter list for questioning about the 1998 embassy bombings. Bin Laden remains the only fugitive ever to be listed on both FBI fugitive lists. Despite the multiple indictments listed above and multiple requests, the Taliban refused to extradict Osama Bin Laden. It wasn't until after the bombing of Afghanistan began in October 2001 that the Taliban finally did offer to turn over Osama bin Laden to a third-party country for trial, in return for the US ending the bombing and providing evidence that Osama bin Laden was involved in the 9/11 attacks. This offer was rejected by George W Bush stating that this was no longer negotiable with Bush responding that "There's no need to discuss innocence or guilt. We know he's guilty." Bush rejects Taliban offer to hand Bin Laden over, guardian.co.uk, Sunday 14 October 2001 Attempted capture by the United States Clinton Administration Capturing Osama bin Laden has been an objective of the United States government since the presidency of Bill Clinton. http://www.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/09/24/clinton.binladen/index.html Bill Clinton: I got closer to killing bin Laden Bush Administration According to The Washington Post, the US government concluded that Osama bin Laden was present during the Battle of Tora Bora, Afghanistan in late 2001, and according to civilian and military officials with first-hand knowledge, failure by the US to commit US ground troops to hunt him led to his escape and was the gravest failure by the US in the war against al Qaeda. Intelligence officials have assembled what they believe to be decisive evidence, from contemporary and subsequent interrogations and intercepted communications, that bin Laden began the battle of Tora Bora inside the cave complex along Afghanistan's mountainous eastern border. The Washington Post also reported that the CIA unit dedicated to capturing Osama was shut down in late 2005. CIA Reportedly Disbands Bin Laden Unit US and Afghanistan forces raided the mountain caves in Tora Bora between 14–16 August 2007. The military was drawn to the area after receiving intelligence of a pre-Ramadan meeting held by al Qaeda members. After killing dozens of al Qaeda and Taliban members, they did not find either Osama bin Laden or Ayman al Zawahiri. Bin Laden may have just escaped U.S. forces - Nightly News with Brian Williams - MSNBC.com Immediately after the 9/11 attacks, US government officials named bin Laden and the Al-Qaeda organization as the prime suspects and offered a reward of $25 million for information leading to his capture or death. On 13 July 2007, this figure was doubled to $50 million. The Airline Pilots Association and the Air Transport Association are offering an additional $2 million reward. Current whereabouts Claims as to the location of Osama bin Laden have been made since December 2001, although none have been definitively proven and some have placed Osama in different locations during overlapping time periods. An 11 December 2005, letter from Atiyah Abd al-Rahman to Abu Musab al-Zarqawi indicates that bin Laden and the al-Qaeda leadership were based in the Waziristan region of Pakistan at the time. In the letter, translated by the United States military's Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, "Atiyah" instructs Zarqawi to "send messengers from your end to Waziristan so that they meet with the brothers of the leadership … I am now on a visit to them and I am writing you this letter as I am with them…" Al-Rahman also indicates that bin Laden and al-Qaeda are "weak" and "have many of their own problems." The letter has been deemed authentic by military and counterterrorism officials, according to the Washington Post. In 2009 a research team led by Thomas W. Gillespie and John A. Agnew of UCLA used satellite-aided geographical analysis to pinpoint three compounds in Parachinar as likely hideouts of Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. In March 2009, the New York Daily News reported that the hunt for bin Laden had centered in the Chitral district of Pakistan, including the Kalam Valley. According to the report, author Rohan Gunaratna states that captured Al Qaeda leaders have confirmed that Chitral is where bin Laden is hiding. Meek, James Gordon, "Tighten The Net On Evil", New York Daily News, March 15, 2009, p. 27. Reports of his death April 2005: The Sydney Morning Herald stated "Dr Clive Williams, director of terrorism studies at the Australian National University, says documents provided by an Indian colleague suggested bin Laden died of massive organ failure in April last year … 'It's hard to prove or disprove these things because there hasn't really been anything that allows you to make a judgment one way or the other,' Dr. Williams said." "Expert says bin Laden could be dead", by Australian Associated Press, 16 January 2006, in the Sydney Morning Herald. August 2006: On 23 September 2006, the French newspaper L'Est Républicain quoted a report from the French secret service (Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure, DGSE) stating that Osama bin Laden had died in Pakistan on 23 August 2006, after contracting a case of typhoid fever that paralyzed his lower limbs. According to the newspaper, Saudi security services first heard of bin Laden's alleged death on 4 September 2006. The alleged death was reported by the Saudi Arabian secret service to its government, which reported it to the French secret service. The French defense minister Michèle Alliot-Marie expressed her regret that the report had been published while French President Jacques Chirac declared that bin Laden's death had not been confirmed. American authorities also cannot confirm reports of bin Laden's death, with Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice saying only, "No comment, and no knowledge." The Age (2006). Doubts over bin Laden death. Retrieved on 24 September 2006. Later, CNN's Nic Robertson said that he had received confirmation from an anonymous Saudi source that the Saudi intelligence community has known for a while that bin Laden has a water-borne illness, but that he had heard no reports that it was specifically typhoid or that he had died. November 2007: In an interview with political interviewer David Frost taken on 2 November 2007, the Pakistani politician and Pakistan Peoples Party chairwoman Benazir Bhutto claimed that bin Laden had been murdered by Omar Sheikh. During her answer to a question pertaining to the identities of those who had previously attempted her own assassination, Bhutto named Sheikh as a possible suspect while referring to him as "the man who murdered Osama bin Laden." Despite the weight of such a statement, neither Bhutto nor Frost attempted to clarify it during the remainder of the interview. Omar Chatriwala, a journalist for Al Jazeera English, claims that he chose not to pursue the story at the time because he believes Bhutto misspoke, meaning to say Sheikh murdered Daniel Pearl and not Osama Bin Laden. The BBC drew criticism when it rebroadcast the Frost/Bhutto interview on its website, but edited out Bhutto's statement regarding Osama Bin Laden. Later the BBC apologized and replaced the edited version with the complete interview. In October 2007, Bhutto stated in an interview that she would cooperate with the American military in targeting Osama bin Laden. March 2009: In an essay published in The American Spectator in March 2009, international relations professor Angelo Codevilla of Boston University argued that Osama bin Laden had been dead for many years. Criticism Salafist Muslims have criticized bin Laden for adherence to Qutbism (the ideology of Sayyid Qutb), takfir and Khaarijite deviance. Critics are said to include Muhammad Ibn Haadee al-Madkhalee, Abd-al-Aziz ibn Abd-Allah ibn Baaz, Shaykh Saalih al-Fawzaan and Muqbil bin Haadi al-Waadi'ee. See also Messages of Osama bin Laden Messages of Ayman al-Zawahiri Afghan Arabs Allegations of CIA assistance to Osama bin Laden Afghan Civil War Clearstream scandal (Bin Laden's Bahrain International Bank used this clearing house for its financial activities). Bin Laden Issue Station (The CIA's bin Laden tracking unit, 1996–2005) The Golden Chain Islamic fundamentalism Islamist terrorism Islamofascism Ladenese epistle Mujahideen Osama bin Laden as destructive Cult leader Osama bin Laden in popular culture Saleh Abdullah Kamel Footnotes References Peter L. Bergen, The Osama bin Laden I Know: New York: Free Press, 2006 Michael Scheuer, Through Our Enemies' Eyes, Washington, D.C. : Brassey's, c2002 Wright, Lawrence, The Looming Tower : Al-Qaeda And The Road To 9/11, New York : Knopf, 2006. External links Hunting Bin Laden - PBS Frontline Who is Osama bin Laden - BBC News FBIS Report, Compilation of Usama Bin Laden Statements 1994-January 2004 FBI's 10 Most Wanted Fugitives poster New Yorker article on Osama's youth | Osama_bin_Laden |@lemmatized osama:65 bin:168 laden:167 numerous:2 variation:2 born:1 march:11 member:6 prominent:2 saudi:26 family:5 founder:1 terrorist:17 organization:7 al:70 qaeda:29 best:2 know:7 september:17 attack:28 united:23 state:35 also:13 fbi:7 wanted:4 person:2 world:12 http:2 www:2 gov:1 want:7 topten:1 fugitive:6 htm:1 associate:4 mass:4 casualty:1 civilian:4 target:5 since:5 major:2 war:10 terrorism:10 fellow:1 leader:7 believe:9 hide:2 border:3 afghanistan:17 pakistan:5 federally:1 administer:1 tribal:1 area:3 name:8 universally:1 accept:2 standard:1 west:3 transliterate:1 arabic:5 word:1 english:4 spell:1 many:3 way:3 version:3 often:2 use:7 language:3 medium:2 american:14 government:16 agency:4 include:8 cia:6 either:3 usama:4 ladin:2 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3,901 | ITU-R | The ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) is one of the three sectors (divisions or units) of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is responsible for radio communication. Its role is to manage the international radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbit resources and to develop standards for radiocommunications systems with the objective of ensuring the effective use of the spectrum. http://www.itu.int/net/about/itu-r.aspx About the ITU-R ITU is required, according to its Constitution, to allocate spectrum and register frequency allocation, orbital positions and other parameters of satellites, “in order to avoid harmful interference between radio stations of different countries”. The international spectrum management system is therefore based on regulatory procedures for frequency coordination, notification and registration. ITU-R has a permanent secretariat, the Radiocommunication Bureau, based at the ITU HQ in Geneva, Switzerland. The elected Director of the Bureau is Mr. Valery Timofeev of Russia. First elected by the ITU Membership to the Directorship in 2002, Mr. Timofeev was re-elected for a 2nd 4-year term in November 2006. History The CCIR—Comité consultatif international pour la radio, "Consultative Committee on International Radio" or "International Radio Consultative Committee"—was founded in 1927. In 1932 the CCIR and several other organizations (including the original ITU, which had been founded as the International Telegraph Union in 1865) merged to form what would in 1934 become known as the International Telecommunication Union. In 1992, the CCIR became the ITU-R. References See also ITU-T ITU-R Recommendations Rec. 601 Rec. 709 Global Standards Collaboration External links ITU official website ITU-R official website | ITU-R |@lemmatized itu:16 radiocommunication:3 sector:2 r:7 one:1 three:1 division:1 unit:1 international:8 telecommunication:2 union:3 responsible:1 radio:6 communication:1 role:1 manage:1 frequency:3 spectrum:4 satellite:2 orbit:1 resource:1 develop:1 standard:2 system:2 objective:1 ensure:1 effective:1 use:1 http:1 www:1 int:1 net:1 aspx:1 require:1 accord:1 constitution:1 allocate:1 register:1 allocation:1 orbital:1 position:1 parameter:1 order:1 avoid:1 harmful:1 interference:1 station:1 different:1 country:1 management:1 therefore:1 base:2 regulatory:1 procedure:1 coordination:1 notification:1 registration:1 permanent:1 secretariat:1 bureau:2 hq:1 geneva:1 switzerland:1 elected:1 director:1 mr:2 valery:1 timofeev:2 russia:1 first:1 elect:2 membership:1 directorship:1 year:1 term:1 november:1 history:1 ccir:3 comité:1 consultatif:1 pour:1 la:1 consultative:2 committee:2 found:2 several:1 organization:1 include:1 original:1 telegraph:1 merge:1 form:1 would:1 become:2 know:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 recommendation:1 rec:2 global:1 collaboration:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:2 |@bigram radiocommunication_sector:1 http_www:1 itu_int:1 geneva_switzerland:1 comité_consultatif:1 consultatif_international:1 consultative_committee:2 itu_itu:1 external_link:1 |
3,902 | Franz_Kafka | Franz Kafka (; 3 July 1883 – 3 June 1924) was one of the major fiction writers of the 20th century. He was born to a middle-class German-speaking Jewish family in Prague, Bohemia (presently the Czech Republic), Austria–Hungary. His unique body of writing—much of which is incomplete and which was mainly published posthumously—is considered to be among the most influential in Western literature. Contijoch, Francesc Miralles (2000) "Franz Kafka". Oceano Grupo Editorial, S.A. Barcelona. ISBN 84-494-1811-9. His stories include The Metamorphosis (1912) and In the Penal Colony (1914), while his novels include The Trial (1925) and The Castle (1926). Biography Kafka at the age of fiveKafka was born into a middle-class Jewish family in Prague, the capital of Bohemia. His father, Hermann Kafka (1852–1931), was described as a "huge, selfish, overbearing businessman" Corngold 1973 and by Kafka himself as "a true Kafka in strength, health, appetite, loudness of voice, eloquence, self-satisfaction, worldly dominance, endurance, presence of mind, [and] knowledge of human nature". Hermann was the fourth child of Jacob Kafka, a ritual slaughterer, and came to Prague from Osek, a Czech-speaking Jewish village near Písek in southern Bohemia. After working as a traveling sales representative, he established himself as an independent retailer of men's and women's fancy goods and accessories, employing up to 15 people and using a jackdaw (kavka in Czech) as his business logo. Kafka's mother, Julie (1856—1934), was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a prosperous brewer in Poděbrady, and was better educated than her husband. Gilman, Sander L. (2005) Franz Kafka. Reaktion Books Ltd. London, UK. p.20-21. ISBN 1-88187-264-5. Franz was the eldest of six children. Hamalian ([1975], 3). He had two younger brothers, Georg and Heinrich, who died at the ages of fifteen months and six months, respectively, before Franz was seven, and three younger sisters, Gabriele ("Elli") (1889–1941), Valerie ("Valli") (1890–1942), and Ottilie ("Ottla") (1891–1943). On business days, both parents were absent from the home. His mother helped to manage her husband's business and worked in it as much as 12 hours a day. The children were largely reared by a series of governesses and servants. Franz's relationship with his father was severely troubled as explained in the Letter to His Father in which he complained of being profoundly emotionally abused since childhood. Franz's sisters were sent with their families to the Łódź Ghetto and died there or in concentration camps. Ottla was sent to the concentration camp at Theresienstadt and then on 7 October 1943 to the death camp at Auschwitz, where 1267 children and 51 guardians, including Ottla, were gassed to death on their arrival. Danuta Czech: Kalendarz wydarzeń w KL Auschwitz, Oświęcim 1992, p. 534. In the archives of the camp a list with the names of the guardians was preserved. Education Kinsky Palace where Kafka attended gymnasium and his father later owned a shop Kafka learned German as his first language, but he was also fluent in Czech. Later, Kafka acquired some knowledge of French language and culture; one of his favorite authors was Flaubert. From 1889 to 1893, he attended the Deutsche Knabenschule, the boys' elementary school at the Masný trh/Fleischmarkt (meat market), the street now known as Masná street. His Jewish education was limited to his Bar Mitzvah celebration at 13 and going to the synagogue four times a year with his father, which he loathed. Letter to his Father, pg. 150 After elementary school, he was admitted to the rigorous classics-oriented state gymnasium, Altstädter Deutsches Gymnasium, an academic secondary school with eight grade levels, where German was also the language of instruction, at Old Town Square, within the Kinsky Palace. He completed his Maturita exams in 1901. Admitted to the Charles-Ferdinand University of Prague, Kafka first studied chemistry, but switched after two weeks to law. This offered a range of career possibilities, which pleased his father, and required a longer course of study that gave Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history. At the university, he joined a student club, named Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten, which organized literary events, readings and other activities. In the end of his first year of studies, he met Max Brod, who would become a close friend of his throughout his life, together with the journalist Felix Weltsch, who also studied law. Kafka obtained the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 June 1906 and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts. Employment On 1 November 1907, he was hired at the Assicurazioni Generali, a large Italian insurance company, where he worked for nearly a year. His correspondence, during that period, witnesses that he was unhappy with his working time schedule—from 8 p.m. (20:00) until 6 a.m. (06:00)—as it made it extremely difficult for him to concentrate on his writing. On 15 July 1908, he resigned, and two weeks later found more congenial employment with the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia. His father often referred to his son's job as insurance officer as a "Brotberuf", literally "bread job", a job done only to pay the bills. While Kafka often claimed that he despised the job, he was a diligent and capable employee. He was also given the task of compiling and composing the annual report and was reportedly quite proud of the results, sending copies to friends and family. In parallel, Kafka was also committed to his literary work. Together with his close friends Max Brod and Felix Weltsch, these three were called "Der enge Prager Kreis", the close Prague circle, which was part of a broader Prague Circle, "a loosely knit group of German-Jewish writers who contributed to the culturally fertile soil of Prague from the 1880s till after World War I."<ref name="Czermak">The Metamorphosis and Other Stories, notes. Herberth Czermak. Lincoln, Nebraska: Cliffs Notes 1973, 1996.</ref> In 1911, Karl Hermann, spouse of his sister Elli, proposed Kafka collaborate in the operation of an asbestos factory known as Prager Asbestwerke Hermann and Co. Kafka showed a positive attitude at first, dedicating much of his free time to the business. During that period, he also found interest and entertainment in the performances of Yiddish theatre, despite the misgivings of even close friends such as Max Brod, who usually supported him in everything else. Those performances also served as a starting point for his growing relationship with Judaism. Later years In 1912, at Max Brod's home, Kafka met Felice Bauer, who lived in Berlin and worked as a representative for a dictaphone company. Over the next five years they corresponded a great deal, met occasionally, and twice were engaged to be married. Their relationship finally ended in 1917. In 1917, Kafka began to suffer from tuberculosis, which would require frequent convalescence during which he was supported by his family, most notably his sister Ottla. Despite his fear of being perceived as both physically and mentally repulsive, he impressed others with his boyish, neat, and austere good looks, a quiet and cool demeanor, obvious intelligence and dry sense of humor. Ryan McKittrick speaks with director Dominique Serrand and Gideon Lester about Amerika www.amrep.org In 1921 he developed an intense relationship with Czech journalist and writer Milena Jesenská. In July 1923, throughout a vacation to Graal-Müritz on the Baltic Sea, he met Dora Diamant and briefly moved to Berlin in the hope of distancing himself from his family's influence to concentrate on his writing. In Berlin, he lived with Diamant, a 25-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family, who was independent enough to have escaped her past in the ghetto. She became his lover, and influenced Kafka's interest in the Talmud. Lothar Hempel www.atlegerhardsen.com It is generally agreed that Kafka suffered from clinical depression and social anxiety throughout his entire life. He also suffered from migraines, insomnia, constipation, boils, and other ailments, all usually brought on by excessive stresses and strains. He attempted to counteract all of this by a regimen of naturopathic treatments. However, Kafka's tuberculosis worsened; he returned to Prague, then went to Dr. Hoffmann's sanatorium in Kierling near Vienna for treatment, where he died on 3 June 1924, apparently from starvation. The condition of Kafka's throat made eating too painful for him, and since parenteral nutrition had not yet been developed, there was no way to feed him. His body was ultimately brought back to Prague where he was buried on 11 June 1924, in the New Jewish Cemetery (sector 21, row 14, plot 33) in Prague-Žižkov. Judaism and Zionism Kafka was not formally involved in Jewish religious life, but he showed a great interest in Jewish culture and spirituality. He was well-versed in Yiddish literature, and loved the Yiddish theater. He was deeply fascinated by the Jews of Eastern Europe whom he regarded as having an intensity of spiritual life Western Jews did not have. His diary is full of references to Yiddish writers, known and unknown. Yet he was at times alienated from Judaism and Jewish life: "What have I in common with Jews? I have hardly anything in common with myself and should stand very quietly in a corner, content that I can breathe." On the other hand, Kafka dreamed of moving to Palestine with Felice Bauer, and later Dora Diamant, to live in the Land of Israel. He studied Hebrew in Berlin, and hired Pua Bat-Tovim, a university student from Palestine, to teach him, although he never became proficient in the language. Kafka attended Rabbi Julius Grünthal’s class in the Berlin Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums. The critic Hans Keller interviewed Grünthal’s son, the Israeli composer Josef Tal: He also spent a week attending the Eleventh Zionist Congress, and read the reports of the Jewish agricultural colonies in Palestine with great interest. In the opinion of literary critic Harold Bloom, author of The Western Canon, "Despite all his denials and beautiful evasions, [Kafka's writing] quite simply is Jewish writing." Literary career Franz Kafka's grave in Prague-Žižkov. Kafka's writing attracted little attention until after his death. During his lifetime, he published only a few short stories and never finished any of his novels (with the possible exception of The Metamorphosis, which some consider to be a short novel). Prior to his death, Kafka wrote to his friend and literary executor Max Brod: "Dearest Max, my last request: Everything I leave behind me ... in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others'), sketches, and so on, [is] to be burned unread." Quoted in Publisher's Note to The Castle, Schocken Books. Brod overrode Kafka's wishes, believing that Kafka had given these directions to him specifically because Kafka knew he would not honor them—Brod had told him as much. (His lover, Dora Diamant, also ignored his wishes, secretly keeping up to 20 notebooks and 35 letters until they were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933. An ongoing international search is being conducted for these missing Kafka papers.) Brod, in fact, would oversee the publication of most of Kafka's work in his possession, which soon began to attract attention and high critical regard. All of Kafka's published works, except several letters he wrote in Czech to Milena Jesenská, were written in German. Writing style Kafka often made extensive use of a trait special to the German language allowing for long sentences that sometimes can span an entire page. Kafka's sentences then deliver an unexpected impact just before the full stop—that being the finalizing meaning and focus. This is achieved due to the construction of certain sentences in German which require that the verb be positioned at the end of the sentence. Such constructions cannot be duplicated in English, so it is up to the translator to provide the reader with the same effect found in the original text. Kafka (1996, xi). Another virtually insurmountable problem facing the translator is how to deal with the author's intentional use of ambiguous terms or of words that have several meanings. One such instance is found in the first sentence of The Metamorphosis. Another example is Kafka's use of the German noun Verkehr in the final sentence of The Judgment. Literally, Verkehr means intercourse and, as in English, can have either a sexual or non-sexual meaning; in addition, it is used to mean transport or traffic. The sentence can be translated as: "At that moment an unending stream of traffic crossed over the bridge." Kafka (1996, 75). What gives added weight to the obvious double meaning of 'Verkehr' is Kafka's confession to Max Brod that when he wrote that final line, he was thinking of "a violent ejaculation". Brod. Max: "Franz Kafka, a Biography". (trans. Humphreys Roberts) New York: Schocken Books,1960. pg 129. In the English translation, of course, what can 'Verkehr' be but "traffic?" Kafka (1996, xii). Critical interpretations Bronze statue of Franz Kafka in Prague. Critics have interpreted Kafka's works in the context of a variety of literary schools, such as modernism, magical realism, and so on. Franz Kafka 1883 – 1924 www.coskunfineart.com The apparent hopelessness and absurdity that seem to permeate his works are considered emblematic of existentialism. Others have tried to locate a Marxist influence in his satirization of bureaucracy in pieces such as In the Penal Colony, The Trial, and The Castle, whereas others point to anarchism as an inspiration for Kafka's anti-bureaucratic viewpoint. Still others have interpreted his works through the lens of Judaism (Borges made a few perceptive remarks in this regard), through Freudianism (because of his familial struggles), or as allegories of a metaphysical quest for God (Thomas Mann was a proponent of this theory). Themes of alienation and persecution are repeatedly emphasized, and the emphasis on this quality, notably in the work of Marthe Robert, partly inspired the counter-criticism of Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, who argued in Kafka:Toward a Minor Literature that there was much more to Kafka than the stereotype of a lonely figure writing out of anguish, and that his work was more deliberate, subversive, and more "joyful" than it appears to be. Furthermore, an isolated reading of Kafka's work — focusing on the futility of his characters' struggling without the influence of any studies on Kafka's life — reveals the humor of Kafka. Kafka's work, in this sense, is not a written reflection of any of his own struggles, but a reflection of how people invent struggles. Biographers have said that it was common for Kafka to read chapters of the books he was working on to his closest friends, and that those readings usually concentrated on the humorous side of his prose. Milan Kundera refers to the essentially surrealist humour of Kafka as a main predecessor of later artists such as Federico Fellini, Gabriel García Márquez, Carlos Fuentes and Salman Rushdie. For García Márquez, it was as he said the reading of Kafka's The Metamorphosis that showed him "that it was possible to write in a different way." Publications Much of Kafka's work was unfinished, or prepared for publication posthumously by Max Brod. The novels The Castle (which stopped mid-sentence and had ambiguity on content), The Trial (chapters were unnumbered and some were incomplete) and Amerika (Kafka's original title was The Man who Disappeared) were all prepared for publication by Brod. It appears Brod took a few liberties with the manuscript (moving chapters, changing the German and cleaning up the punctuation), and thus the original German text was altered prior to publication. The editions by Brod are generally referred to as the Definitive Editions. According to the publisher's note A Kafka For The 21st century by Arthur Samuelson, publisher, Schocken Books www.jhom.com for The Castle, Schocken Books, 1998 Malcolm Pasley was able to get most of Kafka's original handwritten work into the Oxford Bodleian Library in 1961. The text for The Trial was later acquired through auction and is stored at the German literary archives Herzlich Willkommen www.dla-marbach.de at Marbach, Germany. (publisher's note, The Trial, Schocken Books, 1998 Subsequently, Pasley headed a team (including Gerhard Neumann, Jost Schillemeit, and Jürgen Born) in reconstructing the German novels and S. Fischer Verlag republished them. Stepping into Kafka’s head, Jeremy Adler, Times Literary Supplement, 13 October 1995 <http://www.textkritik.de/rezensionen/kafka/einl_04.htm> Pasley was the editor for Das Schloß (The Castle), published in 1982, and Der Proceß (The Trial), published in 1990. Jost Schillemeit was the editor of Der Verschollene (Amerika) published in 1983. These are all called the "Critical Editions" or the "Fischer Editions." The German critical text of these, and Kafka's other works, may be found online at The Kafka Project. The Kafka Project - Kafka's Works in German According to the Manuscript www.kafka.org There is another Kafka Project based at San Diego State University, which began in 1998 as the official international search for Kafka's last writings. Consisting of 20 notebooks and 35 letters to Kafka's last companion, Dora Diamant (later, Dymant-Lask), this missing literary treasure was confiscated from her by the Gestapo in Berlin 1933. The Kafka Project's four-month search of government archives in Berlin in 1998 uncovered the confiscation order and other significant documents. In 2003, the Kafka Project discovered three original Kafka letters, written in 1923. Building on the search conducted by Max Brod and Klaus Wagenbach in the mid-1950s, the Kafka Project at SDSU has an advisory committee of international scholars and researchers, and is calling for volunteers who want to help solve a literary mystery. Sources: Kafka, by Nicolas Murray, pages 367, 374; Kafka's Last Love, by Kathi Diamant; "Summary of the Results of the Kafka Project Berlin Research 1 June-September 1998" published in December 1998 Kafka Katern, quarterly of the Kafka Circle of the Netherlands. More information is available at http://www.kafkaproject.com In 2008, academic and Kafka expert James Hawes accused scholars of suppressing details of the pornography Kafka subscribed to (published by the same man who was Kafka's own first publisher) in order to preserve his image as a quasi-saintly "outsider". Franz Kafka’s porn brought out of the closet - Times Online at entertainment.timesonline.co.uk Translations There are two primary sources for the translations based on the two German editions. The earliest English translations were by Edwin and Willa Muir and published by Alfred A. Knopf. These editions were widely published and spurred the late-1940s surge in Kafka's popularity in the United States. Later editions (notably the 1954 editions) had the addition of the deleted text translated by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser. These are known as "Definitive Editions." They translated both The Trial, Definitive and The Castle, Definitive among other writings. Definitive Editions are generally accepted to have a number of biases and to be dated in interpretation. After Pasley and Schillemeit completed their recompilation of the German text, the new translations were completed and published – The Castle, Critical by Mark Harman (Schocken Books, 1998), The Trial, Critical by Breon Mitchell (Schocken Books, 1998) and Amerika: The Man Who Disappeared by Michael Hoffman (New Directions Publishing, 2004). These editions are often noted as being based on the restored text. Published works Short stories Description of a Struggle (Beschreibung eines Kampfes, 1904-1905) Wedding Preparations in the Country (Hochzeitsvorbereitungen auf dem Lande, 1907-1908) Contemplation (Betrachtung, 1904-1912) The Judgment (Das Urteil - 22-23 September 1912) The Stoker In the Penal Colony (In der Strafkolonie, October 1914) The Village Schoolmaster (The Giant Mole) (Der Dorfschullehrer or Der Riesenmaulwurf, 1914-1915) Blumfeld, an Elderly Bachelor (Blumfeld, ein älterer Junggeselle, 1915) The Warden of the Tomb (Der Gruftwächter, 1916-1917), the only play Kafka wrote The Hunter Gracchus (Der Jäger Gracchus, 1917) The Great Wall of China (Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer, 1917) A Report to an Academy (Ein Bericht für eine Akademie, 1917) Jackals and Arabs (Schakale und Araber, 1917) A Country Doctor (Ein Landarzt, 1919) A Message from the Emperor (Eine kaiserliche Botschaft, 1919) An Old Leaf (Ein altes Blatt, 1919) The Refusal (Die Abweisung, 1920) A Hunger Artist (Ein Hungerkünstler, 1924) Investigations of a Dog (Forschungen eines Hundes, 1922) A Little Woman (Eine kleine Frau, 1923) First Sorrow (Erstes Leid, 1921-1922) The Burrow (Der Bau, 1923-1924) Josephine the Singer, or The Mouse Folk (Josephine, die Sängerin, oder Das Volk der Mäuse, 1924) Many collections of the stories have been published, and they include: The Penal Colony: Stories and Short Pieces. New York: Schocken Books, 1948. The Complete Stories, (ed. Nahum N. Glatzer). New York: Schocken Books, 1971. The Basic Kafka. New York: Pocket Books, 1979. The Sons. New York: Schocken Books, 1989. The Metamorphosis, In the Penal Colony, and Other Stories. New York: Schocken Books, 1995. Contemplation. Twisted Spoon Press, 1998. Metamorphosis and Other Stories. Penguin Classics, 2007 Novellas The Metamorphosis (Die Verwandlung - November-December 1915) Novels The Trial (Der Prozeß - 1925) (includes short story Before the Law) The Castle (Das Schloß - 1926) Amerika (Amerika or Der Verschollene - 1927) Diaries and notebooksDiaries 1910-1923The Blue Octavo NotebooksLettersLetter to His FatherLetters to FeliceLetters to OttlaLetters to MilenaLetters to Family, Friends, and EditorsThe entrance to the Franz Kafka museum in Prague. Commemoration Franz Kafka has a museum dedicated to his work in Prague, Czech Republic. The term "Kafkaesque" is widely used to describe concepts, situations, and ideas which are reminiscent of Kafka's works, particularly The Trial and "The Metamorphosis". In Mexico, the phrase "Si Franz Kafka fuera mexicano, sería costumbrista" (If Franz Kafka were Mexican, he would be a Costumbrista writer) is commonly used in newspapers, blogs, and online forums to tell how hopeless and absurd the situation in the country is. It has been noted that "from the Czech point of view, Kafka was German, and from the German point of view he was, above all, Jewish" and that this was a common "fate of much of Western Jewry." Literary and cultural references Literature Nobel Prize winner Isaac Bashevis Singer wrote a short story called "A Friend of Kafka," which was about a Yiddish actor called Jacques Kohn who said he knew Franz Kafka. In this story, according to Jacques Kohn, Kafka believed in the Golem, a legendary creature from Jewish folklore. Kafka Americana by Jonathan Lethem and Carter Scholz is a collection of stories based on Kafka's life and works.Kafka on the Shore by Haruki MurakamiKafka was the Rage, a Greenwich Village Memoir by Anatole BroyardKafka's Curse by Achmat DangorThe Kafka Effekt by American bizarro author D. Harlan Wilson, who relates his take on the irrealism genre of literature to that of Franz Kafka, and to that of William S. Burroughs.Criminal (comics) by Ed Brubaker and Sean Phillips contains, within a re-occurring comic strip seen in characters newspapers, the adventures of 'Franz Kafka PI'. The 4th story arc of the book also involves the creator of the strip. There is talk of a spin off series written by Matt Fraction. Short stories Zoetrope : an experimental avant-garde short film by Charlie Deaux, . Adaptation of "In the Penal Colony". : an animated feature by Tom Gibbons Menschenkörper movie website www.menschenkoerper.de Adaptation of "A Country Doctor". Short film by Tobias Frühmorgen Adaptation of "A Country Doctor". Short film by Koji Yamamura Film Kafka (1990) Jeremy Irons stars as the eponymous author. Written by Lem Dobbs and directed by Steven Soderbergh, the movie mixes his life and fiction providing a semi-biographical presentation of Kafka's life and works. The story concerns Kafka investigating the disappearance of one of his work colleagues. The plot takes Kafka through many of the writer's own works, most notably The Castle and The Trial. : an animated film by Piotr Dumała The Trial (1962) Orson Welles wrote and directed this adaptation of the novel starring Anthony Perkins. In a 1962 BBC Interview with Huw Wheldon, Orson Welles noted, "Say what you like, but The Trial is the best film I have ever made". Klassenverhältnisse Class Relations (1984) Directed by the experimental filmmaking duo of Jean-Marie Straub and Danièle Huillet based on Kafka's novel Amerika. The Trial (1993) Starring Kyle MacLachlan as Joseph K. with Anthony Hopkins in a cameo role as the priest as a strictly faithful adaptation with a screenplay by playwright Harold Pinter. A Movie Adaptation of (The Castle) by Michael Haneke. More on Das Schloß (film) In an episode of Adult Swim's Home Movies (TV Series), Duane of the rock group Scab wrote a rock opera about the life of Franz Kafka and played the title character. Suda51 is planning to make a game based on The Castle entitled Kurayami. Metamorphosis : an animated short by Caroline Leaf Franz Kafka's 'It's a Wonderful Life' (1993) is an Oscar-winning short film written and directed by Peter Capaldi and starring Richard E. Grant as Kafka. The film blends "Metamorphosis" with Frank Capra's It's a Wonderful Life. The Metamorphosis of Franz Kafka (1993) by Carlos Atanes, at YouTube. Theatre Alan Bennett, Kafka's Dick, 1986, a play in which the ghosts of Kafka, his father Hermann, and Max Brod arrive at the home of an English insurance clerk (and Kafka aficionado) and his wife. Milan Richter, Kafka's Hell-Paradise, 2006, a play with 5 characters, using Kafka's aphorisms, dreams and re-telling his relations to his father and to the women. Translated from the Slovak by Ewald Osers. Milan Richter, Kafka's Second Life, 2007, a play with 17 characters, starting in Kierling where Kafka is dying and ending in Prague in 1961. Translated from the Slovak by Ewald Osers. Tadeusz Różewicz, Pułapka (The Trap), 1982, a play loosely based on Kafka's diaries and letters See also Asteroid 3412 Kafka, named after the author. Franz Kafka Prize References Bibliography Adorno, Theodor. Prisms. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1967. Corngold, Stanley. Introduction to The Metamorphosis. Bantam Classics, 1972. ISBN 0-553-21369-5. Hamalian, Leo, ed. Franz Kafka: A Collection of Criticism. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974. ISBN 0-07-025702-7. Heller, Paul. Franz Kafka: Wissenschaft und Wissenschaftskritik. Tuebingen: Stauffenburg, 1989. ISBN 3-923-72140-4. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis and Other Stories. Trans. Donna Freed. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1996. ISBN 1-56619-969-7. Kafka, Franz. Kafka's Selected Stories. Norton Critical Edition. Trans. Stanley Corngold. New York: Norton, 2005. ISBN 9780393924794. Brod, Max. Franz Kafka: A Biography. New York: Da Capo Press, 1995. ISBN 0-306-80670-3 Brod, Max. The Biography of Franz Kafka, tr. from the German by G. Humphreys Roberts. London: Secker & Warburg, 1947. Calasso, Roberto. K. Knopf, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-4189-9 Citati, Pietro, Kafka, 1987. ISBN 0-7859-2173-7 Coots, Steve. Franz Kafka (Beginner's Guide). Headway, 2002, ISBN 0-340-84648-8 Deleuze, Gilles & Félix Guattari. Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature (Theory and History of Literature, Vol 30). Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 1986. ISBN 0-8166-1515-2 Danta, Chris. "Sarah's Laughter: Kafka's Abraham" in Modernism/modernity 15:2 ( April 2008), 343-59. Glatzer, Nahum N., The Loves of Franz Kafka. New York: Schocken Books, 1986. ISBN 0-8052-4001-2 Greenberg, Martin, The Terror of Art: Kafka and Modern Literature. New York, Basic Books, 1968. ISBN 0-465-08415-X Gordimer, Nadine (1984). "Letter from His Father" in Something Out There, London, Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-007711-1 Hayman, Ronald. K, a Biography of Kafka. London: Phoenix Press, 2001.ISBN 1-84212-415-3 Janouch, Gustav. Conversations with Kafka. New York: New Directions Books, second edition 1971. (Translated by Goronwy Rees.)ISBN 0-8112-0071-X Murray, Nicholas. Kafka. New Haven: Yale, 2004. Pawel, Ernst. The Nightmare of Reason: A Life of Franz Kafka. New York: Vintage Books, 1985. ISBN 0-374-52335-5 Thiher, Allen (ed.). Franz Kafka: A Study of the Short Fiction (Twayne's Studies in Short Fiction, No. 12). ISBN 0-8057-8323-7 Philippe Zard: La fiction de l'Occident : Thomas Mann, Franz Kafka, Albert Cohen, Paris, P.U.F., 1999. Philippe Zard (ed) : Sillage de Kafka'', Paris, Le Manuscrit, 2007, ISBN 2-7481-8610-9 External links kafka-metamorphosis public wiki dedicated to Kafka and his work The Kafka Project project to publish online all Kafka texts in German End of Kafkaesque nightmare: writer's papers finally come to light Kafka Society of America Deutsche Kafka-Gesellschaft Spolecnost Franze Kafky a nakladatelstvi Franze Kafky Franz Kafka Society and Publishing House in Prague Oxford Kafka Research Centre - information on ongoing international Kafka research Journeys of Franz Kafka Photographs of places where Kafka lived and worked Finding Kafka in Prague Trying to find Kafka in today's Prague | Franz_Kafka |@lemmatized franz:36 kafka:156 july:3 june:5 one:4 major:1 fiction:5 writer:7 century:2 bear:3 middle:2 class:5 german:21 speak:2 jewish:14 family:8 prague:18 bohemia:4 presently:1 czech:9 republic:2 austria:1 hungary:1 unique:1 body:2 write:20 much:7 incomplete:2 mainly:1 publish:14 posthumously:2 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3,903 | Critical_psychology | Critical psychology is a branch of psychology that is aimed at critiquing mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychology in more progressive ways, often looking towards social change as a means of preventing and treating psychopathology. One of Critical Psychology's main criticisms of conventional psychology is how it fails to consider or deliberately ignores the way power differences between social classes and groups can impact the mental and physical well-being of individuals or groups of people. Origins Critical psychology started in the 1970s in Berlin at Freie Universität Berlin. The German branch of critical psychology predates and has developed largely separately from the rest of the field. As of May 2007, only a few works have been translated into English. Klaus Holzkamp (1992): On Doing Psychology Critically. Theory and Psychology 2, S.193-204; for further references see also Charles Tolman (1994): Psychology, Society and Subjectivity: An Introduction to German Critical Psychology, London: Routledge and Thomas Teo (1998): Klaus Holzkamp and the Rise and Fall of German Critical Psychology. History of Psychology 1998, Vol. 1, Nr. 3; Wolfgang Maiers (1999): Critical Psychology - An Unfinished Modern Project. In: Wolfgang Maiers et al. (Eds.): Challenges to Theoretical Psychology, 457-466 . The German Critical Psychology movement is rooted in the post-war babyboomers' student revolt of the late 60s (see German student movement). Marx's Critique of Political Economy played an important role in the German branch of the student revolt, and Berlin, then a free city surrounded by socialist East Germany, represented a "hot spot" of political and ideological controversy for the revolting German students. The sociological foundations of critical psychology are decidedly Marxist and have not yet been seriously reconsidered by the major figures of Critical Psychology. Klaus Holzkamp One of the most important and sophisticated books in the field is the Grundlegung der Psychologie Klaus Holzkamp (1983): Grundlegung der Psychologie. Frankfurt/M.: Campus (Foundations of Psychology) by Klaus Holzkamp, who might be considered the theoretical founder of critical psychology. Holzkamp, who had written 2 books on theory of science Klaus Holzkamp (1964), Theorie und Experiment in der Psychologie. Berlin: de Gruyter (Theory and Experiment in Psychology); Klaus Holzkamp(1968): Wissenschaft als Handlung. Versuch einer neuen Grundlegung der Wissenschaftslehre. Berlin: de Gruyter (Science as Action - A new Approach to the Theory of Science) and one on sensory perception Klaus Holzkamp (1973): Sinnliche Erkenntnis. Historischer Ursprung und gesellschaftliche Funktion der Wahrnehmung. Frankfurt/M.: Athenäum (Sensory Perception: Historical Origins and Social Functions of Perception before publishing the Grundlegung der Psychologie in 1983, thought this major work provided a solid paradigm for psychological research, as he viewed psychology as a pre-paradigmatic scientific discipline (T.S. Kuhn had used the term "pre-paradigmatic" for social science). Holzkamp mostly based his sophisticated attempt to provide a comprehensive and integrated set of categories defining the field of psychological research on Aleksey Leontyev's approach to cultural-historical psychology and activity theory. Leontyev had seen human action as a result of biological as well as cultural evolution and, drawing on Marx's materialist conception of culture, stressed that individual cognition always is part of social action which in turn is mediated by man-made tools (cultural artifacts), language and other man-made systems of symbols, which he viewed as a major distinguishing feature of human culture and, thus, human cognition. Another important source was Lucien Séve's theory of personality Lucien Seve , which provided the concept of "social activity matrices" as mediating structure between individual and social reproduction. At the same time, the Grundlegung systematically integrated previous specialized work done at Free University of Berlin in the 70s by critical psychologists who also had been influenced by Marx, Leontyev and Seve. This included books on animal behavior/ethology Volker Schurig (1975): Naturgeschichte des Psychischen 1: Psychogenese und elementare Formen der Tierkommunikation. (Natural History of the Psyche 1: Psychogenesis and Elementary Forms of Animal Communication. Frankfurt/M.: Campus; Volker Schurig (1975): Naturgeschichte des Psychischen 2: Lernen und Abstraktionsleistungen bei Tieren (Natural History of the Psyche 2: Learning and Abstraction Capabilities in Animals. Frankfurt/M. Campus; Volker Schurig (1976): Die Entstehung des Bewußtseins (The Emergence of Consciousness). Frankfurt/M.: Campus; . Frankfurt/M.: Campus; , sensory perception, motivation Ute Osterkamp (1975/1976): Grundlagen der Psychologischen Motivationsforschung (Foundations of Psychological Research of Motivation, Frankfurt/M: Campus (2 Volumes) and cognition Rainer Seidel (1976): Denken. Psychologische Analyse der Entstehung und Lösung von Problemen. (Cognition. Psychological Analysis of Formulating and Solving Problems. Frankfurt/M.: Campus . He also incorporated ideas from Freud's psychoanalysis and Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology into his approach. One core result of Holzkamp's historical and comparative analysis of human reproductive action, perception and cognition is a very specific concept of meaning that identifies symbolical meaning as historically and culturally constructed, purposeful conceptual structures that humans create in close relationship to material culture and within the context of historically specific formations of social reproduction. Coming from this phenomenological perspective on culturally mediated and socially situated action, Holzkamp launched a devastating and original methodological attack on behaviorism (which he termed S-R (stimulus-response) psychology) based on linguistic analysis, showing in minute detail the rhetorical patterns by which this approach to psychology creates the illusion of "scientific objectivity" while at the same time losing relevance for understanding culturally situated, intentional human actions Klaus Holzkamp (1987): Die Verkennung von Handlungsbegründungen als empirische Zusammenhangsannahmen in sozialpsychologischen Theorien: Methodologische Fehlorientierung infolge von Begriffsverwirrung (Mistaking Reasons for Causes in Theories of Social Psychology: Methodological Errors as a Result of Conceptual Confusion), Forum Kritische Psychologie 19, Berlin: Argument Verlag, p. 23-59 and Klaus Holzkamp (1993): Lernen: Subjektwissenschaftliche Grundlegung. Frankfurt/M.: Campus, Chapter 1: "Hinführung auf das Verfahren der Problementwicklung" (Introduction to the Sequence of Presentation), pp. 17-39 . Against this approach, he developed his own approach to generalization and objectivity, drawing on ideas from Kurt Lewin in Chapter 9 of Grundlegung der Psychologie. His last major publication before his death in 1995 was about Learning Klaus Holzkamp (1993): Lernen: Subjektwissenschaftliche Grundlegung ("Learning: Subject-Scientific Foundations"). Frankfurt/M.: Campus . It appeared in 1993 and contained a phenomenological theory of learning from the standpoint of the subject. One important concept Holzkamp developed was "reinterpretation" of theories developed by conventional psychology. This meant to look at these concepts from the standpoint of the paradigm of critical psychology, thereby integrating their useful insights into critical psychology while at the same time identifying and criticizing their limiting implications while (which in the case of S-R-psychology were the rhetorical elimination of the subject and intentional action, and in the case of cognitive psychology which did take into account subjective motives and intentional actions, methodological individualism). The first part of the book thus contains an extensive look at the history of psychological theories of learning and a minute re-interpretation of those concepts from the perspective of the paradigm of critical psychology, which focuses on intentional action situated in specific socio-historical/cultural contexts. The conceptions of learning he found most useful in his own detailed analysis of "classroom learning" came from cognitive anthropologists Jean Lave (situated learning) and Edwin Hutchins (distributed cognition). The book's second part contained an extensive analysis on the modern state's institutionalized forms of "classroom learning" as the cultural-historical context that shapes much of modern learning and socialization. In this analysis, he heavily drew upon Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish. Holzkamp felt that classroom learning as the historically specific form of learning does not make full use of student's potentials, but rather limits her or his learning potentials by a number of "teaching strategies." Part of his motivation for the book was to look for alternative forms of learning that made use of the enormous potential of the human psyche in more fruitful ways. Consequently, in the last section of the book, Holzkamp discusses forms of "expansive learning" that seem to avoid the limitations of classroom learning, such as apprenticeship and learning in contexts other than classrooms. This search culminated in plans to write a major work on life leadership in the specific historical context of modern (capitalist) society. Due to his untimely death in 1995, this work never got past the stage of early (and premature) conceptualizations, some of which were published in the journals "Forum Kritische Psychologie" and "Argument" Klaus Holzkamp (1995): Alltägliche Lebensführung als subjektwissenschaftliches Grundkonzept (Everyday Life Leadership as Basic Concept of a Scientific Theory of the Subject). Das Argument, 37. Jahrgang, Heft 6, November/December 1995 . 1960 through 1970 In the 1960s and 1970s the term radical psychology was used by psychologists to denote a branch of the field which rejected conventional psychology's focus on the individual as the basic unit of analysis and sole source of psychopathology. Instead, radical psychologists examined the role of society in causing and treating problems and looked towards social change as an alternative to therapy to treat mental illness and as a means of preventing psychopathology. Within psychiatry the term anti-psychiatry was often used and now British activists prefer the term critical psychiatry. Critical Psychology is currently the preferred term for the discipline of psychology keen to find alternatives to the way the discipline of psychology reduces human experience to the level of the individual and thereby strips away possibilities for radical social change. In the 1990s Starting in the 1990s a new wave of books started to appear on critical psychology, the most influential being the edited book Critical Psychology by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky. Various introductory texts to critical psychology written in the United Kingdom have tended to focus on discourse, but this has been seen by some proponents of critical psychology as a reduction of human experience to language which is as politically dangerous as the way mainstream psychology reduces experience to the individual mind. Ian Parker In 1999 Ian Parker published an influential manifesto in both the online journal Radical Psychology and the Annual Review of Critical Psychology. This manifesto argues that Critical Psychology should include the following four components: Systematic examination of how some varieties of psychological action and experience are privileged over others, how dominant accounts of ‘psychology’ operate ideologically and in the service of power; Study of the ways in which all varieties of psychology are culturally historically constructed, and how alternative varieties of psychology may confirm or resist ideological assumptions in mainstream models; Study of forms of surveillance and self-regulation in everyday life and the ways in which psychological culture operates beyond the boundaries of academic and professional practice; and Exploration of the way everyday ‘ordinary psychology’ structures academic and professional work in psychology and how everyday activities might provide the basis for resistance to contemporary disciplinary practices. Critical Psychology today There are a few international journals devoted to critical psychology, including the International Journal of Critical Psychology (no longer published) and the Annual Review of Critical Psychology. The journals still tend to be directed to an academic audience, though the Annual Review of Critical Psychology runs as an open-access online journal. There are close links between critical psychologists and critical psychiatrists in Britain through the Asylum Collective. Critical psychology courses and research concentrations are available at Manchester Metropolitan University, Cardiff University, the University of the West of England in Bristol, the University of East London and the University of Adelaide. Theory Criticisms of conventional psychology One of the criticisms of conventional psychology raised by critical psychology is the inattention to power differentials between different groups - examples include between psychiatrists and patients, psychologists and clients, wealthy groups and the less financially well-off, or industrial lobbyists and the general public. This inattention to power has resulted in conventional psychology tending to assume that how things are is how they should be, that the current state of affairs is the natural state of things. As a result, conventional psychology has a tendency to uphold the status quo, blame the victim, and situate problems within individuals rather than the social context they are embedded in. Extensions Like many critical applications, critical psychology has expanded beyond Marxist roots to benefit from other critical approaches. Consider ecopsychology and transpersonal psychology. Critical psychology and related work has also sometimes been labelled radical psychology and liberation psychology. In the field of developmental psychology, the work of Erica Burman has been influential. Various sub-disciplines within psychology have begun to establish their own critical orientations. Perhaps the most extensive are Critical Health Psychology and Community Psychology (see the Monterey Declaration of Critical Community Psychology). Critical psychology internationally Germany At FU-Berlin, critical psychology was not really seen as a division of psychology and followed its own methodology, trying to reformulate traditional psychology on an unorthodox Marxist base and drawing from Soviet ideas of cultural-historical psychology, particularly Aleksey Leontyev. Some years ago the department of critical psychology at the FU-Berlin was merged into the traditional psychology department. An April 2009 issue of the Sage journal Theory & Psychology (edited by Desmond Painter, Athanasios Marvakis, and Leendert Mos) is devoted to an examination of German Critical Psychology. South Africa The University of KwaZulu-Natal in Durban, South Africa, is one of few worldwide to offer a masters course in critical psychology. For an overview of critical psychology in South Africa, see Desmond Painter and Martin Terre Blanche's article on Critical Psychology in South Africa: Looking back and looking forwards. They have also now started a critical psychology blog. United States and Canada Critical psychology in the United States and Canada has, for the most part, focused on critiques of mainstream psychology's support for an unjust status quo. No departments of critical psychology exist, though critical perspectives are sometimes encountered in traditional universities, perhaps especially within community psychology programs. North American efforts include the 1993 founding of RadPsyNet Radical Psychology Network, the 1997 publication of Critical Psychology: An Introduction (edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky), and the action-focused PsyACT (Psychologists Acting with Conscience Together). See also Activity theory Transtherapy Anti-psychiatry Positive Psychology Wikiversity:Topic:Critical psychology References Key texts Books Fox, D. & Prilleltensky, I. (1997). Critical Psychology: An Introduction. Sage. on-line Prilleltensky, I & Nelson, G. (2002). Doing psychology critically: Making a difference in diverse settings. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. Kincheloe, J. & Horn, R. (2006). The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology. 4 vols. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press. Ibañez, T. & Rueda, L.I. (eds). (1997). Critical Social Psychology. Sage Books. on-line Harwood, v. (2006) Diagnosing 'Disorderly' Children. London & New York: Routledge. Sloan, T. (eds). (2000). Critical Psychology: Voices for Change. London: Macmillan. Papers Kincheloe, J. & Steinberg, S. (1993). A Tentative Description of Post-Formal Thinking: The Critical Confrontation with Cognitive Thinking. Harvard Educational Review, 63 (2), 296-320. Prilleltensky, I. (1997). Values, assumptions and practices: Assessing the moral implications of psychological discourse and action. American Psychologist, 52(5)'', 517-535. Parker, I. (1999) ‘Critical Psychology: Critical Links’, Radical Psychology: A Journal of Psychology, Politics and Radicalism (on-line) Parker, I. (2003) ‘Psychology is so critical, only Marxism can save us now’, (on-line) External links Critical Psychology in Germany Radpsynet - Radical Psychology Portalpsicologia.org Critical & Radical Psychology in Greece - Blog Critical Perspectives on Mental Health Psychologists Acting with Conscience Together (PsyACT) Initiative Critical Psychology Annual Review of Critical Psychology Open Access Journal Articles written by Dennis Fox | Critical_psychology |@lemmatized critical:64 psychology:107 branch:4 aim:1 critique:3 mainstream:4 attempt:2 apply:1 progressive:1 way:8 often:2 look:7 towards:2 social:13 change:4 mean:3 prevent:2 treat:3 psychopathology:3 one:7 main:1 criticism:3 conventional:7 fail:1 consider:3 deliberately:1 ignore:1 power:4 difference:2 class:1 group:4 impact:1 mental:3 physical:1 well:3 individual:7 people:1 origins:1 start:3 berlin:9 freie:1 universität:1 german:8 predates:1 develop:4 largely:1 separately:1 rest:1 field:5 may:2 work:8 translate:1 english:1 klaus:12 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3,904 | Film_festival | A film festival is an organised, extended presentation of films in one or more movie theaters or screening venues, usually in a single locality. The films may be of recent date and, depending upon the focus of the individual festival, can include international releases as well as films produced by the organisers' domestic film industry. Sometimes there is a focus on a specific film-maker or genre (e.g., film noir) or subject matter (e.g., gay and lesbian film festivals). Film festivals are typically annual events. History The world's first major film festival was held in Venice in 1938; the other major film festivals of the world (Sundance, Berlin, Edinburgh, Cannes, Moscow, and Karlovy Vary) date back to the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. The Edinburgh International Film Festival in the was established in 1947 and is the longest continually running film festival in the world. The first North American film festival was the Columbus International Film & Video Festival, also known as The Chris Awards, held in 1953. According to the Film Arts Foundation in San Francisco, "The Chris Awards (is) one of the most prestigious documentary, educational, business and informational competitions in the U.S; (it is) the oldest of its kind in North America and celebrating its 54th year." It was followed four years later by the San Francisco International Film Festival held in March 1957 whose emphasis was on feature-length dramatic films. The festival played a major role in introducing foreign films to American audiences. Among the films shown in its founding year were Akira Kurosawa's Throne of Blood and Satyajit Ray's Pather Panchali. Today there are thousands of film festivals around the world, ranging from high profile festivals such as Sundance Film Festival (Park City, UT) to horror festivals such as Terror Film Festival (Philadelphia, PA). The Cannes Film Festival (France) is widely recognized as the world's most influential and prestigious film festival http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/cannes_international_film_festival/index.html . Entry fee The Berlin Film Festival in 2007 Most film festivals require filmmakers to pay an entry fee to have their works considered for screening. This is especially commonplace among larger film festivals, such as the Cannes Film Festival, Toronto International Film Festival, Sundance Film Festival, and even smaller "boutique" festivals such as the Miami International Film Festival. However, not all film festivals require an entry fee. Rotterdam Film Festival, for example, does not charge an entry fee to submit work. There are also many smaller film festivals in the United States, such as the Sansevieria Film Festival in Ohio or the Stony Brook Film Festival in Long Island, New York, or the Sicilian Film Festival in Miami, Florida, which do not charge entry fees, however, acceptance of films is usually more limited, and such film festivals do not necessarily attract big names in their audiences like Sundance and Telluride do. In some cases, such as the Portland Film Festival, there is an entry fee, but it is waived for filmmakers within a certain region, such as the Northwestern United States. Significant or notable festivals Red carpet of the Cannes Film Festival at the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès, Cannes. "A" Festivals: The festivals in Cannes, Venice, Berlin, Shanghai, Moscow, San Sebastián, Montréal, Locarno (since 2002), Karlovy Vary, Mar del Plata, Cairo and Tokyo are listed as "A festivals", or "category one" by the International Federation of Film Producers Associations (FIAPF). Lisa Foreman and Derek Elley, FIAPF moves Locarno fest into A-list group, Variety, December 23 2001. Retrieved September 14 2007. Experimental films: Ann Arbor Film Festival was started in 1963. It is the oldest continually operated experimental film festival in North America and has become one of the premiere film festivals for independent and, primarily, experimental filmmakers to showcase their work. Independent films: In the US, Telluride Film Festival, Sundance Film Festival Redford Says Sundance Maintains Essence Filmmakers look to Sundance buying spree , New York City's Tribeca Film Festival are all considered significant festivals for independent film. Latin American significance: The Festival de Gramado (or Gramado Film Festival) Gramado, Brazil along with the Guadalajara International Film Festival in Guadalajara, Mexico are considered to be the most important film festivals of Latin America. It was first held in 1973, awarding Brazilian and Latin American films. While the Expresión en Corto International Film Festival is the largest competitive film festival in Mexico, specializing in emerging talents, and is held each year during the last week of July in the two colonial cities of San Miguel de Allende and Guanajuato. Among Spanish speaking countries the Dominican International Film Festival is held annually in Puerto Plata, DR, the Valdivia International Film Festival is held annually in the city of Valdivia. It is arguable the most important film festival in Chile. North American significance: Toronto is internationally renowned for its film festival, The Toronto International Film Festival. Begun in 1976, is now the major North American film festival and the most widely attended worldwide, while Toronto's Hot Docs is the leading North American documentary film festival. The largest festival, in terms of the number of features shown, is the Seattle International Film Festival, screening 270 features, and approximately 150 short films. Meanwhile, the New York Film Festival only shows a few films in each year, but it still has big impact in the United States. Asian Significance: The Kara Film Festival is an international festival held in Karachi, Pakistan that attracts entries from all over the world. It began in 2001, and is held every year. In 2006, there were "a grand total of over 170 films being screened this year, including over 40 features, over 30 documentaries and over 95 shorts. They are from 37 countries as diverse as Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Iran, Spain, Germany, France, Italy, USA, Canada, Lithuania, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Portugal, Jamaica, Brazil, Ireland, Romania, Sweden, Guatemala, Sudan, Chad, UAE, Sri Lanka, Peru, China, Poland, Estonia, Austria, Australia, Turkey, Greece, Finland and the Czech Republic. They include a number of World Premieres and Asian premieres, while most are at least Pakistan premieres. Many of them have won prizes at other well known festivals including Cannes, Berlin, Venice, London, Sundance and Mumbai as well as international critics' FIPRESCI jury awards. Animation: Founded in 1960, the Annecy International Animated Film Festival is the oldest international film festival dedicated exclusively to animation. The others are: Zagreb (f. 1972) Ottawa (f. 1976), Hiroshima (f. 1985), KROK (f. 1989), and Anima Mundi (f. 1992). There are also a variety of regional festivals in various countries. Environmental Significance: 2009 marks the inaugural year of the Environmental Film Festival at Yale University, featuring feature-length documentaries and short films intended to raise awareness and encourage discussion about the world's most pressing environmental issues. See also List of film festivals References Turan, Kenneth, Sundance to Sarajevo: Film Festivals and the World They Made, Los Angeles, University of California Press, 2002, hardback, ISBN 0-520-21867-1. Watson, Nigel, "The Sense and Sensationalism of Film Festivals", Talking Pictures website External links FilmCampus.net Film Festivals Directory | Film_festival |@lemmatized film:79 festival:75 organised:1 extended:1 presentation:1 one:4 movie:1 theater:1 screen:4 venue:1 usually:2 single:1 locality:1 may:1 recent:1 date:2 depend:1 upon:1 focus:2 individual:1 include:4 international:17 release:1 well:3 produce:1 organiser:1 domestic:1 industry:1 sometimes:1 specific:1 maker:1 genre:1 e:2 g:2 noir:1 subject:2 matter:1 gay:1 lesbian:1 typically:1 annual:1 event:1 history:1 world:9 first:3 major:4 hold:8 venice:3 sundance:9 berlin:4 edinburgh:2 cannes:7 moscow:2 karlovy:2 vary:2 back:1 establish:1 long:2 continually:2 run:1 north:6 american:7 columbus:1 video:1 also:4 know:2 chris:2 award:4 accord:1 art:1 foundation:1 san:4 francisco:2 prestigious:2 documentary:4 educational:1 business:1 informational:1 competition:1 u:2 old:3 kind:1 america:3 celebrate:1 year:8 follow:1 four:1 later:1 held:1 march:1 whose:1 emphasis:1 feature:6 length:2 dramatic:1 play:1 role:1 introduce:1 foreign:1 audience:2 among:3 show:3 founding:1 akira:1 kurosawa:1 throne:1 blood:1 satyajit:1 ray:1 pather:1 panchali:1 today:1 thousand:1 around:1 range:1 high:1 profile:1 park:1 city:4 ut:1 horror:1 terror:1 philadelphia:1 pa:1 france:2 widely:2 recognize:1 influential:1 http:1 topic:1 nytimes:1 com:1 top:1 reference:2 timestopics:1 c:1 index:1 html:1 entry:7 fee:6 require:2 filmmaker:4 pay:1 work:3 consider:3 especially:1 commonplace:1 large:3 toronto:4 even:1 small:2 boutique:1 miami:2 however:2 rotterdam:1 example:1 charge:2 submit:1 many:2 united:4 state:3 sansevieria:1 ohio:1 stony:1 brook:1 island:1 new:3 york:3 sicilian:1 florida:1 acceptance:1 limited:1 necessarily:1 attract:2 big:2 name:1 like:1 telluride:2 case:1 portland:1 waive:1 within:1 certain:1 region:1 northwestern:1 significant:2 notable:1 red:1 carpet:1 palais:1 des:1 et:1 de:3 congrès:1 shanghai:1 sebastián:1 montréal:1 locarno:2 since:1 mar:1 del:1 plata:2 cairo:1 tokyo:1 list:3 category:1 federation:1 producer:1 association:1 fiapf:2 lisa:1 foreman:1 derek:1 elley:1 move:1 fest:1 group:1 variety:2 december:1 retrieve:1 september:1 experimental:3 ann:1 arbor:1 start:1 operated:1 become:1 premiere:4 independent:3 primarily:1 showcase:1 redford:1 say:1 maintains:1 essence:1 look:1 buying:1 spree:1 tribeca:1 latin:3 significance:4 gramado:3 brazil:2 along:1 guadalajara:2 mexico:2 important:2 brazilian:1 expresión:1 en:1 corto:1 competitive:1 specialize:1 emerge:1 talent:1 last:1 week:1 july:1 two:1 colonial:1 miguel:1 allende:1 guanajuato:1 spanish:1 speaking:1 country:3 dominican:1 annually:2 puerto:1 dr:1 valdivia:2 arguable:1 chile:1 internationally:1 renowned:1 begin:2 attend:1 worldwide:1 hot:1 doc:1 lead:1 term:1 number:2 seattle:1 approximately:1 short:3 meanwhile:1 still:1 impact:1 asian:2 kara:1 karachi:1 pakistan:3 every:1 grand:1 total:1 diverse:1 india:1 bangladesh:1 iran:1 spain:1 germany:1 italy:1 usa:1 canada:1 lithuania:1 kingdom:1 switzerland:1 portugal:1 jamaica:1 ireland:1 romania:1 sweden:1 guatemala:1 sudan:1 chad:1 uae:1 sri:1 lanka:1 peru:1 china:1 poland:1 estonia:1 austria:1 australia:1 turkey:1 greece:1 finland:1 czech:1 republic:1 least:1 win:1 prize:1 london:1 mumbai:1 critic:1 fipresci:1 jury:1 animation:2 found:1 annecy:1 animate:1 dedicate:1 exclusively:1 others:1 zagreb:1 f:5 ottawa:1 hiroshima:1 krok:1 anima:1 mundi:1 regional:1 various:1 environmental:3 mark:1 inaugural:1 yale:1 university:2 intend:1 raise:1 awareness:1 encourage:1 discussion:1 pressing:1 issue:1 see:1 turan:1 kenneth:1 sarajevo:1 make:1 los:1 angeles:1 california:1 press:1 hardback:1 isbn:1 watson:1 nigel:1 sense:1 sensationalism:1 talk:1 picture:1 website:1 external:1 link:1 filmcampus:1 net:1 directory:1 |@bigram gay_lesbian:1 karlovy_vary:2 san_francisco:2 akira_kurosawa:1 satyajit_ray:1 philadelphia_pa:1 cannes_film:3 nytimes_com:1 stony_brook:1 miami_florida:1 san_sebastián:1 del_plata:1 ann_arbor:1 guadalajara_mexico:1 puerto_plata:1 internationally_renowned:1 karachi_pakistan:1 sri_lanka:1 czech_republic:1 los_angeles:1 external_link:1 |
3,905 | Duodecimal | The duodecimal system (also known as base-12 or dozenal) is a numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten may be written as 'A' or 'X', and the number eleven as 'B' or 'E' (another common notation, introduced by Sir Isaac Pitman, is to use a rotated '2' for ten and a reversed '3' for eleven). The number twelve (that is, the number written as '12' in the base ten numerical system) is instead written as '10' in duodecimal (meaning "1 dozen and 0 units", instead of "1 ten and 0 units"), whereas the digit string '12' means "1 dozen and 2 units" (i.e. the same number that in decimal is written as '14'). Similarly, in duodecimal '100' means "1 gross", '1000' means "1 great gross", and '0.1' means "1 twelfth" (instead of their decimal meanings "1 hundred", "1 thousand", and "1 tenth"). The number twelve, a highly composite number, is the smallest number with four non-trivial factors (2, 3, 4, 6), and the smallest to include as factors all four numbers (1 to 4) within the subitizing range. As a result of this increased factorability of the radix and its divisibility by a wide range of the most elemental numbers (whereas ten has only two non-trivial factors: 2 and 5, with neither 3 nor 4), duodecimal representations fit more easily than decimal ones into many common patterns, as evidenced by the higher regularity observable in the duodecimal multiplication table. Of its factors, 2 and 3 are prime, which means the reciprocals of all 3-smooth numbers (such as 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9...) have a terminating representation in duodecimal. In particular, the five most elementary fractions (, , , and ), all have a short terminating representation in duodecimal (0.6, 0.4, 0.8, 0.3 and 0.9, respectively), and twelve is the smallest radix with this feature (since it is the least common multiple of 3 and 4). This all makes it a more convenient number system for computing fractions than most other number systems in common use, such as the decimal, vigesimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal systems, although the sexagesimal system (where the reciprocals of all 5-smooth numbers terminate) does better in this respect (but at the cost of an unwieldily large multiplication table). Origin In this section, numerals are based on decimal places. For example, 10 means ten, 12 means twelve. Languages using duodecimal number systems are uncommon. Languages in the Nigerian Middle Belt such as Janji, Gbiri-Niragu (Kahugu), the Nimbia dialect of Gwandara ; the Chepang language of Nepal and the Mahl language of Minicoy Island in India are known to use duodecimal numerals. In fiction, J. R. R. Tolkien's Elvish languages used duodecimal. Germanic languages have special words for 11 and 12, such as eleven and twelve in English, which are often misinterpreted as vestiges of a duodecimal system. However, they are considered to come from Proto-Germanic *ainlif and *twalif (respectively one left and two left), both of which were decimal. Admittedly, the survival of such apparently unique terms may be connected with duodecimal tendencies, but their origin is not duodecimal. Historically, units of time in many civilizations are duodecimal. There are twelve signs of the zodiac, twelve months in a year, and twelve European hours in a day or night. Traditional Chinese calendars, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve Earthly Branches. Being a versatile denominator in fractions may explain why we have 12 inches in an imperial foot, 12 ounces in a troy pound, 12 old British pence in a shilling, 12 items in a dozen, 12 dozens in a gross (144, square of 12), 12 gross in a great gross (1728, cube of 12), 24 (12 * 2) hours in a day, etc. The Romans used a fraction system based on 12, including the uncia which became both the English words ounce and inch. Pre-decimalisation, Great Britain used a mixed duodecimal-vigesimal currency system (12 pence = 1 shilling, 20 shillings or 240 pence to the pound sterling), and Charlemagne established a monetary system that also had a mixed base of twelve and twenty, the remnants of which persist in many places. Places In a duodecimal place system, ten can be written as A, eleven can be written as B, and twelve is written as 10. For alternative symbols, see the section "Advocacy and 'dozenalism'" below. According to this notation, duodecimal 50 expresses the same quantity as decimal 60 (= five times twelve), duodecimal 60 is equivalent to decimal 72 (= six times twelve = half a gross), duodecimal 100 has the same value as decimal 144 (= twelve times twelve = one gross), etc. Comparison to other numeral systems + A duodecimal multiplication table 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B 10 2 4 6 8 A 10 12 14 16 18 1A 20 3 6 9 10 13 16 19 20 23 26 29 30 4 8 10 14 18 20 24 28 30 34 38 40 5 A 13 18 21 26 2B 34 39 42 47 50 6 10 16 20 26 30 36 40 46 50 56 60 7 12 19 24 2B 36 41 48 53 5A 65 70 8 14 20 28 34 40 48 54 60 68 74 80 9 16 23 30 39 46 53 60 69 76 83 90 A 18 26 34 42 50 5A 68 76 84 92 A0 B 1A 29 38 47 56 65 74 83 92 A1 B0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 A0 B0 100 The number 12 has six factors, which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12, of which 2 and 3 are prime. The decimal system has only four factors, which are 1, 2, 5, and 10; of which 2 and 5 are prime. Vigesimal adds two factors to those of ten, namely 4 and 20, but no additional prime factor. Although twenty has 6 factors, 2 of them prime, similarly to twelve, it is also a much larger base (i.e., the digit set and the multiplication table are much larger) and prime factor 5, being less common in the prime factorization of numbers, is arguably less useful than prime factor 3. Binary has only two factors, 1 and 2, the latter being prime. Hexadecimal has five factors, adding 4, 8 and 16 to those of 2, but no additional prime. Trigesimal is the smallest system that has three different prime factors (all of the three smallest primes: 2, 3 and 5) and it has eight factors in total (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, and 30). Sexagesimal -- which the ancient Sumerians and Babylonians among others actually used -- adds the four convenient factors 4, 12 and 20 to this but no new prime factors. Conversion tables to and from decimal To convert numbers between bases, one can use the general conversion algorithm (see the relevant section under positional notation). Alternatively, one can use digit-conversion tables. The ones provided below can be used to convert any dozenal number between 0.01 and BBB,BBB.BB to decimal, or any decimal number between 0.01 and 999,999.99 to dozenal. To use them, we first decompose the given number into a sum of numbers with only one significant digit each. For example: 123,456.78 = 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0.7 + 0.08 This decomposition works the same no matter what base the number is expressed in. Just isolate each non-zero digit, padding them with as many zeros as necessary to preserve their respective place values. If the digits in the given number include zeroes (for example, 102,304.05), these are, of course, left out in the digit decomposition (102,304.05 = 100,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 4 + 0.05). Then we use the digit conversion tables to obtain the equivalent value in the target base for each digit. If the given number is in dozenal and the target base is decimal, we get: (dozenal) 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0.7 + 0.08 = (decimal) 248,832 + 41,472 + 5,184 + 576 + 60 + 6 + 0.58333333333... + 0.05555555555... Now, since the summands are already converted to base ten, we use the usual decimal arithmetic to perform the addition and recompose the number, arriving at the conversion result: Dozenal -----> Decimal 100,000 = 248,832 20,000 = 41,472 3,000 = 5,184 400 = 576 50 = 60 + 6 = + 6 0.7 = 0.58333333333... 0.08 = 0.05555555555... -------------------------------------------- 123,456.78 = 296,130.63888888888... That is, (dozenal) 123,456.78 equals (decimal) 296,130.63888888888... ≈ 296,130.64 If the given number is in decimal and the target base is dozenal, the method is basically same. Using the digit conversion tables: (decimal) 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0.7 + 0.08 = (dozenal) 49,A54 + B,6A8 + 1,8A0 + 294 + 42 + 6 + 0.84972497249724972497... + 0.0B62... However, in order to do this sum and recompose the number, we now have to use the addition tables for dozenal, instead of the addition tables for decimal most people are already familiar with, because the summands are now in base twelve and so the arithmetic with them has to be in dozenal as well. In decimal, 6 + 6 equals 12, but in dozenal it equals 10; so if we used decimal arithmetic with dozenal numbers we would arrive at an incorrect result. Doing the arithmetic properly in dozenal, we get the result: Decimal -----> Dozenal 100,000 = 49,A54 20,000 = B,6A8 3,000 = 1,8A0 400 = 294 50 = 42 + 6 = + 6 0.7 = 0.84972497249724972497... 0.08 = 0.0B62... -------------------------------------------------------- 123,456.78 = 5B,540.943A... That is, (decimal) 123,456.78 equals (dozenal) 5B,540.943A... ≈ 5B,540.94 Dozenal to Decimal digit conversion Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. 100,000 248,832 10,000 20,736 1,000 1,728 100 144 10 12 1 1 0.1 0.08 0.01 0.0069 200,000 497,664 20,000 41,472 2,000 3,456 200 288 20 24 2 2 0.2 0.1 0.02 0.013 300,000 746,496 30,000 62,208 3,000 5,184 300 432 30 36 3 3 0.3 0.25 0.03 0.0208 400,000 995,328 40,000 82,944 4,000 6,912 400 576 40 48 4 4 0.4 0. 0.04 0.02 500,000 1,244,160 50,000 103,680 5,000 8,640 500 720 50 60 5 5 0.5 0.41 0.05 0.0347 600,000 1,492,992 60,000 124,416 6,000 10,368 600 864 60 72 6 6 0.6 0.5 0.06 0.041 700,000 1,741,824 70,000 145,152 7,000 12,096 700 1008 70 84 7 7 0.7 0.58 0.07 0.0486 800,000 1,990,656 80,000 165,888 8,000 13,824 800 1152 80 96 8 8 0.8 0. 0.08 0.0 900,000 2,239,488 90,000 186,624 9,000 15,552 900 1,296 90 108 9 9 0.9 0.75 0.09 0.0625 A00,000 2,488,320 A0,000 207,360 A,000 17,280 A00 1,440 A0 120 A 10 0.A 0.8 0.0A 0.069 B00,000 2,737,152 B0,000 228,096 B,000 19,008 B00 1,584 B0 132 B 11 0.B 0.91 0.0B 0.0763 Decimal to Dozenal digit conversion Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. 100,000 49,A54 10,000 5,954 1,000 6B4 100 84 10 A 1 1 0.1 0.1 0.01 0.0 200,000 97,8A8 20,000 B,6A8 2,000 1,1A8 200 148 20 18 2 2 0.2 0. 0.02 0.0 300,000 125,740 30,000 15,440 3,000 1,8A0 300 210 30 26 3 3 0.3 0.3 0.03 0.0 400,000 173,594 40,000 1B,194 4,000 2,394 400 294 40 34 4 4 0.4 0. 0.04 0.0 500,000 201,428 50,000 24,B28 5,000 2,A88 500 358 50 42 5 5 0.5 0.6 0.05 0.0 600,000 24B,280 60,000 2A,880 6,000 3,580 600 420 60 50 6 6 0.6 0. 0.06 0.0 700,000 299,114 70,000 34,614 7,000 4,074 700 4A4 70 5A 7 7 0.7 0.8 0.07 0.0 800,000 326,B68 80,000 3A,368 8,000 4,768 800 568 80 68 8 8 0.8 0. 0.08 0. 900,000 374,A00 90,000 44,100 9,000 5,260 900 630 90 76 9 9 0.9 0.A 0.09 0.1 Conversion of powers Exponent Powers of 2 Powers of 3 Powers of 4 Powers of 5 Powers of 6 Powers of 7 Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. ^6 64 54 729 509 4,096 2454 15,625 9,061 46,656 23,000 117,649 58,101 ^5 32 28 243 183 1,024 714 3,125 1,985 7,776 4,600 16,807 9,887 ^4 16 14 81 69 256 194 625 441 1,296 900 2,401 1,481 ^3 8 8 27 23 64 54 125 A5 216 160 343 247 ^2 4 4 9 9 16 14 25 21 36 30 49 41 ^1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 ^−1 0.5 0.6 0. 0.4 0.25 0.3 0.2 0. 0.1 0.2 0. 0. ^−2 0.25 0.3 0. 0.14 0.0625 0.09 0.04 0. 0.02 0.04 0. 0. Exponent Powers of 8 Powers of 9 Powers of 10 Powers of 11 Powers of 12 Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. Dec. Doz. ^6 262,144 107,854 531,441 217,669 1,000,000 402,854 1,771,561 715,261 2,985,984 1,000,000 ^5 32,768 16,B68 59,049 2A,209 100,000 49,A54 161,051 79,24B 248,832 100,000 ^4 4,096 2,454 6,561 3,969 10,000 5,954 14,641 8,581 20,736 10,000 ^3 512 368 729 509 1,000 6B4 1,331 92B 1,728 1,000 ^2 64 54 81 69 100 84 121 A1 144 100 ^1 8 8 9 9 10 A 11 B 12 10 ^−1 0.125 0.16 0. 0.14 0.1 0.1 0. 0. 0.08 0.1 ^−2 0.015625 0.023 0. 0.0194 0.01 0.0 0. 0. 0.0069 0.01 Fractions and irrational numbers Fractions Duodecimal fractions may be simple: 1/2 = 0.6 1/3 = 0.4 1/4 = 0.3 1/6 = 0.2 1/8 = 0.16 1/9 = 0.14 or complicated 1/5 = 0.24972497... recurring (easily rounded to 0.25) 1/7 = 0.186A35186A35... recurring (easily rounded to 0.187) 1/A = 0.124972497... recurring (rounded to 0.125) 1/B = 0.11111... recurring (rounded to 0.11) 1/11 = 0.0B0B... recurring (rounded to 0.0B) Examples in duodecimal Decimal equivalent 1 × (5 / 8) = 0.76 1 × (5 / 8) = 0.625 100 × (5 / 8) = 76 144 × (5 / 8) = 90 576 / 9 = 76 810 / 9 = 90 400 / 9 = 54 576 / 9 = 64 1A.6 + 7.6 = 26 22.5 + 7.5 = 30 As explained in recurring decimals, whenever an irreducible fraction is written in radix point notation in any base, the fraction can be expressed exactly (terminates) if and only if all the prime factors of its denominator are also prime factors of the base. Thus, in base-ten (= 2×5) system, fractions whose denominators are made up solely of multiples of 2 and 5 terminate: ¹⁄8 = ¹⁄(2×2×2), ¹⁄20 = ¹⁄(2×2×5), and ¹⁄500 = ¹⁄(2×2×5×5×5) can be expressed exactly as 0.125, 0.05, and 0.002 respectively. ¹⁄3 and ¹⁄7, however, recur (0.333... and 0.142857142857...). In the duodecimal (= 2×2×3) system, ¹⁄8 is exact; ¹⁄20 and ¹⁄500 recur because they include 5 as a factor; ¹⁄3 is exact; and ¹⁄7 recurs, just as it does in decimal. Because each place is more precise in the duodecimal system, "decimals" can be written with greater accuracy. For example, the square root of 2 (1.4142135... in decimal, 1.4B79170A07B86... in duodecimal) can be rounded to 1.5 in duodecimal. This number is more precise than rounding to 1.41 in decimal. Recurring digits Arguably, factors of 3 are more commonly encountered in real-life division problems than factors of 5 (or would be, were it not for the decimal system having influenced most cultures). Thus, in practical applications, the nuisance of recurring decimals is encountered less often when duodecimal notation is used. Advocates of duodecimal systems argue that this is particularly true of financial calculations, in which the twelve months of the year often enter into calculations. However, when recurring fractions do occur in duodecimal notation, they are less likely to have a very short period than in decimal notation, because 12 (twelve) is between two prime numbers, 11 (eleven) and 13 (thirteen), whereas ten is adjacent to composite number 9. Nonetheless, having a shorter or longer period doesn't help the main inconvenience that one does not get a finite representation for such fractions in the given base (so rounding, which introduces inexactitude, is necessary to handle them in calculations), and overall one is more likely to have to deal with infinite recurring digits when fractions are expressed in decimal than in duodecimal, because one out of every three consecutive numbers contains the prime factor 3 in its factorization, while only one out of every five contains the prime factor 5. All other prime factors, except 2, are not shared by either ten or twelve, so they do not influence the relative likeliness of encountering recurring digits (any irreducible fraction that contains any of these other factors in its denominator will recur in either base). Also, the prime factor 2 appears twice in the factorization of twelve, while only once in the factorization of ten; which means that most fractions whose denominators are powers of two will have a shorter, more convenient terminating representation in dozenal than in decimal (e.g., 1/(22) = 0.25 dec = 0.3 doz; 1/(23) = 0.125 dec = 0.16 doz; 1/(24) = 0.0625 dec = 0.09 doz; 1/(25) = 0.03125 dec = 0.046 doz; etc.). Decimal basePrime factors of the base: 2, 5 Duodecimal / Dozenal basePrime factors of the base: 2, 3 Fraction <SMALL>Prime factorsof the denominator<SMALL> Positional representation Positional representation <SMALL>Prime factorsof the denominator<SMALL> Fraction 1/2 2 0.5 0.6 2 1/2 1/3 3 0.3333... = 0. 0.4 3 1/3 1/4 2 0.25 0.3 2 1/4 1/5 5 0.2 0.24972497... = 0. 5 1/5 1/6 2, 3 0.1 0.2 2, 3 1/6 1/7 7 0. 0. 7 1/7 1/8 2 0.125 0.16 2 1/8 1/9 3 0. 0.14 3 1/9 1/10 2, 5 0.1 0.1 2, 5 1/A 1/11 11 0. 0. B 1/B 1/12 2, 3 0.08 0.1 2, 3 1/10 1/13 13 0. 0. 11 1/11 1/14 2, 7 0.0 0.0 2, 7 1/12 1/15 3, 5 0.0 0.0 3, 5 1/13 1/16 2 0.0625 0.09 2 1/14 1/17 17 0. 0. 15 1/15 1/18 2, 3 0.0 0.08 2, 3 1/16 1/19 19 0. 0. 17 1/17 1/20 2, 5 0.05 0.0 2, 5 1/18 1/21 3, 7 0. 0.0 3, 7 1/19 1/22 2, 11 0.0 0.0 2, B 1/1A 1/23 23 0. 0. 1B 1/1B 1/24 2, 3 0.041 0.06 2, 3 1/20 1/25 5 0.04 0. 5 1/21 1/26 2, 13 0.0 0.0 2, 11 1/22 1/27 3 0. 0.054 3 1/23 1/28 2, 7 0.03 0.0 2, 7 1/24 1/29 29 0. 0. 25 1/25 1/30 2, 3, 5 0.0 0.0 2, 3, 5 1/26 1/31 31 0. 0. 27 1/27 1/32 2 0.03125 0.046 2 1/28 1/33 3, 11 0. 0.0 3, B 1/29 1/34 2, 17 0.0 0.0 2, 15 1/2A 1/35 5, 7 0.0 0. 5, 7 1/2B 1/36 2, 3 0.02 0.04 2, 3 1/30 Irrational numbers As for irrational numbers, none of them has a finite representation in any of the rational-based positional number systems (such as the decimal and duodecimal ones); this is because a rational-based positional number system is essentially nothing but a way of expressing quantities as a sum of fractions whose denominators are powers of the base, and by definition no finite sum of rational numbers can ever result in an irrational number. For example, 123.456 = 1 × 1/10-2 + 2 × 1/10-1 + 3 × 1/100 + 4 × 1/101 + 5 × 1/102 + 6 × 1/103 (this is also the reason why fractions that contain prime factors in their denominator not in common with those of the base do not have a terminating representation in that base). Moreover, the infinite series of digits of an irrational number doesn't exhibit a pattern of repetition; instead, the different digits succeed in a seemingly random fashion. The following chart compares the first few digits of the decimal and duodecimal representation of several of the most important algebraic and transcendental irrational numbers. Some of these numbers may be perceived as having fortuitous patterns, making them easier to memorize, when represented in one base or the other. Algebraic irrational number In decimal In duodecimal / dozenal √2 (the length of the diagonal of a unit square) 1.41421356237309... (≈ 1.414) 1.4B79170A07B857... (≈ 1.5) √3 (the length of the diagonal of a unit cube, or twice the height of an equilateral triangle of unit side) 1.73205080756887... (≈ 1.732) 1.894B97BB968704... (≈ 1.895) √5 (the length of the diagonal of a 1×2 rectangle) 2.2360679774997... (≈ 2.236) 2.29BB132540589... (≈ 2.2A) φ (phi, the golden ratio = ) 1.6180339887498... (≈ 1.618) 1.74BB6772802A4... (≈ 1.75) Transcendental irrational number In decimal In duodecimal / dozenal <SMALL>(pi, the ratio of circumference to diameter)<SMALL> 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510...(≈ 3.1416) 3.184809493B918664573A6211BB151551A05729290A7809A492...(≈ 3.1848) e (the base of the natural logarithm) 2.718281828459045... (≈ 2.718) 2.8752360698219B8... (≈ 2.875) The first few digits of the decimal and dozenal representation of another important number, the Euler-Mascheroni constant (the status of which as a rational or irrational number is not yet known), are: Number In decimal In duodecimal / dozenal γ (the limiting difference between the harmonic series and the natural logarithm) 0.57721566490153... (~ 0.577) 0.6B15188A6760B3... (~ 0.7) Advocacy and "dozenalism" The case for the duodecimal system was put forth at length in F. Emerson Andrews' 1935 book New Numbers: How Acceptance of a Duodecimal Base Would Simplify Mathematics. Emerson noted that, due to the prevalence of factors of twelve in many traditional units of weight and measure, many of the computational advantages claimed for the metric system could be realized either by the adoption of ten-based weights and measure or by the adoption of the duodecimal number system. Rather than the symbols 'A' for ten and 'B' for eleven as used in hexadecimal notation and vigesimal notation (or 'T' and 'E' for ten and eleven), he suggested in his book and used a script X and a script E, and Image:Scripte.png, to represent the digits ten and eleven respectively, because, at least on a page of Roman script, these characters were distinct from any existing letters or numerals, yet were readily available in printers' fonts. He chose for its resemblance to the Roman numeral X, and Image:Scripte.png as the first letter of the word "eleven". Another popular notation, introduced by Sir Isaac Pitman, is to use a rotated 2 to represent ten and a rotated or horizontally flipped 3 (which again resembles Image:Scripte.png) to represent eleven. This is the convention commonly employed by the Dozenal Society of Great Britain and has the advantage of being easily recognizable as digits because of their resemblance in shape to existing digits. On the other hand, the Dozenal Society of America adopted for some years the convention of using an asterisk * for ten and a hash # for eleven. The reason was the symbol * resembles a struck-through X while # resembles a doubly-struck-through 11, and both symbols are already present in telephone dials. However, critics pointed out these symbols do not look anything like digits. Some other systems write 10 as ɸ (a combination of 1 and 0) and eleven as a cross of two lines (+, x, or † for example). Problems with these symbols are evident, most notably that most of them do not fit on most calculator displays (Image:Scripte.png being an exception, although "E" is used on calculators to indicate an error message). However, 10 and 11 do fit, both within a single digit (11 fits as is, while the 10 has to be tilted sideways, resulting in a character that resembles an O with a macron, ō or 0). A and B also fit (although B must be represented as lowercase "b" and as such, 6 must have a bar over it to distinguish the two figures) and are used on calculators for bases higher than ten. In 'Little Twelvetoes', American television series Schoolhouse Rock! portrayed an alien child using base-twelve arithmetic, using 'dek', 'el', and 'doh' as names for ten, eleven, and twelve, and Andrews' script-X and script-E for the digit symbols. ("Dek" is from the prefix "deca," "el" being short for "eleven" and "doh" an apparent shortening of "dozen.") The Dozenal Society of America and the Dozenal Society of Great Britain promote widespread adoption of the base-twelve system. They use the word dozenal instead of "duodecimal" because the latter comes from Latin roots that express twelve in base-ten terminology. The renowned mathematician and mental calculator Alexander Craig Aitken was an outspoken advocate of the advantages and superiority of duodecimal over decimal: In Leo Frankowski's Conrad Stargard novels, Conrad introduces a duodecimal system of arithmetic at the suggestion of a merchant, who is accustomed to buying and selling goods in dozens and grosses, rather than tens or hundreds. He then invents an entire system of weights and measures in base twelve, including a clock with twelve hours in a day (rather than twenty-four.) See also Senary (base 6) Quadrovigesimal (base 24) Hexatridecimal (base 36) Sexagesimal (base 60) Babylonian numerals References External links The origin of a duodecimal system (Japanese) — explains a possible origin of a duodecimal system in a language Dozenal Society of America Dozenal Society of Great Britain website Online Decimal-Dozenal Converter | Duodecimal |@lemmatized duodecimal:44 system:33 also:8 know:3 base:40 dozenal:32 numeral:7 use:28 twelve:29 number:50 ten:23 may:5 write:10 x:6 eleven:14 b:20 e:9 another:3 common:6 notation:10 introduce:3 sir:2 isaac:2 pitman:2 rotated:3 reverse:1 numerical:1 instead:6 mean:9 dozen:6 unit:8 whereas:3 digit:25 string:1 decimal:47 similarly:2 gross:8 great:7 twelfth:1 meaning:1 hundred:2 thousand:1 tenth:1 highly:1 composite:2 small:11 four:5 non:3 trivial:2 factor:31 include:5 within:2 subitizing:1 range:2 result:6 increase:1 factorability:1 radix:3 divisibility:1 wide:1 elemental:1 two:8 neither:1 representation:11 fit:5 easily:4 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3,906 | Neil_Armstrong | Neil Alden Armstrong (born August 5, 1930 in Wapakoneta, Ohio) is an American aviator and a former astronaut, test pilot, university professor, and United States Naval Aviator. He was the first person to set foot on the Moon. His first spaceflight was aboard Gemini 8 in 1966, for which he was the command pilot. On this mission, he performed the first manned docking of two spacecraft together with pilot David Scott. Armstrong's second and last spaceflight was as mission commander of the Apollo 11 moon landing mission on July 20, 1969. On this mission, Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin descended to the lunar surface and spent 2½ hours exploring while Michael Collins remained in orbit in the Command Module. Armstrong is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. Before becoming an astronaut, Armstrong was in the United States Navy and saw action in the Korean War. After the war, he served as a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station, now known as the Dryden Flight Research Center, where he flew over 900 flights in a variety of aircraft. As a research pilot, Armstrong served as project pilot on the F-100 Super Sabre A and C aircraft, F-101 Voodoo, and the Lockheed F-104A Starfighter. He also flew the Bell X-1B, Bell X-5, North American X-15, F-105 Thunderchief, F-106 Delta Dart, B-47 Stratojet, KC-135 Stratotanker and Paresev. He graduated from Purdue University. Early years Son of Stephen Koenig Armstrong and Viola Louise Engel, Neil Armstrong was born in Wapakoneta, Ohio. Hansen, pages 49–50. He is of Scots-Irish and German descent. Stephen Armstrong worked for the Ohio government, and the family moved around the state repeatedly for the next 15 years, living in 20 different towns. Armstrong had two siblings, June and Dean. His father's last forced move was to Wapakoneta in 1944. By this time, Armstrong was active in the Boy Scouts and he eventually earned the rank of Eagle Scout. As an adult, he would be recognized by the Boy Scouts of America with their Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and Silver Buffalo Award. In Wapakoneta, he attended Blume High School. In 1947, Armstrong began studying aerospace engineering at Purdue University, where he was a member of Phi Delta Theta Phi Delta Theta international site and Kappa Kappa Psi Kappa Kappa Psi website . He was only the second person in his family to attend college. He was also accepted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), but the only engineer he knew (who had attended MIT) dissuaded him from attending, telling Armstrong that it was not necessary to go all the way to Cambridge, Massachusetts for a good education. Hansen, p. 55. His college tuition was paid for under the Holloway Plan; successful applicants committed to four years of study, followed by three years of service in the United States Navy, then completion of the final two years of the degree. At Purdue, he received average marks in his subjects, with a GPA that rose and fell over the eight semesters. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from Purdue University in 1955 and a Master of Science degree in aerospace engineering from University of Southern California in 1962. He holds honorary doctorates from a number of universities. Navy service Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, and required him to report to Naval Air Station Pensacola for flight training. This lasted almost 18 months, during which time he qualified for carrier landing aboard the USS Cabot and USS Wright. On August 12, 1950, he was informed by letter he was now a fully qualified Naval Aviator. Hansen, ch. 7. His first assignment was to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron 7 at NAS San Diego (now known as NAS North Island). Two months later he was assigned to Fighter Squadron 51 (VF-51), an all-jet squadron. He would make his first flight in a jet, a F9F-2B Panther on January 5, 1951. Six months later, he made his first jet carrier landing on the USS Essex. The same week he was promoted from midshipman to ensign. By the end of the month, the Essex had set sail with VF-51 aboard, bound for Korea, where they would act as ground-attack aircraft. Hansen ch. 8. He made over 600 flights in a variety of aircraft. Armstrong first saw action in the Korean War on August 29, 1951, as an escort for a photo reconnaissance plane over Songjin. Five days later, he was shot down for the only time. The principal targets for his armed reconnaissance flight were freight yards and a bridge on a narrow valley road south of the village of Majon-ni, west of Wonsan. While making a low bombing run at about 350 mph (560 km/h) in his F9F Panther, Armstrong's plane was hit by anti-aircraft gunfire. The plane took a nose dive, and sliced through a cable strung about 500 ft (150 m) up across the valley by the North Koreans. This sheared off an estimated six feet (2 m) of its right wing. A portrait of Armstrong taken November 20, 1956 while he was a test pilot at the NACA High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Armstrong was able to fly the plane back to friendly territory, but could not land the plane safely due to the loss of the aileron, which left ejection as his only option. He planned to eject over water and await rescue by navy helicopters, so he flew to an airfield near Pohang. Instead of a water rescue, winds forced his ejection seat back over land. Armstrong was picked up by a jeep driven by a roommate from flight school. It is unknown what happened to the wreckage of No. 125122 F9F-2. Hansen, ch. 9. Over Korea, Armstrong flew 78 missions for a total of 121 hours in the air, most of which was in January 1952. He received the Air Medal for 20 combat missions, a Gold Star for the next 20, and the Korean Service Medal and Engagement Star. Hansen, page 112. Armstrong left the navy on August 23, 1952, and became a Lieutenant, Junior Grade in the United States Naval Reserve. He resigned his commission in the Naval Reserve on October 20, 1960. Hansen, p. 118. Armstrong returned to Purdue after he separated from the Navy, and his best grades at the university came in the four semesters following his return from Korea. He pledged the Phi Delta Theta fraternity after his return, where he wrote and co-directed their musical as part of the all-student revue. His final GPA was 4.8 out of 6.0. Hansen, p. 61. He was also a member of Kappa Kappa Psi National Honorary Band Fraternity. Armstrong graduated with a bachelor's degree in aeronautical engineering in 1955. While at Purdue, he met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring in home economics. According to the two there was no real courtship and neither can remember the exact circumstances of their engagement, except that it occurred while Armstrong was working at the NACA's Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. They were married on January 28, 1956 at the Congregational Church in Wilmette, Illinois. When he moved to Edwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in the Westwood district of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house in Antelope Valley. Janet never finished her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. Hansen, pages 124–127. The couple had three children together – Eric, Karen, and Mark. Hansen, p. 128. In June 1961, Karen was diagnosed with a malignant tumor of the middle part of her brain stem. X-ray treatment slowed its growth but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. Karen died of pneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962. Hansen ch. 14. Test pilot After he graduated from Purdue, Armstrong decided to try to become an experimental, research test pilot. He applied at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base, which had no open positions and forwarded the application to the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. Armstrong began working at Lewis Field in February 1955. Hansen, ch. 11. On his first day at Edwards, Armstrong flew his first assignments, piloting chase planes on drops of experimental aircraft from converted bombers. He also flew the converted bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. Armstrong was in the right-hand seat of a B-29 Superfortress on March 22, 1956, which was to air-drop a Douglas Skyrocket D-558-2. As the right-hand seat pilot, Armstrong was in charge of the payload release, while the left-hand seat commander, Stan Butchart, flew the B-29. As they ascended to 30,000 ft (9 km), the number four engine stopped and the propeller began windmilling in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller spinning, Butchart found the propeller slowed but then started spinning again, this time even faster than the other engines; if it spun too fast, it would fly apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket still attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart nosed the aircraft down to pick up speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the very instant of launch, the number four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it careened through part of the number three engine and hit the number two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the number three engine, due to damage, and the number one engine, due to the torque it created. They made a slow, circling descent from using only the number two engine, and landed safely. Armstrong's first flight in a rocket plane was on August 15, 1957, in the Bell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). He broke the nose landing gear when he landed, which had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the aircraft due to the aircraft's design. Hansen, page 145. He first flew the North American X-15 on November 30, 1960, to a top altitude of 48,840 ft (14.9 km) and a top speed of Mach 1.75 (1,150 mph or 1,810 km/h). In November 1960 Armstrong was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for the X-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane. On March 15, 1962 he was named as one of six pilot-engineers who would fly the space plane when it got off the design board. Hansen, p. 173. Armstrong stands next to the X-15 ship #1 after a research flight. Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore and/or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. The first was an X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, when Armstrong was testing a self-adjusting control system. He flew to a height of 207,000 ft (63 km), (the highest he flew before Gemini 8), but he held the aircraft nose up too long during descent, and the X-15 literally bounced off the atmosphere back up to 140,000 ft (43 km). At that altitude, the atmosphere is so thin that aerodynamic surfaces have no effect. He flew past the landing field at Mach 3 (2,000 mph, or 3,200 km/h) and over 100,000 ft (30.5 km) altitude. He ended up 45 miles (72 km) south of Edwards (legend has that he flew as far as the Rose Bowl). After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and barely managed to land without striking Joshua trees at the south end. It was the longest X-15 flight in both time and distance of the ground track. Hansen, pages 178–184. A second incident happened when Armstrong flew for the only time with Chuck Yeager, four days after his X-15 adventure. Flying a T-33 Shooting Star, their job was to test out Smith Ranch Dry Lake for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they made a Touch-and-Go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. Armstrong tells a different version of events, where Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing they became stuck and according to Armstrong, Yeager was in fits of laughter. Hansen, pages 184–189. Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability. Milt Thompson said he was "the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots." Bruce Peterson said Armstrong "had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge." Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people like Chuck Yeager and Pete Knight who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was "more mechanical than it is flying," and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: their flying skills did not come naturally. Hansen, pages 138–139. On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in what Edwards' folklore called the "Nellis Affair." He was sent in an F-104 to inspect Delamar Lake, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude, and also did not realize that the landing gear hadn't fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to retract. Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, which damaged the radio and released hydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew to Nellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his tail, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused the tail-hook to release, and upon landing he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and careened along the runway dragging chain. Thirty minutes were needed to clear the runway and rig an arresting cable. Meanwhile, Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to pick him up. Milt Thompson was sent in a F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, but a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it. Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33 Shooting Star, but he almost landed long. The Nellis base operations office decided that it would be best to find the three NASA pilots some transport back to Edwards, to avoid any further problems. Hansen, pages 189–192. Armstrong made seven flights in the X-15. He reached a top altitude of 207,500 ft (63.2 km) in the X-15-3, and a top speed of Mach 5.74 (4,000 mph or 6,615 km/h) in the X-15-1, and he left the Dryden Flight Research Center with a total of 2,450 flying hours in more than 50 types of aircraft. Astronaut selection and early training Armstrong in an early (pre-Gemini) spacesuit. There was no defining moment in Armstrong's decision to become an astronaut. In the months after the announcement that applications were being sought for the second group of astronauts, he became more and more excited about the prospect of the Apollo program and the prospect of investigating a new aeronautical environment. Armstrong's astronaut application had arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962 deadline. Dick Day, with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, worked at the Manned Spacecraft Center, saw the late arrival of the application, and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed. Hansen, page 195. At Brooks City-Base at the end of June he underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. Hansen, p. 203. Deke Slayton called Armstrong on September 13, 1962 and asked if he was interested in joining the astronaut corps as part of what the press dubbed "the New Nine". Without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had been circulating since the middle of summer that year that he would be selected as the "first civilian astronaut". Hansen, p. 201–202. Gemini program Gemini 8 Recovery of the Gemini 8 spacecraft from the western Pacific Ocean. The crew assignments for Gemini 8 were announced on September 20, 1965, with Armstrong as Command Pilot with Pilot David Scott. Scott was the first member of the third group of astronauts to receive a prime crew assignment. The mission launched March 16, 1966. It was to be the most complex yet, with a rendezvous and docking with the unmanned Agena target vehicle, the second American (and third ever) extra-vehicular activity (EVA) (Armstrong himself dislikes the term "spacewalk") by Scott. In total the mission was planned to last 75 hours and 55 orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10 a.m. EST, the Titan II carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 a.m. EST, putting them into an orbit from where they would chase the Agena. Hansen, ch. 19. The rendezvous and first ever docking between two spacecraft was successfully completed after 6.5 hours in orbit. Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. Out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, which Armstrong attempted to correct with the Orbital Attitude and Maneuvering System (OAMS) of the Gemini spacecraft. Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but found that the roll increased dramatically to the point where they were turning about once per second, which meant the problem was in their Gemini's attitude control. Armstrong decided the only course of action was to engage the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turn off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft would have to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring made one of the thrusters become stuck on. Throughout the astronaut office, there were a few people, most notably Walter Cunningham, who publicly stated that Armstrong and Scott had ignored the malfunction procedures for such an incident, and that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings and saved the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded – no malfunction procedures were written and it was only possible to turn on both RCS rings, not one or the other. Gene Kranz wrote, "the crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong." The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft are docked together they must be considered to be one spacecraft. Kranz, p. 174. Armstrong himself was depressed and annoyed that the mission had been cut short, which cancelled most mission objectives and robbed Scott of his EVA. Armstrong did not hear the criticism of other astronauts, but he did speculate after the flight that RCS activation might not have been necessary had the Gemini capsule stayed docked to the Agena – the Agena's attitude control system possibly could have been used to regain control. Gemini 11 The last crew assignment for Armstrong during the Gemini program was as backup Command Pilot for Gemini 11, announced two days after the landing of Gemini 8. Having already trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and was more in a teaching role for the rookie backup Pilot, William Anders. The launch was on September 12, 1966 with Pete Conrad and Dick Gordon on board. The pair successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as CAPCOM. Following the flight, President Lyndon B. Johnson asked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America. Also on the tour were Dick Gordon, George Low, their wives, and other government officials. They traveled to 11 countries and 14 major cities. Armstrong impressed everyone involved when he greeted dignitaries in their local language. In Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born Alberto Santos-Dumont, regarded in the country as having beaten the Wright brothers with the first flying machine. Apollo program On January 27, 1967, Armstrong was in Washington, D.C. with Gordon Cooper, Dick Gordon, Jim Lovell and Scott Carpenter for the signing of the United Nations Outer Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 6:45 p.m. Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the Manned Spacecraft Center. They learned of the deaths of Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee in the Apollo 1 fire during these telephone calls. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo 1 investigation released its report on the fire, Armstrong assembled with 17 other astronauts for a meeting with Deke Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, "The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room." According to Eugene Cernan, Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise — the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew for Apollo 9, which at that stage was planned to be a high-Earth orbit test of the Lunar Module-Command/Service Module combination. After design and manufacturing delays in the Lunar Module (LM), Apollo 9 and Apollo 8 swapped crews. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong would command Apollo 11. To give the astronauts experience with the way the LM flew, Bell Aircraft built two Lunar Landing Research Vehicles, which were later converted to Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the 'Flying Bedsteads', they simulated the one-sixth g of the Moon by using a turbofan engine to cancel out most of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLTV began banking. He ejected safely (later analysis would suggest if he had ejected 0.5 seconds later, his parachute would not have opened in time). His only injury was from biting his tongue. Even though he was nearly killed on one, Armstrong maintains that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful as they gave commanders valuable experience in the behavior of lunar landing craft. Apollo 11 The Apollo 11 crew portrait. Left to right are Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin. After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo 8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as 8 orbited the Moon. In a meeting that was not made public until the publication of Armstrong's biography in 2005, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Armstrong as commander, lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin and command module pilot Michael Collins, he was offering the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the Lunar Module Pilot, unofficially ranked as number three on the crew. Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number 3 position of the crew. Initially, Aldrin thought that he would be first to walk on the Moon, based on the experience of Gemini; during that program, the pilot conducted the EVAs while the command pilot, who had greater responsibilities and less time to train for an EVA, stayed on board. However, when that actual procedure was tried with suited-up astronauts in an Apollo LM mockup, the LM was damaged – in order for Aldrin (LM Pilot) to get out first, he had to climb over Armstrong (commander) to get to the door. A March 1969 meeting between Slayton, George Low, Bob Gilruth, and Chris Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in some part because NASA management saw Armstrong as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference held on April 14, 1969 gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the lunar module pilot, on the right-hand side, to egress first. Slayton added, "Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out. . . . I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my decision." Expeditions to the Moon, chapter 8, p. 7. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch issue. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his 2001 autobiography. Hansen, chapter 25. On July 16, 1969, Armstrong received a crescent moon carved out of Styrofoam from the pad leader, Guenter Wendt, who described it as a key to the Moon. In return, Armstrong gave Wendt a ticket for a "space taxi" "good between two planets". Voyage to the Moon During the Apollo 11 launch, Armstrong's heart reached a top rate of 109 beats per minute. He found the first stage to be the loudest — much noisier than the Gemini 8 Titan II launch – and the Apollo CSM was relatively roomy compared to the confinement of the Gemini capsule. This ability to move around was suspected to be the cause of space sickness that had hit members of previous crews, but none of the Apollo 11 crew suffered from it. Armstrong was especially happy, as he had been prone to motion sickness as a child and could experience nausea after doing long periods of aerobatics. The objective of Apollo 11 was to land safely rather than touch down with precision on a particular spot. Three minutes into the lunar descent burn he noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant the Eagle would likely land beyond the planned landing zone by several miles. As the Eagle'''s landing radar acquired the surface, several computer error alarms appeared. The first was a code 1202 alarm and even with their extensive training Armstrong or Aldrin were not aware of what this code meant. However, they promptly received word from CAPCOM in Houston that the alarms were not a concern. The 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by a processing overflow in the lunar module computer. As described by Buzz Aldrin in the documentary In the Shadow of the Moon, the overflow condition was caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process. Aldrin stated that he did so with the objective of facilitating re-docking with the CM should an abort become necessary, not realizing that it would cause the overflow condition. Aldrin took this picture of Armstrong in the cabin after the completion of the EVA. Armstrong took over manual control of the LM, found an area which to him seemed safe for a landing and touched down on the moon at 20:17:39 UTC on July 20, 1969. The accuracy to the second of Apollo 11 events differs in different NASA logs. Some accounts of the Apollo 11 landing describe the LM's fuel situation as having been dire, with only a few seconds remaining when they touched down. Armstrong had landed the LLTV with less than 15 seconds left on several occasions and he was also confident the LM could survive a straight-down fall from 50 feet (15 m) if needed. Analysis after the mission showed that because of the moon's lower gravity, fuel had sloshed about in the tank more than anticipated, which led to a misleadingly low indication of the remaining propellant; at touchdown there were about 50 seconds of propellant burn time left. When a sensor attached to the legs of the still hovering Lunar Module made lunar contact, a panel light inside the LM lit up and Aldrin called out, "Contact light." As the LM settled on the surface Aldrin then said, "Okay. Engine stop," and Armstrong said, "Shutdown." The first words Armstrong intentionally spoke to Mission Control and the world from the lunar surface were, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed". Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back before quickly returning to the checklist of tasks needed to ready the lunar module for liftoff from the Moon should an emergency unfold during the first moments on the lunar surface. Postage stamp commemorating Apollo 11. Armstrong is not honored "by portrayal" in accordance with U.S. Postal Service criteria pertaining to postage stamps not honoring living people. First Moon walk Neil Armstrong describes the lunar surface before setting foot on it.Although the official NASA flight plan called for a crew rest period before extra-vehicular activity, Armstrong requested that the EVA be moved earlier in the evening, Houston time. Once Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened and Armstrong made his way down the ladder first. He placed his left foot on the surface at 2:56 UTC July 21, 1969, then spoke the following words: It has long been assumed that Armstrong had mistakenly omitted the word "a" from his famous remark ("one small step for a man"), rendering the phrase a contradiction, as man in such use is synonymous with mankind. Armstrong is quoted as saying that he "would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said – although it might actually have been." It has since been claimed that acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing "a". A digital audio analysis conducted by Peter Shann Ford, an Australia-based computer programmer, claims that Armstrong did, in fact, say "a man", but the "a" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time. Ford and James R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis. The article by Ford, however, is published on Ford's own web site rather than in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, and linguists David Beaver and Mark Liberman at Language Log were skeptical of Ford's claims. (including audio) Armstrong has expressed his preference that written quotations include the "a" in parentheses. Armstrong prepares to take the first step on the Moon. Armstrong's first words were declared after he said "I'm going to step off the LM now." He then turned and set his boot on the surface. David Harland Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions. 1999, ISBN 1-85233-099-6 When Armstrong made his proclamation, Voice of America was rebroadcast live via the BBC and many other stations the world over. The global audience at that moment was estimated at 450 million listeners, Alan L. Heil. Voice of America: A History. 2003, ISBN 0-231-12674-3 out of a then estimated world population of 3.631 billion people. The simple "one small step..." statement came from a train of thought that Armstrong had after launch and during the hours after landing. About 15 minutes after the first step, Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface and became the second human to set foot on the Moon. The duo began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Early on they also unveiled a plaque commemorating their flight, and also planted the flag of the United States. The flag used on this mission had a metal rod to hold it horizontal from its pole. Since the rod did not fully extend, and the flag was tightly folded and packed during the journey, the flag ended up with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze. On Earth there had been some discussion as to whether it was appropriate to plant the flag at all, something about which Armstrong did not care. He did think that any flag should have been left to drape as it would on Earth, but decided it wasn't worth making a big deal about. Slayton had warned Armstrong that they would receive a special communication, but did not tell him that President Richard Nixon would contact them just after the flag planting. Armstrong works at the Apollo Lunar Module in one of the few photos showing him during the EVA. Aldrin later gave the flag planting and subsequent phone call from President Nixon as reasons why there were no intentional photographs of Armstrong. In the entire Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. Aldrin said plans were to take a photo of Armstrong after the famous image of Aldrin was taken, but they were interrupted by the Nixon communication. There were just over five minutes between these two events. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks to be performed by Armstrong with their single Hasselblad camera. After helping to set up the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (60 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. Armstrong's final task was to leave a small package of memorial items to deceased Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Vladimir Komarov, and Apollo 1 astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee. The time spent on EVA during Apollo 11 was about two-and-a-half hours, the shortest of any of the six Apollo lunar landing missions. Each of the subsequent five landings were allotted gradually longer periods for EVA activities. The crew of Apollo 17, by comparison, spent over 21 hours exploring the lunar surface. Return to Earth After re-entering the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for the liftoff from the lunar surface, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that in their bulky spacesuits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine. The ascent engine had no switch to fire. Using part of a pen, they pushed the circuit breaker in to activate the launch sequence. Aldrin still possesses the pen which they used to do this.(Aldrin has it kept in a glass case for all to see) The lunar module then continued to its rendezvous and docked with Columbia, the command and service module, and returned to Earth. The command module splashed down in the Pacific ocean and the Apollo 11 crew was picked up by the . The Apollo 11 crew and President Richard Nixon. After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew were feted across the United States and around the world as part of a 45-day "Giant Leap" tour. Armstrong then took part in Bob Hope's 1969 USO show, primarily to Vietnam, where some soldiers asked questions about how a man could be sent to the Moon while they were still stuck fighting the war. Tabloid newspapers printed stories that romantically linked Armstrong to Connie Stevens who was also on the tour, but the reports were unsubstantiated. Hansen, pages 566–582. In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the International Committee on Space Research. Arriving in Leningrad from Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he met Premier Alexey Kosygin. He was the first westerner to see the supersonic Tupolev Tu-144 and was given a tour of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonauts Training Center, which Armstrong described as "a bit Victorian in nature." At the end of the day, he was surprised to view delayed video of the launch of Soyuz 9. It had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband, Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. Hansen, pages 582–584. Life after Apollo Teaching Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering at Purdue University. Armstrong on July 16, 1999 at the Kennedy Space Center. Armstrong announced shortly after the Apollo 11 flight that he did not plan to fly in space again. He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology (DARPA). He served in this position for only 13 months, and resigned from it and NASA as a whole in August 1971. He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati. He decided on Cincinnati over other universities, including his alma mater, Purdue, because it had a small Aerospace department; he hoped that the faculty members would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only the USC master's degree. He began the work while stationed at Edwards years before, and he finally completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on simulation of hypersonic flight. The official job title he received at Cincinnati was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. After teaching for eight years, he resigned in 1979 due to other commitments and changes in the university structure from independent municipal school to state-school. Hansen, pages 590–594. NASA accident investigations Armstrong served on two spaceflight accident investigations. The first was in 1970, after Apollo 13. As part of Edgar Cortwright's panel, he produced a detailed chronology of the flight. Armstrong personally opposed the report's recommendation to re-design the service module's oxygen tanks, the source of the explosion. Hansen, pages 60–603. In 1986 President Ronald Reagan appointed him to the Rogers Commission, which investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster of that year. As vice-chairman, Armstrong was in charge of the operational side of the commission. Hansen, pages 610–616. Business activities After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he avoided offers from businesses to act as a spokesman. The first company to successfully approach him was Chrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, plus they were in financial difficulty. He acted as a spokesman for other companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America. He only acts as a spokesman for United States businesses. Hansen, pages 595–596. Along with spokesman duties, he also served on the board of directors of several companies, including Marathon Oil, Learjet, Cincinnati Gas & Electric Company, Taft Broadcasting, United Airlines, Eaton Corporation, AIL Systems, and Thiokol. He joined Thiokol's board after he served on the Rogers Commission; Challenger was destroyed due to a problem with the Thiokol-manufactured Solid Rocket Boosters. He retired as chairman of the board of EDO Corporation in 2002. Personal life The first man to walk on the Moon was also approached by political groups from both ends of the spectrum. Unlike former astronauts and United States Senators John Glenn and Harrison Schmitt, Armstrong has turned down all offers. Personally, he is in favor of states' rights and against the United States acting as the "world's policeman." Hansen, pages 600–601. In 1971, Armstrong was awarded the Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy at West Point for his service to the country. In 1972, Armstrong was welcomed into the town of Langholm, Scotland, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. The astronaut was made the first freeman of the burgh, and happily declared the town his home. The Justice of the Peace read from an unrepealed 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. Hansen, p. 13. In the fall of 1979, Armstrong was working at his farm near Lebanon, Ohio. As he jumped off of the back of his grain truck, his wedding ring caught in the wheel, tearing off his ring finger. However, he calmly collected the severed digit, packed it in ice, and managed to have it reattached by microsurgeons at the Jewish Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky. While skiing with friends at Aspen, Colorado in February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack. It came a year after his father had died and nine months after the death of his mother. Quincy Jones presents platinum copies of "Fly Me to the Moon" (from It Might as Well Be Swing) to Neil Armstrong and Senator John Glenn. Armstrong's first wife of 38 years, Janet, divorced him in 1994. CBS News web site . He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, in 1992 at a golf tournament. Seated together at the breakfast, she said little to Armstrong, but a couple of weeks later, she received a call from him asking what she was doing. She replied she was cutting down a cherry tree, and 35 minutes later Armstrong was at her house to help out. They were married on June 12, 1994 in Ohio, and then had a second ceremony at San Ysidro Ranch in California. Since 1994, Armstrong has refused all requests for autographs, after he found that his signed items were selling for large amounts of money and that many forgeries are in circulation. Often items reach prices of US$1,000 on auction sites like eBay. Signed photographs of the Apollo 11 crew can sell for $5,000. Any requests sent to him receive a form letter in reply saying that he has stopped signing. Although his no-autograph policy is well-known, author Andrew Smith observed people at the 2002 Reno Air Races still try to get signatures, with one person even claiming, "If you shove something close enough in front of his face, he'll sign." Smith, p. 134. Along with autographs, he has stopped sending out congratulatory letters to new Eagle Scouts. The reason is that he thinks these letters should come from people who know the Scout personally. Hansen, p. 623. Usage of Armstrong's name, image, and famous quote has caused him problems over the years. He sued Hallmark Cards in 1994 after they used his name and a recording of "one small step" quote in a Christmas ornament without permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount of money which Armstrong donated to Purdue. The case caused Armstrong and NASA to be more careful about the usage of astronaut names, photographs and recordings, and to whom he has granted permission. For non-profit and government public-service announcements, he will usually give permission. In May 2005 Armstrong became involved in an unusual legal battle with his barber of 20 years, Marx Sizemore. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission. Armstrong threatened legal action unless the barber returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to get the hair back, decided to donate the proceeds to the charity of Armstrong's choice. Some of Armstrong's ancestors come from Ballygawley, County Tyrone in Northern Ireland. Legacy Michael Collins, President George W. Bush, Armstrong, and Aldrin in the White House Oval Office during celebrations of the 35th anniversary of the Apollo 11 flight, July 21, 2004 Armstrong and presidential dog Barney in the White House Garden Room, July 2004 Armstrong has received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, the Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy, the Sylvanus Thayer Award, and the Collier Trophy from the National Aeronautics Association. The lunar crater Armstrong, 50 km (31 miles) from the Apollo 11 landing site, and asteroid 6469 Armstrong are named in his honor. Armstrong was also inducted into the Aerospace Walk of Honor and the Astronaut Hall of Fame. Throughout the United States, there are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named in his honor. Many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for Armstrong and/or Apollo. In 1969, folk songwriter and singer John Stewart recorded "Armstrong", a tribute to Armstrong and his first steps on the moon. Purdue University announced in October 2004 that their new engineering building would be named Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering in his honor. The building cost $53.2 million and was dedicated on October 27, 2007. Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue Astronauts at the ceremony. The Neil Armstrong Air and Space Museum is located in his hometown of Wapakoneta, Ohio, although it has no official ties to Armstrong, and the airport in New Knoxville where he took his first flying lessons is named for him. Armstrong's authorized biography, First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, Armstrong turned down biography offers from authors such as Stephen Ambrose and James A. Michener. He agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies. The press often asks Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, Armstrong said that a manned mission to Mars will be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s: "I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many, they are not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo [space program] in 1961." Armstrong also recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission. He had believed there was only a 50 percent chance of landing on the moon. "I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful", he said. See also Space accidents and incidents Mission Control Center Project Mercury Space Shuttle program List of Eagle Scouts (Boy Scouts of America) Bibliography Francis French and Colin Burgess (2007). In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965-1969.Cambridge Biographical Dictionary'' (1990). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Notes External links Neil Armstrong's Official NASA Biography Neil Armstrong Honored as an Ambassador of Exploration Book New Yorker Cosmos magazine, October 2006 Neil Armstrong- U.S. Spaceflight History Biography be-x-old:Нэйл Армстранг | Neil_Armstrong |@lemmatized neil:11 alden:1 armstrong:179 bear:3 august:6 wapakoneta:5 ohio:7 american:4 aviator:3 former:2 astronaut:21 test:9 pilot:29 university:14 professor:2 united:13 state:16 naval:5 first:45 person:6 set:6 foot:7 moon:25 spaceflight:5 aboard:3 gemini:19 command:11 mission:30 perform:2 man:8 docking:1 two:19 spacecraft:10 together:4 david:4 scott:8 second:16 last:5 commander:9 apollo:42 land:24 july:7 buzz:4 aldrin:24 descend:1 lunar:28 surface:13 spend:4 hour:8 explore:3 michael:4 collins:4 remain:3 orbit:7 module:16 recipient:1 congressional:2 space:15 medal:5 honor:10 become:11 navy:7 saw:4 action:4 korean:4 war:4 serve:8 national:4 advisory:2 committee:3 aeronautics:4 naca:3 high:7 speed:6 flight:29 station:7 know:8 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3,907 | Henry_Chadwick_(writer) | Henry Chadwick Henry Chadwick (October 5 1824 – April 20 1908), often called the "father of baseball," was a sportswriter, baseball statistician and historian. Born in Exeter, England, and raised on cricket, Chadwick was one of the prime movers in the rise of baseball to its unprecedented popularity at the turn of the 20th century. Chadwick moved to Brooklyn with his family at the age of 12, and became a frequent player of early ball games such as rounders. He began covering cricket for numerous local newspapers such as the Long Island Star. It is said Chadwick first came across baseball in 1856 in New York as a young cricket reporter, while watching a match between New York's Eagle and Gotham clubs. In 1857 he focused his attention as a journalist and writer on baseball after joining the New York Clipper. A keen amateur statistician and professional writer, he helped sculpt the public perception of the game, as well as providing the basis for the records of team's and player's achievements in the form of baseball statistics. Chadwick edited The Beadle Baseball Player, the first baseball guide on public sale, as well as the Spalding and Reach annual guides for a number of years and in this capacity promoted the game and influenced the then-infant discipline of sports journalism. He also served on baseball rules committees and influenced the game itself. In his 1861 Beadle guide, he listed totals of games played, outs, runs, home runs, and strikeouts for hitters on prominent clubs, the first database of its kind. His goal was to come up with numerical evidence as that would prove what players helped or hurt a team to win. In 1867 he accompanied the National Base Ball Club of Washington D.C. on their inaugural national tour, as their official scorer, and in 1874 was instrumental in organizing a similar tour of England, which included games of both baseball and cricket. In his role as journalist, he campaigned against the detrimental effects on the game of both alcohol and gambling. Despite a friendship with Albert Spalding, Chadwick was scornful of the attempts to have Abner Doubleday declared the inventor of baseball. "He means well", said Chadwick, "but he don't know". An early boxscore from 1876. He is credited with devising the baseball box score (which he adapted from the cricket scorecard) for reporting game events. The first box score was a grid with nine rows for players and nine columns for innings. The original box scores also created the often puzzling abbreviation for strikeout as "K" - "K" being the last letter of "struck" in "struck out." The basic format and structure of the box score has changed little since the earliest of ones designed by Chadwick. He is also credited with devising such statistical measures as batting average and earned run average. Ironically, ERA originated not in the goal of measuring a pitcher's worth but to differentiate between runs caused by batting skill (hits) and lack of fielding skill (errors). He is also noted as believing fielding range to be a superior skill to avoiding errors. The following description of a game was written by Henry Chadwick and appeared in his Base Ball Memoranda. It is typical of his style of sports journalism, and that of his time: A Base Ball tourney had been held in Chicago on July 4, 1867, in which the Excelsiors of that city and the Forest City Club, of Rockford, had been the leading contestants. The former had defeated the Forest City nine in two games, by the very close scores of 45-41 in one, and 28-25 in another, when the Forest Citys were invited to meet the Nationals at Chicago on July 25th, a day which proved the most notable of the tour. The contest took place at Dexter Park, before a vast crowd of spectators, the majority of whom looked to see the Nationals have almost a walk-over. In the game A. G. Spalding was pitcher and Ross Barnes shortstop for the Forest City nine; these two afterwards becoming famous as star players of the Boston professional team of the early seventies. Williams was pitcher for the Nationals and Frank Norton catcher. The Nationals took the lead in the first innings by 3 to 2; but in the next two innings they added but five runs to their score, while the Forest Citys added thirteen to theirs, thereby taking the lead by a score of fifteen to eight, to the great surprise of the crowd and the delight of the Rockfords. The Nationals tried hard to recover the lost ground. The final result, however, was the success of the Forest Citys by a score of 29 to 23 in a nine innings game, twice interrupted by rain. For his contributions to the game of Baseball, he was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in 1938. Chadwick was the younger half brother of Sir Edwin Chadwick, England's sanitary philosopher who developed environmental measures and laws designed to counteract the effects of the Industrial Revolution. Chadwick died at age 83 in Brooklyn, New York and is interred in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn. "Father of Base Ball" is inscribed on his grave marker. Henry Chadwick at www.sorabji.com TheDeadballEra.com :: HENRY CHADWICK'S GRAVE at www.thedeadballera.com Henry Chadwick (1824 - 1908) - Find A Grave Memorial at www.findagrave.com See also: Baseball statistics References Tygiel, Jules. Past Time. Schwarz, Alan (2004). The Numbers Game: Baseball's Lifelong Fascination With Statistics, New York: Thomas Dunne Books. Schiff, Andrew (2008). '"The Father of Baseball": A Biography of Henry Chadwick,' Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishg. External links henrychadwick.com - fansite Hall of Fame graves - Gravesites of Baseball Hall of Famers The Game of Base Ball (1868)—Complete text of Chadwick's 1868 book Review of "The Father of Baseball: A Biography of Henry Chadwick" | Henry_Chadwick_(writer) |@lemmatized henry:8 chadwick:19 october:1 april:1 often:2 call:1 father:4 baseball:19 sportswriter:1 statistician:2 historian:1 bear:1 exeter:1 england:3 raise:1 cricket:5 one:3 prime:1 mover:1 rise:1 unprecedented:1 popularity:1 turn:1 century:1 move:1 brooklyn:3 family:1 age:2 become:2 frequent:1 player:6 early:4 ball:6 game:15 rounder:1 begin:1 cover:1 numerous:1 local:1 newspaper:1 long:1 island:1 star:2 say:2 first:5 come:2 across:1 new:5 york:5 young:2 reporter:1 watch:1 match:1 eagle:1 gotham:1 club:4 focus:1 attention:1 journalist:2 writer:2 join:1 clipper:1 keen:1 amateur:1 professional:2 help:2 sculpt:1 public:2 perception:1 well:3 provide:1 basis:1 record:1 team:3 achievement:1 form:1 statistic:3 edit:1 beadle:2 guide:3 sale:1 spalding:3 reach:1 annual:1 number:2 year:1 capacity:1 promote:1 influence:2 infant:1 discipline:1 sport:2 journalism:2 also:5 serve:1 rule:1 committee:2 list:1 total:1 play:1 run:5 home:1 strikeout:2 hitter:1 prominent:1 database:1 kind:1 goal:2 numerical:1 evidence:1 would:1 prove:2 hurt:1 win:1 accompany:1 national:7 base:5 washington:1 c:1 inaugural:1 tour:3 official:1 scorer:1 instrumental:1 organize:1 similar:1 include:1 role:1 campaign:1 detrimental:1 effect:2 alcohol:1 gambling:1 despite:1 friendship:1 albert:1 scornful:1 attempt:1 abner:1 doubleday:1 declare:1 inventor:1 mean:1 know:1 boxscore:1 credit:2 devise:2 box:4 score:8 adapt:1 scorecard:1 report:1 event:1 grid:1 nine:5 row:1 column:1 inning:4 original:1 create:1 puzzling:1 abbreviation:1 k:2 last:1 letter:1 strike:2 basic:1 format:1 structure:1 change:1 little:1 since:1 design:2 statistical:1 measure:3 batting:1 average:2 earned:1 ironically:1 era:1 originate:1 pitcher:3 worth:1 differentiate:1 cause:1 bat:1 skill:3 hit:1 lack:1 fielding:1 error:2 note:1 believe:1 field:1 range:1 superior:1 avoid:1 following:1 description:1 write:1 appear:1 memoranda:1 typical:1 style:1 time:2 tourney:1 hold:1 chicago:2 july:2 excelsior:1 city:7 forest:6 rockford:2 lead:3 contestant:1 former:1 defeat:1 two:3 close:1 another:1 invite:1 meet:1 day:1 notable:1 contest:1 take:3 place:1 dexter:1 park:1 vast:1 crowd:2 spectator:1 majority:1 look:1 see:2 almost:1 walk:1 g:1 ross:1 barnes:1 shortstop:1 afterwards:1 famous:1 boston:1 seventy:1 williams:1 frank:1 norton:1 catcher:1 next:1 add:2 five:1 thirteen:1 thereby:1 fifteen:1 eight:1 great:1 surprise:1 delight:1 try:1 hard:1 recover:1 lose:1 ground:1 final:1 result:1 however:1 success:1 twice:1 interrupt:1 rain:1 contribution:1 elect:1 hall:3 fame:2 veteran:1 half:1 brother:1 sir:1 edwin:1 sanitary:1 philosopher:1 develop:1 environmental:1 law:1 counteract:1 industrial:1 revolution:1 die:1 inter:1 green:1 wood:1 cemetery:1 inscribe:1 grave:3 marker:1 www:3 sorabji:1 com:5 thedeadballera:2 find:1 memorial:1 findagrave:1 reference:1 tygiel:1 jules:1 past:1 schwarz:1 alan:1 lifelong:1 fascination:1 thomas:1 dunne:1 book:2 schiff:1 andrew:1 biography:2 jefferson:1 north:1 carolina:1 mcfarland:1 publishg:1 external:1 link:1 henrychadwick:1 fansite:1 graf:1 gravesites:1 famers:1 complete:1 text:1 review:1 |@bigram prime_mover:1 abner_doubleday:1 batting_average:1 earned_run:1 hall_fame:2 grave_marker:1 findagrave_com:1 lifelong_fascination:1 thomas_dunne:1 north_carolina:1 carolina_mcfarland:1 external_link:1 hall_famers:1 |
3,908 | Aircraft | An aircraft is a vehicle which is able to fly by being supported by the air, or in general, the atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft overcomes the force of gravity primarily by using either static lift (as with balloons, blimps and dirigibles) or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil (as with vehicles that plane the air with wings in a straight manner such as airplanes and gliders, or vehicles that generate lift with wings in a rotary manner such as helicopters or gyrocopters). Objects which fly but are not supported by the air, such as most rockets and missiles, are not aircraft. These types of vehicles use thrust instead of lift as the primary means of overcoming the force of gravity. Other objects which fly by using aerodynamic lift, such as kites and Frisbees, can only be considered aircraft if they are used as vehicles. Flying objects such as arrows, bullets and artillery are not aircraft because they are neither vehicles nor do they use the air as their means for countering the force of gravity. Parachutes are not aircraft because, even though they are vehicles, they only resist the force of gravity but do not overcoming it. However, parasails and paragliders are vehicles that do overcome gravity, and therefore count as aircraft. For an even more specialized case, a rocket with wings such as the X-15, Space Shuttle or SpaceShipOne does not function as an aircraft when it is flying in its rocket mode (using thrust, not lift, to overcome weight) nor in its spacecraft mode when outside of the atmosphere, therefore not supported by the air. However the same vehicle does function as an aircraft during its landing phase of flight. So as with a parachute's dual use as a parasail aircraft, it is possible for the same vehicle to either count or not count as an aircraft depending upon its function. The human activity which surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Manned aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot. Unmanned vehicles are often called drones, remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). Classification by method of lift Lighter than air - aerostats A hot air balloon (aircraft) in flight. Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low density gas such as helium, hydrogen or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces. Small hot air balloons called sky lanterns date back to the 3rd century BC and were only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first being kites. Originally a balloon was any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large powered aircraft designs - usually fixed-wing - though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous. There were still no aeroplanes or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat, whilst an "airship" is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible. Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons; in windy weather this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nickname blimp was adopted along with the shape. In modern times any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered. Heavier than air - aerodynes Heavier-than-air aircraft must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust: aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust. Aerodynamic lift is the most common, with aeroplanes being kept in the air by the forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an aerofoil. To fly, the wing must move forwards through the air; this movement of air over the aerofoil shape deflects air downward to create an equal and opposite upward force, called lift, according to Newton's third law of motion. A flexible wing is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed or rotary. With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downwards. The initialism VTOL (vertical take off and landing) is applied to aircraft that can take off and land vertically. Most are rotorcraft. Others, such as the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight. Similarly, STOL stands for short take off and landing. Some VTOL aircraft often operate in a short take off/vertical landing regime known as STOVL. A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can even fly into space), however many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles which obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies, are a marginal case. Fixed-wing aircraft NASA test aircraft A size comparison of some of the largest aeroplanes. The Airbus A380-800 (largest airliner), the Boeing 747-8, the Antonov An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and the Hughes H-4 "Spruce Goose" (aircraft with greatest wingspan). Aeroplanes or airplanes are technically called fixed-wing aircraft. The forerunner of the aeroplane is the kite. Whereas an aeroplane relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly, and were invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft, wind tunnels and computer modelling programs became available. The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free flight were unpowered aeroplanes. A glider designed by Cayley carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853. Besides the method of propulsion, aeroplanes are generally characterized by their wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are: Number of wings - Monoplane, biplane, etc. Wing support - Braced or cantilever, rigid or flexible. Wing planform - including aspect ratio, angle of sweep and any variations along the span. Includes the important class of delta wings. Location of the horizontal stabiliser, if any. Dihedral angle - positive, zero or negative (anhedral). A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight. A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this is a lifting body which has no wings, though it may have small stabilising and control surfaces. Seaplanes are aircraft that land on water, and they fit into two broad classes: Flying boats are supported on the water by their fuselage. A float plane's fuselage remains clear of the water at all times, the aircraft being supported by two or more floats attached to the fuselage and/or wings. Some examples of both flying boats and float planes are amphibious aircraft. Some people consider wing-in-ground-effect vehicles to be aeroplanes, others do not. These craft "fly" close to the surface of the ground or water. An example is the Russian ekranoplan (nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster"). Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne, but this is only because they are so underpowered—the airframe is theoretically capable of flying much higher. (Hovercraft are not considered to be aircraft, since they rely wholly on the pressure of air on the ground beneath, and have no other lift mechanism). Rotorcraft Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft. Helicopters have powered rotors. The rotor is driven (directly or indirectly) by an engine and pushes air downwards to create lift. By tilting the rotor forwards, the downwards flow is tilted backwards, producing thrust for forward flight. Autogyros or gyroplanes have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backwards. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upwards through it, making it spin.(cf. Autorotation) US-Recognition Manual (very likely copy of German drawing) This spinning dramatically increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Juan de la Cierva (a Spanish civil engineer) used the product name autogiro, and Bensen used gyrocopter. Rotor kites, such as the Focke Achgelis Fa 330 are unpowered autogyros, which must be towed by a tether to give them forward ground speed or else be tether-anchored to a static anchor in a high-wind situation for kited flight. Gyrodynes are a form of helicopter, where forward thrust is obtained from a separate propulsion device rather than from tilting the rotor. The definition of a 'gyrodyne' has changed over the years, sometimes including equivalent autogyro designs. The most important characteristic is that in forward flight air does not flow significantly either up or down through the rotor disc but primarily across it. The Heliplane is a similar idea. Compound rotorcraft have wings which provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. Compound helicopters and compound autogyros have been built, and some forms of gyroplane may be referred to as compound gyroplanes. Tiltrotor aircraft (such as the V-22 Osprey) have their rotors horizontal for vertical flight, and pivot the rotors vertically like a propeller for forward flight. The Coleopter had a cylindrical wing forming a duct around the rotor. On the ground it sat on its tail, and took off and landed vertically like a helicopter. The whole aircraft would then have tilted forward to fly as a propeller-driven aeroplane using the duct as a wing (though this transition was never achieved in practice.) Some rotorcraft have reaction-powered rotors with gas jets at the tips, but most have one or more lift rotors powered from engine-driven shafts. Other methods of lift X24B lifting body, specialized glider A lifting body is the opposite of a flying wing. In this configuration the aircraft body is shaped to produce lift. If there are any wings, they are too small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control. Lifting bodies are not efficient: they suffer from high drag and must also travel at high speed to generate enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such as the Martin-Marietta X-24, which led up to the Space Shuttle were lifting bodies (though the shuttle itself is not), and some supersonic missiles obtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body. Powered lifts rely entirely on engine thrust to hold them up in the air. There are few practical applications. Experimental designs have been built for personal fan-lift hover platforms and jetpacks or for VTOL research (for example the flying bedstead). VTOL jet aircraft such as the Harrier jump-jet take off and land vertically in powered-lift configuration, then transition to conventional configuration for forward flight. The FanWing is a recent innovation and represents a completely new class of aircraft. This uses a fixed wing with a cylindrical fan mounted spanwise just above. As the fan spins, it creates an airflow backwards over the upper surface of the wing, creating lift. The fan wing is (2005) in development in the United Kingdom. Classification by propulsion Unpowered Gliders Heavier-than-air unpowered aircraft such as gliders (i.e. sailplanes), hang gliders and paragliders and other gliders do not usually employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forwards and downwards from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Some gliders can 'soar'- gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley who many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Balloons Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a spherically-shaped balloon does not have such directional control. Kites Kites are aircraft NASA's Beginners Guide to Aeronautics that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains tension in the tether or kite line; and rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon kites that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than air. Powered Propeller aircraft A turboprop-engined DeHavilland Twin Otter adapted as a floatplane A propeller comprises a set of small, wing-like aerofoils set around a central hub which spins on an axis aligned in the direction of travel. Spinning the propeller creates aerodynamic lift, or thrust, in a forward direction. A contra-prop arrangement has a second propeller close behind the first one on the same axis, which rotates in the opposite direction. A tractor design mounts the propeller in front of the power source, and a pusher design mounts it behind. Although the pusher design allows cleaner airflow over the wing, tractor configuration is more common because it allows cleaner airflow to the propeller and provides a better weight distribution. A variation on the propeller is to use many broad blades to create a fan. Such fans are traditionally surrounded by a ring-shaped fairing or duct, as ducted fans. Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. The earliest designs used man power to give dirigible balloons some degree of control, and go back to Jean-Pierre Blanchard in 1784. Attempts to achieve heavier-than-air manpowered flight did not succeed until Paul MacCready's Gossamer Condor in 1977. Gossamer Albatross, a human-powered aircraft The first powered flight was made in a steam-powered dirigible by Henri Giffard in 1852. Attempts to marry a practical lightweight steam engine to a practical fixed-wing airframe did not succeed until much later, by which time the internal combustion engine was already dominant. From the first controlled powered aeroplane flight by the Wright brothers until World War II, propellers turned by the internal combustion piston engine were virtually the only type of propulsion system in use. (See also: Aircraft engine.) The piston engine is still used in the majority of smaller aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes and slower speeds suited to propellers. Turbine engines need not be used as jets (see below), but may be geared to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop. Modern helicopters also typically use turbine engines to power the rotor. Turbines provide more power for less weight than piston engines, and are better suited to small-to-medium size aircraft or larger, slow-flying types. Some turboprop designs (see below) mount the propeller directly on an engine shaft, and are called propfans. Since the 1940s, propellers and propfans with swept tips or curved "scimitar-shaped" blades have been studied for use in high-speed applications so as to delay the onset of shockwaves, in similar manner to wing sweepback, where the blade tips approach the speed of sound. The Airbus A400M turboprop transport aircraft is expected to provide the first production example: note that it is not a propfan because the propellers are not mounted direct on the engine shaft but are driven through reduction gearing. Other less common power sources include: Electric motors, often linked to solar panels to create a solar-powered aircraft. Rubber bands, wound many times to store energy, are mostly used for flying models. Jet aircraft Air-breathing jet engines provide thrust by taking in air, burning it with fuel in a combustion chamber, and accelerating the exhaust rearwards so that it ejects at high speed. The reaction against this acceleration provides the engine thrust. Jet engines can provide much higher thrust than propellers, and are naturally efficient at higher altitudes, being able to operate above . They are also much more fuel-efficient than rockets. Consequently, nearly all high-speed and high-altitude aircraft use jet engines. The early turbojet and modern turbofan use a spinning turbine to create airflow for takeoff and to provide thrust. Many, mostly in military aviation, use afterburners which inject extra fuel into the exhaust. Use of a turbine is not absolutely necessary: other designs include the crude pulse jet, high-speed ramjet and the still-experimental supersonic-combustion ramjet or scramjet. These designs require an existing airflow to work and cannot work when stationary, so they must be launched by a catapult or rocket booster, or dropped from a mother ship. The bypass turbofan engines of the Lockheed SR-71 were a hybrid design - the aircraft took off and landed in jet turbine configuration, and for high-speed flight the afterburner was lit and the turbine bypassed, to create a ramjet. The motorjet was a very early design which used a piston engine in place of the combustion chamber, similar to a turbocharged piston engine except that the thrust is derived from the turbine instead of the crankshaft. It was soon superseded by the turbojet and remained a curiosity. Helicopters The rotor of a Helicopter may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods such as an internal-combustion engine or jet turbine. Tip jets, fed by gases passing along hollow rotor blades from a centrally-mounted engine, have been experimented with. Attempts have even been made to mount engines directly on the rotor tips. Helicopters obtain forward propulsion by angling the rotor disc so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards to provide thrust. Other forms of propulsion Rocket-powered aircraft have occasionally been experimented with, and the Messerschmitt Komet fighter even saw action in the Second World War. Since then they have been restricted to rather specialised niches, such as the Bell X-1 which broke the sound barrier or the North American X-15 which travelled up into space where no oxygen is available for combustion (rockets carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main powerplant, typically to assist takeoff of heavily-loaded aircraft, but also in a few experimental designs such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53 to provide a high-speed dash capability. The flapping-wing ornithopter is a category of its own. These designs may have potential, but no practical device has been created beyond research prototypes, simple toys, and a model hawk used to freeze prey into stillness so that it can be captured. Classification by use The major distinction in aircraft types is between military aircraft, which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, and civil aircraft, which include all non-military types. Military aircraft Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-between types such as fighter-bombers and ground-attack aircraft (including attack helicopters). Other supporting roles are carried out by specialist patrol, search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation, transport, training and Tanker aircraft among others. Many civil aircraft, both fixed wing and rotary, have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civil Douglas DC-3 airliner, which became the military C-47/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S. military and the "Dakota" in the UK and the Commonwealth. Even the small fabric-covered two-seater Piper J3 Cub had a military version, the L-4 liaison, observation and trainer aircraft. Gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and World War I, and military gliders were used during World War II to land troops. Civil aircraft Civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are some overlaps. Commercial aircraft Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying both passengers and cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are often referred to as airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft. General aviation General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt, aerobatic types, racers, gliders, warbirds, firefighters, medical transports, and cargo transports, to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types. Within general aviation, there is a further distinction between private aviation (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial aviation (where the pilot is paid by a client or employer). The aircraft used in private aviation are usually light passenger, business, or recreational types, and are usually owned or rented by the pilot. The same types may also be used for a wide range of commercial tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations. However the larger, more complex aircraft are more likely to be found in the commercial sector. For example, piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are common for both private and commercial general aviation, but for aircraft such as turboprops like the Beechcraft King Air and helicopters like the Bell JetRanger, there are fewer private owners than commercial owners. Conventional business jets are most often flown by paid pilots, whereas the new generation of smaller jets are being produced for private pilots. Experimental aircraft Experimental aircraft are one-off specials, built to explore some aspect of aircraft design and with no other useful purpose. The Bell X-1 rocket plane, which first broke the sound barrier in level flight, is a famous example. The formal designation of "experimental aircraft" also includes other types which are "not certified for commercial applications", including one-off modifications of existing aircraft such as the modified Boeing 747 which NASA uses to ferry the space shuttle from landing site to launch site, and aircraft homebuilt by amateurs for their own personal use. Model aircraft A model aircraft, weighing 6 grams. A model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun, for static display, for aerodynamic research (cf Reynolds number) or for other purposes. A scale model is a replica of some larger design. History See also: Timeline of aviation The history of aircraft development divides broadly into five eras: Pioneers of flight First World War The Golden Age Second World War Postwar era, also called the jet age Manufacturers and types Within any general category, aircraft are usually listed according to manufacturer and production type. See also: List of aircraft See also Lists List of aircraft by category List of Airliners by Historical Epoch List of civil aircraft List of early flying machines List of helicopter models List of large aircraft List of military aircraft List of Regional Airliners List of World War II jet aircraft List of aircraft by date and usage category List of aircraft engines List of altitude records reached by different aircraft types List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms Topics Air safety Air transports of Heads of State Aerial refuelling Aircraft axis Aircraft carrier Aircraft spotting Airline call signs Aviation Balloon (aircraft) Contrail First flying machine Flight controls Flight instruments Flight planning Flying car/roadable aircraft Future aircraft developments General aviation in Europe Gliding Military aircraft Noise pollution Personal air vehicle Powered parachute Powered paragliding Spacecraft Stealth aircraft Steam aircraft Surveillance aircraft Wide-body aircraft References External links History History of Aviation in Australia - State Library of NSW Prehistory of Powered Flight The Channel Crossing The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA) Virtual Museum Smithsonian Air and Space Museum - Online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft New Scientist's History of Aviation Information Airliners.net Aviation Dictionary Free aviation terms, phrases and jargons New Scientist's Aviation page Aircraft News | Aircraft |@lemmatized aircraft:114 vehicle:17 able:2 fly:26 support:8 air:42 general:10 atmosphere:2 planet:1 overcome:5 force:5 gravity:5 primarily:2 use:45 either:4 static:3 lift:39 balloon:21 blimp:5 dirigible:8 dynamic:3 airfoil:1 plane:4 wing:44 straight:1 manner:3 airplane:2 glider:12 generate:3 rotary:6 helicopter:12 gyrocopters:1 object:4 rocket:12 missile:3 type:25 thrust:15 instead:2 primary:1 mean:2 aerodynamic:11 kite:12 frisbee:1 consider:3 arrow:1 bullet:1 artillery:1 neither:1 counter:1 parachute:3 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3,909 | Alcohol_intoxication | Drunkenness, or inebriation, is the condition of being intoxicated by consumption of alcoholic beverages to such a degree that mental or physical faculties are altered or impaired. Severe drunkenness may lead to acute alcohol intoxication. Common symptoms may include slurred speech, impaired balance, poor coordination, flushed face, reddened eyes, reduced inhibition and uncharacteristic behavior. Drunkenness can result in temporary experience of a wide range of emotions, ranging from anger, sadness, and depression to euphoria, lightheartedness, joviality, and sexual disinhibition. Consuming excessive amounts of alcohol may lead to a hangover the next day. Law Laws on drunkenness vary between countries. In the United States, for example, it is commonly a criminal offense for an individual to be intoxicated while driving a motorized vehicle . This degree of intoxication is considerably higher than the standard for driving under the influence ("drunk driving") of alcohol or drugs, which commonly requires intoxication to the degree that mental and physical faculties are impaired. The blood alcohol content (BAC) for legally operating a vehicle may range from a low of 0.5 mg/ml in countries such as Australia, Armenia, Hungary and Romania to 0.02 mg/ml in Sweden to 0.9 mg/ml in France and Portugal to 1.5 mg/ml in New Zealand, Republic of Ireland, and the United States. Blood Alcohol Concentration Limits Worldwide Additionally, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration prohibits crewmembers from performing their duties with a BAC greater than 0.04%, within 8 hours of consuming an alcoholic beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. Sec. 1.1 - General definitions. Part 91 General Operating and Flight Rules Minesites in Australia enforce a 0.0% BAC while on shift, thus regularly conduct alcohol tests across all personnel, colloquially known as "blowing in the bag". In the UK and US, police can arrest those deemed too intoxicated in a public place for public intoxication, "drunk and disorderly" or even "drunk and incapable". There are often legal restrictions relating to increase sales of alcohol to intoxicated persons. http://www.camden.gov.uk/ccm/content/press/2007/february/booze-license-suspended-after-selling-alcohol-to-drunk-customers.en Religious views The Drunkenness of Noah by Michelangelo Many religious groups permit the consumption of alcohol but prohibit intoxication. Some prohibit alcohol consumption altogether. In the Qur'an, Qur'an: 4:43 Qur'an: 2:19 Qur'an: 5:90 and Qur'an: 5:91 there is a prohibition on the consumption of grape-based alcoholic beverages, and intoxication is considered as an abomination in the Qur'an and Hadith. Islamic schools of law (Madh'hab) have interpreted this as a strict prohibition of the consumption of all types of alcohol and declared it to be haraam ("forbidden"), although other uses may be permitted. Many Protestant Christian denominations prohibit drunkenness due to the Biblical passages condemning it (for instance, Proverbs 23:21, Proverbs 23:21 Isaiah 28:1, Isaiah 28:1 Habakkuk 2:15 Habakkuk 2:15 ) but many allow moderate use of alcohol (see Christianity and alcohol). Proverbs 31:4–7 states a prophecy of King Lemuel, It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine; nor for princes strong drink: Lest they drink, and forget the law, and pervert the judgment of any of the afflicted. Give strong drink unto him that is ready to perish, and wine unto those that be of heavy hearts. Let him drink, and forget his poverty, and remember his misery no more. On the contrary, in the late seventeenth century, ministers were licensed to control taverns because they were people of “good moral character.” The Alcoholic Republic Licensing ministers played an important role in controlling public drinking for the higher class because of their desire to control the public. Ministers were chosen because they were able to calm and control drunken folk. In Buddhism, intoxication is discouraged in both monastics and lay followers. Lay followers observe the Five Moral Precepts of which the fifth precept forbids consumption of intoxicants substances (except for medical reasons). Monastic precepts are even stricter. In the Bodhisattva Vows of the Brahma Net Sutra, observed by some monastic communities and even some lay followers, distribution of intoxicants is likewise discouraged, in addition to consumption. Acute alcohol intoxication Acute alcohol intoxication is synonymous with drunkenness, but context matters. The term acute alcohol intoxication is entrained in healthcare providers for use in the performance of their duties, often in emergencies. Toxicologists also speak of alcohol intoxication to discriminate from other toxins researched in the field. Treatment for acute alcohol intoxication may include: ABCs (Airway, Breathing, Circulation) protecting the patient from aspirating gastric contents Dextrose Thiamin may be administered to prevent the development of Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, and is a treatment for chronic alcoholism, but in the acute context is usually co-administered Electrolytes Dialysis if the concentration is dangerously high (>400 mg%) Additional medication may be indicated for nausea, tremor, and anxiety See also Short-term effects of alcohol Long-term effects of alcohol Beer goggles Notes References Sigmund, Paul. St. Thomas Aquinas On Politics and Ethics. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1988, p. 77. Rorabaugh, W.J. "The Alcoholic Republic," Chapter 2 & 5, Oxford University Press. Further reading Bales, Robert F. "Attitudes toward Drinking in the Irish Culture". In: Pittman, David J. and Snyder, Charles R. (Eds.) Society, Culture and Drinking Patterns. New York: Wiley, 1962, pp. 157–187. Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr., God Gave Wine: What the Bible Says about Alcohol. Lincoln, Calif.: Oakdown, 2001. Walton, Stuart. Out of It. A Cultural History of Intoxication. Penguin Books, 2002. ISBN 0-14-027977-6. | Alcohol_intoxication |@lemmatized drunkenness:7 inebriation:1 condition:1 intoxicate:3 consumption:7 alcoholic:5 beverage:3 degree:3 mental:2 physical:2 faculty:2 alter:1 impair:2 severe:1 may:8 lead:2 acute:6 alcohol:22 intoxication:13 common:1 symptom:1 include:2 slurred:1 speech:1 impaired:1 balance:1 poor:1 coordination:1 flush:1 face:1 redden:1 eye:1 reduce:1 inhibition:1 uncharacteristic:1 behavior:1 result:1 temporary:1 experience:1 wide:1 range:3 emotion:1 anger:1 sadness:1 depression:1 euphoria:1 lightheartedness:1 joviality:1 sexual:1 disinhibition:1 consume:2 excessive:1 amount:1 hangover:1 next:1 day:1 law:4 vary:1 country:2 united:2 state:3 example:1 commonly:2 criminal:1 offense:1 individual:1 drive:3 motorized:1 vehicle:2 considerably:1 high:3 standard:1 influence:2 drunk:4 drug:1 require:1 blood:2 content:3 bac:3 legally:1 operate:1 low:1 mg:5 ml:4 australia:2 armenia:1 hungary:1 romania:1 sweden:1 france:1 portugal:1 new:2 zealand:1 republic:3 ireland:1 concentration:2 limit:1 worldwide:1 additionally:1 u:2 federal:1 aviation:1 administration:1 prohibit:4 crewmembers:1 perform:1 duty:2 great:1 within:1 hour:1 sec:1 general:2 definition:1 part:1 operating:1 flight:1 rule:1 minesites:1 enforce:1 shift:1 thus:1 regularly:1 conduct:1 test:1 across:1 personnel:1 colloquially:1 know:1 blowing:1 bag:1 uk:2 police:1 arrest:1 deem:1 public:4 place:1 disorderly:1 even:3 incapable:1 often:2 legal:1 restriction:1 relate:1 increase:1 sale:1 intoxicated:1 person:1 http:1 www:1 camden:1 gov:1 ccm:1 press:2 february:1 booze:1 license:2 suspend:1 sell:1 customer:1 en:1 religious:2 view:1 noah:1 michelangelo:1 many:3 group:1 permit:2 altogether:1 qur:6 prohibition:2 grape:1 base:1 consider:1 abomination:1 hadith:1 islamic:1 school:1 madh:1 hab:1 interpret:1 strict:2 type:1 declare:1 haraam:1 forbidden:1 although:1 us:1 protestant:1 christian:1 denomination:1 due:1 biblical:1 passage:1 condemn:1 instance:1 proverbs:3 isaiah:2 habakkuk:2 allow:1 moderate:1 use:2 see:2 christianity:1 prophecy:1 king:3 lemuel:2 drink:5 wine:3 prince:1 strong:2 l:2 forget:2 pervert:1 judgment:1 afflicted:1 give:2 unto:2 ready:1 perish:1 heavy:1 heart:1 let:1 poverty:1 remember:1 misery:1 contrary:1 late:1 seventeenth:1 century:1 minister:3 control:4 tavern:1 people:1 good:1 moral:2 character:1 licensing:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 drinking:3 class:1 desire:1 choose:1 able:1 calm:1 drunken:1 folk:1 buddhism:1 discourage:2 monastic:3 lay:3 follower:3 observe:2 five:1 precept:3 fifth:1 forbids:1 intoxicant:2 substance:1 except:1 medical:1 reason:1 bodhisattva:1 vow:1 brahma:1 net:1 sutra:1 community:1 distribution:1 likewise:1 addition:1 synonymous:1 context:2 matter:1 term:3 entrain:1 healthcare:1 provider:1 performance:1 emergency:1 toxicologist:1 also:2 speak:1 discriminate:1 toxin:1 research:1 field:1 treatment:2 abc:1 airway:1 breathe:1 circulation:1 protect:1 patient:1 aspirate:1 gastric:1 dextrose:1 thiamin:1 administer:2 prevent:1 development:1 wernicke:1 korsakoff:1 syndrome:1 chronic:1 alcoholism:1 usually:1 co:1 electrolyte:1 dialysis:1 dangerously:1 additional:1 medication:1 indicate:1 nausea:1 tremor:1 anxiety:1 short:1 effect:2 long:1 beer:1 goggles:1 note:1 reference:1 sigmund:1 paul:1 st:1 thomas:1 aquinas:1 politics:1 ethic:1 w:3 norton:1 company:1 inc:1 p:1 rorabaugh:1 j:2 chapter:1 oxford:1 university:1 reading:1 bale:1 robert:1 f:1 attitude:1 toward:1 irish:1 culture:2 pittman:1 david:1 snyder:1 charles:1 r:1 eds:1 society:1 pattern:1 york:1 wiley:1 pp:1 gentry:1 kenneth:1 jr:1 god:1 bible:1 say:1 lincoln:1 calif:1 oakdown:1 walton:1 stuart:1 cultural:1 history:1 penguin:1 book:1 isbn:1 |@bigram alcoholic_beverage:3 alcohol_intoxication:6 mg_ml:4 http_www:1 qur_qur:4 qur_hadith:1 isaiah_isaiah:1 bodhisattva_vow:1 healthcare_provider:1 thomas_aquinas:1 w_norton:1 attitude_toward:1 |
3,910 | Context_switch | A context switch is the computing process of storing and restoring the state (context) of a CPU such that multiple processes can share a single CPU resource. The context switch is an essential feature of a multitasking operating system. Context switches are usually computationally intensive and much of the design of operating systems is to optimize the use of context switches. A context switch can mean a register context switch, a task context switch, a thread context switch, or a process context switch. What constitutes the context is determined by the processor and the operating system. When to switch? There are three scenarios where a context switch needs to occur. They are: Multitasking Most commonly, within some scheduling scheme, one process needs to be switched out of the CPU so another process can run. Within a preemptive multitasking operating system, the scheduler allows every task to run for some certain amount of time, called its time slice. If a process does not voluntarily yield the CPU (for example, by performing an I/O operation), a timer interrupt fires, and the operating system schedules another process for execution instead. This ensures that the CPU cannot be monopolized by any one processor-intensive application. Interrupt handling Some architectures (like the Intel x86 architecture) are interrupt driven. This means that if the CPU requests data from a disk, for example, it does not need to busy-wait until the read is over, it can issue the request and continue with some other execution; when the read is over, the CPU can be interrupted and presented with the read. For interrupts, a program called an interrupt handler is installed, and it is the interrupt handler that handles the interrupt from the disk. The kernel services the interrupts in the context of the interrupted process even though it may not have caused the interrupt. The interrupted process may have been executing in user mode or in kernel mode. The kernel saves enough information so that it can later resume execution of the interrupted process and services the interrupt in kernel mode. The kernel does not spawn or schedule a special process to handle interrupts. User and kernel mode switching When a transition between user mode and kernel mode is required in an operating system, a context switch is not necessary; a mode transition is not by itself a context switch. However, depending on the operating system, a context switch may also take place at this time. Context switch: steps In a context switch, the state of the first process must be saved somehow, so that, when the scheduler gets back to the execution of the first process, it can restore this state and continue. The state of the process includes all the registers that the process may be using, especially the program counter, plus any other operating system specific data that may be necessary. Often, all the data that is necessary for state is stored in one data structure, called a switchframe or a process control block. Now, in order to switch processes, the switchframe for the first process must be created and saved. The switchframes are sometimes stored upon a per-process stack in kernel memory (as opposed to the user-mode stack), or there may be some specific operating system defined data structure for this information. Since the operating system has effectively suspended the execution of the first process, it can now load the switchframe and context of the second process. In doing so, the program counter from the switchframe is loaded, and thus execution can continue in the new process. New processes are chosen from a queue or queues. Process and thread priority can influence which process continues execution, with processes of the highest priority checked first for ready threads to execute. Software vs hardware context switching Context switching can be performed primarily by software or hardware. Some processors, like the Intel 80286 and higher CPUs, have hardware support for context switches, by making use of a special data segment designated the Task State Segment or TSS. When a task switch occurs (implicitly due to a CALL instruction, referring to a task gate, or explicitly due to an interrupt or exception) the CPU can automatically load the new state from the TSS. With other tasks performed in hardware, one would expect this to be rather fast; however, mainstream operating systems, including Windows, do not use this feature. This is due mainly to two reasons: that hardware context switching does not save all the registers (only general purpose registers, not floating point registers--although the TS bit is automatically turned on in the CR0 control register, resulting in a fault when executing floating point instructions and giving the OS the opportunity to do saving and restoring of the floating point state), and associated performance issues. Some architectures contain logic to allow several hardware contexts to exist simultaneously, eliminating the need to store and restore the CPU context to memory on context switch. The extreme case is the barrel processor architecture, which switches between threads of execution on every cycle. External links Context Switch Definition - by The Linux Information Project (LINFO) Context Switches - from the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN) | Context_switch |@lemmatized context:28 switch:26 compute:1 process:26 store:4 restore:4 state:8 cpu:10 multiple:1 share:1 single:1 resource:1 essential:1 feature:2 multitasking:3 operating:10 system:11 usually:1 computationally:1 intensive:2 much:1 design:1 optimize:1 use:4 mean:2 register:6 task:6 thread:4 constitute:1 determine:1 processor:4 three:1 scenario:1 need:4 occur:2 commonly:1 within:2 scheduling:1 scheme:1 one:4 another:2 run:2 preemptive:1 scheduler:2 allow:2 every:2 certain:1 amount:1 time:3 call:4 slice:1 voluntarily:1 yield:1 example:2 perform:3 operation:1 timer:1 interrupt:13 fire:1 schedule:2 execution:8 instead:1 ensure:1 cannot:1 monopolize:1 application:1 handle:3 architecture:4 like:2 intel:2 driven:1 request:2 data:6 disk:2 busy:1 wait:1 read:3 issue:2 continue:4 present:1 program:3 handler:2 instal:1 kernel:8 service:2 interrupted:3 even:1 though:1 may:6 cause:1 execute:3 user:4 mode:8 save:5 enough:1 information:3 later:1 resume:1 spawn:1 special:2 transition:2 require:1 necessary:3 however:2 depend:1 also:1 take:1 place:1 step:1 first:5 must:2 somehow:1 get:1 back:1 include:2 especially:1 counter:2 plus:1 specific:2 often:1 structure:2 switchframe:4 control:2 block:1 order:1 create:1 switchframes:1 sometimes:1 upon:1 per:1 stack:2 memory:2 oppose:1 define:1 since:1 effectively:1 suspend:1 load:3 second:1 thus:1 new:3 choose:1 queue:2 priority:2 influence:1 high:2 check:1 ready:1 software:2 v:1 hardware:6 switching:2 primarily:1 support:1 make:1 segment:2 designate:1 tss:2 implicitly:1 due:3 instruction:2 refer:1 gate:1 explicitly:1 exception:1 automatically:2 would:1 expect:1 rather:1 fast:1 mainstream:1 operate:1 window:1 mainly:1 two:1 reason:1 general:1 purpose:1 float:3 point:3 although:1 ts:1 bit:1 turn:1 result:1 fault:1 give:1 opportunity:1 associated:1 performance:1 contain:1 logic:1 several:1 exist:1 simultaneously:1 eliminate:1 extreme:1 case:1 barrel:1 cycle:1 external:1 link:1 definition:1 linux:1 project:1 linfo:1 microsoft:1 developer:1 network:1 msdn:1 |@bigram computationally_intensive:1 preemptive_multitasking:1 interrupt_handler:2 external_link:1 |
3,911 | Lower_Saxony | Lower Saxony (German: Niedersachsen ) lies in north-western Germany and is second in area and fourth in population among the sixteen Bundesländer (states) of Germany. In rural areas Low German is still spoken, but the number of speakers is declining. Lower Saxony borders on (from north and clockwise) the North Sea, the states of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In total, Lower Saxony borders more neighboring states than any other federal state. The state of Bremen forms two enclaves within Lower Saxony, one being the city of Bremen, the other its seaport city of Bremerhaven. The state's principal cities include Hanover, Braunschweig, Osnabrück, Oldenburg, and Göttingen. The northwestern portion of Lower Saxony is a part of Frisia; it is called Ostfriesland (East Frisia) and lies on the coast of the North Sea. It includes seven islands, known as the East Frisian Islands. In the extreme west of Lower Saxony is the Emsland, a traditionally poor and sparsely populated area, once dominated by inaccessible swamps. The northern half of Lower Saxony, also known as the North German Plains, is almost invariably flat except for the gentle hills around the Bremen geestland. Towards the south and southwest lie the northern parts of the German Central Highlands, the Weserbergland (Weser mountain range) and the Harz mountains. Between these two lies the Lower Saxon Hill Country, a range of minor elevations. Lower Saxony's major cities and economic centres are mainly situated in its central and southern parts, namely Hanover, Braunschweig, Osnabrück, Wolfsburg, Salzgitter and Hildesheim. Oldenburg, near the northwestern coastline, is another economic center. The region in the northeast is called Lüneburger Heide (Lüneburg Heath), the largest heathland area of Germany and in medieval times wealthy due to salt mining and salt trade, as well as to a lesser degree the exploitation of its peat bogs up until about the 1960s. To the north, the Elbe river separates Lower Saxony from Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and Brandenburg. The banks just south of the Elbe are known as Altes Land (Old Country). Due to its gentle local climate and fertile soil it is the state's largest area of fruit farming, its chief produce being apples. See also List of places in Lower Saxony. Lower Saxony is divided into 38 districts (Landkreise or simply Kreise): Map of Lower Saxony with the district boundaries Ammerland Aurich (includes Juist, Norderney and Baltrum) Grafschaft Bentheim Celle Cloppenburg Cuxhaven Diepholz Emsland Friesland (includes Wangerooge) Gifhorn Goslar Göttingen Hamelin-Pyrmont (Hameln-Pyrmont)<li> Hannover (Hanover) <li> Harburg <li> Helmstedt <li> Hildesheim <li> Holzminden <li> Leer (includes Borkum) <li> Lüchow-Dannenberg <li> Lüneburg <li> Nienburg <li> Northeim <li> Oldenburg <li> Osnabrück <li> Osterholz<li value=27> Osterode <li> Peine <li> Rotenburg <li> Schaumburg <li> Soltau-Fallingbostel <li> Stade <li> Uelzen <li> Vechta <li> Verden <li> Wesermarsch <li> Wittmund (includes Langeoog and Spiekeroog) <li> Wolfenbüttel Furthermore there are ten urban districts: Braunschweig Delmenhorst Emden Göttingen ¹ Hannover ² Oldenburg Osnabrück Salzgitter Wilhelmshaven Wolfsburg ¹ following the "Göttingen Law" of January 1 1964, the town of Göttingen is incorporated into the district (Landkreis) of Göttingen, but the rules on urban districts still apply, as long as no other rules exist. ² following the "Law on the region of Hanover", Hanover counts since November 1 2001 as an urban district as long as no other rules apply. History Ordinance No. 55, with which on November 22, 1946 the British military government founded the state Lower Saxony retroactively to November 1, 1946. The area is named after the Saxons. The Saxons lived in today's state of Schleswig-Holstein and merged with the Chauci on the left bank of the river Elbe until the middle of the 1st millennium AD. They then expanded over the whole of today's Lower Saxony and further. Originally the region was simply called Saxony, but as the center of gravity of the Duchy of Saxony gradually moved up the Elbe, towards the present-day states of Saxony-Anhalt and Saxony, the region was given the name of Lower Saxony, which it bore as an Imperial Circle Estate from the late 15th century on. Historically, Low Saxony esp. the southern regions or the Gottingen region sought a high degree of autonomy. Today, they have a NFB football (soccer) team in a football federation of non-recognized nation states who are not members of the FIFA. The state was founded in 1946 by the British military administration, who merged the former states of Brunswick, Oldenburg, and Schaumburg-Lippe with the former Prussian province of Hanover. After the Second World War, the military authorities appointed the first Legislative Assembly (Landtag) in 1946, followed by a direct election of Lower Saxony's legislature a year later. It resulted in the election of Social Democrat leader Hinrich Wilhelm Kopf, who became the first prime minister. Kopf led a five-party coalition, whose basic task was to rebuild a state affected by the war's rigours. Kopf's cabinet had to organise an improvement of food supplies and the reconstruction of the cities and towns destroyed by the Allied air raids of the war years. In addition, the first state government also faced the challenge of integrating hundreds of thousands of refugees from Germany's former territories in the east (such as Silesia and East Prussia), which had been annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union. Between 1978 and 2004, the state's districts and independent towns were grouped into four administrative regions (Regierungsbezirke): Since 2004 the Bezirksregierungen have been broken up again. Braunschweig Hannover (Hanover) Lüneburg Weser-Ems Economy Agriculture has always been a very important economic factor in Lower Saxony. Wheat, potatoes, rye, and oats as well as beef, pork and poultry are some of the state's present-day agricultural products. The north and northwest of Lower Saxony are mainly made up of coarse sandy soil that makes crop farming difficult and therefore grassland and cattle farming are more prevalent in those areas. Towards the south and southeast, extensive loess layers in the soil left behind by the last ice age allow high-yield crop farming. One of the principal crops there is sugar beet. Mining has been an important source of income in Lower Saxony for centuries. Silver ore became a foundation of notable economic prosperity in the Harz Mountains as early as the 1100s, while iron mining in the Salzgitter area and salt mining in various areas of the state became another important economic backbone. Although overall yields are comparatively low, Lower Saxony is also an important supplier of crude oil in the European Union. Mineral products still mined today include iron and lignite. Radioactive waste is frequently transported in the area to the city of Salzgitter, for the deep geological repository Schacht Konrad and between Schacht Asse II in the Wolfenbüttel district and Lindwedel and Höfer. Manufacturing is another large part of the regional economy. Despite decades of gradual downsizing and restructuring, the car maker Volkswagen with its five production plants within the state's borders still remains the single biggest private-sector employer, its world headquarters based in Wolfsburg. Due to a legal act commonly known as the Volkswagen Law that has just recently been ruled illegal by the European Union's high court, the state of Lower Saxony is still the second largest shareholder, owning 20.3% of the company. Due to the importance of car manufacturing in Lower Saxony, a thriving supply industry is centered around its regional focal points. Other mainstays of the Lower Saxon industrial sector include aviation, shipbuilding, biotechnology, and steel. The service sector has gained importance following the demise of manufacturing in the 1970s and 1980s. Important branches today are the tourism industry with TUI AG in Hanover, one of Europe's largest travel companies, as well as trade and telecommunication. Coat of arms The coat of arms shows a white horse (Saxon Steed) on red ground, which is an old symbol of the Saxon people. Politics Since 1948, politics in the state has been dominated by the rightist Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the leftist Social Democratic Party. Lower Saxony was one of the origins of the German environmentalist movement in reaction to the state government's support for underground nuclear waste disposal. This led to the formation of the German Green Party in 1980. The current Minister-President, Christian Wulff, has led a coalition of his CDU with the Free Democratic Party since 2003. In the most recent state election in 2008, the ruling CDU held on to its position as the leading party in the state, despite losing votes and seats. The CDU's coalition with the Free Democratic Party retained its majority although it was cut from 29 to 10. The election also saw the entry into the state parliament for the first time of the leftist The Left party. See also Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg References External links Official governmental portal Official website for tourism, holiday and leisure in Lower Saxony map with tourist highlights, notepad and personal guide | Lower_Saxony |@lemmatized low:27 saxony:30 german:6 niedersachsen:1 lie:4 north:8 western:2 germany:4 second:3 area:10 fourth:1 population:1 among:1 sixteen:1 bundesländer:1 state:25 rural:1 still:5 speak:1 number:1 speaker:1 decline:1 border:3 clockwise:1 sea:2 schleswig:3 holstein:3 hamburg:2 mecklenburg:2 vorpommern:1 brandenburg:2 anhalt:2 thuringia:1 hesse:1 rhine:1 westphalia:1 kingdom:1 netherlands:1 total:1 neighboring:1 federal:1 bremen:3 form:1 two:2 enclave:1 within:2 one:4 city:6 seaport:1 bremerhaven:1 principal:2 include:8 hanover:8 braunschweig:5 osnabrück:4 oldenburg:5 göttingen:7 northwestern:2 portion:1 part:4 frisia:2 call:3 ostfriesland:1 east:4 coast:1 seven:1 island:2 know:4 frisian:1 extreme:1 west:1 emsland:2 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cloppenburg:1 cuxhaven:1 diepholz:1 friesland:1 wangerooge:1 gifhorn:1 goslar:1 hamelin:1 pyrmont:2 hameln:1 li:25 hannover:4 harburg:1 helmstedt:1 holzminden:1 leer:1 borkum:1 lüchow:1 dannenberg:1 nienburg:1 northeim:1 osterholz:1 value:1 osterode:1 peine:1 rotenburg:1 schaumburg:2 soltau:1 fallingbostel:1 stade:1 uelzen:1 vechta:1 verden:1 wesermarsch:1 wittmund:1 langeoog:1 spiekeroog:1 wolfenbüttel:2 furthermore:1 ten:1 urban:3 delmenhorst:1 emden:1 wilhelmshaven:1 follow:4 law:3 january:1 town:3 incorporate:1 landkreis:1 rule:4 apply:2 long:2 exist:1 count:1 since:4 november:3 history:1 ordinance:1 british:2 military:3 government:3 found:2 lower:2 retroactively:1 name:2 live:1 today:5 merge:2 chauci:1 left:2 middle:1 millennium:1 ad:1 expand:1 whole:1 far:1 originally:1 gravity:1 duchy:1 gradually:1 move:1 present:2 day:2 give:1 bore:1 imperial:1 circle:1 estate:1 late:1 century:2 historically:1 esp:1 gottingen:1 seek:1 high:3 autonomy:1 nfb:1 football:2 soccer:1 team:1 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prevalent:1 southeast:1 extensive:1 loess:1 layer:1 leave:1 behind:1 last:1 ice:1 age:1 allow:1 yield:2 sugar:1 beet:1 source:1 income:1 silver:1 ore:1 foundation:1 notable:1 prosperity:1 early:1 iron:2 various:1 backbone:1 although:2 overall:1 comparatively:1 supplier:1 crude:1 oil:1 european:2 mineral:1 mine:1 lignite:1 radioactive:1 waste:2 frequently:1 transport:1 deep:1 geological:1 repository:1 schacht:2 konrad:1 asse:1 ii:1 lindwedel:1 höfer:1 manufacturing:3 regional:2 despite:2 decade:1 gradual:1 downsizing:1 restructuring:1 car:2 maker:1 volkswagen:2 production:1 plant:1 remain:1 single:1 big:1 private:1 sector:3 employer:1 headquarters:1 base:1 legal:1 act:1 commonly:1 recently:1 illegal:1 court:1 shareholder:1 company:2 importance:2 thriving:1 industry:2 focal:1 point:1 mainstay:1 industrial:1 aviation:1 shipbuilding:1 biotechnology:1 steel:1 service:1 gain:1 demise:1 branch:1 tourism:2 tui:1 ag:1 europe:1 travel:1 telecommunication:1 coat:2 arm:2 show:1 white:1 horse:1 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3,912 | Fandom | Fandom (from the noun fan and the affix -dom, as in kingdom, freedom, etc.) is a term used to refer to a subculture composed of fans characterized by a feeling of sympathy and camaraderie with others who share a common interest. A fandom can grow up centered around any area of human interest or activity. The subject of fan interest can be narrowly defined, focused on something like an individual celebrity; or wide, encompassing entire hobbies, genres or fashions. Fandom as a term can also be used in a broad sense to refer to an interconnected social network of individual fandoms, many of which overlap. While it is now used to apply to groups of people fascinated with any subject, the term has its roots in those with an enthusiastic appreciation for sports. The Webster's Dictionary traces the usage of the term back as far as 1903. Fans typically are interested in even minor details of the object(s) of their fandom and spend a significant portion of their time and energy involved with their interest; this is what differentiates them from those with only a casual interest. When referring to an organized sub-culture, the term "fandom" is most often associated with science fiction fandom, the community of fans of the science fiction and fantasy genres, an international fan sub-culture which dates back to the 1930s and has held the annual World Science Fiction Convention since 1939 along with many other events each year. Science fiction fandom maintains organized clubs and associations in many cities around the world, and has created its own jargon, sometimes called "fanspeak" "Dr. Gafia's Fan Terms" . Members of a fandom associate with one another, often attending fan conventions (such as science fiction conventions), and publishing and exchanging fanzines. Originally using print-based media, these sub-cultures have migrated much of their communications and interaction onto the internet, which they also use for the purpose of archiving detailed information pertinent to their given fanbase. Some fans also write fan fiction, stories based around the universe and characters of their chosen fandom. Some also dress in costumes ("cosplay") or recite lines of dialogue either out-of-context or as part of a group reenactment. Such activities are sometimes known as "fanac," an abbreviated form of the phrase "fan activity." The advent of the internet has significantly facilitated fan association and activities. The term is sometimes associated with anime/manga; serious fans of this subject are also called otaku. The entertainment industry refers to the totality of fans devoted to a particular area of interest, whether organized or not, as the "fanbase". Fans, have, on occasion, organized on behalf of cancelled television series, with notable success in cases such as Star Trek in 1968, Cagney & Lacey in 1983, Roswell in 2000 and 2001 (it was cancelled with finality at the end of the 2002 season), Farscape in 2002, Firefly in 2002, and Jericho in 2007. (In the case of Firefly the result was a movie, not another season.) Such outcry, even when unsuccessful, suggest a growing self-consciousness on the part of entertainment consumers, who appear increasingly likely to attempt to assert their power as a bloc. Fan activism in support of the 2007 Writers Guild of America strike through Fans4Writers appears to be an extension of this trend. Fandom is sometimes caricatured as religious faith, as the interest of fans sometimes grows to dominate their lifestyle. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-15383489.html However, society at large does not treat fandom with the same weight as organized religion, and fans themselves often become divided by the strength of their own belief. Feature-length documentaries about fandom (some more respectful of the subjects than others) include Trekkies (film), Finding the Future: A Science Fiction Conversation, and Done the Impossible. "Fandom" is also the name of a documentary / mockumentary about a fan obsessed with Natalie Portman. See also Browncoats Doctor Who fandom Fanboy Fan fiction Furry fandom Janeite Anime and manga fandom Science fiction fandom Songvid Tolkien fandom Trekkie (Star Trek fandom) Trilby (novel) (Early example) fangirl Harry Potter fandom References External links "Who owns fandom?" - Salon.com December 13, 2000 "Rank and Phile" - Arts Hub feature, August 12, 2005 "Gaming's Fringe Cults" at The Escapist | Fandom |@lemmatized fandom:22 noun:1 fan:20 affix:1 dom:1 kingdom:1 freedom:1 etc:1 term:7 use:5 refer:3 subculture:1 compose:1 characterize:1 feeling:1 sympathy:1 camaraderie:1 others:2 share:1 common:1 interest:7 grow:3 center:1 around:3 area:2 human:1 activity:4 subject:4 narrowly:1 define:1 focus:1 something:1 like:1 individual:2 celebrity:1 wide:1 encompass:1 entire:1 hobby:1 genre:2 fashion:1 also:7 broad:1 sense:1 interconnect:1 social:1 network:1 many:3 overlap:1 apply:1 group:2 people:1 fascinate:1 root:1 enthusiastic:1 appreciation:1 sport:1 webster:1 dictionary:1 trace:1 usage:1 back:2 far:1 typically:1 interested:1 even:2 minor:1 detail:1 object:1 spend:1 significant:1 portion:1 time:1 energy:1 involve:1 differentiate:1 casual:1 organize:5 sub:3 culture:3 often:3 associate:3 science:7 fiction:9 community:1 fantasy:1 international:1 date:1 hold:1 annual:1 world:2 convention:3 since:1 along:1 event:1 year:1 maintain:1 club:1 association:2 city:1 create:1 jargon:1 sometimes:5 call:2 fanspeak:1 dr:1 gafia:1 member:1 one:1 another:2 attend:1 publishing:1 exchange:1 fanzines:1 originally:1 print:1 base:2 medium:1 migrate:1 much:1 communication:1 interaction:1 onto:1 internet:2 purpose:1 archive:1 detailed:1 information:1 pertinent:1 give:1 fanbase:2 write:1 story:1 universe:1 character:1 chosen:1 dress:1 costume:1 cosplay:1 recite:1 line:1 dialogue:1 either:1 context:1 part:2 reenactment:1 know:1 fanac:1 abbreviated:1 form:1 phrase:1 advent:1 significantly:1 facilitate:1 anime:2 manga:2 serious:1 otaku:1 entertainment:2 industry:1 refers:1 totality:1 devote:1 particular:1 whether:1 occasion:1 behalf:1 cancelled:1 television:1 series:1 notable:1 success:1 case:2 star:2 trek:2 cagney:1 lacey:1 roswell:1 cancel:1 finality:1 end:1 season:2 farscape:1 firefly:2 jericho:1 result:1 movie:1 outcry:1 unsuccessful:1 suggest:1 self:1 consciousness:1 consumer:1 appear:2 increasingly:1 likely:1 attempt:1 assert:1 power:1 bloc:1 activism:1 support:1 writer:1 guild:1 america:1 strike:1 extension:1 trend:1 caricature:1 religious:1 faith:1 dominate:1 lifestyle:1 http:1 www:1 encyclopedia:1 com:2 doc:1 html:1 however:1 society:1 large:1 treat:1 weight:1 religion:1 become:1 divide:1 strength:1 belief:1 feature:2 length:1 documentary:2 respectful:1 include:1 trekkies:1 film:1 find:1 future:1 conversation:1 impossible:1 name:1 mockumentary:1 obsess:1 natalie:1 portman:1 see:1 browncoats:1 doctor:1 fanboy:1 furry:1 janeite:1 songvid:1 tolkien:1 trekkie:1 trilby:1 novel:1 early:1 example:1 fangirl:1 harry:1 potter:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 salon:1 december:1 rank:1 phile:1 art:1 hub:1 august:1 game:1 fringe:1 cult:1 escapist:1 |@bigram science_fiction:7 fiction_fandom:3 anime_manga:2 star_trek:2 http_www:1 harry_potter:1 external_link:1 |
3,913 | Kurt_Vonnegut | Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. (November 11, 1922 – April 11, 2007; ) was a prolific and genre-bending American novelist known for works blending satire, black comedy and science fiction, such as Slaughterhouse-Five (1969), Cat's Cradle (1963), and Breakfast of Champions (1973). In print: Smith, Dinitia, "Kurt Vonnegut, Novelist Who Caught the Imagination of His Age, Is Dead at 84", The New York Times, April 12, 2007, p.1 He was known for his humanist beliefs as well as being honorary president of the American Humanist Association. Life Early years Kurt Vonnegut was born to fourth-generation German-American parents (Kurt Vonnegut, Sr., and Edith née Lieber), son and grandson in the Indianapolis firm Vonnegut & Bohn. He attended Cornell University, where he served as assistant managing editor and associate editor for the student newspaper, the Cornell Daily Sun, and majored in Chemistry. http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/April07/vonnegut.html Novelist Kurt Vonnegut Dies While attending Cornell, he was a member of the Delta Upsilon Fraternity, following in the footsteps of his father. While at Cornell, Vonnegut enlisted in the U.S. Army. The army sent him to the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) and the University of Tennessee to study mechanical engineering. On May 14, 1944, Mothers' Day, his mother committed suicide. World War II Kurt Vonnegut's experience as a soldier and prisoner of war had a profound influence on his later work. As a private with the 106th Infantry Division, Vonnegut was cut off from his battalion along with five other battalion scouts who wandered behind enemy lines for several days until being captured by Wehrmacht troops on December 14, 1944. NNDB - [check date] (battle of the Bulge started on December 16)Biography of Kurt Vonnegut Imprisoned in Dresden, Vonnegut was chosen as a leader of the POWs because he spoke some German. After insulting some German soldiers that were guarding him he was beaten and had his position as leader taken away. Vonnegut, Kurt, JR. Armageddon in Retrospect. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2008. While a prisoner, he witnessed the fire bombing of Dresden in February 1945 which destroyed most of the city. Vonnegut was one of a group of American prisoners of war to survive the attack in an underground slaughterhouse meatlocker used by the Germans as an ad hoc detention facility. The Germans called the building Schlachthof Fünf (Slaughterhouse Five), which the Allied POWs adopted as the name for their prison. Vonnegut said the aftermath of the attack was "utter destruction", "carnage unfathomable." In "Slaughterhouse Five," he recalls that the remains of the city resembled the surface of the moon. The Germans put the surviving POWs to work, breaking into basements and bomb shelters to gather bodies for mass burial, while German civilians cursed and threw rocks at them. Vonnegut, Kurt, JR. Armageddon in Retrospect. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2008. Vonnegut eventually remarked, "there were too many corpses to bury. So instead the Germans sent in troops with flamethrowers. All these civilians' remains were burned to ashes." This experience was the inspiration for one of his most famous novels, Slaughterhouse-Five, and is a central theme in at least six other of his books. Vonnegut was repatriated by Red Army troops in May 1945 at the Saxony-Czechoslovakian border. Vonnegut, Kurt, JR. Armageddon in Retrospect. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2008. Upon returning to America, he was awarded a Purple Heart for what he called a "ludicrously negligible wound," Sarah Land Prakken: The Reader's Adviser: A Layman's Guide to Literature, R. R. Bowker 1974, ISBN 0-83520781-1, p. 623; Arthur Salm: Novelist Kurt Vonnegut: So it goes, The San Diego Union-Tribune April 15, 2007 later writing in Timequake that he was given the decoration after suffering a case of "frostbite". Vonnegut, Kurt (1997). Timequake. Post-war career After the war, Vonnegut attended the University of Chicago as a graduate student in anthropology and also worked at the City News Bureau of Chicago. Vonnegut admitted that he was a poor anthropology student, with one professor remarking that some of the students were going to be professional anthropologists and he was not one of them. According to Vonnegut in Bagombo Snuff Box, the university rejected his first thesis on the necessity of accounting for the similarities between Cubist painters and the leaders of late 19th Century Native American uprisings, saying it was "unprofessional." He left Chicago to work in Schenectady, New York, in public relations for General Electric, where his brother Bernard worked in the research department. The University of Chicago later accepted his novel Cat's Cradle as his thesis, citing its anthropological content and awarded him the M.A. degree in 1971. David Hayman, David Michaelis, George Plimpton, Richard Rhodes, "The Art of Fiction No. 64: Kurt Vonnegut", Paris Review, Issue 69, Spring 1977 In the mid 1950s, Vonnegut worked very briefly for Sports Illustrated magazine, where he was assigned to write a piece on a racehorse that had jumped a fence and attempted to run away. After staring at the blank piece of paper on his typewriter all morning, he typed, "The horse jumped over the fucking fence," and left. Excerpt: 'Armageddon in Retrospect', NPR.org, June 3, 2008. On the verge of abandoning writing, Vonnegut was offered a teaching job at the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop. While he was there, Cat's Cradle became a best-seller, and he began Slaughterhouse-Five, now considered one of the best American novels of the 20th Century, appearing on the 100 best lists of Time magazine and the Modern Library. Early in his adult life he moved to Barnstable, Massachusetts, a town on Cape Cod, where he managed the first SAAB dealership established in the U.S. Personal life The author's name appears in print as "Kurt Vonnegut, Jr." throughout the first half of his published writing career; beginning with the 1976 publication of Slapstick, he dropped the "Jr." and was simply billed as Kurt Vonnegut. His older brother, Bernard Vonnegut, was an atmospheric scientist at the University at Albany, SUNY, who discovered that silver iodide could be used for cloud seeding, the process of artificially stimulating precipitation. After returning from World War II, Kurt Vonnegut married his childhood sweetheart, Jane Marie Cox, writing about their courtship in several of his short stories. The couple separated in 1970. He did not divorce Cox until 1979, but from 1970 Vonnegut lived with the woman who would later become his second wife, photographer Jill Krementz. Krementz and Vonnegut were married after the divorce from Cox was finalized. He raised seven children: three with his first wife, three more born to his sister Alice and adopted by Vonnegut after she died of cancer, and a seventh, Lily, adopted with Krementz. Two of these children have published books, including his only biological son, Mark Vonnegut, who wrote The Eden Express: A Memoir of Insanity, about his experiences in the late 1960s and his major psychotic breakdown and recovery; the tendency to insanity he acknowledged may be partly hereditary, influencing him to take up the study of medicine and Orthomolecular medicine, which he later disavowed. Mark was named after Mark Twain, whom Vonnegut considered an American Saint. His daughter Edith ("Edie"), an artist, was named after Kurt Vonnegut's mother, Edith Lieber. During her youth, she was an acquaintance of Cape Cod murderer Tony Costa. She has had her work published in a book titled Domestic Goddesses and was once married to Geraldo Rivera. His youngest daughter, Nanette ("Nanny"), was named after Nanette Schnull, Vonnegut's paternal grandmother. She is married to realist painter Scott Prior and is the subject of several of his paintings, notably "Nanny and Rose". Of Vonnegut's four adopted children, three are his nephews: James, Steven, and Kurt Adams; the fourth is Lily, a girl he adopted as an infant in 1982. James, Steven, and Kurt were adopted after a traumatic week in 1958, in which their father James Carmalt Adams was killed on September 15 in the Newark Bay rail crash when his commuter train went off the open Newark Bay bridge in New Jersey, and their mother—Kurt's sister Alice—died of cancer. In Slapstick, Vonnegut recounts that Alice's husband died two days before Alice herself, and her family tried to hide the knowledge from her, but she found out when an ambulatory patient gave her a copy of the New York Daily News a day before she herself died. The fourth and youngest of the boys, Peter Nice, went to live with a first cousin of their father in Birmingham, Alabama as an infant. Lily is a singer and actress. On November 11, 1999, the asteroid 25399 Vonnegut was named in Vonnegut's honor. On January 31, 2001, a fire destroyed the top story of his home. Vonnegut suffered smoke inhalation and was hospitalized in critical condition for four days. He survived, but his personal archives were destroyed. After leaving the hospital, he recuperated in Northampton, Massachusetts. Vonnegut smoked unfiltered Pall Mall cigarettes, a habit he referred to as a "classy way to commit suicide". Death Vonnegut died on April 11, 2007, in Manhattan, following a fall at his Manhattan home several weeks earlier which resulted in irreversible brain injuries. Posthumous tributes At the annual Indianapolis-Marion County Public Library McFadden Memorial Lecture at Butler University in Indianapolis, on April 27, 2007, where Vonnegut was being honored posthumously, his son Mark delivered a speech that the author wrote for the event, and which was reported as the last thing he wrote. It ends with this: "I thank you for your attention, and I'm outta here." Following his death, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart on Comedy Central gave Vonnegut a small tribute frame before the closing credits with his own famous phrase on death--"so it goes." There was also a short clip of him being interviewed by Jon Stewart, in which he joked that gonorrhea, giraffes and hippopotamuses are evidence of evolution being controlled by a divine power. Filmmaker Michael Moore included Vonnegut in the dedications for his 2007 film Sicko; at the end of the film, the words "Thank You Kurt Vonnegut for Everything" appear on the screen. The satirical newspaper The Onion contained a tribute to Vonnegut soon after he died, with a reference to his work Slaughterhouse-Five stating that he shouldn't be referred to as dead "without checking Dresden for his younger self first." Kurt Vonnegut Dead | The Onion - America's Finest News Source For a brief period after Vonnegut's death, the front page of the website for the alt-rock band Wilco carried a phrase from one of the author's works out of respect: "If I should die, let this be my epitaph: his only proof for the existence of God was music". Vonnegut, A Man Without a Country, p 66 The album Ode to J. Smith by Travis is dedicated to Vonnegut. "Kurt Vonnegut" is the title of a song by Born Ruffians on the 2008 release Red, Yellow & Blue and features a verse from Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle. On November 11, 2007, Wynkoop Brewing Company in Denver, reintroduced Kurt's Mile High Malt to celebrate the late author's birthday. The beer was originally created by Vonnegut's grandfather, Albert Lieber, of the Indianapolis Brewery. Kurt's Mile High Malt was first brewed in 1996 thanks to Wynkoop Founder and Denver Mayor John Hickenlooper, a friend of Vonnegut's. Works Writing career Vonnegut's first short story, "Report on the Barnhouse Effect" appeared in the February 11, 1950 edition of Collier's (it has since been reprinted in his short story collection, Welcome to the Monkey House). His first novel was the dystopian novel Player Piano (1952), in which human workers have been largely replaced by machines. He continued to write short stories before his second novel, The Sirens of Titan, was published in 1959. Through the 1960s, the form of his work changed, from the relatively orthodox structure of Cat's Cradle (which in 1971 earned him a Master's Degree) to the acclaimed, semi-autobiographical Slaughterhouse-Five, given a more experimental structure by using time travel as a plot device. These structural experiments were continued in Breakfast of Champions (1973), which included many rough illustrations, lengthy non-sequiturs and an appearance by the author himself, as a deus ex machina. "This is a very bad book you're writing," I said to myself. "I know," I said. "You're afraid you'll kill yourself the way your mother did," I said. "I know," I said. Deadeye Dick (© 1982), although mostly set in the mid-twentieth century, foreshadows the turbulent times of contemporary America; it ends prophetically with the lines "You want to know something? We are still in the Dark Ages. The Dark Ages—they haven't ended yet." The novel explores themes of social isolation and alienation that are particularly relevant in the postmodern world. Society is seen as openly hostile or indifferent at best, and popular culture as superficial and excessively materialistic. Vonnegut attempted suicide in 1984 and later wrote about this in several essays. Breakfast of Champions became one of his best-selling novels. It includes, in addition to the author himself, several of Vonnegut's recurring characters. One of them, science fiction author Kilgore Trout, plays a major role and interacts with the author's character. In addition to recurring characters, there are also recurring themes and ideas. One of them is ice-nine (a central wampeter in his novel Cat's Cradle). Although many of his novels involved science fiction themes, they were widely read and reviewed outside the field, not least due to their anti-authoritarianism. For example, his seminal short story Harrison Bergeron graphically demonstrates how an ethos like egalitarianism, when combined with too much authority, engenders horrific repression. In much of his work, Vonnegut's own voice is apparent, often filtered through the character of science fiction author Kilgore Trout (whose name is based on that of real-life science fiction writer Theodore Sturgeon), characterized by wild leaps of imagination and a deep cynicism, tempered by humanism. In the foreword to Breakfast of Champions, Vonnegut wrote that as a child, he saw men with locomotor ataxia, and it struck him that these men walked like broken machines; it followed that healthy people were working machines, suggesting that humans are helpless prisoners of determinism. Vonnegut also explored this theme in Slaughterhouse-Five, in which protagonist Billy Pilgrim "has come unstuck in time" and has so little control over his own life that he cannot even predict which part of it he will be living through from minute to minute. Vonnegut's well-known phrase "So it goes", used ironically in reference to death, also originated in Slaughterhouse-Five and became a slogan for anti-Vietnam War protestors in the 1960s. "Its combination of simplicity, irony, and rue is very much in the Vonnegut vein." With the publication of his novel Timequake in 1997, Vonnegut announced his retirement from writing fiction. He continued to write for the magazine In These Times, where he was a senior editor, NY1 Story April 12, 2007 until his death in 2007, focusing on subjects ranging from contemporary U.S. politics to simple observational pieces on topics such as a trip to the post office. In 2005, many of his essays were collected in a new bestselling book titled A Man Without a Country, which he insisted would be his last contribution to letters. An August 2006 article reported: He has stalled finishing his highly anticipated novel If God Were Alive Today—or so he claims. "I've given up on it ... It won't happen. ... The Army kept me on because I could type, so I was typing other people's discharges and stuff. And my feeling was, 'Please, I've done everything I was supposed to do. Can I go home now?' That's what I feel right now. I've written books. Lots of them. Please, I've done everything I'm supposed to do. Can I go home now?" The April 2008 issue of Playboy featured the first published excerpt from Armageddon in Retrospect, the first posthumous collection of Vonnegut's work. The book itself was published in the same month. It included never before published short stories by the writer and a letter that was written to his family during WWII when Vonnegut was captured as a prisoner of war. The book also contains drawings that Vonnegut himself drew and a speech he wrote shortly before his death. The introduction of the book was written by his son, Mark Vonnegut. Design career Vonnegut's work as a graphic artist began with his illustrations for Slaughterhouse-Five and developed with Breakfast of Champions, which included numerous felt-tip pen illustrations of such subjects as anal sphincters, as well as other less scatological images. Later in his career, he became more interested in artwork, particularly silk-screen prints, which he pursued in collaboration with Joe Petro III. In 2004, Vonnegut participated in the project The Greatest Album Covers That Never Were, for which he created an album cover for Phish called Hook, Line and Sinker, which has been included in a traveling exhibition for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Beliefs Politics Vonnegut was deeply influenced by early Socialist labor leaders, especially Indiana natives Powers Hapgood and Eugene V. Debs, and he frequently quotes them in his work. He named characters after both Debs (Eugene Debs Hartke in Hocus Pocus and Eugene Debs Metzger in Deadeye Dick) and Russian Communist leader Leon Trotsky (Leon Trotsky Trout in Galápagos). He was a lifetime member of the American Civil Liberties Union and was featured in a print advertisement for them. Vonnegut frequently addressed moral and political issues but rarely dealt with specific political figures until after his retirement from fiction. (Although the downfall of Walter Starbuck, a minor Nixon administration bureaucrat who is the narrator and main character in Jailbird (1979), would not have occurred but for the Watergate scandal, the focus is not on the administration.) His collection God Bless You, Dr. Kevorkian referenced controversial assisted suicide proponent Jack Kevorkian. With his columns for In These Times, he began a blistering attack on the Bush administration and the Iraq war. "By saying that our leaders are power-drunk chimpanzees, am I in danger of wrecking the morale of our soldiers fighting and dying in the Middle East?" he wrote. "Their morale, like so many bodies, is already shot to pieces. They are being treated, as I never was, like toys a rich kid got for Christmas." In These Times quoted him as saying "The only difference between Hitler and Bush is that Hitler was elected." 15 Things Kurt Vonnegut Said Better Than Anyone Else Ever Has Or Will | The A.V. Club In A Man Without a Country, he wrote that "George W. Bush has gathered around him upper-crust C-students who know no history or geography." He did not regard the 2004 election with much optimism; speaking of Bush and John Kerry, he said that "no matter which one wins, we will have a Skull and Bones President at a time when entire vertebrate species, because of how we have poisoned the topsoil, the waters and the atmosphere, are becoming, hey presto, nothing but skulls and bones." In 2005, Vonnegut was interviewed by David Nason for The Australian. During the course of the interview Vonnegut was asked his opinion of modern terrorists, to which he replied, "I regard them as very brave people." When pressed further Vonnegut also said that "They [suicide bombers] are dying for their own self-respect. It's a terrible thing to deprive someone of their self-respect. It's [like] your culture is nothing, your Race is nothing, you're nothing ... It is sweet and noble—sweet and honourable I guess it is—to die for what you believe in." (This last statement is a reference to the line "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori" ["it is sweet and appropriate to die for your country"] from Horace's Odes, or possibly to Wilfred Owen's ironic use of the line in his Dulce Et Decorum Est.) Nason took offense at Vonnegut's comments and characterized him as an old man who "doesn't want to live any more ... and because he can't find anything worthwhile to keep him alive, he finds defending terrorists somehow amusing." Vonnegut's son, Mark, responded to the article by writing an editorial to the Boston Globe in which he explained the reasons behind his father's "provocative posturing" and stated that "If these commentators can so badly misunderstand and underestimate an utterly unguarded English-speaking 83-year-old man with an extensive public record of saying exactly what he thinks, maybe we should worry about how well they understand an enemy they can't figure out what to call." A 2006 interview with Rolling Stone stated, " ... it's not surprising that he disdains everything about the Iraq War. The very notion that more than 2,500 U.S. soldiers have been killed in what he sees as an unnecessary conflict makes him groan. 'Honestly, I wish Nixon were president,' Vonnegut laments. 'Bush is so ignorant.' " Religion Vonnegut was descended from a family of German freethinkers, who were skeptical of "conventional religious beliefs." Timequake, by Kurt Vonnegut, New York: G.P. Putnam's, 1997. His great-grandfather Clemens Vonnegut had authored a freethought book entitled Instruction in Morals, as well as an address for his own funeral in which he denied the existence of God, an afterlife, and Christian doctrines about sin and salvation. Kurt Vonnegut reproduced his great-grandfather's funeral address in his book Palm Sunday, and identified these freethought views as his "ancestral religion," declaring it a mystery as to how it was passed on to him. Vonnegut described himself variously as a skeptic, Palm Sunday, by Kurt Vonnegut, 1981. Republished by The Dial Press, 2006. freethinker, Vonnegut Unbound: The master of irreverence on life, death, God, humanism, and the souls of aspiring artists, By Christopher R. Blazejewski, The Harvard Crimson, Friday, May 12, 2000 humanist, Unitarian Universalist, Vonnegut, Fates Worse Than Death, p. 157; Haught, 2000 Years of Disbelief, p. 287 agnostic, and atheist. He disbelieved in the supernatural, considered religious doctrine to be "so much arbitrary, clearly invented balderdash," and believed people were motivated by loneliness to join religions. Vonnegut, Palm Sunday, p 196 Vonnegut considered humanism to be a modern-day form of freethought, David Brancaccio: Now on PBS (transcript), 10.07.05 and advocated it in various writings, speeches and interviews. His ties to organized humanism included membership as a Humanist Laureate in the Council for Secular Humanism's International Academy of Humanism. International Academy of Humanism, published on the website of the Council for Secular Humanism In 1992, the American Humanist Association named him the Humanist of the Year. Vonnegut went on to serve as honorary president of the American Humanist Association (AHA), having taken over the position from his late colleague Isaac Asimov, and serving until his own death in 2007. Vonnegut, A Man without a Country (2005), p. 80 In a letter to AHA members, Vonnegut wrote: "I am a humanist, which means, in part, that I have tried to behave decently without expectations of rewards or punishments after I am dead." Humanist President Kurt Vonnegut Mourned American Humanists Association Press Release, April 12, 2007 Vonnegut was at one time a member of a Unitarian congregation. Unitarian Universalism is a religion that does not require its adherents to subscribe to any creed. It was formed in 1961 from a denominational merger of Unitarians and Universalists in the United States. Even after the merger, many individual congregations retained the pre-merger denominational designations ("Unitarian" or "Universalist") within their names. "Unitarian" is a common shorthand designation for members of the denomination, though "Unitarian Universalist" (abbreviated as UU) is the more technically correct term. Palm Sunday reproduces a sermon he delivered to the First Parish Unitarian Church in Cambridge, Massachusetts concerning William Ellery Channing, who was a principal founder of Unitarianism in the United States. In 1986, Vonnegut spoke to a gathering of Unitarian Universalists in Rochester, New York, and the text of his speech is reprinted in his book Fates Worse Than Death. Also reprinted in that book was a "mass" by Vonnegut, which was performed by a Unitarian Universalist choir in Buffalo, New York. Vonnegut's mass had been written as a counterpoint to a "sadistic and masochistic" 1570 Catholic mass. It was translated into Latin and set to music by acquaintances. Fates Worse than Death, pp. 69-73, 223-234 Vonnegut identified Unitarianism as the religion that many in his freethinking family turned to when freethought and other German "enthusiasms" became unpopular in the United States during the World Wars. Vonnegut's parents were married by a Unitarian minister, and his son had at one time aspired to become a Unitarian minister. Vonnegut's views on religion were unconventional and nuanced. While rejecting the divinity of Jesus, Haught 1996, p. 287 he was nevertheless an ardent admirer, and believed that Jesus' Beatitudes informed his own humanist outlook. "I say of Jesus, as all humanists do, 'If what he said is good, and so much of it is absolutely beautiful, what does it matter if he was God or not?' But if Christ hadn't delivered the Sermon on the Mount, with its message of mercy and pity, I wouldn't want to be a human being. I'd just as soon be a rattlesnake." Vonnegut, A Man without a Country, pp 80-81 While he often identified himself as an agnostic or atheist, he also frequently spoke of God and despite describing freethought, humanism and agnosticism as his "ancestral religion," and despite being a Unitarian, he also spoke of himself as being irreligious. In a press release by the American Humanist Association he was claimed to have been "completely secular." Writing In his book Bagombo Snuff Box: Uncollected Short Fiction, Vonnegut listed eight rules for writing a short story: Use the time of a total stranger in such a way that he or she will not feel the time was wasted. Give the reader at least one character he or she can root for. Every character should want something, even if it is only a glass of water. Every sentence must do one of two things—reveal character or advance the action. Start as close to the end as possible. Be a Sadist. No matter how sweet and innocent your leading characters, make awful things happen to them—in order that the reader may see what they are made of. Write to please just one person. If you open a window and make love to the world, so to speak, your story will get pneumonia. Give your readers as much information as possible as soon as possible. To hell with suspense. Readers should have such complete understanding of what is going on, where and why, that they could finish the story themselves, should cockroaches eat the last few pages. Vonnegut qualifies the list by adding that Flannery O'Connor broke all these rules except the first, and that great writers tend to do that. In Chapter 18 of his book Palm Sunday, "The Sexual Revolution", Vonnegut grades his own works. He states that the grades "do not place me in literary history" and that he is comparing "myself with myself." The grades are as follows: Player Piano: B The Sirens of Titan: A Mother Night: A Cat's Cradle: A-plus God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater: A Slaughterhouse-Five: A-plus Welcome to the Monkey House: B-minus Happy Birthday, Wanda June: D Breakfast of Champions: C Slapstick: D Jailbird: A Palm Sunday: C The last lines that Vonnegut wrote, in his last book, go thus: When the last living thing Has died on account of us, How poetical it would be If Earth could say, In a voice floating up Perhaps From the floor Of the Grand Canyon, "It is done. People did not like it here." Cameos Vonnegut played himself in a cameo in 1986's Back to School, in which he is hired by Rodney Dangerfield's Thornton Mellon to write a paper on the topic of the novels of Kurt Vonnegut. Recognizing the work as not Melon's own, Professor Turner tells him, "Whoever did write this doesn't know the first thing about Kurt Vonnegut." Vonnegut also makes brief cameos in the film adaptations of his novels Mother Night and Breakfast of Champions. Mother Night was directed by Keith Gordon, who starred as Dangerfield's son in Back to School. He made a guest appearance on the 2002 DVD released by 1 Giant Leap, leading the producers of the film to say, "Probably the most unbelievable result in our whole production was getting Kurt Vonnegut to agree to an interview". In the film, Vonnegut states, "Music is, to me, proof of the existence of God. It is so extraordinarily full of magic, and in tough times of my life I can listen to music and it makes such a difference". Vonnegut narrates and wrote the narrative of two oratorios with composer Dave Soldier recorded by the Manhattan Chamber Orchestra, A Soldier's Story based on the execution of Private Eddie Slovik and Ice-9 Ballads, adapted from Cat's Cradle. Vonnegut recorded a number of first-person voice overs for Ken Burns's documentary The Civil War and included one of a young soldier reflecting on a visit with a prostitute. Vonnegut appears briefly in the 2005 dramatic documentary The American Ruling Class playing himself. Vonnegut appears briefly in the 2005 Dutch release of the three part BBC documentary D-Day to Berlin. The allies journey to victory, telling about his memories of the bombing of Dresden In 2007 Vonnegut is featured in the film Never Down as Robert and appears in several scenes. Bibliography Novels Player Piano (1952) The Sirens of Titan (1959) Mother Night (1961) Cat's Cradle (1963) God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater; or, Pearls before Swine (1965) Slaughterhouse-Five; or, The Children's Crusade (1969) Breakfast of Champions; or, Goodbye Blue Monday (1973) Slapstick; or, Lonesome No More (1976) Jailbird (1979) Deadeye Dick (1982) Galápagos (1985) Bluebeard (1987) Hocus Pocus (1990) Timequake (1997) Collections of short stories and essays Canary in a Cathouse (1961) Welcome to the Monkey House: A Collection of Short Works (1968) Wampeters, Foma and Granfalloons (1974) Palm Sunday (1981) Fates Worse than Death (1991) Bagombo Snuff Box: Uncollected Short Fiction (1999) God Bless You, Dr. Kevorkian (1999) A Man Without a Country (2005) Armageddon in Retrospect (2008, posthumous) See also Vonnegut Hardware Company Notes and references External links Vonnegut.com Kurt Vonnegut's official website vonnegutsociety.net The Kurt Vonnegut Society website be-x-old:Курт Вонэгут 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3,914 | Day | Water, Rabbit, and Deer: three of the 20 day symbols in the Aztec calendar, from the Aztec calendar stone. A day (symbol d) is a unit of time equivalent to approximately 24 hours. It is not an SI unit but it is accepted for use with SI. NISI Guide to the SI The SI unit of time is the second. The word 'day' can also refer to the (roughly) half of the day that is not night, also known as 'daytime'. Both refer to a length of time. Within these meanings, several definitions can be distinguished. 'Day' may also refer to a day of the week or to a calendar date, as in answer to the question "On which day?". The term comes from the Old English dæg, with similar terms common in all other Indo-European languages, such as Tag in German, dies in Latin, dydd in Welsh or dive in Sanskrit. International System of Units (SI) A day is defined as 86,400 seconds. A day on the UTC time scale can include a negative or positive leap second, and can therefore have a length of 86,399 or 86,401 seconds. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) currently defines a second as … the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom. Resolution 1 of the 13th meeting of the CGPM (1967/68) This makes the SI-based day last exactly 794,243,384,928,000 of those periods. In the 19th century it had also been suggested to make a decimal fraction ( or ) of an astronomic day the base unit of time. This was an afterglow of decimal time and calendar, which had been given up already. Astronomy A day of exactly 86,400 SI seconds is the fundamental unit of time in astronomy. For a given planet, there are two types of day defined in astronomy: 1 apparent sidereal day - a single rotation of a planet with respect to the distant stars (for Earth it is 23.934 hours); 1 solar day - a single rotation of a planet with respect to its star. In astronomy, the sidereal day is also used; it is about 3 minutes 56 seconds shorter than the solar day, and close to the actual rotation period of the Earth, as opposed to the Sun's apparent motion. In fact, the Earth spins 366 times about its axis during a 365-day year, because the Earth's revolution about the Sun removes one apparent turn of the Sun about the Earth. Colloquial The word refers to various relatedly defined ideas, including the following: 24 hours (exactly) the period of light when the Sun is above the local horizon (i.e., the time period from sunrise to sunset); the full day covering a dark and a light period, beginning from the beginning of the dark period or from a point near the middle of the dark period; a full dark and light period, sometimes called a nychthemeron in English, from the Greek for night-day; the time period from 6:00 AM to 6:00 PM or 9:00 PM or some other fixed clock period overlapping or set off from other time periods such as "morning", "evening", or "night". Dagr, the Norse god of the day, rides his horse in this 19th century painting by Peter Nicolai Arbo. Introduction The word day is used for several different units of time based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis. The most important one follows the apparent motion of the Sun across the sky (solar day). The reason for this apparent motion is the rotation of the Earth around its axis, as well as the revolution of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. A day, as opposed to night, is commonly defined as the period during which sunlight directly reaches the ground, assuming that there are no local obstacles. Two effects make days on average longer than nights. The Sun is not a point, but has an apparent size of about 32 minutes of arc. Additionally, the atmosphere refracts sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the horizon by about 34 minutes of arc. So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc. The difference in time depends on the angle at which the Sun rises and sets (itself a function of latitude), but amounts to almost seven minutes at least. Ancient custom has a new day start at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example) The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or two sunsets depends on the geographical position (longitude as well as latitude), and the time of year. This is the time as indicated by ancient hemispherical sundials. A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, which happens at local noon (upper culmination) or midnight (lower culmination). The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year. The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds). This is the time as indicated by modern sundials. A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the celestial equator; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt). The Earth's day has increased in length over time. The original length of one day, when the Earth was new about 4.5 billion years ago, was about six hours as determined by computer simulation. It was 21.9 hours 620 million years ago as recorded by rhythmites (alternating layers in sandstone). This phenomenon is due to tides raised by the Moon which slow Earth's rotation. Because of the way the second is defined, the mean length of a day is now about 86,400.002 seconds, and is increasing by about 1.7 milliseconds per century (an average over the last 2,700 years). See tidal acceleration for details. Civil day For civil purposes a common clock time has been defined for an entire region based on the mean local solar time at some central meridian. Such time zones began to be adopted about the middle of the 19th century when railroads with regular schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929. For the whole world, 40 such time zones are now in use. The main one is "world time" or Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The present common convention has the civil day starting at midnight, which is near the time of the lower culmination of the mean Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. A day is commonly divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes of 60 seconds each. Leap seconds To keep the civil day aligned with the apparent movement of the Sun, positive or negative leap seconds may be inserted. A civil clock day is typically 86,400 SI seconds long, but will be 86,401 s or 86,399 s long in the event of a leap second. Leap seconds are announced in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service which measures the Earth's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary. Leap seconds occur only at the end of a UTC month, and have only ever been inserted at the end of June 30 or December 31. Boundaries of the day For most diurnal animals, the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with our cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have supplanted Nature with several different conceptions of the day's boundaries. The Jewish day begins at either sunset or at nightfall (when three second-magnitude stars appear). Medieval Europe followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: in this system, a reference like "two hours into the day" meant two hours after sunset and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning. Days such as Christmas Eve, Halloween, and the Eve of Saint Agnes are the remnants of the older pattern when holidays began the evening before. Present common convention is for the civil day to begin at midnight, that is 00:00 (inclusive), and last a full twenty-four hours until 24:00 (exclusive). The bible defines day as either "light" or as "Evening and morning were the first day"(Gen 1:5). In ancient Egypt, the day was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. Muslims fast from daybreak to sunset each day of the month of Ramadan. The "Damascus Document", copies of which were also found among the Dead Sea scrolls, states regarding Sabbath observance that "No one is to do any work on Friday from the moment that the sun's disk stands distant from the horizon by the length of its own diameter," presumably indicating that the monastic community responsible for producing this work counted the day as ending shortly before the sun had begun to set. In the United States, nights are named after the previous day, e.g. "Friday night" usually means the entire night between Friday and Saturday. This is the opposite of the Jewish pattern. This difference from the civil day often leads to confusion. Events starting at midnight are often announced as occurring the day before. TV-guides tend to list nightly programs at the previous day, although programming a VCR requires the strict logic of starting the new day at 00:00 (to further confuse the issue, VCRs set to the 12-hour clock notation will label this "12:00 AM"). Expressions like "today", "yesterday" and "tomorrow" become ambiguous during the night. Validity of tickets, passes, etc., for a day or a number of days may end at midnight, or closing time, when that is earlier. However, if a service (e.g. public transport) operates from e.g. 6:00 to 1:00 the next day (which may be noted as 25:00), the last hour may well count as being part of the previous day (also for the arrangement of the timetable). For services depending on the day ("closed on Sundays", "does not run on Fridays", etc.) there is a risk of ambiguity. As an example, for the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways), a day ticket is valid 28 hours, from 0:00 to 28:00 (i.e. 4:00 the next day). To give another example, the validity of a pass on London Regional Transport services is until the end of the "transport day" -- that is to say, until 4:30 am on the day after the "expiry" date stamped on the pass. Metaphorical days In the Bible, as a way to describe that time is immaterial to God, one day is described as being like one thousand years (Psalms 90:4, 2 Peter 3:8) to him. Also in 2 Peter 3:8, one thousand years is described as being like one day. However, some Bible experts interpret this more literally as a way to understand some prophecies like those in Book of Daniel and others (like the Book of Revelation) where are mentioned days in form of weeks and years. 24 hours vs daytime To distinguish between a full day and daytime, the English word nychthemeron may be used for the former, or more colloquially the term . In other languages, the latter is also often used. Other languages also have a separate word for a full day, such as יממה in Hebrew, dygn in Swedish, etmaal in Dutch and сутки in Russian. In Spanish, singladura is used, but only as a marine unit of length, being the distance covered in 24 hours. See also 1 E4 s, Times from 10 kiloseconds to 100 kiloseconds Calculating the day of the week Dagr Evening Daylight Daylight saving time Season, for a discussion of daylight and darkness near the poles and the equator and places in-between Week Notes and references External links Definitions of day, night, twilight (USA navy site) Formulas to calculate the length of day and night Sunrise and sunset, all year long, anywhere Show where it is daytime at the moment be-x-old:Дзень | Day |@lemmatized water:1 rabbit:1 deer:1 three:2 day:72 symbol:2 aztec:2 calendar:5 stone:1 unit:8 time:31 equivalent:1 approximately:1 hour:15 si:8 accept:1 use:8 nisi:1 guide:2 second:19 word:5 also:11 refer:4 roughly:1 half:1 night:11 know:2 daytime:4 length:9 within:1 meaning:1 several:3 definition:2 distinguish:2 may:6 week:4 date:2 answer:1 question:1 term:3 come:2 old:3 english:3 dæg:1 similar:1 common:4 indo:1 european:1 language:3 tag:1 german:1 dy:1 latin:1 dydd:1 welsh:1 dive:1 sanskrit:1 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3,915 | Meaning_of_life | Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?One of Post-Impressionist Paul Gauguin's most famous paintings. The meaning of life constitutes a philosophical question concerning the purpose and significance of human existence. This concept can be expressed through a variety of related questions, such as Why are we here?, What's life all about? and What is the meaning of it all? It has been the subject of much philosophical, scientific, and theological speculation throughout history. There have been a large number of answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds. Albert Camus observed, we humans are creatures who spend our lives trying to convince ourselves that our existence is not absurd. Mistakes Were made (but not by me) Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts by Carol Tarvis and Elliot Aronson, Harcourt, Inc, 2007, pages 13 and 14 The meaning of life is deeply mixed with the philosophical and religious conceptions of existence, consciousness, and happiness, and touches on many other issues, such as symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, conceptions of God, the existence of God, the soul and the afterlife. Scientific contributions are more indirect; by describing the empirical facts about the universe, science provides some context and sets parameters for conversations on related topics. An alternative, human-centric, and not a cosmic/religious approach is the question "What is the meaning of my life?" The value of the question pertaining to the purpose of life may be considered to be coincidal with the achievement of ultimate reality, if that is believed by one to exist. Meaning of life as a question Philosopher in Meditation (detail) by Rembrandt Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways, including the following: What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? Why are we here? What are we here for? What is the origin of life? What is the nature of life? What is the nature of reality? What is the purpose of life? What is one's purpose in life? What is the significance of life? What is meaningful and valuable in life? What is the value of life? What is the reason to live? What are we living for? These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and arguments, from scientific theories, to philosophical, theological, and spiritual explanations... Scientific inquiry and perspectives DNA, the substance containing the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known living organisms. Claims that descriptive science can shed light on normative issues such as the meaning of life are highly disputed within the scientific and philosophy-of-science communities. Nevertheless, science may be able to provide some context and sets some parameters for conversations on related topics. Psychological significance and value in life Science may or may not be able to tell us what is of essential value in life, but some studies bear on related questions: researchers in positive psychology (and, earlier and less rigorously, in humanistic psychology) study factors that lead to life satisfaction, E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). "Subjective Well-Being Is Essential to Well-Being." Psychological Inquiry, Lawrence Earlbaum full engagement in activities, Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-092043-2. making a fuller contribution by utilizing one's personal strengths, Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516701-5. and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self. Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-2297-0 (Paperback edition, 2004, Free Press, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9) One value system suggested by social psychologists, broadly called Terror Management Theory, states that all human meaning is derived out of a fundamental fear of death, whereby values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death. Neuroscience has produced theories of reward, pleasure and motivation in terms of physical entities such as neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure, then these theories give normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Economists have learned a great deal about what is valued in the marketplace; and sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc. Origin and nature of biological life The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: notable theories include the RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world theory (metabolism without genetics). The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life but the process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection. Charles Darwin (1859). On the Origin of Species. At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins, David Haig, among others, conclude that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes. However, though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge. Astrobiology Magazine: Defining Life Defining Life, Explaining Emergence Physically, one may say that life "feeds on negative entropy" which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment. Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems regulating the internal environment as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction allows life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information tends to change from generation to generation as to allow adaptation through evolution, these characteristics optimalizing the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively. Witzany, G. (2007). The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication. Helsinki, Umweb. Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of "independent" reproduction or metabolism. This controversy is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, such as replicating structures made from materials other than DNA. The Big Bang and humanity's fate in this universe The metric expansion of space. The inflationary epoch is the expansion of the metric tensor at left. (WMAP image, 2006) Though the Big Bang model was met with much skepticism when first introduced, partially because of a connection to the religious concept of creation, it has become well supported by several independent observations. However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10-43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature), a theory of quantum gravity would be required to go further back in time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how our universe came into being. Some physicists think that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is most often interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse. However, no matter how the universe came into existence, humanity's fate in this universe appears to be doomed as —even if humanity would survive that long— biological life will eventually become unsustainable, be it through a Big Freeze, Big Rip or Big Crunch. It would seem that the only way to survive indefinitely would be by directing the flow of energy on a cosmic scale and altering the fate of the universe. Scientific questions about the mind The true nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science. The explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness, and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science, neuroscience and philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject. Hieronymus Bosch's Ascent of the Blessed depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of near-death experiences. Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, for example the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, thus adhering to biological naturalism. On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that our perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects. Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements", often encompassing a number of extra dimensions. Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience, there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind. J. McFadden (2002) "Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness". Journal of Consciousness Studies 9 (4) pp. 23-50. Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is a popular alternative to determinism, such postulations may variously relate free will to quantum fluctuations, quantum amplification, quantum potential and quantum probability. Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being". Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments. Meta-analyses of these experiments indicate that the effect size (though very small) has been relatively consistent, resulting in an overall statistical significance. Although some critical analysts feel that parapsychological study is scientific, they are not satisfied with its experimental results. Skeptical reviewers contend that apparently successful results are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to actual effects. Philosophical perspectives The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies which explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans. Ancient Greek philosophy Plato and Aristotle in The School of Athens fresco, by Raphael. Platonism Plato was the earliest, most influential Western philosopher to date — mostly for realism about the existence of universals. In the Theory of Forms, universals do not physically exist, like objects, but exist as ghostly, heavenly forms. In The Republic, the Socrates character's dialogue describes the Form of the Good. The Idea of the Good is ekgonos (offspring) of the Good, the ideal, perfect nature of goodness, hence an absolute measure of justice. In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value. Human beings are duty-bound to pursue the good, but no one can succeed in that pursuit without philosophical reasoning, which allows for true knowledge. Aristotelianism Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another, early, most influential Western philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology), but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become 'good', thus if the person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous: Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor (NE 1.1) Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is 'good'. Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression. Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own sake, it is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other ‘goods’ desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence". What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness. (NE 1.4) Cynicism In the Hellenistic period, the Cynic philosophers said that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue that agrees with Nature. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character. The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional. Kidd, I., "Cynicism," in The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy. (ed. J. O. Urmson and Jonathan Rée), Routledge. (2005) Long, A. A., "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics," in The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996). As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to human beings. The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society. Cyrenaicism Cyrenaicism, founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, was an early Socratic school that emphasised only one side of Socrates's teachings — that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness. "Cyrenaics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/>. "The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org>. Epicureanism Bust of Epicurus leaning against his disciple Metrodorus in the Louvre Museum. To Epicurus, the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus's lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures, is quasi-ascetic abstention from sex and the appetites: When we say . . . that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul. Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no afterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us." Bertrand Russell (1946). A History of Western Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin Stoicism Stoicism teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos (reason), an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is freedom from suffering through apatheia (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being objective, having "clear judgement", not indifference. Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgement and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration. The Stoic ethical foundation is that good lies in the state of the soul, itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature." The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy". Enlightenment philosophy The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship. The meaning of life changed as well, focussing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order. Classical liberalism Classical liberalism is a set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of conflicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe. Liberalism cast humans as beings with inalienable natural rights (including the right to retain the wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out means to balance rights across society. Broadly speaking, it considers individual liberty to be the most important goal, A: "'Liberalism' is defined as a social ethic that advocates liberty, and equality in general." – C. A. J. (Tony) Coady Distributive Justice, A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.440. B: "Liberty is not a means to a higher political end. It is itself the highest political end." – Lord Acton because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected. There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas. Early thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind beginning in the state of nature, then finding meaning for existence through labour and property, and using social contracts to create an environment that supports those efforts. Kantianism Immanuel Kant is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the late Enlightenment. Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical, epistemological and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant. Kant is known for his deontological theory where there is a single moral obligation, the "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept of duty. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative. Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world. In Groundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty). Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside our full control and thus we cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it. 19th Century philosophy Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham The origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to Jeremy Bentham, Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge, pg. 28. ISBN 0415220947 "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice." who found that nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure, then, from that moral insight, deriving the Rule of Utility: that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. He defined the meaning of life as the "greatest happiness principle". Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father's work. Mill, John Stuart. 'On Liberty', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, Ed.'s introduction, p.11. Marxism According to Marxism and communism, the meaning of life is to serve one another. Nihilism Nihilism rejects any authority's claims to knowledge and truth, and so explores the significance of existence without knowable truth. Rather than insisting that values are subjective, and might be warrantless, the nihilist says: Nothing is of value, morals are valueless, they only serve as society's false ideals. Despite tending towards defeatism or fatalism, one can find strength and reason in the varied, unique human relations nihilism explores. Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values". Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values, returned meaning to the Earth. The End of the World, by John Martin. To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby "being" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value. Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "death of God" a potential source for nihilism: If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself. Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61. The existentialist Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that we search for external values and meaning in a world which has none, and is indifferent to us. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as Meusrault Camus (1946) L'Etranger , but also of values in a nihilistic world, that we can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference Camus (1955) The Myth of Sisyphus . 20th Century philosophy The current era has seen radical changes in conceptions of human nature. Modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world, advances in medicine and technology have freed us from the limitations and ailments of previous eras, and philosophy —particularly following the linguistic turn— altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other is conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have seen equally radical changes, from attempts to re-evaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in pragmatism and logical positivism), to efforts to meta-theorize about meaning-making as an activity (existentialism, secular humanism). Pragmatism Pragmatism, originated in the late-nineteenth-century U.S., to concern itself (mostly) with truth, positing that only in struggling with the environment do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that consequences, like utility and practicality, also are components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that anything useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be practically verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of mankind should guide human intellectual inquiry. Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. William James argued that truth could be made, but not sought. To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience. Existentialism Edvard Munch's The Scream, a representation of existential angst. Each man and each woman creates the essence (meaning) of his and her life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are action, freedom, and decision, thus, existentialism opposes rationalism and positivism. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; the insufficiency gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread, felt in facing one's radical freedom, and the concomitant awareness of death. To the existentialist, existence precedes essence; the (essence) of one's life arises only after one comes to existence. Søren Kierkegaard coined the term "leap of faith", arguing that life is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so. Arthur Schopenhauer answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by determining that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism. For Friedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He discredited asceticism, because it denies one's living in the world; denied that values are objective facts, that are rationally unnecessary, universally-binding commitments: Our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective. Absurdism Albert Camus, the French Algerian philosopher who is often associated with existentialism but enthusiastically refused the term , is famous for propounding his theory of the absurd. According to absurdism, there is a fundamental disharmony that arises out of the co-presence of man and the universe. Man has a desire for order, meaning, and purpose in life, but the universe is indifferent and meaningless; the Absurd arises out of this conflict. As beings looking for hope in a meaningless world, Camus says there are three solutions to this dilemma. Suicide:The first solution to the dilemma is simply to end one's life. Camus rejects this choice as cowardly. Religious belief in a transcendent world: Such a belief would posit the existence of a realm that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Camus calls this solution “philosophical suicide” and rejects it because it amounts to the destruction of reason, which in his view is as fatal as suicide of the body. Accept the Absurd: According to Camus, this is the only real solution. It is to accept or even embrace the absurdity of life and to continue living. The Absurd is a crucial characteristic of the human condition, and the only true way to deal with this is bold acceptance of it. Life, according to Camus, can “be lived all the better if it has no meaning.” Albert Camus at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Accessed May 25th, 2009 Secular humanism The "Happy Human" symbol representing Secular Humanism. Per secular humanism, the human race came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral part of nature, which is self-existing.<ref name=humanifesto1>{{cite web |title=Humanist Manifesto I] | url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html |work=American Humanist Association |year=1933 |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name=humanifesto2>{{cite web |title=Humanist Manifesto II |work=American Humanist Association |year=1973 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref> Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, but from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the scientific method): the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be. Like-wise, "values and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry" and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence.<ref name=humanifesto3>{{cite web |title=Humanist Manifesto III |work=American Humanist Association |year=2003 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref><ref name=CDSH>{{cite web |title=A Secular Humanist Declaration |work=Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism) |year=1980 |url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref> "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context." People determine human purpose, without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life; humanism seeks to develop and fulfill: "Humanism affirms our ability, and responsibility, to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity". Humanists promote enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. The happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity, as a whole, in part, because we are social animals, who find meaning in personal relations, and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture. The philosophical sub-genres posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible, to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the twenty-first century's technoscientific culture, thus, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life". From a humanistic-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could also be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of my life?" Irvin Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, 1980 Instead of becoming bogged down in cosmic or religious question about overarching purpose, this approach suggests that the question is intensely personal. There are many therapeutic responses to this question, for example Viktor Frankl argues for "Dereflection", which largely translates as ceasing to endlessly reflect on the self, instead of engaging in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question of meaning of life evaporates if one is fully engaged in life. The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?", "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?", "Why do I neglect loved-ones?". See also Existential Therapy, Irvin Yalom. Logical positivism Logical positivists ask: What is the meaning of life? and What is the meaning in asking? Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., Philosophie als Wissenschaft. If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless? Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: Expressed in language, the question is meaningless; because, in life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x, et cetera, thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life. The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for himself, others) as the life events resulting from his achievements, legacy, family, et cetera, but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this: When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case — or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others . . . Questions as to "values" — that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects — lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different. Bertrand Russell (1961). Science and Ethics Postmodernism Postmodernist thought - broadly speaking - sees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a 'meaning of life', in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework, and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in deconstructionism) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in poststructuralism). In general, postmodernism seeks meaning by looking at the underlying structures that create or impose meaning, rather than the epiphenomenal appearances of the world. Naturalistic pantheism According to naturalistic pantheism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment. Religious perspectives The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies which explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans. Western religions (origins in the Middle East) Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy named after its prophet Zoroaster, which influenced the beliefs of Judaism and its descendant religions. Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendental God, Ahura Mazda, to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Azhura Mazda's creation is asha, truth and order, and it is in conflict with its antithesis, druj, falsehood and disorder. (See also Zoroastrian eschatology). Since humanity possesses free will, people must be responsible for their moral choices. By using free will, people must take active role to play in the universal conflict, where good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. Judaism Judaism's most important feature is the worshiping of a single, omniscient, omnipotent, omnibenevolent, transcendent God, who created the universe and governs it. Per traditional Judaism, God established a covenant with the Jewish people, at Mount Sinai, revealing his laws and commandments in the Torah. In Rabbinic Judaism, the Torah comprises the written Pentateuch (Torah) and the oral law tradition (later transcribed as sacred writing). In the Judaic world view, the purpose of life is to serve the one true God and to prepare for the world to come. The "Olam Haba" thought is about elevating oneself spiritually, connecting to God in preparing for "Olam Haba"; Jewish thought is to use "Olam Hazeh" (this world) to elevate oneself. Christianity Hans Memling's The Last Judgment, which depicts St Michael the Archangel weighing souls and driving the Damned towards Hell. Though Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's ontology, its central beliefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ, as presented in the New Testament. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ. The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's sins are forgiven (John 3:16-21), (2 Peter 3:9). In the Christian view, humankind was made in the image of God and perfect, but the Fall of Man caused the progeny of the first Parents to inherit Original Sin. The sacrifice of Christ's passion, death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state (Romans 6:23). The means for doing so varies between different groups of Christians, but all rely on one form or another of subjugation to God's will. Under the Christian view, the main purpose in life is to live like Christ did (perfect altruism) to love God with all one's heart, soul, and mind, and to love fellow human beings as you should be loved. In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, the first question is: What is the chief end of Man?, that is, What is Man's main purpose?. The answer is: Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever. God requires one to obey the revealed moral law saying: love the Lord our God with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our strength, and with all our mind; and our neighbour as ourselves. The Baltimore Catechism answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven." The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens: From one man he made every nation of men, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he determined the times set for them and the exact places where they should live. God did this so that men would seek him and perhaps reach out for him and find him, though he is not far from each one of us. (Bible, Acts 17:26-27, NKJV) Islam In Islam, Man's ultimate life objective is to seek the pleasure of Allah (the Arabic equivalent for "God") by abiding by the Divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the Tradition of the Prophet. Earthly life, is merely a test, determining one's afterlife, either in Jannat (paradise) or in Jahannum (Hell). For the pleasure of Allah, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment". , , Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things,who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving" (Qur'an67:1-2)and "I only created jinn and man to worship Me" (Qur'an 51:56). Worship testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one acts (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell). The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: Shahadah (profession of faith); Salah (ritual prayer); Zakah (charity); Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). They derive from the Hadith works, notably of Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Beliefs differ among the Kalam. The Sunni concept of pre-destination is divine decree; like-wise, the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize. Bahá'í Faith The Bahá'í Faith, founded by Bahá'u'lláh, emphasizes the unity of humanity. To Bahá'ís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. Our lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, and the prophets were sent by God to facilitate this. For a more detailed Bahá'í perspective, see South Asian Religions Hindu philosophies A golden Aum written in Devanagari. The Aum is sacred in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religions. Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressed meaningful living for quite a long time immemorial, when there was no need for naming this as a separate religion, hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive and tolerant in content. Most believe that the ātman (spirit, soul) — the person's true self — is eternal. In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as the purusharthas (ordered from least to greatest): Kāma (love and sensual pleasure), Artha (wealth), Dharma (righteousness, morality), and Moksha (liberation from the reincarnation cycle). For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17. For the Dharma Śāstras as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, , and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78. For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ () as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. , , , and " see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1. In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of karma (causal action), samsara (the cycle of birth and rebirth), and moksha (liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the atman (similar to the western concept of a soul) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas (practices) or dharma (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement. Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on Brahman, "The One Without a Second", as a central God-like figure. In monist Advaita Vedanta, atman is ultimately indistinguishable from brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's atman (soul) is identical to Brahman. To the Upanishads, whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman, as one's core of self, realises identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves Moksha (liberation, freedom). See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman) Dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a dualist interpretation. Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The ātman depends upon brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through love of God and upon his grace. Vaishnavism Another branch of Hinduism is Vaishnavism, where Vishnu is the principal deity. Not all schools of Vaishnavism teach a meaning to life, but Gaudiya Vaishnavism, for example, teaches Achintya Bheda Abheda meaning worship of a separate and single true God while at the same time acknowledging the essential oneness of all souls. Jainism The Jainist Vow of Ahimsa. The dharmacakra (wheel) is the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation via truth and non-violence. Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss. Shah, Natubhai. Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Sussex Academic Press, 1998. Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul. Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to Veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat. Buddhism Early Buddhism Buddhism is a nondual worldview, in which subject, object, and action are all seen as illusory. Buddhists believe that life is suffering or frustration. The suffering is caused by attachment to objects material or non-material. The meaning of life is to end suffering through detaching oneself from cravings and conceptual attachments. Suffering can be overcome through human activity, simply by removing the cause of suffering. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means freedom from all worries, troubles, complexes, Fabrications, and ideas. http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html The eight-spoked Dharmacakra Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nirvana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death. Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in Theravada) of the release from individual Suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings. Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such as Chan/Zen and the vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools, explicitly teach that boddhisattvas should refrain from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment. Devotional schools such as Pure Land buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas - individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all. Sikhism The Khanda, an important symbol of Sikhism. The monastic Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak Dev, the term "sikh" means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds. The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him." Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God. Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action. The Sikh Coalition A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings, Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings. Far Eastern Religions Shinto Shinto torii, a traditional Japanese gate Shinto is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of the kami", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The 'divine' crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of free will, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process. Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world. Taoism Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between yin and yang. The Taoists' cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self cultivation and self realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth. They believe all things were originally from Taiji and Tao, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves." Confucianism Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving the good nature through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative energy. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, "we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence." Tu, Wei-Ming. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985. New religions There are many new religious movements in East Asia, and some with millions of followers: Chondogyo, Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, and Seicho-No-Ie. New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a Joyous Life by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others. The meaning of life in popular culture The mystery of life and its meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture, featured in entertainment media and various forms of art. Charles Allan Gilbert's All is Vanity depicts a young woman gazing at her reflection in a mirror, but all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear. In Douglas Adams' popular comedy book series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything has the numeric solution of 42, which was derived over seven and a half million years by a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought. After much confusion from the descendants of his creators, Deep Thought explains that the problem is that they do not know the Ultimate Question, and they would have to build an even more powerful computer to determine what that is. This computer is revealed to be Earth, which, after 10 million years of calculating, is destroyed to make way for a galactic bypass moments before it finishes calculations. In Life, the Universe and Everything, it is confirmed that 42 is indeed the Ultimate Answer, and that it is impossible for both the Ultimate Answer and the Ultimate Question to be known about in the same universe, as they will cancel each other out and take the universe with them, to be replaced by something even more bizarre, and that this may have already happened. Subsequently, in the hopes that his subconscious holds the question, Arthur Dent guesses at a question, coming up with "What do you get when you multiply six by nine?", probably an incorrect guess, as the arrival of the Golgafrinchans on prehistoric Earth would have disrupted the computation process. However, Dent, Fenchurch, and a dying Marvin did see God's final message to his creation: "We apologise for the inconvenience". Hamlet with Yorick's skull In Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, there are several allusions to the meaning of life. In "Part VI B: The Meaning of Life" a cleaning lady explains "Life's a game, you sometimes win or lose" and later a waiter describes his personal philosophy "The world is a beautiful place. You must go into it, and love everyone, not hate people. You must try and make everyone happy, and bring peace and contentment everywhere you go." Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script At the end of the film, we can see Michael Palin being handed an envelope, he opens it, and provides the viewers with 'the meaning of life': "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations." In The Simpsons episode "Homer the Heretic", a representation of God tells Homer what the meaning of life is, but as usual the one who really wanted to know (the viewer) is left disappointed. Just before God tells Homer the meaning of life, the credits music starts and the show ends, interrupting God's explanation to humorous effect. Earlier in the episode, Homer founds his own religion, in which he tries to worship God in his own way, later pointing out to Moe that it has no hell and no kneeling. However, Homer quickly abandons his self-indulgent personal religion after his house almost burns down, taking the fire as a sign of divine retribution, and exclaiming "O Spiteful One, show me who to smite, and he shall be smoten." Ned assures Homer that the fire was not God's vengeance and Lovejoy explains that God was "working in the hearts of your friends and neighbors when they came to your aid." At the end of The Matrix Revolutions, Smith concludes that "the purpose of life is to end" and is determined to move that purpose along. The Matrix series also presents the idea of "living in a simulated reality" and the associated question whether such an existence should be considered meaningless, in a way that may be compared to Plato's allegory of the cave and how certain belief systems view our reality, like Buddhism or Gnosticism. Christopher Grau (2005). Philosophers Explore the Matrix. Oxford University Press. Popular views "What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?" Here are some of the life goals people choose, and some of their beliefs on what the purpose of life is: ...to realize one's potential and ideals ...to chase dreams....to live one's dreams. ...to spend it for something that will outlast it. ...to matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all. ...to expand one's potential in life. ...to become the person you've always wanted to be. ...to become the best version of yourself. ...to seek happiness Social perspectives, ACM Digital Library and flourish. ...to be a true authentic human being. ...to be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs. ...to follow our destiny....to submit to our destiny. ...to create your own destiny. ...to achieve eudaimonia A.C. Grayling. What is Good? The Search for the best way to live. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. ...to achieve biological perfection ...to survive, that is, to live as long as possible, including pursuit of immortality (through scientific means). ...to live forever or die trying. ...to evolve. ...to replicate, to reproduce. "The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells." ...to be fruitful and multiply. () ...to seek wisdom and knowledge Philosopher in Meditation (detail) by Rembrandt ...to expand one's perception of the world. ...to follow the clues and walk out the exit. ...to learn as many things as possible in life. ...to know as much as possible about as many things as possible. ...to seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind, as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness. ...to face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us. ...to find the meaning of life. ...to find the purpose of life. ...to find a reason to live. ...to resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality. ...to do good, to do the right thing ...to leave the world a better place than you found it....to do your best to leave every situation better than you found it. ...to benefit others. ...to give more than you take. ...to end suffering. ...to create equality. ...to challenge oppression. ...to distribute wealth. ...to be generous. ...to contribute to the well-being and spirit of others. ...to help others, to help one another. ...to take every chance to help another while on your journey here. ...to be creative and innovative. ...to forgive....to accept and forgive human flaws. ...to be emotionally sincere. ...to be responsible. ...to be honorable. ...to seek peace. Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from Gustave Doré's illustrations for the Divine Comedy ...to attain spiritual enlightenment ...to reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine. ...to have a pure soul and experience God. ...to understand the mystery of God. ...to know God. ...to know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven. ...to attain union with God. ...to love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living ...to love more. ...to love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back. ...to treasure every enjoyable sensation one has. ...to seek beauty in all its forms. ...to have fun....to enjoy life. ...to seek pleasure and avoid pain. ...to be compassionate. ...to be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion. ...to love others as best we possibly can. ...to love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it. ...to love God and all of his creations. ...to glorify God by enjoying him forever. ...to have power, to be better ...to strive for power and superiority. ...to rule the world. ...to know and master the world. ...to know and master nature. ...to fill the Earth and subdue it. () One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood. You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life. The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life. One should live the life given to you instead. Life has no meaning Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose. Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence. There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special. Life is a bitch, and then you die. Life sucks and in the end you die. See also Origin and nature of life and reality Awareness Being Existence Life Abiogenesis – the origins of biological life Biosemiotics Logos Metaphysical naturalism Teleology Perception Reality Simulated reality Universe Ultimate fate of the universe Value of life Culture of life Bioethics Quality of life Value of life Purpose of life Destiny Ethical living Intentional living Life extension Means to an end Purpose Miscellaneous Life stance Perennial philosophy – the universal recurrence of philosophical principles World riddle World view References External links General Meaningsoflife.com Meaningsoflife.tv – Video discussions on the ultimate meaning of life with various religious and philosophical leaders. Frequently Asked Questions about the Meaning of Life Why Life Extension — or Why Live at All? Scientific Meaning and Happiness – Research on meaning and happiness from the perspective of Positive psychology. The Big Question: Why are we here? – by Richard Dawkins Philosophical Einstein's credo "The Meaning of Life" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy An Objective Philosophy: Why We Exist? – by Martin G. Walker. Hedonism & Meaning of life The Logic of Existential Meaning A Guide for the Godless: The Secular Path to Meaning The Origin of Human Nature, A Zen Buddhist Looks a Evolution by Albert Low Spiritual A Guide for the Perplexed (excerpt included) – by E. F. Schumacher The Meaning of Life (from a Jewish perspective) – by Rabbi Noah Weinberg Human Life – by K. 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3,916 | Abd_al-Rahman_I | Statue of Abd ar-Rahman I. Almuñécar, Spain Abd ar-Rahman I (Arabic: عبد الرحمن الداخل) (known as the "Falcon of Andalus" or "The Falcon of the Quraish") Abd ar-Rahman I (born 731; ruled from 755 Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2 through his death circa 788) was the founder of the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba, a Muslim dynasty that ruled the greater part of Iberia for nearly three centuries (including the succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba). The Muslims called the regions of Iberia under their dominion al-Andalus. Montgomery Watt said that the name al-Andalus "was used exclusively for that part of the peninsula under Muslim rule". 1 Abd ar-Rahman's establishment of a government in al-Andalus presented a break from the rest of the Islamic Empire, which was ruled by the Abbasids. When researching Abd ar-Rahman, variations of his name will be found such as Abd al-Rahman I and Abderraman I. Origin Abd ar-Rahman was the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, the tenth Umayyad Caliph. Abd ar-Rahman was a prince and was groomed from an early age to be a caliph. More specifically, he was the son of Mu'awiyah, son of Hisham, grandson of Abd al-Malik. The child-prince was said to be tall and slender. His mother was a Christian Nafza Berber slave "Abd-ar-Rahman had lived for some time with his Berber mother's tribe", William Montgomery Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, Edinburgh University Press, 1996, p.29. , and from her he probably inherited red hair. Interesting features attributed to Abd ar-Rahman are that he was unable to see from one of his eyes, had a distinctive mole on his face, and had a poor sense of smell. 2 Flight from Syria Abd ar-Rahman was sixteen when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by a popular revolt known as the Abbasid Revolution, occurring in the year 750. Abd al-Rahman and a small selection of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been. Some of the family which fled with Abd ar-Rahman were his brother Yahiya, his four-year old son Sulayman, and some of his sisters. Also fleeing with Abd ar-Rahman was his former Greek slave (a freedman) Bedr. The family fled south from Damascus following the River Euphrates. All along the way the path was filled with danger. The Abbasids had dispatched horsemen across the region to try and find the Umayyad prince and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found. While hiding in a small village, Abbasid agents closed in on Abd ar-Rahman and his family. He left his young son with his sisters and fled with Yahiya. Accounts vary, but Bedr likely initially escaped with Abd ar-Rahman. Some histories indicate that Bedr met up with Abd ar-Rahman at a later date. 3 Abd ar-Rahman, Yahiya, and Bedr quit the village narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins. Later, on the way south, Abbasid horsemen again caught up with the trio. In what must have been a desperate attempt to save themselves, Abd ar-Rahman and his companions threw themselves into the River Euphrates. While trying to swim across the dangerous Euphrates, Abd ar-Rahman is said to have become separated from his brother Yahiya. Yahiya began swimming back towards the horsemen, possibly from fear of drowning. The horsemen beseeched the escapees to return, and that no harm would come to them. 17th century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd ar-Rahman's reaction as he implored Yahiya to keep going: "O brother! Come to me, come to me"! 4 Yahiya returned to the near shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen. They cut the head off their prize, leaving Yahiya's body to rot. Al-Makkari quotes prior Muslim historians as having recorded that Abd ar-Rahman said he was so overcome with fear at that moment, that once he made the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him. 5 Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown. Exile After barely escaping Syria with their lives, Abd ar-Rahman and Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and into Egypt. Abd ar-Rahman had to keep a low profile as he traveled. It may be assumed that he intended to go at least as far as the land of his mother; that is northwestern Africa. Muslims referred to that part of the Islamic Empire as the "Mahgreb", or the "west". His Umayyad predecessors had conquered parts of the Mahgreb and Iberia. The journey across Egypt would prove perilous. Ibn Habib was the governor of East Africa, and had been a former supporter of the Umayyad Dynasty. However, with the Abbasids now in control Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look for the surviving Umayyad prince. With his red hair, Abd ar-Rahman would not be difficult to discern. Abd ar-Rahman and Bedr stayed at the camp of a Berber chieftain friendly to their plight. Ibn Habib's soldiers one day entered the camp looking for the wayward Umayyad. The Berber chieftain’s wife Tekfah hid Abd ar-Rahman under her personal belongings to help him go unnoticed. 6 It would take several years for Abd ar-Rahman to slowly make his way into the west. In 755 Abd ar-Rahman and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. It was probably from here that he first glanced upon a thin strip of land on the horizon: al-Andalus, where Abd ar-Rahman could not have been sure if he would be welcomed or not in that far-flung province of the empire. He eventually sent Bedr to Iberia with a message; a message in which he proclaimed himself the rightful Umayyad heir to the land. Al-Andalus had been conquered during Abd al-Rahman's grandfather's reign. A great many Syrians were in al-Andalus, and Abd ar-Rahman hoped to appeal to their inherent Umayyad loyalty. The province however was in a state of confusion caused by the weak rule of the current Emir, Yusef al-Fihri. The Muslim community was torn by tribal dissensions between the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Abd ar-Rahman probably saw an opportunity he had failed to find in Africa for power. Bedr made haste to return to Africa. At the invitation of loyal Umayyad followers, Abd ar-Rahman was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, Abd ar-Rahman set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd ar-Rahman's intent to set sail for al-Andalus, they quickly rode to catch up with him on the coast. The tribesmen might have figured that they could hold Abd ar-Rahman as hostage, and force him to buy his way out of Africa. He did indeed have to hand over some amount of dinars to the suddenly hostile local Berbers. Just as Abd ar-Rahman launched his boat yet another group of Berbers arrived, also with the intent of making Abd ar-Rahman pay a fee for leaving. One of the Berbers held on to Abd ar-Rahman's vessel as it made for al-Andalus, and allegedly had his hand cut off by one of the boat's crew. 7 Abd ar-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga, in September 755; however his landing site was unconfirmed. The Fight Abd ar-Rahman was greeted by local chieftains upon landing in al-Andalus. During his brief time in Malaga, Abd ar-Rahman quickly amassed local support. Waves of people made their way to Malaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians. One famous story which persisted through history related to a gift Abd ar-Rahman was given while in Malaga. The gift was a beautiful young slave girl, but Abd ar-Rahman humbly returned her to her previous master while saying, "I will not indulge in any distraction, be it of sight or of the heart, until Spain is within my grasp”.[9] News of the prince's arrival spread like wildfire throughout the peninsula. During this time, emir al-Fihri and the commander of his army, al-Sumayl (who was also the vizier and al-Fihri's son-in-law), pondered what to do about the new threat to their shaky hold on power. They decided to try to marry Abd ar-Rahman into their family. If that did not work, then Abd ar-Rahman would have to be killed: “if he refuse, we shall strike his bald (unhelmeted) head with our swords”.[10] Abd ar-Rahman was apparently sagacious enough to expect such a plot. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he was prepared to “take advantage of the mortal feuds and dissensions”.[11] However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Sarakusta (Zaragoza), an important trade city on the Upper March of al-Andalus, made a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to squash the rebellion. This might have been fortunate timing for Abd ar-Rahman, since he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus. By March of 756, Abd ar-Rahman and his growing following were able to take Sevilla without violence. After settling his bloody business in Sarakusta, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face the "pretender".[12] The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Cordova on the plains of Musarah.[13] The river was, for the first time in years, overflowing its banks, heralding the end of a long drought. Nevertheless, food was still scarce, and Abd ar-Rahman's army suffered from hunger. In an attempt to demoralize Abd ar-Rahman's troops, al-Fihri ensured that his troops not only were well fed, but also ate gluttonous amounts of food in full view of the Umayyad lines. An attempt at negotiations soon followed in which it is likely that Abd ar-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's daughter in marriage and great wealth. Abd ar-Rahman, however, would settle for nothing less than control of the emirate, and an impasse was reached. Even before the fight began, dissension spread through some of Abd ar-Rahman's lines. Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were unhappy that the prince was mounted on a fine Spanish steed. And the prince's mettle was untried in battle, after all! The Yemenis observed significantly that such a fine horse would provide an excellent mount to escape from battle. Being the ever-wary politician, Abd ar-Rahman acted quickly to regain Yemeni support, and rode to a Yemeni chief who was mounted on a mule named "Lightning".[14] Abd ar-Rahman averred that his horse proved difficult to ride and was wont to buck him out of the saddle. He offered to exchange his horse for the mule, a deal to which the surprised chief readily agreed. The swap quelled the simmering Yemeni rebellion. Soon both armies were in their lines on the same bank of the Guadalquivir. Abd ar-Rahman had no banner, and so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. Subsequently the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads. Abd ar-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat. After a long and difficult fight “Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy”.[15] Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed to escape the field (probably) with parts of the army too. Abd ar-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Cordova. Danger was not far behind, as al-Fihri planned a counterattack. He reorganized his forces and set out for the capital Abd ar-Rahman had usurped from him. Again Abd ar-Rahman met al-Fihri with his army; this time negotiations were successful, although the terms were somewhat changed. In exchange for al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be a prisoner and not allowed to leave the city limits of Cordova. Al-Fihri would have to report once a day to Abd ar-Rahman, as well as turn over some of his sons and daughters as hostages. For a while al-Fihri met the obligations of the one-sided truce, but he still had many people loyal to him; people who would have liked to see him back in power. Al-Fihri eventually did make another bid for power. He quit Cordova and quickly started gathering supporters. While at large, al-Fihri managed to gather an army allegedly numbering to 20,000. It is doubtful, however, that his troops were "regular" soldiers, but rather a hodge-podge of men from various parts of al-Andalus. Abd ar-Rahman's appointed governor in Sevilla took up the chase, and after a series of small fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's army. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape to the former Visigoth capital of Toledo in central al-Andalus; once there, he was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's head was sent to Cordova, where Abd ar-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge. With this act, Abd ar-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus. One final act had to be performed, however: al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Cordova's jail. A Tenuous Rule Indeed, Abd ar-Rahman only proclaimed himself as emir, and not as caliph. This was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have likely caused much unrest. Abd ar-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of caliph. In the meantime, a call went out through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for friends of the house of Umayya, if not for Abd ar-Rahman's scattered family that managed to evade the Abbasids. Abd ar-Rahman probably was quite happy to see his call answered by waves of Umayyad faithful and family. He was finally reacquainted with his son Sulayman, whom he last saw weeping on the banks of the Euphrates with his sisters. Abd ar-Rahman's sisters were unable to make the long voyage to al-Andalus. Abd ar-Rahman placed his family members in high offices across the land, doubtless that he felt he could trust them more than non-family. The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous over successive generations. However, by 763 Abd ar-Rahman had to get back to the business of war. Al-Andalus had been invaded by an Abbasid army. Far away in Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long been planning to depose the Umayyad who dared to call himself emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith (AKA: al-Ala) as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid army that landed in al-Andalus, possibly near Beja (in modern day Portugal). Much of the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd ar-Rahman. Abd ar-Rahman had to act quickly. The Abbasid contingent was vastly superior in size, said to have numbered 7,000 men. The emir quickly made for the redoubt of Carmona with his army. The Abbasid army was fast on his heels, and laid siege to Carmona for approximately two months. Abd ar-Rahman must have sensed that time was against him as food and water became scarce, and his troops morale likely came into question. Finally Abd ar-Rahman gathered his men as he was "resolved on an audacious sally" [15]. Abd ar-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his army and led them to Carmona's main gate. There, he started a great fire and threw his scabbard into the flames. Abd ar-Rahman allegedly said, “Let us throw our scabbards into the flame and swear to fall like soldiers if victory cannot be ours. We conquer or we die”! [16] The gate lifted and Abd ar-Rahman's men fell upon the unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Most of the Abbasid army was killed. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off. Their heads were preserved in salt, and identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled together in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Upon receiving the evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, “God be praised for placing a sea between us”! [17] Al-Mansur hated, and yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman to such a degree that he dubbed him the "Hawk of Quraysh" (The Umayyads were from a branch of the Quraysh tribe). [18] Despite such a tremendous victory, Abd ar-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus. [19] Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break-away and form their own state, and even members of Abd ar-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Cordova itself; However, Abd ar-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition; as he always dealt severely with dissidence in al-Andalus. [20] Despite all the this turmoil in al-Andalus, Abd ar-Rahman wanted to take the fight back east to Baghdad. Revenge for the massacre of his family at the hands of the Abbasids must surely have been the driving factor in Abd ar-Rahman's war plans. However his war against Baghdad was put on hold by more internal problems. The seditious city of Sarakusta on the Upper March revolted in a bid for autonomy. Little could Abd ar-Rahman have known that as he set off to settle matters in that northern city, his hopes of warring against Baghdad would be indefinitely put on hold. Problems in the Upper March Sarakusta proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only Abd ar-Rahman, but his predecessors as well. In the year 777-8, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi [21], the self-appointed governor of Sarakusta, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne. "(Charlemagne's) army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Saragossa against the Umayyad (emir) in Cordoba..." [22]. Essentially Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. After Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Sarakusta, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city. It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees, where a his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster is, of course, noted in the epic Chanson de Roland). These events worked out perfectly for Abd ar-Rahman, who did not even have to strike a blow [23]. Now Abd ar-Rahman could deal with Sualyman and the city of Sarakusta without having to fight a massive Christian army. In 779 Abd ar-Rahman offered the job of Sarakusta's governorship to one of Sulayman's allies, a man named al-Husayn ibn Yahiya. The temptation was too much for al-Husayn who murdered his colleague Sulayman. As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Sarakusta with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Cordova. Within two years, however, al-Husayn broke off relations with Abd ar-Rahman and announced that Sarakusta would be an independent city-state. Once again Abd ar-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in the Upper March. He was intent on keeping his important northern border city within the Umayyad fold. By 783 Abd ar-Rahman's army advanced on Sarakusta. It appeared as though Abd ar-Rahman wanted to make clear to this troublesome city that independence was out of the question. Included in the arsenal of Abd ar-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines [24]. Sarkusta's famous white granite defensive walls (indeed she was at one time called "the White City") were breached under a torrent of ordinance from the Umayyad lines. Abd ar-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for independence. Legacy After the aforementioned period of conflict, Abd ar-Rahman continued in his improvement of al-Andalus' infrastructure. He ensured roadways were begun, aqueducts were constructed or improved, and that a new mosque was well funded in his capital at Cordova. Construction on the mosque was started circa the year 786. It would in time become world famous and deemed a major holy site for many Muslims; later to be known as the Mezquita de Cordova. Abd ar-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. In order to successfully rule in such a situation, Abd ar-Rahman needed to create a reliable civil service and organize a standing army. Abd ar-Rahman felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army; and therefore bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa [25] as well as slaves from other areas. The total number of army-men under his command were nearly 40,000. As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. Abd ar-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians and other monotheistic religions to retain and practice their faiths. They did, however, have to pay a tribute tax for this privilege. Abd ar-Rahman's policy of taxing non-Muslims, which was often carried out by later rulers, changed the religious dynamic of al-Andalus. Possibly because of excessive tribute taxes "the bulk of the country's population must have become Muslim" [26]. However, other scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, it did not truly occur until near the 10th century [27]. Christians more often converted to Islam than Jews although there were converted Jews among the new followers of Islam. There was a great deal of freedom of interaction between the groups and Sarah the Goth (granddaughter of Wittiza married a Muslim man and bore two sons who were later counted among the ranks of the highest Arab nobility. Marianne Barrucand & Achim Bednorz. "Moorish Architecture in Andalusia". (London, UK; Taschen, 2002) Conclusion Near the end of his life, it is said that Abd ar-Rahman became increasingly paranoid and would sequester himself to his palaces. In the final pages of his account of the life of Abd ar-Rahman, writer al-Makkari (in the bibliography below) mentions that the emir treated many of his early friends, such as Bedr, with cruelty. He put some of his main supporters to death, exiled others, and reduced the rank of yet others. The date of Abd ar-Rahman's death is disputed, but is generally accepted to be sometime around 785 through 788. Abd ar-Rahman died in his adopted city of Cordova, and was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita. Abd ar-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. Abd ar-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of Abd ar-Rahman III. Bibliography 1. W. Montgomery Watt. "Islamic Surveys 4: A History of Islamic Spain". (Edinburgh, Scotland; Edinburgh University Press, 1965), page 17 2. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari. "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain; extracted from the Nafhu-T-Tib Min Ghosni-L-Andalusi-R-Rattib Wa Tarikh Lisanu-D-Din Ibni-L-Khattib". Translated by Pascual de Gayangos, member of the Oriental Translation Committee, and late professor of Arabic in the Athenæum of Madrid. In Two Volumes. VOL. II. Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York, NY. 1964. Pages 58–94 (Book VI, chapters 1 & 2). It should be noted that al-Makkari quotes from historian Ibn Hayyan's "Muktabis" when describing Abd al-Rahman's physical features. 3. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari. "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain", 96. It should be noted that al-Makkari quotes from historian Ibn Hayyan's "Muktabis" when detailing Abd al-Rahman's flight from Syria. 4. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari. "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain",60. 5. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari, "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain", 60. 6. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari, "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain". Again al-Makkari cited Ibn Hayyan for the vast majority of the preceding information, 58-61. 7. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari, "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain". 65-68. Note that several bibliographical citations are missing. They will be placed back as time allows. 15. Philip K. Hitti. "Makers of Arab History". (New York, New York. St Martin’s Press), 1968. Pg 66 16. Philip K. Hitti. "Makers of Arab History". (New York, New York. St Martin’s Press), 1968. Pg 66 17. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari, "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain". Pg 81 18. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari, "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain". Pg 82 19. W. Montgomery Watt. "Islamic Surveys 4: A History of Islamic Spain". (Edinburgh, Scotland; Edinburgh University Press, 1965), pg 32 20. Thomas F. Glick. "Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages". (Princeton, New Jersey. Princeton University Press), pg 38 21. Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Makkari, "The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain". Pg 85 22. Jo Ann Hoeppner Moran Cruz. "Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Perception and Other". Edited by David R. Blanks and Michael Frassetto. (New York, New York; Saint Martin's Press, 1999), pg 56 23. Philip K. Hitti. "Makers of Arab History". (New York, New York. St Martin’s Press), 1968. Pg 68 24. José Luis Corral Lafuente. "Historia de Zaragoza: Zaragoza Musulmana". (Zaragoza, Spain; Ayuntamiento de Zaragoza, 1998), pg 14 25. W. Montgomery Watt. "Islamic Surveys 4: A History of Islamic Spain". (Edinburgh, Scotland; Edinburgh University Press, 1965), pg 33 26. Philip K. Hitti. "Makers of Arab History". (New York, New York. St Martin’s Press), 1968. Pg 71 27. Thomas F. Glick. "Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages". (Princeton, New Jersey. Princeton University Press), pgs 33-35. Glick based this work on a prior scholar's work (Bulliet). On page 33 of this book, Glick writes that Bulliet said, "that the rate of conversion to Islam is logarithmic, and may be illustrated graphically by a logistic curve". 28. Media:Philip K. Hitti. "The Jewel of the World". (English Book-II, Punjab Textbook Board, Pakistan) Pages 60–66. 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3,917 | Nation_of_Islam | The Nation of Islam (NOI) (, Ummat al-Islām) is a religious group founded in Detroit, Michigan, United States by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad in July 1930 with the self-proclaimed goal of resurrecting the spiritual, mental, social, and economic condition of the black men and women of America. NOI also promotes the belief that God will bring about a universal government of peace. The Emergence of Islam in the African-American Community, http://www.islamfortoday.com/africanamerican02.htm From 1978 to the present, Louis Farrakhan has been the leader of a reconstituted Nation of Islam, the original organization having been renamed and dissolved by Warith Deen Muhammad. The Nation of Islam's National Center and headquarters is located in Chicago, Illinois, and is also home to its flagship Mosque No. 2, Mosque Maryam. As of 2005, the Nation of Islam was included in the Southern Poverty Law Center's list of active hate groups in the United States. History Elijah Muhammad standing behind microphones at podium Current Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan The original Nation of Islam was founded in Detroit, Michigan in 1930 by Wallace Fard Muhammad also known as W. D. Fard Muhammad (1877-1934 or later). The Nation of Islam teaches that W. Fard Muhammad is both the "Messiah" of Christianity and the Mahdi of Islam. One of Fard's first disciples was Elijah Muhammad (1897-1975), who led the organization from 1935 through 1975. By the time Elijah Muhammad died in 1975, there were 75 centers across America. Muhammad's Temple of Islam, Information taken from the October 4, 1974 edition of Muhammad Speaks Newspaper In 1975, Warith Deen Mohammed or W.D. (Wallace) Muhammad was installed as Supreme Minister of the Nation of Islam. Thereupon he renamed the organization "The World Community of Al-Islam in the West" which later became the American Society of Muslims and shunned his father's theology and black separatist views, and accepted whites as fellow worshipers and forged closer ties with mainstream Muslim communities in an attempt to bring the Nation of Islam closer into Sunni Islam. Beliefs and theology The main belief of The Nation of Islam and its followers is that there is no other God but Allah. However, they redefine "Allah" by saying "who came in the person of W. D. Fard." Fard founded the Nation of Islam and subsequently installed Elijah Muhammad as the organization's leader. Their teachings are heretical by traditional Islamic standards which abhor the deification of any person, or the anthropomorphization of God. The official beliefs of the Nation of Islam have been outlined in books, documents, and articles published by the organization as well as speeches by Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, Louis Farrakhan, and other ministers. Many of Elijah Muhammad's teachings may be found in Message to the Blackman in America and The True History of Jesus as Taught by the Honorable Elijah Muhammad Chicago: Coalition for the Remembrance of Elijah Muhammad, 1992 . Many of Malcolm X's teachings of NOI theology are in his The End of White World Supremacy, while a later more critical discussion of those beliefs can be found in The Autobiography of Malcolm X, co-written with Alex Haley. Passed down via written lessons from 1930-1934 from W. Fard Muhammad to his student, Elijah Muhammad, referred to and titled, The Supreme Wisdom the Nation of Islam continues to teach its followers that the present world society is segmented into three distinct categories. They teach that from a general perspective, 85% of the world's people of all races and faiths are the deaf, dumb and blind masses of the people who are easily led in the wrong direction and hard to lead in the right direction. These 85% of the masses are said to be manipulated by 10% of the people who are referred to as the rich slave-makers of the masses of the people. Those 10% rich slave-makers are said to manipulate the 85% masses of the people through ignorance, the skillful use of religious doctrine and the mass media. The third group referred to as the 5% poor righteous teachers of the people of the world who know the truth of the manipulation of the 85% masses of the people by the 10% and that 5% righteous teachers are at constant struggle and war with 10% to reach and free the minds of the masses of the people. Assignment of Mr. Elijah Muhammad, The Supreme Wisdom, February 20, 1934; Power at Last Forever, Minister Louis Farrakhan, Madison Square Garden, New York, October, 1985 Official Platform An official Nation of Islam platform referred to as "The Muslim Program" was written by Elijah Muhammad in his book Message to the Blackman in America, published in 1965. The itemized platform contains two sections; What The Muslims Want consisting of 10 points and What The Muslims Believe consisting of 12 points. Cosmology The NOI teaches that the Earth and Moon were once the same, and that the Earth is over 76 trillion years old. Elijah Muhammad's 1961 "Atlanta Speech", quoted in Louis E. Lomax's When The Word Is Given... The entire land mass on the Earth was called "Asia". This was, Elijah Muhammad claims, long before Adam. Message to the Blackman, Elijah Muhammad, 1965] Black experience of slavery was Bible prophecy The NOI teaches that black people constitute a nation and that through the institution of the Atlantic slave trade they were systematically denied knowledge of their past history, language, culture, and religion and, in effect, lost control of their lives. Central to this doctrine, NOI theology asserts that black people’s experience of slavery was the fulfillment of Bible prophecy and therefore, black people are the seed of Abraham referred to in the Bible, in Genesis 15:13–14: Separatism In an April 13, 1997 interview on NBC's Meet the Press, Louis Farrakhan was asked by Tim Russert to explain the Nation of Islam's view on separation: Teachings on race The Nation of Islam teaches that Black people were the original humans. Louis Farrakhan has stated that "White people are potential humans…they haven’t evolved yet." Philadelphia Inquirer, 3/18/00 However, Farrakhan further expounded by saying, "If you look at the human family — now, I'm talking about black, brown, red, yellow and white — we all seem to be frozen on a subhuman level of existence. In Islam and, I believe, in Christian theology and Jewish theology as well, there are three stages of human development. The first stage is called the animalistic stage of development. But when we submit to animal passions, then we can do evil things to one another in that animalistic stage of development. But when moral consciousness comes and we have a self-accusing spirit, it is then that we become human beings. Right now, we have the potential for humanity, but we have not reached that potential, because we are functioning on the animalistic plane of existence." Million Family March Transcript, 10/16/00 In an interview on NBC's Meet the Press, Louis Farrakhan said the following in response to host Tim Russert's question on the Nation of Islam's teachings on race: Meeting where Elijah Muhammad addresses followers Pressed by Russert on whether he agreed with Elijah Muhammad's preaching that whites are blue-eyed devils, Farrakhan responded: While Malcolm X was a member of the Nation of Islam, he preached that black people were genetically superior to white people but were dominated by a system of white supremacy. The Nation of Islam teaches that intermarriage or race mixing should be prohibited. This is point 10 of the official platform, "What the Muslims Want" published 1965. The Mother Plane and Ezekiel's Wheel Elijah Muhammad taught his followers about a Mother Plane or Wheel, a UFO that was seen and described in the visions of the prophet Ezekiel in the Book of Ezekiel, in the Hebrew Bible. Louis Farrakhan, commenting on his teacher's description said the following: Criticisms The first book analyzing the Nation of Islam was The Black Muslims in America (1961) by C. Eric Lincoln. Lincoln describes the use of doctrines during religious services. Legend of the 1975 death of Elijah Muhammad Members of The Nation of Islam have long held that Elijah Muhammad did not die, but instead escaped a death plot, was restored to health, and is aboard “that huge wheel-like plane that is even now flying over our heads.” Among Muhammad's passengers on the Mother Wheel is the mysterious figure named W.D. Fard. Mattias Gardell. 1996. In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and The Nation of Islam. Duke University Press. Antisemitism A number of Jewish organizations, Christian organizations, and academics consider the Nation of Islam to be antisemitic. Professor David W. Leinweber, Ph.D. of Emory University asserts that the Nation Of Islam has engaged in revisionist and antisemitic interpretations of the Holocaust and that they exaggerate the role of Jews in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. H-ANTISEMITISM OCCASIONAL PAPERS, NO. 1M The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) alleges that NOI Health Minister, Abdul Alim Muhammad, has accused Jewish doctors of injecting Blacks with the AIDS virus, Nation of Islam an allegation that Dr. Abdul Alim Muhammad has denied. The Nation of Islam has repeatedly denied charges of anti-Semitism, Farrakhan and the Jewish Rift; A Historic Reference and NOI leader Minister Louis Farrakhan has stated, "The ADL .. uses the term 'anti-Semitism' to stifle all criticism of Zionism and the Zionist policies of the State of Israel and also to stifle all legitimate criticism of the errant behavior of some Jewish people toward the non-Jewish population of the earth." The Final Call, February 16, 1994 Responding to the widely reported assertion that he referred to Judaism as a dirty and "gutter religion", Farrakhan wrote a June 18 1997 letter to a former Wall Street Journal associate editor, Jude Wanniski, stating in part: Countless times over the years I have explained that I never referred to Judaism as a dirty religion, but, clearly referred to the machinations of those who hide behind the shield of Judaism while using unjust political means to achieve their objectives. This was distilled in the New York tabloids and other media saying, "Farrakhan calls Judaism a gutter religion." As a Muslim, I revere Abraham, Moses, and all the Prophets who Allah (God) sent to the children of Israel. I believe in the scriptures brought by these Prophets and the Laws of Allah (God) as expressed in the Torah. I would never refer to the Revealed Word of Allah (God) -- the basis of Jewish Faith -- as "dirty" or "gutter." You know, Jude, as well as I, that the Revealed Word of Allah (God) comes as a Message from Allah (God) to purify us from our evil that has divided us and caused us to fall into the gutter. Over the centuries, the evils of Christians, Jews and Muslims have dirtied their respective religions. True Faith in the laws and Teaching of Abraham, Jesus and Muhammad is not dirty, but, practices in the name of these religions can be unclean and can cause people to look upon the misrepresented religion as being unclean. "Judaism a Gutter Religion" - Farrakhan rebuts canard Jude Wanniski also defended the Nation of Islam against charges of racism and anti-Semitism, writing, "I've met dozens of men and women who belong to the Nation of Islam, attended many of their conferences, and prayed with them in their Chicago mosque to the God of Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed. I've concluded beyond any reasonable doubt that there is not an ounce of anti-Semitism or bigotry in Farrakhan." Memo, 10-28-98, Fire Abe Foxman! The Nation of Islam has had friendly relations with the Neturei Karta, a small, controversial Jewish group that is well-known for its association with and support for anti-Zionists. Neturei Karta stressed that NOI leader, "Minister Louis Farrakhan is an extraordinary force for good in the Black community. His followers are responsible, industrious, modest and moral. And for this he and they have our respect." Letter to Journal News 12/31/99 In a letter responding to ADL Director Abraham Foxman's insistence that black leaders distance themselves from the Nation of Islam, hip hop mogul Russell Simmons wrote, "Simply put, you are misguided, arrogant, and very disrespectful of African Americans and most importantly your statements will unintentionally or intentionally lead to a negative impression of Jews in the minds of millions of African Americans", he continued, "For over 50 years, Minister Farrakhan has labored to resurrect the downtrodden masses of African Americans up out of poverty and self-destruction" and indicated that he had personally witnessed Farrakhan affirm, 'A Muslim can not hate a Jew. We are all members of the family of Abraham and all of us should maintain dialogue and mutual respect.'" Hip Hop Summit Action Network Press Release, May 9, 2005http://www.millionsmoremovement.com/news/russell-simmons05-09-2005.htm Comparison with traditional Islam The Nation of Islam preaches adherence to the Five Pillars of the Islamic Faith: shahadah, or profession of faith; salat, or prayer, five times daily facing toward Mecca; zakat, charity to the poor; sawm, fasting during the holy month of Ramadan; and hajj, a pilgrimage to Mecca required of every Muslim financially and physically able to go, at least once in his or her lifetime. The NOI also teaches morality and personal decorum, emphasizing modesty, mutual respect, and discipline in dress and comportment. NOI adherents do not consume pork, frown upon the consumption of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco, and stress a healthy diet and physical fitness. However, the Nation of Islam argues that because of the unique experience of the oppression and degradation of slavery, Elijah Muhammad used unique methods for introducing Islam to his people. Traditional Islamic beliefs however, stand in stark opposition to the entire theological and creedal foundation of the Nation of Islam. The Religion of Islam and the Nation of Islam: What is the Difference?, Mustafa El-Amin, El-Amin Productions, Newark, N.J., 1991 A little mosque of Nation of Islam in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States, 2005. Other doctrines of the Nation of Islam are disputed, specifically: God's incarnation NOI teaches that "Allah (God) appeared in the Person of Master W. Fard Muhammad, July 1930; the long-awaited Messiah of the Christians and the Mahdi of the Muslims. Traditional Sunni and Shi'a Muslim doctrine is that it is heretical and blasphemous to believe that God would manifest Himself in human form (or any material form). Likening any individual(s) to God is a form of shirk—a major sin in Islam. Relations with whites NOI teaches that the Black man is the original man, and from him came all brown, yellow, and white people. By using a special method of birth control law (the Yakub teaching), the Blackman was able to produce the white race. NOI does not believe that whites are worthy to be evangelized, and thus does not accept them into the NOI. Traditional Islam teaches that all races are equal, and any person of any race can convert to Islam. Islam recognizes the Biblical and Qur’anic figure, the patriarch Jacob, but this Jacob is viewed by Muslims as a prophet, not the Yakub featured in Nation of Islam theology. Perspectives on the Quran. The vast majority of Muslims, worldwide, believe that it was Allah's final revelation to mankind and that it was given to the Islamic prophet Muhammad between the years of 610 and 632. The NOI states that they believe in the Qur'an and the writings of all the prophets of God. NOI.org: The Official Website for The Nation of Islam Status of the Islamic prophet Muhammad vs. other prophets. Mainstream Islam teaches that Muhammad was the last of the messengers that Allah has sent to mankind—there would be no more, and the one for all to follow. The Nation of Islam believes that Elijah Muhammad was also a messenger and was taught by God Himself (W. D. Fard). http://www.religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/Nofislam.html.com Practice of Friday prayers: For decades the Nation of Islam ignored the Jumuah, a pillar of practice for Muslims. This was changed in 2002, when W. Deen Mohammed, an orthodox Muslim opposed to black separatism, delivered the Friday sermon at the Los Angeles Convention Center. Actions and programs NOI preacher in 1999, in England. A Nation of Islam member sells copies of the Final Call newspaper and what appears to be assorted oils and perfumes. The NOI has a do-for-self philosophy that resulted in the NOI owning and operating hundreds of businesses nationwide, employing thousands of people. The NOI has purchased and now operates food-industry services, bakeries, and restaurants. It owns a large amount of farmland in Georgia. It owns and operates hair-care shops. Some of these business ventures have been success stories. Others have been criticized as Amway-style marketing schemes that have not benefited most of their employees. The NOI has worked to clean up drug addicts, reform prostitutes, and keep black youth out of gangs. It has helped some newly released ex-convicts make a new start and stay out of jail. In The Fire Next Time, James Baldwin wrote: During the 1980s when crack cocaine became very common, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development employed several private firms run by members of the Nation of Islam to provide security in housing projects in black neighborhoods. The Anti-Defamation League was successful in its controversial lobbying of Congress to sever the HUD contracts Memo, 3-3-98; And Then There Were None . Noted current and former members and associates of Nation of Islam Elijah Muhammad Louis Farrakhan Khadijah Farrakhan Malcolm X - Later converted to Sunni Islam Betty Shabazz - Later converted to Sunni Islam Muhammad Ali - Later converted to Sunni Islam Warith Deen Mohammed - Later converted to Sunni Islam MC Ren - Later converted to mainstream Islam Ice Cube - Was associated with the Nation of Islam, but never a regular member. Chillin' with Cube | Film | The Guardian John Allen Muhammad - The Beltway Sniper, Gulf war veteran, former NOI member Minister Louis Farrakhan addresses sniper arrest Mohamed-rashid Abdulle - Spokesperson of the Nation of Islam until 1993 Snoop Dogg "Snoop Dogg appears at Nation of Islam convention." PeoplePC News. Accessed on March 1, 2009. Benjamin Chavis Muhammad See also Black separatism Black supremacy The Final Call Fruit of Islam (FOI) The Hate That Hate Produced History of the Nation of Islam Islam in the African diaspora List of topics related to Black and African people Moorish Science Temple of America Muslim Girls Training (MGT) The Nation of Gods and Earths Nation of Islam and antisemitism Zebra Murders Audio/video webcasts Saviours' Day 2007 Webcast: 'One Nation Under God' by Minister Louis Farrakhan, Feb. 25, 2007 Messenger Elijah Muhammad's Theology of Time Lecture Series Messenger Elijah Muhammad's Classic Lectures Mr. Muhammad Speaks Radio Broadcasts Messenger Muhammad's Saviour's Day and other Historic Videos March, 2006 Havana, Cuba Press Conference Let us make man BBC Video May, 2004 National Press Club Press Conference (Nation of Islam's Position on Iraq and the "War on Terror") Millions More Movement (FOX News Interview) Nation of Islam's Position On the Murder of Malcolm X Malcolm X Reloaded: Who Really Assassinated Malcolm X References 30. ^http://www.ccky.org/PDF%20Files/prison/Nation%20of%20Islam.pdf External links Nation of Islam Links Official Website The Nation of Islam (N.O.I.) Official Website The Nation of Islam of Canada (N.O.I.C.) Nation of Islam affiliated Final Call Newspaper website The New Nation of Islam Website, not affiliated with the 'Nation of Islam' under Louis Farrakhan Nation de Islam, Paris, France (Français) Seventhfam-- Elijah Muhammad's Teachings Online Millions More Movement Nation of Islam's "Muhammad Farms" Project Malcolm X Reloaded Podcast The Immortal Birth Book, The Nation of Gods and Earths (Advertisement) A personal account of the Nation of Islam and its teachings Walker, Dennis Searching for African American Nationhood: Looking Into the Nation of Islam (Interview) What is Orthodox Islam? Asked by a follower of The Hon. Elijah Muhammad Non-NOI Muslims Tawhid and Shirk: A Clear Guide to Islam The Nation of Islam Exposed The Nation of Islam is not Islam Learn about true Islam | Nation_of_Islam |@lemmatized nation:67 islam:87 noi:24 ummat:1 al:2 islām:1 religious:3 group:4 found:3 detroit:2 michigan:2 united:4 state:9 wallace:3 fard:11 muhammad:50 july:2 self:4 proclaimed:1 goal:1 resurrect:2 spiritual:1 mental:1 social:1 economic:1 condition:1 black:20 men:2 woman:2 america:6 also:8 promote:1 belief:6 god:18 bring:3 universal:1 government:1 peace:1 emergence:1 african:7 american:6 community:4 http:3 www:4 islamfortoday:1 com:3 htm:2 present:2 louis:16 farrakhan:25 leader:6 reconstituted:1 original:4 organization:7 rename:2 dissolve:1 warith:3 deen:4 national:2 center:4 headquarters:1 locate:1 chicago:3 illinois:1 home:1 flagship:1 mosque:4 maryam:1 include:1 southern:1 poverty:2 law:4 list:2 active:1 hate:4 history:4 elijah:27 stand:2 behind:2 microphone:1 podium:1 current:2 know:4 w:10 later:8 teach:15 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3,918 | Dead_money_(poker) | In poker, dead money is the amount of money in the pot other than the equal amounts bet by active remaining players in that pot. Examples of dead money include money contributed to the pot by players who have folded, a dead blind posted by a player returning to a game after missing blinds, or an odd chip left in the pot from a previous deal. For example, eight players each ante $1, one player opens for $2, and gets two callers, making the pot total $14. Three players are now in the pot having contributed $3 each, for $9 "live" money; the remaining $5 (representing the antes of the players who folded) is dead money. The amount of dead money in a pot affects the pot odds of plays or rules of thumb that are based on the number of players. For example, a common rule of thumb used by many Omaha players is that one should raise with a nut low hand on the last round only if there are four players in the pot, and just call if there are only three. But if there is considerable dead money in the pot, this changes the odds to favor raising even with only three players. The term "dead money" is also used in a derogatory sense to refer to money put in the pot by players who are still legally eligible to win it, but who are unlikely to do so because they are unskilled. This can also be applied to the player himself: Let's invite John every week; he's dead money. The term "dead money" also applies in tournaments, when a player enters who has virtually no chance of winning. See also Poker terms Poker jargon | Dead_money_(poker) |@lemmatized poker:3 dead:9 money:12 amount:3 pot:11 equal:1 bet:1 active:1 remain:2 player:14 example:3 include:1 contribute:2 fold:2 blind:2 post:1 return:1 game:1 miss:1 odd:1 chip:1 leave:1 previous:1 deal:1 eight:1 ante:2 one:2 open:1 get:1 two:1 caller:1 make:1 total:1 three:3 live:1 represent:1 affect:1 odds:2 play:1 rule:2 thumb:2 base:1 number:1 common:1 use:2 many:1 omaha:1 raise:2 nut:1 low:1 hand:1 last:1 round:1 four:1 call:1 considerable:1 change:1 favor:1 even:1 term:3 also:4 derogatory:1 sense:1 refer:1 put:1 still:1 legally:1 eligible:1 win:2 unlikely:1 unskilled:1 apply:2 let:1 invite:1 john:1 every:1 week:1 tournament:1 enters:1 virtually:1 chance:1 see:1 jargon:1 |@bigram pot_odds:1 poker_jargon:1 |
3,919 | Economy_of_Brunei | The small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other Third World countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 is estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half. Brunei is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia, averaging about 180,000 barrels (29,000 m³) a day. It also is the fourth-largest producer of liquefied natural gas in the world. For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 1.52 Bruneian Dollars only. Average wages in 2007 hover around $161-195 per day. The government regulates the immigration of foreign labor out of concern it might disrupt Brunei's society. Work permits for foreigners are issued only for short periods and must be continually renewed. Despite these restrictions, foreigners make up a significant portion of the work force. The government reported a total work force of 122,800 in 1999, with an unemployment rate of 5.5%. Oil and natural gas account for almost all exports. Since only a few products other than petroleum are produced locally, a wide variety of items must be imported. Brunei statistics show Singapore as the largest point of origin of imports, accounting for 25% in 1997. However, this figure includes some transshipments, since most of Brunei's imports transit Singapore. Japan and Malaysia were the second-largest suppliers. As in many other countries, Japanese products dominate local markets for motor vehicles, construction equipment, electronic goods, and household appliances. The United States was the third-largest supplier of imports to Brunei in 1998. Brunei's substantial foreign reserves are managed by the Brunei Investment Agency (BIA), an arm of the Ministry of Finance. BIA's guiding principle is to increase the real value of Brunei's foreign reserves while pursuing a diverse investment strategy, with holdings in the United States, Japan, western Europe, and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries. The Brunei Government actively encourages more foreign investment. New enterprises that meet certain criteria can receive pioneer status, exempting profits from income tax for up to 5 years, depending on the amount of capital invested. The normal corporate income tax rate is 30%. There is no personal income tax or capital gains tax. One of the government's most important priorities is to encourage the development of Brunei Malays as leaders of industry and commerce. There are no specific restrictions of foreign equity ownership, but local participation, both shared capital and management, is encouraged. Such participation helps when tendering for contracts with the government or Brunei Shell Petroleum. Companies in Brunei must either be incorporated locally or registered as a branch of a foreign company and must be registered with the Registrar of Companies. Public companies must have a minimum of seven shareholders. Private companies must have a minimum of two but not more than 50 shareholders. At least half of the directors in a company must be residents of Brunei. The government owns a cattle farm in Australia that supplies most of the country's beef. At 2,262 square miles (5,859 km²), this ranch is larger than Brunei itself. Eggs and chickens are largely produced locally, but most of Brunei's other food needs must be imported. Agriculture and fisheries are among the industrial sectors that the government has selected for highest priority in its efforts to diversify the economy. Recently the government has announced plans for Brunei to become an International Offshore Financial Center as well as a Center for Islamic Banking. Brunei is keen on the development of small and medium enterprises and also is investigating the possibility of establishing a "cyber park" to develop an information technology industry. Brunei also hopes to foster tourism through its "Visit Brunei 2009" campaign. Oil and Gas Industry Brunei Shell Petroleum (BSP), a joint venture owned in equal shares by the Brunei Government and the Royal Dutch/Shell group of companies, is the chief oil and gas production company in Brunei. It also operates the country's only refinery. BSP and four sister companies constitute the largest employer in Brunei after the government. BSP's small refinery has a distillation capacity of 10,000 barrels (1,600 m³) per day. This satisfies domestic demand for most petroleum products. The French oil company Elf Aquitaine became active in petroleum exploration in Brunei in the 1980s. Its affiliate Elf Petroleum Asia BV has discovered commercially exploitable quantities of oil and gas in three of the four wells drilled since 1987, including a particularly promising discovery announced in early 1990. Recently, UNOCAL, partnered with New Zealand's Fletcher Challenge has been granted concessions for oil exploration. Brunei is preparing to tender concessions for deep water oil and gas exploration. Brunei's oil production peaked in 1979 at over 240,000 barrels (38,000 m³) per day. Since then it has been deliberately cut back to extend the life of oil reserves and improve recovery rates. Petroleum production is currently averaging some 200,000 barrels (32,000 m³) per day. Japan has traditionally been the main customer for Brunei's oil exports, but its share dropped from 45% of the total in 1982 to 19% in 1998. In contrast, oil exports to South Korea increased from only 8% of the total in 1982 to 29% in 1998. Other major customers include Taiwan (6%), and the countries of ASEAN (27%). Brunei's oil exports to the United States accounted for 17% of the total exported. Almost all of Brunei's natural gas is liquefied at Brunei Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plant, which opened in 1972 and is one of the largest LNG plants in the world. Over 82% of Brunei's LNG produced is sold to Japan under a long-term agreement renewed in 1993. The agreement calls for Brunei to provide over 5 million tons of LNG per year to three Japanese utilities. The Japanese company, Mitsubishi, is a joint venture partner with Shell and the Brunei Government in Brunei LNG, Brunei Coldgas, and Brunei Shell Tankers, which together produce the LNG and supply it to Japan. Since 1995, Brunei has supplied more than 700,000 tons of LNG to the Korea Gas Corporation as well. In 1999, Brunei's natural gas production reached 90 cargoes per day. A small amount of natural gas is used for domestic power generation. Brunei is the fourth-largest exporter of LNG in the Asia-Pacific region behind Indonesia, Malaysia, and Australia. Brunei's proven oil and gas reserves are sufficient until at least 2015, and planned deep sea exploration is expected to find significant new reserves. The government sought in the past decade to diversify the economy with limited success. Oil and gas and government spending still account for most of Brunei's economic activity. Brunei's non-petroleum industries include agriculture, forestry, fishing, and banking. Macroeconomic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Brunei Darussalam at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Bruneian Dollars. {| class="wikitable" In the 1970s, Brunei invested sharply increasing revenues from petroleum exports and maintained government spending at a low and constant rate. Consequently, the government was able to build its foreign reserves and invest them around the world to help provide for future generations. Part of the reserve earnings were reportedly also used to help finance the government's annual budget deficit. Since 1986, however, petroleum revenues have decreased, and government spending has increased. The government has been running a budget deficit since 1988. The disappearance of a revenue surplus has made Brunei's economy more vulnerable to petroleum price fluctuations. Brunei's gross domestic product (GDP) soared with the petroleum price increases of the 1970s to a peak of $5.7 billion in 1980. It declined slightly in each of the next 5 years, then fell by almost 30% in 1986. This drop was caused by a combination of sharply lower petroleum prices in world markets and voluntary production cuts in Brunei. The GDP recovered somewhat since 1986, growing by 12% in 1987, 1% in 1988, and 9% in 1989. In recent years, GDP growth was 3.5% in 1996, 4.0% in 1997, 1.0% in 1998, and an estimated 2.5% in 1999. However, the 1999 GDP was still only about $4.5 billion, well below the 1980 peak. The Asian financial crisis in 1997 and 1998, coupled with fluctuations in the price of oil have created uncertainty and instability in Brunei's economy. In addition, the 1998 collapse of Amedeo Development Corporation, Brunei's largest construction firm whose projects helped fuel the domestic economy, caused the country to slip into a mild recession. | Economy_of_Brunei |@lemmatized small:4 wealthy:1 economy:8 mixture:1 foreign:8 domestic:7 entrepreneurship:1 government:21 regulation:1 welfare:1 measure:1 village:1 tradition:1 almost:4 totally:1 support:1 export:7 crude:1 oil:19 natural:7 gas:15 revenue:4 petroleum:14 sector:2 accounting:1 half:3 gdp:6 per:7 caput:1 far:1 third:3 world:6 country:7 substantial:2 income:5 overseas:1 investment:4 supplement:1 production:6 provide:3 medical:1 service:1 subsidize:1 food:2 housing:1 show:2 progress:1 basic:1 policy:1 diversify:3 away:1 brunei:50 leader:2 concern:2 steadily:1 increase:6 integration:1 undermine:1 internal:1 social:1 cohesion:1 although:1 take:1 step:1 become:3 prominent:1 player:1 serve:1 chairman:1 apec:1 asian:3 pacific:2 economic:2 cooperation:1 forum:1 growth:2 estimate:2 due:1 high:2 price:6 second:2 large:10 producer:2 southeast:1 asia:3 average:3 barrel:4 day:6 also:5 fourth:2 liquefied:1 purchase:1 power:2 parity:1 comparison:1 u:1 dollar:3 exchange:1 bruneian:2 wage:1 hover:1 around:2 regulate:1 immigration:1 labor:1 might:1 disrupt:1 society:1 work:3 permit:1 foreigner:2 issue:1 short:1 period:1 must:8 continually:1 renew:2 despite:1 restriction:2 make:2 significant:2 portion:1 force:2 report:1 total:4 unemployment:1 rate:4 account:4 since:8 product:5 produce:4 locally:3 wide:1 variety:1 item:1 import:5 statistic:1 singapore:2 point:1 origin:1 however:3 figure:2 include:4 transshipment:1 transit:1 japan:5 malaysia:2 supplier:2 many:1 japanese:3 dominate:1 local:2 market:3 motor:1 vehicle:1 construction:2 equipment:1 electronic:1 good:1 household:1 appliance:1 united:3 state:3 reserve:7 manage:1 agency:1 bia:2 arm:1 ministry:1 finance:2 guide:1 principle:1 real:1 value:1 pursue:1 diverse:1 strategy:1 holding:1 western:1 europe:1 association:1 south:2 east:1 nation:1 asean:2 actively:1 encourage:3 new:3 enterprise:2 meet:1 certain:1 criterion:1 receive:1 pioneer:1 status:1 exempt:1 profit:1 tax:4 year:4 depend:1 amount:2 capital:3 invest:3 normal:1 corporate:1 personal:1 gain:1 one:2 important:1 priority:2 development:3 malay:1 industry:4 commerce:1 specific:1 equity:1 ownership:1 participation:2 share:3 management:1 help:4 tender:2 contract:1 shell:5 company:11 either:1 incorporate:1 register:2 branch:1 registrar:1 public:1 minimum:2 seven:1 shareholder:2 private:1 two:1 least:2 director:1 resident:1 cattle:1 farm:1 australia:2 supply:3 beef:1 square:1 mile:1 ranch:1 egg:1 chicken:1 largely:1 need:1 agriculture:2 fishery:1 among:1 industrial:1 select:1 effort:1 recently:2 announce:2 plan:2 international:2 offshore:1 financial:2 center:2 well:4 islamic:1 banking:2 keen:1 medium:1 investigate:1 possibility:1 establish:1 cyber:1 park:1 develop:1 information:1 technology:1 hop:1 foster:1 tourism:1 visit:1 campaign:1 bsp:3 joint:2 venture:2 equal:1 royal:1 dutch:1 group:1 chief:1 operate:1 refinery:2 four:2 sister:1 constitute:1 employer:1 distillation:1 capacity:1 satisfy:1 demand:1 french:1 elf:2 aquitaine:1 active:1 exploration:4 affiliate:1 bv:1 discover:1 commercially:1 exploitable:1 quantity:1 three:2 drill:1 particularly:1 promising:1 discovery:1 early:1 unocal:1 partner:2 zealand:1 fletcher:1 challenge:1 grant:1 concession:2 prepare:1 deep:2 water:1 peak:3 deliberately:1 cut:2 back:1 extend:1 life:1 improve:1 recovery:1 currently:1 traditionally:1 main:1 customer:2 drop:2 contrast:1 korea:2 major:1 taiwan:1 liquefy:2 lng:8 plant:2 open:1 sell:1 long:1 term:1 agreement:2 call:1 million:2 ton:2 utility:1 mitsubishi:1 coldgas:1 tanker:1 together:1 corporation:2 reach:1 cargo:1 use:2 generation:2 exporter:1 region:1 behind:1 indonesia:1 proven:1 sufficient:1 sea:1 expect:1 find:1 seek:1 past:1 decade:1 limited:1 success:1 spending:3 still:2 activity:1 non:1 forestry:1 fishing:1 macroeconomic:1 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 darussalam:1 monetary:1 fund:1 class:1 wikitable:1 sharply:2 maintain:1 low:2 constant:1 consequently:1 able:1 build:1 future:1 part:1 earnings:1 reportedly:1 annual:1 budget:2 deficit:2 decrease:1 run:1 disappearance:1 surplus:1 vulnerable:1 fluctuation:2 soar:1 billion:2 decline:1 slightly:1 next:1 fell:1 cause:2 combination:1 voluntary:1 recover:1 somewhat:1 grow:1 recent:1 estimated:1 crisis:1 couple:1 create:1 uncertainty:1 instability:1 addition:1 collapse:1 amedeo:1 firm:1 whose:1 project:1 fuel:1 slip:1 mild:1 recession:1 |@bigram crude_oil:1 per_caput:1 caput_gdp:1 southeast_asia:1 wage_hover:1 unemployment_rate:1 household_appliance:1 brunei_brunei:1 income_tax:3 agriculture_fishery:1 joint_venture:2 indonesia_malaysia:1 agriculture_forestry:1 forestry_fishing:1 gross_domestic:2 brunei_darussalam:1 monetary_fund:1 class_wikitable:1 budget_deficit:2 |
3,920 | Melissa_officinalis | Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), not to be confused with bee balm, Monarda species, is a perennial herb in the mint family Lamiaceae, native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. It grows to 70-150 cm tall. The leaves have a gentle lemon scent, related to mint. At the end of the summer, small white flowers full of nectar appear. These attract bees, hence the genus name Melissa (Greek for 'honey bee'). Its flavour comes from the terpenes citronellal, citronellol, citral, and geraniol. Cultivation This herb can be easy to cultivate in United States Department of Agriculture Plant Hardiness Zones 4 to 9. In zone 4, it needs winter mulch and a well-drained sandy soil to survive. In zone 7, it can be harvested at least until the end of November. While it prefers full sun (as described on most plant tags), it is moderately shade-tolerant, much more so than most herbs. In dry climates, it grows best in partial shade. It can also be easily grown as an indoor potted herb. Lemon Balm requires light and at least 70 degrees Fahrenheit to germinate so it is best to plant indoors or in spring and not to cover the seeds. Lemon Balm grows in clumps and spreads vegetatively as well as by seed. In mild temperate zones, the stems of the plant die off at the start of the winter, but shoot up again in spring. It can be easily grown from stem cuttings rooted in water, or from seeds. Under ideal conditions, it will seed itself prolifically and can become a nuisance in gardens. Usage Culinary use Lemon balm is often used as a flavouring in ice cream and herbal teas, both hot and iced, often in combination with other herbs such as spearmint. It is also frequently paired with fruit dishes or candies. Medicinal uses The crushed leaves, when rubbed on the skin, are used as a repellant for mosquitos. Lemon Balm is also used medicinally as a herbal tea, or in extract form. It is claimed to have antibacterial, antiviral properties (it is effective against herpes simplex), and it is also used as a mild sedative or calming agent. At least one study has found it to be effective at reducing stress, although the study's authors call for further research . Its antibacterial properties have also been demonstrated scientifically, although they are markedly weaker than those from a number of other plants studied . Lemon balm essential oil is very popular in aromatherapy. The essential oil is commonly co-distilled with lemon oil, citronella oil, or other oils. Lemon balm is used in some variations of the Colgate Herbal toothpaste for its soothing and aromatic properties. Colgate Herbal Uses Melissa Lemon balm should be avoided by those on thyroid medication (such as thyroxine) as it is believed that the herb inhibits the absorption of this medicine. University of Maryland Medical Centre, "Lemon Balm" Despite extensive traditional medicinal use, melissa oil has been prohibited by the International Fragrance Association (IFRA)'s 42nd amendment. Chemistry Lemon Balm contains eugenol which kills bacteria and has been shown to calm muscles and numb tissues. It also contains tannins that contribute to its anti-viral effects, as well as terpenes that add to its soothing effects. Traditionally this herb has been used for grave's disease, as a sedative, and as an antispasmodic. Gallery References External links How to grow Lemon Balm Mrs M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal: Lemon Balm Lemon Balm List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's) Lemon Balm Medical Reference Colgate Herbal Uses Melissa | Melissa_officinalis |@lemmatized lemon:16 balm:15 melissa:5 officinalis:1 confuse:1 bee:3 monarda:1 specie:1 perennial:1 herb:7 mint:2 family:1 lamiaceae:1 native:1 southern:1 europe:1 mediterranean:1 region:1 grow:5 cm:1 tall:1 leaf:2 gentle:1 scent:1 relate:1 end:2 summer:1 small:1 white:1 flower:1 full:2 nectar:1 appear:1 attract:1 hence:1 genus:1 name:1 greek:1 honey:1 flavour:1 come:1 terpene:2 citronellal:1 citronellol:1 citral:1 geraniol:1 cultivation:1 easy:1 cultivate:1 united:1 state:1 department:1 agriculture:1 plant:5 hardiness:1 zone:4 need:1 winter:2 mulch:1 well:3 drain:1 sandy:1 soil:1 survive:1 harvest:1 least:3 november:1 prefer:1 sun:1 describe:1 tag:1 moderately:1 shade:2 tolerant:1 much:1 dry:1 climate:1 best:2 partial:1 also:6 easily:2 indoor:1 pot:1 require:1 light:1 degree:1 fahrenheit:1 germinate:1 indoors:1 spring:2 cover:1 seed:4 grows:1 clump:1 spread:1 vegetatively:1 mild:2 temperate:1 stem:2 die:1 start:1 shoot:1 cutting:1 root:1 water:1 ideal:1 condition:1 prolifically:1 become:1 nuisance:1 garden:1 usage:1 culinary:1 use:11 often:2 flavouring:1 ice:1 cream:1 herbal:6 tea:2 hot:1 iced:1 combination:1 spearmint:1 frequently:1 pair:1 fruit:1 dish:1 candy:1 medicinal:2 crushed:1 rub:1 skin:1 repellant:1 mosquito:1 medicinally:1 extract:1 form:1 claim:1 antibacterial:2 antiviral:1 property:3 effective:2 herpes:1 simplex:1 sedative:2 calm:2 agent:1 one:1 study:3 find:1 reduce:1 stress:1 although:2 author:1 call:1 research:1 demonstrate:1 scientifically:1 markedly:1 weak:1 number:1 essential:2 oil:6 popular:1 aromatherapy:1 commonly:1 co:1 distil:1 citronella:1 variation:1 colgate:3 toothpaste:1 soothing:2 aromatic:1 avoid:1 thyroid:1 medication:1 thyroxine:1 believe:1 inhibit:1 absorption:1 medicine:1 university:1 maryland:1 medical:2 centre:1 despite:1 extensive:1 traditional:1 prohibit:1 international:1 fragrance:1 association:1 ifra:1 amendment:1 chemistry:1 contains:1 eugenol:1 kill:1 bacteria:1 show:1 muscle:1 numb:1 tissue:1 contain:1 tannin:1 contribute:1 anti:1 viral:1 effect:2 add:1 traditionally:1 grave:1 disease:1 antispasmodic:1 gallery:1 reference:2 external:1 link:1 mr:1 grieve:1 modern:1 list:1 chemical:1 dr:1 duke:1 |@bigram lemon_balm:14 family_lamiaceae:1 cm_tall:1 honey_bee:1 plant_hardiness:1 hardiness_zone:1 sandy_soil:1 degree_fahrenheit:1 temperate_zone:1 ice_cream:1 herbal_tea:2 herpes_simplex:1 external_link:1 |
3,921 | Transport_in_Gibraltar | Gibraltar has a limited public transport system, due to the small size of the territory and the impact of the constitutional dispute with Spain. Road Private transport Traffic drives on the right. Gibraltar's country identifier is GBZ. A current Gibraltar rear number plate, featuring the country identifier under the European flag. Gibraltar has 31 miles (49.9 km) of highways, all of which are paved. It has one of the highest levels of per capita car ownership in the world, with as many motor vehicles as people. Unlike the United Kingdom, traffic in Gibraltar drives on the right, as it shares a land border with Spain. Traffic formerly drove on the left; the change to driving on the right was made at 5.00 a.m. on 16 June 1929. Roads in Gibraltar are fairly narrow, with a typical speed limit of 50 km/h. Gibraltar has ten fuelling stations, and fuel prices are lower than in the neighbouring country of Spain. Some people from nearby Spain even enter Gibraltar for the sole purpose of filling their cars' fuel tanks. Gibraltar's international vehicle registration is GBZ, and Gibraltar car number plates consist of the letter 'G' followed by four digits (1000-9999) and a single letter. These are the same shape, type face and colours as those in the UK. The Chief Minister's official car has the registration number G1, while the Governor's car, following tradition, has a crown, in place of a number. Public transport A bus on route 4 at the "Both Worlds" terminus, Sandy Bay. An open top double-decker bus on route 10. There are five bus routes in Gibraltar (routes 2, 3, 4, 9, and 10) and buses run to most areas of the territory apart from the Upper Rock, which is a nature reserve. The Gibraltar Bus Company runs four routes, with its distinctive modern fleet of blue-liveried buses. These are: Route 2: From Referendum House Terminus to Willis's Road Terminus. Route 3: From Air Terminal Terminus to Europa Point Terminus. Route 4: From Rosia Terminus to Both Worlds Terminus. Route 9: From Air Terminal Terminus to Market Place Terminus. The Calypso Bus Company runs the remaining route (route 10) with a more elderly fleet of red double-decker buses. Although at first sight similar in appearance to London's red buses, these left-hand-drive vehicles are actually secondhand from Germany (Berlin continues to operate similar double-deck buses). Gibraltar Bus Company bus routes. Buses run regularly from the frontier/airport terminus to the city centre, including the route 9 which is a shuttle between the central terminus outside Grand Casemates Square, by the market place and that of the frontier/airport. Additionally, taxis are available around the Rock. Many cater specifically to offer tours of the Upper Rock Nature Reserve. These can be picked up from the frontier or the city centre, where there are a number of taxi ranks. Rail There are no extant railways in Gibraltar. There was formerly an extensive railway within the Gibraltar Dockyard, and neighbouring works and storage facilities. It included tunnels, one of which went through the Rock of Gibraltar. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries there was also a temporary industrial railway in Gibraltar. At the period when both railways were operational, it was possible to travel right round the entire coastline of Gibraltar by train. Friends of Gibraltar Heritage Society, December 2003, pp 7-8, ptovide full details. The dockyard railway had a roster of 17 locomotives, distinguished by numbers, but four of which also carried names: Gibraltar, Catalan, Rosia, and Calpe. Today the nearest railway station (in Spain) is "San Roque - La Línea" station on the ADIF line from Algeciras to Bobadilla Junction via Ronda. Until 1969 a ferry from Gibraltar provided convenient access to Algeciras station. Sea Gibraltar's Royal Navy base. Cruise liner at the Port of Gibraltar. Being a peninsula, the sea has long been vital to Gibraltar's transport links. The Royal Naval Dockyard was formerly Gibraltar's major employer. There is still a harbour on the west side of the territory. The Gibraltar-registered merchant marine consists of 26 ships of 1000 tonnes and above. There was a direct regular fast ferry service to Tangiers, Morocco until 2003, but passengers must now travel from Algeciras or Tarifa. Various cruise liners visit the Port of Gibraltar throughout the year. This provides the means of transport for a significant proportion of day-tripper tourists arriving in the territory. Air Gibraltar airfield and border area. Showing runway (Gibraltar) and pier behind (Spain). Officially, any exact line is still disputed Gibraltar Airport is the territory's only airport. It is situated very close to the border with Spain. The road to Spain crosses the runway, requiring the road to be closed each time an aircraft lands or takes off. Scheduled civilan passenger flights are operated by EasyJet, British Airways, Monarch Airlines and Iberia Airlines. Following an agreement signed in Córdoba between the Governments of the United Kingdom, Spain and Gibraltar in September 2006, the use of Gibraltar Airport by both Gibraltarian and Spanish services was agreed. Gibraltar Airport will be adapted to have an entrance from Spain (as well as Gibraltar), in a similar manner to Basel and Geneva airports (which are also adjacent to borders). Iberia commenced direct flights between Madrid and Gibraltar on 16 December, 2006 with GB Airways following on 1 May, 2007. However, GB Airways discontinued their Madrid service on 30 September, 2007 and Iberia is considering using smaller aircraft, possibly from its Air Nostrum regional partner—indicating that neither operator may have been able to fill their planes with passengers. Following the takeover by EasyJet, GB Airways dropped its direct Gibraltar–Heathrow service on Gibraltar News Online, GB Airways drop Gib-Heathrow route this Winter despite apparently remaining popular. The reason cited by GB Airways was the "convenience of" concentrating all its London services onto a single hub at Gatwick. Later, a sale of several of GB Airways' Heathrow slots is believed to have netted GB Airways with up to £80m Gibraltar News, GB Airways sells Heathrow slots for £80 million . In late 2007 GB Airways was bought by EasyJet (and thus ceased to be a British Airways franchise partner); all flights were rebranded as EasyJet in 2008. Travel times The following chart gives approximate travel times (in hours and minutes) to common city destinations from Gibraltar. Travel Times from Gibraltar AirRoadRailSeaLondon <center>2 hours 30 minutes<center> <center>24 hours<center> <center>27 hours 10 minutes<center> <center>60 hours<center>Tangier <center>-<center> <center>-<center> <center>-<center> <center>30 minutes<center>Málaga <center>-<center> <center>1 hour 15 minutes<center> <center>5 hours 06 minutes<center> <center>-<center>Madrid <center>50 minutes<center> <center>6 hours 30 minutes<center> <center>5 hours 50 minutes or 4 hours<center> <center>-<center> Rail travel times from San Roque-La Linea, add further 13km (20 minute) taxi-ride from Gibraltar. Sea travel to Southampton Docks by cruise-liner, add further 130km (2 hour) train journey to London. Less than 4 hours by high speed train from Malaga (130 km taxi run to Málaga and 2 hours 30 minutes Malaga - Madrid high speed railroad) Cable car Gibraltar's cable car. A cable car runs from just south of the city centre to the Ape's Den and the Top of the Rock, which despite its name is actually the second highest peak of the Rock. Dispute with Spain The road crossing into Spain was closed by the Spanish authorities from 1969. It was reopened for pedestrians in 1982 and for vehicles in 1985. A ferry operated between Algeciras and Gibraltar until 1969. For a few months in 2004 Spain banned cruise ships which had visited Gibraltar from going to Spanish ports on the same journey. In 2003, the land frontier was closed for a day by Spain on the grounds that a visiting cruise liner, the MV Aurora, was affected by contagious food poisoning. MV Aurora - Fury over Gibraltar border closure No cases in Gibraltar were reported. The airport is built on the isthmus which the Spanish Government claim not to have been ceded in the Treaty of Utrecht, thus the integration of Gibraltar Airport in the Single European Sky system has been blocked by Spain. The 1987 agreement for joint control of the airport with Spain was rejected by the then Government of Gibraltar. All successive Gibraltar governments have rejected it, although welcoming joint use of the airport (which being on the border could operate in a similar manner to Geneva Airport or Basel Airport). Following the "Cordoba Agreement" (between the UK, Spain and Gibraltar) in 2006, the joint use of the airport was finally agreed. The road crossing from Gibraltar into Spain can often be subject to long delays. A loop road is located next to the border to hold cars waiting in the queue to cross into Spain. Motorists (and sometimes pedestrians) crossing the border are randomly subjected to long delays and searches by the Spanish authorities. References | Transport_in_Gibraltar |@lemmatized gibraltar:51 limit:2 public:2 transport:5 system:2 due:1 small:2 size:1 territory:5 impact:1 constitutional:1 dispute:3 spain:19 road:8 private:1 traffic:3 drive:5 right:4 country:3 identifier:2 gbz:2 current:1 rear:1 number:6 plate:1 feature:1 european:2 flag:1 mile:1 km:3 highway:1 pave:1 one:2 high:4 level:1 per:1 caput:1 car:9 ownership:1 world:3 many:2 motor:1 vehicle:4 people:2 unlike:1 united:2 kingdom:2 share:1 land:3 border:8 formerly:3 left:1 change:1 make:1 june:1 fairly:1 narrow:1 typical:1 speed:3 h:1 ten:1 fuelling:1 station:4 fuel:2 price:1 low:1 neighbouring:1 nearby:1 even:1 enter:1 sole:1 purpose:1 fill:2 tank:1 international:1 registration:2 plat:1 consist:2 letter:2 g:1 follow:6 four:3 digit:1 single:3 shape:1 type:1 face:1 colour:1 uk:2 chief:1 minister:1 official:1 governor:1 tradition:1 crown:1 place:3 bus:13 route:13 terminus:11 sandy:1 bay:1 open:1 top:2 double:3 decker:2 five:1 rout:1 run:6 area:2 apart:1 upper:2 rock:6 nature:2 reserve:2 company:3 distinctive:1 modern:1 fleet:2 blue:1 liveried:1 referendum:1 house:1 willis:1 air:4 terminal:2 europa:1 point:1 rosia:2 market:2 calypso:1 remain:2 elderly:1 red:2 although:2 first:1 sight:1 similar:4 appearance:1 london:3 leave:1 hand:1 actually:2 secondhand:1 germany:1 berlin:1 continue:1 operate:4 deck:1 regularly:1 frontier:4 airport:14 city:4 centre:3 include:2 shuttle:1 central:1 outside:1 grand:1 casemates:1 square:1 additionally:1 taxi:4 available:1 around:1 cater:1 specifically:1 offer:1 tour:1 pick:1 rank:1 rail:2 extant:1 railway:6 extensive:1 within:1 dockyard:3 neighbour:1 work:1 storage:1 facility:1 tunnel:1 go:2 turn:1 century:1 also:3 temporary:1 industrial:1 period:1 operational:1 possible:1 travel:7 round:1 entire:1 coastline:1 train:3 friend:1 heritage:1 society:1 december:2 pp:1 ptovide:1 full:1 detail:1 roster:1 locomotive:1 distinguish:1 carry:1 name:2 catalan:1 calpe:1 today:1 near:1 san:2 roque:2 la:2 línea:1 adif:1 line:2 algeciras:4 bobadilla:1 junction:1 via:1 ronda:1 ferry:3 provide:2 convenient:1 access:1 sea:3 royal:2 navy:1 base:1 cruise:5 liner:4 port:3 peninsula:1 long:3 vital:1 link:1 naval:1 major:1 employer:1 still:2 harbour:1 west:1 side:1 registered:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:2 tonne:1 direct:3 regular:1 fast:1 service:5 tangier:2 morocco:1 passenger:3 must:1 tarifa:1 various:1 visit:3 throughout:1 year:1 mean:1 significant:1 proportion:1 day:2 tripper:1 tourist:1 arrive:1 airfield:1 show:1 runway:2 pier:1 behind:1 officially:1 exact:1 situate:1 close:4 cross:5 require:1 time:5 aircraft:2 take:1 schedule:1 civilan:1 flight:3 easyjet:4 british:2 airway:11 monarch:1 airline:2 iberia:3 agreement:3 sign:1 córdoba:1 government:4 september:2 use:4 gibraltarian:1 spanish:5 agree:2 adapt:1 entrance:1 well:1 manner:2 basel:2 geneva:2 adjacent:1 commence:1 madrid:4 gb:9 may:2 however:1 discontinue:1 consider:1 possibly:1 nostrum:1 regional:1 partner:2 indicate:1 neither:1 operator:1 able:1 plane:1 takeover:1 drop:2 heathrow:4 news:2 online:1 gib:1 winter:1 despite:2 apparently:1 popular:1 reason:1 cite:1 convenience:1 concentrate:1 onto:1 hub:1 gatwick:1 later:1 sale:1 several:1 slot:2 believe:1 net:1 sell:1 million:1 late:1 buy:1 thus:2 cease:1 franchise:1 rebranded:1 following:1 chart:1 give:1 approximate:1 hour:13 minute:11 common:1 destination:1 airroadrailsealondon:1 center:32 málaga:2 linea:1 add:2 far:2 ride:1 southampton:1 dock:1 journey:2 less:1 malaga:2 railroad:1 cable:3 south:1 ape:1 den:1 second:1 peak:1 authority:2 reopen:1 pedestrian:2 month:1 ban:1 ground:1 mv:2 aurora:2 affect:1 contagious:1 food:1 poisoning:1 fury:1 closure:1 case:1 report:1 build:1 isthmus:1 claim:1 cede:1 treaty:1 utrecht:1 integration:1 sky:1 block:1 joint:3 control:1 reject:2 successive:1 welcome:1 could:1 cordoba:1 finally:1 often:1 subject:2 delay:2 loop:1 locate:1 next:1 hold:1 wait:1 queue:1 motorist:1 sometimes:1 randomly:1 search:1 reference:1 |@bigram mile_km:1 per_caput:1 double_decker:2 decker_bus:2 cruise_liner:4 naval_dockyard:1 merchant_marine:1 day_tripper:1 british_airway:2 gb_airway:9 treaty_utrecht:1 |
3,922 | Apollo_1 | Apollo 1 is the official name that was later given to the never-flown Apollo/Saturn 204 (AS-204) mission. Its command module (CM-012) was destroyed by fire during a test and training exercise on January 27 1967 at Pad 34 (Launch Complex 34, Cape Canaveral, then known as Cape Kennedy) atop a Saturn IB rocket. The crew aboard were the astronauts selected for the first manned Apollo program mission: Command Pilot Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom, Senior Pilot Ed White and Pilot Roger B. Chaffee. All three died in the fire. Although the ignition source of the fire was never conclusively identified, the astronauts' deaths were attributed to a wide range of lethal design hazards in the early Apollo command module. Among these were the use of a high-pressure 100 percent-oxygen atmosphere for the test, wiring and plumbing flaws, flammable materials in the cockpit (such as Velcro), an inward-opening hatch that would not open in this kind of an emergency and the flight suits worn by the astronauts. Crew Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom, Command Pilot Edward H. White II, Senior Pilot Roger B. Chaffee, Pilot Backup crews April - December 1966 James McDivitt, Command Pilot David Scott, Senior Pilot Rusty Schweickart, Pilot This crew flew on Apollo 9. December 1966 - January 1967 Walter Schirra, Command Pilot Donn Eisele, Senior Pilot Walter Cunningham, Pilot This crew flew on Apollo 7. Mission background AS-204 was to be the first manned flight of a command and service module (CSM) to Earth orbit, launched on a Saturn 1B. CM-012, the Apollo 1 command module, was a Block I design built for spaceflight but never intended for a trip to the moon since it lacked the needed docking equipment. The AS-204 mission was scheduled for the first quarter of 1967, having already missed a target date for the last quarter of 1966. The flight was to test "launch operations, ground tracking and control facilities and the performance of the Apollo-Saturn launch assembly" and would have lasted up to two weeks, depending on how the spacecraft performed. Benson 1978: Chapter 18-1 - The Fire That Seared The Spaceport, "Introduction" Grissom resolved to keep AS-204 in orbit for a full 14 days if there was any way to do so. Apollo 1 was intended to be followed by two more Apollo flights in the summer and late autumn of 1967. The first of these would have launched a Block II Apollo CSM on a Saturn 1B along with an unmanned LM on a second Saturn 1B, both ascending to low earth orbit for a CSM-LM rendezvous and docking. The second flight would have launched the CSM and LM together on a Saturn V to high earth orbit. Both of these missions were canceled following the Apollo 1 fire (their mission objectives were later carried out in somewhat different ways by Apollo 7, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9). Command module design worries The Apollo 1 astronauts with a model of the command module. The crew expressed serious concerns about fire hazards and other problems. The Apollo command module was much bigger and far more complex than any previously implemented spacecraft design. The CM was built by North American Aviation, which had originally suggested the hatch open outward and carry explosive bolts in case of emergency. NASA didn't agree, arguing the hatch could be accidentally opened (what led to Grissom's Liberty Bell 7 spacecraft sinking during splashdown recovery operations). Before the fire, astronauts successfully lobbied for an outward-opening hatch on future command modules, but NASA subsequently claimed the astronauts were thinking about ease of exit and entry for spacewalks (along with getting out of the CM after splashdown) rather than safety. Benson 1978: Chapter 18-2 - The Fire That Seared The Spaceport, "Predictions of Trouble" North American Aviation also suggested the cabin atmosphere be an oxygen/nitrogen mixture as on the Earth's surface. NASA objected, citing heightened risks such as catastrophic decompression sickness and mismanagement of nitrogen levels, which could cause the astronauts to pass out and die. NASA officials asserted a pure oxygen atmosphere had been used without incident in the Mercury and Gemini programs so it would be safe for use on Apollo. Also, a pure oxygen design saved weight. CM-012 was delivered to NASA with dozens of acknowledged but unresolved flaws. The crew expressed serious concerns about fire hazards and other problems (Grissom even famously took a lemon from a tree by his house, telling his wife Betty, "I'm going to hang it on that spacecraft"). The January 27, 1967 launch simulation, officially considered not hazardous, was a "plugs-out" test to determine whether the Apollo spacecraft would operate nominally on internal power while detached from all cables and umbilicals. There was hope that if the spacecraft passed this and subsequent tests it would be ready to fly on February 21, 1967. Tragedy Plugs-out test At 1:00 PM (1800 GMT) on January 27 Grissom, White and Chaffee entered the command module fully suited, were strapped into their seats and hooked up to the spacecraft's systems in preparation for the plugs-out test. There were immediate problems. A sour "buttermilk" smell in the air circulating through Grissom's suit delayed the launch simulation until 2:42 PM. Three minutes later the hatch was sealed and high-pressure pure oxygen began replacing the air in the cabin. Further problems included episodes of high oxygen flow apparently linked to movements by the astronauts in their flightsuits. There were also faulty communications between the crew, the control room, the operations and checkout building and the complex 34 blockhouse. "How are we going to get to the moon if we can't talk between three buildings?" Grissom complained in frustration over the communication loop. This put the launch simulation on hold again at 5:40. Most countdown functions had been successfully completed by 6:20 but the countdown was still holding at T minus 10 minutes at 6:30 with all cables and umbilicals still attached to the command module while attempts were made to fix the communication problem. Fire Charred remains of the Apollo 1 command module. The crew members were reclining in their horizontal couches, running through a checklist when a voltage transient was recorded at 6:30:54 (23:30:54 GMT). Ten seconds later (at 6:31:04) Chaffee said, "Hey..." Scuffling sounds followed for three seconds before Grissom shouted "Fire!" Chaffee then reported, "We've got a fire in the cockpit," and White said "Fire in the cockpit!" After nearly ten seconds of frenetic movement noises Chaffee yelled, "We've got a bad fire! Let's get out! We're burning up! We're on fire! Get us out of here!" Some witnesses said they saw Ed White on the television monitors, reaching for the hatch release handle as flames in the cabin spread from left to right and licked the window. Only 17 seconds after the first indication by crew of any fire, the transmission ended abruptly at 6:31:21 with a scream of pain as the cabin ruptured after rapidly expanding gases from the fire overpressurized the CM to 29 psi. Intense heat, dense toxic smoke and malfunctioning gas masks hampered the ground crew's rescue efforts. There were fears the fire might ignite the solid fuel rockets in the launch escape tower above the command module, likely killing nearby ground personnel. It took five minutes to open the inner and outer hatches, a set of three with many ratchets. By this time the fire in the command module had gone out. Although the cabin lights remained lit the ground crew was at first unable to find the astronauts. As the smoke cleared they found the bodies but were not able to remove them. The fire had partly melted the astronauts' nylon space suits and the hoses connecting them to the life support system. Grissom's body was found lying mostly on the deck. His and White's suits were fused together. The body of Ed White (who mission protocol had tasked with opening the hatch) was lying back in his center couch. White would not have been able to open the inward-opening hatch against the internal pressure. Chaffee's job was to shut down the spacecraft systems and maintain communications with ground control. His body was still strapped into the right-hand seat. Aftermath According to the Apollo 204 Review Board, Grissom suffered severe third degree burns on over a third of his body and his spacesuit was mostly destroyed. White suffered third degree burns on almost half of his body and a quarter of his spacesuit had melted away. Chaffee suffered third degree burns over almost a quarter of his body and a small portion of his spacesuit was damaged. It was later confirmed the crew had died of smoke inhalation with burns contributing. It is unknown how badly the astronauts were burned before they lost consciousness. In later lawsuits brought by Gus Grissom's widow Betty Grissom there were claims the astronauts had lived longer than NASA claimed publicly. See Dennis E. Powell, "Obviously, A Major Malfunction" Miami [Fla.] Herald Sunday magazine, November 13, 1988. To its dismay, the review board found the documentation for CM-012 so lacking that they were at times unable to determine what had been installed in the spacecraft or what was in it at the time of the accident. Cause Since the CM was designed to endure outward pressure in the vacuum of space, the plugs-out test had been run with the cabin pressure at over 16 psi, almost 2 psi above the ambient sea level pressure at Launch Complex 34 and near the upper limits of measuring devices in the spacecraft. This represented over 5 times the oxygen density carried within the Mercury and Gemini spacecraft while in spaceflight (which was only 3 psi but equal to the partial pressure of oxygen at sea level and thus very breathable). Following a worldwide survey of artificial oxygen-rich environments, it was found that rarely if ever had a 100% oxygen environment been created and maintained at such a high pressure, in which a bar of aluminum can burn like wood. The investigation also found much substandard wiring and plumbing in the craft along with a misplaced socket wrench (which was ruled out as a cause). Hence, the fire was at first believed to have been caused by a spark somewhere in the over of wiring threaded throughout the command module. Major General Sam Phillips, Director of the Apollo program said: “The message from the crew, notifying of the fire, I think we'll have to play back the tape, as the board gets into action, to have it precisely, but as it was reported from on the spot of rivers and those listening to the loops, was the word ‘fire in the spacecraft’, which was attributed to one of the crewmen.” An investigation showed that sloppy workmanship, poor inspection, and inadequate safety design led to the accident. [http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1967/Space-Tragedies/12303074818188-7/ "1967 Year In Review, UPI.com" The review board noted a silver-plated copper wire running through an environmental control unit near the command module pilot's couch which had become stripped of its Teflon insulation and abraded by repeated opening and closing of a small access door. This weak point in the wiring also ran near a junction in an ethylene glycol/water cooling line which was known to be prone to leaks. The electrolysis of ethylene glycol solution with the silver anode was a notable hazard which could cause a violent exothermic reaction, igniting the ethylene glycol mixture in the CM's corrosive test atmosphere of pure, high-pressure oxygen. In 1967 a vice president of North American Aviation, John McCarthy, speculated that Grissom had accidentally "scuffed the insulation of a wire" whilst moving about the spacecraft but his remarks were ignored by the review board and strongly rejected by a congressional committee. Frank Borman, who had been the first astronaut to go inside the burned spacecraft, testified, "We found no evidence to support the thesis that Gus, or any of the crew members kicked the wire that ignited the flammables." A 1978 history of the accident written internally by NASA said at the time, "the spark that led to the fire still has wide currency at Kennedy Space Center. Men differ, however, on the cause of the scuff." (Benson 1978: Chapter 18-6 - The Fire That Seared The Spaceport, "The Review Board", retrieved 12 May 2008) Soon after making his comment McCarthy had said, "I only brought it up as a hypothesis." () The panel cited how the NASA crew systems department had installed of fuzzy Velcro throughout the spacecraft, almost like carpeting. This velcro was found to be explosive in a high-pressure 100% oxygen environment. Up to 70 pounds of other non-metallic flammable materials had crept into the design. In 1968 a team of MIT physicists went to Cape Kennedy and performed a static discharge test in the CM-103 command module while it was being prepared for the launch of Apollo 8. With an electroscope, they measured the approximate energy of static discharges caused by a test crew dressed in nylon flight pressure suits and reclining on the nylon flight seats. The MIT investigators found sufficient energy for ignition discharged repeatedly when crewmembers shifted in their seats and then touched the spacecraft's aluminum panels. However, the ignition source for the Apollo 1 fire was never officially determined. Command module redesign After the fire the Apollo project was grounded. In hindsight the command module was understood to be extremely hazardous and in some instances, carelessly assembled. Many design changes were made, among them: At launch the cabin atmosphere would be at sea-level pressure and consist of 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen, lowering to 5 psi during ascent and gradually changing over to 100% oxygen at about 2 psi during the first 24 hours of the trans-lunar coast. The hatch would open outward (which had already been planned) and be openable in less than ten seconds. Flammable materials in the cabin were replaced with self-extinguishing versions. Plumbing and wiring were covered with protective insulation. 1,407 wiring problems were corrected. Nylon suits (seen in the crew portrait above) were replaced with suits made of early Beta cloth, a non-flammable, highly melt-resistant fabric woven from silica and coated with glass. An explosive hatch was re-added (which had been removed after Mercury 4 when the hatch blew prematurely on Grissom's spacecraft and caused it to sink, irking NASA officials). The redesigned hatch used a cartridge of pressurized nitrogen to drive the release mechanism in an emergency, as opposed to the pyrotechnic bolts used on Mercury. Much more thorough protocols were implemented for documenting spacecraft construction and maintenance. By all accounts the design changes were successful and worth the subsequent delay of almost 21 months before the project's successful first launch and completion of a manned mission, Apollo 7. Three years later when Apollo 13 executed an emergency shutdown of the command module after a crippling and life-threatening explosion in the service module while crossing trans-lunar space, water condensation gathered for four days but did not cause any short-outs or fatal sparks when the spacecraft was powered up again minutes before reentry. Moreover, documentation on the Apollo 13 spacecraft was so complete, investigators were able to reconstruct the cause of the explosion from telemetry, construction, maintenance and photographic records without ever examining the service module itself. 1961 Soviet oxygen fire In March 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenko was killed when a fire started in the pure-oxygen atmosphere of an isolation chamber but the USSR concealed this tragedy for over 20 years, which subsequently caused some speculation as to whether or not the Apollo 1 disaster might have been averted had NASA been aware of the incident. However, the design hazards of a 100% oxygen environment had been well described by 1967 and many deaths from flash fires in pure oxygen at or near sea-level pressure had been publicly reported during the 1950s and 60s. A 1966 editorial in the journal Space/Aeronautics asserted "The odds are that the first spaceflight casualty due to environmental exposure will occur not in space, but on the ground", and further noted that safety protocols for the Apollo project were thoroughly lacking. Mission insignia The Apollo 1 insignia (shown at the top of this page) has a center showing a command service module flying over the southeastern United States with Florida (the launch point) prominent. The moon is seen in the distance, symbolic of the eventual program goal. A yellow border carries the mission and astronaut names with another border set with stars and stripes, trimmed in gold. The insignia was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International. http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-052008a.html Memorials Gus Grissom and Roger Chaffee were buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Ed White was buried at the cemetery of the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York. Their names are also enshrined on the Space Mirror Memorial at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Merritt Island, Florida. An Apollo 1 mission patch was left on the moon's surface during the first manned lunar landing by Apollo 11. Launch Complex 34 Launch platform at LC-34 with Apollo 1 dedication plaque visible on right rear post Dedication plaque attached to launch platform at LC-34 Memorial plaque attached to launch platform at LC-34 Launch Complex 34 was subsequently used only for the launch of Apollo 7 and later dismantled but the launch platform remains at the site () along with a few other concrete and steel-reinforced structures. The launch platform bears two plaques noting the tragedy. One reads: LAUNCH COMPLEX 34, Friday, 27 January 1967, 1831 Hours. Dedicated to the living memory of the crew of the Apollo 1: USAF. Lt. Colonel Virgil I. Grissom, USAF. Lt. Colonel Edward H. White, II, U.S.N. Lt. Commander Roger B. Chaffee. They gave their lives in service to their country in the ongoing exploration of humankind's final frontier. Remember them not for how they died but for those ideals for which they lived. The other reads: In memory of those who made the ultimate sacrifice so others could reach for the stars; Ad astra per aspera (a rough road leads to the stars); God speed to the crew of Apollo 1 In January 2005 three granite benches built by a college classmate of one of the astronauts, one for each member of the crew, were installed at the site. Each year the families of the Apollo 1 crew are invited to the site for a memorial, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Center offers a visit to the site for those who choose to take a special tour to the older launch sites on Cape Canaveral. Stars, landmarks on the Moon and Mars Three stars, Navi, Dnoces and Regor, were named in honor of the crew (the names are Ivan, Second and Roger spelled backwards - Ivan was Grissom's middle name and Second was Edward H. White II). The crew used these stars to calibrate their equipment and as a practical joke, recorded the names in official NASA documentation. They eventually stuck as a posthumous honor. Section 105:11:33. Craters on the Moon and hills on Mars are named after the three astronauts. Naming of Apollo 1 When North American Aviation shipped spacecraft CM-012 to Kennedy Space Center it bore a banner proclaiming it as Apollo One. Grissom's crew had received approval for an Apollo 1 patch in June 1966 but NASA was planning to call the mission "AS-204." After the fire, the astronauts' widows asked that Apollo 1 be reserved for the flight their husbands never made. Apollo 1's (AS-204) Saturn IB rocket was taken down from Launch Complex 34, later reassembled at Launch Complex 37B and used to launch the Apollo 5 LM-1 into earth orbit for the first Lunar Module test mission. Effect on early Apollo mission names For a time mission planners called the next scheduled launch Apollo 2. There were also suggestions the first Apollo CSM flights be named wholly out of chronological sequence as Apollo 1 (AS-204), Apollo 1A (AS-201), Apollo 2 (AS-202) and Apollo 3 (AS-203) but the NASA project designation committee decided on Apollo 4 for the first (unmanned) Apollo-Saturn V mission (AS-501), with no retroactive renaming of earlier missions. Hence, AS-203 is now sometimes informally (and chronologically) referred to as Apollo 2 and likewise, AS-202 as Apollo 3. Civic and other memorials The names of the three astronauts on the Space Mirror at KSC. Grissom Hall, student residence hall at the Florida Institute of Technology. Three public schools in Huntsville, Alabama (home of George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the United States Space & Rocket Center): Virgil I. Grissom High School, Ed White Middle School, and Roger B. Chaffee Elementary. Edward White Middle School in White's hometown of San Antonio, Texas. Edward H. White II High School in Jacksonville, Florida. Edward H. White II Elementary School, El Lago, Texas. Edward H. White II Memorial Youth Center, Seabrook, Texas. Virgil Grissom Elementary School in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Roger B. Chaffee Elementary School at NAS Bermuda (closed) Virgil I. Grissom Middle School at Warren, Michigan A memorial to Grissom in Spring Mill State Park, near his hometown of Mitchell, Indiana. In Mitchell itself is the town's Gus Grissom Memorial. Mitchell High School's auditorium is also named for him. Three man-made oil drilling islands in the harbor off Long Beach, California are named Grissom, White and Chaffee. A fourth island is named for Theodore Freeman, an Air Force test pilot chosen as an astronaut in 1963 but who was killed while piloting a T-38 jet when it crashed at Ellington AFB. A road that formerly ran through Kent County International Airport (GRR) in Grand Rapids, Michigan, Chaffee's hometown, was named Roger B. Chaffee Memorial Boulevard after the airport was moved further from the city limits. The Roger B. Chaffee Planetarium is located at the Grand Rapids Public Museum. White Hall and Grissom Hall at Chanute Air Force Base (closed, 1993), Rantoul, Illinois. The names of Grissom, White and Chaffee were used for streets in Amherst, NY. These are connected to Niagara Blvd and located near the Bell plant, where the X planes were built in the 1940s. There is a museum dedicated to the work of Bell in the aeronautic sciences. The roads commemorating White and Chaffee are still in existence, however a local restaurant purchased the entire length of Grissom Drive, and renamed it against the protests of the local citizenry and the town board. Grissom ARB (formerly Grissom AFB, formerly Bunker Hill AFB, north of Indianapolis, Indiana) was renamed for Grissom on 12 May 1968. Two buildings on the campus of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana are named for Grissom and Chaffee (both Purdue alumni). Grissom Hall houses the School of Industrial Engineering (and was home to the School of Aeronautics and Astronautics before it moved into the new Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering). Chaffee Hall is the administration complex of Maurice J. Zucrow Laboratories where thermal sciences and rocket propulsion are studied. Grissom Parkway runs between Cocoa and Titusville, Florida, intersecting White Drive and Chaffee Drive near the Titusville Police Department. Virgil I. Grissom Library in Newport News, Virginia. The movie 'Star Trek III' features a science vessel named the U.S.S. Grissom. Also, in the TV series 'Star Trek: Deep Space Nine' features a shuttlecraft named the Chaffee. Remains of CM-012 The Apollo 1 command module has never been on public display. After the accident the burned-out spacecraft was removed and taken to Kennedy Space Center to be studied for any information that might prevent a recurrence of the tragedy. It was then moved to the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia and placed in a secured storage warehouse. On February 17, 2007 the wreckage of CM-012 was moved approximately to a newer, environmentally-controlled warehouse. Only a few weeks earlier Gus Grissom's brother Lowell publicly suggested CM-012 be permanently entombed in the concrete remains of Launch Complex 34. Dramatizations An episode of the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon told the story of the Apollo 1 disaster and its aftermath. It starred Mark Rolston as Gus Grissom, Chris Isaak as Ed White and Ben Marley as Roger Chaffee. The accident was also depicted in a scene in the film Apollo 13. See also Apollo program List of space disasters Joseph Francis Shea References Notes Bibliography Includes useful data (along with the less useful conspiracy theory). External links NASA Apollo 1 website Baron testimony at investigation before Olin Teague, 21. 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3,923 | John_Newton | John Newton. John Henry Newton (July 24, 1725 – December 21, 1807) was an Englishman, Anglican clergyman and former slave-ship captain. He was the author of many hymns, including Amazing Grace. Early life John Newton was born in Wapping, London, in 1725, the son of John Newton a shipmaster in the Mediterranean service, and Elizabeth Newton (née Seatclife), a Nonconformist Christian. His mother died of tuberculosis when he was six. The Cowper and Newton Museum Newton spent two years at boarding school, and at the age of eleven he went to sea with his father and sailed with him on a total of six voyages until the elder Newton retired in 1742. Newton's father had planned for him to take up a position as a slave master at a sugar plantation in Jamaica. He did become a Captain of a slaveship, but in 1743, he was pressed into naval service, and became a midshipman aboard HMS Harwich. After attempting to desert, Newton was put in irons and court martialled. The captain was determined to make an example of Newton for the rest of the crew. Thus, in the presence of 350 members of the crew, the eighteen year old midshipman was stripped to the waist, tied to the grating, and received a flogging of ninety-six lashes, and was reduced to the rank of a common seaman. [www.newcreation.org.au/books/pdf/285_JohnNewton.pdf] Following that disgrace and humiliation, Newton initially contemplated suicide, but he recovered, both physically and mentally, and, at his own request, he was placed in service on a slave ship bound for West Africa which eventually took him to the coast of Sierra Leone. He became the servant of a slave trader, who abused him. It was this period that Newton later remembered as the time he was "once an infidel and libertine, a servant of slaves in West Africa." Early in 1748 he was rescued by a sea captain who had been asked by Newton’s father to search for him on his next voyage. Spiritual conversion Sailing back to England in 1748 aboard the merchant ship, he experienced a spiritual conversion in the Greyhound, which was hauling a load of beeswax and dyer's wood. The ship encountered a severe storm off the coast of Donegal and almost sank. Newton awoke in the middle of the night and finally called out to God as the ship filled with water. It was this experience which he later marked as the beginnings of his conversion to evangelical Christianity. As the ship sailed home, Newton began to read the Bible and other religious literature. By the time he reached Britain, he had accepted the doctrines of Evangelical Christianity. The date was May 10, 1748, an anniversary he marked for the rest of his life. From that point on, he avoided profanity, gambling, and drinking, although he continued to work in the slave trade. He later said that his true conversion did not happen until some time later: "I cannot consider myself to have been a believer in the full sense of the word, until a considerable time afterwards." John Newton. Out of the Depths. Ed. Dennis Hillman. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2003. 84. Newton returned to Liverpool, England and, partly due to the influence of Joseph Manesty, a friend of his father’s, obtained a position as first mate aboard a slave trading vessel, the Brownlow, bound for the West Indies via the coast of Guinea. During the first leg of this voyage, while in west Africa (1748–49), Newton acknowledged the inadequacy of his spiritual life. While he was sick with a fever, he professed his full belief in Christ. He later said that this experience was his true conversion and the turning point in his spiritual life. He claimed it was the first time he felt totally at peace with the Almighty God. Still, he did not renounce the slave trade until later in his life (when he wrote a tract decrying it in aid of abolitionist William Wilberforce). After his return to England in 1750, he made three further voyages as captain of the slave-trading ships Duke of Argyle (1750) and the African (1752–53 and 1753–54). He only gave up seafaring and his active slave-trading activities in 1754, after suffering a severe stroke, but continued to invest his savings in Manesty's slaving operations." Adam Hochschild. Bury the Chains. Basingstoke: Pan Macmillan, 2005. 77. . Anglican priest In 1755 Newton became tide surveyor of the port of Liverpool, again through the influence of Manesty and, in his spare time, was able to study Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac. He became well-known as an evangelical lay minister, and applied for the Anglican priesthood in 1757, although it was more than seven years before he was eventually accepted and ordained into the Church of England. Such had been his frustration during this period of rejection that he had sought also to apply to the Methodists, Independents and Presbyterians, as well as directly to the Bishops of Chester and Lincoln and the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. Eventually, in 1764, he was introduced by Thomas Haweis to Lord Dartmouth, who was influential in recommending Newton to the Bishop of Chester, and who had suggested him for the living of Olney, Buckinghamshire. On 29 April 1764 Newton received deacon’s orders, and finally became a priest on 17 June. As curate of Olney, Newton was partly sponsored by the evangelical philanthropist John Thornton, who supplemented his stipend of £60 a year with £200 a year "for hospitality and to help the poor". He soon became well-known for his pastoral care, as much as for his beliefs, and his friendship with dissenters and evangelical clergy caused him to be respected by Anglicans and non-conformists alike. He was to spend sixteen years at Olney, during which time so popular was his preaching that the church had a gallery added to accommodate the large numbers who flocked to hear him. Some five years later, in 1772, Thomas Scott, later to become a biblical commentator and co-founder of the Church Missionary Society, took up the curacy of the neighbouring parishes of Stoke Goldington and Weston Underwood. Newton was instrumental in converting Scott from a cynical 'career priest' to a true believer, a conversion Scott related in his spiritual autobiography The Force Of Truth (1779). In 1779 Newton was invited by the wealthy Christian merchant John Thornton to become Rector of St Mary Woolnoth, Lombard Street, London, where he officiated until his death. The church had been built by Nicholas Hawksmoor in 1727 in the fashionable Baroque style. Newton then became one of only two evangelical preachers in the capital, and he soon found himself gaining in popularity amongst the growing evangelical party. He was a strong supporter of evangelicalism in the Church of England, and was a friend of the dissenting clergy as well as of the ministry of his own church. Many young churchmen and others enquiring about their faith visited him and sought his advice, including such well-known social figures as the writer and philanthropist Hannah More and the young M.P., William Wilberforce, who had recently undergone a crisis of conscience and religious conversion experience as he was contemplating leaving politics. In 1792, he was presented with the degree of D.D. by the University of New Jersey. Abolitionist John Newton has been called hypocritical by some modern writers for continuing to participate in the slave trade while holding strong Christian convictions. However, he later came to believe that during the first 5 of his 9 years as a slave trader he had not been true Christian: 'I was greatly deficient in many respects... I cannot consider myself to have been a believer in the full sense of the word, until a considerable time later." John Newton. Out of the Depths. Ed. Dennis Hillman. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2003. 84. Although his true conversion to Christianity had no immediate impact on his views on slavery, he eventually came to repent. He later joined William Wilberforce in the campaign for abolition. In 1787 he wrote a tract supporting the campaign, Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade. Among his greatest contributions to history was encouraging William Wilberforce, a Member of Parliament for Hull, to stay in Parliament and "serve God where he was", rather than enter the ministry. Wilberforce heeded the ex-slaveship captain's advice, and spent the next twenty years successfully working for the abolition of the slave trade in the British Empire. Writer and hymnist In 1767 William Cowper, the poet, moved to Olney. He worshipped in the church, and collaborated with Newton on producing a volume of hymns, which was eventually published as Olney Hymns in 1779. This work was to have a great influence on English hymnology. The volume included Newton's well-known hymns "Glorious Things of Thee are Spoken", "How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds!", "Come, My Soul, Thy Suit Prepare", "Approach, My Soul, the Mercy-seat", and "Faith's Review and Expectation" which came to be known by its opening phrase, "Amazing Grace". Many of Newton's (as well as Cowper's) hymns are preserved in the Sacred Harp. Commemoration The town of Newton, Sierra Leone is named after John Newton. To this day there is a philanthropic link between John Newton's church of Olney and Newton, Sierra Leone. Newton was recognized for his hymns of longstanding influence by the Gospel Music Association in 1982 when he was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame. Portrayals in literature, movies and other media John Newton is portrayed in the new Broadway-bound musical Amazing Grace: The True Story by Adam Jacobs, who also starred as "Marius" in Les Miserables on Broadway. Newton is portrayed by actor John Castle in the 1975 British television miniseries "The Fight Against Slavery." Caryl Phillips's novel Crossing the River (1993) includes nearly verbatim excerpts from Newton's books. Newton is played by the actor Albert Finney in the 2006 film Amazing Grace, which highlights Newton's influence on William Wilberforce. Directed by Michael Apted, this film portrays Newton as a penitent who is haunted by the ghosts of 20,000 slaves. Newton is also played by the actor Nick Moran in another 2006 film The Amazing Grace. The creation of Nigerian director/writer/producer Jeta Amata, the film provides a refreshing and creative African perspective on the familiar "Amazing Grace" theme. Nigerian actors Joke Silva, Mbong Odungide, and Fred Amata (brother of the director) portray Africans who are captured and wrested away from their homeland by slave traders. African Snow, a play by Murray Watts, takes place in Newton's mind. It was first produced at the York Theatre Royal as a co-production with Riding Lights Theatre Company in April 2007 before transferring to the Trafalgar Studios in London's West End and a National Tour. Newton was played by Roger Alborough and Olaudah Equiano by Israel Oyelumade. References Bibliography Aitken, Jonathan, John Newton: From Disgrace to Amazing Grace (Crossway Books, 2007). Bennett, H.L. John Newton in Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: University Press, 1894) Hindmarsh, D. Bruce. John Newton in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: University Press, 2004) Hochschild, Adam. Bury the Chains, The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery (Basingstoke: Pan Macmillan, 2005) Turner, Steve, "Amazing Grace: The Story of America's Most Beloved Song" (New York: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2002) Rediker, Marcus, The Slave Ship: A Human History (Viking, 2007) JohnNewton.org (2007) Bruner,Kurt & Ware, Jim, "Finding GOD in the Story of AMAZING GRACE" (Tyndale, 2007) External links The John Newton Project Famous Quotes by John Newton Amazing Grace: The Song, Author and their Connection to County Donegal in Ireland Amazing Grace: Some Early Tunes The Cowper and Newton Museum, Olney Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade By John Newton. Published in 1788. Cornell University Library Samuel J. 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connection:1 county:1 ireland:1 tune:1 cornell:2 library:2 samuel:1 j:1 anti:1 collection:2 reprint:1 digital:1 |@bigram anglican_clergyman:1 amazing_grace:4 sugar_plantation:1 aboard_hm:1 court_martialled:1 physically_mentally:1 sierra_leone:3 slave_trader:3 west_indies:1 william_wilberforce:5 archbishop_canterbury:1 pastoral_care:1 non_conformist:1 william_cowper:1 olney_hymn:1 amaze_grace:7 hall_fame:1 albert_finney:1 michael_apted:1 crossway_book:1 abolish_slavery:1 external_link:1 county_donegal:1 |
3,924 | Lunatic | A lunatic is a commonly used term for a person who is mentally ill, dangerous, foolish or unpredictable: a condition once called lunacy. Linguistic roots The word lunatic is borrowed from italian "lunacus", Italian which gains its stem from "luna" for moon, which denotes the traditional link made in folklore between madness and the phases of the moon. This probably refers to the symptoms of cyclic mood disorders such as bipolar disorder or cyclothymia, the symptoms of which may also go through phases. As yet there no evidence whatsoever for any causal link between phases of the moon and the progression of mood disorder symptoms. Correlation has been observed in distant parts. Mental institutions used to be called "lunatic asylums" or colloquially, "loony bins". In Russian, Polish, Czech and Slovak, a lunatic refers to a sleepwalker, literally "one who walks under the moon" or "moon walker". In Romanian, a word with the meaning of "lunatic" is "zănatic", derived from Latin "dianaticus", from Diana, the Roman goddess of the Moon. zănatic at Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române, Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică "Iorgu Iordan", Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1998. Lunar hypothesis In a 1999 Journal of Affective Disorders article, a hypothesis was suggested indicating that the phase of the moon may in the past have had an effect on bipolar patients by providing light during nights which would otherwise have been dark, and affecting susceptible patients through the well-known route of sleep deprivation. With the introduction of electric light, this effect would have gone away, as light would be available every night, explaining the negative results of modern studies. They suggest ways in which this hypothesis might be tested. Use of the term "lunatic" in legislation In England and Wales the Lunacy Acts 1890 - 1922 referred to lunatics, but the Mental Treatment Act 1930 changed the legal term to "Person of Unsound Mind", an expression which was replaced under the Mental Health Act 1959 by mental illness. "Person of unsound mind" was the term used in 1950 in the English version of the European Convention on Human Rights as one of the types of person who could be deprived of liberty by a judicial process. The 1930 act also replaced Asylum with Mental Hospital. Criminal Lunatics became Broadmoor Patients in 1948 under the National Health Service Act. The terms are still used by journalists, especially in tabloid newspapers. Lunar Distance The term lunatic was also used by supporters of John Harrison and his marine chronometer method of determining longitude to refer to proponents of the Method of Lunar Distances, advanced by Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne. Later, members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham called themselves lunaticks. In an age with little street lighting, the society met on or about the night of the full moon. See also Bedlam Mental illness References External links Does the full moon have any effects on mood? (cites research studies: 2 negative, 1 positive) Raison CL, Klein HM, Steckler M. The moon and madness reconsidered. J Affect Disord. 1999 Apr;53(1):99-106 Crackdown on lunar-fuelled crime - BBC News, 5 June 2007 | Lunatic |@lemmatized lunatic:9 commonly:1 used:1 term:6 person:4 mentally:1 ill:1 dangerous:1 foolish:1 unpredictable:1 condition:1 call:3 lunacy:2 linguistic:1 root:1 word:2 borrow:1 italian:2 lunacus:1 gain:1 stem:1 luna:1 moon:10 denote:1 traditional:1 link:3 make:1 folklore:1 madness:2 phase:4 probably:1 refer:3 symptom:3 cyclic:1 mood:3 disorder:4 bipolar:2 cyclothymia:1 may:2 also:4 go:2 yet:1 evidence:1 whatsoever:1 causal:1 progression:1 correlation:1 observe:1 distant:1 part:1 mental:6 institution:1 use:5 asylum:2 colloquially:1 loony:1 bin:1 russian:1 polish:1 czech:1 slovak:1 refers:1 sleepwalker:1 literally:1 one:2 walk:1 walker:1 romanian:1 meaning:1 zănatic:2 derive:1 latin:1 dianaticus:1 diana:1 roman:1 goddess:1 dicţionarul:1 explicativ:1 al:1 limbii:1 române:1 academia:1 română:1 institutul:1 de:1 lingvistică:1 iorgu:1 iordan:1 editura:1 univers:1 enciclopedic:1 lunar:5 hypothesis:3 journal:1 affective:1 article:1 suggest:2 indicating:1 past:1 effect:3 patient:3 provide:1 light:3 night:3 would:3 otherwise:1 dark:1 affect:2 susceptible:1 well:1 know:1 route:1 sleep:1 deprivation:1 introduction:1 electric:1 away:1 available:1 every:1 explain:1 negative:2 result:1 modern:1 study:2 way:1 might:1 test:1 legislation:1 england:1 wales:1 act:5 treatment:1 change:1 legal:1 unsound:2 mind:2 expression:1 replace:2 health:2 illness:2 english:1 version:1 european:1 convention:1 human:1 right:1 type:1 could:1 deprive:1 liberty:1 judicial:1 process:1 hospital:1 criminal:1 become:1 broadmoor:1 national:1 service:1 still:1 journalist:1 especially:1 tabloid:1 newspaper:1 distance:2 supporter:1 john:1 harrison:1 marine:1 chronometer:1 method:2 determine:1 longitude:1 proponent:1 advance:1 astronomer:1 royal:1 nevil:1 maskelyne:1 later:1 member:1 society:2 birmingham:1 lunaticks:1 age:1 little:1 street:1 lighting:1 meet:1 full:2 see:1 bedlam:1 reference:1 external:1 cite:1 research:1 positive:1 raison:1 cl:1 klein:1 hm:1 steckler:1 reconsider:1 j:1 disord:1 apr:1 crackdown:1 fuel:1 crime:1 bbc:1 news:1 june:1 |@bigram commonly_used:1 mentally_ill:1 mood_disorder:2 bipolar_disorder:1 lunatic_asylum:1 czech_slovak:1 affective_disorder:1 sleep_deprivation:1 england_wales:1 mental_health:1 mental_illness:2 tabloid_newspaper:1 marine_chronometer:1 external_link:1 affect_disord:1 bbc_news:1 |
3,925 | Futurama_(New_York_World's_Fair) | The Futurama was an exhibit/ride at the 1939-40 New York World's Fair held in the United States, designed by Norman Bel Geddes that tried to show the world 20 years into the future (1959-1960), including automated highways and vast suburbs. The exhibit was sponsored by General Motors. Compared to other "visions of the future", Bel Geddes' was rather achievable - the most advanced technology posited was the automated highway system, of which GM did indeed build a working prototype by 1960. The Futurama is widely held to have first introduced the general American public to the concept of a network of superhighways connecting the nation. Bel Geddes expounded upon his design in his book Magic Motorways. An updated version, Futurama II, appeared at the 1964/1965 New York World's Fair. The 1964 version depicted life 60 years into the future, this time 2024. Scenes showed a lunar base of operation, an Antarctic "Weather Central" climate forecasting center, underseas exploration and "Hotel Atlantis" for underseas vacationing, desert irrigation, and land reclamation, building roads in the jungle and a City of the Future. Visitors rode through the dioramas in 3-abreast chairs on a ride train. The Futurama exhibit was again sponsored by General Motors and proved to be the most popular exhibit at the World's Fair with more than 26 million persons attending the show in the two 6-month seasons the Fair was open. Waiting lines were often two hours long and longer. The Futurama is featured in Steven Barnes' novelization of the popular Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Far Beyond the Stars". In addition, the animated series Futurama was named after the 1939 exhibit. External links "To New Horizons" - a video document recording the display at the 1939/40 World's Fair (from Prelinger archives) Magic Motorways, by Norman Bel Geddes (from Prelinger Library) nywf64.com (1964/1965 New York World's Fair Website) story of the General Motors Futurama II The Original Futurama - Wired.com | Futurama_(New_York_World's_Fair) |@lemmatized futurama:8 exhibit:5 ride:3 new:4 york:3 world:6 fair:6 hold:2 united:1 state:1 design:2 norman:2 bel:4 geddes:4 try:1 show:3 year:2 future:4 include:1 automate:2 highway:2 vast:1 suburb:1 sponsor:2 general:4 motor:3 compare:1 vision:1 rather:1 achievable:1 advanced:1 technology:1 posit:1 system:1 gm:1 indeed:1 build:2 work:1 prototype:1 widely:1 first:1 introduce:1 american:1 public:1 concept:1 network:1 superhighway:1 connect:1 nation:1 expound:1 upon:1 book:1 magic:2 motorway:2 updated:1 version:2 ii:2 appear:1 depict:1 life:1 time:1 scene:1 lunar:1 base:1 operation:1 antarctic:1 weather:1 central:1 climate:1 forecasting:1 center:1 underseas:2 exploration:1 hotel:1 atlantis:1 vacationing:1 desert:1 irrigation:1 land:1 reclamation:1 road:1 jungle:1 city:1 visitor:1 diorama:1 abreast:1 chair:1 train:1 prove:1 popular:2 million:1 person:1 attend:1 two:2 month:1 season:1 open:1 wait:1 line:1 often:1 hour:1 long:1 longer:1 feature:1 steven:1 barnes:1 novelization:1 star:2 trek:1 deep:1 space:1 nine:1 episode:1 far:1 beyond:1 addition:1 animated:1 series:1 name:1 external:1 link:1 horizon:1 video:1 document:1 record:1 display:1 prelinger:2 archive:1 library:1 com:2 website:1 story:1 original:1 wire:1 |@bigram bel_geddes:4 land_reclamation:1 star_trek:1 external_link:1 |
3,926 | Non-standard_analysis | Abraham Robinson Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, discoverer of infinitesimal calculus Non-standard analysis is a branch of mathematics that formulates analysis using a rigorous notion of an infinitesimal number. Non-standard analysis was introduced in the early 1960s by the mathematician Abraham Robinson. He wrote: [...] the idea of infinitely small or infinitesimal quantities seems to appeal naturally to our intuition. At any rate, the use of infinitesimals was widespread during the formative stages of the Differential and Integral Calculus. As for the objection [...] that the distance between two distinct real numbers cannot be infinitely small, G. W. Leibniz argued that the theory of infinitesimals implies the introduction of ideal numbers which might be infinitely small or infinitely large compared with the real numbers but which were to possess the same properties as the latter. However, neither he nor his disciples and successors were able to give a rational development leading up to a system of this sort. As a result, the theory of infinitesimals gradually fell into disrepute and was replaced eventually by the classical theory of limits. Robinson, Abraham (1966). Non-standard analysis. Robinson continues: It is shown in this book that Leibniz's ideas can be fully vindicated and that they lead to a novel and fruitful approach to classical Analysis and to many other branches of mathematics. The key to our method is provided by the detailed analysis of the relation between mathematical languages and mathematical structures which lies at the bottom of contemporary model theory. A non-zero element of an ordered field F is infinitesimal if and only if its absolute value is smaller than any element of F of the form 1/n, for n a standard natural number. Ordered fields that have infinitesimal elements are also called non-Archimedean. More generally, non-standard analysis is any form of mathematics that relies on non-standard models and the transfer principle. A field which satisfies the transfer principle for real numbers is a hyperreal field, and non-standard real analysis uses these fields as non-standard models of the real numbers. Robinson's original approach was based on these non-standard models of the field of real numbers. His classic foundational book on the subject Non-standard Analysis was published in 1966 and is still in print . Several technical issues must be addressed to develop a calculus of infinitesimals. For example, it is not enough to construct an ordered field with infinitesimals. See the article on hyperreal numbers for a discussion of some of the relevant ideas. Motivation There are at least three reasons to consider non-standard analysis: Historical Much of the earliest development of the infinitesimal calculus by Newton and Leibniz was formulated using expressions such as infinitesimal number and vanishing quantity. As noted in the article on hyperreal numbers, these formulations were widely criticized by Bishop Berkeley and others. It was a challenge to develop a consistent theory of analysis using infinitesimals and the first person to do this in a satisfactory way was Abraham Robinson. In 1958 Curt Schmieden and Detlef Laugwitz published an Article "Eine Erweiterung der Infinitesimalrechnung" Curt Schmieden and Detlef Laugwitz: Eine Erweiterung der Infinitesimalrechnung, Mathematische Zeitschrift 69 (1958), 1-39 - "An Extension of Infinitesimal Calculus", which proposed a construction of a ring containing infinitesimals. The ring was constructed from sequences of real numbers. Two sequences were considered equivalent if they differed only in a finite number of elements. Arithmetic operations were defined elementwise. However, the ring constructed in this way contains zero divisors and thus cannot be a field. Pedagogical Some educators maintain that the use of infinitesimals is more intuitive and more easily grasped by students than the so-called "epsilon-delta" approach to analytic concepts. See H. Jerome Keisler's book H. Jerome Keisler: Elementary calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals. First edition 1976; 2nd edition 1986. This book is now out of print. The publisher has reverted the copyright to the author, who has made available the 2nd edition in .pdf format available for downloading at http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html . This approach can sometimes provide easier proofs of results which are somewhat tedious in epsilon-delta formulation of analysis. For example, proving the chain rule for differentiation is easier in a non-standard setting. Much of the simplification comes from applying very easy rules of nonstandard arithmetic, viz: infinitesimal × bounded = infinitesimal infinitesimal + infinitesimal = infinitesimal together with the transfer principle mentioned below. Critics of non-standard analysis maintain that these simplifications are really illusory since they merely mask use of elementary epsilon-delta arguments. They also contend epsilon-delta argument is not more challenging than understanding the axioms of the hyperreal numbers and their construction. Another pedagogical application of non-standard analysis is Edward Nelson's treatment of the theory of stochastic processes, presented in his monograph Radically Elementary Probability Theory Edward Nelson: Radically Elementary Probability Theory, Princeton University Press, 1987, available as a pdf at http://www.math.princeton.edu/~nelson/books/rept.pdf . Technical Some recent work has been done in analysis using concepts from non-standard analysis, particularly in investigating limiting processes of statistics and mathematical physics. Albeverio et-al Sergio Albeverio, Jans Erik Fenstad, Raphael Hoegh-Krohn, Tom Lindstrøm: Nonstandard Methods in Stochastic Analysis and Mathematical Physics, Academic Press 1986. discuss some of these applications. Approaches to non-standard analysis There are two very different approaches to non-standard analysis: the semantic or model-theoretic approach and the syntactic approach. Both these approaches apply to other areas of mathematics beyond analysis, including number theory, algebra and topology. The semantic approach is by far the most popular approach to non-standard analysis. Robinson's original formulation of non-standard analysis falls into this category. As developed by him in his papers, it is based on studying models (in particular saturated models) of a theory. Since Robinson's work first appeared, a simpler semantic approach (due to Elias Zakon) has been developed using purely set-theoretic objects called superstructures. In this approach a model of a theory is replaced by an object called a superstructure V(S) over a set S. Starting from a superstructure V(S) one constructs another object *V(S) using the ultrapower construction together with a mapping V(S) → *V(S) which satisfies the transfer principle. The map * relates formal properties of V(S) and *V(S). Moreover it is possible to consider a simpler form of saturation called countable saturation. This simplified approach is also more suitable for use by mathematicians who are not specialists in model theory or logic. The syntactic approach requires much less logic and model theory to understand and use. This approach was developed in the mid-1970s by the mathematician Edward Nelson. Nelson introduced an entirely axiomatic formulation of non-standard analysis that he called Internal Set Theory or IST Edward Nelson: Internal Set Theory: A New Approach to Nonstandard Analysis, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, Vol. 83, Number 6, November 1977. A chapter on Internal Set Theory is available at http://www.math.princeton.edu/~nelson/books/1.pdf . IST is an extension of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in that alongside the basic binary membership relation , it introduces a new unary predicate standard which can be applied to elements of the mathematical universe together with some axioms for reasoning with this new predicate. Syntactic non-standard analysis requires a great deal of care in applying the principle of set formation (formally known as the axiom of comprehension) which mathematicians usually take for granted. As Nelson points out, a common fallacy in reasoning in IST is that of illegal set formation. For instance, there is no set in IST whose elements are precisely the standard integers. To avoid illegal set formation, one must only use predicates of ZFC to define subsets. Another example of the syntactic approach is the Alternative Set Theory Vopěnka, P. Mathematics in the Alternative Set Theory. Teubner, Leipzig, 1979. introduced by Vopěnka, trying to find set-theory axioms more compatible with the non-standard analysis than the axioms of the ZF set theory. Applications Despite some initial hope in the mathematical community that non-standard analysis would alter the way mathematicians thought about and reasoned with real numbers, this expectation never materialized. Moreover the list of new applications in mathematics is still very small. One of these results is the theorem proven by Abraham Robinson and Allen Bernstein that every polynomially compact linear operator on a Hilbert space has an invariant subspace Allen Bernstein and Abraham Robinson, Solution of an invariant subspace problem of K. T. Smith and P. R. Halmos, Pacific Journal of Mathematics 16:3 (1966) 421-431 . Upon reading a preprint of the Bernstein-Robinson paper, Paul Halmos reinterpreted their proof using standard techniques P. Halmos, Invariant subspaces for Polynomially Compact Operators, Pacific Journal of Mathematics, 16:3 (1966) 433-437. . Both papers appeared back-to-back in the same issue of the Pacific Journal of Mathematics. Some of the ideas used in Halmos' proof reappeared many years later in Halmos' own work on quasi-triangular operators. Other results are more along the line of reinterpreting or reproving previously known results. Of particular interest is Kamae's proof T. Kamae: A simple proof of the ergodic theorem using nonstandard analysis, Israel Journal of Mathematics vol. 42, Number 4, 1982. of the individual ergodic theorem or van den Dries and Wilkie's treatment L. van den Dries and A. J. Wilkie: Gromov's Theorem on Groups of Polynomial Growth and Elementary Logic, Journal of Algebra, Vol 89, 1984. of Gromov's theorem on groups of polynomial growth. NSA was used by Larry Manevitz and Shmuel Weinberger to prove a result in algebraic topology Manevitz, Larry M.; Weinberger, Shmuel: Discrete circle actions: a note using non-standard analysis. Israel J. Math. 94 (1996), 147--155. . There are also applications of non-standard analysis to the theory of stochastic processes, particularly constructions of Brownian motion as random walks. Albeverio et-al have an excellent introduction to this area of research. Applications to calculus As an application to mathematical education, H. Jerome Keisler has written an elementary text on non-standard calculus that develops differential and integral calculus using the hyperreal numbers, which include infinitesimal elements. These applications of non-standard analysis depend on the existence of the standard part of a finite hyperreal r. The standard part of r, denoted st(r), is a standard real number infinitely close to r. One of the visualization devices Keisler uses is that of an imaginary infinite-resolution microscope to distinguish points infinitely close together. Keisler's book is now out of print, but is freely available from his website, see references below. Keisler's approach was harshly criticized by Errett Bishop. Critique Despite the elegance and appeal of some aspects of non-standard analysis, there has been skepticism in the mathematical community about whether the nonstandard machinery adds anything that cannot easily be achieved by standard methods. These criticisms notwithstanding, however, there is no controversy about the mathematical validity of the approach and the results of non-standard analysis. It is known that IST is a conservative extension of ZFC. This is shown in Edward Nelson's 1977 AMS Bulletin paper in an appendix written by William Powell. Bishop's critique Bishop's critique of NSA and of Keisler's elementary calculus book based on Robinson's theory is documented at Criticism of non-standard analysis#Bishop's criticism. Logical framework Given any set S, the superstructure over a set S is the set V(S) defined by the conditions Thus the superstructure over S is obtained by starting from S and iterating the operation of adjoining the power set of S and taking the union of the resulting sequence. The superstructure over the real numbers includes a wealth of mathematical structures: For instance, it contains isomorphic copies of all separable metric spaces and metrizable topological vector spaces. Virtually all of mathematics that interests an analyst goes on within V(R). The working view of nonstandard analysis is a set *R and a mapping which satisfies some additional properties. To formulate these principles we first state some definitions: A formula has bounded quantification if and only if the only quantifiers which occur in the formula have range restricted over sets, that is are all of the form: For example, the formula has bounded quantification, the universally quantified variable x ranges over A, the existentially quantified variable y ranges over the powerset of B. On the other hand, does not have bounded quantification because the quantification of y is unrestricted. Internal sets A set x is internal if and only if x is an element of *A for some element A of V(R). *A itself is internal if A belongs to V(R). We now formulate the basic logical framework of nonstandard analysis: Extension principle: The mapping * is the identity on R. Transfer principle: For any formula P(x1, ..., xn) with bounded quantification and with free variables x1, ..., xn, and for any elements A1, ..., An of V(R), the following equivalence holds: Countable saturation: If {Ak}k is a decreasing sequence of nonempty internal sets, with k ranging over the natural numbers, then One can show using ultraproducts that such a map * exists. Elements of V(R) are called standard. Elements of *R are called hyperreal numbers. First consequences The symbol *N denotes the nonstandard natural numbers. By the extension principle, this is a superset of N. The set *N − N is nonempty. To see this, apply countable saturation to the sequence of internal sets The sequence {Ak}k ∈ N has a nonempty intersection, proving the result. We begin with some definitions: Hyperreals r, s are infinitely close if and only if A hyperreal r is infinitesimal if and only if it is infinitely close to 0. r is limited or bounded if and only if its absolute value is dominated by (less than) a standard integer. The bounded hyperreals form a subring of *R containing the reals. In this ring, the infinitesimal hyperreals are an ideal. For example, if n is a hyperinteger, i.e. an element of *N − N, then 1/n is an infinitesimal. The set of bounded hyperreals or the set of infinitesimal hyperreals are external subsets of V(*R); what this means in practice is that bounded quantification, where the bound is an internal set, never ranges over these sets. Example: The plane (x,y) with x and y ranging over *R is internal, and is a model of plane Euclidean geometry. The plane with x and y restricted to bounded values (analogous to the Dehn plane) is external, and in this bounded plane the parallel postulate is violated. For example, any line passing through the point (0,1) on the y-axis and having infinitesimal slope is parallel to the x-axis. Theorem. For any bounded hyperreal r there is a unique standard real denoted st(r) infinitely close to r. The mapping st is a ring homomorphism from the ring of bounded hyperreals to R. The mapping st is also external. One way of thinking of the standard part of a hyperreal, is in terms of Dedekind cuts; any bounded hyperreal s defines a cut by considering the pair of sets (L,U) where L is the set of standard rationals a less than s and U is the set of standard rationals b greater than s. The real number corresponding to (L,U) can be seen to satisfy the condition of being the standard part of s. One intuitive characterization of continuity is as follows: Theorem. A real-valued function f on the interval [a,b] is continuous if and only if for every hyperreal x in the interval *[a,b], Similarly, Theorem. A real-valued function f is differentiable at the real value x if and only if for every infinitesimal hyperreal number h, the value exists and is independent of h. In this case f'(x) is a real number and is the derivative of f at x. See also The following topics are of central importance and are discussed in the articles below. Overspill Non-standard calculus Non-standard measure theory Non-standard functional analysis Internal set theory The following articles are related: Elementary calculus Hyperreal number hyperinteger Infinitesimal Surreal number Non-classical analysis Smooth infinitesimal analysis Criticism of nonstandard analysis Influence of non-standard analysis References Crowell, Calculus. A text using infinitesimals. Hermoso, Nonstandard Analysis and the Hyperreals. A gentle introduction. Keisler, H. Jerome Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals. Includes an axiomatic treatment of the hyperreals, and is freely available under a Creative Commons license Keisler, H. Jerome: An Infinitesimal Approach to Stochastic Analysis, vol. 297 of Memoirs of the American Mathematical Society, 1984. Robert, Alain: Nonstandard analysis, Wiley, New York 1988. 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3,927 | Bristol_City_F.C. | Bristol City Football Club is one of two football league clubs in Bristol, England, (the other being arch rivals Bristol Rovers). They play at Ashton Gate, located in the south-western portion of the City. Gary Johnson has been the team's manager since 23 September 2005, succeeding Brian Tinnion. They were promoted to the Coca-Cola Championship in the 2006-07 season after finishing second in League One but failed to make a second consecutive promotion to the Premier League after they were defeated by Hull City in the Championship Play-Offs. Bristol City won the Welsh Cup - despite being an English team - in 1934. In 1907 they finished runners-up in Football League Division One, which is their highest-ever final position. In 1982, Bristol City became the first English team to suffer three successive relegations but by 1990 they were back in the Second Division. Another relegation followed in 1995, when City finished second from bottom in the new Second Division, and a return to that division three years later lasted just one season. Most of their seasons between 1999 and 2006 were spent challenging for promotion in the upper half of the division. The club's nickname is "The Robins", and a robin featured on the club's badge from 1976 to 1994. Official club merchandise, including replica kits, still has a label showing a robin. A recent attempt by the club to alter the club's badge was abandoned after the club was criticized fiercely by fans. Bristol City currently play at Ashton Gate stadium in the Ashton/Bedminster area of the city of Bristol, which has an all-seater capacity of 21,497. History Early years and early successes (1897-1911) The club was founded in 1897, when Bristol South End turned professional and changed its name to Bristol City. In 1900 the club merged with local rivals Bedminster, who had been founded as Southville in 1887. The side joined the Football League in 1901 and were the only non-London League side south of Birmingham until 1920. Their first game in the Football League was against Blackpool at Bloomfield Road on 7 September, 1901. City won 2–0. Calley, Roy (1992). Blackpool: A Complete Record 1887–1992, Breedon Books Sport They first entered Division 1 in 1906 as Second Division champions, and as newcomers became known as the "Bristol Babies", a nickname that would last into the thirties. They were runners-up to Newcastle in their first season in the top flight, and in 1909 reached the FA Cup final, where they were beaten by Manchester United at the Crystal Palace in London. But these achievements were not consistent, and in 1911 City were relegated back to the Second Division. They have not repeated the heights of the 1906-1909 era since, and did not even return to the top flight for 65 years. The yo-yo era (1912-1965) The 1920s were a rocky time as City bounced between the Second Division and the Southern Section of the Third Division. By the 1930s they had slumped into the lower division, and stayed that way until the Second World War. Harry Dolman became chairman in 1949, a post he would hold for over 30 years. An engineer who had bought out the firm he worked for, he designed the first set of floodlights installed at Ashton Gate in the early 1950s. The late 1950s were a better time for City, with a five year stay in the Second Division, a league they returned to for a further spell in 1965. Back among the elite (1966-1979) In 1967 Alan Dicks was appointed manager, and things gradually began to improve. Promotion to the First Division was finally achieved in 1976, ending a 65-year exile from the top flight. City's second stint in the top flight was less successful and memorable than the club's first, with 13th position in 1979 being their highest finish during this era. Stars of this era included Geoff Merrick, Tom Ritchie, Clive Whitehead, Gerry Gow, Trevor Tainton and Jimmy Mann. Decline and financial ruin (1980-1982) City were relegated back to the Second Division in 1980, but this was only the beginning of their problems. Debts mounted and losses increased, with two successive relegations following. In 1982, City fell into the Fourth Division and were declared bankrupt. However, a new company - BCFC (1982) Ltd - was set up to allow the club to continue playing. The club's survival was confirmed when eight highly-paid senior players (the 'Ashton Gate Eight') accepted redundancy. These players, who all agreed to half their contract if they left the club, were: Julian Marshall, Chris Garland, Jimmy Mann, Peter Aitken, Geoff Merrick, David Rodgers, Gerry Sweeney and Trevor Tainton. Revival (1982-1990) City spent two seasons in the Fourth Division before winning promotion under Terry Cooper in 1984. They consolidated themselves in the Third Division during the later part of the 1980s, and in 1990 Cooper's successor Joe Jordan achieved promotion as Third Division runners-up. This was easily the most successful footballing year to date for the city of Bristol, as neighbours Bristol Rovers were also promoted to the Second Division as champions. Back in the second tier (1990-1995) Jordan moved to Heart of Midlothian in September 1990, and his successor Jimmy Lumsden remained in charge for 18 months before making way for Denis Smith. Smith's first signing was the 20-year-old Arsenal striker Andy Cole, who was an instant hit with fans and quickly established himself as one of the finest goalscoring talents ever to wear a Bristol City shirt. But he was sold to Newcastle United in February 1993 and later established himself as a world class goalscorer, most prominently with Manchester United, where he collected five Premier League titles, two FA Cups and the European Cup. Meanwhile, City remained in the new Division One (no longer the Second Division after the creation of the Premier League in 1992) and Smith moved to Oxford United in November 1993. His successor Russell Osman was sacked within a year, being a very unpopular figure with fans. One of Osman's few successful moments with City came in January 1994 when he led them to a shock 1-0 victory over Liverpool in the third round of the FA Cup. Joe Jordan was brought back to Ashton Gate in September 1994, but was unable to prevent relegation to Division Two. Promotion and relegation (1995-2000) Jordan remained at the helm for two seasons after City's relegation, but left in June 1997 after failing to get them back into Division One. Former Bristol Rovers manager John Ward took over, and achieved promotion in 1998 as Division Two runners-up. But City struggled back in Division One, and Ward stepped down in October 1998 to be succeeded by Benny Lennartsson. City were relegated in bottom place and Lennartsson was dismissed in favour of Gillingham's Tony Pulis, who lasted six months before being dismissed as manager of perhaps the worst City side since the one that completed a hat-trick of successive relegations almost 20 years earlier. Coach Tony Fawthrop took over until the end of the season, when Danny Wilson was appointed. Wilson was arguably the most prominent manager to take charge of a City side since Denis Smith, as he had guided Barnsley to promotion to the Premier League in 1997 and Sheffield Wednesday to a 12th place finish in 1999. The Danny Wilson Era (2000-2004) City were regular Division Two playoff contestants during Wilson's spell as manager. City tasted the agony of failing to reach them in 2002, although he paid back his debt by almost making automatic promotion, and winning the LDV Vans trophy in Cardiff in 2003. The taste of the play-offs was bitter though, losing to rivals Cardiff City 1-0 on aggregate in the semi-final. In his final year - 2004 - they reached the final, but lost to Brighton & Hove Albion. He was sacked within days and replaced by veteran player Brian Tinnion. Disappointment under Brian Tinnion (2004-2005) City failed to make the playoffs in Tinnion's first season as manager, and he stepped down in September 2005 after a 7-1 defeat at the hands of Swansea City. This rounded off a dismal start to the season in which City's form had slumped even further despite the addition of high profile players including Marcus Stewart and Michael Bridges. Yeovil manager Gary Johnson was recruited as his successor. Revival under Gary Johnson (September 2005 - May 2007) Pitch invasion at Ashton Gate after securing promotion Johnson arrived in September 2005, making the move from Yeovil Town, with whom he had gained two promotions. His first game in charge (only hours after meeting the squad) saw City win away at Brentford 3-2. After a short spell of decent results, City were plunged into the relegation mire, enduring a club record of nine successive defeats, leaving them at the foot of League One. Much criticism was aimed at Gary Johnson at this time; the Chairman of Bristol City Supporters Club labelled him a 'Conference Manager' and contended that he was 'totally out of his depth'. The run was brought to an end with a 2-0 victory at home to Huddersfield on 10 December. City then lost just three of their next 16 games, and this fine run of form was capped with a 6-0 win over Gillingham, in which defender Louis Carey scored a brace. This was City's largest league win since late 1969, and was an encouraging sign of things to come, although they didn't quite make playoffs in 2006. Despite a slow start to the following season, which saw a vocal minority of fans calling for Johnson to be sacked after a 4-2 home defeat by Blackpool(who were eventually also promoted), City were in the top six of League One by November and at the end of the month began an 11-match unbeaten run which drove them to the top of the division. They also hit the headlines with an impressive FA Cup run, being knocked out in the 4th round on penalties after a replay in which they held Premiership side Middlesbrough to a 2-2 draw in both ties. They knocked out Championship side Coventry City in the 3rd round. They also reached the Southern Area Final of the Johnstone's Paint Trophy, but were knocked out over two legs by local rivals Bristol Rovers after a 0-0 draw at Ashton Gate and a Rickie Lambert goal condemned the Robins to a 1-0 aggregate defeat in the 2nd leg. Promotion to the Championship was confirmed on the final day of the season with a 3-1 win over doomed Rotherham. David Noble scored two goals and Alex Russell scored once, securing runners-up place in the division and resulting in automatic promotion and joyous scenes of celebration in the city and even more so on the pitch at the full time whistle.2007-08 is the first season in almost a decade that has seen Bristol City playing at this level of English football. The Championship challenge (Since May 2007) In the summer between City's promotion and the start of the Championship season, Gary Johnson made a number of signings. However their pre season form didn't start well, losing 4-2 to Forest Green Rovers. However City got of to a good start going unbeaten for a number of matches and briefly topping the Championship after beating Coventry City 3-0. City then suffered a slight blip after losing 3-0 to Barnsley before beating a variety of big name teams including Sheffield United live on Sky Sports and Southampton. In November City's form dipped and they endured a run of 4 games without a win, including a 6-0 thrashing at the hands of Ipswich Town. In December City's form picked up again and went unbeaten all the way to Boxing Day when they lost to West Brom 4-1. After a stop start run of form including victories over Blackpool and Coventry and losses to QPR and Crystal Palace city went top of the Championship on March 1 after a 2-1 home victory over Hull City. After a poor run of form city went back to the top after a last gasp winner from Steve Brooker, who was just returning from injury, in a 2-1 win over Norwich City. However a poor run of form ended City's chances of an automatic promotion place. On 4 May 2008, a 3-0 home win against Preston North End on the final day of the league season ensured a play-off place and a semi-final fixture against Crystal Palace. On 13 May 2008 a 4-2 aggregate win over Crystal Palace with goals from Lee Trundle and Michael McIndoe confirmed City's trip to Wembley, where they were beaten 1-0 by Hull City. After a poor start in the first half of the 2008/2009 season, City recovered in early 2009, taking 13 points from five games in early 2009 to reach 8th place in the league by February 7. City had a memorable victory against Reading which put them up to their highest position in the season to 4th ever since have been hovering in and around 6th, 7th and 8th place. Honours The Football League runners-up: 1906–07 FA Cup finalists: 1909 Welsh Cup winners: 1934 Second Division champions: 1905–06 Third Division South champions: 1922–23, 1926–27, 1954–55 Football League One runners-up: 2006–07 Football League Trophy winners: 1985–86, 2002–03 Anglo-Scottish Cup winners: 1977–78 Colours, Crest, Mascot & Anthem Scrumpy, Bristol City FC mascot Bristol City have played in red and white since the 1890s, occasionally also including black. The 2008-09 season's kit, made by Puma (in the 3rd of a 4 year deal) has a matching style for the home and away strips, with the away colours being white and red and the home colours the opposite. The shirts are sponsored by DAS and Blackthorn. At the pre-season friendly against Cheltenham Town they played in a third kit, which is all black with white trim that follows the same design as the home and away strips. The club have stated that the third strip will not go on sale to the public. The club's crest is a simplified version of the coat of arms of the city of Bristol. The club's mascot is Scrumpy the Robin who has been the club's mascot since 2005. The club's official anthem is One For The Bristol City by The Wurzels. First released in 1976, it is the tune the team run out to at home matches. A newly-recorded version of the song reached number 66 in the UK charts in September 2007. Current management PositionNameNationalityManager: Gary Johnson EnglishAssistant Manager: Keith Millen EnglishDevelopment Coach: Alan Walsh EnglishGoalkeeping Coach: Stuart Naylor EnglishChief Scout: Pete Johnson EnglishFitness/Conditioning Coach:Glen Schmidt EnglishFirst Team Physio: Nick Dawes EnglishAcademy Director: John Clayton Scottish Current squad As of 29 January 2009. Notable former players England John Atyeo John Bailey Gus Caesar Paul Cheesley Andy Cole Chris Garland Norman Hunter Leroy Lita Jimmy Mann Steve McClaren Rob Newman Joe Royle Bob Taylor Brian Tinnion Billy Wedlock Clive Whitehead Scotland David Moyes Gerry Gow Peter Cormack Wales Mark Aizlewood David Cotterill Bermuda Shaun Goater Canada Jim Brennan Nigeria Ade Akinbiyi Australia Paul Agostino Luke Wilkshire Nick Carle Poland Dariusz 'Jacki' Dziekanowski Northern Ireland Tommy Doherty Jamaica Darren Byfield Hungary Vilmos Sebők Netherlands Geert Meijer Managerial history NamePeriod Sam Hollis1897-1899 Robert Campbell1899-1901 Sam Hollis1901-1905 Harry Thickett1905-1910 Frank Bacon1910-1911 Sam Hollis1911-1913 George Hedley1913-1917 Jack Hamilton1917-1919 Joe Palmer1919-1921 Alex Raisbeck1921-1929 Joe Bradshaw1929-1932 Bob Hewison1932-1949 Bob Wright1949-1950 Pat Beasley1950-1958 Peter Doherty1958-1960 Fred Ford1960-1967 Alan Dicks1967-1980 Bobby Houghton1980-1982 Roy Hodgson1982 Terry Cooper1982-1988 Joe Jordan1988-1990 Jimmy Lumsden1990-1992 Denis Smith1992-1993 Russell Osman1993-1994 Joe Jordan1994-1997 John Ward1997-1998 Benny Lennartsson1998-1999 Tony Pulis1999 Tony Fawthrop & David Burnside2000 Danny Wilson2000-2004 Brian Tinnion2004-2005 Gary Johnson2005-present Stadium Ashton GateBristol City play at Ashton Gate in the south-west of Bristol, just south of the River Avon. The ground has an all-seated capacity of about 21,500, with an effective capacity (depending on how many away tickets are allocated, and how they are segregated) of around 19,100. It was the home of Bedminster F.C. until the 1900 merger, and the merged team played some games there the following season, but it did not become the permanent home of Bristol City until 1904. In the past plans were considered for expansion work to be carried out at Ashton Gate. There were also proposals to build a new 36,000-seat stadium at Hengrove Park. This was turned down in a local referendum in December 2000. In 2002, the local council was looking at possible sites for a new 40,000-seat stadium which would house both City, Rovers and Bristol Rugby, but these plans were scrapped and it is widely accepted that this would not have been welcomed by the majority of supporters from all clubs. Ashton Gate's current capacity is an average size for Championship grounds, however in November 2007 the club announced plans to relocate to a new 30,000 capacity stadium in Ashton Vale with the option of expanding to 42,000 should it be considered for World Cup football in 2018. As well as football, Ashton Gate has played host to many big music concerts in recent years, including those of Rod Stewart, Bryan Adams, Elton John, Neil Diamond, The Who, Ronan Keating, Meat Loaf and Bon Jovi. Bristol City Women's FC The women's team was formed in 1990 supported by the club's community officer. Their greatest achievement was reaching the semi-finals of the FA Women's Cup in 1994 and winning promotion to the Premier League in 2004. Following the decision by the FA to fund only one centre of excellence in Bristol, the two senior teams were disbanded in June 2008 and the girls youth side merged with the Bristol Academy for girls at Filton College. The majority of the senior players, with coach Wayne Roberts, moved to the University of Bath in summer 2008 and now play as AFC TeamBath Ladies in the South West Combination Women's Football League. Notable fans Notable fans of Bristol City include: Jenson Button - Formula 1 Racing Driver. John Cleese - comedian who has starred in Monty Python and Fawlty Towers. Justin Lee Collins - comedian Scott Davidson - ex-Chairman of Bristol City and ex-keyboard player with Bros and Pet Shop Boys. Tony Robinson - actor who has starred in Blackadder and presenter of Time Team. Mark Dudbridge - professional darts player. Ian King - financial journalist for The Times - previously business editor of The Sun. Dominic Mohan - Deputy Editor The Sun Newspaper. 3D (AKA Robert Del Naja) - member of Bristol band Massive Attack and regular attendee in the Dolman Stand Jonathan Pearce - football commentator. Richard Scudamore - Chief Executive of the FA Premier League. Marcus Trescothick - Somerset and England cricketer. The Wurzels - Somerset-based band. Gareth Chilcott - former Bath and England Rugby Union player. Mark Watson - Welsh Comedian. Adam Shantry - Glamorgan cricketer. Banksy - the Bristol based Graffiti artist. Angus Scott - Setanta Sports football presenter. Andy Hornby - HBOS CEO. Russell Howard - comedian. Glyn Stone - Professor of International History, University of the West of England. Steve Scott - ITV news presenter and brother of Setanta Sports presenter Angus Scott Paul Spiring - scientist, author and relative of former BCFC player, Peter Spiring. Sarah-Jane Honeywell - Cbeebies presenter, comedy actress and physical performer - regular attendee in the East End. Records Record League victory — 9-0 v. Aldershot F.C. (28 December 1946) Record FA Cup victory — 11-0 v. Chichester City (5 November 1960) Record League defeat — 0-9 v. Coventry City F.C. (28 April 1934) Highest attendance — 43,335 v. Preston North End (16 February 1935) Most League appearances — 597, John Atyeo 1951-66 Most League goals scored — 314, John Atyeo 1951-66 Most goals scored in a season — 36, Don Clark 1946-47 Record transfer fee paid — £2.25 million to Crewe Alexandra for Nicky Maynard, July 2008 Record transfer fee received — £3.5 million from Wolverhampton Wanderers for Ade Akinbiyi, July 1999 (plus subsequent revenue from a sell-on clause realised by his move from Wolves to Leicester) Record sequence of League wins — 14; 9 September 1905 - 2 December 1905 - This is a joint league record. Most appearances #NameCareerAppearances1 John Atyeo1951 - 19666452 Trevor Tainton1967 - 19825813 Brian Tinnion1993 - 20055514 Louis Carey1995 - 2004; 2005 - present5425 Tom Ritchie1972 - 1981; 1983 - 19855046 Gerry Sweeney1971 - 19814907 Rob Newman1981 - 19914838 Gerry Gow1969 - 19814459 Geoff Merrick1967 - 198243310 Scott Murray1997 - 2003; 2004 - 2009427 Most club appearances including substitute appearances in all competitions (excluding Gloucestershire Cup). Updated 29 May 2009. Official Site References Source External links Official website Unofficial fans' blog Skysports.com - Bristol City football365.com - Bristol City Bristol City at FootyMAD TEAMtalk.com - Bristol City sportinglife.com - Bristol City Fans' Bristol City otib forum Bristol City Supporters Trust | Bristol_City_F.C. |@lemmatized bristol:38 city:75 football:14 club:25 one:15 two:12 league:28 england:5 arch:1 rival:4 rover:6 play:12 ashton:14 gate:11 locate:1 south:7 western:1 portion:1 gary:7 johnson:9 team:10 manager:10 since:9 september:9 succeed:2 brian:6 tinnion:5 promote:2 coca:1 cola:1 championship:9 season:21 finish:5 second:16 fail:4 make:8 consecutive:1 promotion:16 premier:6 defeat:6 hull:3 offs:2 win:14 welsh:3 cup:13 despite:3 english:3 runner:7 division:30 high:5 ever:3 final:10 position:3 become:4 first:13 suffer:2 three:3 successive:4 relegation:8 back:10 another:1 follow:5 bottom:2 new:6 return:4 year:13 later:2 last:4 spend:2 challenge:2 upper:1 half:3 nickname:2 robin:5 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3,928 | LR_parser | In computer science, an LR parser is a parser for context-free grammars that reads input from Left to right and produces a Rightmost derivation. The term LR(k) parser is also used; here the k refers to the number of unconsumed "look ahead" input symbols that are used in making parsing decisions. Usually k is 1 and is often omitted. A context-free grammar is called LR(k) if there exists an LR(k) parser for it. An LR parser is said to perform bottom-up parsing because it attempts to deduce the top level grammar productions by building up from the leaves. A deterministic context-free language is a language for which some LR(k) grammar exists. Every LR(k) grammar for k > 1 can be mechanically transformed into an LR(1) grammar for the same language, while an LR(0) grammar for the same language may not exist; the LR(0) languages are a proper subset of the deterministic ones. Many programming languages are described by a grammar that is LR(1), or close to being so, and for this reason LR parsers are often used by compilers to perform syntax analysis of source code. In typical usage an "LR parser" means a particular parser capable of recognizing a particular language specified by a context free grammar. It is common, however, to use the term to mean a driver program that can be supplied with a suitable table to produce a wide number of different particular LR parsers. However, these programs are more accurately called parser generators. LR parsing can be generalized to arbitrary context-free language parsing without a performance penalty on LR(k) grammars. However, most programming languages are designed to be expressed with LR(k) grammars, (where k is a small constant, usually 1), since parsing of non-LR(k) grammars is an order of magnitude more expensive (cubic instead of quadratic in the input length). One notable exception is C++. Compared to LL parsing, LR parsing can not only handle a larger range of languages, but is also better at error reporting: it detects syntactic errors (that is, when the input does not conform to the grammar) as soon as possible. This is in contrast to an LL(k) (or even worse, an LL(*) parser) which may defer error detection to a different branch of the grammar due to backtracking, often making errors harder to localize across disjunctions with long common prefixes. LR parsers are difficult to produce by hand; they are usually constructed by a parser generator or a compiler-compiler. Depending on how the parsing table is generated, these parsers can be called simple LR parsers (SLR), look-ahead LR parsers (LALR), or canonical LR parsers. These types of parsers can deal with increasingly large sets of grammars; LALR parsers can deal with more grammars than SLR. Canonical LR parsers work on more grammars than LALR parsers. Architecture of LR parsers Figure 1. Architecture of a table-based [[Bottom-up parsing Conceptually, an LR Parser is a recursive program that can be proven correct by direct computation, and can be implemented more efficiently (in time) as a recursive ascent parser, a set of mutually-recursive functions for every grammar, much like a recursive descent parser. Conventionally, however, LR parsers are presented and implemented as table-based stack machines in which the call stack of the underlying recursive program is explicitly manipulated. A table-driven bottom-up parser can be schematically presented as in Figure 1. The following describes a rightmost derivation by this parser. General case The parser is a state machine. It consists of: an input buffer a stack on which is stored a list of states it has been in a goto table that prescribes to which new state it should move an action table that gives a grammar rule to apply given the current state and the current terminal in the input stream Parsing algorithm Since the LR parser reads input from left to right but needs to produce a rightmost derivation, it uses reductions, instead of derivations to process input. That is, the algorithm works by creating a "leftmost reduction" of the input. The end result, when reversed, will be a rightmost derivation. The LR parsing algorithm works as follows: The stack is initialized with [0]. The current state will always be the state that is at the top of the stack. Given the current state and the current terminal on the input stream an action is looked up in the action table. There are four cases: a shift sn: the current terminal is removed from the input stream the state n is pushed onto the stack and becomes the current state a reduce rm: the number m is written to the output stream for every symbol in the right-hand side of rule m a state is removed from the stack given the state that is then on top of the stack and the left-hand side of rule m a new state is looked up in the goto table and made the new current state by pushing it onto the stack an accept: the string is accepted no action: a syntax error is reported Step 2 is repeated until either the string is accepted or a syntax error is reported. Concrete example To explain its workings we will use the following small grammar whose start symbol is E: (1) E → E * B (2) E → E + B (3) E → B (4) B → 0 (5) B → 1 and parse the following input: 1 + 1 Action and goto tables The two LR(0) parsing tables for this grammar look as follows: action goto state * + 0 1 $ E B 0 s1 s2 3 4 1 r4 r4 r4 r4 r4 2 r5 r5 r5 r5 r5 3 s5 s6 acc 4 r3 r3 r3 r3 r3 5 s1 s2 7 6 s1 s2 8 7 r1 r1 r1 r1 r1 8 r2 r2 r2 r2 r2 The action table is indexed by a state of the parser and a terminal (including a special terminal $ that indicates the end of the input stream) and contains three types of actions: shift, which is written as 'sn' and indicates that the next state is n reduce, which is written as 'rm' and indicates that a reduction with grammar rule m should be performed accept, which is written as 'acc' and indicates that the parser accepts the string in the input stream. The goto table is indexed by a state of the parser and a nonterminal and simply indicates what the next state of the parser will be if it has recognized a certain nonterminal. Parsing procedure The table below illustrates each step in the process. Here the state refers to the element at the top of the stack (the right-most element), and the next action is determined by referring to the action table above. Also note that a $ is appended to the input string to denote the end of the stream. StateInput StreamOutput StreamStackNext Action 0 1+1$ [0] Shift 2 2 +1$ [0,2] Reduce 5 4 +1$ 5 [0,4] Reduce 3 3 +1$ 5,3 [0,3] Shift 6 6 1$ 5,3 [0,3,6] Shift 2 2 $ 5,3 [0,3,6,2] Reduce 5 8 $ 5,3,5 [0,3,6,8] Reduce 2 3 $ 5,3,5,2 [0,3] Accept Walkthrough The parser starts out with the stack containing just the initial state ('0'): [0] The first symbol from the input string that the parser sees is '1'. In order to find out what the next action is (shift, reduce, accept or error), the action table is indexed with the current state (remember that the "current state" is just whatever is on the top of the stack), which in this case is 0, and the current input symbol, which is '1'. The action table specifies a shift to state 2, and so state 2 is pushed onto the stack (again, remember that all the state information is in the stack, so "shifting to state 2" is the same thing as pushing 2 onto the stack). The resulting stack is [0 '1' 2] where the top of the stack is 2. For the sake of explanation we also show the symbol (e.g., '1', B) that caused the transition to the next state, although strictly speaking it is not part of the stack. In state 2 the action table says that regardless of what terminal we see on the input stream, we should do a reduction with grammar rule 5. If the table is correct, this means that the parser has just recognized the right-hand side of rule 5, which is indeed the case. In this case we write 5 to the output stream, pop one state from the stack (since the right-hand side of the rule has one symbol), and push on the stack the state from the cell in the goto table for state 0 and B, i.e., state 4. The resulting stack is: [0 B 4] However, in state 4 the action table says we should now do a reduction with rule 3. So we write 3 to the output stream, pop one state from the stack, and find the new state in the goto table for state 0 and E, which is state 3. The resulting stack: [0 E 3] The next terminal that the parser sees is a '+' and according to the action table it should then go to state 6: [0 E 3 '+' 6] Note that the resulting stack can be interpreted as the history of a finite state automaton that has just read a nonterminal E followed by a terminal '+'. The transition table of this automaton is defined by the shift actions in the action table and the goto actions in the goto table. The next terminal is now '1' and this means that we perform a shift and go to state 2: [0 E 3 '+' 6 '1' 2] Just as the previous '1' this one is reduced to B giving the following stack: [0 E 3 '+' 6 B 8] Again note that the stack corresponds with a list of states of a finite automaton that has read a nonterminal E, followed by a '+' and then a nonterminal B. In state 8 we always perform a reduce with rule 2. Note that the top 3 states on the stack correspond with the 3 symbols in the right-hand side of rule 2. [0 E 3] Finally, we read a '$' from the input stream which means that according to the action table (the current state is 3) the parser accepts the input string. The rule numbers that will then have been written to the output stream will be [5, 3, 5, 2] which is indeed a rightmost derivation of the string "1 + 1" in reverse. Constructing LR(0) parsing tables Items The construction of these parsing tables is based on the notion of LR(0) items (simply called items here) which are grammar rules with a special dot added somewhere in the right-hand side. For example the rule E → E + B has the following four corresponding items: E → • E + B E → E • + B E → E + • B E → E + B • Rules of the form A → ε have only a single item A → •. These rules will be used to denote that state of the parser. The item E → E • + B, for example, indicates that the parser has recognized a string corresponding with E on the input stream and now expects to read a '+' followed by another string corresponding with B. Item sets It is usually not possible to characterize the state of the parser with a single item because it may not know in advance which rule it is going to use for reduction. For example if there is also a rule E → E * B then the items E → E • + B and E → E • * B will both apply after a string corresponding with E has been read. Therefore we will characterize the state of the parser by a set of items, in this case the set { E → E • + B, E → E • * B }. Closure of item sets An item with a dot in front of a nonterminal, such as E → E + • B, indicates that the parser expects to parse the nonterminal B next. To ensure the item set contains all possible rules the parser may be in the midst of parsing, it must include all items describing how B itself will be parsed. This means that if there are rules such as B → 1 and B → 0 then the item set must also include the items B → • 1 and B → • 0. In general this can be formulated as follows: If there is an item of the form A → v • Bw in an item set and in the grammar there is a rule of the form B → w' then the item B → • w' should also be in the item set. Any set of items can be extended such that it satisfies this rule: simply continue to add the appropriate items until all nonterminals preceded by dots are accounted for. The minimal extension is called the closure of an item set and written as clos(I) where I is an item set. It is these closed item sets that we will take as the states of the parser, although only the ones that are actually reachable from the begin state will be included in the tables. Augmented grammar Before we start determining the transitions between the different states, the grammar is always augmented with an extra rule (0) S → E where S is a new start symbol and E the old start symbol. The parser will use this rule for reduction exactly when it has accepted the input string. For our example we will take the same grammar as before and augment it: (0) S → E (1) E → E * B (2) E → E + B (3) E → B (4) B → 0 (5) B → 1 It is for this augmented grammar that we will determine the item sets and the transitions between them. Table construction Finding the reachable item sets and the transitions between them The first step of constructing the tables consists of determining the transitions between the closed item sets. These transitions will be determined as if we are considering a finite automaton that can read terminals as well as nonterminals. The begin state of this automaton is always the closure of the first item of the added rule: S → • E: Item set 0 S → • E + E → • E * B + E → • E + B + E → • B + B → • 0 + B → • 1 The boldfaced "+" in front of an item indicates the items that were added for the closure (not to be confused with the mathematical '+' operator which is a terminal). The original items without a "+" are called the kernel of the item set. Starting at the begin state (S0) we will now determine all the states that can be reached from this state. The possible transitions for an item set can be found by looking at the symbols (terminals and nonterminals) we find right after the dots; in the case of item set 0 these are the terminals '0' and '1' and the nonterminal E and B. To find the item set that a symbol x leads to we follow the following procedure: Take the set, S, of all items in the current item set where there is a dot in front of some symbol x. For each item in S, move the dot to the right of x. Close the resulting set of items. For the terminal '0' this results in: Item set 1 B → 0 • and for the terminal '1' in: Item set 2 B → 1 • and for the nonterminal E in: Item set 3 S → E • E → E • * B E → E • + B and for the nonterminal B in: Item set 4 E → B • Note that the closure does not add new items in all cases. We continue this process until no more new item sets are found. For the item sets 1, 2, and 4 there will be no transitions since the dot is not in front of any symbol. For item set 3 we see that the dot is in front of the terminals '*' and '+'. For '*' the transition goes to: Item set 5 E → E * • B + B → • 0 + B → • 1 and for '+' the transition goes to: Item set 6 E → E + • B + B → • 0 + B → • 1 For item set 5 we have to consider the terminals '0' and '1' and the nonterminal B. For the terminals we see that the resulting closed item sets are equal to the already found item sets 1 and 2, respectively. For the nonterminal B the transition goes to: Item set 7 E → E * B • For item set 6 we also have to consider the terminal '0' and '1' and the nonterminal B. As before, the resulting item sets for the terminals are equal to the already found item sets 1 and 2. For the nonterminal B the transition goes to: Item set 8 E → E + B • These final item sets have no symbols beyond their dots so no more new item sets are added and we are finished. The finite automaton, with item sets as its states is shown below The transition table for the automaton now looks as follows: Item Set * + 0 1 E B012341235645127612878 Constructing the action and goto tables From this table and the found item sets we construct the action and goto table as follows: the columns for nonterminals are copied to the goto table the columns for the terminals are copied to the action table as shift actions an extra column for '$' (end of input) is added to the action table that contains acc for every item set that contains S → E •. if an item set i contains an item of the form A → w • and A → w is rule m with m > 0 then the row for state i in the action table is completely filled with the reduce action rm. The reader may verify that this results indeed in the action and goto table that were presented earlier on. A note about LR(0) versus SLR and LALR parsing Note that only step 4 of the above procedure produces reduce actions, and so all reduce actions must occupy an entire table row, causing the reduction to occur regardless of the next symbol in the input stream. This is why these are LR(0) parse tables: they don't do any lookahead (that is, they look ahead zero symbols) before deciding which reduction to perform. A grammar that needs lookahead to disambiguate reductions would require a parse table row containing different reduce actions in different columns, and the above procedure is not capable of creating such rows. Refinements to the LR(0) table construction procedure (such as SLR and LALR) are capable of constructing reduce actions that do not occupy entire rows. Therefore, they are capable of parsing more grammars than LR(0) parsers. Conflicts in the constructed tables The automaton is constructed in such a way that it is guaranteed to be deterministic. However, when reduce actions are added to the action table it can happen that the same cell is filled with a reduce action and a shift action (a shift-reduce conflict) or with two different reduce actions (a reduce-reduce conflict). However, it can be shown that when this happens the grammar is not an LR(0) grammar. A small example of a non-LR(0) grammar with a shift-reduce conflict is: (1) E → 1 E (2) E → 1 One of the item sets we then find is: Item set 1 E → 1 • E E → 1 • + E → • 1 E + E → • 1 There is a shift-reduce conflict in this item set because in the cell in the action table for this item set and the terminal '1' there will be both a shift action to state 1 and a reduce action with rule 2. A small example of a non-LR(0) grammar with a reduce-reduce conflict is: (1) E → A 1 (2) E → B 2 (3) A → 1 (4) B → 1 In this case we obtain the following item set: Item set 1' A → 1 • B → 1 • There is a reduce-reduce conflict in this item set because in the cells in the action table for this item set there will be both a reduce action for rule 3 and one for rule 4. Both examples above can be solved by letting the parser use the follow set (see LL parser) of a nonterminal A to decide if it is going to use one of As rules for a reduction; it will only use the rule A → w for a reduction if the next symbol on the input stream is in the follow set of A. This solution results in so-called Simple LR parsers. References Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools'', Aho, Sethi, Ullman, Addison-Wesley, 1986. ISBN 0-201-10088-6. An extensive discussion of LR parsing and the principal source for some sections in this article. Parsing Techniques - A Practical Guide web page of book includes downloadable pdf. The Functional Treatment of Parsing (Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1993), R. Leermakers, ISBN 0-7923-9376-7 Further reading Chapman, Nigel P., LR Parsing: Theory and Practice, Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 052130413X External links Internals of an LALR(1) parser generated by GNU Bison - Implementation issues See also Deterministic context-free grammar | LR_parser |@lemmatized computer:1 science:1 lr:42 parser:52 context:6 free:6 grammar:35 read:8 input:25 leave:2 right:10 produce:5 rightmost:5 derivation:6 term:2 k:13 also:9 use:12 refers:2 number:4 unconsumed:1 look:8 ahead:3 symbol:18 make:3 parsing:11 decision:1 usually:4 often:3 omit:1 call:8 exist:2 say:3 perform:6 bottom:3 attempt:1 deduce:1 top:7 level:1 production:1 build:1 leaf:1 deterministic:4 language:10 exists:1 every:4 mechanically:1 transform:1 may:5 proper:1 subset:1 one:10 many:1 programming:2 describe:3 close:2 reason:1 compiler:4 syntax:3 analysis:1 source:2 code:1 typical:1 usage:1 mean:6 particular:3 capable:4 recognize:4 specify:2 common:2 however:7 driver:1 program:4 supply:1 suitable:1 table:49 wide:1 different:6 accurately:1 generator:2 parse:16 generalize:1 arbitrary:1 without:2 performance:1 penalty:1 design:1 express:1 small:4 constant:1 since:4 non:3 grammars:1 order:2 magnitude:1 expensive:1 cubic:1 instead:2 quadratic:1 length:1 notable:1 exception:1 c:1 compare:1 handle:1 large:2 range:1 well:2 error:7 reporting:1 detect:1 syntactic:1 conform:1 soon:1 possible:4 contrast:1 even:1 bad:1 defer:1 detection:1 branch:1 due:1 backtrack:1 hard:1 localize:1 across:1 disjunction:1 long:1 prefix:1 difficult:1 hand:7 construct:7 depend:1 generate:2 simple:2 slr:4 lalr:6 canonical:2 type:2 deal:2 increasingly:1 set:59 work:3 architecture:2 figure:2 base:3 conceptually:1 recursive:5 prove:1 correct:2 direct:1 computation:1 implement:2 efficiently:1 time:1 ascent:1 mutually:1 function:1 much:1 like:1 descent:1 conventionally:1 present:3 stack:27 machine:2 underlying:1 explicitly:1 manipulate:1 driven:1 schematically:1 following:5 general:2 case:9 state:57 consist:2 buffer:1 store:1 list:2 goto:13 prescribe:1 new:8 move:2 action:43 give:5 rule:30 apply:2 current:13 terminal:22 stream:15 algorithm:3 need:2 reduction:12 process:3 create:2 leftmost:1 end:4 result:11 reverse:2 follow:13 initialize:1 always:4 four:2 shift:16 sn:2 remove:2 n:2 push:5 onto:4 become:1 reduce:28 rm:3 write:8 output:4 side:6 left:1 accept:9 string:11 report:2 step:4 repeat:1 either:1 concrete:1 example:8 explain:1 working:1 whose:1 start:6 e:87 b:65 two:2 acc:3 index:3 include:5 special:2 indicate:8 contain:6 three:1 next:10 nonterminal:15 simply:3 certain:1 procedure:5 illustrate:1 element:2 determine:6 refer:1 note:7 append:1 denote:2 stateinput:1 streamoutput:1 streamstacknext:1 walkthrough:1 containing:1 initial:1 first:3 see:7 find:8 remember:2 whatever:1 information:1 thing:1 sake:1 explanation:1 show:3 g:1 cause:2 transition:14 although:2 strictly:1 speak:1 part:1 regardless:2 indeed:3 pop:2 cell:4 accord:2 go:8 interpret:1 history:1 finite:4 automaton:8 define:1 previous:1 correspond:6 finally:1 item:75 construction:3 notion:1 dot:9 add:7 somewhere:1 form:4 ε:1 single:2 expect:2 another:1 characterize:2 know:1 advance:1 therefore:2 closure:5 front:5 ensure:1 midst:1 must:3 formulate:1 v:1 bw:1 w:5 extend:1 satisfy:1 continue:2 appropriate:1 nonterminals:4 precede:1 account:1 minimal:1 extension:1 clos:1 closed:3 take:3 actually:1 reachable:2 begin:3 augment:3 extra:2 old:1 exactly:1 augmented:1 consider:3 added:1 boldface:1 confuse:1 mathematical:1 operator:1 original:1 kernel:1 reach:1 x:3 lead:1 equal:2 already:2 found:3 respectively:1 final:1 beyond:1 finish:1 column:4 copy:2 row:5 completely:1 fill:2 reader:1 verify:1 earlier:1 versus:1 occupy:2 entire:2 occur:1 lookahead:2 zero:1 decide:2 disambiguate:1 would:1 require:1 refinement:1 conflict:7 constructed:1 way:1 guarantee:1 happen:2 obtain:1 solve:1 let:1 solution:1 reference:1 principle:1 technique:2 tool:1 aho:1 sethi:1 ullman:1 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:3 extensive:1 discussion:1 principal:1 section:1 article:1 practical:1 guide:1 web:1 page:1 book:1 downloadable:1 pdf:1 functional:1 treatment:1 boston:1 kluwer:1 academic:1 r:1 leermakers:1 reading:1 chapman:1 nigel:1 p:1 theory:1 practice:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 internals:1 gnu:1 bison:1 implementation:1 issue:1 |@bigram lr_parser:16 rightmost_derivation:5 lr_grammar:5 parser_generator:2 compiler_compiler:1 recursive_descent:1 descent_parser:1 goto_table:11 finite_automaton:3 terminal_nonterminals:1 terminal_nonterminal:3 addison_wesley:1 downloadable_pdf:1 kluwer_academic:1 external_link:1 |
3,929 | James_Clavell | James Clavell, born Charles Edmund Dumaresq Clavell (10 October 1924 – 7 September 1994) was a British (later naturalized American) novelist, screenwriter, director and World War II veteran and prisoner of war. Clavell is best known for his epic Asian Saga series of novels and their televised adaptations, along with such films as The Great Escape and To Sir, with Love. Early life and World War II Clavell was the son of Commander Richard Clavell, a British Royal Navy officer who was stationed in Australia on secondment from the Royal Navy to the Royal Australian Navy. In 1940, when Clavell finished his secondary schooling at Portsmouth Grammar School, he joined the Royal Artillery to follow his family tradition. Following the outbreak of World War II, at the age of 16 he joined the Royal Artillery in 1940, and was sent to Malaya to fight the Japanese. Wounded by machine gun fire, he was eventually captured and sent to a Japanese prisoner of war camp on Java. Later he was transferred to Changi Prison in Singapore. Clavell suffered greatly at the hands of his Japanese captors. Changi was notorious for its poor living conditions and according to the introduction to King Rat, written by Clavell's daughter Michaela, over 90% of the prisoners who entered Changi never walked out — although the actual figure was under 1%. 850 out of a total of 87,000 prisoners are known to have died at Changi, although many more died after being transferred out to other sites like the Death Railway. Cf. http://www.awm.gov.au/journal/j33/blackburn.htm. Clavell was reportedly saved, along with an entire battalion, by an American prisoner of war who later became the model for "The King" in Clavell's King Rat. By 1946, Clavell had risen to the rank of Captain, but a motorcycle accident ended his military career. He enrolled at the University of Birmingham, where he met April Stride, an actress, whom he married in 1951. Peter Marlowe Peter Marlowe is a character in the Clavell novels King Rat and Noble House, although he is also mentioned once as a friend of Andrew Gavallan, in the novel Whirlwind. Featured much more prominently in King Rat, he is an English FEPOW in Changi prison during World War II. In Noble House, set two decades later, he is a novelist researching a book about Hong Kong. He is a thinly veiled fictionalization of Clavell placed inside his own works. Ancestors of the character Peter Marlowe are also mentioned in other Clavell novels. In addition Peter Marlowe was said to be very important to Clavell as a character due to reports that Clavell suffered great mental anguish after his stay in Changi prison and wrote King Rat to deal with his experiences and memories of the time. Film industry In 1953, Clavell and his wife emigrated to the United States and settled down in Hollywood. Clavell scripted the grisly science-fiction horror film The Fly and wrote a war film, Five Gates to Hell. Clavell won a Writers Guild Best Screenplay Award for the 1963 film The Great Escape. He also wrote, directed and produced a 1967 box office hit, To Sir With Love, starring Sidney Poitier. Clavell's daughter Michaela appeared briefly as Penelope Smallbone, Moneypenny's successor, in the James Bond 007 movie Octopussy. The character, however, did not catch on and was dropped after that single picture. Films The Fly (1958) (writer) Watusi (1959) (writer) Five Gates to Hell (1959) (writer and director) Walk Like a Dragon (1960) (writer and director) The Great Escape (1963) (co-writer) 633 Squadron (1964) (co-writer) The Satan Bug (1965) (co-writer) To Sir, with Love (1966) (writer and director) The Sweet and the Bitter (1967) (writer and director) Where's Jack? (1968) (director) The Last Valley (1970) (writer and director) Shōgun - miniseries (1980) Noble House - miniseries (1988) Tai-Pan and King Rat have both been adapted as feature films; however Clavell was not directly involved in their writing. Novelist Clavell's first novel, King Rat, was a semi-fictional account of his prison experiences at Changi. When the book was published in 1962, it became an immediate best-seller and three years later, it was adapted for film. His next novel, Tai-Pan, was a fictional account of Jardine-Matheson's rise to prominence in Hong Kong, as told through who was to become Clavell's heroic archetype, Dirk Struan. Struan's descendants would inhabit almost all of his forthcoming books. This was followed by Shōgun in 1975, the story of an English navigator set in 1600s Japan. When the story was made into a TV series in 1980, produced by Clavell, it became the second highest rated mini-series in history with an audience of over 120 million. In 1981, Clavell published his fourth novel, Noble House, which became a number one best seller during that year and was also made into a miniseries. Following the success of Noble House, Clavell wrote Whirlwind (1986) and Gai-Jin (1993) along with The Children's Story (1981) and Thrump-o-moto (1985). Novels The Asian Saga consisting of six novels: King Rat (1962): Set in a Japanese POW camp, 1945 Tai-Pan (1966): Set in Hong Kong, 1841 Shōgun (1975): Set in feudal Japan, 1600 Noble House (1981): Set in Hong Kong, 1963 Whirlwind (1986): Set in Iran, 1979 Gai-Jin (1993): Set in Japan, 1862 Several of Clavell's books have been adapted as films or miniseries; Shōgun was also adapted into a computer Interactive Fiction game. Other books include: The Children's Story (1980) The Art of War, a translation of Sun Tzu's famous book (1983) Thrump-O-Moto Illustrated by George Sharp (1986) Escape (1994) - shorter novel adapted from Whirlwind Politics and later life Politically, Clavell was said to have been an ardent individualist and proponent of laissez-faire capitalism, as many of his books' heroes exemplify. Clavell admired Ayn Rand, founder of the Objectivist school of philosophy, and sent Ayn Rand a copy of Noble House in 1981 inscribed: "This is for Ayn Rand—one of the real, true talents on this earth for which many, many thanks. James C, New York, 2 Sept 81." In 1963, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. He died of a stroke while suffering from cancer in Switzerland in 1994, one month before his 70th birthday. Following generous sponsorship by his widow, the library and archive of the Royal Artillery Museum at Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, in London has been renamed the James Clavell library in his honour. References External links | James_Clavell |@lemmatized james:4 clavell:30 born:1 charles:1 edmund:1 dumaresq:1 october:1 september:1 british:2 later:5 naturalize:1 american:2 novelist:3 screenwriter:1 director:7 world:4 war:9 ii:4 veteran:1 prisoner:5 best:4 know:2 epic:1 asian:2 saga:2 series:3 novel:10 televised:1 adaptation:1 along:3 film:9 great:4 escape:4 sir:3 love:3 early:1 life:2 son:1 commander:1 richard:1 royal:7 navy:3 officer:1 station:1 australia:1 secondment:1 australian:1 finish:1 secondary:1 schooling:1 portsmouth:1 grammar:1 school:2 join:2 artillery:3 follow:5 family:1 tradition:1 outbreak:1 age:1 send:3 malaya:1 fight:1 japanese:4 wound:1 machine:1 gun:1 fire:1 eventually:1 capture:1 camp:2 java:1 transfer:2 changi:7 prison:4 singapore:1 suffer:3 greatly:1 hand:1 captor:1 notorious:1 poor:1 living:1 condition:1 accord:1 introduction:1 king:9 rat:9 write:5 daughter:2 michaela:2 enter:1 never:1 walk:2 although:3 actual:1 figure:1 total:1 die:2 many:4 died:1 site:1 like:2 death:1 railway:1 cf:1 http:1 www:1 awm:1 gov:1 au:1 journal:1 blackburn:1 htm:1 reportedly:1 save:1 entire:1 battalion:1 become:6 model:1 rise:2 rank:1 captain:1 motorcycle:1 accident:1 end:1 military:1 career:1 enrol:1 university:1 birmingham:1 meet:1 april:1 stride:1 actress:1 marry:1 peter:4 marlowe:4 character:4 noble:7 house:7 also:5 mention:2 friend:1 andrew:1 gavallan:1 whirlwind:4 feature:2 much:1 prominently:1 english:2 fepow:1 set:8 two:1 decade:1 research:1 book:7 hong:4 kong:4 thinly:1 veiled:1 fictionalization:1 place:1 inside:1 work:1 ancestor:1 addition:1 say:2 important:1 due:1 report:1 mental:1 anguish:1 stay:1 deal:1 experience:2 memory:1 time:1 industry:1 wife:1 emigrate:1 united:2 state:2 settle:1 hollywood:1 script:1 grisly:1 science:1 fiction:2 horror:1 fly:2 five:2 gate:2 hell:2 win:1 writer:11 guild:1 screenplay:1 award:1 direct:1 produce:2 box:1 office:1 hit:1 star:1 sidney:1 poitier:1 appear:1 briefly:1 penelope:1 smallbone:1 moneypenny:1 successor:1 bond:1 movie:1 octopussy:1 however:2 catch:1 drop:1 single:1 picture:1 watusi:1 dragon:1 co:3 squadron:1 satan:1 bug:1 sweet:1 bitter:1 jack:1 last:1 valley:1 shōgun:4 miniseries:4 tai:3 pan:3 adapt:5 directly:1 involve:1 writing:1 first:1 semi:1 fictional:2 account:2 publish:2 immediate:1 seller:2 three:1 year:2 next:1 jardine:1 matheson:1 prominence:1 tell:1 heroic:1 archetype:1 dirk:1 struan:2 descendant:1 would:1 inhabit:1 almost:1 forthcoming:1 story:4 navigator:1 japan:3 make:2 tv:1 second:1 high:1 mini:1 history:1 audience:1 million:1 fourth:1 number:1 one:3 success:1 gai:2 jin:2 child:2 thrump:2 moto:2 consisting:1 six:1 pow:1 feudal:1 iran:1 several:1 computer:1 interactive:1 game:1 include:1 art:1 translation:1 sun:1 tzu:1 famous:1 illustrate:1 george:1 sharp:1 short:1 politics:1 late:1 politically:1 ardent:1 individualist:1 proponent:1 laissez:1 faire:1 capitalism:1 hero:1 exemplify:1 admire:1 ayn:3 rand:3 founder:1 objectivist:1 philosophy:1 copy:1 inscribed:1 real:1 true:1 talent:1 earth:1 thanks:1 c:1 new:1 york:1 sept:1 naturalized:1 citizen:1 stroke:1 cancer:1 switzerland:1 month:1 birthday:1 generous:1 sponsorship:1 widow:1 library:2 archive:1 museum:1 arsenal:1 woolwich:1 london:1 rename:1 honour:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram novelist_screenwriter:1 http_www:1 gov_au:1 hong_kong:4 thinly_veiled:1 science_fiction:1 sidney_poitier:1 tai_pan:3 jardine_matheson:1 pow_camp:1 sun_tzu:1 laissez_faire:1 faire_capitalism:1 ayn_rand:3 naturalized_citizen:1 external_link:1 |
3,930 | Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe | The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, human rights, freedom of the press, and fair elections. Most of its 3,500-plus staff are engaged in field operations, with only around 10% in its headquarters. The OSCE is an ad hoc organization under the United Nations Charter (Chap. VIII), and is concerned with early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation. Its 56 participating States are from Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia and North America and cover most of the northern hemisphere. It was created during the Cold War era as an East-West forum. Structure and institutions Political direction to the Organization is given by heads of state or government during summits. Summits are not regular or scheduled but held as needed. The last summit took place in Istanbul in 1999. The high-level decision-making body of the Organization is the Ministerial Council, which meets at the end of every year. At ambassadorial level the Permanent Council convenes weekly in Vienna and serves as the regular negotiating and decision-making body. The post of Chairman-in-Office is held by the minister for foreign affairs of the participating State which holds the chairmanship. The chairperson of the Permanent Council is the ambassador to Austria of the participating State which holds the chairmanship. From 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2009 the Chairman-in-Office (CiO) is Greece's Minister for Foreign Affairs, Theodora Bakoyannis. Bakoyannis succeeded Finnish Minister for Foreign Affairs Alexander Stubb. In addition to the Ministerial Council and Permanent Council, the Forum for Security Co-operation is also an OSCE decision-making body. It deals predominantly with matters of military co-operation, such as modalities for inspections according to the 1999 Vienna Document. The OSCE's Secretariat is located in Vienna, Austria. The current Secretary General is Marc Perrin de Brichambaut of France, who took over from Ján Kubiš of Slovakia. The Organization also has offices in Copenhagen, Geneva, The Hague, Prague and Warsaw. A meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council in the Hofburg in Vienna, Austria (photo by Mikhail Evstafiev). The OSCE employs close to 440 persons in its various institutions. In the field, the Organization has about 750 international and 2,370 local staff. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe passes resolutions on matters such as political and security affairs, economic and environmental issues, and democracy and human rights. Representing the collective voice of OSCE parliamentarians, these resolutions and recommendations are meant to ensure that all participating States live up to their OSCE commitments. The OSCE PA also engages in parliamentary diplomacy, and has an extensive election observation program. The oldest OSCE institution is the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), established in 1991 following a decision made at the 1990 Summit of Paris. It is based in Warsaw, Poland, and is active throughout the OSCE area in the fields of election observation, democratic development, human rights, tolerance and non-discrimination, rule of law, and Roma and Sinti issues. The ODIHR has observed over 150 elections and referendums since 1995, sending some 35,000 observers. It has operated outside its own area twice, sending a team that offered technical support to the 9 October 2004 presidential elections in Afghanistan, an OSCE Partner for Co-operation, and an election support team to assist with parliamentary and provincial council elections on 18 September 2005. ODIHR is headed by Janez Lenarčič. The Office of the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media, established in December 1997, acts as a watchdog to provide early warning on violations of freedom of expression in OSCE participating States. The Representative also assists participating States by advocating and promoting full compliance with OSCE norms, principles and commitments regarding freedom of expression and free media. The current Representative is former Hungarian parliamentarian Miklos Haraszti Representative on Freedom of the Media - Homepage . Chairmanship The responsibilities of the Chairman-in-Office (CiO) include co-ordination of the work of OSCE institutions; representing the Organization; supervising activities related to conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation. The Chairmanship rotates annually, and the post of the Chairman-in-Office is held by the foreign minister of the participating State which holds the Chairmanship. The CiO is assisted by the previous and incoming Chairman-in-Office; the three of them together constitute the Troika. The origin of the institution lies with the Charter of Paris for a New Europe (1990), the Helsinki Document 1992 formally institutionalized this function. The 2009 Troika consists of the OSCE's current CiO and Greek Foreign Minister, Dora Bakoyannis; Finnish Foreign Minister Alexander Stubb (CiO in 2008); and Kazakh Foreign Minister Marat Tazhin (whose country will hold the Chairmanship in 2010). United Nations The OSCE considers itself a regional organization in the sense of Chapter VIII of the United Nations Charter and is an observer in the United Nations General Assembly. The Chairman-in-Office gives routine briefings to the United Nations Security Council. Politico-military dimension (first dimension) The OSCE takes a comprehensive approach to the politico-military dimension of security, which includes a number of commitments by participating States and mechanisms for conflict prevention and resolution. The Organization also seeks to enhance military security by promoting greater openness, transparency and co-operation. Arms control The end of the Cold War resulted in a huge amount of surplus weapons becoming available in what is known as the international grey market for weapons. The OSCE helps to stop the - often illegal - spread of such weapons and offers assistance with their destruction. Border management The actions taken by the OSCE in border monitoring range from conflict prevention to post-conflict management, capacity building and institutional support. Combating terrorism With its expertise in conflict prevention, crisis management and early warning, the OSCE contributes to worldwide efforts in combating terrorism. Conflict prevention The OSCE works to prevent conflicts from arising and to facilitate lasting comprehensive political settlements for existing conflicts. It also helps with the process of rehabilitation in post-conflict areas. Military reform The OSCE's Forum for Security Co-operation provides a framework for political dialogue on military reform, while practical activities are conducted by field operations, as well as the Conflict Prevention Centre. Policing OSCE police operations are an integral part of the Organization's efforts in conflict prevention and post-conflict rehabilitation. Implementation The OSCE was a rather small organization until selection by the international community to provide electoral organization to post war Bosnia and Herzegovina in early 1996. Ambassador Frowick was the first OSCE representative to initiate national election in September 1996, human rights issues and rule of law specifically designed to provide a foundation for judicial organization within Bosnia and Herzegovina. The OSCE had regional offices and field offices, to include the office in Brcko in northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina which remained in limbo until the Brcko Arbitration Agreement could be decided, finalized and implemented. Brcko become a "special district" and remains so today. The OSCE essentially took the place of the United Nations in Bosnia and Herzegovina in part because the Bosnian leadership felt deep contempt for the UN efforts to stop the war which began in 1991 and ended in 1995. During the time the United Nations were attempting a political solution, thousands of UN troops were posted in and around Bosnia and Herzegovina with special emphasis on Sarajevo. Between the inclusive dates of 1991 through 1995, over 200,000 Bosnians were killed and over one million displaced and another million as refugees. The OSCE continues to have a presence and a number of initiatives to bring a sustained peace to the region. Economic and environmental dimension (second dimension) Activities in the economic and environmental dimension include the monitoring of developments related to economic and environmental security in OSCE participating States, with the aim of alerting them to any threat of conflict; assisting States in the creation of economic and environmental policies, legislation and institutions to promote security in the OSCE region. Economic activities Among the economic activities of the OSCE feature initiatives aimed at promoting good governance, combating corruption, money laundering, human trafficking and terrorist financing, as well as activities related to migration management, transport and energy security in its participating States. All activities are implemented in close co-operation with partner organisations, such as UN agencies, the Council of Europe, the World Bank and the OECD. Environmental activities The OSCE has developed a range of activities in the environmental sphere aimed at addressing ecologic threats to security in its participating States. Among the activities feature the Environment and Security Initiative (ENVSEC, www.envsec.org), in close co-operation with UNDP, UNEP, UNECE, NATO and others. Other activities deal with hazardous waste, water management and access to information under the Aarhus Convention. Human dimension (third dimension) The commitments made by OSCE participating States in the human dimension aim to ensure full respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; to abide by the rule of law; to promote the principles of democracy by building, strengthening and protecting democratic institutions; and to promote tolerance throughout the OSCE region. Anti-trafficking Since 2003 the OSCE has had an established anti-trafficking mechanism aimed at raising public awareness of the problem and building the political will within member states to tackle it effectively. The OSCE actions against human trafficking are coordinated by the Office of the Special Representative for Combating the Traffic of Human Beings.Since 2006 this office has been held by Eva Biaudet, a former Member of Parliament and Minister of Health and Social Services in her native Finland. The activities of the Office of the Special Representative range from training law enforcement agencies to tackle human trafficking to promoting policies aimed at rooting out corruption and organised crime. The Special Representative also visits countries and can, on their request, support the formation and implementation of their anti-trafficking policies. In other cases the Special Representative will examine the actual commitment of governments, ministers and officials to their stated goals of tackling human trafficking. Democratization The OSCE promotes democracy and assists the participating States in building democratic institutions. Education Education programmes are an integral part of the Organization's efforts in conflict prevention and post-conflict rehabilitation. Elections As part of its democratization activities, the OSCE carries out election assistance projects in the run-up to, during, and following elections. Gender equality The equality of men and women is an integral part of sustainable democracy. The OSCE aims to provide equal opportunities for men and women and to integrate gender equality in policies and practices Human rights The OSCE's human rights activities focus on such priorities as freedom of movement and religion, preventing torture and trafficking in persons. Media freedom The OSCE observes relevant media developments in its participating States with a view to addressing and providing early warning on violations of freedom of expression. Minority rights Ethnic conflict is one of the main sources of large-scale violence in Europe today. The OSCE's approach is to identify and to seek early resolution of ethnic tensions, and to set standards for the rights of persons belonging to minority groups. Criticism Following an unprecedented period of activity in the 1990s and early 2000s, the OSCE has in the past few years faced accusations from the CIS states (primarily Russia) of being a tool for the Western states to advance their own interests. For instance, the events in Ukraine in 2004 (the "Orange Revolution") led to allegations by Russia of OSCE involvement on behalf of the pro-Western Viktor Yushchenko. At the 2007 Munich Conference on Security Policy, Vladimir Putin made this position very clear: “They [unnamed Western States] are trying to transform the OSCE into a vulgar instrument designed to promote the foreign policy interests of one or a group of countries. And this task is also being accomplished by the OSCE's bureaucratic apparatus, which is absolutely not connected with the state founders in any way. Decision-making procedures and the involvement of so-called non-governmental organizations are tailored for this task. These organizations are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control." The Munich Speech - Kommersant Moscow [OSCE: Election Experts Debate Russian Criticism] - [Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty © 2008] Criticism of OSCE by Nine CIS Countries Draws the Response http://www.aspr.ac.at/osce_report06.pdf BASIC Note Russia and its allies are advancing the concept of a comprehensive OSCE reform, which would make the Secretariat, institutions and field presences more centralized and accountable to collective consensus-based bodies and focus the work of the Organization on topical security issues (human trafficking, terrorism, non-proliferation, arms control, etc.), at the expense of the "Human Dimension", or human rights issues. The move to reduce the autonomy of the theoretically independent OSCE institutions, such as ODIHR, would effectively grant a Russian veto over any OSCE activity. Western participating States are opposing this process, which they see as an attempt to prevent the OSCE from carrying out its democratization agenda in post-Soviet countries. Following the 2008 U.S. presidential election, OSCE's ODIHR was accused of double standards by Russia's lawmaker Slutsky. A point was made, that while numerous violations of the voting process were registered, it criticism came only from within the U.S. (media, human rights organizations, McCain's election staff), while the OSCE known for its bashing criticism of elections on the post-Soviet space remained silent. OSCE, ODIHR Showed Double Standard at U.S. Election, Russia’s Lawmaker Said, Kommersant, Nov. 06, 2008 OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report of the U.S. 2008 presidential election History Helmut Schmidt, Erich Honecker, Gerald Ford and Bruno Kreisky at Helsinki in 1975 at CSCE summit The Organization has its roots in the 1973 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). Talks had been mooted about a European security grouping since the 1950s but the Cold War prevented any substantial progress until the talks at Dipoli in Helsinki began in November 1972. These talks were held at the suggestion of the Soviet Union which wished to use the talks to maintain its control over the communist countries in Eastern Europe. Western Europe, however, saw these talks as a way to reduce the tension in the region, furthering economic cooperation and obtaining humanitarian improvements for the populations of the Communist bloc. The recommendations of the talks, "The Blue Book", gave the practical foundations for a three-stage conference, the Helsinki process. The CSCE opened in Helsinki on July 3, 1973 with 35 states sending representatives. Stage I only took five days to agree to follow the Blue Book. Stage II was the main working phase and was conducted in Geneva from September 18, 1973 until July 21, 1975. The result of Stage II was the Helsinki Final Act which was signed by the 35 participating States during Stage III, which took place in Finlandia Hall from July 30 to August 1, 1975. It was opened by Holy Sees diplomat Agostino Cardinal Casaroli who was chairman of the conference. The concepts of improving relations and implementing the Act were developed over a series of follow-up meeting, with major gatherings in Belgrade (October 4, 1977 - March 8, 1978), Madrid (November 11, 1980 - September 9, 1983), and Vienna (November 4, 1986 - January 19, 1989). A unique aspect of the OSCE is the non-binding status of its provisions. Rather than being a formal treaty, the OSCE Final Act represents a political commitment by all signatories to build security and cooperation in Europe on the basis of its provisions. This allows the OSCE to remain a flexible process for the evolution of improved cooperation which avoids disputes and/or sanctions over implementation. By agreeing these commitments, signatories for the first time accepted that treatment of citizens within their borders was also a matter of legitimate international concern. This open process of the OSCE is often given credit for helping build democracy in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, thus leading to the end of the Cold War. The collapse of Communism required a change of role for the CSCE. The Charter of Paris for a New Europe which was signed on November 21, 1990 marked the beginning of this change. With the changes capped by the re-naming of the CSCE to the OSCE on January 1, 1995, accordingly to the results of the conference held in Budapest, in 1994. The OSCE now had a formal Secretariat, Senior Council, Parliamentary Assembly, Conflict Prevention Centre, and Office for Free Elections (later becoming the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights). In December 1996, the "Lisbon Declaration on a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for Europe for the Twenty-First Century" affirmed the universal and indivisible nature of security on the European continent. In Istanbul on November 19, 1999, the OSCE ended a two-day summit by calling for a political settlement in Chechnya and adopting a Charter for European Security. According to then Minister of Foreign Affairs Igor Ivanov, this summit marked a turning point in Russian perception of the OSCE, from an organization that expressed Europe's collective will, to an organization that serves as a Western tool for "forced democratization." Ivanov, Igor S. The New Russian Diplomacy. Nixon Center and Brookings Institution Press: Washington, DC, 2002. pp. 97-98. After a group of thirteen Democratic United States senators petitioned Secretary of State Colin Powell to have foreign election monitors oversee the 2004 presidential election, the State Department acquiesced, and President George W. Bush invited the OSCE to do so. U.S. invites international observers to Nov election USA Today International Monitoring of US Election Called 'Frightening' Cybercast News Service Structural history The Chairman-in-Office position is held by the minister for foreign affairs of the country holding the chairmanship. The table below lists the Chairman-in-Office and his or her country of origin by year, since 1991: Year Chairman-in-Office Successor Country 1991 Hans-Dietrich Genscher none </tr> 1992 Jiří Dienstbier Jozef Moravčík </tr> 1993 Margaretha af Ugglas none </tr> 1994 Beniamino Andreatta Antonio Martino </tr> 1995 Laszlo Kovacs none </tr> 1996 Flavio Cotti none </tr> 1997 Niels Helveg Petersen none </tr> 1998 Bronislaw Geremek none </tr> 1999 Knut Vollebaek none </tr> 2000 Wolfgang Schüssel Benita Ferrero-Waldner </tr> 2001 Mircea Geoană none </tr> 2002 Jaime Gama Antonio Martins da Cruz </tr> 2003 Jaap de Hoop Scheffer Bernard Bot </tr> 2004 Solomon Passy none </tr> 2005 Dimitrij Rupel none </tr> 2006 Karel De Gucht none </tr> 2007 Miguel Ángel Moratinos none </tr> 2008 Ilkka Kanerva Alexander Stubb </tr> 2009 Theodora Bakoyannis </tr> 2010 Marat Tazhin </tr> Fiscal history Since 1993, the OSCE's budget by year (in millions of euros, not adjusted for inflation) has been: 2007 €186.2 million 2006 €186.2 million 2005 €186.6 million 2004 €180.8 million 2003 €165.5 million 2002 €167.5 million 2001 €194.5 million 2000 €202.7 million 1999 €146.1 million 1998 €118.7 million 1997 €43.3 million 1996 €34.9 million 1995 €18.9 million 1994 €21 million 1993 €12 million Participating States OSCE signatories as of 2006. State Admission 19 June 1991 16 September 1991 17 September 1991</tr> 25 April 1996 10 November 1999 17 February 1998</tr> 30 January 1992 8 July 1992 17 April 1992</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 30 January 1992 8 July 1992 20 December 1993</tr> 30 January 1992 26 February 1992 8 April 1993</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 30 April 1992 8 July 1992 </tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 24 March 1992 8 July 1992 </tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 1 January 1993 </tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 10 September 1991 14 October 1992 6 December 1991</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 24 March 1992 8 July 1992 21 January 1994</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 30 January 1992 8 July 1992 23 September 1992</tr> 30 January 1992 8 July 1992 3 June 1994</tr> 10 September 1991 14 October 1991 6 December 1991</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 10 September 1991 14 October 1991 6 December 1991</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 12 October 1995 </tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 30 January 1992 26 February 1992 29 January 1993</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 22 June 2006 1 September 2006 </tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 (as USSR) 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 10 November 2000 (as FR Yugoslavia) 27 November 2000 27 November 2000 </tr> 1 January 1993 </tr> 24 March 1992 8 July 1992 8 March 1993</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 30 January 1992 26 February 1992 </tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 30 January 1992 8 July 1992 </tr> 30 January 1992 26 February 1992 16 June 1992</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 25 June 1973 1 August 1975 21 November 1990</tr> 30 January 1992 26 February 1992 27 October 1993</tr> Partners for co-operation References See also External links Official website of the OSCE OSCE Handbook (full version with hyperlinks to key documents) OSCE The U.S. Mission to the OSCE OSCE The OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina OSCE POLIS Policing OnLine Information System Open Directory Project - OSCE directory category United States Institute of Peace online training course for OSCE required for U.S. citizens hired by the Organization. Provides a detailed outline of the OSCE, with additional modules on each major area that it is involved in. Website freely available, but tests only given to those who have submitted applications. ODIHR OSCE's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media OSCE eLearning unit created by ISRG - University of Innsbruck Official OSCE account on Twitter | Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe |@lemmatized organization:24 security:22 co:12 operation:14 europe:15 osce:83 world:2 large:2 orient:1 intergovernmental:1 mandate:1 include:5 issue:6 arm:3 control:5 human:21 right:14 freedom:10 press:2 fair:1 election:23 plus:1 staff:3 engage:2 field:6 around:2 headquarters:1 ad:1 hoc:1 united:9 nation:7 charter:5 chap:1 viii:2 concern:2 early:7 warning:4 conflict:20 prevention:10 crisis:3 management:7 post:12 rehabilitation:5 participating:1 state:30 caucasus:1 central:1 asia:1 north:1 america:1 cover:1 northern:1 hemisphere:1 create:2 cold:4 war:6 era:1 east:1 west:1 forum:3 structure:1 institution:14 political:8 direction:1 give:5 head:2 government:2 summit:7 regular:2 schedule:1 hold:12 need:1 last:1 take:7 place:3 istanbul:2 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3,931 | Observation | Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the recording of data using scientific instruments. The term may also refer to any datum collected during this activity. Observations in science The scientific method The scientific method requires observations of nature to formulate and test hypotheses. It consists of these steps: Asking a question about a natural phenomenon Making observations of the phenomenon Hypothesizing an explanation for the phenomenon Predicting a logical consequence of the hypothesis Testing the prediction in a controlled experiment, a natural experiment, an observational study, or a field experiment Creating a conclusion with data gathered in the experiment Observation plays a role in the second and fifth steps. However the need for reproducibility requires that observations by different observers be comparable. Human sense impressions are subjective and qualitative making them difficult to record or compare. The idea of measurement evolved to allow recording and comparison of observations made at different times and places by different people. Measurement consists of using observation to compare the thing being measured to a standard; an artifact, process or definition which can be duplicated or shared by all observers, and counting how many of the standard units are comparable to the object. Measurement reduces an observation to a number which can be recorded, and two observations which result in the same number are equal within the resolution of the process. Human senses are limited, and are subject to errors in perception such as optical illusions. Scientific instruments were developed to magnify human powers of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by human senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters, MRI machines, radio telescopes, and DNA sequencers. One problem encountered throughout scientific fields is that the observation may affect the process being observed, resulting in a different outcome than if the process was unobserved. For example, it is not possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, changing the pressure. However, in most fields of science it is possible to reduce the effects of observation to insignificance by using better instruments. Considered as a physical process itself, all forms of observation, human and instrumental, involve amplification and are therefore thermodynamically irreversible processes, increasing entropy. Alternate definitions In some specific fields of science the words 'observer' and 'observation' have to be redefined to take into account factors that are unimportant in everyday observation: Relativity: In relativistic physics which deals with velocities close to the speed of light, it is found that different observers may observe different values for the length, time rates, mass, and many other properties of an object, depending on the observer's velocity relative to the object. Therefore an observation must always be qualified by specifying the state of motion of the observer, his reference frame. Quantum mechanics: In quantum mechanics, which deals with the behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to observe a system without changing the system, and the 'observer' must be considered part of the system being observed. In isolation, quantum objects are represented by a wavefunction which often exists in a superposition or mixture of different states. However, when an observation is made to determine the actual location or state of the object, it always finds the object in a single state, not a 'mixture'. The interaction of the observation process appears to 'collapse' the wavefunction into a single state. So any interaction between an isolated wavefunction and the external world that results in this wavefunction collapse is called an observation or measurement, whether or not it is part of a deliberate observation process. Biases We see what we expect to see Human observations are biased toward the observer's conscious and unconscious expectations and view of the world; we "see what we expect to see". Since the object of scientific research is the discovery of new phenomena, this bias can and has caused new discoveries to be overlooked. One example is the discovery of X-rays. Correct scientific technique emphasizes careful recording of observations, separating experimental observations from the conclusions drawn from them, and techniques such as blind or double blind experiments, to minimize observational bias. We see what we want to see Another bias, which has become more prevalent with the advent of 'big science' and the large rewards of new discoveries, is bias in favor of the researcher's favorite hypothesis; we "see what we want to see". Called pathological science and cargo cult science, this is different from deliberate falsification of results, and can happen to good-faith researchers. Possible examples of mistaken discoveries caused by this bias are Martian "canals", N rays, polywater, and cold fusion. Recent decades have seen scientific scandals caused by researchers playing 'fast and loose' with observational methods in order to get their pet theories published. This type of bias is rampant in pseudoscience, where correct scientific techniques are not followed. The main defense against this bias, besides correct research techniques, is peer review and repetition of the experiment, or the observation, by other researchers with no incentive to bias. For example, an emerging practice in the competitive field of biotechnology is to require the physical results of experiments, such as serums and tissue cultures, be made available to competing laboratories for independent testing. Processing bias Modern scientific instruments can extensively process 'observations' before they are presented to the human senses, and particularly with computerized instruments, there is sometimes a question as to where in the measurement chain 'observing' ends and 'drawing conclusions' begins. This has recently become an issue with digitally enhanced images published as experimental data in papers in scientific journals. The images are enhanced to bring out features that the researcher wants to emphasize, but this also has the effect of supporting his conclusions. This is a form of bias that is difficult to quantify. Some scientific journals have begun to set detailed standards for what types of image processing are allowed in research results. Computerized instruments often keep a copy of the 'raw data' from sensors before processing, which is the ultimate defense against processing bias, and similarly scientific standards require preservation of the original unenhanced 'raw' versions of images used as research data. Observations in philosophy "Observe always that everything is the result of a change, and get used to thinking that there is nothing Nature loves so well as to change existing forms and to make new ones like them." Meditations. iv. 36. - Marcus Aurelius Observation in philosophical terms is the process of filtering sensory information through the thought process. Input is received via hearing, sight, smell, taste, or touch and then analyzed through either rational or irrational thought. You see a parent beat their child; you observe that such an action is either good or bad. Deductions about what behaviors are good or bad may be based in no way on preferences about building relationships, or study of the consequences resulting from the observed behavior. With the passage of time, impressions stored in the consciousness about many related observations, together with the resulting relationships and consequences, permit the individual to build a construct about the moral implications of behavior. The defining characteristic of observation is that it involves drawing conclusions, as well as building personal views about how to handle similar situations in the future, rather than simply registering that something has happened. But according to Jiddu Krishnamurti, observation does not imply drawing conclusions and building personal views. He stressed the non-accumulation of knowledge. Such an observation, he asserted, make the mind free. "Observer" personality trait People with "Observer" personalities are motivated by the desire to understand the facts about the world around them. Believing they are only worth what they contribute, Observers have learned to withdraw themselves, to watch with keen eyes, and to speak only when they think they can shake the world with their observations. Sometimes they do just that. However, some Observers are known to withdraw completely from the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending off social contacts with abrasive cynicism. Observers generally fear incompetency and uselessness; they want to be capable and knowledgeable above all else. See also Naturalistic observation Observer effect Uncertainty principle Observational learning Observations and Measurements References | Observation |@lemmatized observation:35 either:3 activity:2 living:1 human:8 consisting:1 receive:2 knowledge:2 outside:1 world:6 sens:4 recording:3 data:5 use:5 scientific:13 instrument:6 term:2 may:4 also:4 refer:1 datum:1 collect:1 science:6 method:3 require:4 nature:2 formulate:1 test:3 hypothesis:3 consist:1 step:2 ask:1 question:2 natural:2 phenomenon:4 make:7 hypothesize:1 explanation:1 predict:1 logical:1 consequence:3 prediction:1 controlled:1 experiment:7 observational:4 study:2 field:5 create:1 conclusion:6 gather:1 play:2 role:1 second:1 fifth:1 however:4 need:1 reproducibility:1 different:8 observer:14 comparable:2 sense:1 impression:2 subjective:1 qualitative:1 difficult:2 record:2 compare:2 idea:1 measurement:6 evolve:1 allow:2 comparison:1 time:3 place:1 people:2 consists:1 thing:1 measure:1 standard:4 artifact:1 process:13 definition:2 duplicate:1 share:1 count:1 many:3 unit:1 object:8 reduce:2 number:2 two:1 result:9 equal:1 within:1 resolution:1 limit:1 subject:1 error:1 perception:1 optical:1 illusion:1 develop:1 magnify:1 power:1 weigh:1 scale:1 clock:1 telescope:2 microscope:1 thermometer:1 camera:1 tape:1 recorder:1 translate:1 perceptible:1 form:4 event:1 unobservable:1 indicator:1 dye:1 voltmeter:1 spectrometer:1 oscilloscope:1 interferometer:1 geiger:1 counter:1 mri:1 machine:1 radio:1 dna:1 sequencer:1 one:3 problem:1 encounter:1 throughout:1 affect:1 observe:7 outcome:1 unobserved:1 example:4 possible:4 check:1 air:2 pressure:2 automobile:1 tire:1 without:2 let:1 change:4 effect:3 insignificance:1 good:4 consider:2 physical:2 instrumental:1 involve:2 amplification:1 therefore:2 thermodynamically:1 irreversible:1 increase:1 entropy:1 alternate:1 specific:1 word:1 redefine:1 take:1 account:1 factor:1 unimportant:1 everyday:1 relativity:1 relativistic:1 physic:1 deal:2 velocity:2 close:1 speed:1 light:1 find:2 value:1 length:1 rate:1 mass:1 property:1 depend:1 relative:1 must:2 always:3 qualify:1 specify:1 state:5 motion:1 reference:2 frame:1 quantum:3 mechanic:2 behavior:4 small:1 system:3 part:2 isolation:1 represent:1 wavefunction:4 often:2 exist:2 superposition:1 mixture:2 determine:1 actual:1 location:1 single:2 interaction:2 appear:1 collapse:2 isolated:1 external:1 call:2 whether:1 deliberate:2 bias:13 see:11 expect:2 toward:1 conscious:1 unconscious:1 expectation:1 view:3 since:1 research:4 discovery:5 new:4 cause:3 overlook:1 x:1 ray:2 correct:3 technique:4 emphasize:2 careful:1 separate:1 experimental:2 draw:4 blind:2 double:1 minimize:1 want:4 another:1 become:3 prevalent:1 advent:1 big:1 large:1 reward:1 favor:1 researcher:5 favorite:1 pathological:1 cargo:1 cult:1 falsification:1 happen:2 faith:1 mistaken:1 martian:1 canal:1 n:1 polywater:1 cold:1 fusion:1 recent:1 decade:1 scandal:1 fast:1 loose:1 order:1 get:2 pet:1 theory:1 publish:2 type:2 rampant:1 pseudoscience:1 follow:1 main:1 defense:2 besides:1 peer:1 review:1 repetition:1 incentive:1 emerge:1 practice:1 competitive:1 biotechnology:1 serum:1 tissue:1 culture:1 available:1 compete:1 laboratory:1 independent:1 modern:1 extensively:1 present:1 particularly:1 computerized:2 sometimes:2 chain:1 end:1 begin:2 recently:1 issue:1 digitally:1 enhance:2 image:4 paper:1 journal:2 bring:1 feature:1 support:1 quantify:1 set:1 detailed:1 processing:2 keep:1 copy:1 raw:2 sensor:1 ultimate:1 similarly:1 preservation:1 original:1 unenhanced:1 version:1 philosophy:1 everything:1 think:2 nothing:1 love:1 well:2 like:1 meditation:1 iv:1 marcus:1 aurelius:1 philosophical:1 filter:1 sensory:1 information:1 thought:2 input:1 via:1 hearing:1 sight:1 smell:1 taste:1 touch:1 analyze:1 rational:1 irrational:1 parent:1 beat:1 child:1 action:1 bad:2 deduction:1 base:1 way:1 preference:1 build:4 relationship:2 observed:1 passage:1 store:1 consciousness:1 related:1 together:1 permit:1 individual:1 construct:1 moral:1 implication:1 define:1 characteristic:1 personal:2 handle:1 similar:1 situation:1 future:1 rather:1 simply:1 register:1 something:1 accord:1 jiddu:1 krishnamurti:1 imply:1 stress:1 non:1 accumulation:1 assert:1 mind:1 free:1 personality:2 trait:1 motivate:1 desire:1 understand:1 fact:1 around:1 believe:1 worth:1 contribute:1 learn:1 withdraw:2 watch:1 keen:1 eye:1 speak:1 shake:1 know:1 completely:1 reclusive:1 hermit:1 fend:1 social:1 contact:1 abrasive:1 cynicism:1 generally:1 fear:1 incompetency:1 uselessness:1 capable:1 knowledgeable:1 else:1 naturalistic:1 uncertainty:1 principle:1 learning:1 |@bigram optical_illusion:1 tape_recorder:1 geiger_counter:1 relativity_relativistic:1 quantum_mechanic:2 wavefunction_collapse:1 conscious_unconscious:1 cold_fusion:1 peer_review:1 marcus_aurelius:1 smell_taste:1 rational_irrational:1 |
3,932 | Nuclear_power | The Ikata Nuclear Power Plant, a pressurized water reactor that cools by secondary coolant exchange with the ocean. The Susquehanna Steam Electric Station, a boiling water reactor. The reactors are located inside the rectangular containment buildings towards the front of the cooling towers. Three nuclear powered ships, (top to bottom) nuclear cruisers USS Bainbridge and USS Long Beach with USS Enterprise the first nuclear powered aircraft carrier in 1964. Crew members are spelling out Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula E=mc² on the flight deck. Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions. The only method in use today is through nuclear fission, though other methods might one day include nuclear fusion and radioactive decay (see below). All utility-scale reactors Small Radioisotope thermoelectric generators have been built, which have no steam cycle. heat water to produce steam, which is then converted into mechanical work for the purpose of generating electricity or propulsion. In 2007, 14% of the world's electricity came from nuclear power. More than 150 nuclear-powered naval vessels have been built, and a few radioisotope rockets have been produced. Use Historical and projected world energy use by energy source, 1980-2030, Source: International Energy Outlook 2007, EIA. Nuclear power installed capacity and generation, 1980 to 2007 (EIA). The status of nuclear power globally. Click image for legend. As of 2005, nuclear power provided 2.1% of the world's energy and 15% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated electricity. As of 2007, the IAEA reported there are 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. In 2007, nuclear power´s share of global electricity generation dropped to 14%. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, the main reason for this was an earthquake in western Japan on 16 July 2007, which shut down all seven reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant. There were also several other reductions and "unusual outages" experienced in Korea and Germany. Also, increases in the load factor for the current fleet of reactors appear to have plateaued. Nuclear´s Great Expectations The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19% of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—78% as of 2006. In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity. Nuclear energy policy differs between European Union countries, and some, such as Austria, Estonia, and Ireland, have no active nuclear power stations. In comparison, France has a large number of these plants, with 16 multi-unit stations in current use. In the US, while the Coal and Gas Electricity industry is projected to be worth $85 billion by 2013, Nuclear Power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion. [http://www.ibisworld.com/industry/retail.aspx?indid=1911&chid=1 Nuclear Power Generation, US Industry Report"] IBISWorld, August 2008 Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships use nuclear marine propulsion, a form of nuclear propulsion. A few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the American SNAP-10A. International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe plants, the use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (in support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in district heating systems. History Origins Nuclear fission was first experimentally achieved by Enrico Fermi in 1934 when his team bombarded uranium with neutrons. In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, along with Austrian physicists Lise Meitner and Meitner's nephew, Otto Robert Frisch, conducted experiments with the products of neutron-bombarded uranium. They determined that the relatively tiny neutron split the nucleus of the massive uranium atoms into two roughly equal pieces, which was a surprising result. Numerous scientists, including Leo Szilard who was one of the first, recognized that if fission reactions released additional neutrons, a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction could result. This spurred scientists in many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union) to petition their government for support of nuclear fission research. In the United States, where Fermi and Szilard had both emigrated, this led to the creation of the first man-made reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1, which achieved criticality on December 2, 1942. This work became part of the Manhattan Project, which built large reactors at the Hanford Site (formerly the town of Hanford, Washington) to breed plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons, which were used on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A parallel uranium enrichment effort also was pursued. After World War II, the fear that reactor research would encourage the rapid spread of nuclear weapons and technology, combined with what many scientists thought would be a long road of development, created a situation in which reactor research was attempted to be kept under strict government control and classification. In addition, most reactor research centered on purely military purposes. Actually, there were no secrets to the technology, and there was an immediate arms and development race when the United States military refused to follow the advice of its own scientific community to form an international cooperative to share information and control nuclear materials. By 2006, things have come full circle with the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (see below.) Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951 at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which initially produced about 100 kW (the Arco Reactor was also the first to experience partial meltdown, in 1955). In 1952, a report by the Paley Commission (The President's Materials Policy Commission) for President Harry Truman made a "relatively pessimistic" assessment of nuclear power, and called for "aggressive research in the whole field of solar energy." A December 1953 speech by President Dwight Eisenhower, "Atoms for Peace," emphasized the useful harnessing of the atom and set the U.S. on a course of strong government support for international use of nuclear power. Early years Calder Hall nuclear power station in the United Kingdom was the world's first nuclear power station to produce electricity in commercial quantities. The Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Shippingport, Pennsylvania was the first commercial reactor in the USA and was opened in 1957. On June 27, 1954, the USSR's Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a power grid, and produced around 5 megawatts of electric power. Later in 1954, Lewis Strauss, then chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (U.S. AEC, forerunner of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the United States Department of Energy) spoke of electricity in the future being "too cheap to meter." The U.S. AEC itself had issued far more conservative testimony regarding nuclear fission to the U.S. Congress only months before, projecting that "costs can be brought down... [to] ... about the same as the cost of electricity from conventional sources..." Strauss may have been making vague reference to hydrogen fusion - which was secret at the time - rather than uranium fission, but whatever his intent Strauss's statement was interpreted by much of the public as a promise of very cheap energy from nuclear fission. Significant disappointment would develop later on, when the new nuclear plants did not provide energy "too cheap to meter." In 1955 the United Nations' "First Geneva Conference", then the world's largest gathering of scientists and engineers, met to explore the technology. In 1957 EURATOM was launched alongside the European Economic Community (the latter is now the European Union). The same year also saw the launch of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The world's first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall in Sellafield, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW). The first commercial nuclear generator to become operational in the United States was the Shippingport Reactor (Pennsylvania, December, 1957). One of the first organizations to develop nuclear power was the U.S. Navy, for the purpose of propelling submarines and aircraft carriers. It has a good record in nuclear safety, perhaps because of the stringent demands of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, who was the driving force behind nuclear marine propulsion as well as the Shippingport Reactor. The U.S. Navy has operated more nuclear reactors than any other entity, including the Soviet Navy, with no publicly known major incidents. The first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus (SSN-571), was put to sea in December 1954. Two U.S. nuclear submarines, USS Scorpion and USS Thresher, have been lost at sea. These vessels were both lost due to malfunctions in systems not related to the reactor plants. Also, the sites are monitored and no known leakage has occurred from the onboard reactors. The United States Army also had a nuclear power program, beginning in 1954. The SM-1 Nuclear Power Plant, at Ft. Belvoir, Va., was the first power reactor in the US to supply electrical energy to a commercial grid (VEPCO), in April 1957, before Shippingport. Enrico Fermi and Leó Szilárd in 1955 shared for the nuclear reactor, belatedly granted for the work they had done during the Manhattan Project. Development History of the use of nuclear power (top) and the number of active nuclear power plants (bottom). Installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1 gigawatt (GW) in 1960 to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and 300 GW in the late 1980s. Since the late 1980s worldwide capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s) — in 2005, around 25 GW of new capacity was planned. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled. Washington Public Power Supply System Nuclear Power Plants 3 and 5 were never completed. During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation) and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s (U.S.) and 1990s (Europe), flat load growth and electricity liberalization also made the addition of large new baseload capacity unattractive. The 1973 oil crisis had a significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan, which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation (39% and 73% respectively) to invest in nuclear power. Sharon Beder, 'The Japanese Situation', English version of conclusion of Sharon Beder, "Power Play: The Fight to Control the World's Electricity", Soshisha, Japan, 2006. Today, nuclear power supplies about 80% and 30% of the electricity in those countries, respectively. A general movement against nuclear power arose during the last third of the 20th century, based on the fear of a possible nuclear accident as well as the history of accidents, fears of radiation as well as the history of radiation of the public, nuclear proliferation, and on the opposition to nuclear waste production, transport and lack of any final storage plans. Perceived risks on the citizens' health and safety, the 1979 accident at Three Mile Island and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster played a part in stopping new plant construction in many countries, although the public policy organization Brookings Institution suggests that new nuclear units have not been ordered in the U.S. because the Institution's research concludes they cost 15–30% more over their lifetime than conventional coal and natural gas fired plants. Unlike the Three Mile Island accident, the much more serious Chernobyl accident did not increase regulations affecting Western reactors since the Chernobyl reactors were of the problematic RBMK design only used in the Soviet Union, for example lacking "robust" containment buildings. Many of these reactors are still in use today. However, changes were made in both the reactors themselves (use of low enriched uranium) and in the control system (prevention of disabling safety systems) to reduce the possibility of a duplicate accident. An international organization to promote safety awareness and professional development on operators in nuclear facilities was created: WANO; World Association of Nuclear Operators. Opposition in Ireland, New Zealand and Poland prevented nuclear programs there, while Austria (1978), Sweden (1980) and Italy (1987) (influenced by Chernobyl) voted in referendums to oppose or phase out nuclear power. Economics See also Nuclear Debate below. The economics of nuclear power plants are normally primarily influenced by the initial cost of the plant. It is therefore usually more economic to run them as much and as long as possible (as a base load power plant) as such they tend to be regarded as inflexible ie cannot easily follow load http://www.claverton-energy.com/nuclear-power-stations-cant-load-follow-that-much-official.html . Comparative economics with other power sources are discussed in the Main article above and in nuclear power debate. Future of the industry Diablo Canyon Power Plant in San Luis Obispo County, California, USA As of 2007, Watts Bar 1, which came on-line in February 7, 1996, was the last U.S. commercial nuclear reactor to go on-line. This is often quoted as evidence of a successful worldwide campaign for nuclear power phase-out. However, even in the U.S. and throughout Europe, investment in research and in the nuclear fuel cycle has continued, and some nuclear industry experts predict electricity shortages, fossil fuel price increases, global warming and heavy metal emissions from fossil fuel use, new technology such as passively safe plants, and national energy security will renew the demand for nuclear power plants. According to the World Nuclear Association, globally during the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average, and by the year 2015 this rate could increase to one every 5 days. Plans For New Reactors Worldwide, World Nuclear Association Many countries remain active in developing nuclear power, including Pakistan, Japan, China and India, all actively developing both fast and thermal technology, South Korea and the United States, developing thermal technology only, and South Africa and China, developing versions of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). Several EU member states actively pursue nuclear programs, while some other member states continue to have a ban for the nuclear energy use. Japan has an active nuclear construction program with new units brought on-line in 2005. In the U.S., three consortia responded in 2004 to the U.S. Department of Energy's solicitation under the Nuclear Power 2010 Program and were awarded matching funds—the Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorized loan guarantees for up to six new reactors, and authorized the Department of Energy to build a reactor based on the Generation IV Very-High-Temperature Reactor concept to produce both electricity and hydrogen. As of the early 21st century, nuclear power is of particular interest to both China and India to serve their rapidly growing economies—both are developing fast breeder reactors. See also energy development. In the energy policy of the United Kingdom it is recognized that there is a likely future energy supply shortfall, which may have to be filled by either new nuclear plant construction or maintaining existing plants beyond their programmed lifetime. There is a possible impediment to production of nuclear power plants as only four companies worldwide (Japan Steel Works, China First Industries, OMX Izhora and Doosan Heavy Industries) have the capacity to forge single piece containment vessels New nuclear build – sufficient supply capability? Steve Kid, Nuclear Engineering International, 3/3/2009 , which reduces the risk of a radiation leak. Japan Steel Works can only make four reactor vessels per year, though it will double its capacity in the next two years. Utilities across the world are submitting orders years in advance of any actual need. Other manufacturers are examining various options, including making the component themselves, or finding ways to make a similar item using alternate methods. Bloomberg exclusive: Samurai-Sword Maker's Reactor Monopoly May Cool Nuclear Revival By Yoshifumi Takemoto and Alan Katz, bloomberg.com, 3/13/08. Other solutions include using designs that do not require single piece forged pressure vessels such as Canada's Advanced CANDU Reactors or Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors. Other companies able to make the large forgings required for reactor pressure vessels include: Russia's OMZ, which is upgrading to be able to manufacture three or four pressure vessels per year; Russia's nuclear forging supplier ups capacity, World Nuclear News, October 30, 2007. South Korea's Doosan Heavy Industries; Westinghouse enlists Doosan for China, World Nuclear News, April 27, 2007 South Korea's nuclear power independence, World Nuclear News, May 28, 2008 and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, which is doubling capacity for reactor pressure vessels and other large nuclear components. MHI tools up for surge inconstruction, World Nuclear News, June 9, 2008. The UK's Sheffield Forgemasters is evaluating the benefit of tooling-up for nuclear forging work. A 2007 status report from the anti-nuclear European Greens claimed that, "even if Finland and France build a European Pressurized water Reactor (EPR), China started an additional 20 plants and Japan, Korea or Eastern Europe added one or the other plant, the overall global trend for nuclear power capacity will most likely be downwards over the next two or three decades. With extremely long lead times of 10 years and more [for plant construction], it is practically impossible to increase or even maintain the number of operating nuclear power plants over the next 20 years, unless operating lifetimes would be substantially increased beyond 40 years on average." The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2007: Conclusions In fact, China plans to build more than 100 plants, while in the US the licenses of almost half its reactors have already been extended to 60 years, and plans to build more than 30 new ones are under consideration. Further, the U.S. NRC and the U.S. Department of Energy have initiated discussions to allow extensions of reactor licenses beyond 60 years, in increments of 20 years, provided that safety can be maintained, as the loss in non-CO2-emitting generation capacity by retiring reactors "may serve to challenge U.S. energy security, potentially resulting in increased greenhouse gas emissions, and contributing to an imbalance between electric supply and demand." In 2008, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) predicted that nuclear power capacity could double by 2030, though that would not be enough to increase nuclear's share of electricity generation. Nuclear reactor technology Cattenom Nuclear Power Plant. Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy released from the nucleus of an atom, typically via nuclear fission. When a relatively large fissile atomic nucleus (usually uranium-235 or plutonium-239) absorbs a neutron, a fission of the atom often results. Fission splits the atom into two or more smaller nuclei with kinetic energy (known as fission products) and also releases gamma radiation and free neutrons. A portion of these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and create more fissions, which release more neutrons, and so on. This nuclear chain reaction can be controlled by using neutron poisons and neutron moderators to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fissions. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected. A cooling system removes heat from the reactor core and transports it to another area of the plant, where the thermal energy can be harnessed to produce electricity or to do other useful work. Typically the hot coolant will be used as a heat source for a boiler, and the pressurized steam from that boiler will power one or more steam turbine driven electrical generators. There are many different reactor designs, utilizing different fuels and coolants and incorporating different control schemes. Some of these designs have been engineered to meet a specific need. Reactors for nuclear submarines and large naval ships, for example, commonly use highly enriched uranium as a fuel. This fuel choice increases the reactor's power density and extends the usable life of the nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to nuclear proliferation than some of the other nuclear fuels. A number of new designs for nuclear power generation, collectively known as the Generation IV reactors, are the subject of active research and may be used for practical power generation in the future. Many of these new designs specifically attempt to make fission reactors cleaner, safer and/or less of a risk to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Passively safe plants (such as the ESBWR) are available to be built and other designs that are believed to be nearly fool-proof are being pursued. Fusion reactors, which may be viable in the future, diminish or eliminate many of the risks associated with nuclear fission. Life cycle The Nuclear Fuel Cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclear fuel, (1) which is delivered to a nuclear power plant. After usage in the power plant, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to a final repository (3) for geological disposition. In reprocessing 95% of spent fuel can be recycled to be returned to usage in a power plant (4). A nuclear reactor is only part of the life-cycle for nuclear power. The process starts with mining (see Uranium mining). Uranium mines are underground, open-pit, or in-situ leach mines. In any case, the uranium ore is extracted, usually converted into a stable and compact form such as yellowcake, and then transported to a processing facility. Here, the yellowcake is converted to uranium hexafluoride, which is then enriched using various techniques. At this point, the enriched uranium, containing more than the natural 0.7% U-235, is used to make rods of the proper composition and geometry for the particular reactor that the fuel is destined for. The fuel rods will spend about 3 operational cycles (typically 6 years total now) inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned, then they will be moved to a spent fuel pool where the short lived isotopes generated by fission can decay away. After about 5 years in a cooling pond, the spent fuel is radioactively and thermally cool enough to handle, and it can be moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed. Conventional fuel resources Uranium is a fairly common element in the Earth's crust. Uranium is approximately as common as tin or germanium in Earth's crust, and is about 35 times more common than silver. Uranium is a constituent of most rocks, dirt, and of the oceans. The fact that uranium is so spread out is a problem because mining uranium is only economically feasible where there is a large concentration. Still, the world's present measured resources of uranium, economically recoverable at a price of 130 USD/kg, are enough to last for "at least a century" at current consumption rates. NEA, IAEA: Uranium 2007 – Resources, Production and Demand. OECD Publishing, June 10, 2008, ISBN 9789264047662. This represents a higher level of assured resources than is normal for most minerals. On the basis of analogies with other metallic minerals, a doubling of price from present levels could be expected to create about a tenfold increase in measured resources, over time. However, the cost of nuclear power lies for the most part in the construction of the power station. Therefore the fuel's contribution to the overall cost of the electricity produced is relatively small, so even a large fuel price escalation will have relatively little effect on final price. For instance, typically a doubling of the uranium market price would increase the fuel cost for a light water reactor by 26% and the electricity cost about 7%, whereas doubling the price of natural gas would typically add 70% to the price of electricity from that source. At high enough prices, eventually extraction from sources such as granite and seawater become economically feasible. Current light water reactors make relatively inefficient use of nuclear fuel, fissioning only the very rare uranium-235 isotope. Nuclear reprocessing can make this waste reusable and more efficient reactor designs allow better use of the available resources. Breeding As opposed to current light water reactors which use uranium-235 (0.7% of all natural uranium), fast breeder reactors use uranium-238 (99.3% of all natural uranium). It has been estimated that there is up to five billion years’ worth of uranium-238 for use in these power plants. Citing Breeder reactors: A renewable energy source, American Journal of Physics, vol. 51, (1), Jan. 1983. Breeder technology has been used in several reactors, but the high cost of reprocessing fuel safely requires uranium prices of more than 200 USD/kg before becoming justified economically. As of December 2005, the only breeder reactor producing power is BN-600 in Beloyarsk, Russia. The electricity output of BN-600 is 600 MW — Russia has planned to build another unit, BN-800, at Beloyarsk nuclear power plant. Also, Japan's Monju reactor is planned for restart (having been shut down since 1995), and both China and India intend to build breeder reactors. Another alternative would be to use uranium-233 bred from thorium as fission fuel in the thorium fuel cycle. Thorium is about 3.5 times as common as uranium in the Earth's crust, and has different geographic characteristics. This would extend the total practical fissionable resource base by 450%. Unlike the breeding of U-238 into plutonium, fast breeder reactors are not necessary — it can be performed satisfactorily in more conventional plants. India has looked into this technology, as it has abundant thorium reserves but little uranium. Fusion Fusion power advocates commonly propose the use of deuterium, or tritium, both isotopes of hydrogen, as fuel and in many current designs also lithium and boron. Assuming a fusion energy output equal to the current global output and that this does not increase in the future, then the known current lithium reserves would last 3000 years, lithium from sea water would last 60 million years, and a more complicated fusion process using only deuterium from sea water would have fuel for 150 billion years. Although this process has yet to be realized, many experts and civilians alike believe fusion to be a promising future energy source due to the short lived radioactivity of the produced waste, its low carbon emissions, and its prospective power output. Water Like all forms of power generation using steam turbines, Nuclear power plants use large amounts of water for cooling. At Sellafield, which is no longer producing electricity, a maximum of 18,184.4 m³ a day (over 4 million gallons) and 6,637,306 m³ a year (figures from the Environment Agency) of fresh water from Wast Water is still abstracted to use on site for various processes. As with most power plants, two-thirds of the energy produced by a nuclear power plant goes into waste heat (see Carnot cycle), and that heat is carried away from the plant in the water (which remains uncontaminated by radioactivity). The emitted water either is sent into cooling towers where it goes up and is emitted as water droplets (literally a cloud) or is discharged into large bodies of water — cooling ponds, lakes, rivers, or oceans. Droughts can pose a severe problem by causing the source of cooling water to run out. The Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station near Phoenix, AZ is the only nuclear generating facility in the world that is not located adjacent to a large body of water. Instead, it uses treated sewage from several nearby municipalities to meet its cooling water needs, recycling 20 billion US gallons (76,000,000 m³) of wastewater each year. Like conventional power plants, nuclear power plants generate large quantities of waste heat which is expelled in the condenser, following the turbine. Colocation of plants that can take advantage of this thermal energy has been suggested by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) as a way to take advantage of process synergy for added energy efficiency. One example would be to use the power plant steam to produce hydrogen from water. (Separation of water into hydrogen and oxygen can use less energy if the water begins at a high temperature.) Solid waste The safe storage and disposal of nuclear waste is a significant challenge and yet unresolved problem. The most important waste stream from nuclear power plants is spent fuel. A large nuclear reactor produces 3 cubic metres (25–30 tonnes) of spent fuel each year. It is primarily composed of unconverted uranium as well as significant quantities of transuranic actinides (plutonium and curium, mostly). In addition, about 3% of it is made of fission products. The actinides (uranium, plutonium, and curium) are responsible for the bulk of the long term radioactivity, whereas the fission products are responsible for the bulk of the short term radioactivity. M. I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee. An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 315pp. (2005). High level radioactive waste Spent fuel is highly radioactive and needs to be handled with great care and forethought. However, spent nuclear fuel becomes less radioactive over the course of thousands of years of time. After about 5 percent of the rod has reacted the rod is no longer able to be used. Today scientists are experimenting on how to recycle these rods to reduce waste. In the meantime, after 40 years, the radiation flux is 99.9% lower than it was the moment the spent fuel was removed, although still dangerously radioactive. Spent fuel rods are stored in shielded basins of water (spent fuel pools), usually located on-site. The water provides both cooling for the still-decaying fission products, and shielding from the continuing radioactivity. After a few decades some on-site storage involves moving the now cooler, less radioactive fuel to a dry-storage facility or dry cask storage, where the fuel is stored in steel and concrete containers until its radioactivity decreases naturally ("decays") to levels safe enough for other processing. This interim stage spans years or decades or millenia, depending on the type of fuel. Most U.S. waste is currently stored in temporary storage sites requiring oversight, while suitable permanent disposal methods are discussed. As of 2007, the United States had accumulated more than 50,000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors. Underground storage at Yucca Mountain in U.S. has been proposed as permanent storage. After 10,000 years of radioactive decay, according to United States Environmental Protection Agency standards, the spent nuclear fuel will no longer pose a threat to public health and safety. The amount of waste can be reduced in several ways, particularly reprocessing. Even so, the remaining waste will be substantially radioactive for at least 300 years even if the actinides are removed, and for up to thousands of years if the actinides are left in. Even with separation of all actinides, and using fast breeder reactors to destroy by transmutation some of the longer-lived non-actinides as well, the waste must be segregated from the environment for one to a few hundred years, and therefore this is properly categorized as a long-term problem. Subcritical reactors or fusion reactors could also reduce the time the waste has to be stored. It has been argued that the best solution for the nuclear waste is above ground temporary storage since technology is rapidly changing. There is hope that current waste may well become a valuable resource in the future. According to a 2007 story broadcast on 60 Minutes, nuclear power gives France the cleanest air of any industrialized country, and the cheapest electricity in all of Europe. France reprocesses its nuclear waste to reduce its mass and make more energy. However, the article continues, "Today we stock containers of waste because currently scientists don't know how to reduce or eliminate the toxicity, but maybe in 100 years perhaps scientists will ... Nuclear waste is an enormously difficult political problem which to date no country has solved. It is, in a sense, the Achilles heel of the nuclear industry ... If France is unable to solve this issue, says Mandil, then 'I do not see how we can continue our nuclear program.'" Further, reprocessing itself has its critics, such as the Union of Concerned Scientists. Low-level radioactive waste The nuclear industry also produces a huge volume of low-level radioactive waste in the form of contaminated items like clothing, hand tools, water purifier resins, and (upon decommissioning) the materials of which the reactor itself is built. In the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission has repeatedly attempted to allow low-level materials to be handled as normal waste: landfilled, recycled into consumer items, et cetera. Most low-level waste releases very low levels of radioactivity and is only considered radioactive waste because of its history. Comparing radioactive waste to industrial toxic waste In countries with nuclear power, radioactive wastes comprise less than 1% of total industrial toxic wastes, which remain hazardous indefinitely unless they decompose or are treated so that they are less toxic or, ideally, completely non-toxic. Overall, nuclear power produces far less waste material than fossil-fuel based power plants. Coal-burning plants are particularly noted for producing large amounts of toxic and mildly radioactive ash due to concentrating naturally occurring metals and radioactive material from the coal. Contrary to popular belief, coal power actually results in more radioactive waste being released into the environment than nuclear power. The population effective dose equivalent from radiation from coal plants is 100 times as much as nuclear plants. Reprocessing Reprocessing can potentially recover up to 95% of the remaining uranium and plutonium in spent nuclear fuel, putting it into new mixed oxide fuel. This produces a reduction in long term radioactivity within the remaining waste, since this is largely short-lived fission products, and reduces its volume by over 90%. Reprocessing of civilian fuel from power reactors is currently done on large scale in Britain, France and (formerly) Russia, soon will be done in China and perhaps India, and is being done on an expanding scale in Japan. The full potential of reprocessing has not been achieved because it requires breeder reactors, which are not yet commercially available. France is generally cited as the most successful reprocessor, but it presently only recycles 28% (by mass) of the yearly fuel use, 7% within France and another 21% in Russia. IEEE Spectrum: Nuclear Wasteland. Retrieved on 2007-04-22 Unlike other countries, the US stopped civilian reprocessing from 1976 to 1981 as one part of US non-proliferation policy, since reprocessed material such as plutonium could be used in nuclear weapons: however, reprocessing is now allowed in the U.S. Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing: U.S. Policy Development Even so, in the U.S. spent nuclear fuel is currently all treated as waste. Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel for Recycle. WNA In February, 2006, a new U.S. initiative, the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership was announced. It would be an international effort to reprocess fuel in a manner making nuclear proliferation unfeasible, while making nuclear power available to developing countries. Depleted uranium Uranium enrichment produces many tons of depleted uranium (DU) which consists of U-238 with most of the easily fissile U-235 isotope removed. U-238 is a tough metal with several commercial uses — for example, aircraft production, radiation shielding, and armor — as it has a higher density than lead. Depleted uranium is also useful in munitions as DU penetrators (bullets or APFSDS tips) 'self sharpen', due to uranium's tendency to fracture along adiabatic shear bands. There are concerns that U-238 may lead to health problems in groups exposed to this material excessively, like tank crews and civilians living in areas where large quantities of DU ammunition have been used in shielding, bombs, missile warheads, and bullets. In January 2003 the World Health Organization released a report finding that contamination from DU munitions were localized to a few tens of meters from the impact sites and contamination of local vegetation and water was 'extremely low'. The report also states that approximately 70% of ingested DU will leave the body after twenty four hours and 90% after a few days. Debate on nuclear power Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on foreign oil. U.S. Energy Legislation May Be `Renaissance' for Nuclear Power. Proponents also emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western World is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants. Critics believe that nuclear power is a potentially dangerous energy source, with decreasing proportion of nuclear energy in power production, and dispute whether the risks can be reduced through new technology. Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also point out that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most Western countries. Critics point to the issue of storing radioactive waste, the history of and continuing potential for radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, the history of and continuing possibility of nuclear proliferation and the disadvantages of centralized electricity production. Arguments of economics and safety are used by both sides of the debate. See also Anti-nuclear movement Atomic Age Campaign Against Nuclear Energy :Category:Nuclear power by country Ductility and Embrittlement Electricity generation Energy development Environmental effects of nuclear power German nuclear energy project International Atomic Energy Agency Linear no-threshold model List of nuclear reactors Loss of coolant accident Nuclear contamination Nuclear fission Nuclear fuel cycle Nuclear fusion Nuclear Liabilities Fund Nuclear physics Nuclear power debate Nuclear power in the United States Nuclear safety Nuclear terrorism Passive nuclear safety Peak uranium Spent nuclear fuel shipping cask Toshiba 4S Uranium depletion World energy resources and consumption Footnotes References An entry to nuclear power through an educational discussion of reactors The Nuclear Energy Option, online book by Bernard L. Cohen. Steve Thomas (2005), , PSIRU, University of Greenwich, UK Nuclear power information archives from ALSOS, the National Digital Science Library at Washington & Lee University. Texas Will Host First New U.S. Nuclear Plants since 1970s Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy / Gwyneth Cravens (2007) ISBN 0307266567 External links Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues — Annotated Bibliography on Nuclear Power An entry to nuclear power through an educational discussion of reactors Argonne National Laboratory — Maps of Nuclear Power Reactors Boiling Water Reactor Plant, BWR Simulator Program Briefing Papers from the Australian EnergyScience Coaltion British Energy — Understanding Nuclear Energy / Nuclear Power Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger? Energy Information Administration provides lots of statistics and information Environmental impacts of nuclear power according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency at EPA.gov How Nuclear Power Works IAEA Website The International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA's Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) IAEA's Web directory of nuclear related resources on the Internet Idaho National Laboratory's Nuclear Research Information about all NPP in the world New Scientist — nuclear power articles Nuclear Power Education Nuclear Tourist.com, nuclear power information Nuclear Waste Disposal Resources The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2007. Wilson Quarterly — Nuclear Power: Both Sides Nuclear Power Related News Relative costs of wind, coal and nuclear power Nuclear news websites An up to date selection of US and international news on nuclear issues ANS Nuclear Clips Nuclear News World Nuclear News Against Why we don't need nuclear power 1 million Europeans against nuclear power Beyond Nuclear at Nuclear Policy Research Institute advocacy organization Campaign for Nuclear Phaseout (CNP) Critical assessment of the US-India nuclear energy accord published by the Internationalist Review* Online book Greenpeace: End the nuclear age and Nuclear Reaction blog. Greenpeace — Calendar of Nuclear Accidents Nuclear Files Sierra Club World Information Service on Energy (WISE) Supportive American Nuclear Society (ANS) Atomic Insights Environmentalists for Nuclear Power Foratom: The European Atomic Forum Freedom for Fission Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) Nuclear is Our Future Representing the People and Organisations of the Global Nuclear Profession SCK•CEN: Belgian Nuclear Research Centre The Nuclear Energy Option, online book by Bernard L. Cohen. Emphasis on risk estimates of nuclear. 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3,933 | Ludovico_Ariosto | Ludovico Ariosto (September 8, 1474 – July 6, 1533) was an Italian poet. He is best known as the author of the romantic epic poem Orlando Furioso (1516). The poem, a continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato, describes the adventures of Charlemagne, Orlando, and the Franks as they battle against the Saracens with diversions into many side plots. Ariosto composed the poem in the ottava rima rhyme scheme and introduced narratorial commentary throughout the work. Birth and early life Access to the villa where Ariosto was born Ariosto was born in Reggio Emilia, where his father Niccolò Ariosto was commander of the citadel. He was the oldest of ten children and was seen as the successor to the patriarchal position of his family. From his earliest years, Ludovico was very interested in poetry, but he was obliged by his father to study law. After five years of law, Ariosto was allowed to read classics under Gregorio da Spoleto. Ariosto's studies of Greek and Latin literature were cut short by Spoleto's move to France to tutor Francesco Sforza. Shortly after, Ariosto's father died. Education and patronage Memorial statue and park, Ferrara. After the death of Ariosto's father, Ludovico was compelled to forgo his literary occupations and take care of his family, whose affairs were in disarray. Despite his family obligations, Ariosto managed to write some comedies in prose as well as lyrical pieces. Some of these attracted the notice of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, who took the young poet under his patronage and appointed him one of the gentlemen of his household. Este compensated Ariosto poorly for his efforts. The only reward he gave the poet for Orlando Furioso, a piece dedicated to him, was the question, "Where did you find so many stories, Master Ludovic?" The poet himself tells us that the cardinal was ungrateful, that he deplored the time which he spent under his yoke, and adds, that if he received some niggardly pension, it was not to reward him for his poetry, which the prelate despised, but to make some just compensation for the poet's running like a messenger, with the work of his life yet to accomplish, at his eminence's pleasure. Nor was even this miserable pittance regularly paid during the period that the poet enjoyed it. The cardinal went to Hungary in 1518, and wished Ariosto to accompany him. The poet excused himself, pleading ill health, his love of study, the care of his private affairs and the age of his mother, whom it would have been disgraceful to leave. His excuses were not well received, and even an interview was denied him. Ariosto then boldly said, that had his eminence thought to have bought a slave by assigning him the scanty pension of seventy-five crowns a year, he was mistaken and might withdraw his boon--which it seems the cardinal did. New patronage and diplomatic career Titian, Portrait of a man, long believed to be Ludovico Ariosto The cardinal's brother, Alfonso, duke of Ferrara, now took the poet under his patronage. This was but an act of simple justice, Ariosto having already distinguished himself as a diplomat, chiefly on the occasion of two visits to Rome as ambassador to Pope Julius II. The fatigue of one of these hurried journeys brought on a complaint from which he never recovered, and on his second mission he was nearly killed by order of the pope, who happened at the time to be much incensed against the duke of Ferrara. On account of the war, his salary of only 84 crowns a year was suspended, and it was withdrawn altogether after the peace. Because of this, Ariosto asked the duke either to provide for him, or to allow him to seek employment elsewhere. He was appointed to the province of Garfagnana, then without a governor, situated on the wildest heights of the Apennines, an appointment he held for three years. The place was no sinecure. The province was distracted by factions and banditi, the governor had not the requisite means to enforce his authority and the duke did little to support his minister. Yet it is said that Ariosto's government satisfied both the sovereign and the people given over to his care; indeed, there is a story about a time when he was walking alone and fell into the company of a group of banditi, the chief of which, on discovering that his captive was the author of Orlando Furioso, humbly apologized for not having immediately shown him the respect which was due to his rank. In 1508 his play Cassaria appeared, and the next year I Suppositi. In 1516, the first version of the Orlando Furioso in forty cantos, was published at Ferrara. The third and final version of the Orlando Furioso, in forty-six cantos, appeared on September 8, 1532. Poetic style Throughout Ariosto's writing are narratorial comments dubbed by Dr. Daniel Javich as "Cantus Interruptus". These sections are short breaks in the text in which the narrator destroys the fourth wall and talks directly to the audience. Whether this is for comedic reasons or is just a continuation of the oral tradition, Ariosto uses it throughout his works. For example, in Canto II, stanza 30, of Orlando Furioso , the narrator says: But I, who still pursue a varying tale,Must leave awhile the Paladin, who wages A weary warfare with the wind and flood;To follow a fair virgin of his blood. Some have attributed this piece of metafiction as one component of the "Sorriso ariostesco" or Ariosto smile, the wry sense of humor that Ariosto adds to the text. In explaining this humor, Thomas Greene, in his critical work Descent from Heaven, says "the two persistent qualities of Ariosto's language are first, serenity - the evenness and self-contented assurance with which it urbanely flows, and second, brilliance - the Mediterranean glitter and sheen which neither dazzle nor obscure but confer on every object its precise outline and glinting surface. Only occasionally can Ariosto's language truly be said to be witty, but its lightness and agility create a surface which conveys a witty effect. Too much wit could destroy even the finest poem, but Ariosto's graceful brio is at least as difficult and for narrative purposes more satisfying". References Greene, Thomas. The Descent from Heaven, a Study in Epic Continuity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963. Bibliography Robert Durling, The figure of the poet in Renaissance epic, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965. Charles P. Brand, Ludovico Ariosto : a preface to the 'Orlando furioso', Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1974. Daniel Javitch, ‘Cantus interruptus in the “Orlando Furioso”’, Modern language notes, 95 (1980), 66-80. Albert R. Ascoli, Ariosto's bitter harmony : crisis and evasion in the Italian renaissance, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987. Daniel Javitch, 'The Poetics of Variatio in Orlando Furioso', Modern Language Quarterly, 2005, 66(1): 1-20. Giuseppe Sangirardi, Ludovico Ariosto, Firenze: Le Monnier, 2006. Giulio Ferroni, Ludovico Ariosto, Roma: Salerno Editrice, 2008. Stefano Jossa, Ariosto'', Bologna: il Mulino, 2009. External links Ludovico Ariosto's works: text, concordances and frequency lists LitWeb: Ludovico Ariosto Daniel Javitch, The Poetics of Variatio in Orlando Furioso.pdf | Ludovico_Ariosto |@lemmatized ludovico:9 ariosto:31 september:2 july:1 italian:2 poet:9 best:1 know:1 author:2 romantic:1 epic:3 poem:4 orlando:12 furioso:10 continuation:2 matteo:1 maria:1 boiardo:1 innamorato:1 describe:1 adventure:1 charlemagne:1 frank:1 battle:1 saracen:1 diversion:1 many:2 side:1 plot:1 compose:1 ottava:1 rima:1 rhyme:1 scheme:1 introduce:1 narratorial:2 commentary:1 throughout:3 work:5 birth:1 early:2 life:2 access:1 villa:1 bear:2 reggio:1 emilia:1 father:4 niccolò:1 commander:1 citadel:1 old:1 ten:1 child:1 see:1 successor:1 patriarchal:1 position:1 family:3 year:6 interested:1 poetry:2 oblige:1 study:4 law:2 five:2 allow:2 read:1 classic:1 gregorio:1 da:1 spoleto:2 greek:1 latin:1 literature:1 cut:1 short:2 move:1 france:1 tutor:1 francesco:1 sforza:1 shortly:1 die:1 education:1 patronage:4 memorial:1 statue:1 park:1 ferrara:4 death:1 compel:1 forgo:1 literary:1 occupation:1 take:3 care:3 whose:1 affair:2 disarray:1 despite:1 obligation:1 manage:1 write:1 comedy:1 prose:1 well:2 lyrical:1 piece:3 attract:1 notice:1 cardinal:5 ippolito:1 este:2 young:1 appoint:2 one:3 gentleman:1 household:1 compensate:1 poorly:1 effort:1 reward:2 give:2 dedicate:1 question:1 find:1 story:2 master:1 ludovic:1 tell:1 u:1 ungrateful:1 deplore:1 time:3 spend:1 yoke:1 add:2 receive:2 niggardly:1 pension:2 prelate:1 despise:1 make:1 compensation:1 run:1 like:1 messenger:1 yet:2 accomplish:1 eminence:2 pleasure:1 even:3 miserable:1 pittance:1 regularly:1 pay:1 period:1 enjoy:1 go:1 hungary:1 wish:1 accompany:1 excuse:2 plead:1 ill:1 health:1 love:1 private:1 age:1 mother:1 would:1 disgraceful:1 leave:2 interview:1 deny:1 boldly:1 say:5 think:1 buy:1 slave:1 assign:1 scanty:1 seventy:1 crown:2 mistake:1 might:1 withdraw:2 boon:1 seem:1 new:2 diplomatic:1 career:1 titian:1 portrait:1 man:1 long:1 believe:1 brother:1 alfonso:1 duke:4 act:1 simple:1 justice:1 already:1 distinguish:1 diplomat:1 chiefly:1 occasion:1 two:2 visit:1 rome:1 ambassador:1 pope:2 julius:1 ii:2 fatigue:1 hurry:1 journey:1 bring:1 complaint:1 never:1 recover:1 second:2 mission:1 nearly:1 kill:1 order:1 happen:1 much:2 incense:1 account:1 war:1 salary:1 suspend:1 altogether:1 peace:1 ask:1 either:1 provide:1 seek:1 employment:1 elsewhere:1 province:2 garfagnana:1 without:1 governor:2 situate:1 wild:1 height:1 apennines:1 appointment:1 hold:1 three:1 place:1 sinecure:1 distract:1 faction:1 banditi:2 requisite:1 mean:1 enforce:1 authority:1 little:1 support:1 minister:1 government:1 satisfy:1 sovereign:1 people:1 indeed:1 walk:1 alone:1 fell:1 company:1 group:1 chief:1 discover:1 captive:1 humbly:1 apologize:1 immediately:1 show:1 respect:1 due:1 rank:1 play:1 cassaria:1 appear:2 next:1 suppositi:1 first:2 version:2 forty:2 canto:3 publish:1 third:1 final:1 six:1 poetic:1 style:1 writing:1 comment:1 dub:1 dr:1 daniel:4 javich:1 cantus:2 interruptus:2 section:1 break:1 text:3 narrator:2 destroy:2 fourth:1 wall:1 talk:1 directly:1 audience:1 whether:1 comedic:1 reason:1 oral:1 tradition:1 use:1 example:1 stanza:1 still:1 pursue:1 varying:1 tale:1 must:1 awhile:1 paladin:1 wag:1 weary:1 warfare:1 wind:1 flood:1 follow:1 fair:1 virgin:1 blood:1 attribute:1 metafiction:1 component:1 sorriso:1 ariostesco:1 smile:1 wry:1 sense:1 humor:2 explain:1 thomas:2 greene:2 critical:1 descent:2 heaven:2 persistent:1 quality:1 language:4 serenity:1 evenness:1 self:1 content:1 assurance:1 urbanely:1 flow:1 brilliance:1 mediterranean:1 glitter:1 sheen:1 neither:1 dazzle:1 obscure:1 confer:1 every:1 object:1 precise:1 outline:1 glint:1 surface:2 occasionally:1 truly:1 witty:2 lightness:1 agility:1 create:1 convey:1 effect:1 wit:1 could:1 fine:1 graceful:1 brio:1 least:1 difficult:1 narrative:1 purpose:1 satisfying:1 reference:1 continuity:1 yale:1 university:4 press:4 bibliography:1 robert:1 durling:1 figure:1 renaissance:2 cambridge:1 harvard:1 charles:1 p:1 brand:1 preface:1 edinburgh:2 javitch:3 modern:2 note:1 albert:1 r:1 ascoli:1 bitter:1 harmony:1 crisis:1 evasion:1 princeton:2 poetics:2 variatio:2 quarterly:1 giuseppe:1 sangirardi:1 firenze:1 le:1 monnier:1 giulio:1 ferroni:1 rom:1 salerno:1 editrice:1 stefano:1 jossa:1 bologna:1 il:1 mulino:1 external:1 link:1 concordance:1 frequency:1 list:1 litweb:1 pdf:1 |@bigram ludovico_ariosto:7 orlando_furioso:10 ottava_rima:1 rhyme_scheme:1 reggio_emilia:1 francesco_sforza:1 duke_ferrara:2 edinburgh_edinburgh:1 princeton_princeton:1 il_mulino:1 external_link:1 text_concordance:1 concordance_frequency:1 |
3,934 | Fundamental_analysis | Fundamental analysis of a business involves analyzing its financial statements and health, its management and competitive advantages, and its competitors and markets. The term is used to distinguish such analysis from other types of investment analysis, such as quantitative analysis and technical analysis. Fundamental analysis is performed on historical and present data, but with the goal of making financial forecasts. There are several possible objectives: to conduct a company stock valuation and predict its probable price evolution, to make a projection on its business performance, to evaluate its management and make internal business decisions, to calculate its credit risk. Two analytical models When the objective of the analysis is to determine what stock to buy and at what price, there are two basic methodologies Fundamental analysis maintains that markets may misprice a security in the short run but that the "correct" price will eventually be reached. Profits can be made by trading the mispriced security and then waiting for the market to recognize its "mistake" and reprice the security. Technical analysis maintains that all information is reflected already in the stock price, so fundamental analysis is a waste of time. Trends 'are your friend' and sentiment changes predate and predict trend changes. Investors' emotional responses to price movements lead to recognizable price chart patterns. Technical analysis does not care what the 'value' of a stock is. Their price predictions are only extrapolations from historical price patterns. Investors can use both these different but somewhat complementary methods for stock picking. Many fundamental investors use technicals for deciding entry and exit points. Many technical investors use fundamentals to limit their universe of possible stock to 'good' companies. The choice of stock analysis is determined by the investor's belief in the different paradigms for "how the stock market works". See the discussions at efficient market hypothesis, random walk hypothesis, Capital Asset Pricing Model, Fed model Theory of Equity Valuation, Market-based valuation, and Behavioral finance. Use by different portfolio styles Investors may use fundamental analysis within different portfolio management styles. Buy and hold investors believe that latching onto good businesses allows the investor's asset to grow with the business. Fundamental analysis lets them find 'good' companies, so they lower their risk and probability of wipe-out. Managers may use fundamental analysis to correctly value 'good' and 'bad' companies. Even 'bad' companies' stock goes up and down, creating opportunities for profits. Managers may also consider the economic cycle in determining whether conditions are 'right' to buy fundamentally suitable companies. Contrarian investors distinguish "in the short run, the market is a voting machine, not a weighing machine" Security Analysis . Fundamental analysis allows you to make your own decision on value, and ignore the market. Value investors restrict their attention to under-valued companies, believing that 'it's hard to fall out of a ditch'. The value comes from fundamental analysis. Managers may use fundamental analysis to determine future growth rates for buying high priced growth stocks. Managers may also include fundamental factors along with technical factors into computer models (quantitative analysis). Top-down and Bottom-up Investors can use either a top-down or bottom-up approach. The top-down investor starts his analysis with global economics, including both international and national economic indicators, such as GDP growth rates, inflation, interest rates, exchange rates, productivity, and energy prices. He or she narrows his search down to regional/industry analysis of total sales, price levels, the effects of competing products, foreign competition, and entry or exit from the industry. Only then does he narrow his search to the best business in that area. The bottom-up investor starts with specific businesses, regardless of their industry/region. Procedures The analysis of a business' health starts with financial statement analysis that includes ratios. It looks at dividends paid, operating cash flow, new equity issues and capital financing. The earnings estimates and growth rate projections published widely by Thomson Reuters and others can be considered either 'fundamental' (they are facts) or 'technical' (they are investor sentiment) based on your perception of their validity. The determined growth rates (of income and cash) and risk levels (to determine the discount rate) are used in various valuation models. The foremost is the discounted cash flow model, which calculates the present value of the future dividends received by the investor, along with the eventual sale price. (Gordon model) earnings of the company, or cash flows of the company. The amount of debt is also a major consideration in determining a company's health. It can be quickly assessed using the debt to equity ratio and the current ratio (current assets/current liabilities). The simple model commonly used is the Price/Earnings ratio. Implicit in this model of a perpetual annuity (Time value of money) is that the 'flip' of the P/E is the discount rate appropriate to the risk of the business. The multiple accepted is adjusted for expected growth (that is not built into the model). Growth estimates are incorporated into the PEG ratio but the math does not hold up to analysis. Its validity depends on the length of time you think the growth will continue. Computer modelling of stock prices has now replaced much of the subjective interpretation of fundamental data (along with technical data) in the industry. Since about year 2000, with the power of computers to crunch vast quantities of data, a new career has been invented. At some funds (called Quant Funds) the manager's decisions have been replaced by proprietary mathematical models. investopedia.com. Investopedia: Quant Fund Criticisms Economists such as Burton Malkiel suggest that neither fundamental analysis nor technical analysis is useful in outperforming the markets investopedia.com.Financial Concepts: Random Walk Theory References See also List of valuation topics Stock picking Security Analysis Stock selection criteria John Burr Williams: Theory Mosaic theory External links MIT Open Course Ware Fundamental Analysis | Fundamental_analysis |@lemmatized fundamental:17 analysis:29 business:9 involve:1 analyze:1 financial:4 statement:2 health:3 management:3 competitive:1 advantage:1 competitor:1 market:9 term:1 use:12 distinguish:2 type:1 investment:1 quantitative:2 technical:9 perform:1 historical:2 present:2 data:4 goal:1 make:5 forecast:1 several:1 possible:2 objective:2 conduct:1 company:10 stock:13 valuation:5 predict:2 probable:1 price:14 evolution:1 projection:2 performance:1 evaluate:1 internal:1 decision:3 calculate:2 credit:1 risk:4 two:2 analytical:1 model:11 determine:6 buy:4 basic:1 methodology:1 maintain:1 may:6 misprice:1 security:5 short:2 run:2 correct:1 eventually:1 reach:1 profit:2 trade:1 mispriced:1 wait:1 recognize:1 mistake:1 reprice:1 maintains:1 information:1 reflect:1 already:1 waste:1 time:3 trend:2 friend:1 sentiment:2 change:2 predate:1 investor:15 emotional:1 response:1 movement:1 lead:1 recognizable:1 chart:1 pattern:2 care:1 value:8 prediction:1 extrapolation:1 different:4 somewhat:1 complementary:1 method:1 picking:1 many:2 decide:1 entry:2 exit:2 point:1 limit:1 universe:1 good:4 choice:1 belief:1 paradigm:1 work:1 see:2 discussion:1 efficient:1 hypothesis:2 random:2 walk:2 capital:2 asset:3 pricing:1 feed:1 theory:4 equity:3 base:2 behavioral:1 finance:1 portfolio:2 style:2 within:1 hold:2 believe:2 latch:1 onto:1 allow:2 grow:1 let:1 find:1 lower:1 probability:1 wipe:1 manager:5 correctly:1 bad:2 even:1 go:1 create:1 opportunity:1 also:4 consider:2 economic:2 cycle:1 whether:1 condition:1 right:1 fundamentally:1 suitable:1 contrarian:1 voting:1 machine:2 weighing:1 ignore:1 restrict:1 attention:1 hard:1 fall:1 ditch:1 come:1 future:2 growth:8 rate:8 high:1 include:3 factor:2 along:3 computer:3 top:3 bottom:3 either:2 approach:1 start:3 global:1 economics:1 international:1 national:1 indicator:1 gdp:1 inflation:1 interest:1 exchange:1 productivity:1 energy:1 narrow:2 search:2 regional:1 industry:4 total:1 sale:2 level:2 effect:1 compete:1 product:1 foreign:1 competition:1 best:1 area:1 specific:1 regardless:1 region:1 procedures:1 ratio:5 look:1 dividend:2 pay:1 operate:1 cash:4 flow:3 new:2 issue:1 financing:1 earnings:3 estimate:2 publish:1 widely:1 thomson:1 reuters:1 others:1 fact:1 perception:1 validity:2 determined:1 income:1 discount:2 various:1 foremost:1 discounted:1 receive:1 eventual:1 gordon:1 amount:1 debt:2 major:1 consideration:1 quickly:1 assess:1 current:3 liability:1 simple:1 commonly:1 implicit:1 perpetual:1 annuity:1 money:1 flip:1 p:1 e:1 appropriate:1 multiple:1 accept:1 adjust:1 expect:1 build:1 incorporate:1 peg:1 math:1 depend:1 length:1 think:1 continue:1 modelling:1 replace:2 much:1 subjective:1 interpretation:1 since:1 year:1 power:1 crunch:1 vast:1 quantity:1 career:1 invent:1 fund:3 call:1 quant:2 proprietary:1 mathematical:1 investopedia:3 com:2 criticism:1 economist:1 burton:1 malkiel:1 suggest:1 neither:1 useful:1 outperform:1 concept:1 reference:1 list:1 topic:1 pick:1 selection:1 criterion:1 john:1 burr:1 williams:1 mosaic:1 external:1 link:1 mit:1 open:1 course:1 ware:1 |@bigram latch_onto:1 external_link:1 |
3,935 | Message_transfer_agent | A mail transfer agent (MTA) (also called a mail transport agent, message transfer agent, or smtpd (short for SMTP daemon), is a computer program or software agent that transfers electronic mail messages from one computer to another. The term mail server is also used to mean a computer acting as an MTA that is running the appropriate software. The term mail exchanger (MX), in the context of the Domain Name System formally refers to an IP address assigned to a device hosting a mail server, and by extension also indicates the server itself. Overview An MTA receives mail from another MTA (relaying) or from a mail user agent (MUA). The MTA works behind the scenes, while the user usually interacts with the MUA. One may distinguish initial submission as first passing through a mail submission agent (MSA) – formally, port 25 is used for communication between MTAs, or from an MSA to an MTA, while port 587 is used for communication between an MUA and an MSA; this distinction is first made in RFC 2476. Every time an MTA receives an e-mail, it will add a "Received:" trace header field to the top of the message. In this way, there is a record of which MTAs handled the e-mail and in which order. Upon final delivery, the "Return-Path:" header will also be added to record the return path. The delivery of e-mail to a user's mailbox typically takes place via a mail delivery agent (MDA); many MTAs have basic MDA functionality built in, but a dedicated MDA like procmail can provide more sophisticated functionality. According to one survey, sendmail, Microsoft Exchange Server, Postfix, and Exim together control over 85% of market share for SMTP service. Another survey suggests a more balanced playing field, though it included hosted e-mail services such as Postini. MailChannels Mail Server Survey, 2006 See also MX record List of mail servers Comparison of mail servers SMTP proxy Mail user agent (MUA) Mail delivery agent (MDA) Mail submission agent (MSA) References | Message_transfer_agent |@lemmatized mail:20 transfer:3 agent:10 mta:7 also:5 call:1 transport:1 message:3 smtpd:1 short:1 smtp:3 daemon:1 computer:3 program:1 software:2 electronic:1 one:3 another:3 term:2 server:7 use:3 mean:1 act:1 run:1 appropriate:1 exchanger:1 mx:2 context:1 domain:1 name:1 system:1 formally:2 refer:1 ip:1 address:1 assign:1 device:1 host:2 extension:1 indicate:1 overview:1 receive:3 relay:1 user:4 mua:4 work:1 behind:1 scene:1 usually:1 interact:1 may:1 distinguish:1 initial:1 submission:3 first:2 pass:1 msa:4 port:2 communication:2 mtas:3 distinction:1 make:1 rfc:1 every:1 time:1 e:4 add:2 trace:1 header:2 field:2 top:1 way:1 record:3 handle:1 order:1 upon:1 final:1 delivery:4 return:2 path:2 mailbox:1 typically:1 take:1 place:1 via:1 mda:4 many:1 basic:1 functionality:2 build:1 dedicated:1 like:1 procmail:1 provide:1 sophisticated:1 accord:1 survey:3 sendmail:1 microsoft:1 exchange:1 postfix:1 exim:1 together:1 control:1 market:1 share:1 service:2 suggest:1 balanced:1 playing:1 though:1 include:1 postini:1 mailchannels:1 see:1 list:1 comparison:1 proxy:1 reference:1 |@bigram ip_address:1 |
3,936 | Heretics_of_Dune | Heretics of Dune is a 1984 science fiction novel by Frank Herbert, fifth in a series of six novels. Plot introduction Fifteen hundred years have passed since Leto's reign ended; humanity is firmly on the Golden Path. By crushing the aspirations of humans for thirty-five hundred years, Leto caused the Scattering, an explosion of humanity into the rest of the universe upon his death. Now, fifteen hundred years later some of those who went out into the universe are coming back, bent on conquest. Only the Bene Gesserit perceive the Golden Path, and are faced with a choice: keep to their traditional role of hidden manipulators, quietly easing tensions and guiding human progress, while struggling for their own survival; or embrace the Golden Path and push humanity onward into a new future where humans are free from the threat of extinction. Plot summary Much has changed in the millennium and a half Dune Novels Timeline since the death of the God Emperor. True to his prophecies, sandworms have reappeared on Arrakis (now called Rakis) and created Dune anew, renewing the flow of spice to the galaxy. The Empire, meanwhile, has fallen into chaos and confusion; with Leto's death, a hugely complex economic system built on spice collapsed, and with it much of civilization. The famine caused by this resulted in millions upon millions leaving known space in a great Scattering. The planets of the old empire have now recovered, and a new civilization has risen. There is no longer one dominant power, but three: the Ixians (the builders of no-ships capable of piloting between the stars and invisible to outside detection), the Bene Tleilax (who have learned to manufacture spice in their axlotl tanks), and the Bene Gesserit (subtle political manipulators). Lesser powers are the Spacing Guild and the Fish Speaker council. However, circumstances are about to change, as new forces begin to make their presence felt in old worlds. People from the Scattering are returning with their own peculiar powers, secrets, and agendas. The most powerful of these forces are the Honored Matres, who are a kind of twisted Bene Gesserit, an order of women bred and trained for two purposes: combat and the sexual control of men. Things are brought to the boil by something new arising on Rakis. Another of the God Emperor's prophecies has come to pass. A girl called Sheeana has been discovered who can control the giant worms of Rakis. The priesthood on Rakis has accepted her as holy, and the Bene Gesserit watch her development with serious interest. The Bene Gesserit have long been waiting for this to occur. They have been buying Duncan Idaho gholas generation after generation from the Tleilaxu, in anticipation of the promised sandrider. The Sisterhood intends to use an Idaho ghola to gain control of this sandrider, and thus regain control of the religious forces of mankind. Unlike the multiple Idahos that the God Emperor used in his service, the Bene Gesserit have subtly been altering the gholas to bring their physical reflexes up to modern standards. Upon the discovery of the sandrider, Taraza (the Mother Superior and leader of the Bene Gesserit) brings Miles Teg reluctantly out of retirement and details him to guard the new Idaho. Teg is the Mentat son of a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother, bred to serve the Sisterhood as the commanding Bashar of all their forces. Guarding Idaho is no minor task: The previous eleven gholas have all been assassinated by the Tleilaxu, the ghola providers, upon reaching adulthood. Taraza also meets with Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade and details her to take command of the Bene Gesserit keep on Rakis. Odrade is considered something of a loose cannon in the Bene Gesserit: other Sisters are suspicious of Odrade's limited prescience (inherited through her Atreides genes), an ability that manifests itself in subtle detections of threats to the Sisterhood. Further, Odrade does not obey normal Bene Gesserit prohibitions about showing emotion and the rejection of love as a "suspect" redundant human characteristic. Despite this, she is supremely talented and most suited to Taraza's needs. Making things even more complicated, Odrade is Teg's daughter. The novel begins on Gammu (previously known as Giedi Prime, former homeworld of House Harkonnen) where the Bene Gesserit are bringing up a new Duncan Idaho ghola. Reverend Mother Lucilla, a young Bene Gesserit Imprinter, has been sent by Taraza to teach this ghola and bind his loyalty to the Sisterhood. Lucilla's task is made difficult by internal divisions within the Bene Gesserit. The Sisterhood is fiercely divided on the issue of the Duncan Idaho gholas: a strong minority faction believes that they are dangerous to the Bene Gesserit, and owing to the Byzantine nature of Sisterhood politics, they have placed one of the factional leaders, Reverend Mother Schwangyu, in charge of the ghola project. Lucilla has the additional agenda of repairing any damage created by Schwangyu, who has been subtly encouraging its failure, and even protecting Idaho from Schwangyu if it should prove necessary. Ghola-Idaho has already been tarnished by Schwangyu by the time Lucilla arrives on Gammu. He nurses hate for the Bene Gesserit, hoping only to escape their control of his life. He is extremely precocious and has already divined the fact that he is a ghola. The action shifts to a Bene Tleilax meeting in council. The Bene Tleilax are secretly an intensely religious organization who have long nursed dreams of hegemony of human space, dominating others under the weight of their religion. They are currently discussing the so-called Atreides Manifesto, an anonymous document that attacks all religions in known space, except for the Tleilaxu's. They decide to treat the Manifesto as a gift from God and spread it far and wide. The council also reveals the existence of a new breed of Face Dancer. While previous Face Dancers could only mimic the physical attributes of a desired human, the new Dancers are able to absorb the memories of another human, and use those memories to shape themselves in a perfect image of the original. Several of these new Dancers have infiltrated the highest ranks of Ixian, Guild, and Fish Speaker leadership. Additionally, the council is expecting the return of Face Dancers sent out in the Scattering hundreds of years prior. There is some mistrust of these Dancers, however, and many Tleilaxu Masters doubt that these Dancers could have maintained their purity after being exposed to the Lost Ones for so long. After this meeting, the Tleilaxu Master Waff goes to secretly meet with the Honored Matres. The Honored Matres intend to 'mark' him and take over the Bene Tleilax, but they underestimate the little Master, and with the aid of a Face Dancer (disguised as an Honored Matre), Waff takes over the ship and kills the Honored Matres aboard. The Face Dancer reports that the Honored Matres have similar skills to the Bene Gesserit, without Other Memory, but greater sexual and fighting skills. Waff fears that the Honored Matres and Reverend Mothers might make common cause. On Gammu, Duncan Idaho blossoms under the training of Lucilla and Teg. Schwangyu has used all her wiles to seduce Lucilla to her side but is coming to realize that she has much underestimated Lucilla. Meanwhile, the sandrider Sheeana has been growing up among the priesthood. As a child, Sheeana's home, a village in the desert of Rakis, was destroyed by a rampaging sandworm. At the wane of the attack, Sheeana suicidally confronted the sandworm, which ceased its movements and came to rest in front of the girl. Climbing aboard the great worm as the Fremen once did, she is carried to Keen (formerly Arrakeen), where she is found by two priests. She calls the sandworms "Shaitan", not the priest-approved "Shai-hulud", which was yet another prophecy of the God Emperor. It can be noted that in Arabic, Shaitan means "Adversary", and is related to the Hebrew word which is the etymon of the word Satan. Her adolescence has been strange to say the least. The priesthood believe her to be holy and obey every order she gives them, though they haven't precisely decided what her role should be, and what she will become. Surprisingly she has not been too spoiled by this experience, and because there have been no constraints on her curiosity, her mind has flowed freely and well. The Bene Gesserit have also attached their own spy to her entourage, and ensure her education proceeds in the right way. The priesthood is in turmoil on Rakis. Sheeana is approaching adulthood, and her actions and commands are putting the priesthood under increasing pressure. She persists in calling the worms Shaitan, and has banned the priesthood from certain punishments, which the priesthood have had to replace with alternative ones. All this has made Sheeana widely popular among the people, and her religious mantle has spread off world as the Bene Gesserit expected. The priesthood are split into two factions led by Tuek (the High Priest) and Stiros (leader of the conservatives). Above Gammu, Mother Superior Taraza is willingly captured and held hostage by the Honored Matres aboard an Ixian no-ship. The Honored Matres insist Taraza invite Miles Teg to the ship, hoping to gain control of the ghola project. In an impressive display of his Mentat powers, Teg manages to turn tables on the Matres, and rescues the Mother Superior and her party as the Mother Superior had planned, though she overrides his orders to have the no-ship destroyed as they depart. Odrade is in Taraza's party, and she and Teg talk on Taraza's orders; it turns out that Odrade is one of Miles Teg's many daughters, and that it is she who wrote the Atreides Manifesto. An attack is made on Sheeana on Rakis, which is only prevented by the intervention of the Bene Gesserit, who take unofficial control of the Priesthood and Rakis (and thus the teaching and guarding of Sheeana). Odrade, personally selected by Taraza, is now leader of the Rakis station, and she takes Sheeana under her wing, training her to be Bene Gesserit. At about the same time an attempt is made on the life of Duncan Idaho, but Teg is able to defeat it. Realizing he can no longer protect his charge at the Bene Gesserit keep, Teg flees with Duncan and Lucilla into the countryside. With secret knowledge from his aide-de-camp Patrin, who was born on Gammu, Teg locates a forgotten Harkonnen no-globe which Patrin located as a boy. Patrin decoys the attackers, sacrificing his life so that his Bashar might live. Taraza arranges a meeting with Waff, going into the meeting full of supposition. The Bene Gesserit have re-evaluated their records and have finally asked themselves the right questions. They have come to recognize that all they know about the Bene Tleilax is what the Tleilaxu have wanted them to know. They suspect that the Tleilaxu have been using gholas among their leaders but aren't even sure of that. Taraza gambles and blackmails Waff with the knowledge that the Bene Tleilax have killed Honored Matres, a knowledge she only has fully confirmed when she sees Waff's reaction. Waff is forced to tell her what he knows about the Honored Matres, and when pressed on the issue of Duncan Idaho admits that the Bene Tleilax have included their own agenda within him. As the meeting draws to a close, she manages by accident to divine that Waff is a secret Zensunni, which finally gives the Bene Gesserit a lever to understand their ancient competitor, and she arranges to meet Waff again on Rakis. In the Harkonnen no-globe, Teg proceeds to awaken Idaho's original memories. Teg is facially the spitting image of Duke Leto Atreides I (Paul Muad'Dib's father), and uses this semblance (and a variety of relentless physical and mental attacks) to awaken Duncan to his pre-death memories. He does so before Lucilla can imprint Duncan and thus tie him to the Sisterhood. Lucilla naturally is not gratified with this, and is unable to use her wiles to imprint Duncan afterward, because the now-awoken Idaho is aware of her agenda. Duncan even tells her that if she tries it, he will attempt to kill her. Waff meets Odrade on Rakis. In a meeting with Tuek and Odrade, he panics and tries to assassinate them both; while he succeeds in killing the unsuspecting Tuek, Odrade is too clever for him, and not only dodges his attack but shatters both his arms in a counterattack. Odrade turns the tables on Waff, using knowledge Taraza gained from her meeting with Waff to partially convince him that the Sisterhood shares the religious beliefs of the Bene Tleilax. Waff and Odrade install a new Face Dancer as a replacement Tuek, as the alternatives would be too inconvenient. In the meantime Taraza, via Teg's finest pupil Burzmali, has been searching for Teg and his party, having little success. But finally, in a flash of inspiration, Burzmali realizes where Teg must be, and establishes contact with him and arranges to bring his party to safety. During the extraction operation, however, Teg and his companions are ambushed. Teg sacrifices himself to capture while Lucilla and Duncan escape with Burzmali. Odrade decides it would be a good idea to put Waff under pressure and so she arranges a sandworm ride into the desert with Sheeana. The worm, influenced by the God Emperor's "pearl of consciousness" trapped within it, takes the passenger to the former Sietch Tabr, where Odrade finds a secret Spice hoard and a message sent down through time from the God Emperor. This message challenges the Bene Gesserit to abandon their secret ways and openly protect Leto's Golden Path. Leto particularly maligns the Sisterhood's lack of "noble purpose," an attack that strikes Odrade deeply. Odrade takes it upon herself to offer full alliance with the Bene Tleilax, in the face of the onslaught of forces out of the Scattering. The cement for this alliance is Waff's belief that the Sisterhood shares his Tleilax religion, which sees Leto as a Prophet from God. Part of the alliance promises Bene Gesserit breeding Sisters for the Tleilaxu to work into their ghola breeding programs; as compensation, the Sisterhood will receive a working axlotl tank for their own purposes. This agreement causes consternation among the Bene Gesserit. Some call for Odrade to be assassinated. Taraza worries over this and then decides to go to Rakis to decide whether to follow Odrade's course, or to kill her. On Gammu, Teg is interrogated and tortured using a T-Probe, and under the pressure of the experience discovers a new ability in his Atreides heritage: he is able to speed up his physical and mental reactions to lightning speeds, enabling him to escape his bonds and kill everyone imprisoning him. After this acceleration, however, Teg requires massive amounts of food to replenish his lost energy. At the same time, Duncan Idaho, who is attempting to get off of Gammu undetected in the guise of a Tleilaxu Master, is ambushed and taken hostage. Meanwhile on Rakis, Taraza has come for her inspection. She is worried that Odrade may need to be killed, but on arrival realizes that Odrade has seen her real plan and is merely following it in her own creative way. Taraza seeks the destruction of Dune, because she believes the God Emperor still binds humankind on a particular course through the sandworms of Rakis; Taraza wishes to free humanity to follow its own possibilities. With the destruction of Rakis, the Bene Gesserit would be totally dependent on the Tleilaxu for the Spice they utterly need, so alliance with the Tleilaxu would ensure their supply. Taraza evaluates Sheeana and is impressed with what she sees, and this raises the possibility of the Bene Gesserit following a secondary plan of seeding other planets with worms transported by the sandrider. In an interview with Taraza, Waff discovers he cannot control his Tuek Face Dancer; its copying is so perfect it has forgotten it is actually a Face Dancer. Taraza uses the moment to confirm her alliance with the Bene Tleilax. By this time Lucilla and Burzmali arrive at a Bene Gesserit safe house to discover it has been taken over by Honored Matres. Luckily, the young Honored Matre, Murbella, stationed at the safe house is fooled by Lucilla's stolen Honored Matres robe, and accepts her as an observer. Murbella proceeds to seduce the captured Duncan Idaho. However, as she starts the seduction procedure, hidden Tleilaxu conditioning kicks into action and Duncan responds with an equal technique, one that overwhelms Murbella in sexual pleasure, draining her energy. Overwhelmed with a desire to feel such euphoria again, Murbella finds herself unable to kill Duncan, though she recognizes the danger he poses to the Matres. Taking advantage of Murbella's post-coital exhaustion, Lucilla knocks her unconscious. The Honored Matres finally attack Rakis. Taraza is killed with the first attack, cut down by lasguns. Odrade has time to merge minds with her, becoming temporary leader of the Bene Gesserit, before escaping with Sheeana into the desert on a worm. Eluding capture for a while Teg finally goes to a supposed safe house, only to discover that it has been taken over by the Honored Matres. Meeting them in person Teg is disgusted by their corruption and complete lack of human decency. The Honored Matres have assessed Teg's value to their order and decide to 'mark' him, binding him to their designs. Teg, aware of his new abilities, waits for the chosen Honored Matre to come to collect him, and then unleashes himself upon the complex. Teg must seek his own allies in order to escape Gammu. He finds a groups of ex-soldiers who have formed a resistance group to the Honored Matres. He brings them together and attacks a no-ship, and captures it. He locates Duncan and Lucilla, and with the captured Honored Matre, takes them to Rakis. Teg arrives at this time and with his new vision finds Odrade and Sheeana and their giant worm. He loads them all up in his no-ship, finally leading his troops out on a last suicidal defense of Rakis, designed to attract the rage of the Honored Matres. Fulfilling Taraza's designs, the Honored Matres attack Rakis in full force, destroying the planet and the sandworms. With this attack, the Matres hoped only to destroy Teg, whose abilities they had witnessed through his escape from their Gammu complex. The giant worms are destroyed bar the one the Bene Gesserit escape with. They drown the worm in a mixture of spice and water killing the worm and turning it into sandtrout which will turn Chapterhouse into another Dune. Taraza's camp is proven right: the God Emperor did wish to be freed from his existence, and he did not prevent them from destroying Dune. As we leave the book Odrade is the precarious temporary leader of the Bene Gesserit, by virtue of being at the right place at the right time having inherited Taraza's memories. References | Heretics_of_Dune |@lemmatized heretic:1 dune:6 science:1 fiction:1 novel:4 frank:1 herbert:1 fifth:1 series:1 six:1 plot:2 introduction:1 fifteen:2 hundred:4 year:4 pass:2 since:2 leto:7 reign:1 end:1 humanity:4 firmly:1 golden:4 path:4 crush:1 aspiration:1 human:8 thirty:1 five:1 cause:4 scattering:4 explosion:1 rest:2 universe:2 upon:6 death:4 later:1 go:5 come:7 back:1 bent:1 conquest:1 bene:43 gesserit:33 perceive:1 face:10 choice:1 keep:3 traditional:1 role:2 hidden:1 manipulator:2 quietly:1 ease:1 tension:1 guide:1 progress:1 struggle:1 survival:1 embrace:1 push:1 onward:1 new:13 future:1 free:3 threat:2 extinction:1 summary:1 much:3 change:2 millennium:1 half:1 timeline:1 god:10 emperor:8 true:1 prophecy:3 sandworms:4 reappear:1 arrakis:1 call:6 rakis:20 create:2 anew:1 renew:1 flow:2 spice:6 galaxy:1 empire:2 meanwhile:3 fall:1 chaos:1 confusion:1 hugely:1 complex:3 economic:1 system:1 build:1 collapse:1 civilization:2 famine:1 result:1 million:2 leave:2 known:2 space:4 great:3 planet:3 old:2 recover:1 rise:1 longer:2 one:7 dominant:1 power:4 three:1 ixians:1 builder:1 ship:7 capable:1 pilot:1 star:1 invisible:1 outside:1 detection:2 tleilax:11 learn:1 manufacture:1 axlotl:2 tank:2 subtle:2 political:1 less:1 guild:2 fish:2 speaker:2 council:4 however:5 circumstance:1 force:7 begin:2 make:7 presence:1 felt:1 world:2 people:2 return:2 peculiar:1 secret:5 agendas:1 powerful:1 honored:19 matres:21 kind:1 twisted:1 order:6 woman:1 breed:3 train:2 two:3 purpose:3 combat:1 sexual:3 control:8 men:1 thing:2 bring:6 boil:1 something:2 arise:1 another:4 girl:2 sheeana:13 discover:4 giant:3 worm:10 priesthood:9 accept:2 holy:2 watch:1 development:1 serious:1 interest:1 long:3 wait:2 occur:1 buy:1 duncan:17 idaho:16 gholas:5 generation:2 tleilaxu:12 anticipation:1 promised:1 sandrider:5 sisterhood:11 intend:2 use:10 ghola:9 gain:3 thus:3 regain:1 religious:4 mankind:1 unlike:1 multiple:1 service:1 subtly:2 alter:1 physical:4 reflex:1 modern:1 standard:1 discovery:1 taraza:24 mother:9 superior:4 leader:7 mile:3 teg:27 reluctantly:1 retirement:1 detail:2 guard:2 mentat:2 son:1 reverend:5 serve:1 command:3 bashar:2 minor:1 task:2 previous:2 eleven:1 assassinate:3 provider:1 reach:1 adulthood:2 also:3 meet:5 darwi:1 odrade:24 take:12 consider:1 loose:1 cannon:1 sister:2 suspicious:1 limit:1 prescience:1 inherit:2 atreides:5 gene:1 ability:4 manifest:1 far:2 obey:2 normal:1 prohibition:1 show:1 emotion:1 rejection:1 love:1 suspect:2 redundant:1 characteristic:1 despite:1 supremely:1 talented:1 suit:1 need:3 even:4 complicated:1 daughter:2 gammu:9 previously:1 know:4 giedi:1 prime:1 former:2 homeworld:1 house:4 harkonnen:3 lucilla:15 young:2 imprinter:1 send:3 teach:1 bind:3 loyalty:1 difficult:1 internal:1 division:1 within:3 fiercely:1 divide:1 issue:2 strong:1 minority:1 faction:2 believe:3 dangerous:1 owe:1 byzantine:1 nature:1 politics:1 place:2 factional:1 schwangyu:5 charge:2 project:2 additional:1 agenda:3 repair:1 damage:1 encourage:1 failure:1 protect:3 prove:1 necessary:1 already:2 tarnish:1 time:8 arrive:3 nurse:1 hate:1 hop:3 escape:7 life:3 extremely:1 precocious:1 divine:2 fact:1 action:3 shift:1 meeting:7 secretly:2 intensely:1 organization:1 nursed:1 dream:1 hegemony:1 dominate:1 others:1 weight:1 religion:3 currently:1 discuss:1 manifesto:3 anonymous:1 document:1 attack:11 except:1 decide:6 treat:1 gift:1 spread:2 wide:1 reveal:1 existence:2 dancer:12 could:2 mimic:1 attribute:1 desired:1 able:3 absorb:1 memory:6 shape:1 perfect:2 image:2 original:2 several:1 infiltrate:1 high:2 rank:1 ixian:2 leadership:1 additionally:1 expect:2 scatter:1 prior:1 mistrust:1 many:2 master:4 doubt:1 maintain:1 purity:1 expose:1 lose:2 waff:16 mark:2 underestimate:2 little:2 aid:1 disguise:1 matre:4 kill:10 aboard:3 report:1 similar:1 skill:2 without:1 fight:1 fear:1 might:2 common:1 blossom:1 training:1 wile:2 seduce:2 side:1 realize:2 grow:1 among:4 child:1 home:1 village:1 desert:3 destroy:6 rampaging:1 sandworm:3 wane:1 suicidally:1 confront:1 cease:1 movement:1 front:1 climb:1 fremen:1 carry:1 keen:1 formerly:1 arrakeen:1 find:5 priest:3 shaitan:3 approve:1 shai:1 hulud:1 yet:1 note:1 arabic:1 mean:1 adversary:1 relate:1 hebrew:1 word:2 etymon:1 satan:1 adolescence:1 strange:1 say:1 least:1 every:1 give:2 though:3 precisely:1 become:2 surprisingly:1 spoil:1 experience:2 constraint:1 curiosity:1 mind:2 freely:1 well:1 attach:1 spy:1 entourage:1 ensure:2 education:1 proceeds:3 right:5 way:3 turmoil:1 approach:1 put:2 increase:1 pressure:3 persist:1 ban:1 certain:1 punishment:1 replace:1 alternative:2 widely:1 popular:1 mantle:1 split:1 lead:2 tuek:5 stiros:1 conservative:1 willingly:1 capture:5 hold:1 hostage:2 insist:1 invite:1 impressive:1 display:1 manages:1 turn:5 table:2 rescue:1 party:4 plan:3 override:1 depart:1 talk:1 write:1 prevent:2 intervention:1 unofficial:1 teaching:1 guarding:1 personally:1 select:1 station:2 wing:1 attempt:3 defeat:1 flees:1 countryside:1 knowledge:4 aide:1 de:1 camp:2 patrin:3 bear:1 locate:3 forgotten:1 globe:2 boy:1 decoy:1 attacker:1 sacrifice:2 live:1 arrange:3 full:3 supposition:1 evaluate:2 record:1 finally:6 ask:1 question:1 recognize:2 want:1 sure:1 gamble:1 blackmail:1 fully:1 confirm:2 see:4 reaction:2 tell:2 press:1 admit:1 include:1 draw:1 close:1 manage:1 accident:1 zensunni:1 lever:1 understand:1 ancient:1 competitor:1 awaken:2 facially:1 spit:1 duke:1 paul:1 muad:1 dib:1 father:1 semblance:1 variety:1 relentless:1 mental:2 pre:1 imprint:2 tie:1 naturally:1 gratify:1 unable:2 afterward:1 awoken:1 aware:2 try:2 panic:1 succeed:1 unsuspecting:1 clever:1 dodge:1 shatters:1 arm:1 counterattack:1 partially:1 convince:1 share:2 belief:2 install:1 replacement:1 would:4 inconvenient:1 meantime:1 via:1 fine:1 pupil:1 burzmali:4 search:1 success:1 flash:1 inspiration:1 realizes:2 must:2 establishes:1 contact:1 arranges:1 safety:1 extraction:1 operation:1 companion:1 ambush:2 good:1 idea:1 ride:1 influence:1 pearl:1 consciousness:1 trap:1 passenger:1 sietch:1 tabr:1 hoard:1 message:2 challenge:1 abandon:1 openly:1 particularly:1 malign:1 lack:2 noble:1 strike:1 deeply:1 offer:1 alliance:5 onslaught:1 cement:1 prophet:1 part:1 promise:1 breeding:2 work:2 program:1 compensation:1 receive:1 agreement:1 consternation:1 worry:2 whether:1 follow:4 course:2 interrogate:1 torture:1 probe:1 heritage:1 speed:2 lightning:1 enable:1 bond:1 everyone:1 imprison:1 acceleration:1 require:1 massive:1 amount:1 food:1 replenish:1 energy:2 get:1 undetected:1 guise:1 inspection:1 may:1 arrival:1 real:1 merely:1 creative:1 seek:2 destruction:2 still:1 humankind:1 particular:1 wish:2 possibility:2 totally:1 dependent:1 utterly:1 supply:1 impress:1 raise:1 secondary:1 seed:1 transport:1 interview:1 discovers:1 cannot:1 copying:1 forget:1 actually:1 moment:1 safe:3 luckily:1 honor:3 murbella:5 fool:1 steal:1 robe:1 observer:1 captured:1 start:1 seduction:1 procedure:1 hide:1 condition:1 kick:1 responds:1 equal:1 technique:1 overwhelm:2 pleasure:1 drain:1 desire:1 feel:1 euphoria:1 danger:1 pose:1 advantage:1 post:1 coital:1 exhaustion:1 knock:1 unconscious:1 first:1 cut:1 lasguns:1 merge:1 temporary:2 elude:1 suppose:1 person:1 disgust:1 corruption:1 complete:1 decency:1 assess:1 value:1 design:3 chosen:1 collect:1 unleash:1 ally:1 group:2 ex:1 soldier:1 form:1 resistance:1 together:1 vision:1 load:1 troop:1 last:1 suicidal:1 defense:1 attract:1 rage:1 fulfil:1 whose:1 witness:1 bar:1 drown:1 mixture:1 water:1 sandtrout:1 chapterhouse:1 proven:1 book:1 precarious:1 virtue:1 reference:1 |@bigram science_fiction:1 frank_herbert:1 bene_gesserit:33 bene_tleilax:10 honored_matres:18 duncan_idaho:8 tleilaxu_master:3 honored_matre:1 leto_atreides:1 muad_dib:1 honor_matre:3 knock_unconscious:1 |
3,937 | Dogme_95 | Dogme 95 is an avant-garde filmmaking movement started in 1995 by the Danish directors Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg with the signing of the Dogme 95 Manifesto and the "Vow of Chastity". They were later joined by fellow Danish directors Kristian Levring and Søren Kragh-Jacobsen, to form a group sometimes known as the Dogme 95 Collective or the Dogme Brethren. Dogme is the Danish word for dogma. The genre gained international appeal partly because of its accessibility. It sparked off an interest in unknown filmmakers by suggesting that one can make a recognised film without being dependent on commissions or huge Hollywood budgets, depending on European government subsidies and television stations instead. The movement has been criticised for being a disguised attempt to gain media attention. Dogme was initiated to cause a stir and to make filmmakers and audiences re-think the art, effect and essence of filmmaking. It has been said that Dogme has strong roots in the radical New Wave movement of the sixties. Development The manifesto and its companion vows were drafted by friends and initial co-signators Von Trier and Vinterberg. Vinterberg holds that it took them 45 minutes to finish. The manifesto initially mimics the wording of François Truffaut's 1954 essay Une certaine tendance du cinéma français in Cahiers du Cinema. The Dogme movement was announced on March 22, 1995 at Le cinéma vers son deuxième siècle conference in Paris, where the cinema world gathered to celebrate the first century of motion pictures and contemplate the uncertain future of commercial cinema. Lars von Trier was called upon to speak about the future of film but instead showered a bemused audience with red pamphlets announcing the Dogme 95 movement. In response to criticism, Von Trier and Vinterberg have both stated that they just wanted to establish a new extreme. "In a business of extremely high budgets, we figured we should balance the dynamic as much as possible." The spirit of the Dogme technique influenced Lars von Trier's film Breaking the Waves, although it is not a Dogme film. The first of the Dogme films (Dogme #1) was Vinterberg's 1998 film Festen (The Celebration), which was critically acclaimed and won the Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival that year. Lars von Trier's Dogme film, Idioterne (The Idiots), also premiered at Cannes that year but was less successful. Since the two original films were released, other directors have participated in the creation of Dogme films. French-American actor and director Jean-Marc Barr was the first non-Dane to direct a Dogme film with 1999's Lovers (Dogme #5), followed by the American Harmony Korine's movie Julien Donkey-Boy (Dogme #6). Goals and rules The goal of the Dogme collective is to purify filmmaking by refusing expensive and spectacular special effects, postproduction modifications and other gimmicks. The emphasis on purity forces the filmmakers to focus on the actual story and on the actors' performances. The audience may also be more engaged as they do not have overproduction to alienate them from the narrative, themes, and mood. To this end, Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg produced ten rules to which any Dogme film must conform. These rules, referred to as the "Vow of Chastity," are as follows: Filming must be done on location. Props and sets must not be brought in (if a particular prop is necessary for the story, a location must be chosen where this prop is to be found). The sound must never be produced apart from the images or vice versa. (Music must not be used unless it occurs within the scene being filmed, i.e., diegetic). The camera must be a hand-held camera. Any movement or immobility attainable in the hand is permitted. (The film must not take place where the camera is standing; filming must take place where the action takes place.) The film must be in colour. Special lighting is not acceptable. (If there is too little light for exposure the scene must be cut or a single lamp be attached to the camera). Optical work and filters are forbidden. The film must not contain superficial action. (Murders, weapons, etc. must not occur.) Temporal and geographical alienation are forbidden. (That is to say that the film takes place here and now.) Genre movies are not acceptable. The final picture must be transferred to the Academy 35mm film, with an aspect ratio of 4:3, that is, not widescreen. (Originally, the requirement was that the film had to be filmed on Academy 35mm film, but the rule was relaxed to allow low-budget productions.) The director must not be credited. Uses and abuses The above rules have been both circumvented and broken, from the first Dogme film. For instance, Thomas Vinterberg "confessed" to having covered a window during the shooting of one scene in The Celebration (Festen), which is both bringing a prop onto the set and using special lighting. Lars Von Trier used background music (Le Cygne by Camille Saint-Saëns) in the film The Idiots (Idioterne). Since 2002 and the 31st film (included) no more verification process through the original board is needed by a filmmaker to have his/her film certified as Dogme 95. The founding brothers have moved towards new experimental projects and showed themselves to be skeptical about the later frequent interpretation of the Manifesto as a brand or a genre. The movement eventually broke up in 2005. Kristian Levring interview Today, filmmakers submit a form online and check a box which states they "truly believe that the film ... has obeyed all Dogme95 rules as stated in the VOW OF CHASTITY." Dogme 95 - Dogmefilms Criticism Remodernist filmmaker Jesse Richards criticizes the movement in his Remodernist Film Manifesto, stating in Point 10, "Remodernist film is not Dogme ’95. We do not have a pretentious checklist that must be followed precisely. This manifesto should be viewed only as a collection of ideas and hints whose author may be mocked and insulted at will." "Remodernist Film Manifesto", When The Trees Were Still Real, August 27, 2008 Retrieved September 1, 2008 American film critic Armond White also criticized the movement stating that it is "the manifesto that brought filmmaking closer to amateur porn", and that it will be rejected by film historians White, Armond (2004-03-09). "Digital Video Dogpatch: The king of false movement directs his ice queen", New York Press. Retrieved on 2009-05-24. . Notable Dogme films Complete list is available from the Dogme95 web site. Dogme #1: The Celebration Dogme #2: The Idiots Dogme #3: Mifune's Last Song Dogme #4: The King Is Alive Dogme #6: Julien Donkey-Boy Dogme #7: Interview Dogme #8: Fuckland Dogme #12: Italian for Beginners Dogme #14: Joy Ride Dogme #17: Reunion Dogme #28: Open Hearts Dogme #35: Così x Caso Dogme #51: A Cool Day in August Dogme #65: The Smokestack Wager Notable figures Thomas Vinterberg Lars Von Trier Søren Kragh-Jacobsen Anders Thomas Jensen Kristian Levring Jean-Marc Barr Anthony Dod Mantle Paprika Steen Fran Ilich Harmony Korine See also :Category:Dogme 95 films Minimalism Realism (arts) dogma00 Pluginmanifesto New Puritans Stuckism New Sincerity Remodernism Remodernist film Post-postmodernism Notes and references External links Official Dogme95 website To the Rescue of Cinema: Dogme 95 at BrokenProjector.com GreenCine primer on Dogme95 The Dogpile95 movement's website Interview with The Dogme Doctor Mogens Rukov Official Nimbus Film website Lars From 1-10, a ten-minute film in which Lars von Trier reflects on Dogme 95. | Dogme_95 |@lemmatized dogme:43 avant:1 garde:1 filmmaking:4 movement:11 start:1 danish:3 director:5 lars:9 von:10 trier:10 thomas:5 vinterberg:8 signing:1 manifesto:8 vow:4 chastity:3 later:1 join:1 fellow:1 kristian:3 levring:3 søren:2 kragh:2 jacobsen:2 form:2 group:1 sometimes:1 know:1 collective:2 brother:2 word:1 dogma:1 genre:3 gain:2 international:1 appeal:1 partly:1 accessibility:1 spark:1 interest:1 unknown:1 filmmaker:6 suggest:1 one:2 make:2 recognised:1 film:37 without:1 dependent:1 commission:1 huge:1 hollywood:1 budget:3 depend:1 european:1 government:1 subsidy:1 television:1 station:1 instead:2 criticise:1 disguise:1 attempt:1 medium:1 attention:1 initiate:1 cause:1 stir:1 audience:3 think:1 art:2 effect:2 essence:1 say:2 strong:1 root:1 radical:1 new:6 wave:2 sixty:1 development:1 companion:1 draft:1 friend:1 initial:1 co:1 signators:1 hold:1 take:5 minute:2 finish:1 initially:1 mimic:1 wording:1 françois:1 truffaut:1 essay:1 une:1 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official:2 website:3 rescue:1 brokenprojector:1 com:1 greencine:1 primer:1 doctor:1 mogens:1 rukov:1 nimbus:1 reflect:1 |@bigram avant_garde:1 lars_von:8 von_trier:10 thomas_vinterberg:4 vow_chastity:3 françois_truffaut:1 du_cinéma:1 cahiers_du:1 motion_picture:1 critically_acclaim:1 cannes_film:1 vice_versa:1 ratio_widescreen:1 saint_saëns:1 external_link:1 |
3,938 | Maniac_Mansion | Maniac Mansion is a graphical adventure game originally released in 1987 by Lucasfilm Games (now known as LucasArts). Maniac Mansion has become known among video game players and programmers for its highly-acclaimed gameplay and its introduction of new ideas into gaming, including multiple possible endings, multiple user-selectable characters with significantly different abilities, and critical clues contained in numerous cut scenes. It was the game for which the SCUMM ("Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion") engine was created and named after, which went on to be used by LucasArts for ten more years to create 13 original titles. It is the first game to feature Chuck the Plant (who is found in the library). Some of the characters appear in other LucasArts adventure games. Plot summary It has been twenty years, to the day, since a mysterious purple meteor came hurtling out of the sky and made a large crater in the front lawn of a huge Victorian-era mansion belonging to the Edison family. Dr. Fred, his wife Nurse Edna, and their son Edward "Weird Ed" Edison were reclusive people who left the house very rarely, but the meteor's arrival brought about a strange change in Dr. Fred and the family were seen even less, and even their mansion has fallen into disrepair. Lately, patients from the local hospital have begun to disappear without trace. Now, a local teenage cheerleader, Sandy Pantz, has been kidnapped. Dave Miller, her boyfriend, saw her being carried off to the Edison's mansion and has gathered a few of his college pals on a rescue mission to invade the mansion and save Sandy. The player could select the friends from a group of six, and the game would play somewhat differently depending on which friends were selected. The game was a parody of the horror B-movie genre, featuring a secret lab, disembodied tentacles, and an evil mastermind. Gameplay Maniac Mansion was notable for its multiple possible endings, depending on which characters the player used (and which ones survived) and what those characters did. For instance, you can send the adversary off into space, or have him arrested by the Meteor Police, or make him famous by having his autobiography published, or, in some versions, feed him to the mutant plant. Unusual for Lucas games, it is possible to get the player characters killed, and the loss of all characters also loses the game. The game was somewhat notorious for featuring red herrings, such as a chainsaw for which there was no fuel, despite many wishful rumours to the contrary. In one of the in-jokes that are a hallmark of the LucasArts adventure games, the second SCUMM game, Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders, contains some fuel "for chainsaws only", but no chainsaw. Another red herring is the staircase in the library (with a sign reading "staircase out of order") that appears to be a puzzle, but in fact there is no way to fix it or cross it. Cast Playable characters Maniac Mansion has a total of seven possible player characters. The player controls Dave, the main protagonist, and two other characters, chosen from six additional characters, each of whom has their own distinct skills and quirks: Dave Miller, a James Dean-type character; in some artwork for the game he resembles Michael J Fox from the Back to the Future films. Dave, although not particularly talented or useful, is Sandy's boyfriend and has organized the rescue and as such is a mandatory character and is automatically selected. Syd, an aspiring New Wave musician. He specializes in musical instruments. Michael F. Stoppe, an African-American amateur photographer, aspiring to be a professional photographer. He works for the college newspaper and is able to develop film. Wendy, an aspiring novelist with talent for writing and editing documents. Sheri Graner-Ray. Gender Inclusive Game Design: Expanding the Market. p. 24, Charles River Media. September 1, 2003. ISBN 1-58450-239-8. Bernard Bernoulli, a nerd suffering from overwhelming cowardice (he runs away from Green Tentacle until another character makes friends with it). He has the most skills of any character in the game, as he can disassemble the radio in the den, fix the HAM radio, and fix the telephone in the library. His presence in the game, although optional like the rest of the kids, is significant (and perhaps canonical) because he reappears in Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle as the main playable character. Razor, a female punk rocker. Her talents are identical to Syd's, even the ability to microwave Weird Ed's Hamster. She was based on Gary Winnick's girlfriend. The Making Of...Maniac Mansion - Edge Online Her band, Razor and the Scummettes, is referred to in Zak McKracken. She reappears as a member of "The Vultures" biker gang in the 1995 SCUMM game Full Throttle. Jeff Woodie, a "surfer dude", is the least talented character of the group after Dave, as his only ability is to repair the telephone, which Bernard can also do. However, the game is still completable with Jeff in a player's party. The only other quality he has is that, as he lacks shoes, he doesn't make the same "walking sound" the other characters do. The character selection screen. The Edisons The titular mansion is owned by Dr. Fred Edison and his bizarre family. Most of the Edisons pose a threat and will throw the player into the dungeon (or kill them, in some instances) if they are spotted. The exceptions are Weird Ed, who can be coerced into helping the player, and the relatively harmless Green Tentacle. Dr. Fred, the patriarch of the family and a mad scientist. Although he periodically wanders through the house to talk to other family members, the player can only reach him if they breach the inner lab at the basement of the mansion. Formerly a quack with medical degrees from correspondence courses, some of his greatest creations are living, disembodied tentacles, and the Zom-B-Matic machine, which the Murderous Purple Slimy Meteor uses to control him through mind control. Nurse Edna, Dr. Fred's wife, a gruesome, lusty nurse in to S&M. When one of the male characters is captured by her, she locks them in the dungeon while lamenting, "How silly of me. I should have tied you to my bed!" Female characters are given the ominous, "You're lucky you're not a boy, or you'd be in BIG trouble right now!" Weird Ed, Fred and Edna's macropalegic son, is a survivalist paramilitary maniac with a hair-trigger temper and an obsession with his pet hamster. In one notorious sequence (which is not needed to complete the game), the player can actually steal the hamster, microwave it, and then give its remains to Ed; prompting Ed to kill the offending character. Dead Cousin Ted, Edna's cousin, is a mummified corpse with his own private gym, pornographic magazine collection, and a sarcophagus equipped with a television set. Green Tentacle, an aspiring rock-and-roll musician and manic depressive, who doesn't really want to follow Doctor Fred's orders. It is possible to get him to kill one of the players, by having him listen to an audio recording of "Tentacle Mating Calls". Doing so causes Green Tentacle to go into a frenzy; the screen will then cut to the dead player's tombstone. He will also react badly to anyone who presents a recording contract made out to them (by killing that character out of jealousy) or a publishing contract made out to the meteor. Purple Tentacle, Doctor Fred's unintelligent, easily-fooled henchman who guards the lab. Returns as the primary antagonist in the sequel, Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle. The Murderous Purple Slimy Meteor is an evil, intelligent meteor from outer space which has been on the run from the "Meteor Police" for the past two decades, during which time it has been hiding out in the Edisons' mansion. It is also ultimately revealed to have coerced Doctor Fred into a life of villainy via mind control through his Zom-B-Matic machine. Should the player try to approach the meteor without first having acquired a hazmat suit, the meteor will kill the player by firing a lethal dose of radiation at them. The exact means of dealing with the meteor remain up to the player; amongst his several fates are banishment to outer space, death, life imprisonment by the "Meteor Police", and an appearance on late-night television with a David Letterman parody. Reception Maniac Mansion was well received by critics. Computer Gaming World praised the game for being "composed in the best comic horror tradition". References in other games Numerous other games have referenced Maniac Mansion. Some of these include: The Meteor reappears on a shelf in the office of Indiana Jones in the 1989 SCUMM game Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure. In another reference, the entire game is contained within its sequel, Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle, on a computer in the bedroom of one of the characters. Purple tentacle appears in a hidden bonus level in the snes game, Zombies Ate My Neighbors. In the fan-made PC version of the Maniac Mansion game, the heroes can read a poster of the Zak McKracken game in the arcade room, upon which they will comment, "Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders. What a great game!! I never did figure out what to do with the can of gas on Mars." Quite a few games have gone on to reference Chuck the Plant, a recurring joke object in LucasArts games. In Bethesda Softworks' The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, for example, players can find a potted shrub named "Charles the Plant" which contains a unique alchemy ingredient called "meteor slime". Versions and ports Screenshot from the Commodore 64 version The game was originally released for the Commodore 64 and was the first game to use the SCUMM engine, allowing relatively quick ports to other platforms. The project leader was Ron Gilbert, and the game was designed by Gilbert and Gary Winnick. The game was scripted by Ron Gilbert and David Fox. Versions for the Apple II, Amiga, and Atari ST computers were also released. Screenshot from the Enhanced PC version Maniac Mansion was ported to the PC with EGA graphics in 1988 (though it was also compatible with CGA and Hercules graphics). In 1988, Jaleco released an uncensored version of the game for the Famicom in Japan; this version, however, featured vastly inferior graphics, with simplified non-scrolling backgrounds (many of the rooms, which featured elaborate details such as photographs and wallpaper patterns in Western versions of the game, were here presented as solid-colored screens devoid of anything except objects necessary to complete the game) and characters redrawn in a more cartoon-like, super deformed style (apparently an attempt to make the game more palatable to Japanese audiences; many of the characters ended up looking like blocks with faces). Due to the nature of the Famicom market in Japan, Jaleco was a game cartridge manufacturer, and Nintendo's censorship was never needed. However, this version used excessively long passwords which were 104 characters long to save progress. In 1989, an enhanced version of Maniac Mansion for the PC with improved graphics was released. There was a sitcom of the same name, very loosely based on the game, which aired from 1990 to 1993 on YTV in Canada and The Family Channel in the United States. In 2004, fans released a remake called Maniac Mansion Deluxe, which runs under Windows, features heavily enhanced graphics, music throughout the whole game (borrowed from Day of the Tentacle), and fixes some bugs and inconsistencies found in the original release of the game. Furthermore, some changes were implemented, such as a slightly harder puzzle to remove the paint blotch on the fourth floor. NES port and The Expurgation of Maniac Mansion In 1990, a version was published for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in North America and Europe, but in a heavily censored form in order to comply with Nintendo of America (NoA) and Nintendo of Europe's policy. However, NoA initially overlooked the ability to microwave the hamster to death. Many thousand copies of Maniac Mansion had shipped before NoA noticed and demanded its removal. However, as there was no second printing of the game, all North American cartridges include the "hamster" and the "microwave". The PAL region NES cartridges of Maniac Mansion have the hamster-microwaving ability removed. In the early 1990s, programmer Douglas Crockford, the man in charge of porting the game to the NES, wrote a memoir entitled The Expurgation of Maniac Mansion, which detailed his struggles with Nintendo of America during the process of converting the game. Throughout the early 1990s, the essay turned up in photocopy form and on numerous electronic mailing lists, eventually becoming widely available on several websites. In the essay, Crockford details the strict policy that NoA enforced in the early 1990s regarding its video games; essentially, he felt the policy held that all video games had to be completely family oriented, and could not contain anything that anyone could find offensive in any way (such as religious references, foul language, violence, or sexuality). While Crockford expressed an agreement or even understanding with removing some material—notably, Edna's sexually-oriented threats to characters—he documents other demands of Nintendo's as either absurd or inconsistent; for example, Crockford claims that most Nintendo games contain violence, including the Super Mario games, “and the only motivation [for killing enemies] is that they are there.” He also documents how he justified keeping in a nude statue in the Edisons' art gallery by claiming that it was modeled on a real Michelangelo sculpture; NoA acquiesced, on the condition that Crockford remove non-existent pubic hair from the statue; because this could not be done, Crockford was ultimately forced to remove the image. The Expurgation of Maniac Mansion for the Nintendo Entertainment System See also Day of the Tentacle Maniac Mansion (TV series) References External links Maniac Mansion Entry of the Amiga version in HOL ScummVM - A replacement interpreter for SCUMM engine games The Untold Story: The Expurgation of Maniac Mansion for the Nintendo Entertainment System by Douglas Crockford, who participated in the conversion of the game to the NES The Untold Story of Maniac Mansion by Douglas Crockford on Wired.com ManiacMansionFan's complete Maniac Mansion reference page The Maniac Mansion Fan Site An FAQ for the NES version of the game Maniac Mansion Deluxe A retrospective review of Maniac Mansion | Maniac_Mansion |@lemmatized maniac:29 mansion:35 graphical:1 adventure:4 game:54 originally:2 release:7 lucasfilm:1 know:2 lucasarts:5 become:2 among:1 video:3 player:17 programmer:2 highly:1 acclaim:1 gameplay:2 introduction:1 new:2 idea:1 gaming:1 include:4 multiple:3 possible:5 ending:2 user:1 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3,939 | Gustave_Flaubert | Gustave Flaubert ( in French) (December 12, 1821 – May 8, 1880) was a French writer who is counted among the greatest Western novelists. He is known especially for his first published novel, Madame Bovary (1857), and for his scrupulous devotion to his art and style. Life Early Life and Education Portrait by Eugène Giraud Flaubert was born on December 12, 1821, in Rouen, Seine-Maritime, in the Haute-Normandie region of France. He was the second son of Achille-Cléophas Flaubert (1784–1846), a surgeon, and Anne Justine Caroline (née Fleuriot) (1793–1872). He began writing at an early age, as early as eight according to some sources. He was educated in his native city and did not leave it until 1840, when he went to Paris to study law. In Paris, he was an indifferent student and found the city distasteful. He made a few acquaintances, including Victor Hugo. Towards the close of 1840, he travelled in the Pyrenees and Corsica. In 1846, after an attack of epilepsy, he left Paris and abandoned the study of law. Personal life After leaving Paris, Flaubert returned to Croisset, close to Rouen, and lived with his mother. Their home near the Seine became Flaubert's home for the rest of his life. Flaubert never married. From 1846 to 1854, he had an affair with the poet Louise Colet (his letters to her survive). According to his biographer Émile Faguet, his affair with Louise Colet was his only serious romantic relationship. He sometimes visited prostitutes. Eventually, the end of his affair with Louise Colet led Flaubert to lose interest in romance and seek platonic companionship, particularly with other writers. With his lifelong friend Maxime du Camp, he traveled in Brittany in 1846. In 1849-1850 he went on a long journey to the Middle East, visiting Greece and Egypt. In Beirut he contracted syphilis. He spent five weeks in Constantinople in 1850. After 1850, Flaubert lived in Croisset with occasional visits to Paris and England, where he had a mistress. He visited Carthage in 1858 to conduct research for his novel Salammbô. Flaubert was a tireless worker and often complained in his letters to friends about the strenuous nature of his work. He was close to his niece, Caroline Commanville, and had a close friendship and correspondence with George Sand. He occasionally visited Parisian acquaintances, including Émile Zola, Alphonse Daudet, Ivan Turgenev, and Edmond and Jules de Goncourt. The 1870s were difficult. Prussian soldiers occupied his house during the War of 1870, and in 1872, his mother died. After her death, he fell into financial straits. Flaubert suffered from venereal diseases most of his life. His health declined and he died at Croisset of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1880 at the age of 58. He was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A monument to him by Henri Chapu was unveiled at the museum of Rouen in Writing career In September 1849, Flaubert completed the first version of a novel, The Temptation of Saint Anthony. He read the novel aloud to Louis Bouilhet and Maxime du Camp over the course of four days, not allowing them to interrupt or give any opinions. At the end of the reading, his friends told him to throw the manuscript in the fire, suggesting instead that he focus on day to day life rather than on fantastic subjects. In 1850, after returning from Egypt, Flaubert began work on Madame Bovary. The novel, which took five years to write, was serialized in the Revue de Paris in 1856. The government brought an action against the publisher and author on the charge of immorality, which was heard during the following year, but both were acquitted. When Madame Bovary appeared in book form, it met with a warm reception. In 1858, Flaubert traveled to Carthage to gather material for his next novel, Salammbô. The novel was completed in 1862 after four years of work. Drawing on his childhood experiences, Flaubert next wrote L'Éducation sentimentale (Sentimental Education), an effort that took seven years. L'Éducation sentimentale, his last complete novel, was published in 1869. He wrote an unsuccessful drama, Le Candidat, and published a reworked version of La Tentation de Saint-Antoine, portions of which had been published as early as 1857. He devoted much of his time to an ongoing project, Les Deux Cloportes (The Two Woodlice), which later became Bouvard et Pécuchet, breaking from the obsessive project only to write the Three Tales in 1877. This book comprised three stories: Un Cœur simple (A Simple Heart), La Légende de Saint-Julien l'Hospitalier (The Legend of St. Julian the Hospitaller), and Hérodias (Herodias). After the publication of the stories, he spent the remainder of his life toiling on the unfinished Bouvard et Pécuchet, which was posthumously printed in 1881. It was a grand satire on the futility of human knowledge and the ubiquity of mediocrity. He believed the work to be his masterpiece, though the posthumous version received lukewarm reviews. Flaubert was a prolific letter writer, and his letters have been collected in several publications. Work and legacy Gustave Flaubert More than perhaps any other writer, not only of France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert scrupulously avoids the inexact, the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression which is the bane of ordinary methods of composition. As a writer, Flaubert was nearly equal parts romantic, realist, and pure stylist. Hence, members of various schools, especially realists and formalists, have traced their origins to his work. The exactitude with which he adapts his expressions to his purpose can be seen in all parts of his work, especially in the portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances. The degree to which Flaubert's fame has extended since his death presents an interesting chapter of literary history in itself. He is also accredited with spreading the popularity of the color Tuscany Cypress, a color often mentioned in his chef-d'oeuvre Madame Bovary. Flaubert was fastidious in his devotion to finding the right word ("le mot juste"), and his mode of composition reflected that. He worked in sullen solitude - sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page - never satisfied with what he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for the best turn of a phrase, the final adjective. His private letters indeed show that he was not one of those to whom correct, flowing language came naturally. His style was achieved through the unceasing sweat of his brow. Flaubert’s just reward, then, is that many critics consider his best works to be exemplary models of style. Flaubert's lean and precise writing style has had a large influence on 20th century writers such as Franz Kafka through to J.M Coetzee. As Vladimir Nabokov discussed in his famous lecture series: The greatest literary influence upon Kafka was Flaubert's. Flaubert who loathed pretty-pretty prose would have applauded Kafka's attitude towards his tool. Kafka liked to draw his terms from the language of law and science, giving them a kind of ironic precision, with no intrusion of the author's private sentiments; this was exactly Flaubert's method through which he achieved a singular poetic effect. This painstaking style of writing is also evident when one compares Flaubert’s output over a lifetime to that of his peers (see, for example Balzac or Zola). Flaubert published much less prolifically than was the norm for his time and never got near the pace of a novel a year, as his peers often achieved during their peaks of activity. The legacy of his work habits can best be described, therefore, as paving the way towards a slower and more inspective manner of writing. The publication of Madame Bovary in 1856 was followed by more scandal than admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning of something new: the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life. Gradually, this aspect of his genius was accepted, and it began to crowd out all others. At the time of his death he was widely regarded as the most influential French Realist. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary influence over Guy de Maupassant, Edmond de Goncourt, Alphonse Daudet, and Zola. Even after the decline of the Realist school, Flaubert did not lose prestige in the literary community; he continues to appeal to other writers because of his deep commitment to aesthetic principles, his devotion to style, and his indefatigable pursuit of the perfect expression. He can be said to have made cynicism into an art form, as evinced by this observation from 1846: To be stupid, and selfish, and to have good health are the three requirements for happiness; though if stupidity is lacking, the others are useless. His Œuvres Complètes (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the two plays, Le Candidat and Le Château des cœurs. Another edition (10 vols.) appeared in 1873–1885. Flaubert's correspondence with George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by Guy de Maupassant. He has been admired or written about by almost every major literary personality of the 20th century, including philosophers and sociologists such as Pierre Bourdieu and Jean Paul Sartre whose partially psychoanalytic portrait of Flaubert in The Family Idiot was published in 1971. Georges Perec named Sentimental Education as one of his favorite novels. The Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa is another great admirer of Flaubert. Apart from Perpetual Orgy, which is solely devoted to Flaubert's art, one can find lucid discussions in Vargas Llosa's recently published Letters to a Young Novelist. Bibliography Major works Mémoires d’un fou (1838) (tr. Memoirs of a Madman) Madame Bovary (1857) Salammbô (1862) L'Éducation sentimentale (1869) (tr. Sentimental Education) La Tentation de Saint Antoine (1874) (tr. The Temptation of Saint Anthony) Trois contes (1877) (tr. Three Tales) (More short stories published in "Early Writings": ISBN 0-8032-1982-2) Bouvard et Pécuchet (1881, posthumously published) Dictionnaire des idées reçues (1911, posthumously published, tr. Dictionary of Received Ideas) November (written, 1842) Correspondence (in English) Selections: Selected Letters (ed. Francis Steegmuller, 1953, 2001) Selected Letters (ed. Geoffrey Wall, 1997) Flaubert in Egypt: A Sensibility on Tour (1972) Flaubert and Turgenev, a Friendship in Letters: The Complete Correspondence (ed. Barbara Beaumont, 1985) Correspondence with George Sand: The George Sand-Gustave Flaubert Letters, translated by Aimée G. Leffingwel McKenzie (A.L. McKensie), introduced by Stuart Sherman (1921), available at the Gutenberg website as E-text N° 5115 Flaubert-Sand: The Correspondence (1993) Biographical and other related publications Brown, Frederick, Flaubert: A Biography, Little, Brown; 2006. ISBN 0-316-11878-8 Hennequin, Émile, Quelques écrivains français Flaubert, Zola, Hugo, Goncourt, Huysmans, etc., available at the Gutenberg website as E-text N° 12289 Barnes, Julian, Flaubert's Parrot, ISBN 0-330-28976-4 Steegmuller, Francis, Flaubert and Madame Bovary: A Double Portrait, Viking Press; 1939. Tooke, Adrianne, Flaubert and the Pictorial Arts: From Image to Text, Oxford University Press; 2000. ISBN 0-19-815918-8 Wall, Geoffrey, Flaubert: A Life, Faber and Faber; 2001. ISBN 0-571-21239-5 Various authors, The Public vs. M. Gustave Flaubert, available at the Gutenberg website as E-text N° 10666. Sartre, Jean-Paul. The Family Idiot: Gustave Flaubert, 1821-1857, Volumes 1-5. University Of Chicago Press, 1987. Patton, Susannah, [A Journey into Flaubert's Normandy], Roaring Forties Press, 2007. ISBN 0-9766706-8-2 External links Online Texts French Audiobook (mp3): La femme du monde (taken from Flaubert's early works) Flaubert's works: text, concordances and frequency list Gustave Flaubert, his work in audio version More links Overview site of the Centre Flaubert at Rouen Multilingual research links Flaubert entry at the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism site Bibliomania page A comprehensive site in French Flaubert 'Bookweb' on literary website The Ledge, with suggestions for further reading. 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3,940 | I,_Robot | I, Robot is a collection of nine science fiction short stories by Isaac Asimov, first published by Gnome Press in 1950 in an edition of 5,000 copies. The stories originally appeared in the American magazines Super Science Stories and Astounding Science Fiction between 1940 and 1950. The stories are woven together as if Dr Susan Calvin is telling them to a reporter (the narrator) in the 21st century. Though the stories can be read separately, they share a theme of the interaction of humans, robots and morality, and when combined they tell a larger story of Asimov's fictional history of robotics. Several of the stories feature the character of Dr. Susan Calvin, chief robopsychologist at U.S. Robots and Mechanical Men, Inc., the major manufacturer of robots. Upon their publication in this collection, Asimov wrote a framing sequence presenting the stories as Calvin's reminiscences during an interview with her about her life's work, chiefly concerned with aberrant behaviour of robots, and the use of "robopsychology" to sort them out. The book also contains the short story in which Asimov's famous Three Laws of Robotics first appear. Other characters that appear in these short stories are Powell and Donovan, a field-testing team which locates flaws in USRMM's prototype models. The collection's title is the same as a short story written by Eando Binder, but is not connected to it. Asimov wanted to call his collection Mind and Iron, and initially objected when the publisher changed the title. Contents "Robbie" "Runaround" "Reason" "Catch that Rabbit" "Liar!" "Little Lost Robot" "Escape!" "Evidence" "The Evitable Conflict" Literary significance and reception In 2004 the Saturday Evening Post said that the Three Laws of Robotics "revolutionized the science fiction genre and made robots far more interesting than they ever had been before." Publication history Cover art for I, Robot featuring a scene from "Runaround". New York: Gnome Press, (Trade paperback "Armed Forces Edition", 1951) New York: Grosset & Dunlap, (hardcover, 1952) London: Grayson, (hardcover, 1952) British SF Book Club, (hardcover, 1954) New York: Signet Books, (mass market paperback, 1956) New York: Doubleday, (hardcover, 1963) London: Dobson, (hardcover, 1967) ISBN 0-449-23949-7 (mass market paperback, 1970) ISBN 0-345-31482-4 (mass market paperback, 1983) ISBN 0-606-17134-7 (prebound, 1991) ISBN 0-553-29438-5 (mass market paperback, 1991) ISBN 1-4014-0039-6 (e-book, 2001) ISBN 1-4014-0038-8 (e-book, 2001) ISBN 0-553-80370-0 (hardcover, 2004) ISBN 91-27-11227-6 (hardcover, 2005) ISBN 0-7857-7338-X (hardcover) ISBN 0-00-711963-1 (paperback, UK, new edition) ISBN 0-586-02532-4 (paperback, UK) Film, TV or theatrical adaptations At least three of the short stories from I, Robot have been adapted for television. The first was an 1962 episode of Out of this World hosted by Boris Karloff called Little Lost Robot with Maxine Audley as Susan Calvin. In the 1960s, two short stories from this collection were made into episodes of the television series Out of the Unknown: "The Prophet" (1967), based on "Reason"; and "Liar!" (1969). http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0005854/ Imbd list of actresses that have played Susan Calvin. The 12th episode of the USSR science fiction TV series This Fantastic World, filmed in 1987 and entitled Don't Joke with Robots was based on works by Aleksandr Belyaev, Fredrik Kilander and Asimov's Liar! story. State Fund of Television and Radio Programs In the late 1970s, Warner Brothers acquired the option to make a film based on the book, but no screenplay was ever accepted. The most notable attempt was one by Harlan Ellison, who collaborated with Asimov himself to create a version which captured the spirit of the original. Asimov is quoted as saying that this screenplay would lead to "the first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction movie ever made." Ellison's script builds a framework around Asimov's short stories that involves a reporter named Robert Bratenahl tracking down information about Susan Calvin's alleged former lover Stephen Byerly. Asimov's stories are presented as flashbacks that differ from the originals in their stronger emphasis on Calvin's character. Ellison placed Calvin into stories in which she did not originally appear and fleshed out her character's role in ones where she did. In constructing the script as a series of flashbacks that focused on character development rather than action, Ellison used the film Citizen Kane as a role model. Although acclaimed by critics, the screenplay is generally considered to have been unfilmable based upon the technology and average film budgets of the time. The script eventually appeared in book form under the title I, Robot: The Illustrated Screenplay, in 1994 (reprinted 2004, ISBN 1-4165-0600-4). The film I, Robot, starring Will Smith, was released by Twentieth Century Fox on July 16, 2004 in the United States. Its plot is different from that of Asimov's collection, but it incorporates elements of the stories Little Lost Robot and The Evitable Conflict, and also contains the characters Dr. Susan Calvin and Dr. Alfred Lanning, and some of Asimov's ideas about robots, such as the Three Laws of Robotics. "I, Robot" is also the title of an episode of the original The Outer Limits television show. The episode, based on the Eando Binder short story, first aired on 14 November 1964, during the second season. It was remade under the same title in 1995. Influence In addition to film and television adaptations, I, Robot has influenced many aspects of modern popular culture, particularly with respect to science fiction and technology. One example of this is in the technology industry. The name of the real-life modem manufacturer named U.S. Robotics was directly inspired by I, Robot. The name is taken from the name of a robot manufacturer ("United States Robots and Mechanical Men") that appears throughout Asimov's robot short stories. U.S. Robotics Press Kit, 2004, p3 PDF format Many works in the field of science fiction have also paid homage to Asimov's collection. The animated science fiction/comedy Futurama makes several references to I, Robot. The title of the episode "I, Roommate" is a spoof on I, Robot although the plot of the episode has little to do with the original stories. Additionally, the episode "The Cyber House Rules" included an optician named "Eye Robot" and the episode "Anthology of Interest II" included a segment called "I, Meatbag." Also in "Bender's Game" the psychiatric doctor is shown a logical fallacy and explodes when the assistant shouts "Liar!" a la "Liar!" . And an episode of the original Star Trek series, "I, Mudd" which depicts a planet of androids in need of humans references "I, Robot." Author Cory Doctorow has written a story called "I, Robot" as homage to Asimov Doctorow, Cory. "Cory Doctorow's Craphound.com". http://www.craphound.com/?p=189 (retrieved 4/27/2008) , as well as "I row-boat", both released in the short-story collection Overclocked: Stories of the Future Present. He has also said, 'If I return to this theme, it will be with a story about uplifted cheese sandwiches, called “I, Rarebit.”'. Doctorow, Cory. "Cory Doctorow's Craphound.com". http://www.craphound.com/?p=1676 (retrieved 4/27/2008) . Other cultural references to the book are less directly related to science fiction and technology. The 1977 album I Robot, by The Alan Parsons Project, was inspired by Asimov's I, Robot. In its original conception, the album was to follow the themes and concepts presented in the short story collection. The Alan Parsons Project were not able to obtain the rights, so the album's concept was altered slightly (although the name was kept.) Official Alan Parsons Project website The 2002 electronica album by experimental artist Edman Goodrich (known, at times, to operate under the aliases of "je, le roi!" and "The Ghost Quartet") shares the title of I, Robot, and is heavily influenced by Asimovian themes. The satirical newspaper The Onion published an article entitled "I, Rowboat" in which an anthropomorphized rowboat gives a speech parodying much of the angst experienced by robots in Asimov's fiction, including a statement of the "Three Laws of Rowboatics." Onion Article The name of the movie itself is taken from Robert Graves' book I, Claudius. Footnotes References Series:Followed by:Robot SeriesFoundation SeriesThe Rest of the Robots ((CRITICISMS)) | I,_Robot |@lemmatized robot:32 collection:9 nine:1 science:10 fiction:10 short:11 story:26 isaac:1 asimov:17 first:5 publish:2 gnome:2 press:3 edition:3 copy:1 originally:2 appear:6 american:1 magazine:1 super:1 astound:1 woven:1 together:1 dr:4 susan:6 calvin:9 tell:2 reporter:2 narrator:1 century:2 though:1 read:1 separately:1 share:2 theme:4 interaction:1 human:2 morality:1 combine:1 large:1 fictional:1 history:2 robotics:6 several:2 feature:2 character:7 chief:1 robopsychologist:1 u:3 mechanical:2 men:2 inc:1 major:1 manufacturer:3 upon:2 publication:2 write:3 framing:1 sequence:1 present:4 reminiscence:1 interview:1 life:2 work:3 chiefly:1 concern:1 aberrant:1 behaviour:1 use:2 robopsychology:1 sort:1 book:9 also:6 contain:2 famous:1 three:5 law:4 powell:1 donovan:1 field:2 testing:1 team:1 locate:1 flaw:1 usrmm:1 prototype:1 model:2 title:7 eando:2 binder:2 connect:1 want:1 call:5 mind:1 iron:1 initially:1 object:1 publisher:1 change:1 content:1 robbie:1 runaround:2 reason:2 catch:1 rabbit:1 liar:5 little:4 lose:1 escape:1 evidence:1 evitable:2 conflict:2 literary:1 significance:1 reception:1 saturday:1 even:1 post:1 say:3 revolutionize:1 genre:1 make:5 far:1 interesting:1 ever:3 cover:1 art:1 scene:1 new:5 york:4 trade:1 paperback:7 arm:1 force:1 grosset:1 dunlap:1 hardcover:8 london:2 grayson:1 british:1 sf:1 club:1 signet:1 mass:4 market:4 doubleday:1 dobson:1 isbn:12 prebound:1 e:2 x:1 uk:2 film:7 tv:2 theatrical:1 adaptation:2 least:1 adapt:1 television:5 episode:10 world:2 host:1 boris:1 karloff:1 lost:2 maxine:1 audley:1 two:1 series:5 unknown:1 prophet:1 base:5 http:3 www:3 imdb:1 com:5 imbd:1 list:1 actress:1 play:1 ussr:1 fantastic:1 entitle:2 joke:1 aleksandr:1 belyaev:1 fredrik:1 kilander:1 state:3 fund:1 radio:1 program:1 late:1 warner:1 brother:1 acquire:1 option:1 screenplay:4 accept:1 notable:1 attempt:1 one:3 harlan:1 ellison:4 collaborate:1 create:1 version:1 capture:1 spirit:1 original:6 quote:1 would:1 lead:1 really:1 adult:1 complex:1 worthwhile:1 movie:2 script:3 build:1 framework:1 around:1 involve:1 name:8 robert:2 bratenahl:1 track:1 information:1 allege:1 former:1 lover:1 stephen:1 byerly:1 flashback:2 differ:1 strong:1 emphasis:1 place:1 flesh:1 role:2 construct:1 focus:1 development:1 rather:1 action:1 citizen:1 kane:1 although:3 acclaim:1 critic:1 generally:1 consider:1 unfilmable:1 technology:4 average:1 budget:1 time:2 eventually:1 form:1 illustrated:1 reprinted:1 star:2 smith:1 release:2 twentieth:1 fox:1 july:1 united:1 plot:2 different:1 incorporate:1 element:1 alfred:1 lanning:1 idea:1 outer:1 limit:1 show:2 air:1 november:1 second:1 season:1 remake:1 influence:3 addition:1 many:2 aspect:1 modern:1 popular:1 culture:1 particularly:1 respect:1 example:1 industry:1 real:1 modem:1 directly:2 inspire:2 take:2 unite:1 throughout:1 kit:1 pdf:1 format:1 pay:1 homage:2 animated:1 comedy:1 futurama:1 reference:4 roommate:1 spoof:1 additionally:1 cyber:1 house:1 rule:1 include:3 optician:1 eye:1 anthology:1 interest:1 ii:1 segment:1 meatbag:1 bender:1 game:1 psychiatric:1 doctor:1 logical:1 fallacy:1 explodes:1 assistant:1 shout:1 la:1 trek:1 mudd:1 depict:1 planet:1 android:1 need:1 author:1 cory:5 doctorow:5 craphound:4 p:2 retrieve:2 well:1 row:1 boat:1 overclocked:1 future:1 return:1 uplifted:1 cheese:1 sandwich:1 rarebit:1 cultural:1 less:1 relate:1 album:4 alan:3 parson:3 project:3 conception:1 follow:2 concept:2 able:1 obtain:1 right:1 alter:1 slightly:1 keep:1 official:1 website:1 electronica:1 experimental:1 artist:1 edman:1 goodrich:1 know:1 operate:1 alias:1 je:1 le:1 roi:1 ghost:1 quartet:1 heavily:1 asimovian:1 satirical:1 newspaper:1 onion:2 article:2 rowboat:2 anthropomorphized:1 give:1 speech:1 parody:1 much:1 angst:1 experience:1 statement:1 rowboatics:1 graf:1 claudius:1 footnote:1 seriesfoundation:1 seriesthe:1 rest:1 criticism:1 |@bigram science_fiction:9 isaac_asimov:1 astound_science:1 boris_karloff:1 http_www:3 www_imdb:1 imdb_com:1 harlan_ellison:1 citizen_kane:1 twentieth_century:1 asimov_robot:2 pay_homage:1 logical_fallacy:1 star_trek:1 cory_doctorow:3 alan_parson:3 le_roi:1 |
3,941 | Demographics_of_Mexico | {| style="toc: 25em; font-size: 85%; lucida grande, sans-serif; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Demography of Mexico |- {{#if:Image:Inukshuk Monterrey 1.jpg| |- !style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Population |style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 111,157,200 |- !align="left" valign="top"|Male population |valign="top"| 50,249,955 |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Female population | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 53,013,433 |- !align="left" valign="top"|Population growth |valign="top"| 1.0% |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Birth rate | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 19/1,000 |- !align="left" valign="top"|Death rate |valign="top"| 4.9/1,000 |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Infant mortality rate | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 18.1/1,000 |- !align="left" valign="top"|Life expectancy |valign="top"|75.6 years |- !align="left" valign="top"|Nationality |valign="top"| Mexican |- !style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Demographic bureaus |style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| INEGI, CONAPO and CDI |- | align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"| |} With a population 103,263,388 in 2005, Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world, the second-most populous country in Latin America after Portuguese-speaking Brazil, and the second in North America, after the United States. Throughout most of the twentieth century Mexico's population was characterized by rapid growth. Even though this tendency has been reverted and average annual population growth over the last five years was less than 1%, the demographic transition is still in progress, and Mexico still has a large cohort of youths. The most populous city in the country is the capital city, Mexico City, with a population of 8.7 million (2005), and its metropolitan area is also the most populous in the country with 19.2 million (2005). Approximately 50% of the population lives in one of the 55 large metropolitan areas in the country. The Census Bureau in Mexico is the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics (INEGI). The National Population Council (CONAPO), is an institution under the Secretary of the Interior in charge of the analysis and research of population dynamics. The National Commission for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples (CDI), amongst other things, undertakes research and analysis of the sociodemographic and linguistic indicators of the indigenous peoples of Mexico. Demographic dynamics Population growth Mexico's population pyramid (2000) Mexican states by population density In 1900, the Mexican population was 13.6 million. From Traitors to Heroes: 100 Years of Mexican Migration Policies During the period of economic prosperity that was dubbed by economists as the "Mexican Miracle", the Mexican government invested in efficient social programs that reduced infant mortality rate and increased life expectancy which jointly led to an intense demographic increase between 1930 and 1980. The population's annual growth rate has been reduced from a 3.5% peak, in 1965 to 0.99% in 2005. While Mexico is now transitioning to the third phase of demographic transition, close to 50% of the population in 2009 was 25 and younger. Población total por grupos quinquenales de edad según sexo, 1950 a 2005 Fertility rates have also decreased from 5.7 children per woman in 1976 to 2.2 in 2006. Tasa global de fecundidad, 1976 a 2006 The average annual population growth rate of the capital, the Federal District, was the first in the country at a mere 0.2%. The state with the lowest population growth rate over the same period was Michoacán (-0.1%), whereas the states with the highest population growth rates were Quintana Roo (4.7%) and Baja California Sur (3.4%), Tasa de crecimiento media anual de la población por entidad federativa, 1990 a 2005 both of which are two of the least populated states and the last to be admitted to the Union in the 1970s. The average annual net migration rate of the Federal District over the same period was negative and the lowest of all political divisions of Mexico, whereas the states with the highest net migration rate were Quintana Roo (2.7), Baja California (1.8) and Baja California Sur (1.6). Tasas de inmigración, emigración y migración neta por entidad federativa, 1995-2000 While the national annual growth rate is still positive (1.0%), the national net migration rate is negative (-4.75/1000 inhabitants), given the intense flow of immigrants to the United States; an estimated 5.3 million undocumented Mexicans lived in the United States in 2004 Mexican Immigration to the US: The Latest Estimates and 18.2 million American citizens in the 2000 Census declared having Mexican ancestry. Census Bureau Summary File 3 Mexico itself constitutes the second country of total number of immigrants to the United States from 1830 to 2000, after Germany. The Mexican government projects Proyecciones de la Población de México 2005-2050 that the Mexican population will grow to about 123 million by 2042 and then start declining slowly. Assumptions include fertility stabilizing at 1.85 children per woman and continued high net emigration (gently decreasing from 583,000 in 2005 to 393,000 in 2050). The states and the Federal District that conform the Mexican federation are collectively called "federal entities". The five most populated federal entities in 2005 were the State of Mexico (14.4 million), the Federal District (8.7 million), Veracruz (7.1 million), Jalisco (6.7 million) and Puebla (5.4 million) which collectively contain 40.7% of the national population. Mexico City, being coextensive with the Federal District, is the most populated city in the country, whereas Greater Mexico City, that includes the adjacent municipalities that conform a metropolitan area, is estimated to be the second most populated in the world, by the UN Urbanization Report. Intense population growth in the Northern states, especially in the US-Mexican border, changed the country's demographic profile in the second half of the 20th century since the 1967 US-Mexico maquiladora agreement through which all products manufactured in the border cities could be imported duty-free to the US. Since NAFTA, however, in which all products are allowed to be imported duty free regardless of their origin within Mexico, non-border maquiladora share of exports has increased while that of border cities has decreased, Hufbauer GC and Schott, JJ, NAFTA Revisited, Institute for International Economics, Washington D.C. 2005 allowing for the growth of middle-size cities in different regions in Mexico. This has also lead to decentralization and growth of other metropolitan areas that conform regional centers of economic growth, like Monterrey, Guadalajara, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, León and Torreón. International migration Immigration to Mexico Aside of the Spanish colonists, European immigration to Mexico in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was smaller in number compared to the massive influx of immigrants to South American countries like Argentina, Brazil or Uruguay. Non-Spanish immigrant groups included British, Irish, Italian, German, French and Dutch. Large numbers of Middle Eastern immigrants arrived in Mexico during the same period, mostly from Turkey and Lebanon. Asian immigrants, mostly Chinese via the United States settled in northern Mexico, whereas Koreans settled in central Mexico. During the 1970s and 1980s Mexico opened its doors to immigrants from Latin America, mainly political refugees from Argentina, Chile, Cuba, Peru, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and Central America. The PRI governments in power for most of the 20th century had a policy of granting asylum to fellow Latin Americans fleeing political persecution in their home countries. A second wave of immigrants has come to Mexico as a result of the economic crises experienced by some countries in the region. The Argentine community is quite significant estimated to be somewhere between 11,000 and 30,000. Migrantes, votos, remesas Argentinos en México Mexico is also the country where the largest number of American citizens live abroad. The American Citizens Abroad Association estimated in 1999 that a little more than one million Americans live in Mexico (which represent 1% of the population in Mexico and 25% of all American citizens living abroad). American Citizens Abroad This immigration phenomenon could well be explained by the interaction of both countries under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), but also by the fact that Mexico has become a popular destination for retirees, especially the small towns: just in the State of Guanajuato, in San Miguel de Allende and its environs, 200,000 Americans have their residence. Retiring Americans, Go south, old man by The Economist Discrepancies between the figures of official legal aliens and all foreign-born residents is quite large. The official figure for foreign-born residents in Mexico in 2000 was 493,000, Población nacida en otro país residente en México por entidad federativa según sexo, 2000 with a majority (86.9%) of these born in the United States (except Chiapas, where the majority of immigrants are from Central America). The six states with the most immigrants are Baja California (12.1% of total immigrants), Mexico City (the Federal District; 11.4%), Jalisco (9.9%), Chihuahua (9%) and Tamaulipas (7.3%). Emigration from Mexico The national net migration rate in Mexico is negative, estimated at -4.32 migrant per 1,000 population. The great majority of Mexican emigrants have moved to the United States of America. This migration phenomenon is not new, but has been a defining feature in the relationship of both countries for most of the twentieth century. Mexico-US Migration in Nafta Revisited by the International Institute of Economics. Since World Wars I and II, the United States government approved the recruitment of Mexican workers in their territory only legally. Emigration of Mexicans continued throughout the rest of the century at varying degrees, but it grew significantly during the 1990s and has continued to do so in the first years of the 2000s. In fact, it has been estimated that 37% of all Mexican immigrants to the United States in the 20th century arrived during the 1990s. In 2000 approximately 20 million American residents identified themselves as either Mexican, Mexican-Americans or of Mexican origin. The Hispanic Population in the United States INEGI estimated in 2000 that about 8 million Mexican-born individuals live in the United States of America; that is 8.7% of total Mexican population. Indicadores seleccionados de la población nacida en México residente en Estados Unidos de América, 1970 a 2000. In that same year, the states with the greatest number emigrants to the United States were Jalisco (170,793), Michoacán (165,502) and Guanajuato (163,338), with the total number of emigrants being 1,569,157 the great majority of which were men. Población emigrante a Estados Unidos de América por entidad federativa según sexo, 2000. Approximately 30% of emigrants come from rural communities. Distribución porcentual de la población emigrante a Estados Unidos de América por tamaño de la localidad de residencia para cada sexo, 1990 a 1995 y 1995 a 2000. That same year, 260,650 emigrants returned to Mexico. Población migrante de retorno de Estados Unidos de América por entidad federativa según sexo, 2000 Growing interdependence of both countries, the emigration of Mexicans to the United States has slowed. While some argue that this is due to economic disparities between rural and urban, rich and poor populations, others suggest that the migration phenomenon is simply moving in inertia, as Mexican residents in the United States are now bringing their families who had stayed in Mexico. Most Mexican families will return to Mexico that have been in the United States. One study showed they desire to live in their homeland and culture and it is the goal of Mexicans to return to the mother land of their fathers, as they refer to Mexico. After the Mexican American community, it is thought that the Mexican British community is the second largest Mexican diaspora with between 80,000 and 100,000 members, Mexican Canadians number around 40,000, Mexican in Spain number a similar amount and an unknown, but thought to be large number of Mexicans live in the Philippines. Mexicans live throughout Latin America, but also in Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and United Arab Emirates. Metropolitan areas {| style="width: 22em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Metropolitan areas of Mexico |- {{#if:Image:Torre Mayor 005.jpg| |- ! style="background:#e8e8e8;" | Metro area ! style="background:#e8e8e8;" | Pop. (2005) |- | style="background:#efefef;" | Greater Mexico City | style="background:#efefef;" align=right | 19.231.829 |- | Greater Guadalajara | align=right | 4.095.853 |- | style="background:#efefef;" | Greater Monterrey | style="background:#efefef;" align=right | 3.664.331 |- | Greater Puebla | align=right | 2.109.049 |- | style="background:#efefef;" | Greater Toluca | style="background:#efefef;" align=right | 1.610.786 |- | Tijuana | align=right | 1.410.700 |- | style="background:#efefef;" | León | style="background:#efefef;" align=right | 1.325.210 |- | Ciudad Juárez | align=right | 1.313.338 |- | style="background:#efefef;" | Comarca Lagunera | style="background:#efefef;" align=right | 1.210.890 |- |Greater San Luis Potosí | align=right | 1.075.000 |- | align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"| |} A metropolitan area in Mexico is defined to be the group of municipalities that heavily interact with each other, usually around a core city. CONAPO Áreas Metropolitanas In 2004, a joint effort between CONAPO, INEGI and the Ministry of Social Development (SEDESOL) agreed to define metropolitan areas as either: the group of two ore more municipalities in which a city with a population of at least 50,000 is located whose urban area extends over the limit of the municipality that originally contained the core city incorporating either physically or under its area of direct influence other adjacent predominantly urban municipalities all of which have a high degree of social and economic integration or are relevant for urban politics and administration; or a single municipality in which a city of a population of at least one million is located and fully contained, (that is, it does not transcend the limits of a single municipality); or a city with a population of at least 250,000 which forms a conurbation with other cities in the United States of America. In 2004 there were 55 metropolitan areas in Mexico, in which close to 53% of the country's population lives. The most populous metropolitan area in Mexico is the Metropolitan Area of the Valley of Mexico, or Greater Mexico City, which in 2005 had a population of 19.23 million, or 19% of the nation's population. The next four largest metropolitan areas in Mexico are Greater Guadalajara (4.1 million), Greater Monterrey (3.7 million), Greater Puebla (2.1 million) and Greater Toluca (1.6 million), whose added population, along with Greater Mexico City, is equivalent to 30% of the nation's population. Greater Mexico City was the fastest growing metropolitan area in the country since the 1930s until the late 1980s. Since then, the country has slowly become economically and demographically less centralized. From 2000 to 2005 the average annual growth rate of Greater Mexico City was the lowest of the five largest metropolitan areas, whereas the fastest growing metropolitan area was Puebla (2.0%) followed by Monterrey (1.9%), Toluca (1.8%) and Guadalajara (1.8%). Síntesis de resultados 2005 Religion {| style="width: 22em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Religion affiliation |- |- {{#if:Image:Iglesia de Puebla.jpg| ! style="background:#efefef;" align=center | Religion ! style="background:#efefef;" align=center | Pop. professing |- |Catholics |align=right|74,612,373 |- |Protestant and Evangelical Historic [denominations] Pentecostalism Luz del Mundo Others |align=right|4,408,159 599,875 1,373,.383 69,254 2,365,647 |- |Other Biblical Adventism Mormonism Jehovah's Witnesses |align=right|1,751,910 488,945 205,229 1,057,736 |- |Judaism |align=right|45,260 |- |No Religion |align=right|2,982,929 |- |Not specified |align=right|732,630 |- | align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"| |} The Mexican population is predominantly Catholic (in the 2000 census, 87.9% of the population 5 and older identified themselves as Catholic), Volumen y porcentaje de la población según profese alguna religión y tipo de religión, 1950 a 2000 even though a much smaller percent (46%) attends church on a weekly basis. Church attendance in Latin America About 5.2% of the population was classified as Protestant or Evangelic, 2.1% were classified as "Non-Evangelical Biblical" (a classification that groups Adventists, Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses), 0.05% as practicing Jews, and 2.5% without a religion. Población de 5 años y más por entidad federativa, sexo y religión y su distribución según grupos quinquenales de edad. The largest group of Protestants are Pentecostals and Charismatics (classified as Neo-Pentecostals). The states with the greatest percentage or professing Catholics are central states, namely Guanajuato (96.4%), Aguascalientes (95.6%) and Jalisco (95.4%), whereas southeastern states have the least percentage of Catholics, namely Chiapas (63.8%), Tabasco (70.4%) and Campeche (71.3%). The percentage of professing Catholics has been decreasing over the last four decades, from over 98% in 1950 to 87.9% in 2000. Average annual growth of Catholic believers from 1990-2000 was 1.7% whereas that of Non-Catholics was 3.7%. Tasa de crecimiento media anual de la población según credo religioso para cada período decenal, 1950 a 2000 Given that average annual population increase over the same time period was 1.8%, Tasa de crecimiento media anual de la población, 1950 a 2005 the percentage of Catholics with respect to total population is still decreasing. Unlike some other countries in Latin America or Ibero-America, the 1857 Mexican Constitution drastically separated Church and State. The State does not support or provide any economic resource for the Church (as is the case in Spain and Argentina), Constitución Nacional de la República Argentina and the Church cannot participate in public education (no public school can be operated by a Catholic order, even though they can participate in private education). Moreover, the government nationalized all the Church's properties (some of which were given back in the 1990s), and priests lost the right to vote or to be voted for (in the 1990s they were given back the right to vote). Languages The most important and de facto official language in Mexico is Spanish. Mexican Spanish has a great variety of dialects, accents and variations from one region to another, and changes in state by state. The Law of Linguistic Rights, published in 2001, declared the 62 indigenous languages spoken in Mexico as "national languages" with the "same validity" in the territories where they are spoken. The indigenous language with the greatest number of speakers is Nahuatl (1.5% of the nation's population), followed by Yucatec Maya (0.8%) mainly spoken in Chiapas, Oaxaca and the Yucatan Peninsula. In Mexico City and other major cities after half a century of rural-to-urban migration, large districts and sections have Amerindian languages written and heard. During the first half of the 20th century the government promoted a policy of castellanización, that is, promoting the use of Spanish as a way to integrate indigenous peoples into the Mexican society. However, this policy changed, and since the 1980s the government sponsors bilingual and intercultural education in all indigenous communities. This policy has mainly been successful in large communities with a significant amount of speakers while some languages, with less than 1,000 speakers are still facing extinction. Map of the national indigenous languages with more than 100,000 speakersThe second most spoken language in Mexico, however, is English used extensively at the border areas, tourist centers and large metropolitan areas, a phenomenon arguably caused by the economic integration of North American under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the immigration phenomenon and the return of workers and their families form the United States. In border cities, American TV and radio waves in English (and Spanish) are received as much Spanish-speaking radio and TV stations from Mexico on the US side of the border, thus a bilingual cross-cultural exchange is at work. Among the languages brought by immigrants are the Venetian of Chipilo, and Plattdeutsch, a German dialect that is spoken in Durango and Chihuahua. Other European languages spoken in Mexico are French, German and Russian. Even though some of these may have a greater number of speakers than the national languages, they are not recognized by the government. Ethnography Admixture Graph, Bonilla et al. 2005Mexico is ethnically diverse. The second article of the Mexican Constitution defines the country to be a pluricultural nation - Indigenous, Mestizo, European - originally founded upon the indigenous peoples. The Mexican census has not tracked race since the early 20th century, and at the time, responses were typically subject to the opinion of the census taker or self-reporting. Numerous anthropological studies have been produced, based largely on extrapolations from early censuses, language use, self-reporting and blood-typing. Thus most reports until recently have been at best, educated opinions. This is changing in recent years with the emergence of the genomic revolution. In 2004, the Mexican government founded the National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN) which launched the Mexican Genome Diversity Project. In May 2009, the Institute issued a report on a major genomic study of the Mexican population. Among the findings, it was reported that of the 80% of the population that is mestizo, the proportions of European and indigenous ancestry is approximately even, with the indigenous component slightly, but significantly predominating overall. The proportions of admixture were found to vary geographically from north to south, as previous pre-genomic studies had surmised, with the European contribution predominating in the north and the indigenous component greater in central and southern regions. One of the significant conclusions of the study as reported was that even while it is composed of diverse ancestral genetic groups, the Mexican population is genetically distinctive among the world's populations. "Landmark Study Reveals Significant Genetic Variation Between Mexico's Population And World's Other Known Genetic Subgroups", Science Daily (May 12, 2009) Indigenous peoples {| style="width: 22em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Largest indigenous peoples |- |- {{#if:Image:Chiapas street.jpg| ! style="background:#efefef;" align=center | Group ! style="background:#efefef;" align=center | Number |- |Nahua peoples (Nawatlaka) |align=right|2,445,969 |- |Maya (Maaya) |align=right|1,475,575 |- |Zapotec (Binizaa) |align=right|777,253 |- |Mixtec (Ñuu sávi) |align=right|726,601 |- |Otomí (Hñähñü) |align=right|646,875 |- |Totonac (Tachihuiin) |align=right|411,266 |- |colspan=2 style="background:#e9e9e9;" align=center|Source: CDI (2000) |- |} The constitution not only recognizes the 62 indigenous peoples living in Mexican territory but also grants them autonomy and protects their culture and languages. This protection and autonomy is extended to those Amerindian ethnic groups which have migrated from the United States—like the Cherokees and Kickapoos—and Guatemala during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Municipalities in which indigenous peoples are located can keep their normative traditional systems in relation to the election of their municipal authorities. This system is known as Usos y Costumbres, roughly translated as "customs and traditions". According to official statistics—as reported by the Commission for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples or CDI—Amerindians make up close to from 12-30% (as of 2000) of the country's population, even though only a little more than half of them (7.1% of total population) still speak an indigenous language and a tenth (1.2% of total population) do not speak Spanish. Other international organizations, however, prefer to report a 30% of predominantly Amerindians. The World Factbook, CIA Official statistics of the CDI CDI report that the states with the greatest percentage of Amerindian population or individuals of Amerindian origin are Yucatán (59%), Oaxaca (48%), Quintana Roo (39%), Chiapas (28%), Campeche (27%), Hidalgo (24%), Puebla (19%), Guerrero (17%), San Luis Potosí (15%) and Veracruz (15%). Oaxaca is the state with the greatest number of distinct indigenous peoples and languages in the country. Europeans White Mexicans are among the three main groups in the country. Apart from the recognition of indigenous peoples, neither INEGI nor CONAPO classify the population according to ethnicity. International organizations usually report that between 9% and 17% Encyclopedia Britannica. of the country's population is European, Caucasian or White. Most of these are criollo, the relatively unmixed descendants of the Spanish colonists. However, many other immigrants arrived during the Second Mexican Empire (mostly French) and during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, mostly from Italy, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Germany. Asociaciones de Inmigrantes Extranjeros en la Ciudad de México. Una Mirada a Fines del Siglo XX Los Extranjeros en México, La inmigración y el gobierno ¿Tolerancia o intolerancia religiosa? White Americans, Yugoslavians, Armenians, Greeks, Germans, Polish, Romanians, Russians and Ashkenazic Jews, along with many Spanish refugees fleeing the Spanish Civil War also immigrated. Refugiados españoles en México The European Jewish immigrants joined the Sephardic community that lived in Mexico since colonial times, though many lived as Crypto-Jews, mostly in the northern states of Nuevo León and Tamaulipas. Nexos entre los cripto-judios coloniales y contemporáneos Some communities of European immigrants have remained isolated from the rest of the population since their arrival, amongst them the Dutch Menonites of Chihuahua and Durango, Menonitas en México the Venetos of Chipilo, Puebla, which have retained their original languages. El dialecto veneto de Chipilo Other ethnic groups Other groups of immigrants include Arabs of Lebanese and Syrian origin Los árabes de México. Asimilación y herencia cultural present in significant numbers in Puebla, as well as Chinese, Japanese and Koreans. Conmemoran 100 años de inmigración coreana The largest concentrations of east Asians are in Baja California with a large Chinatown in Mexicali known as La Chinesca on the US-Mexican border. Mexicans of Filipino descent are estimated at 200,000, mostly located at Michoacán, Guerrero, and Colima. Filipinos in Mexican History Afro-Mexicans, mostly of mixed ancestry, live in the coastal areas of Veracruz, Tabasco, Oaxaca and Guerrero. Mexican nationality and citizenship The Constitution of Mexico grants Mexican nationality based on "birth" and "naturalization". Mexican laws regarding nationality by birth are very open. Mexican nationality by "birth" is granted to: Artículo 30. Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. all those individuals born in Mexican territory, all those individuals born outside Mexico, whose father or mother is Mexican by birth, all those individuals born outside Mexico, whose father or mother is Mexican by naturalization, all those individuals born in Mexican aircraft or sea vessels, whether warships or commercial vessels. Mexican nationals by "birth" are eligible to be president of Mexico; as such the constitution clearly establishes—unlike the US constitution— that Mexican nationals by "birth", but born outside national territory are eligible. Mexican nationality by "naturalization" is granted to: foreign citizens granted Mexican nationality by the Secretariat of Government (Ministry of the Interior); foreign citizens married to a Mexican national, whether by birth or naturalization. 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3,942 | Demographics_of_Equatorial_Guinea | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Equatorial Guinea, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The majority of the people of Equatorial Guinea are of Bantu origin. The largest tribe, the Fang, is indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to Bioko Island has resulted in Fang dominance over the earlier Bantu inhabitants. The Fang constitute eighty percent of the population and are themselves divided into sixty seven clans. Those in the northern part of Rio Muni speak Fang-Ntumu, while those in the south speak Fang-Okah; the two dialects are mutually unintelligible. The Bubi, who constitute fifteen percent of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island. In addition, there are coastal tribes, sometimes referred to as "Playeros" (Beach People in Spanish): Ndowes, Bujebas, Balengues, and Bengas on the mainland and small islands, and "Fernandinos", a Creole community, on Bioko. Together, these groups compose five percent of the population. Some Europeans (largely of Spanish or Portuguese descent) – among them mixed with African ethnicity – also live in the nation. Most Spaniards left after independence.There is a growing number of foreigners from neighboring Cameroon, Nigeria, and Gabon. Equatorial Guinea received Asians and black Africans from other countries as workers on cocoa and coffee plantations. Other black Africans came from Liberia, Angola, and Mozambique, and Asians are mostly Chinese with small numbers of Indians. Equatorial Guinea also allowed many fortune-seeking European settlers of other nationalities, including British, French and Germans. After independence, thousands of Equatorial Guineans went to Spain. Another 100,000 Equatorial Guineans went to Cameroon, Gabon, and Nigeria because of dictatorship of Francisco Macías Nguema. Some of its communities also live in Brazil, some Spanish-speaking Latin American nations, United States, Portugal, and France. Spanish, French, Portuguese are the official languages and spoken as second languages, most spoken is Spanish—89% of the people (52% are first-language speakers, mostly pure-blooded Spanish and mulattoes, 37% second-language speakers, mostly Bantus). Most also still speak Bantu languages, which are also spoken by pure-blooded Spaniards as second languages. Annobonese speak a Portuguese Creole, named Annobonese, as their first language. Asians and other Europeans speak their own languages. Foreign Africans speak their native languages and their nation’s official languages— English for Nigerians, Cameroonians, and Liberians; French for Cameroonians and Gabonese; and Portuguese for Angolans and Mozambicans. The latter was made an official language since July 13, 2007. Most educated persons speak English, the most important foreign language to learn. The Roman Catholic Church has greatly influenced both religion and education. Equatoguineans tend to have both a Spanish first name and an African first and last name. When written, the Spanish and African first names are followed by the father's first name (which becomes the principal surname) and the mother's first name. Thus people may have up to four names, with a different surname for each generation. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 540,109 (July 2006 est.) 551,201 (July 2007 est.) 616,459 (July 2008 est.) note: 2002 census results claim 1,015,000 residents, although this most likely was inflated in anticipation for the December election. Age structure: 0-14 years: 41.7% (male 113,083; female 111,989) 15-64 years: 54.5% (male 141,914; female 152,645) 65 years and over: 3.8% (male 8,886; female 11,592) (2006 est.) Population growth rate: 2.05% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 35.59 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate: 15.06 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.77 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate: 89.21 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 49.54 years male: 48 years female: 51.13 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate: 4.55 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality: noun: Equatorial Guinean(s) or Equatoguinean(s) adjective: Equatorial Guinean or Equatoguinean Ethnic groups: Bioko (primarily Bubi, some Fernandinos), Rio Muni (primarily Fang), Europeans about 25,000, mostly Spanish Religions: nominally Christian and predominantly Roman Catholic, pagan practices Languages: Spanish (official), French (official), Portuguese (official), pidgin English, Fang, Bubi, Ibo, Annobonese. Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 85.7% male: 93.3% female: 78.4% (2003 est.) References See also Equatorial Guinea | Demographics_of_Equatorial_Guinea |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:14 equatorial:9 guinea:5 include:2 density:1 ethnicity:2 education:2 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 majority:1 people:4 bantu:3 origin:1 large:1 tribe:2 fang:7 indigenous:2 mainland:2 substantial:1 migration:2 bioko:4 island:3 result:2 dominance:1 early:1 inhabitant:1 constitute:2 eighty:1 percent:3 divide:1 sixty:1 seven:1 clan:1 northern:1 part:1 rio:2 muni:2 speak:10 ntumu:1 south:1 okah:1 two:1 dialect:1 mutually:1 unintelligible:1 bubi:3 fifteen:1 addition:1 coastal:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 playeros:1 beach:1 spanish:10 ndowes:1 bujebas:1 balengues:1 bengas:1 small:2 fernandinos:2 creole:2 community:2 together:1 group:2 compose:1 five:1 european:4 largely:1 portuguese:5 descent:1 among:1 mixed:1 african:6 also:6 live:3 nation:3 spaniard:2 leave:1 independence:2 grow:1 number:2 foreigner:1 neighbor:1 cameroon:2 nigeria:2 gabon:2 receive:1 asian:3 black:2 country:1 worker:1 cocoa:1 coffee:1 plantation:1 come:1 liberia:1 angola:1 mozambique:1 mostly:4 chinese:1 indian:1 allow:1 many:1 fortune:1 seek:1 settler:1 nationality:2 british:1 french:4 german:1 thousand:1 guinean:4 go:2 spain:1 another:1 dictatorship:1 francisco:1 macías:1 nguema:1 brazil:1 speaking:1 latin:1 american:1 united:1 state:1 portugal:1 france:1 official:6 language:13 second:3 first:7 speaker:2 pure:2 blood:1 mulatto:1 bantus:1 still:1 blooded:1 annobonese:3 name:7 foreign:2 native:1 english:3 nigerian:1 cameroonian:2 liberians:1 gabonese:1 angolan:1 mozambican:1 latter:1 make:1 since:1 july:4 educated:1 person:1 important:1 learn:1 roman:2 catholic:2 church:1 greatly:1 influence:1 religion:2 equatoguineans:1 tend:1 last:1 write:2 follow:1 father:1 become:1 principal:1 surname:2 mother:1 thus:1 may:1 four:1 different:1 generation:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 est:13 note:1 census:1 claim:1 resident:1 although:1 likely:1 inflate:1 anticipation:1 december:1 election:1 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 noun:1 equatoguinean:2 adjective:1 ethnic:1 primarily:2 nominally:1 christian:1 predominantly:1 pagan:1 practice:1 pidgin:1 igbo:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 reference:1 see:1 |@bigram equatorial_guinea:5 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 rio_muni:2 mutually_unintelligible:1 angola_mozambique:1 equatorial_guinean:4 cameroon_gabon:1 francisco_macías:1 macías_nguema:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 |
3,943 | Conectiva | Conectiva was a company founded on August 28, 1995, in Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil, by a group of friends, among them Arnaldo Carvalho de Melo, who was a pioneer in the distribution of Linux and open source software in Brazilian Portuguese, Spanish and English for all of Latin America. Besides a customized Linux distribution for the Latin American market, Conectiva developed a series of products and additional services directed to meet the market demand for open source tools, including books, manuals, additional software like Linux Tools and embedded systems, OEM programs, applications port, training kits and the "Revista do Linux" Linux magazine. In addition, the company provided consulting services, training and technical support in all of Latin America through its own service centers and certified partners. Conectiva also provided development, customization and professional services on a worldwide basis through its team of open source software engineers. Conectiva's development team had expertise in, amongst others, the following areas: Linux kernel development, high availability, device drivers, XFree86, network protocols, firewalling, clustering, performance analysis and optimisation, filesystems and resource management. On 24 January 2005 it was announced that Mandrakesoft had acquired Conectiva for 1.79 million euro (2.3 million U.S. dollars at the time). On 7 April 2005 Mandrakesoft announced the decision to change the name of the parent company to Mandriva and their distribution name to Mandriva Linux, although the Brazilian operation would not change its name from Conectiva immediately. Releases Conectiva Red Hat Linux Parolin 1.0 - October/1997 Conectiva Red Hat Linux Marumbi 2.0 - May/1998 Conectiva Linux Guarani 3.0 - December/1998 Conectiva Linux Server (Intel) 1.0 - April/1999 Conectiva Linux Server (Compaq Alpha) - May/1999 Conectiva Linux 4.0 - July/1999 Conectiva Linux 4.2 Server - October/1999 Conectiva Linux 5.0 - February/2000 Conectiva Linux 5.1 Server - June/2000 Conectiva Linux 6.0 Desktop - November/2000 Conectiva Linux 6.0 Server - November/2000 Conectiva Linux 7.0 Desktop - July/2001 Conectiva Linux 7.0 Server - July/2001 Conectiva Linux 8.0 Desktop - April/2002 Conectiva Linux 8.0 Server - April/2002 Conectiva Linux Enterprise Edition (UL) - November/2002 Conectiva Linux 9 Professional - April/2003 Conectiva Linux 9 Standard - April/2003 Conectiva Linux 10 Desktop - July/2004 Conectiva Linux 10 Professional - July/2004 Conectiva Linux Live CD Conectiva Linux Live CD 0.5 - August 11, 2004 Conectiva Linux Live CD 0.7 Beta 2 - September 10, 2004 External links Conectiva's Homepage (Portuguese) Conectiva's FTP mirror Articles about the history of the company Comciencia Magazine (Portuguese) Blue Oxen paper about FOSS adoption in Brazil Interviews Interview with some founders and former employers, first part Interview with some founders and former employers, second part | Conectiva |@lemmatized conectiva:31 company:4 found:1 august:2 curitiba:1 paraná:1 brazil:2 group:1 friend:1 among:1 arnaldo:1 carvalho:1 de:1 melo:1 pioneer:1 distribution:3 linux:30 open:3 source:3 software:3 brazilian:2 portuguese:3 spanish:1 english:1 latin:3 america:2 besides:1 customized:1 american:1 market:2 develop:1 series:1 product:1 additional:2 service:4 direct:1 meet:1 demand:1 tool:2 include:1 book:1 manual:1 like:1 embed:1 system:1 oem:1 program:1 application:1 port:1 train:2 kit:1 revista:1 magazine:2 addition:1 provide:2 consulting:1 technical:1 support:1 center:1 certified:1 partner:1 also:1 development:3 customization:1 professional:3 worldwide:1 basis:1 team:2 engineer:1 expertise:1 amongst:1 others:1 following:1 area:1 kernel:1 high:1 availability:1 device:1 driver:1 network:1 protocol:1 firewalling:1 clustering:1 performance:1 analysis:1 optimisation:1 filesystems:1 resource:1 management:1 january:1 announce:2 mandrakesoft:2 acquire:1 million:2 euro:1 u:1 dollar:1 time:1 april:6 decision:1 change:2 name:3 parent:1 mandriva:2 although:1 operation:1 would:1 immediately:1 release:1 red:2 hat:2 parolin:1 october:2 marumbi:1 may:2 guarani:1 december:1 server:7 intel:1 compaq:1 alpha:1 july:5 february:1 june:1 desktop:4 november:3 enterprise:1 edition:1 ul:1 standard:1 live:3 cd:3 beta:1 september:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 ftp:1 mirror:1 article:1 history:1 comciencia:1 blue:1 oxen:1 paper:1 foss:1 adoption:1 interview:3 founder:2 former:2 employer:2 first:1 part:2 second:1 |@bigram linux_kernel:1 mandriva_linux:1 conectiva_linux:21 external_link:1 |
3,944 | Andrew_Tridgell | Andrew "Tridge" Tridgell (born 28 February 1967) is an Australian computer programmer best known as the author of and contributor to the Samba file server, and co-inventor of the rsync algorithm. He is known for his analysis of complex proprietary protocols and algorithms, to allow compatible free software implementations. Tridgell is able to speak English, Swedish, and German. . Projects Tridgell was a major developer of the Samba software, analysing the Server Message Block protocol used for workgroup and network file sharing by Microsoft Windows products. He developed the talloc hierarchical memory allocator, originally as part of Samba. For his PhD thesis, he co-developed rsync, including the rsync algorithm, a highly efficient file transfer and synchronization tool. He also was the original author of rzip, which uses a similar algorithm to rsync. He is the author of KnightCap, a reinforcement-learning based chess engine. Tridgell was also a leader in hacking the TiVo to make it work in Australia, which uses the PAL video format. In April 2005, Tridgell tried to produce free software (now known as SourcePuller) that interoperated with the BitKeeper source code repository. It was a source of controversy and was cited git [LWN.net] as the reason that BitMover revoked the license that allowed Linux developers free usage of their BitKeeper product. This resulted in a messy public falling-out between Tridgell and Linus Torvalds, in which Tridgell stated that he had never had a BitKeeper license so he couldn't violate it and had acted entirely ethically in analysing and implementing the protocol, something he'd previously done with the Samba protocol. Tridgell's involvement in the project resulted in Linus accusing him of playing dirty tricks with BitKeeper Torvalds knifes Tridgell | The Register . The broad extent of Tridgell's analysis started by telneting to a BitKeeper server and typing HELP Groklaw - Tridge Speaks , something that, seemingly, no-one else had previously thought to try. Academic achievements Attending Barker College Hornsby, NSW, Tridgell completed his HSC in 1984. Tridgell completed a science degree with majors in applied mathematics and physics at the University of Sydney in 1988, before moving to Canberra to complete an Honours degree at the Australian National University, in which he received first class honours in theoretical physics. Tridgell completed a PhD at the Computer Sciences Laboratory of the Australian National University. His original doctorate work was in the area of speech recognition but was never completed. His submitted thesis 'Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization' was based on his work on the rsync algorithm. Employment Tridgell started his career working for Efam Resources from 1987 to 1988, designing computer models of financial markets. His work led to a product named The Options Analyst, which he marketed and sold for five years. From 1988 to 1989, Tridgell worked as a software developer for a company named Sonartech Pty Ltd (now Sonartech Atlas), which developed sonar technologies for Australian submarines. He worked on passive sonar technology. Between 1989 and 1990, Tridgell was employed at the Research School of Biological Sciences in the Australian National University, making computer models of physical and biological events and environments such as bushfire spread and population dynamics. From 1991 to 1999, Tridgell held various other positions at the Australian National University, such as UNIX administration, satellite control, and supercomputer research. During this period he was seconded to the Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Computational Systems, where he headed the PIOuS (Parallel Input/Output System) project - later HiDIOS (High-performance Distributed Input/Output System) - for parallel file systems on the Fujitsu AP1000 and AP+ supercomputers. Tridgell also went on to lecture, first as an associate lecturer, and then as a casual lecturer, in the university's Computer Science division. He remains a Visiting Fellow of the University. In mid-1999, Tridgell joined the LinuxCare company's office in Canberra as their first Australian employee. He helped to assemble 14 staff for a research and development team known as OzLabs. Linux and open-source companies were quite a new concept at this stage. Tridgell was made a research fellow of Linuxcare in 2000. In March 2001, Tridgell joined VA Linux Systems. He worked in the network attached storage division for VA Linux Systems, making enhancements to Samba and the Linux kernel to provide enhanced performance for their network-attached storage device range. Tridgell continued his work with network-attached storage technologies when he joined Quantum Corporation as a Senior Engineer in the Storage Systems Group. His role once again involved developing functionality and efficiency modifications into Samba to enhance Quantum's GuardianOS-powered Snap Server network-attached storage device. One of the features that he added to Samba at this time was support for Microsoft's Active Directory technology, a new authentication system introduced with Microsoft's Windows 2000 Server product range. In 2004, Tridgell was employed by IBM working remotely for the Almaden Research Center. In January 2005, he joined the OSDL on a one-year fellowship http://www.osdl.org/newsroom/press_releases/2005/2005_01_17_beaverton.html ; he then returned to IBM. http://www.osdl.org/newsroom/press_releases/2006/2006_Feb_01_beaverton.html In 2009, Andrew Tridgell with Bob Edwards taught a course titled Free and Open Source Software Development at the Australian National University http://cs.anu.edu.au/student/comp8440/ Awards In October 2003, The Bulletin magazine judged Tridgell to be Australia's smartest Information and Communications Technology person. The Bulletin Smart 100 The Bulletin publishes for the last time In January 2006, the Free Software Foundation awarded Tridgell its 2005 Award for the Advancement of Free Software, for his work on Samba, the Linux kernel, and rsync. Tridgell was considered to have furthered an important goal of the free software movement since the founding of GNU, analyzing ways for free software to interact with widespread proprietary systems to allow people to more easily move away from those systems. In July 2008, Andrew was named "Best Interoperator" at the Google-O'Reilly Open Source Awards, for his work on Samba and Rsync. Google Open Source Blog: ... and the winners of the 2008 Google-O'Reilly Open Source Awards are References External links Andrew Tridgell's website Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization (PhD thesis) - (406kB PDF) Active Directory in Samba 4 'an old story' FOSS folk who make us proud | Andrew_Tridgell |@lemmatized andrew:4 tridge:2 tridgell:28 born:1 february:1 australian:8 computer:5 programmer:1 best:2 know:4 author:3 contributor:1 samba:10 file:4 server:5 co:2 inventor:1 rsync:7 algorithm:7 analysis:2 complex:1 proprietary:2 protocol:4 allow:3 compatible:1 free:8 software:9 implementation:1 able:1 speak:1 english:1 swedish:1 german:1 project:3 major:2 developer:3 analyse:2 message:1 block:1 use:3 workgroup:1 network:5 sharing:1 microsoft:3 window:2 product:4 develop:3 talloc:1 hierarchical:1 memory:1 allocator:1 originally:1 part:1 phd:3 thesis:3 developed:1 include:1 highly:1 efficient:3 transfer:1 synchronization:3 tool:1 also:3 original:2 rzip:1 similar:1 knightcap:1 reinforcement:1 learning:1 base:2 chess:1 engine:1 leader:1 hack:1 tivo:1 make:5 work:12 australia:2 pal:1 video:1 format:1 april:1 try:2 produce:1 sourcepuller:1 interoperated:1 bitkeeper:5 source:7 code:1 repository:1 controversy:1 cite:1 git:1 lwn:1 net:1 reason:1 bitmover:1 revoke:1 license:2 linux:6 usage:1 result:2 messy:1 public:1 fall:1 linus:2 torvalds:2 state:1 never:2 violate:1 act:1 entirely:1 ethically:1 implement:1 something:2 previously:2 involvement:1 accuse:1 play:1 dirty:1 trick:1 knife:1 register:1 broad:1 extent:1 start:2 telneting:1 type:1 help:2 groklaw:1 speaks:1 seemingly:1 one:3 else:1 think:1 academic:1 achievement:1 attend:1 barker:1 college:1 hornsby:1 nsw:1 complete:5 hsc:1 science:3 degree:2 applied:1 mathematics:1 physic:2 university:8 sydney:1 move:2 canberra:2 honour:2 national:5 receive:1 first:3 class:1 theoretical:1 sciences:1 laboratory:1 doctorate:1 area:1 speech:1 recognition:1 submitted:1 sort:2 employment:1 career:1 efam:1 resource:1 design:1 model:2 financial:1 market:2 lead:1 name:3 option:1 analyst:1 sell:1 five:1 year:2 company:3 sonartech:2 pty:1 ltd:1 atlas:1 sonar:2 technology:5 submarine:1 passive:1 employ:2 research:6 school:1 biological:2 physical:1 event:1 environment:1 bushfire:1 spread:1 population:1 dynamic:1 hold:1 various:1 position:1 unix:1 administration:1 satellite:1 control:1 supercomputer:2 period:1 second:1 cooperative:1 centre:1 advanced:1 computational:1 system:10 head:1 pious:1 parallel:2 input:2 output:2 later:1 hidios:1 high:1 performance:2 distribute:1 fujitsu:1 ap:1 go:1 lecture:1 associate:1 lecturer:2 casual:1 division:2 remain:1 visit:1 fellow:2 mid:1 join:4 linuxcare:2 office:1 employee:1 assemble:1 staff:1 development:2 team:1 ozlabs:1 open:5 quite:1 new:2 concept:1 stage:1 march:1 va:2 attach:4 storage:5 enhancement:1 kernel:2 provide:1 enhanced:1 device:2 range:2 continue:1 quantum:2 corporation:1 senior:1 engineer:1 group:1 role:1 involved:1 functionality:1 efficiency:1 modification:1 enhance:1 guardianos:1 power:1 snap:1 feature:1 add:1 time:2 support:1 active:2 directory:2 authentication:1 introduce:1 ibm:2 remotely:1 almaden:1 center:1 january:2 osdl:3 fellowship:1 http:3 www:2 org:2 newsroom:2 html:2 return:1 bob:1 edward:1 teach:1 course:1 title:1 c:1 anu:1 edu:1 au:1 student:1 award:5 october:1 bulletin:3 magazine:1 judge:1 smart:2 information:1 communication:1 person:1 publishes:1 last:1 foundation:1 advancement:1 consider:1 important:1 goal:1 movement:1 since:1 founding:1 gnu:1 analyze:1 way:1 interact:1 widespread:1 people:1 easily:1 away:1 july:1 interoperator:1 google:3 reilly:2 blog:1 winner:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 pdf:1 old:1 story:1 fo:1 folk:1 u:1 proud:1 |@bigram microsoft_window:2 memory_allocator:1 phd_thesis:2 linus_torvalds:1 dirty_trick:1 applied_mathematics:1 pty_ltd:1 input_output:2 linux_kernel:2 http_www:2 anu_edu:1 edu_au:1 external_link:1 |
3,945 | Algiers | Algiers ( al-Jazā’ir, Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation), Kabyle: Dzayer or Dzayer tamaneγt, ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria, and the second largest city in the Maghreb (after Casablanca). According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. A recent UN estimate of the urban agglomeration (metropolitan area) puts the population at 3,354,000 as of 2007. Nicknamed El-Bahdja (البهجة) or Alger la Blanche ("Algiers the White") for the glistening white of its buildings as seen rising up from the sea, Algiers is situated on the west side of a bay of the Mediterranean Sea. The city name is derived from the Arabic word al-jazā’ir, which translates as the islands, referring to the four islands which lay off the city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. Al-jazā’ir is itself a truncated form of the city's older name jazā’ir banī mazghannā, "the islands of (the tribe) Bani Mazghanna", used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi. Algiers is the only Algerian city with an English name different from its French name. The city is consistently ranked one of the least livable capitals in the world. The modern part of the city is built on the level ground by the seashore; the old part, the ancient city of the deys, climbs the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the casbah or citadel, above the sea. The casbah and the two quays form a triangle. History A Phoenician commercial outpost called Ikosim which later developed into a small Roman town called Icosium existed on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The rue de la Marine follows the lines of what used to be a Roman street. Roman cemeteries existed near Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. The city was given Latin rights by Vespasian. The bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century. City and harbour of Algiers, circa 1921 The present-day city was founded in 944 by Buluggin ibn Ziri, the founder of the Berber Zirid-Senhaja dynasty, which was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, although the Zirids had already lost control of Algiers before the final fall of the dynasty. The city was occupied by the Almohades in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Abd-el-Wadid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a large measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport and center of power of the Abd-el-Wahid. As early as 1302 the islet of Penon in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by Spaniards. Thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of comparatively little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, many of whom sought asylum in the city. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, the Spaniards fortified the islet of Penon and imposed a levy intended to suppress corsair activity. Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers Under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, p. 13. In 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Khair ad-Din Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards. Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town. Khair ad-Din, succeeding Arouj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards at Tlemcen, was the founder of the pashaluk, which subsequently became the beylik, of Algeria after formally inviting the Sultan to accept sovereignty over the territory and to annex Algiers to the Ottoman Empire. The bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, August 1816, painted by Thomas Luny Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. In October 1541, the King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly made up of Spaniards, was defeated by the Algerians under their Pasha, Hassan. Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 17th century Algiers turned to piracy and ransoming. Due to its location on the periphery of both the Ottoman and European economic spheres, and depending for its existence on a Mediterranean that was increasingly controlled by European shipping, backed by European navies, piracy became the primary economic activity. Repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. http://www.heimaslod.is/index.php/Tyrkjar%C3%A1ni%C3%B0 The United States fought two wars (the First and Second Barbary Wars) over Algiers' attacks on shipping. Historic map of Algiers by Piri Reis The city under Ottoman control was enclosed by a 3,100 meter wall on all sides, including along the seafront. In this wall, five gates allowed access to the city, with five roads from each gate dividing the city and meeting in front of the Ketchaoua Mosque. In 1556, a citadel was constructed at the highest point in the wall. A major road running north to south divided the city in two: The upper city (al-Gabal, or 'the mountain') which consisted of about fifty small quarters of Andalusian, Jewish, Moorish and Kabyle communities, and the lower city (al-Wata, or 'the plains') which was the administrative, military and commercial centre of the city, mostly inhabited by Turkish dignitaries and other upper-class families. Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers Under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, pp. 13-14. In 1817, the city was bombarded by a British squadron under Lord Exmouth (a descendant of Thomas Pellew, taken in an Algerian slave raid in 1715), assisted by Dutch men-of-war, destroying the corsair fleet harboured in Algiers. Coat of arms of French Algiers The history of Algiers from 1815 to 1962 is bound to the larger history of Algeria and its relationship to France. On July 4, 1830, under the pretext of an affront to the French consul — whom the dey had hit with a fly-whisk when the consul said the French government was not prepared to pay its large outstanding debts to two Algerian Jewish merchants — a French army under General de Bourmont attacked the city, which capitulated the following day. Algiers became a French colony. During the 1930s, the architect Le Corbusier drew up plans for a complete redesign of the colonial city. Le Corbusier was highly critical of the urban style of Algiers, describing the European district as "nothing but crumbling walls and devastated nature, the whole a sullied blot". He also criticised the difference in living standards he perceived between the European and African residents of the city, describing a situation in which "the 'civilised' live like rats in holes" whereas "the 'barbarians' live in solitude, in well-being". Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers Under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, p. 5. However, these plans were ultimately ignored by the French colonial administration. In 1962, after a bloody independence struggle in which up to 1.5 million Algerians died at the hands of the French Army and the Algerian Front de Libération Nationale, Algeria finally gained its independence, with Algiers as its capital. Since then, despite losing its entire European or pied-noir population, the city has expanded massively. It now has about 3 million inhabitants, or 10 percent of Algeria's population — and its suburbs now cover most of the surrounding Metidja plain. Algiers was the host city for both the 1978 and 2007 All-Africa Games. The city was also designated the Arab Capital of Culture for 2007. War of Algeria Algiers also played a decisive part in the War of Algeria (1954-1962), particularly during the Battle of Algiers when the 10th Parachute Division of the French Army, starting on January 7, 1957 and on the orders of then French Minister of Justice François Mitterrand (who authorized any means "to eliminate the insurrectionists"), led attacks against the Algerian fighters for independence. Algiers remains marked by this battle, which was characterized by merciless fighting between Algerian forces who, on the one hand, resorted to attacking the French colonists, and the French Army who, on the other, carried out a bloody repression including the quasi-systematic use of torture on protesters of the colonial order. Two such victims were the nationalist leader, Larbi Ben M'Hidi, and a young professor of mathematics, Maurice Audin, both of whom have since been honored by the municipality with principal arteries of the city named after them. The demonstrations of May 13 during the crisis of 1958 provoked the fall of the Fourth Republic in France, as well as the return of General de Gaulle to power. Independence Algeria achieved independence on July 5, 1962. Run by the military that had liberated it, Algiers became a member of Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War. In October 1988, one year before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Algiers was the site of demonstrations demanding the end of the single party system and the creation of a real democracy baptized the “Spring of Algiers”. The demonstrators were repressed by the authorities (more than 300 dead), but the movement constituted a turning point in the political history of modern Algeria. In 1989, a new constitution was adopted that put an end to the reign of the single party and saw the creation of more than fifty political parties, as well as official freedom of the press. Crisis of the 1990s The city became the theatre of many political demonstrations of all descriptions until 1992. In 1991, a political entity dominated by religious conservatives called the Islamic Salvation Front engaged in a political test of wills with the authorities. In the 1992 elections for the Algerian National Assembly, the Islamists garnered a large amount of support in the first round, helped by a massive abstention from disillusioned Algerian voters by the of turn events. Fearing an eventual win by the Islamists, the army cancelled the election process, setting off a civil war between the State and armed religious conservatives which would last for a decade. Algiers in the 21st century Recently Algiers has sought to once again become an important African and Mediterranean capital, envisioning having a comparable level of infrastructure development to what it had in 1962 relative to other countries. Sight of Algiers from Notre Dame d'Afrique Algiers is opening itself up to the world by hosting a variety of international conferences and events. This new openness has attracted the investment of a number of multinational companies in recent years, such as: Carrefour, Yves Rocher, and even Quick. However, many large infrastructure projects are struggling to be completed: the Algiers subway, the tramway, urban renewal projects, the creation of new urban centers on the periphery. Towers in Algiers The current infrastructure has not been able to keep up with Algiers' rapid growth. Algiers is currently ranked lowest out of 132 capitals in the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey. The survey takes into consideration 40 different criteria divided into 5 categories: stability, health services, culture and environment, education, and the availability of basic services. Algiers was ranked lower than such cities as Karachi (Pakistan), Tripoli (Libya), Abidjan (Côte-d'Ivoire), and even Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh. In 2005 the same survey ranked Algiers 125th out of 129 cities. Bombings 2007 has brought mixed results for Algiers. On the positive side the city has been named the capital of "Arab culture" for 2007. On the negative side, a double bombing attack occurred on April 11 with one bomb targeting the government building housing the Prime Minister and the Minister of the Interior; and another bomb targeting the police station in Bab-Ezzouar. An organization calling itself the Maghreb branch of Al-Qaida took responsibility for the attacks. On December 11, 2007, two car bombs exploded in the city of Algiers. One bomb targeted two United Nations buildings and the other targeted a government building housing the Supreme Court. The death toll is at least 62, with over two hundred injured in the attacks. However, only 26 remained hospitalized the following day. As of now, it is speculated that the attack was carried out by the Al Qaida cell within the city. Indigenous terrorist groups have been actively operating in Algeria since around 2002. For accurate information on these groups, who could very well have been responsible, please follow this link to an article on the Islamic insurgency in Algeria. Districts of Algiers Notre Dame d'Afrique Hammas Towers The Casbah (of Al Qasbah , “the Citadel”), Ier District of Algiers: called Al-Djazaïr Al Mahroussa (“Well Kept Algiers”), it is founded on the ruins of old Icosium. It is a small city which, built on a hill, goes down towards the sea, divided in two: the High city and the Low city. One finds there masonries and mosques of the 17th century; Ketchaoua mosque (built in 1794 by the Dey Baba Hassan) flanked by two minarets, mosque el Djedid (built in 1660, at the time of Turkish regency) with its large finished ovoid cupola points some and its four coupolettes, mosque El Kébir (oldest of the mosques, it was built by almoravide Youssef Ibn Tachfin and rebuilt later in 1794), mosque Ali Betchnin (Raïs, 1623), Dar Aziza, palate of Jénina. In the Kasbah, there are also labyrinths of lanes and houses that are very picturesque; and if one gets lost there, it is enough to go down again towards the sea to reposition oneself. Bab El Oued : popular district which extends from the Casbah beyond "the gate of the river". It is the district more chouchouté and more liked of all the districts of the capital. Famous for its place “the three clocks” and for its “market Triplet”, it is also a district of workshops and manufactures. Edge of sea : from 1840, the architects Pierre-August Guiauchain and Frederic Chassériau designed new buildings apart from the Kasbah, town hall, law courts, buildings, theatre, palace of the Governor, casino... to form an elegant walk bordered by arcades which is the boulevard today Che Guevara (ex-boulevard of Republic). Kouba (will daira of Hussein-dey): Kouba is an old village which was absorbed by the expansion of the town of Algiers. Of village, Kouba quickly developed under the French colonial era then continued growing due to formidable demographic expansion that Algiers knew after the independence of Algeria in 1962. It is today a district of Algiers which is largely made up of houses, villas and buildings not exceeding five stories. El Harrach, a suburb of Algiers, is located about 10 km to the east of the city. The communes of Hydra, Ben Aknoun, El-Biar and Bouzareah form what the inhabitants of Algiers call the heights of Algiers. These communes, sometimes famous knacks, shelter the majority of the foreign embassies of Algiers, of many ministries and university centers, which makes it one of the administrative and policy centers of the country. The street Didouche Mourade Ex Rue Michelet is located in the 3rd district Of Algiers. It extends from the Grande Post office to the Heights of Algiers. It crosses in particular the place Audin , the Faculty of Algiers , The Crowned Heart and the park of Galland . It is bordered by smart stores and restaurants along most of its length. It is regarded as the heart of the capital. Local architecture Algiers waterfront Mohamedia Tower Mercure Hotel There are many public buildings of interest, including the whole Kasbah quarter, Martyrs Square (Sahat ech-Chouhada ساحة الشهداء), the government offices (formerly the British consulate), the "Grand", "New", and Ketchaoua Mosques, the Roman Catholic cathedral of Notre Dame d'Afrique, the Bardo Museum (a former Turkish mansion), the old Bibliothèque Nationale d'Alger — a Turkish palace built in 1799–1800 — and the new National Library, built in a style reminiscent of the British Library. The main building in the Kasbah was begun in 1516 on the site of an older building, and served as the palace of the deys until the French conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into barracks, and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a minaret and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the dey. The Great Mosque (Jamaa-el-Kebir الجامع الكبير) is the oldest mosque in Algiers. It was first built by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, but reconstructed many times. The pulpit (minbar منبر) bears an inscription showing that the building existed in 1097. The minaret was built by the sultan of Tlemcen, in 1324. The interior of the mosque is square and is divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches. The New Mosque (Jamaa-el-Jedid الجامع الجديد), dating from the 17th century, is in the form of a Greek cross, surmounted by a large white cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque. The church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands at the southern end of the rue d'Isly near the site of the demolished Fort Bab Azoun باب عزون. The interior is richly decorated with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial inscriptions relating to the English residents (voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, British consul in 1580. One tablet records that in 1631 two Algerine pirate crews landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore. the Ketchaoua mosque The Ketchaoua mosque (Djamaa Ketchaoua جامع كتشاوة), at the foot of the Casbah, was before independence in 1962 the cathedral of St Philippe, itself made in 1845 from a mosque dating from 1612. The principal entrance, reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of Moorish plaster work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the original mosque. In one of the chapels was a tomb containing the bones of San Geronimo. The building seems a curious blend of Moorish and Byzantine styles. Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, science and letters. The college buildings are large and handsome. The Bardo museum holds some of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with medals and Algerian money. The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two harbours, both artificial — the old or northern harbour and the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an area of 235 acres (95 ha). An opening in the south jetty affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its southern side. The inner harbour was begun in 1518 by Khair-ad-Din Barbarossa (see History, below), who, to accommodated his pirate vessels, caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a mole. The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon was built in 1544. Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupation of the city (1830), built a rampart, parapet and ditch, with two terminal forts, Bab Azoun باب عزون to the south and Bab-el-Oued باب الواد to the north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at the beginning of the 20th century, when a line of forts occupying the heights of Bouzareah بوزريعة (at an elevation of above the sea) took their place. Notre-Dame d'Afrique, a church built (1858–1872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is conspicuously situated, overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the Bouzareah hills, () to the north of the city. Above the altar is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the archangel Michael, belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan fishermen. Villa Abd-el-Tif, former residence of the dey, was used during the French period, to accommodate French artists, chiefly painters, and winners of the Abd-el-Tif prize, among whom Maurice Boitel, for a while of two years. Nowadays, Algerian artists are back in the villa's studios. Monuments The Monument of the Martyrs (Maquam E’chahid) Grand Post Office Notre Dame d'Afrique , accessible by one cable car, is one of the city's most outstanding monuments: located in the district of Z' will ghara, the basilica was built around 1858. Monument des Martyrs ( Maquam E' chahid ): an iconic concrete monument commemorating the Algerian war for independence. The monument was opened in 1982 on the 20th anniversary of Algeria's independence. It is fashioned in the shape of three standing palm leaves which shelter the "Eternal Flame" beneath. At the edge of each palm leaf stands a statue of a soldier, each representing a stage of Algeria's struggle. The El Jedid mosque at the Place des Martyrs The El Jedid mosque at the Places des Martyrs near the port. Place of the Emir Abdelkader (ex-place Bugeaud): in memory of the famous emir Abd El-Kader, resistant during conquête of Algeria. Grand Post Office (1910, by Voinot and Tondoire): construction of the néo-Moorish type which is in full centre town of Algiers. The Jardin d'essai (Garden of Test ; El-Hamma ): situated in the east of Algiers, it extends over and contains exotic plants and gardens. It was created in 1832 by A. Hardy. Villa Abd-el-Hair , with the top of the Garden of test, one of the old residences of the dey, where until 1962, were placed the artists prizes winner of Price Abd-el-Hair, and in particular Maurice Boitel and Andre Hamburg. Citadel . Riadh El-Feth (shopping centre and art gallery). Ketchoua Mosque (This mosque became the Saint-Philippe cathedral during colonization before becoming again a mosque). National Library , is in the district of El HAMMA. Architecture modèrne. The Great Mosque of Algiers at the Rue de la Marine. It is the oldest mosque of Algiers and was built during the reign of the Almoravid sultan Yusuf ibn Tashfin. Demographics Algiers has a population of 2,072,993 (2007 estimates). Algiers in the World Gazetteer The ethnic distribution is 59% from Arabic-speaking background, 38% from berber speaking background and 3% foreign-born, mostly from China, Vietnam, and Mali. 1950 - 300,000 people lived in Algiers. 1960 - 900,000 people lived in Algiers. Year Population 1977 (Census) 1,353,826 1987 (Census) 1,507,241 1998 (Census) 1,519,570 2007 (Estimate) 2,072,993 Economy "Centre Commercial Al Qods" in Algiers, the largest shopping mall of Africa Ministry of Finances of Algeria Algiers is an important economic, commercial and financial center, with in particular a stock exchange with a capitalisation of 60 billion euros. The port of Algiers is also the most important of North Africa. The city has the highest cost of living of any city in North Africa, as well as the 50th highest worldwide, as of March 2007, having gained one position compared to the previous year. MERCER Human Resources Consulting - Moscow tops Mercer's cost of living list; London is close behind Mohamed Ben Ali El Abbar, president of the Council d administration of the emirate group EMAAR, presented five "megaprojects" to Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, during a ceremony which took place Saturday, July 15 with the Palate of the People of Algiers. The projects will transform the city of Algiers and its surroundings by equipping them with a retail area, and restoration and leisure facilities. The first project will concentrate on the reorganization and the development of the infrastructures of the railway station "Aga" located in the downtown area. Ultramodern, the station, intended to accommodate more than 80.000 passengers per day, will become a center of circulation in the heart of the grid system, surrounded by commercial offices and buildings and hotels intended for travelers in transit. A shopping centre and three high-rise office buildings rising with the top of the commercial zone will accompany the project. The second project will relate to the bay of Algiers and aims to revitalize the sea front. The development of the sea front will include marinas, channels, luxury hotels, offices, apartments of great standing, luxury stores and leisure amenities. A crescent-shaped peninsula will be set up on the open sea. The project of the bay of Algiers will also comprise six small islands, of which four of round form, connected to each other by bridges and marinas and will include tourist and residential complexes. The third project will relate to restructuring an area of Algiers, qualified by the originators of the project of "city of wellness". El Abbar indicated to the journalists that the complex would be "agréable for all those which will want to combine tourism and wellbeing or tourism and relaxation". The complex will include a university, a research center and a medical centre. It should also include a hospital complex, a care, centre, a hotel zone, an urban centre and a thermal spa with villas and apartments. The university will include a medical school and a school for care male nurses which will be able to accommodate 500 students. The university campus will have the possibility of seeing setting up broad ranges of buildings of research laboratories and residences. Another project relates to technological implantation of a campus in Sidi Abdellah, south-east from Algiers. This site will include shopping centres, residential zones with high standard apartments and a golf course surrounded by villas and hotels. Two other residential zones, including 1.800 apartments and 40 high standard villas, will be built on the surrounding hills. The fifth project is that of the tourist complex Colonel Abbès, which will be located west from Algiers. This complex will include several retail zones, meeting places, and residential zones composed of apartments and villas with views of the sea. A Hewlett Packard office for French-speaking countries in Africa is in Algiers. http://welcome.hp.com/gms/emea_africa/en/contact/office_locs.html Tourist installations Notre Dame d'Afrique panorama Some to the west of Algiers are such seaside resorts as Sidi Fredj (ex-Sidi Ferruch), Palm Beach, Douaouda, Zéralda, and the Club of the Pines (residence of State); there are tourist complexes, Algerian and other restaurants, souvenir shops, supervised beaches, and other amenities. The city is also equipped with important hotel complexes such as the hotel Hilton, El-Aurassi or El Djazair. Algiers also has the first water park in the country. The tourism of Algiers is in ascendance but is not as developed as that of the larger cities in Morocco or Tunisia. Public transport Tram of Algiers. ETUSA (urban and suburban bus transportation for Algiers) operates bus service in Algiers and the surrounding suburbs. 54 lines are currently operating, with service from 5:30 a.m. to 12:45 a.m. SNTF (national railroad company) operates commuter-rail lines connecting the capital to the surrounding suburbs. Algiers Metro expected to open in 2009. Algiers Tram Houari Boumedienne Airport is located from the city. The airport serves domestics, many European cities, West Africa, the Middle East, Asia and North America. On July 5, 2006 a new international air terminal was opened for service. The terminal is managed by Aéroports de Paris. Province projects Medina Project, scheduled to be completed in 2012 Several ongoing projects aim to solve Algiers deficit and transportation problems. A tram connecting the downtown area to Dergana is planned for completion in 2009. Subway lines connecting Tafourah-Large Harrach Post office-El are expected in 2008, in addition to three Regional Express Network (RER) lines: Algiers-Aga-Thenia, Algiers-Aga-Elafroun, Algiers-Aga-Zeralda. Three new cable cars, reconstruction of roads and restoration of the city station—which will accommodate the High-speed rail line connecting Annaba, Algiers and Oran—are also ongoing. Congestion control measures including new roundabouts and motorways are also being added to the city. Dubai's Emaar Properties invested $20 billion for the development of several projects for Algeria. It covers the construction of a new town called Sidi Abdellah, a tourist resort and a health resort on the western outskirts of Algiers. The redevelopment of Algiers waterfront is being considered as part of the development contract, which is planned to include a shopping mall, Marriott hotel, a business district with shopping centre and the largest mosque in Algiers. New residential developments aim to solve Algiers current housing shortage. Sports Algiers is the largest sporting pole of Algeria. Cash clubs in the whole of the disciplines, and which conquered many national and international titles, it also counts an enormous sporting complex (Complex of OCO - Mohamed Boudiaf), which gathers the Olympic stage of July 5 (of a capacity of places), a stage annexes for athletics, an Olympic swimming pool, a room multisports (the Cupola), a golf 18 holes, and several courts of tennis. Algiers already accommodated the following sporting events (not-exhaustive list): Mediterranean Games 1975. All-Africa Games 1978, 2007. African Cup of Nations 1990. African Handball Nations Championship 1989, 2001. Pan Arab Games 2004. FIBA Africa Championship 2005. Men's U19 World Championship 2005. Football clubs Principal clubs of association football of the city (having already evolved/moved in Division 1): MC Alger USM Alger CR Belouizdad NA Hussein Dey Paradou AC USM El Harrach RC Kouba OMR El Annasser DNC Algiers (now defunct) 1936 Algiers invitational football tournament In 1936 the local journalists association organised a four team invitational tournament in Algiers. With Algeria then under French colonial rule the official programme Back cover, 'Through the lens glimpses of Old Queen of the South', published by Dumfries and Galloway Libraries, Information and Archives with Queen of the South Museum, 1998 listed the venue as "Stade-Velodrome Municipal d'Alger" and the participants as:- Le Queen of the South - La Belle Equipe Ecossaise de Première Division Racing-Club de Santander - Favori des Championnats d'Espagne Floriana F. C. de Malte - Champion Officiel et Vainqueur de la Coupe R.U.A. - Champion de l'Afrique du Nord 1935 The match days were Thursday May 21 and Sunday May 24. Home side Racing Universitaire d'Alger (R.U.A. for whom Nobel Prize winning author/philosopher Albert Camus had played in goals for their junior team) had already won both the North African Champions Cup and the North African Cup in the 30s (R.U.A. would win each twice by the decade's end). Goals by Willie Thomson and Joe Tulip saw Queens book a place in the invitational tournament final with a 2 - 1 victory against them. In the final Queens faced a Racing de Santander side who had just finished 4th in Spain's La Liga notching home and away double victories against both Real Madrid and F.C. Barcelona. Racing had seen off Floriana in their semi final. Norrie Haywood's goal and a 1 - 0 scoreline saw victory for La Belle Equipe Ecossaise. The trophy can still be seen in Queens' club museum today. Profile of the Queen of the South 1936 overseas tour including the Algiers invitational tournament Sister relationships Algiers has sister relationships with a number of cities worldwide: Beijing, People's Republic of China Berlin, Germany Tunis, Tunisia Paris, France Montreal, Canada London, United Kingdom Izmir, Turkey Tyre, Lebanon Santiago, Chile Sofia, Bulgaria Moscow, Russia Bordeaux, France Barcelona, Spain Geneva, Switzerland Washington, D.C, United States Rome, Italy Amsterdam, Netherlands Dubai, United Arab Emirates Sao Paulo, Brazil Buenos Aires, Argentina Shanghai, People's Republic of China Cairo, Egypt Tripoli, Libya Dakar, Senegal Bosaso, Somalia Rabat, Morocco In addition, many of the wards and cities within Algiers maintain sister-city relationships with other foreign cities. Films about Algiers The Battle of Algiers, 1966, directed by Gillo Pontecorvo; Tahya ya Didou, Alger Insolite, 1970, Mohammed Zinet; Bab El-Oued City, 1994, directed by Merzak Allouache; Viva Laldjérie, 2003, directed by Nadir Moknèche, with Biyouna and Lubna Azabal; Bab el Web, 2004, directed by Merzak Allouache, with Samy Naceri, Julie Gayet, Faudel; It was once in the wadi, 2005, directed by Djamel Bensalah; Beur, White, Red, 2005, directed by Mahmoud Zemmouri. Delice Paloma, 2007, directed by Nadir Moknèche, with Biyouna and Nadia Kaci. Bibliography Nacéra Benseddik, Chronique d’une cité antique, dans Alger. Lumières sur la ville, Actes du colloque de l’EPAU 4-6 mai 200l, Alger 2004, p. 29-34. ReferencesThis article is based on a translation of the French Wikipedia's article of the same name. See also List of Pasha and Dey of Algiers External links El Bahdja Website Map of Algiers Algermag: Algiers is cool Algiers news Learn Algerian Darja (beginners) Learn Algerian Darja (Intermediate) Algerians abroad | Algiers |@lemmatized algiers:115 al:13 jazā:4 ir:4 algerian:19 arabic:3 dzayer:3 kabyle:3 pronunciation:1 tamaneγt:1 capital:11 large:15 city:62 algeria:20 second:3 maghreb:2 casablanca:1 accord:1 census:4 population:6 proper:1 urban:10 agglomeration:2 recent:2 un:1 estimate:3 metropolitan:1 area:6 put:2 nickname:1 el:32 bahdja:2 البهجة:1 alger:9 la:8 blanche:1 white:5 glisten:1 building:15 see:6 rise:3 sea:12 situate:3 west:4 side:7 bay:4 mediterranean:5 name:7 derive:1 word:1 translate:1 island:5 refer:1 four:6 lay:1 coast:2 become:11 part:8 mainland:2 truncated:1 form:9 older:1 banī:1 mazghannā:1 tribe:1 ban:1 mazghanna:1 use:4 early:2 medieval:1 geographer:1 idrisi:1 yaqut:1 hamawi:1 english:2 different:2 french:23 consistently:1 rank:4 one:14 least:2 livable:1 world:4 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3,946 | Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System | Motorola DynaTAC 8000X AMPS mobile phone Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is the analog mobile phone system standard developed by Bell Labs, and officially introduced in the Americas in 1983 Private Line. MilestonesPast. and Australia in 1987 . It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s. As of February 18, 2008, carriers in the United States were no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT&T and Verizon have discontinued this service permanently. AMPS was discontinued in Australia in September 2000. Technology AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or "channels", for each conversation (see FDMA). It therefore requires considerable bandwidth for a large number of users. In general terms, AMPS is very similar to the older "0G" Improved Mobile Telephone Service, but uses considerably more computing power in order to select frequencies, hand off conversations to PSTN lines, and handle billing and call setup. What really separates AMPS from older systems is the "back end" call setup functionality. In AMPS, the cell centers can flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength, allowing the same frequency to be re-used in various locations without interference. This allowed a larger number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers fathered the term "cellular" because of its use of small hexagonal "cells" within a system. W. Rae Young, "AMPS: Introduction, Background, and Objectives", Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 58, 1, pages 1-14, January 1979. (Note: Young was the Bell Labs engineer who invented the hexagonal cell concept.) Z. C. Fluhr and Philip T. Porter, "AMPS: Control Architecture", Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 58, 1, pages 1-14, January 1979. (Note: Porter was the Bell Labs engineer who proposed that the cell towers be at the corners of the hexagons rather than the centers and have directional antennas that would transmit/receive in 3 directions into 3 adjacent hexagon cells.) It suffered from some weaknesses when compared to today's digital technologies. Since it is an analog standard, it is very susceptible to static and noise and has no protection from eavesdropping using a scanner. In the 1990s, "cloning" was an epidemic that cost the industry millions of dollars. An unscrupulous eavesdropper with specialized equipment can intercept a handset's ESN (Electronic Serial Number) and MIN (Mobile Identification Number, aka the telephone number). An Electronic Serial Number is a packet of data which is sent by the handset to the cellular system for billing purposes, effectively identifying that phone on the network. The system then allows or disallows calls and or features based on its customer file. If an ESN/MIN Pair is intercepted, it could then be cloned onto a different phone and used in other areas for making calls without paying. Cell phone cloning became trivial in the 90's with the use of three key elements. A radio receiver that could tune into the Reverse Channel (the frequency that the phones transmit data to the tower on), such as the Icom PCR-1000, a software program called Banpaia, and an easily clonable phone such as the Oki 900. By tuning the radio to the proper frequency, Banpaia would decrypt the ESN/MIN pair, and display it on the screen. The person could then input that data into the Oki 900, reboot it, and the phone network could not distinguish the Oki from the original. The problem became so large that some carriers required the use of a PIN before making calls. Eventually, the cellular companies initiated a system called RF Fingerprinting, where it could determine subtle differences in the signal of one phone from another and shut down some cloned phones. Some legitimate customers had problems with this though if they made certain modifications to their own phone, such as replacing the battery and/or antenna. The Oki 900 was the ultimate tool of cell phone hackers because it could listen in to AMPS phone calls right out of the box with no hardware modifications. AMPS was originally standardized by ANSI as EIA/TIA/IS-3. This was later superseded by EIA/TIA-553 and TIA interim standard IS-91. AMPS has been replaced by newer digital standards, such as Digital AMPS, GSM, and CDMA2000 which brought improved security as well as increased capacity. Though cloning is still possible even with digital technologies, the cost of wireless service is so low that the problem has virtually disappeared. Frequency bands AMPS cellular service operates in the 800 MHz Cellular FM band. For each market area, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed two licensee (networks) known as "A" and "B" carriers. Each carrier within a market uses a specified "block" of frequencies consisting of 21 control channels and 395 voice channels. Originally, the B (wireline) side license was usually owned by the local phone company, and the A (non-wireline) license was given to wireless telephone providers. At the inception of cellular in 1983, the FCC had granted each carrier within a market 333 channels (666 channels total). By the late 1980s, the cellular industry's subscriber base had grown into the millions across America and it became necessary to add channels for additional capacity. In 1989, the FCC granted carriers an expansion from the current 666 channels to the now 832 (416 per carrier). The additional frequency was available in the upper 800 MHz band which also was home to UHF channels 70–83. This meant that these UHF channels could no longer be used for UHF TV transmission as these frequencies were to be used for AMPS transmission. The anatomy of each channel is composed of 2 frequencies. 416 of these are in the 824–849 MHz range for transmissions from mobile stations to the base stations, paired with 416 frequencies in the 869–894 MHz range for transmissions from base stations to the mobile stations. Each cell site will use a subset of these channels, and must use a different set than neighboring cells to avoid interference. This significantly reduces the number of channels available at each site in real-world systems. Each AMPS channel is 30 kHz wide. Digital AMPS Later, many AMPS networks were partially converted to D-AMPS, often referred to as TDMA (though TDMA is a generic term that applies to many cellular systems). D-AMPS is a digital, 2G standard used mainly by AT&T Mobility and U.S. Cellular in the United States, Rogers Wireless in Canada, Telcel in Mexico, Vivo S.A. and Telecom Italia Mobile (TIM) in Brazil, VimpelCom in Russia, Movilnet in Venezuela. In Latin America, AMPS is no longer offered and has been replaced by GSM and new UMTS networks. GSM and CDMA2000 AMPS and D-AMPS are now being phased out in favor of either CDMA2000 or GSM which allow for higher capacity data transfers for services such as WAP, Multimedia Messaging System (MMS), and wireless Internet access. There are some phones capable of supporting AMPS, D-AMPS and GSM all in one phone (using the GAIT standard). Analog AMPS being replaced by digital In 2002, the FCC decided to no longer require A and B carriers to support AMPS service as of February 18, 2008. Since the AMPS standard is analog technology, it suffers from an inherently inefficient use of the frequency spectrum. All AMPS carriers have converted most of their consumer base to a digital standard such as CDMA2000 or GSM and continue to do so at a rapid pace. Digital technologies such as GSM and CDMA2000 support multiple voice calls on the same channel and offer enhanced features such as two-way text messaging and data services. Unlike in the United States, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) and Industry Canada have not set any requirement for maintaining AMPS service in Canada. Rogers Wireless has dismantled their AMPS (along with IS-136) network, the networks were shut down May 31, 2007. Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility, who operated AMPS networks in Canada, announced that they would observe the same timetable as outlined by the FCC in the United States, and as a result would not begin to dismantle their AMPS networks until after February 2008. http://www.sptnews.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=238&Itemid=9 OnStar relied heavily on North American AMPS service for its subscribers because, when the system was developed, AMPS offered the most comprehensive wireless coverage in the US. In 2006, ADT asked the FCC to extend the AMPS deadline due to many of their alarm systems still using analog technology to communicate with the control centers. ITWorld. Cellular companies who own an A or B license (such as Verizon and Alltel) were required to provide analog service until February 18, 2008. After that point, however, most cellular companies were eager to shut down AMPS and use the remaining channels for digital services. OnStar transitioned to digital service with the help of data transport technology developed by Airbiquity, but warned customers who could not be upgraded to digital that their service would permanently expire on January 1, 2008. OnStar. Companies that used analog AMPS Verizon Wireless — Formerly operating an AMPS network, on February 18, 2008, Verizon has discontinued all AMPS service. Now primarily operates on CDMA2000 technology. Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility operate AMPS networks in Canada, though they have since been overlaid with digital services. Both Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility have announced that they will observe the same shutdown guidelines as in the United States, and will not begin decommissioning their AMPS networks until after February 2008. Alltel — In 2005 disclosed that only 15% of their total customer base are still using the existing analog network. The company has posted a three phase turn down schedule, which was completed in September 2008. With the recent acquisition of Western Wireless, Alltel now takes the claim of the "largest network in America." The claim is true, oddly enough because of wide analog coverage in rural areas. Coastel Offshore Cellular — Operated an AMPS network in the Gulf of Mexico that stretched from south of Corpus Christi, TX to south of Gulf Shores, AL. In 2006 Coastel was the only carrier in the US whose entire customer base was still 100% analog based. In 2007 Coastel was merged with Petrocom and SOLA Communications to form Broadpoint Inc. and the network was converted to GSM. http://www.broadpointinc.com/aboutus.htm Moviline (Telefónica Servicios Uno since 1971, Moviline since 1994) was the analogue service provider for the Spanish operator. Moviline has operated an ETACS 900 (mHz) network in Spain. Since 31 December 2003, the system has been closed to new users, at that time, it covered 100% of the Spanish population, but now some antennas have been given to GSM operators. The Moviline brand has been completely replaced by Movistar, the digital brand of Telefónica, since 1992. The network was completely converted to GSM and its in all Spanish territory. Movistar have a 3G network with UMTS technology, and offer services over GSM in places without 3G coverage. Document covering end of Spanish analogue mobile telephone services (in Spanish), Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio (Spain). Article dated 2003-12-19, retrieved 2007-01-28. AT&T Mobility - In areas where AT&T Mobility previously had D-AMPS operating on 1900 MHz frequencies, no analog AMPS network existed, and the D-AMPS network on the 1900 MHz frequency was shut down in mid-2007. Service on the remaining 850 MHz AMPS markets was discontinued along with 850 MHz D-AMPS service on February 18, 2008, except in areas where service was provided by Dobson Communications. The Dobson AMPS and TDMA networks were shut down on March 1, 2008. Telecom New Zealand — Operated an AMPS/TDMA network in New Zealand from 1987 until 2007 throughout the whole country and the network was renowned for it's superb coverage, In 2000 Telecom announced that they would discontinue the AMPS network within 5 years (2005) to give customers an opportunity to transition to the CDMA2000 and later 1XRTT technologies that replaced it. They later extended that deadline until 6PM 31March 2007. At approximately 7:15 on March 31, 2007 the AMPS/TDMA network ceased to function. http://www.telecom.co.nz/content/0,2502,200633-1548,00.html See also History of mobile phones References Interview of Joel Engel Notes be-x-old:AMPS | Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System |@lemmatized motorola:1 dynatac:1 amp:39 mobile:11 phone:20 advance:1 system:16 analog:12 standard:8 develop:3 bell:8 lab:3 officially:1 introduce:1 america:5 private:1 line:2 milestonespast:1 australia:2 primary:1 north:2 locale:1 february:7 carrier:10 united:6 state:6 longer:3 require:5 support:5 company:7 verizon:4 discontinue:5 service:21 permanently:2 september:2 technology:11 first:1 generation:1 cellular:13 use:20 separate:2 frequency:14 channel:17 conversation:2 see:2 fdma:1 therefore:1 considerable:1 bandwidth:1 large:4 number:7 user:2 general:1 term:3 similar:1 old:3 improve:1 telephone:4 considerably:1 computing:1 power:1 order:1 select:1 hand:1 pstn:1 handle:1 billing:2 call:9 setup:2 really:1 back:1 end:2 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3,947 | Barb_Wire | Barb Wire was a superhero published by Comics Greatest World, an imprint of Dark Horse Comics. A regular series was published for 9 issues between 1994-1995, followed by a mini-series in 1998. Creators Regular Series: 1: John Arcudi, writer/Lee Moder, pencils/Ande Parks, inks. 2-3: Arcudi, writer/Dan Lawlis, pencils/Parks, inks. 4-5: Arcudi, writer/Lawlis, pencils/Ian Akin, inks. 6-7: Arcudi,writer/Mike Manley, pencils/Parks, inks. 8: Arcudi, writer/Andrew Robinson, pencils/Jim Royal, inks. 9: Anina Bennett & Paul Guinan, writers/Robert Walker, pencils/Royal, inks. Ace Of Spades (minseries): 1-4: Chris Warner, script and pencils/Tim Bradstreet, inks. Character history In Steel Harbor, a bombed-out wreck of a town, thrill-junkie Barbara Kopetski - better known as "Barb Wire" - is a bar owner and part-time bounty hunter (in order to pay for her bar, The Hammerhead). She is skilled in many areas, but excels in combat-related abilities. While she has a brother and several allies, she is essentially a loner, although this is something which is uncomfortable for her to think about. Other characters Supporting characters Charlie Kopetski, Barb's blind, mechanical genius brother. He invents most of her weapons and metahuman restraining devices. He also despairs that he must fix the things that she continuously breaks during her escapades. Allies Ghost, Real Name: Elisa Cameron. The Machine, Real Name: Avram. Motörhead, Real Name: Frank Fletcher. Wolf Pack, Leader: Hunter. Enemies The Prime Movers, Leader: Mace Blitzkrieg Death Card, (Reg series) Death Card II, (Ace Of Spades) Ignition II Film adaptation The movie adaptation was released in 1996 starring Pamela Anderson as Barb Wire. The film, panned by critics and fans alike, was nominated for the Razzie Award for Worst Picture, but lost to the Demi Moore film Striptease. External links A brief profile from International Hero | Barb_Wire |@lemmatized barb:4 wire:3 superhero:1 publish:2 comic:2 great:1 world:1 imprint:1 dark:1 horse:1 regular:2 series:4 issue:1 follow:1 mini:1 creator:1 john:1 arcudi:5 writer:6 lee:1 moder:1 pencil:7 ande:1 park:3 ink:7 dan:1 lawlis:2 ian:1 akin:1 mike:1 manley:1 andrew:1 robinson:1 jim:1 royal:2 anina:1 bennett:1 paul:1 guinan:1 robert:1 walker:1 ace:2 spade:2 minseries:1 chris:1 warner:1 script:1 tim:1 bradstreet:1 character:3 history:1 steel:1 harbor:1 bombed:1 wreck:1 town:1 thrill:1 junkie:1 barbara:1 kopetski:2 well:1 know:1 bar:2 owner:1 part:1 time:1 bounty:1 hunter:2 order:1 pay:1 hammerhead:1 skilled:1 many:1 area:1 excels:1 combat:1 related:1 ability:1 brother:2 several:1 ally:2 essentially:1 loner:1 although:1 something:1 uncomfortable:1 think:1 support:1 charlie:1 blind:1 mechanical:1 genius:1 invent:1 weapon:1 metahuman:1 restrain:1 device:1 also:1 despair:1 must:1 fix:1 thing:1 continuously:1 break:1 escapade:1 ghost:1 real:3 name:3 elisa:1 cameron:1 machine:1 avram:1 motörhead:1 frank:1 fletcher:1 wolf:1 pack:1 leader:2 enemies:1 prime:1 mover:1 mace:1 blitzkrieg:1 death:2 card:2 reg:1 ii:2 ignition:1 film:3 adaptation:2 movie:1 release:1 star:1 pamela:1 anderson:1 pan:1 critic:1 fan:1 alike:1 nominate:1 razzie:1 award:1 bad:1 picture:1 lose:1 demi:1 moore:1 striptease:1 external:1 link:1 brief:1 profile:1 international:1 hero:1 |@bigram barb_wire:3 arcudi_writer:5 ace_spade:2 bounty_hunter:1 prime_mover:1 pamela_anderson:1 razzie_award:1 demi_moore:1 external_link:1 |
3,948 | Fornax | Fornax (, genitive Fornacis ) is a constellation in the southern sky. Its name is Latin for furnace. It was created in the eighteenth century and is now one of the 88 modern constellations. History Fornax was identified by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in 1756. He originally called it Fornax Chemica ("chemical furnace"), representing a small solid fuel heater used for heating chemical experiments. Notable features Fornax has been the target of investigations into the furthest reaches of the universe. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field is located within Fornax, and the Fornax Cluster, a small cluster of galaxies, lies primarily within Fornax. At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in Britain, a team from University of Queensland described 40 unknown "dwarf" galaxies in this constellation; follow-up observations with the Hubble Space Telescope and the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope revealed that Ultra Compact Dwarfs are much smaller than previously known dwarf galaxies, about 120 light-years across. NGC 1316 is a notably bright elliptical galaxy within the Fornax Cluster. The galaxy is also one of the brightest radio sources in the sky. References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Fornax Starry Night Photography - Fornax Constellation Star Tales – Fornax | Fornax |@lemmatized fornax:11 genitive:1 fornacis:1 constellation:5 southern:2 sky:2 name:1 latin:1 furnace:2 create:1 eighteenth:1 century:1 one:2 modern:1 history:1 identify:1 nicolas:1 louis:1 de:1 lacaille:1 originally:1 call:1 chemica:1 chemical:2 represent:1 small:3 solid:1 fuel:1 heater:1 use:1 heat:1 experiment:1 notable:1 feature:1 target:1 investigation:1 furthest:1 reach:1 universe:1 hubble:2 ultra:2 deep:2 field:1 locate:1 within:3 cluster:3 galaxy:5 lie:1 primarily:1 meeting:1 royal:1 astronomical:1 society:1 britain:1 team:1 university:2 queensland:1 describe:1 unknown:1 dwarf:3 follow:1 observation:1 space:1 telescope:2 european:1 observatory:1 large:1 reveal:1 compact:1 much:1 previously:1 know:1 light:1 year:1 across:1 ngc:1 notably:1 bright:2 elliptical:1 also:1 radio:1 source:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 star:2 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 press:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 starry:1 night:1 photography:1 tale:1 |@bigram elliptical_galaxy:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 starry_night:1 |
3,949 | Karachi | (, Karāchi) is the largest city, main seaport and the financial capital of Pakistan and the capital of the province of Sindh. It is the eleventh largest city of the world in terms of metropolitan population, UN world Urbanization Prospects estimate for 2007 and is Pakistan's premier centre of banking, industry, and trade. Karachi is also the home of Pakistan's largest corporations that are involved in textiles, shipping, automotive industry, entertainment, arts, fashion, advertising, publishing, software development and medical research. It also serves as a major hub of higher education in South Asia, and the wider Islamic World Pakistan City Karachi Online Information . Karachi enjoys its prominent position due to its geographical location on a bay, making it the financial capital of the country. It is one of the fastest growing cities in the world. It was the original capital of Pakistan until the construction of Islamabad, and is the location of the Port of Karachi, Port Bin Qasim, one of the region's largest and busiest ports. The city's population has increased dramatically at the time of Pakistan's independence after hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees fleeing violence from India came to settle in the city, just as thousands of Hindus from Karachi, had to flee the genocide, being committed by Muslims. Since independence from Britain in 1947, the city's vibrant economy has attracted migrants from all over Pakistan, surrounding countries such as Iran, Tajikistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and further beyond. Despite a history of political turmoil, the city continues to attract those seeking prosperity and has shown consistent growth Community Participation in Urban Solid Waste Management in Karachi (Pakistan). Case Study . Karachi city is spread over 3,530 km² (2,193 sq mi) in area. It is locally known as the "City of Lights" (روشنين جو شهر) for its liveliness, and the "City of the Quaid" (شهرِ قائد), having been the birth and burial place of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, who also made the city his home after Pakistan's independence. History An old image of Karachi from 1889 The area of Karachi was known to the ancient Greeks by many names: Krokola, the place where Alexander the Great camped to prepare a fleet for Babylonia after his campaign in the Indus valley; 'Morontobara' (probably Manora island near Karachi harbour), from where Alexander's admiral Nearchus set sail; and Barbarikon, a port of the Indo-Greek Bactrian kingdom. It was later known to the Arabs as Debal, the starting point for Muhammad bin Qasim and his army in 712 CE. Karachi was founded as "Kolachi" by Baloch tribes from Balochistan and Makran who established a small fishing community in the area R Asif (2002) Lyari Expressway: woes of displaced families. Dawn (newspaper). 8 August. Retrieved on 10 January 2008 . Descendants of the original community still live in the area on the small island of Abdullah Goth, which is located near the Karachi Port. The original name "Kolachi" also survives in the name of a well-known Karachi locality named "Mai Kolachi." The city was visited by Ottoman Admiral Sidi Ali Reis in 1550s and mentioned in his book Mirat ul Memalik (The Mirror of Countries), 1557 CE Mirat ul Memalik . The present city started life as a fishing settlement when a Balochi fisherwoman called Mai Kolachi took up residence and started a family. The village that later grew out of this settlement was known as Kolachi-jo-Goth (Village of Kolachi in Sindhi). By the late 1700s the village was trading across the Arabian Sea with Muscat and the Persian Gulf region. A small fort was constructed for its protection, armed with cannons imported from Muscat. The fort had two main gateways: one facing the sea, known as Kharra Darwaaza (Brackish Gate) (Kharadar)and the other facing the Lyari River known as the Meet'ha Darwaaza (Sweet Gate) (Mithadar) History of Karachi . The location of these gates correspond to the modern areas of Kharadar () and Mithadar (). After sending a couple of exploratory missions to the area, the British East India Company conquered the town when a American ship the Wellesley anchored off Manora island on 1 February 1839. Two days later the little fort surrendered without a shot being fired on either side. The town was later annexed to the British Indian Empire when Sindh was conquered by Charles James Napier in Battle of Miani on 17 February 1843. On his departure in 1847, he is said to have remarked, "Would that I could come again to see you in your grandeur!". Karachi was made the capital of Sindh in the 1840s. On Napier's departure it was added along with the rest of Sindh to the Bombay Presidency, a move that caused considerable resentment among the native Sindhis. The British realised the importance of the city as a military cantonment and as a port for exporting the produce of the Indus River basin, and rapidly developed its harbour for shipping. The foundations of a city municipal government were laid down and infrastructure development was undertaken. New businesses started opening up and the population of the town began rising rapidly. The arrival of troops of the Kumpany Bahadur in 1839 spawned the foundation of the new section, the military cantonment. The cantonment formed the basis of the 'white' city where the Indians were not allowed free access. The 'white' town was modeled after English industrial parent-cities where work and residential spaces were separated, as were residential from recreational places. Karachi was divided into two major poles. The 'black' town in the northwest, now enlarged to accommodate the burgeoning Indian mercantile population. In 1857, the First Indian War for Independence broke out in the subcontinent and the 21st Native Infantry stationed in Karachi declared allegiance to rebels, joining their cause on 10 September 1857. Nevertheless, the British were able to quickly reassert control over Karachi and defeat the uprising. In 1864, the first telegraphic message was sent from India to England when a direct telegraph connection was laid between Karachi and London. Christina P Harris (1969) The Persian Gulf Submarine Telegraph of 1864. The Geographical Journal. vol. 135(2). June. pp. 169-190 In 1878, the city was connected to the rest of British India by rail. Public building projects such as Frere Hall (1865) and the Empress Market (1890) were undertaken. In 1876, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, was born in the city, which by now had become a bustling city with mosques, churches, courthouses, markets, paved streets and a magnificent harbour. By 1899 Karachi had become the largest wheat exporting port in the east [Herbert Feldman [1970]: Karachi through a hundred years: the centenary history of the Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industry 1860-1960. 2. ed. Karachi: Oxford UP (1960).] . The population of the city was about 105,000 inhabitants by the end of the 19th century, with a cosmopolitan mix of Muslims, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians and Jews. There were also various linguistic groups such as Urdu speakers, Punjabis as well as Pashtuns and Balochis. In addition to local groups there were also immigrants of Persian, Lebanese, and European background. By the turn of the century, the city faced street congestion, which led to South West Asia's first tramway system being laid down in 1900. British colonialists embarked on a number of public works of sanitation and transportation - such as gravel paved streets, proper drains, street sweepers, and a network of trams and horse-drawn trolleys. Colonial administrators also set up military camps, a European inhabited quarter, and organised marketplaces, of which the Empress Market is most notable. By the time the new country of Pakistan was formed in 1947, Karachi had become a bustling metropolis with beautiful classical and colonial European styled buildings lining the city’s thoroughfares. Karachi was chosen as the capital of Pakistan, which at the time also included modern day Bangladesh, a region located more than 1,000 km away and not physically connected to Pakistan. In 1947, Karachi was the focus for settlement by Muslim immigrants from India, who drastically expanded the city's population and transformed the demographics and economy. In 1958, the capital of Pakistan was moved from Karachi to Rawalpindi and then to the newly built Islamabad in 1960. This marked the start of a long period of decline in the city, marked by a lack of development - History of Karachi . The 1980s and 1990s saw an influx of refugees from the Afghan war into Karachi, they were also followed in smaller numbers by refugees escaping from Iran Afghan refugees population in Pakistan - Cambridge Journal . Political tensions between the Muhajir groups (descendants of migrants from the partition era) and other native groups (eg. Sindhis, Pashtuns, Punjabis and others) also erupted and the city was wracked with political and racial violence. The period from 1992 to 1994 is regarded as the bloodiest period in the history of the city, when the Army commenced its Operation Clean-up against the Mohajir Qaumi Movement. Most of these tensions have now simmered down. Today, Karachi continues to be an important financial and industrial centre and handles most of the overseas trade of Pakistan and the central Asian countries. It accounts for 20% of the GDP of Pakistan and a large proportion of the country's white collar workers Economy and development - City District Government, Karachi . Geography Satellite view of Karachi Karachi is located in the south of Sindh, on the coast of the Arabian Sea. Most of the land comprised largely of flat or rolling plains, with hills on the western and Manora Island and the Oyster Rocks. The Arabian Sea beach lines the southern coastline of Karachi. Mangroves and creeks of the Indus delta can be found towards the south east side of the city. Towards the west and the north is Cape Monze, locally known as Raas Muari, an area marked with projecting sea cliffs and rocky sandstone promontories. Some excellent beaches can also be found in this area. Climate Located on the coast, Karachi tends to have a relatively mild climate with low levels of average precipitation (approximately 250 mm per annum), the bulk of which occurs during the July-August monsoon season. Winters are mild and the summers are hot, however the proximity to the sea maintains humidity levels at a near-constant high and cool sea breezes relieve the heat of the summer months. Due to high temperatures during the summer (ranging from 30 to 44 degrees Celsius from April to August), the winter months (November to February) are generally considered the best times to visit Karachi. July, December and January have pleasing and cloudy weather when most of the social events and tourism, ranging from weddings to charity fundraisers, frequently take place. Highest recorded is and lowest is . Temperatures (1931-2002) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec AnnualHighest maximum (°C) 32.8 33.5 34.0 34.4 40.8 39.0 33.2 33.7 36.8 40.1 32.5 31.5 34.1Lowest minimum (°C) 5.0 6.3 7.0 12.2 17.7 22.1 22.2 20.0 18.0 10.0 6.1 5.3 12.7 Architecture Teen Talwar (Three Swords) in Clifton, Karachi Karachi has a rich collection of buildings and structures of various architectural styles. The downtown district of Saddar contains a rich collection of early 20th century architecture, ranging in style from neo-classical KPT building to the Sindh High Court Building. During the British rule, Britishers wanted to model their Empire along the lines of ancient Rome and classical architecture was considered most appropriate for built monuments of the Raj. Karachi acquired its first neo-Gothic or Indo-Gothic building when Frere Hall, Empress Market and St. Patrick's Cathedral were completed. English Tudor style was introduced in Karachi Gymkhana and the Boat Club. Italian Renaissance was very popular and was the language for St. Joseph's Convent (1870) and the Sindh Club (1883) - Colonial style buildings of Karachi . Classical style made a comeback in the late nineteenth century as seen in Lady Dufferin Hospital (1898) Lady Dufferin Hospital and the Cantonment Railway station. While 'Italianate' buildings remained poplar, an eclectic blend termed Indo-Saracenic or Anglo-Mughal also began to emerge in some locations. The local mercantile community began acquiring impressive mercantile structures. Zaibunnisa Street in Saddar area (known as Elphinstone Street in British days) is an example where the mercantile groups adopted the 'Italianate' and Indo-Saracenic style to demonstrate their familiarity with western culture and their own. The Hindu Gymkhana (1925) and Mohatta Palace are the example of Mughal revival buildings - Historic buildings of Karachi . The Sindh Wildlife Conservation Building, located in Saddar, served as a Freemasonic Lodge until the time it was taken over by the government. However, there are talks of it being taken away from this custody and being renovated and the Lodge being preserved with its original woodwork ad ornate wooden staircase. In recent years, a large number of architecturally distinctive, even eccentric, buildings have sprung up throughout Karachi. Notable examples of contemporary architecture include the PSO Headquarter building and the FTC Building. The city has numerous examples of modern Islamic architecture, including the Aga Khan University hospital, Tooba Mosque, Faran Mosque, Bait-ul Mukarram Mosque and Quaid's Mausoleum. One of the unique cultural elements of Karachi is that the residences, which are two- or three-story townhouses, are built with the front yard protected by a high brick wall. I. I. Chundrigar Road displays a wide range of supertall buildings. The most prominent examples include the Habib Bank Plaza, PRC Towers and the MCB Tower which is the tallest skyscraper in Pakistan MCB Tower, the current tallest skyscraper of Karachi . Perhaps one of the most spectacular buildings of modern times, Port Tower Complex, a supertall skyscraper is proposed in the Clifton District of the metropolis. At 593 metres, the building will comprise a hotel, a shopping centre, an exhibition centre and a revolving restaurant with a viewing gallery offering a panoramic view of the coastline and the city Port Tower Complex, Karachi . Culture The Mohatta Palace National Museum of Pakistan Karachi is home to some of Pakistan's important cultural institutions. The National Academy of Performing Arts, located in the newly renovated Hindu Gymkhana offers a two year diploma course in performing arts that include classical music and contemporary theatre. The All Pakistan Music Conference, linked to the 45-year old similar institution in Lahore, has been holding its Annual Music Festival since its inception in 2004. The Festival is now a well-established feature of the city life of Karachi that is attended by more than 3000 citizens of Karachi as well as people from other cities The All Pakistan Music Conference History of festival Retrieved on 1 January 2008 . The National Arts Council (Koocha-e-Saqafat) also has musical performances and Mushaira (poetry recitations). The Kara Film Festival organized annually showcases independent Pakistani and international films and documentaries. Karachi has many museums including the Mohatta Palace Museum that regularly has exhibitions as well as the National Museum of Pakistan. Karachi Expo Centre hosts many regional and international exhibitions. The everyday lifestyle of Karachi differs substantially from that of other Pakistani towns. The culture of Karachi is characterized by the blending of South Asian and Western influences, as well as the status of the city as a major international business centre. Karachi also hosts the largest middle class stratum of the country. Sports Karachi Gymkhana Ground, overlooking downtown Karachi Cricket is the most popular sport of the city, and is usually played in many small grounds around the city. Gully cricket, is played in the narrow by-lanes of the city. Night time cricket can be seen at weekends when people play brightly lit night matches on less traversed city streets. The major venue for cricket matches is the National Stadium but matches are also hosted at the UBL Sports Complex, The A.O. Cricket Stadium, the KCCA Cricket Ground, the Karachi Gymkhana Field and the DHA Cricket Stadium. A popular local game is Malh (Sindhi: ملهه). All Sindh Malh ُOrganization hosts All Sindh Malakhirro every year in Karachi. Other popular sports in the city are hockey, boxing, association football, golf, table tennis, snooker, squash, and horse racing. Sports like badminton, volleyball and basketball are also popular in schools and colleges. Football is especially popular in Lyari Town which has always been a football-mad locality in Karachi. The Peoples Football Stadium is perhaps the largest football stadium in Pakistan with respect to capacity, easily accommodating around 40,000 people. In 2005, the city hosted the SAFF Cup Football Tournament at this ground, as well as the Geo Super Football League 2007 which attracted capacity crowds during the games. The city also has facilities for hockey (the Hockey Stadium of Pakistan, UBL Hockey Ground), boxing (KPT Sports Complex), squash (Jehangir Khan Squash Complex) and polo. Marinas and Boating Clubs also add to the diverse sporting activities in Karachi. Karachi has a number of sporting clubs that provide sporting facilities to their members, including tennis, badminton and squash courts, swimming pools, jogging tracks, gymnasiums, billiards and much more. There are two world class golf clubs, at DHA and Karsaz [DHA golf Club, Karachi] . Media Many of Pakistan’s independent television and radio channels are based in Karachi including world popular Business Plus, GEO TV, CNBC Pakistan, TV One, AAJ TV, ARY Digital, Indus Television Network and Dawn News as well as several local stations. Local channels includes Metro One. Economy MCB Tower Karachi is the financial and commercial capital of Pakistan. In line with its status as a major port and the country's largest metropolis, it accounts for a lion's share of Pakistan's revenue. According to the Federal Board of Revenue's 2006-2007 year book, tax and customs units in Karachi were responsible for 46.75% of direct taxes, 33.65% of federal excise tax, and 23.38% of domestic sales tax . Karachi also accounts for 75.14% of customs duty and 79% of sales tax on imports. Therefore, Karachi generates a significant 53.38% of the total collections of the Federal Board of Revenue, out of which 53.33% are customs duty and sales tax on imports (Note: Revenue collected from Karachi includes revenue from some other areas since the Large Tax Unit (LTU) Karachi and Regional Tax Offices (RTOs) Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur & Quetta cover the entire province of Sindh and Baluchistan). Karachi's indigenous contribution to national revenue is 25%. Karachi produces about 30 percent of value added in large scale manufacturing . A substantial chunk of Sindh’s GDP is attributed to Karachi (the GDP of Sindh as a percentage of Pakistan’s total GDP has traditionally hovered around 28%/30% ). Karachi’s GDP is around 20% of the total GDP of Pakistan . A PricewaterhouseCoopers study released in 2007, that surveyed the GDP (2005) of the top cities in the world, calculated Karachi’s GDP(PPP) to be $55 billion (projected to be $127 billion in 2020 at a growth rate of 5.8% ). It confirmed Karachi’s status as Pakistan’s largest economy, well ahead of the next two biggest cities Lahore and Faisalabad having a reported GDP(PPP) of $28 billion and $10 billion, respectively. Karachi's high GDP is based on its mega industrial base, with a high dependency also on Financial sector. Textile, Cement, Steel, Heavy machinery, chemicals, food, Banking, Insurance are the major segments contributing to Karachi's GDP. In February 2007, the World Bank identified Karachi as the most business-friendly city in Pakistan . Karachi is the nerve center of Pakistan's economy. The economic stagnation due to political anarchy, ethnic strife and resultant military operation during late 80s and 90s led to efflux of industry from Karachi. Most of Pakistan's public and private banks are headquartered on Karachi's I.I. Chundrigar Road, while most major foreign multinational corporations operating in Pakistan have their headquarters in Karachi. The Karachi Stock Exchange is the largest stock exchange in Pakistan, and is considered by many economists to be one of the prime reasons for Pakistan's 8% GDP growth across 2005. Business Week magazine (22 April 2005) Pakistan: After the Crash Retrieved on 1 January 2008 During the 1960s, Karachi was seen as an economic role model around the world, and there was much praise for the way its economy was progressing. Many countries sought to emulate Pakistan's economic planning strategy and one of them, South Korea, copied the city's second "Five-Year Plan" and World Financial Centre in Seoul is designed and modeled after Karachi. Planning Commission, The Second Five Year Plan: 1960-65, Karachi: Govt. Printing Press, 1960, p. 393 Planning Commission, Pakistan Economic Survey, 1964-65, Rawalpindi: Govt. Printing Press, 1965, p. 212. . Recently, Karachi has seen an expansion of information and communications technology and electronic media and has become the software outsourcing hub of Pakistan. Call centers for foreign companies have been targeted as a significant area of growth, with the government making efforts to reduce taxes by as much as 10% in order to gain foreign investments in the IT sector Board of Investment, Pakistan IT Sector Overview Retrieved on 1 January 2008 United Nations INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY POLICY OF PAKISTAN –PROVIDING AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT FOR IT DEVELOPMENT. Retrieved on 1 January 2008 . Many of Pakistan’s independent television and radio channels are based in Karachi including world popular Business Plus, AAJ News,GEO TV, KTN, Sindh TV, CNBC Pakistan, TV One, ARY Digital, Indus Television Network and Dawn News as well as several local stations. Karachi has several large industrial zones such as SITE, Korangi, Northern Bypass Industrial Zone, Bin Qasim and North Karachi located on the fringes of the main city. Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce & Industry Industrial Zones In PakistanRetrieved on 1 January 2008 The primary areas are textiles, pharmaceuticals, steel, and automobiles. In addition, Karachi has a vibrant cottage industry and there is a rapidly flourishing Free Zone with an annual growth rate of nearly 6.5%. The Karachi Expo Centre hosts many regional and international exhibitions Trade Development Authority of Pakistan Karachi Expo Center Retrieved on 1 January 2007 . There are many development projects proposed, approved and under construction in Karachi. Among projects of note, Emaar Properties is proposing to invest $43bn (£22.8bn) in Karachi to develop Bundal Island, which is a 12,000 acre (49 km²) island just off the coast of Karachi. BBC News Pakistan agrees $43bn development Retrieved on 1 January, Al-Nakheel (Dubai Based Company) has prepared a masterplan for devloping Hawks Bay with a cost of $68bn, Limiless (Dubai Based Company) will also invest in Karachi Waterfront Project by investing $20bn for developing 2000acre land of 20000 acre, 2008 The Karachi Port Trust is planning a Rs. 20 billion, high Port Tower Complex on the Clifton shoreline. It will comprise a hotel, a shopping center, an exhibition center and a revolving restaurant with a viewing gallery offering a panoramic view of the coastline and the city. Demographics Trend of population growth (in millions) in Karachi The population and demographic distribution in Karachi has undergone numerous changes over the past 150 years. Non-governmental and international sources have estimated that Karachi's current population is about 18 million Series Overview: The Urban Frontier — Karachi, NPR.org, 2 June 2008 KARACHI: Karachi population to hit 27.5 million in 2020, DAWN - Local; 10 July 2007 Note: The 1998 census showed a population of about 9 million and the City Government estimates "more than 15 million inhabitants". Reasons for the discrepancy include workers living in Karachi but registered as living elsewhere in Pakistan by NADRA (the National Database and Registration Authority); and Afghan refugees, Iranians and others (Indians, Nepalis, Burmese, Bangladeshis etc..) were not counted in the 1998 census. a huge increase over its population in 1947 (400,000). It is estimated that over 90% of its population are migrants from different backgrounds. The city's population is currently growing at about 5% per year (mainly on account of rural-urban internal migration), including an estimated 45,000 migrant workers coming to the city every month from different parts of Pakistan. Before 1947, Karachi had communities of Sindhis, Balochs, Parsis, Hindus, Christian, Jews, Goans, Armenians, Chinese, British, Lebanese and Gujaratis. After independence of Pakistan, a large number of Sindhi Hindus and Sindhi Sikhs left the city for India and were replaced by Muslim refugees also known as Muhajirs. The Muhajirs migrated from different parts of India however the majority of them spoke Urdu language. Currently, Karachi has a cosmopolitan mix of many ethno-linguistic groups from all over Pakistan and refugees from neighboring countries Geography and demography of Karachi . After Pakistan's civil war in 1971, thousands of Biharis and Bengalis from Bangladesh arrived in the city followed by the refugees from Burma and Uganda. Since 1979, due to the Soviet war in Afghanistan and continued upheavals in their country, a steady stream of Afghan refugees have also taken up permanent residence in and around Karachi. UN Refugee Agency Case Study: Afghans in Pakistan Retrieved on 1 January 2008 These refugees now number more than one and a half million and comprise a number of ethnic groups, Mostly Pashtuns,and some Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks, Nuristani and Turkmen. Many other refugees from Iran, Tajikistan, Bangladesh, Burma and African nations have also settled permanently in the city. With 3.5 million ethnic Pashtuns, Karachi hosts one of the largest Pashtun populations in the world. According to the census of Pakistan 1998, the religious breakdown of the city is as follows: Muslim (96.45%), Christian (2.42%), Hindu (0.86%), Ahmadi (0.17%) and Other (0.10%). (Other religious groups include Parsis, Sikhs, Bahai, Jews and Buddhists). The most commonly spoken language in Karachi is Urdu, the national language. However Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto and Balochi are also widely spoken in the city. As per the census of Pakistan 1998, linguistic distribution of the city is: Urdu (48.52%), Punjabi (13.94%), Pashto (11.42%) , Sindhi (7.22%), Balochi (4.34%), Seraiki (2.11%) and Other (12.44%). (Other languages mainly include Gujarati and Memoni with other minor languages like Dari, Brahui, Makrani, Hindko, Khowar, Burushaski, Arabic, Persian and Bengali). Government Karachi Municipal Corporation office building Port trust Building The City of Karachi Municipal Act was promulgated in 1933. Initially the Municipal Corporation comprised the mayor, the deputy mayor and 57 councillors. The Karachi Municipal Corporation was changed to a Metropolitan Corporation in 1976. The administrative area of Karachi was a second-level subdivision known as Karachi Division, which was subdivided into five districts: Karachi Central, Karachi East, Karachi South, Karachi West and Malir. In 2000, the national government implemented a new devolution plan which abolished the second-tier divisions and merged the five districts of Karachi into a new City District, structured as a three-tiered federation, with the two lower tiers composed of 18 towns and 178 union councils (UC). The towns are governed by elected municipal administrations responsible for infrastructure and spatial planning, development facilitation, and municipal services (water, sanitation, solid waste, repairing roads, parks, street lights, and traffic engineering), with some functions being retained by the City-District Government (CDG). The third-tier 178 union councils are each composed of thirteen directly elected members including a Nazim (mayor) and a Naib Nazim (deputy mayor). The UC Nazim heads the union administration and is responsible for facilitating the CDG to plan and execute municipal services, as well as for informing higher authorities about public concerns and complaints. In the elections of 2005, Mustafa Kamal was elected City Nazim of Karachi to succeed Naimatullah Khan, and Nasreen Jalil was elected as the City Naib Nazim. Mustafa Kamal was previously the provincial minister for information technology in Sindh. Mustafa Kamal is advancing the development trail and has been actively involved in maintaining care of the city's municipal systems. . There are also six military cantonments administered by the Pakistan Army which do not form part of the City of Karachi. These cantonment have a very little population but covers a very large area (about 40% of the total area of Karachi) & most expensive land of Karachi. Education National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences main building, Karachi Campus The education in Karachi is divided into five levels: primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); high (grades nine and ten, leading to the Secondary School Certificate); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a Higher Secondary School Certificate); and university programs leading to graduate and advanced degrees. Karachi has both public and private educational institutions from primary to university level. Most educational institutions are gender based from primary to university level. The most famous and prestigious school in Pakistan, Karachi Grammar School is located at Karachi. It is the oldest school in Pakistan and has educated many Pakistani businessman and politicians. The Narayan Jagannath High School at Karachi was the first government school established in Sindh. It was opened in October 1855. Karachi has well known educational institutes of international standards. Most universities of Karachi are considered to be amongst the premier educational institutions of Pakistan. For 2004-05, the city's literacy rate was estimated at 65.26%, 3rd Highest in Pakistan after Islamabad & Rawalpindi, Ranking of districts by literacy rates and illiterates (By 10+ and 15+ Years Age Groups) with a GER of 111%, highest in Sindh Federal Bureau of Statistics . The other well know schools are Little Folks Secondry School, Habib Public school etc. The University of Karachi, simply referred as KU, is the largest university in Pakistan having one of the largest faculities in the world. Coincidentally it is located beside the NED University, the oldest engineering institute of Pakistan. Karachi is also host to the Institute of Business Administration (IBA), founded in 1955 is the oldest business school outside North America, Alumni of IBA include former Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz. Pakistan Navy Engineering College (PNEC) a part of NUST (National University of Sciences and Technology), offering a wide range of engineering programs including Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering Pakistan (Pakistan Engineering Council ranking), is also located in Karachi as well as Hamdard University that is the largest private university of Pakistan with an international brand name. Karachi is also home of Head Office of Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan, which is the most prestigious institute of country producing Chartered Accountants who are leading the corporate sector of the country. The Institute was established in 1961 and has since produced over 5,000 members. Leading medical schools of Pakistan like The Aga Khan University and Dow University of Health Sciences have their campuses in Karachi. Infrastructure Health and Medicine Karachi district is a centre of research in biomedicine. The City is home to at least 30 public hospitals and more than 80 private hospitals, including Institute for Heart diseases, Spencer eye Hospital, Civil Hospital, PNS Rahat, Abbassi Shaheed Hospital, Aga Khan University hospital, Holy family hospital and Liaqat National Hospital, as well as Jinnah postgraduate medical center. Transportation Jinnah International Airport The Jinnah International Airport is located in Karachi. It is the largest and busiest airport of Pakistan. It handles 10 million passengers a year. The airport also receives the largest number of foreign airlines, a total of 35 airlines and cargo operators fly to Jinnah International predominantly from the Middle East and southeast Asia. All of Pakistan's airlines use Karachi as their primary hub including PIA - Pakistan International Airlines, Airblue, and Shaheen Air. The city's old airport terminals are now used for Hajj flights, commercial offices, cargo facilities, and ceremonial visits from heads of state. US Coalition forces used the old terminals for their logistic supply operations as well. The city also has two other airstrips used primarily by the armed forces. The largest shipping ports in Pakistan are the Port of Karachi and the nearby Port Qasim. These seaports have modern facilities and not only handle trade for Pakistan, but also serve as ports for Afghanistan and the land-locked Central Asian countries. Plans have been announced for new passenger facilities at the Port of Karachi. Karachi is linked by rail to the rest of the country by Pakistan Railways. The Karachi City Station and Karachi Cantonment Station are the city's two major railway stations. The railway system handles a large amount of freight to and from the Karachi port apart from providing passenger services to people traveling up country. Plans are underway to extend the intra-city railway system to play a part in the city's mass transit through Karachi Circular Railway system. Currently, primarily motorists and minibuses handle commuter traffic, but there are plans to construct a light-rail based mass transit system in the city to decongest the roads and provide quick service to commuters. Feasibility studies have been carried out and a provisional network has been agreed on. Challenges of rapid expansion As one of the most rapidly growing cities in the world, Karachi faces challenges that are central to many developing metropolises including traffic, pollution, poverty and street crimes. These problems continue to earn Karachi low rankings in livability comparisons: The Economist ranked Karachi fourth least livable city amongst the 132 cities surveyed and Business Week ranked it 175 out of 215 in livability in 2007, down from 170 in 2006. Business Week, Karachi Livable Cities Guide, Accessed 2008 . However, one should remember that the criteria for such rankings can be narrow as is the case for Business Week's ranking which ranked cities based on CEO's lifestyle. Being ranked as relatively unlivable also makes Karachi the 2nd cheapest city in the world, which is good for tourism according to The Times newspaper(UK). The traffic and pollution is a major challenge for Karachi. The level of air pollution in Karachi is estimated to be 20 times higher than World Health Organization standards. A number of new parks have been developed and new trees are being planted in the city to improve the environment and reduce the pollution. In addition, new bridges are being built to ease the congestion as well as plans for constructing a new sewerage treatment plant is underway. Shehri CBE: Karachi has grown from 0.35 to 16 million inhabitants to assume the dimensions of a multi cultural cosmopolitan city. This vertically unplanned expansion has brought problems and pressures for Karachi in terms of providing civic amenities and services for its population. Nearly 70% of the country's total industry is based in Karachi. The growing populace has resulted in large numbers of illegal land-use conversions by the builders and severe violations of building bylaws by both the builders as well as by the land control authorities. SHEHRI was formed in 1988 by a group of concerned individuals to provide citizens of Karachi with a platform to effectively voice their concerns and take action in arresting the deterioration taking place in their living environment, and to properly reform and improve it. It operates as a pressure group and a consciousness raising organisation interfacing with citizens, civic and metropolitan bodies and higher tiers of government. It acts as a catalyst for generating debates and searching for solutions to urban problems. Programmes Image gallery Sister Cities Port Louis, Mauritius since 1 May 2007 Shanghai, China http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node17256/index.html Hong Kong Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Tashkent, Uzbekistan Istanbul, Turkey Beirut, Lebanon Dhaka, Bangladesh Izmir, Turkey, since 1985 Houston, United States 8 May 2008 Manama, Bahrain 28 November 2007 Pristina, Kosovo 24 July 2008 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1 June 2008 Chicago, United States, since 2008 See also Ba'ab-ul-Islam Famous Sindhi people Cinema in Karachi List of cemeteries in Karachi List of hospitals in Karachi List of libraries in Karachi List of parks in Karachi List of people from Karachi District List of places in Karachi List of streets of Karachi List of tallest buildings in Karachi List of universities in Karachi References Further reading External links Azad Kashmir Tourism Karachi City District Government Karachi Search Engine and Business Directory History of Karachi Information on Karachi Karachi information directory 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3,950 | Politics_of_Mozambique | Politics of Mozambique takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Mozambique is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of the Republic. Political history before the introduction of democracy The last 25 years of Mozambique's history have encapsulated the political developments of the entire 20th century. Portuguese colonialism collapsed in 1974 after a decade of armed struggle, initially led by American-educated Eduardo Mondlane, who was assassinated in 1969. When independence was proclaimed in 1975, the leaders of FRELIMO's military campaign rapidly established a one-party state allied to the Soviet bloc, eliminating political pluralism, religious educational institutions, and the role of traditional authorities. The new government gave shelter and support to South African (ANC) and Zimbabwean (ZANU-PF) liberation movements while the governments of apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central Mozambique called the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO). Civil war, sabotage from neighboring states, and economic collapse characterized the first decade of Mozambican independence. Also marking this period were the mass exodus of Portuguese nationals, weak infrastructure, nationalization, and economic mismanagement. During most of the civil war the government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas, many of which were cut off from the capital. An estimated one million Mozambicans perished during the civil war, 1.7 million took refuge in neighboring states, and several million more were internally displaced. In the third FRELIMO party congress in 1983, President Samora Machel conceded the failure of socialism and the need for major political and economic reforms. His death, along with several advisers, in a suspicious plane crash in 1986 interrupted progress. His successor, Joaquim Chissano, continued the reforms and began peace talks with RENAMO. The new constitution enacted in 1990 provided for a multi-party political system, market-based economy, and free elections. The civil war ended in October 1992 with the Rome General Peace Accords. By mid-1995 the over 1.7 million Mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighboring Malawi, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Zambia, Tanzania, and South Africa as a result of war and drought had returned, as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, a further estimated 4 million internally displaced returned to their areas of origin. Under supervision of the ONUMOZ peacekeeping force of the United Nations, peace returned to Mozambique. In 1994 the country held its first democratic elections. Joaquim Chissano was elected president with 53% of the vote, and a 250-member National Assembly was voted in with 129 FRELIMO deputies, 112 RENAMO deputies, and 9 representatives of three smaller parties that formed the Democratic Union (UD). Executive branch |President |Armando Guebuza |FRELIMO |2 February 2005 |- |Prime Minister |Luisa Diogo |FRELIMO |17 February 2004 |} The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president. Legislative branch The Assembly of the Republic (Assembleia da República) has 250 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation. Political parties and elections In 1994 the country held its first democratic elections. Joaquim Chissano was elected President with 53% of the vote, and a 250-member National Assembly was voted in with 129 FRELIMO deputies, 112 RENAMO deputies, and 9 representatives of three smaller parties that formed the Democratic Union (UD). Since its formation in 1994, the National Assembly has made progress in becoming a body increasingly more independent of the executive. By 1999, more than one-half (53%) of the legislation passed originated in the Assembly. After some delays, in 1998 the country held its first local elections to provide for local representation and some budgetary authority at the municipal level. The principal opposition party, RENAMO, boycotted the local elections, citing flaws in the registration process. Independent slates contested the elections and won seats in municipal assemblies. Turnout was very low. In the aftermath of the 1998 local elections, the government resolved to make more accommodations to the opposition's procedural concerns for the second round of multiparty national elections in 1999. Working through the National Assembly, the electoral law was rewritten and passed by consensus in December 1998. Financed largely by international donors, a very successful voter registration was conducted from July to September 1999, providing voter registration cards to 85% of the potential electorate (more than 7 million voters). The second general elections were held December 3-5, 1999, with high voter turnout. International and domestic observers agreed that the voting process was well organized and went smoothly. Both the opposition and observers subsequently cited flaws in the tabulation process that, had they not occurred, might have changed the outcome. In the end, however, international and domestic observers concluded that the close result of the vote reflected the will of the people. President Chissano won the presidency with a margin of 4% points over the RENAMO-Electoral Union coalition candidate, Afonso Dhlakama, and began his 5-year term in January 2000. FRELIMO increased its majority in the National Assembly with 133 out of 250 seats. RENAMO-UE coalition won 116 seats, one went independent, and no third parties are represented. The opposition coalition did not accept the National Election Commission's results of the presidential vote and filed a formal complaint to the Supreme Court. One month after the voting, the court dismissed the opposition's challenge and validated the election results. The opposition did not file a complaint about the results of the legislative vote. The second local elections, involving 33 municipalities with some 2.4 million registered voters, took place in November 2003. This was the first time that FRELIMO, RENAMO-UE, and independent parties competed without significant boycotts. The 24% turnout was well above the 15% turnout in the first municipal elections. FRELIMO won 28 mayoral positions and the majority in 29 municipal assemblies, while RENAMO won 5 mayoral positions and the majority in 4 municipal assemblies. The voting was conducted in an orderly fashion without violent incidents. However, the period immediately after the elections was marked by objections about voter and candidate registration and vote tabulation, as well as calls for greater transparency. Mozambique's president, Armando Guebuza In May 2004, the government approved a new general elections law that contained innovations based on the experience of the 2003 municipal elections. Presidential and National Assembly elections took place on December 1-2, 2004. FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza won with 64% of the popular vote. His opponent, Afonso Dhlakama of RENAMO, received 32% of the popular vote. FRELIMO won 160 seats in Parliament. A coalition of RENAMO and several small parties won the 90 remaining seats. Armando Guebuza was inaugurated as the President of Mozambique on February 2, 2005. Judicial branch The judiciary comprises a Supreme Court and provincial, district, and municipal courts. Administrative divisions Mozambique is divided in 10 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Cabo Delgado, Gaza, Inhambane, Manica, Maputo, Nampula, Niassa, Sofala, Tete, Zambezia International organization participation Mozambique is member of ACP, AfDB, C, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMISET, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO | Politics_of_Mozambique |@lemmatized politics:1 mozambique:9 take:4 place:3 framework:1 presidential:3 representative:3 democratic:5 republic:3 whereby:1 president:10 head:2 state:4 government:8 multi:2 party:11 system:2 executive:3 power:2 exercise:2 legislative:3 vest:1 assembly:12 political:6 history:2 introduction:1 democracy:1 last:1 year:4 encapsulate:1 development:1 entire:1 century:1 portuguese:2 colonialism:1 collapse:2 decade:2 arm:2 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3,951 | Ian_Botham | Sir Ian Terence Botham, OBE (born 24 November 1955) is a former England Test cricketer and Test team captain, and current cricket commentator. He was a genuine all-rounder with 14 centuries and 383 wickets in Test cricket, and remains well known by his nicknames "Beefy" and "Guy the Gorilla". While a controversial player both on and off the field at times, Botham also held a number of test cricket records, and still retains the highest number of wickets taken by any England bowler. A talented footballer as well as cricketer, Botham had to choose very early in his career whether to play professional football or cricket. At one point during his career, in an effort to get fit after an injury, he joined football club Scunthorpe United in March 1980, where he played as a centre forward and made 11 appearances in the Football League. Early life Botham was born in Heswall, Wirral to Herbert Leslie Botham (who worked for Westland) and Violet Marie Collett (a nurse). Both his mother and father played cricket. He went to Milford Junior School in Yeovil, Somerset, where his "love affair" with sport began, and played for Somerset Under-15s. He left Buckler's Mead Comprehensive School at 15, being only interested in playing cricket for Somerset, although he also had an offer to play football with Crystal Palace F.C. (Ian Botham quotes) From an early age he was always single-minded. When informed that Ian wanted to be a sportsman, the careers master at his school said to him 'Fine, everyone wants to play sport, but what are you really going to do?'. Domestic career In first-class cricket, he scored 19,399 runs at 33.97, took 1,172 wickets at 27.22 and held 354 catches. He played for Durham, Somerset and Worcestershire, as well as a season (1987-88) in Australia playing for Queensland. Botham started his first-class career in 1974 with Somerset. In that year, when playing against Hampshire and facing the West-Indian fast bowler Andy Roberts, a bouncer hit him straight in the mouth. He spat out teeth and simply carried on. In 1985 he resigned from the Somerset County Cricket Club to protest the sacking of his friends Viv Richards and Joel Garner. He joined Worcestershire, playing for them between 1986 and 1991. In 1992, he joined County Championship newcomers Durham before retiring midway through the 1993 season, poignantly after Durham's match against the touring Australians. International career Botham made his Test debut for England on 28 July 1977 in the Third Test against Australia. He went on to enjoy a Test career spanning 15 years, in which he played in 102 matches. A graph showing Botham's test career bowling statistics and how they have varied over time. Botham finshed with 5,200 career runs at an average of 33.54; taking 383 wickets at an average of 28.40; and holding 120 catches. He is recognised as one of England's greatest Test players. Ashes Legends XI He was also England's captain for 12 Tests in 1980 and 1981. As captain Botham is generally considered to have been unsuccessful in that role. His tenure was brief and he achieved no win, 8 draws and 4 losses. In his defence, 9 of his matches as captain were against the best team of the time, the West Indies, who won 12 out of the next 13 tests played against England. Compared with many of cricket's greatest players, most of whom were specialists, Botham's averages are fairly ordinary but this overlooks the fact of Botham's all-rounder status, which is uncommonly achieved at world-class level. Of note Botham's first 202 wickets came at 21.20 per wicket, while his final 181 cost on average 36.43 a piece; Test Bowling - Cumulative career averages the first figure is one that would make Botham one of the greatest bowlers of the modern era, ranking alongside the West Indian greats Curtly Ambrose (career average 20.99), Malcolm Marshall (career average 20.94), and Joel Garner (career average 20.97), but the second number depicts a player who, as a specialist bowler, would be unable to sustain a place in many test teams. This difference can be at least partially attributed to Botham's bowling pace being severely diminished by back injury. Ian Botham's Test career performance graph. Botham's batting - although never the equal of his bowling abilities - declined as well, with a batting average of 38.80 for his first 51 tests substantially higher than the 28.87 he managed in his last 51 tests, Test Batting - Cumulative career averages again a number that would be considered unsatisfactory for a specialist batsman in most Test sides. Despite the obvious decline in his form, Botham retained his reputation of playing to extremes and so, if he played well, he could seem to win a match on his own. He was renowned as a big-hitting batsman, but with a surprisingly classical technique, and as a fast-medium paced swing bowler who could be very effective indeed when atmospheric conditions favoured his style. Records Sir Ian Botham holds a number of Test records as an all-rounder, including being the fastest (in terms of matches) to achieve the "doubles" of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets, 2,000 runs and 200 wickets, and 3,000 runs and 300 wickets. He briefly held the world record for the greatest number of Test wickets, although his tally has subsequently been passed by several players, however he still holds the record for the highest number of test wickets taken by an England player, at 383. Botham scored a century and took 5 wickets in an innings in the same Test match on 5 occasions; no-one else has managed this feat more than twice. In 1980, playing against India, he became the first player to score a century and take ten wickets in a Test match (Alan Davidson was the first to score 100 runs and take 10 wickets in a Test but that did not include a century). During the 1981 Ashes (see below), Botham set a record of six sixes in a single Ashes Test Match at Old Trafford. That record remained unbroken until 7 August 2005 when Andrew Flintoff scored five in the first innings and four in the second innings of the second Test at Edgbaston, and again until 12 September 2005, when Kevin Pietersen hit seven sixes in the second innings of the last Test at The Oval. One day internationals (ODI) Botham ODI career included 116 games from 1976 to 1992. He made his debut on August 26 against the West Indies at Scarborough. He finished with a batting average of 23.21 (nine 50s, no 100s, culmative score 2113 runs), and a bowling average of 28.5 (strike rate 43.24, 145 wickets in total, best figures 4/31). 1981 Ashes Tour: "Botham's Ashes" In 1980 Botham had been appointed captain of the England team. However, his captaincy was not a happy one; he lost form and the team did not do well. There was also an incident in the 1980 centenary Test against Australia at Lord's where several frustrated Lord's pavilion members threw punches at him, after what they saw as his alliance with the umpires (Dickie Bird and David Constant) to unnecessarily delay play on a dry, sunny, Saturday (it had rained heavily the previous night). He resigned the captaincy after a loss and a draw in the first two Tests of the 1981 Ashes series. The resignation itself was the cause of controversy, with Alec Bedser, the Chairman of the selection panel, making it clear to the media that Botham would have been fired in any event. Botham himself refers to the event as his "dismissal" in his autobiography. In this Test, his last as England captain, Botham was dismissed for a pair, the game being the Second Test, played at Lord's. He returned to an embarrassed silence in the pavilion and after the previous year's events at the centenary Test, this possibly was the final straw. For the rest of his cricketing career, Botham always refused to acknowledge the pavilion members when he played at Lord's. Mike Brearley, the captain Botham had replaced, took over the reins for the Third Test scheduled for 16 to 21 July, at Headingley. Australia won the toss and elected to bat. They batted all day Thursday and most of Friday, declaring after tea at 401 for 9, John Dyson having made 102 and Botham having taken 6 for 95. The England openers Graham Gooch and Geoff Boycott survived the remaining few overs, and England finished the day on 7 for no wicket. The next day, Saturday, was a disaster for England: Gooch was out in the first over of the day, and although Boycott and Brearley then attempted to dig in, they were both out before lunch. None of the other batsmen got going at all with the exception of Botham who top scored with 50 — his first half century since his first Test as captain 13 matches earlier. England were all out in the third session for 174. Australia enforced the follow on and piled on the pressure, Gooch was out for 0 on the third ball of the first over caught by Terry Alderman off the bowling of Dennis Lillee. By the close, England had struggled to just 6 for 1, still 221 behind Australia. Sunday 19 July was a rest day and the papers roasted the lamentable England team. Morale was not improved by the news that Ladbrokes were offering 500-1 against England winning the match. (Controversially, the Australian wicket keeper Rod Marsh and opening bowler Dennis Lillee both placed bets on England to win, claiming that 500-1 were silly odds on any two-horse race.) On Monday morning the odds began to look generous as first Brearley, then David Gower and Mike Gatting all fell cheaply to reduce England to 41 for 4. Boycott was still anchored at the other end however and he and Peter Willey added 50 runs before lunch. In the afternoon however, Willey was out for 33 and England were in deep trouble at 105 for 5 as Botham walked out to bat. Matters did not improve as first Geoff Boycott and then Bob Taylor were soon dismissed. At 135 for 7 an innings defeat looked almost certain. By all accounts, both teams' players thought Australia would win the match. When Graham Dilley joined him at the crease, Botham reportedly said, "Right then, let's have a bit of fun...". With able support from Dilley (56) and Chris Old (29), Botham hit out and by the close of play was 145 not out with Bob Willis hanging on at the other end on 1 not out. England's lead was just 124 but there was hope. On the final day's play there was time for just four more runs from Botham before Willis was out and Botham was left on 149 not out. Wisden rated this innings as the 4th best of all time. Top 100 Batsmen of all time Willis' real contribution was with the ball. After Botham took the first wicket, Willis skittled Australia out for just 111, finishing with figures of 8 for 43 - rated by Wisden as the 7th best bowling performance of all time. Top 100 Bowlers of all time England had won by just 18 runs. It was only the second time in history that a team following on had won a Test match. The great escape The next Test match, at Edgbaston, looked almost as hopeless for England. In a low scoring match (no-one made a score over 48), Australia needed 151 to win. At 105-5, things looked a little worrying for them, but an Australian win was still the most likely result. Botham then took 5 wickets for 1 run in 28 balls to give England the win by 29 runs. Later, Brearley said that Botham hadn't wanted to bowl and had to be persuaded. The Old Trafford Test was less of a turnaround and more of a team performance than the previous two Tests, but Botham again was England's hero, scoring 118 in what Lillee claimed was a better innings than his Headingley heroics. His sixes in this innings have themselves become a part of cricketing folklore; three of the five were from Lillee's bowling, two of them in the same over. Remarkably, even though he seemed to take his eye off the ball while hooking some fearsome Lillee bouncers, his sheer power and strength carried the ball over the boundary ropes. Botham had joined Chris Tavaré with the score at 104-5. Botham then scored 118 in a partnership of 149 before he was dismissed. In total Botham batted for 5 hours shorter than Tavaré and yet scored 40 more runs. England won the match, then drew the last match at The Oval (Botham took 6 wickets in the first innings) to take the series 3-1. Unsurprisingly, Botham was named man of the series, scoring 399 runs and taking 34 wickets. Football career A talented footballer as well as cricketer, Botham had to choose very early in his career whether to play professional football or cricket. At one point during his career, in an effort to get fit after an injury, he joined football club Scunthorpe United in March 1980, where he played as a centre forward and made 11 appearances in the Football League. He also had a spell at Yeovil Town. Controversy Often controversial, Botham was suspended briefly in 1986 for smoking cannabis and was accused of racism and ball-tampering by Imran Khan. He also fell out publicly with other players, including Australian batsman Ian Chappell, England opener Geoff Boycott and Somerset captain Peter Roebuck. Cricinfo - Botham v Chappell: time for a drink Cricinfo - The feud that rumbles on Cricinfo - 'What have you done, what have you done?' Cricinfo - Players and Officials - Peter Roebuck His private life has also made occasional dramatic appearances in Britain's tabloid newspapers, with at least one extramartial affair prompting a public apology to his wife Kathy. Botham was also sacked from the Queensland team after being arrested for assault of a fellow airline passenger. 'The officer gave me a bat to sign, then he charged me with assault' Charity walks Botham has also been a prominent fundraiser for charity undertaking a total of 11 long-distance charity walks. His first, in 1985, was a 900-mile trek from John o' Groats to Land's End. His efforts were inspired after a visit to Taunton's Musgrove Park Hospital for treatment on a broken toe, when he took a wrong turn into a children's ward and was shocked to learn that some of the children had only weeks to live. A lionheart on and off the pitch He has since raised more than ten million pounds, with the charity Leukaemia Research among the causes to benefit. Honours 2008 Botham was awarded an honorary doctorate in Sports Science by Leeds Metropolitan University. BBC NEWS | England | West Yorkshire | Botham receives honorary degree 2008 Botham was awarded an honorary degree with the title Doctor of Laws from the University of Bath. 2007 Botham was knighted by the Queen in the Queen's Birthday Honours, again in recognition of his cricket achievements and his sustained efforts in raising money for Leukaemia research (see above). Ian Botham knighted in Birthday Honours The ceremony took place at Buckingham Palace on 10 October 2007 2004 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award. 2003 First ever President of Leukaemia Research, the UK's leading blood cancer charity. 1992 Botham was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to cricket and for his charity work in the Queen's Birthday Honours. 1988 Awarded Pipe Smoker of the Year 1981 Voted BBC Sports Personality of the Year. 1978 He was elected a Wisden cricketer of the year. Personal life He married (Kathy) Kathryn Waller in 1976 in the borough of Doncaster, whom he first met in June 1974. After their marriage they lived until the late 1980s in Epworth near Scunthorpe. He has two daughters Becky (born November 1985) and Sarah, and a son Liam (born August 1977). Sarah works for Sky as a production assistant, and Liam was a professional cricketer and rugby player, before becoming a commentator for Sky Sports. They, their son, his wife and three children, now live in Ravensworth in North Yorkshire. Bibliography Former cricketer Ian Botham talks to Sir David Frost about his new autobiography "Head on". References External links TF90M Interview Ian Botham at Cricket Archive | Ian_Botham |@lemmatized sir:3 ian:9 terence:1 botham:59 obe:2 born:2 november:2 former:2 england:27 test:38 cricketer:6 team:10 captain:9 current:1 cricket:15 commentator:2 genuine:1 rounder:3 century:5 wicket:21 remain:3 well:7 know:1 nickname:1 beefy:1 guy:1 gorilla:1 controversial:2 player:11 field:1 time:10 also:9 hold:6 number:7 record:7 still:5 retain:2 high:3 take:17 bowler:7 talented:2 footballer:2 choose:2 early:4 career:20 whether:2 play:22 professional:3 football:8 one:10 point:2 effort:4 get:3 fit:2 injury:3 join:6 club:3 scunthorpe:3 unite:2 march:2 centre:2 forward:2 make:9 appearance:3 league:2 life:3 bear:2 heswall:1 wirral:1 herbert:1 leslie:1 work:3 westland:1 violet:1 marie:1 collett:1 nurse:1 mother:1 father:1 go:4 milford:1 junior:1 school:3 yeovil:2 somerset:7 love:1 affair:2 sport:6 begin:2 leave:2 buckler:1 mead:1 comprehensive:1 interested:1 although:4 offer:2 crystal:1 palace:2 f:1 c:1 quote:1 age:1 always:2 single:2 mind:1 inform:1 want:3 sportsman:1 master:1 say:3 fine:1 everyone:1 really:1 domestic:1 first:20 class:3 score:13 run:14 catch:3 durham:3 worcestershire:2 season:2 australia:9 playing:1 queensland:2 start:1 year:7 hampshire:1 face:1 west:5 indian:2 fast:3 andy:1 robert:1 bouncer:2 hit:3 straight:1 mouth:1 spat:1 teeth:1 simply:1 carry:2 resign:2 county:2 protest:1 sacking:1 friend:1 viv:1 richards:1 joel:2 garner:2 championship:1 newcomer:1 retire:1 midway:1 poignantly:1 match:16 touring:1 australians:1 international:2 debut:2 july:3 third:4 enjoy:1 span:1 graph:2 show:1 bowling:7 statistic:1 vary:1 finshed:1 average:12 recognise:1 great:6 ash:6 legends:1 xi:1 generally:1 consider:2 unsuccessful:1 role:1 tenure:1 brief:1 achieve:3 win:13 draw:3 loss:2 defence:1 best:4 indie:2 next:3 compare:1 many:2 specialist:3 fairly:1 ordinary:1 overlook:1 fact:1 status:1 uncommonly:1 world:2 level:1 note:1 come:1 per:1 final:3 cost:1 piece:1 bowl:2 cumulative:2 figure:3 would:5 modern:1 era:1 rank:1 alongside:1 curtly:1 ambrose:1 malcolm:1 marshall:1 second:6 depict:1 unable:1 sustain:1 place:2 difference:1 least:2 partially:1 attribute:1 pace:2 severely:1 diminish:1 back:1 performance:3 bat:6 never:1 equal:1 ability:1 decline:2 batting:3 substantially:1 manage:2 last:4 unsatisfactory:1 batsman:5 side:1 despite:1 obvious:1 form:2 reputation:1 extreme:1 could:2 seem:2 renowned:1 big:1 hitting:1 surprisingly:1 classical:1 technique:1 medium:2 swing:1 effective:1 indeed:1 atmospheric:1 condition:1 favour:1 style:1 include:4 term:1 double:1 briefly:2 tally:1 subsequently:1 pass:1 several:2 however:4 inning:8 occasion:1 else:1 feat:1 twice:1 india:1 become:3 ten:2 alan:1 davidson:1 see:2 set:1 six:4 old:3 trafford:2 unbroken:1 august:3 andrew:1 flintoff:1 five:2 four:2 edgbaston:2 september:1 kevin:1 pietersen:1 seven:1 oval:2 day:7 odi:2 game:2 scarborough:1 finish:3 nine:1 culmative:1 strike:1 rate:1 total:3 tour:1 appoint:2 captaincy:2 happy:1 lose:1 incident:1 centenary:2 lord:4 frustrated:1 pavilion:3 member:2 throw:1 punch:1 saw:1 alliance:1 umpire:1 dickie:1 bird:1 david:3 constant:1 unnecessarily:1 delay:1 dry:1 sunny:1 saturday:2 rain:1 heavily:1 previous:3 night:1 two:5 series:3 resignation:1 cause:2 controversy:2 alec:1 bedser:1 chairman:1 selection:1 panel:1 clear:1 fire:1 event:3 refer:1 dismissal:1 autobiography:2 dismiss:3 pair:1 return:1 embarrassed:1 silence:1 possibly:1 straw:1 rest:2 refuse:1 acknowledge:1 mike:2 brearley:4 replace:1 rein:1 schedule:1 headingley:2 toss:1 elect:2 thursday:1 friday:1 declare:1 tea:1 john:2 dyson:1 opener:2 graham:2 gooch:3 geoff:3 boycott:5 survive:1 disaster:1 attempt:1 dig:1 lunch:2 none:1 exception:1 top:3 half:1 since:2 earlier:1 session:1 enforce:1 follow:2 pile:1 pressure:1 ball:6 terry:1 alderman:1 dennis:2 lillee:5 close:2 struggle:1 behind:1 sunday:1 paper:1 roast:1 lamentable:1 morale:1 improve:2 news:2 ladbrokes:1 controversially:1 australian:3 keeper:1 rod:1 marsh:1 open:1 placed:1 bet:1 claim:2 silly:1 odds:2 horse:1 race:1 monday:1 morning:1 look:4 generous:1 gower:1 gatting:1 fell:2 cheaply:1 reduce:1 anchor:1 end:3 peter:3 willey:2 add:1 afternoon:1 deep:1 trouble:1 walk:3 matter:1 bob:2 taylor:1 soon:1 innings:1 defeat:1 almost:2 certain:1 account:1 think:1 dilley:2 crease:1 reportedly:1 right:1 let:1 bit:1 fun:1 able:1 support:1 chris:2 willis:4 hang:1 lead:2 hope:1 wisden:3 rat:2 real:1 contribution:1 skittle:1 history:1 escape:1 hopeless:1 low:1 scoring:1 need:1 thing:1 little:1 worrying:1 likely:1 result:1 give:2 later:1 persuade:1 less:1 turnaround:1 hero:1 good:1 heroic:1 part:1 folklore:1 three:2 remarkably:1 even:1 though:1 eye:1 hook:1 fearsome:1 sheer:1 power:1 strength:1 boundary:1 rope:1 tavaré:2 partnership:1 hour:1 short:1 yet:1 unsurprisingly:1 name:1 man:1 spell:1 town:1 often:1 suspend:1 smoke:1 cannabis:1 accuse:1 racism:1 tampering:1 imran:1 khan:1 publicly:1 chappell:2 roebuck:2 cricinfo:4 v:1 drink:1 feud:1 rumble:1 official:1 private:1 occasional:1 dramatic:1 britain:1 tabloid:1 newspaper:1 extramartial:1 prompt:1 public:1 apology:1 wife:2 kathy:2 sack:1 arrest:1 assault:2 fellow:1 airline:1 passenger:1 officer:2 sign:1 charge:1 charity:6 prominent:1 fundraiser:1 undertake:1 long:1 distance:1 mile:1 trek:1 groat:1 land:1 inspire:1 visit:1 taunton:1 musgrove:1 park:1 hospital:1 treatment:1 broken:1 toe:1 wrong:1 turn:1 child:3 ward:1 shock:1 learn:1 week:1 live:3 lionheart:1 pitch:1 raise:2 million:1 pound:1 leukaemia:3 research:3 among:1 benefit:1 honour:4 award:4 honorary:3 doctorate:1 science:1 leeds:1 metropolitan:1 university:2 bbc:3 yorkshire:2 receive:1 degree:2 title:1 doctor:1 law:1 bath:1 knight:2 queen:3 birthday:3 recognition:1 achievement:2 sustained:1 money:1 ceremony:1 buckingham:1 october:1 personality:2 lifetime:1 ever:1 president:1 uk:1 blood:1 cancer:1 order:1 british:1 empire:1 service:1 pipe:1 smoker:1 vote:1 personal:1 marry:1 kathryn:1 waller:1 borough:1 doncaster:1 meet:1 june:1 marriage:1 late:1 epworth:1 near:1 daughter:1 becky:1 sarah:2 son:2 liam:2 sky:2 production:1 assistant:1 rugby:1 ravensworth:1 north:1 bibliography:1 talk:1 frost:1 new:1 head:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 interview:1 archive:1 |@bigram ian_botham:6 west_indie:2 batting_average:2 wicket_inning:1 old_trafford:2 thursday_friday:1 wicket_keeper:1 tabloid_newspaper:1 john_groat:1 honorary_doctorate:1 bbc_news:1 buckingham_palace:1 lifetime_achievement:1 wisden_cricketer:1 external_link:1 |
3,952 | Protea_cynaroides | The King Protea (Protea cynaroides) is a flowering plant. It is a distinctive Protea, having the largest flower head in the genus. The species is also known as Giant Protea, Honeypot or King Sugar Bush. It is widely distributed in the southwestern and southern parts of South Africa of the fynbos region. The King Protea is the National Flower of South Africa. It also is the flagship of the The Protea Atlas Project, run by the South African National Botanical Institute. The King Protea has several colour forms and horticulturists have recognized 81 garden varieties, some of which have injudiciously been planted in its natural range. In some varieties the pink of the flower and red borders of leaves are replaced by a creamy yellow. This unusual flower has a long vase life in flower arrangements, and makes for an excellent dried flower. Etymology The specific epithet cynaroides refers to the artichoke-like appearance of the flower-heads: the artichoke belongs to the genus Cynara. Sport The King Protea is the National Flower of South Africa and as such lends its name to the national Cricket team, whose nickname is the Proteas. There is currently a political debate as to how and if the flower should be incorporated onto the national Rugby teams shirts, perhaps replacing the controversial Springbok. External links Protea cynaroides info on PlantZAfrica.com - from the South African National Biodiversity Institute Gallery | Protea_cynaroides |@lemmatized king:5 protea:10 cynaroides:3 flowering:1 plant:2 distinctive:1 large:1 flower:9 head:2 genus:2 specie:1 also:2 know:1 giant:1 honeypot:1 sugar:1 bush:1 widely:1 distribute:1 southwestern:1 southern:1 part:1 south:5 africa:3 fynbos:1 region:1 national:6 flagship:1 atlas:1 project:1 run:1 african:2 botanical:1 institute:2 several:1 colour:1 form:1 horticulturist:1 recognize:1 garden:1 variety:2 injudiciously:1 natural:1 range:1 pink:1 red:1 border:1 leaf:1 replace:2 creamy:1 yellow:1 unusual:1 long:1 vase:1 life:1 arrangement:1 make:1 excellent:1 dried:1 etymology:1 specific:1 epithet:1 refers:1 artichoke:2 like:1 appearance:1 belong:1 cynara:1 sport:1 lend:1 name:1 cricket:1 team:2 whose:1 nickname:1 currently:1 political:1 debate:1 incorporate:1 onto:1 rugby:1 shirt:1 perhaps:1 controversial:1 springbok:1 external:1 link:1 info:1 plantzafrica:1 com:1 biodiversity:1 gallery:1 |@bigram flowering_plant:1 external_link:1 |
3,953 | Eyes_Wide_Shut | Eyes Wide Shut (1999) is a psychological drama with many elements of an erotic thriller considered by some a cult movie AV Club - The New Cult Canon - Eyes Wide Shut directed, produced and co-written by Stanley Kubrick, based on the novella Traumnovelle (Dream Story) by Arthur Schnitzler. It was Kubrick's last film before his death. The story, set in and around New York City, follows the surreal, sexually charged adventures of Dr. Bill Harford (Tom Cruise), who is shocked after his wife, Alice (Nicole Kidman), reveals she contemplated an affair a year earlier. This leads him on a night-long, eventful sexual adventure, which climaxes with him infiltrating a masked orgy. The film appeared on 16 July 1999 to generally positive critical reaction. TIME Magazine Cover: Tom Cruise & Nicole Kidman - July 5, 1999 - Tom Cruise - Actors - Movies Plot The film begins in the apartment of a wealthy, married couple, Dr. Bill Harford (Tom Cruise) and Alice Harford (Nicole Kidman), who are preparing for a Christmas party at the home of Victor Ziegler (Sydney Pollack), a friend and patient of Bill's. During the party, a Hungarian man (Sky du Mont) tries to seduce Alice, while two younger models try to seduce Bill. Alice and Bill both resist temptations. During the party, Bill is summoned by Ziegler to his bathroom where he finds a naked woman, Mandy (Julienne Davis), over-dosed from a speedball. Bill helps her regain consciousness and promises Victor he will not speak of the event. Bill also meets an old friend, Nick Nightingale (Todd Field), a former fellow student who dropped out of medical school and is now a pianist at the party. Nick informs Bill that he is playing at the Sonata Café. The day after the party, Alice and Bill smoke marijuana and talk about encounters at the party. Alice confesses her feelings concerning a naval officer she saw while in Cape Cod. Because of Bill's self-assurance, out of spite she admits she was willing to abandon her future for one night with the officer. Shocked, Bill suddenly receives a telephone call summoning him to a deceased patient's home. Bill goes to the patient and the daughter, Marion (Marie Richardson), says she wants to give up her life to be with Bill. Bill resists and departs once Marion's boyfriend Carl (Thomas Gibson) arrives. While wandering the streets, rowdy men, taking him for gay, taunt him and walk into him. A female prostitute named Domino (Vinessa Shaw) approaches Bill and solicits him. Bill accepts, but a call from Alice cuts their business after a kiss. Bill insists on paying. He happens upon a sign outside the jazz club where Nick is piano player. As the two discuss things, Nick describes a party the night before where he is to play again tonight. Bill coerces Nick into divulging the party's requirements: a black robe with a hood, and a mask. He learns the location and the password: Fidelio. Bill goes to the costume shop of a friend only to find it has a new owner, Mr Milich (Rade Šerbedžija). He bribes Milich to get a costume immediately. Bill takes a cab to the party in a mansion on Long Island. What he finds inside is a hierogamy-inspired sexual ritual (orgy) involving women clad in masks and G-strings and led by an ominous man dressed and masked in red (Leon Vitali). Men and women watch, masked and clad in black robes, reminiscent of a Venetian Carnival. Nick plays the organ blindfolded. As the women rise from a circle surrounding a priest-like figure, they select men from the audience. One of the masked men stares at Bill for a short time, and a mysterious woman selects Bill and informs him that he is in danger and urges him to leave, but he refuses. He is discovered as an outsider and forced to remove his mask. The red-robed master of ceremonies demands he disrobe, but his "punishment" is "redeemed" by the mysterious woman who tried to warn him earlier. Bill is threatened to remain quiet about what he saw or suffer, then returns home. Bill finds Alice laughing in her sleep. After waking her, she tells him of her dream. She was having sex with other men, and she knew that Bill was watching, so she laughed at him. The following day, Bill decides to investigate what happened. He goes to the hotel at which Nick was staying and finds from the front desk clerk that Nick has apparently been brutalized for telling Bill about the party and password, and is now gone. Bill returns the costume to the shop where another sexually charged situation involving Milich's teenage daughter (Leelee Sobieski) and two Japanese men follows. Mr. Milich also offers his daughter as a prostitute to Bill. He returns to the mansion, but is warned off. Bill goes to Domino's apartment where he learns from her roommate that Domino received results of a blood test, which said she was HIV positive. Amanda Curran, the woman who "redeemed" Bill, is dead, ostensibly of a drug overdose behind a locked apartment door. Bill goes to the morgue and learns this woman is Mandy, whom Bill had helped to revive at Ziegler's party. He is unable to establish that the woman did die simply of a drug overdose. Bill is then called to Victor Ziegler's home, where the millionaire claims he was one of those at the ritual and that nothing further was done; according to him, Amanda was a drug-addicted prostitute and Nick was allowed to leave without further punishment. Both here and in the orgy it is implied that Ziegler was the masked man staring at Bill and that he summoned Amanda to "redeem" his friend. No evidence is presented, however, concerning the fate of Amanda and Nick, and Bill and the audience are left to decide between the explanation given to him or a possible double murder. Ziegler does warn Bill against investigating further, as some of the masked participants are said to be powerful members of society. Bill returns home to Alice and finds the mask he wore to the party on the pillow next to her. He breaks down crying, waking Alice before confessing about his journey. While Christmas shopping later that morning, Alice shows she has come to terms with Bill's actions by accepting that one night does not reflect his entire persona. Comparison with Dream Story The 1926 novella Traumnovelle by Arthur Schnitzler is set (somewhat earlier than its publishing date) in and around Vienna after the turn of the century, not New York City in the 1990s. The couple are named Fridolin and Albertina, and their home is a typical suburban middle-class home, not the posh urban apartment seen in the film. The couple are also Jewish in the novella. According to historian Geoffrey Cocks, Kubrick (himself Jewish) frequently removed references to the Jewishness of characters in the novels he adapted. This is reflected in the film by the fact that when Bill Harford is going home he is taunted by some young boys in the street with anti-gay slurs. In the novella, these are anti-Semitic slurs. In the novella, the woman who "redeems" Fridolin at the sex party, saving him from punishment, is costumed like a nun; and most of the characters at this party are costumed like nuns or priests—an element removed from the film, although the chanting and incense seen at the orgy may seem loosely religious, but are more like a Black Mass than a Christian worship service. When Fridolin returns home, Albertina's dream is an elaborate drama that concludes with him getting crucified in a village square after Albertina fails to speak up on his behalf, given that she is now occupied with copulating with other men. Thus in the novella there is a parallelism between the woman dressed like a nun at the orgy saving Fridolin from punishment (by offering to be punished in his place), and his wife failing to do the same in a dream, which has disappeared from the film version. The novella has a clear explanation as to why the husband's mask ends up on the pillow of his bed next to his sleeping wife. In the film this is enigmatic. The character of Dr. Ziegler (who represents the high wealth and prestige to which Bill Harford aspires) is entirely an invention of the film, having no counterpart in the novella at all Cast Tom Cruise as Dr. William "Bill" Harford Nicole Kidman as Alice Harford Sydney Pollack as Victor Ziegler Todd Field as Nick Nightingale Sky du Mont as Sandor Szavost Rade Šerbedžija as Mr. Milich Vinessa Shaw as Domino Leelee Sobieski as Milich's Daughter Alan Cumming as Hotel Desk Clerk Leon Vitali as Red Cloak Reception The film opened with mixed to positive reviews. The film currently holds a 78% fresh on Rotten Tomatoes. Critics objected to two features. First, the movie's pacing is slow. While this may have been intended to convey dreaming, critics objected that it made actions and decisions laborious. Second, reviewers commented that Kubrick had shot his NYC scenes in a studio and that New York "didn't look like New York." Lee Siegel, EYES WIDE SHUT What the critics failed to see in Kubrick's last film in Harper's, felt that most critics responded mainly to the marketing campaign and did not address the film on its own terms. Others feel that American censorship took an esoteric film and made it even harder to understand. In the television show Roger Ebert & the Movies, director Martin Scorsese named Eyes Wide Shut his fourth favorite film of the 1990s. Ebert and Roeper For the introduction to Michel Ciment's Kubrick: The Definitive Edition, Scorsese wrote: "When Eyes Wide Shut came out a few months after Stanley Kubrick's death in 1999, it was severely misunderstood, which came as no surprise. If you go back and look at the contemporary reactions to any Kubrick picture (except the earliest ones), you'll see that all his films were initially misunderstood. Then, after five or ten years came the realization that 2001 or Barry Lyndon or The Shining was like nothing else before or since." Ciment, Michel (2003). Kubrick: The Definitive Edition. New York: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0571211081 Music The opening title music is "Waltz 2 from Shostakovich's Suite for Variety Stage Orchestra", for years misidentified as the composer's Jazz Suite 2, recorded and released under the incorrect name by the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra. In the ritual, the incantations in the background are in Romanian, played backwards. The piece, named "Masked Ball", is an adaptation by Jocelyn Pook of her "Backwards Priests." When contacting Pook in regard to providing music for the film, Kubrick asked if she had anything else like Backwards Priests - "you know, weird." Kubrick's Approval Sets Seal on Classical Crossover Success : Pook's Unique Musical Mix - International Herald Tribune One recurring piece is the second movement of György Ligeti's piano cycle "Musica ricercata". The fact that the piece uses only three tones, the dissonance created by these tones, and the unyielding performance indication of Mesto, rigido e cerimoniale adds to the unsettling nature . In the morgue scene, Franz Liszt's late solo piano piece, "Nuages Gris" ("Grey Clouds") (1881) is heard. "Rex tremendae" from Mozart's Requiem plays as Bill walks into the Viennese cafe and reads of Mandy's death. The background score during the orgy (where Tom Cruise walks from room to room) is a Tamil song sung by Manickam Yogeswaran who is a Carnatic singer. Controversies Claims about Kubrick's opinion of the film R. Lee Ermey, who played the menacing drill instructor in Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987), claimed that Kubrick phoned him two weeks before his death to express his despondency over Eyes Wide Shut. "He told me it was a piece of shit", Ermey said in Radar magazine, "and that he was disgusted with it and that the critics were going to have him for lunch. He said Cruise and Kidman had their way with him — exactly the words he used." Jan Harlan, Kubrick's brother-in-law and executive producer, reported that Kubrick was "very happy" with the film On Kubrick - A Talk With Kubrick Documentarian Jan Harlan . According to Todd Field, Kubrick's friend and an actor in Eyes Wide Shut, Ermey's claims are slanderous. Field's response appeared in an October 26, 2006 interview with Slashfilm.com: Interview: Todd Field Part 2 - /FILM The polite thing would be to say 'No comment'. But the truth is that... let's put it this way, you've never seen two actors more completely subservient and prostrate themselves at the feet of a director. Stanley was absolutely thrilled with the film. He was still working on the film when he died. And he probably died because he finally relaxed. It was one of the happiest weekends of his life, right before he died, after he had shown the first cut to Terry, Tom and Nicole. He would have kept working on it, like he did on all of his films. But I know that from people around him personally, my partner who was his assistant for thirty years. And I thought about R. Lee Ermey for In the Bedroom. And I talked to Stanley a lot about that film, and all I can say is Stanley was adamant that I shouldn't work with him for all kinds of reasons that I won't get into because there is no reason to do that to anyone, even if they are saying slanderous things that I know are completely untrue. American censorship controversy Citing contractual obligations to deliver an R rating, Warner Bros. digitally altered the orgy for the American release, blocking out graphic sexuality by inserting additional figures to obscure the view, avoiding an adults-only NC-17 rating that limited distribution, as some large American theaters and video store operators disallow films with that rating. This alteration antagonized cinephiles, as they argued that Kubrick had never been shy about ratings: A Clockwork Orange was originally given an X-rating. The unrated version of Eyes Wide Shut was released in the United States on October 23, 2007 in DVD, HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc formats. The version in South America, Europe and Australia featured the orgy scene intact (theatrical and DVD release) with ratings mostly for people of 16 (Germany) and 18+ (Australia). In New Zealand and in Europe, the uncensored version has been shown on television with some controversy. In Australia, it was broadcast on Network Ten with the alterations in the American version for mature audiences of 15 and older, blurring and cutting explicit sexuality. Roger Ebert has been misquoted as calling the standard North American R-rated version the "Austin Powers" version of "Eyes Wide Shut". This is presumably in reference to two scenes in the first Powers movie Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery in which through camera angles and coincidences body parts are blocked in a comical way. In fact, Ebert saw a rough draft of the altered orgy scene which was not used. It is this that he called the "Austin Powers" version, not the final R-rated version released in North America. Nonetheless many discussions have misquoted Ebert. Roger Ebert's review of Eyes Wide Shut Controversy regarding the chanting of Hindu prayers While American censorship attempted to control the sexuality, complaints came from offended members of the Hindu community. The American Hindus Against Defamation wrote to Warner Brothers requesting they change the voice-over chant that plays as Bill Harford wanders from room to room at the mansion. According to the AHAD, "the background music subsides and the shloka (scriptural recitation) from the Bhagavad Gita, one of the most revered Hindu scripture is played out." But, in reality, a Tamil love song (Ithu kadala, ithu naragama?, meaning Is it love, is it hell?) was being played — never any shloka or Hindu prayers. When Warner did not concede, the American Hindus Against Defamation threatened to protest. Eventually, Warner Brothers agreed with the Hindu community of Great Britain to replace it with a chant of similar dramatic tone. These changes were not made in North America. DVD release The DVD release of Eyes Wide Shut corrects technical gaffes, including a reflected crew member, and altering a piece of Nicole Kidman's dialogue. Most home videos remove the "so-called" Hindu prayer. The scene in which Kidman dances naked in front of a mirror has been zoomed in on DVD copies after Cruise enters the room. The earliest American DVD of the uncut version states on the cover that it includes both the R-rated and unrated editions; only the unrated edition is on the DVD. See also Emotional inertia Notes External links Introducing Sociology: a review of Eyes Wide Shut by Tim Kreider | Eyes_Wide_Shut |@lemmatized eye:12 wide:12 shut:12 psychological:1 drama:2 many:2 element:2 erotic:1 thriller:1 consider:1 cult:2 movie:5 av:1 club:2 new:8 canon:1 direct:1 produce:1 co:1 write:3 stanley:5 kubrick:20 base:1 novella:8 traumnovelle:2 dream:5 story:3 arthur:2 schnitzler:2 last:2 film:25 death:4 set:3 around:3 york:5 city:2 follow:2 surreal:1 sexually:2 charge:2 adventure:2 dr:4 bill:45 harford:8 tom:7 cruise:8 shock:2 wife:3 alice:12 nicole:6 kidman:7 reveal:1 contemplate:1 affair:1 year:4 earlier:2 lead:2 night:4 long:2 eventful:1 sexual:2 climax:1 infiltrate:1 masked:3 orgy:9 appear:2 july:2 generally:1 positive:3 critical:1 reaction:2 time:2 magazine:2 cover:2 actor:3 plot:1 begin:1 apartment:4 wealthy:1 married:1 couple:3 prepare:1 christmas:2 party:14 home:10 victor:4 ziegler:8 sydney:2 pollack:2 friend:5 patient:3 hungarian:1 man:4 sky:2 du:2 mont:2 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3,954 | Dolly_Parton | Dolly Rebecca Parton (born January 19, 1946) is a Grammy Award-winning American singer-songwriter, author, actress and philanthropist, known for her prolific work in country music. In the four-and-a-half decades since her national-chart début, she remains the most-successful female artist in the history of the genre, with 25 number-one singles (a record for a female artist), and a record 42 top-10 country albums. She has the distinction of having performed on a top-five country hit in each of the last five decades and is the only artist to score a number-one country single in each of the past four decades. She is known for her distinctive Tennessee-mountain soprano, sometimes bawdy humor, flamboyant dress sense and voluptuous figure. Early years Childhood Dolly Parton was born in Sevierville (near Knoxville), Tennessee, the fourth of twelve children born to Robert Lee Parton and Avie Lee Caroline Owens. Her siblings are: 'Dolly, My Life and other Unfinished Business,' Dolly Parton, 1994, p 4. 'Sevier County, Tennessee and Its Heritage', Waynesville, NC, Walsworth Pub., 1994, p 306. Willadeene Parton (a poet, b. 1940) David Parton (b. 1942) Denver Parton (b. 1943) Robert Lee "Bobby" Parton Jr. (b. 1948) Stella Parton (a singer, b. 1949) Cassie Parton (a singer, b. 1951) Randel Huston "Randy" Parton (a singer and businessman, b. 1953) Larry Parton (b. 1955, d. 1955) twins (b. 1957) — Floyd Parton (a singer-songwriter) and Freida Parton (a singer) Rachel Dennison (an actress, b. 1959) (She admitted in a 2002 interview that her father had strayed and had, to her knowledge, at least three illegitimate children.) Parton has stated she is of Ulster Scots ancestry. (Belfast Telegraph, 2007) She is distant cousins with adult-film actress Julia Parton. Her family was, as she described them, "dirt poor". "Dolly Parton talks new album, tour", CNN, July 9, 2002. She described her family's shortness of money in her song "Coat of Many Colors" They lived in a rustic, dilapidated one-room cabin in Locust Ridge, Tennessee, a hamlet just north of the Greenbrier Valley in the Great Smoky Mountains of Sevier County, a predominantly Pentecostalist area. Music formed a major part of her early church experience. She once told an interviewer that her grandfather was a Pentecostal "holy-roller" preacher. "Backwoods glam", The Washington Times, December 1, 2006. Today, when appearing in live concerts, she frequently performs spiritual songs. (Parton, however, professes no religious denomination, claiming only to be "spiritual" while adding that she believes that all the Earth's people are God's children.) Career discovery Parton began performing as a child, singing on local radio and television programs in the East Tennessee area. By age nine, she was appearing on The Cas Walker Show on both WIVK Radio and WBIR-TV in Knoxville, Tennessee. At thirteen, she was recording on a small label, Goldband Records, and appearing at the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville, Tennessee. It was at the Opry where she first met Johnny Cash who encouraged her to go where her heart took her, and not to care what others thought. . The day after she graduated from high school in 1964, Parton moved to Nashville taking many traditional elements of folklore and popular music from East Tennessee with her. Parton's initial success came as a songwriter, writing hit songs for Hank Williams, Jr. and Skeeter Davis. . She signed with Monument Records in late 1965, where she was initially pitched as a bubblegum pop singer, . earning only one national-chart single, "Happy, Happy Birthday Baby," which did not crack the Billboard Hot 100. The label agreed to have Parton sing country music after her composition, "Put It Off Until Tomorrow," as recorded by Bill Phillips (and with Parton, uncredited, on harmony), went to number six on the country-music charts in 1966. Her first country single, "Dumb Blonde" (one of the few songs during this era that she recorded but did not write), reached number twenty-four on the country-music charts in 1967, followed the same year with "Something Fishy," which went to number seventeen. The two songs anchored her first full-length album, Hello, I'm Dolly. Marriage On May 30, 1966, she married Carl Thomas Dean in Ringgold, Georgia. http://www.smokykin.com/ged/f004/f84/a0048409.htm She had met Dean at the Wishy-Washy Laundromat two years earlier on her first day in Nashville. His very first words to her were: "You're gonna get sunburnt out there, little lady." . Dean, who runs an asphalt-paving business in Nashville, has always shunned publicity and rarely accompanies her to any events. According to Parton, he has only ever seen her perform once. However, she has also commented in interviews that, although it appears they do not spend much time together, it is simply that nobody sees him. She has also commented on Dean's romantic side claiming that he will often do spontaneous things to surprise her, and sometimes even writes her poems. The couple partly raised several of Parton's younger siblings at their home in Nashville, leading her nieces and nephews to refer to her as "Aunt Granny"; she has no children of her own. Music career 1967–1976: Country-music success In 1967, Parton was asked to join the weekly country-music, syndicated-television program The Porter Wagoner Show, hosted by Porter Wagoner, replacing Norma Jean (Beasler), who had returned to Oklahoma Initially, Wagoner's audience was reluctant to warm to Parton and chanted for Norma Jean, but with Wagoner's assistance, she was accepted. Wagoner convinced his label, RCA Victor, to also sign Parton. Since female performers were not particularly popular in the late '60s, the label decided to protect their investment by releasing her first single as a duet with Wagoner. The duo's first single, "The Last Thing on My Mind," reached the country Top Ten early in 1968, launching a six-year streak of virtually uninterrupted Top Ten singles. Parton's first solo single, "Just Because I'm a Woman", was released in the summer of 1968 and was a moderate hit, reaching number seventeen. For the remainder of the decade, none of her solo efforts — even "In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)," which would later become a standard — were as successful as her duets. The duo was named Vocal Group of the Year in 1968 by the Country Music Association, but Parton's solo records were continually ignored. Wagoner and Parton were both frustrated by her lack of solo success, because he had a significant financial stake in her future — as of 1969, he was her co-producer and owned nearly half of the publishing company Owepar. By 1970, both Parton and Wagoner had grown frustrated by her lack of solo chart success, and Porter had her sing Jimmie Rodgers' "Mule Skinner Blues," a gimmick that worked. The record shot to number three on the charts, followed closely by her first number-one single, "Joshua." For the next two years, she had a number of solo hits — including her signature song "Coat of Many Colors" (number four, 1971) — in addition to her duets. Though she had successful singles, none of them were blockbusters until "Jolene" reached number one in early 1974. Parton stopped traveling with Wagoner after its release, yet she continued to appear on television and sing duets with him until 1976. PARTON&sql=11:wiftxql5ldde~T1 "Dolly Parton at Allmusic" She stayed with the Wagoner Show and continued to record duets with him for seven years, then made a break to become a solo artist. In 1974, her song, "I Will Always Love You" (written about her professional break from Wagoner), was released and went to number one on the country-music charts. Around the same time, Elvis Presley indicated that he wanted to cover the song. Parton was interested until Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, told her that she would have to sign over half of the publishing rights if Presley recorded the song (as was the standard procedure for songs he recorded). "Dolly Parton Reflects on Her Greatest Moments", CMT, July 7, 2006. Parton refused and, although heartbreaking, that decision is credited with helping to make her many millions of dollars in royalties from the song over the years. It was decisions like these, in fact, that caused her to be called "The Iron Butterfly" in show-business circles. She also claims to have made enough from Whitney Houston's cover version of this song to "buy Graceland", Presley's mansion. 1977–1986: Branching out into pop music From 1974 to 1980, she consistently charted in the country Top 10, with no fewer than eight singles reaching number one. Parton had her own syndicated-television variety show, Dolly! (1976-1977), and by 1977 had gained the right to produce her own albums, which immediately resulted in diverse efforts like 1977's New Harvest ... First Gathering. In addition to her own hits during the late 1970s, many artists, from Rose Maddox and Kitty Wells to Olivia Newton-John, Emmylou Harris, and Linda Ronstadt, covered her songs, and her siblings Randy and Stella had recording contracts of their own. PARTON&sql=11:wiftxql5ldde~T1 Dolly Parton biography at Allmusic Parton later had commercial success as a pop singer, as well as an actress. Her 1977 album, Here You Come Again, was her first million-seller, and its title track ("Here You Come Again") became her first top-ten single on the pop charts (reaching number three); many of her subsequent singles charted on both pop and country charts, simultaneously. Her albums during this period were developed specifically for pop-crossover success. In 1978, Parton won a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance for her Here You Come Again album. Following that title track's success, she had further pop hits with "Two Doors Down", "Heartbreaker" (both 1978), "Baby I'm Burning" and "You're the Only One" (both 1979), all of which charted in the pop singles Top 40, and all of which also topped the country-singles chart. On April 3, 1978, Parton performed with Cher on television in Cher... Special in the "Musical Battle to Save Cher's Soul Medley." Parton was dressed in white and, with a team of brightly clad singers, portrayed an angelic host while punk band The Tubes, dressed in black leather and performing "Mondo Bondage", battled to send Cher's soul into eternal damnation. Parton's commercial success continued to grow during 1980, with three number-one hits in a row: the Donna Summer-written "Starting Over Again," "Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You", and "9 to 5." With less time to spend songwriting as she focused on a burgeoning film career, during the early 1980s Parton recorded a larger percentage of material from noted pop songwriters, such as Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil, Rupert Holmes, Gary Portnoy and Carole Bayer Sager. "9 to 5", the theme song to the feature film Nine to Five (1980) Parton starred in along with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin, not only reached number one on the country charts, but also number one on the pop and the adult-contemporary charts, giving her a triple-number-one hit. Parton became one of the few female country singers to have a number-one single on the country and pop charts simultaneously. It also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song. in Honolulu, Hawaii, 1983. Parton's singles continued to appear consistently in the country Top 10: between 1981 and 1985, she had 12 Top 10 hits; half of those were number-one singles. Parton continued to make inroads on the pop charts as well with a re-recorded version of "I Will Always Love You" from the feature film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982) scraping the Top 50 that year and her duet with Kenny Rogers, "Islands in the Stream" (written by the Bee Gees and produced by Barry Gibb), spent two weeks at number one in 1983. However, by 1985 many old-time fans felt that Parton was spending too much time courting the mainstream. Most of her albums were dominated by the adult-contemporary pop songs like "Islands in the Stream," and it had been years since she had sung straightforward country. She also continued to explore new business and entertainment ventures such as her Dollywood theme park, that opened in 1986 in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee. Her record sales were still relatively strong, however, with "Save the Last Dance for Me", "Tennessee Homesick Blues" (both 1984); "Real Love" (another duet with Kenny Rogers), "Don't Call it Love" (both 1985); and "Think About Love" (1986) all reaching the country-singles Top 10. ("Tennessee Homesick Blues" and "Think About Love" reached number one. "Real Love" also reached number one on the country-singles chart and also became a modest pop-crossover hit). However, RCA Records didn't renew her contract after it expired that year, and she signed with CBS Records in 1987. PARTON&sql=11:wiftxql5ldde~T1 Dolly Parton biography at Allmusic 1987–1994: Return to country roots Along with Harris and Ronstadt, she released the decade-in-the-making Trio (1987) to critical acclaim. The album strongly revitalized Parton's temporarily stalled music career, spending five weeks at number one on Billboard's Country Albums chart, selling several million copies and producing four Top 10 country hits including Phil Spector's "To Know Him Is to Love Him", which went to number one. Trio won the Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Album of the Year. White Limozeen (1989) produced two number-one hits in "Why'd You Come in Here Lookin' Like That" and "Yellow Roses." Although it looked like Parton's career had been revived, it was actually just a brief revival before contemporary country music came in the early 1990s and moved all veteran artists out of the charts. A duet with Ricky Van Shelton, "Rockin' Years" (1991) reached number one but Parton's greatest commercial fortune of the decade — and probably of all time — came when Houston recorded "I Will Always Love You" for the soundtrack of the feature film The Bodyguard (1992); both the single and the album were massively successful. She recorded "The Day I Fall In Love" as a duet with James Ingram for the feature film Beethoven's 2nd (1993). The songwriters (Sager, Ingram, and Clif Mangess) were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song and Parton and Ingram performed the song on the awards telecast. Similar to her earlier collabrative album with Harris and Ronstadt, Parton recorded Honky Tonk Angels (1994) with Loretta Lynn and Tammy Wynette. Dolly Parton biography at CMT.com It was certified a Gold Album by the Recording Industry Association of America and helped revive both Wynette's and Lynn's careers. 1995–present: career today In 1996 Parton re-recorded "I Will Always Love You" as a duet with Vince Gill for which they won the Country Music Association's Vocal Event of the Year Award. A second and more-contemporary collaboration with Harris and Ronstadt, "Trio II" (1999), was released and its cover of Neil Young's "After the Gold Rush" won a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. Parton was also inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1999. She recorded a series of critically acclaimed bluegrass albums, beginning with The Grass Is Blue (1999), winning a Grammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album, and Little Sparrow (2001), with its cover of Collective Soul's "Shine" winning a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance. The third, Halos & Horns (2002) included a bluegrass version of the Led Zeppelin classic Stairway to Heaven. Parton released Those Were The Days (2005), her interpretation of hits from the folk-rock era of the late 1960s through the early 1970s. It featured such classics as John Lennon's "Imagine," Cat Stevens's "Where Do the Children Play?", Tommy James's "Crimson and Clover", and Pete Seeger's anti-war song "Where Have All the Flowers Gone?". Parton earned her second Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for "Travelin' Thru", which she wrote specifically for the feature film Transamerica (2005). Because of the song's nature of accepting a transgender woman without judgment, Parton received death threats. "Review: Backwoods Barbie," "Christianity Today" She also returned to number one on the country charts later in 2005 by lending her distinctive harmonies to the Brad Paisley ballad, "When I Get Where I'm Goin'". In September 2007, Parton released her first single from her own record company, Dolly Records entitled, "Better Get to Livin'", which eventually peaked at number fourty-eight on the Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart. Her latest album, Backwoods Barbie, released February 26, 2008, reached number two on the country charts. The album's debut at number seventeen on the all-genre Billboard 200 albums chart has been the highest in her career. "Janet Dethrones Jack To Top Billboard 200" Billboard Online, March 5, 2008" The title track and video was released in February 2009. The title song was written as part of her score for 9 to 5: The Musical, an adaptation of her feature film Nine to Five. In concert and on tour Parton toured extensively from the late 1960s until the early 1990s. In 2002 she returned to the concert stage; she later went on the Backwoods Barbie Tour in 2008 promoting Backwoods Barbie. Dollywood Foundation Shows From the early 1990s through 2001, her concert appearances were primarily limited to one weekend a year at Dollywood to benefit her Dollywood Foundation. The concerts normally followed a theme (simliar to a Legends in Concert or, for example, a "fifties-music"-tribute concert). They have also included holiday shows during the Christmas season. Halos & Horns Tour After a decade-long absence from touring, Parton decided to return in 2002 with the Halos & Horns Tour, an 18-city, intimate-club tour to promote Halos & Horns (2002). House of Blues Entertainment, Inc. produced the tour and it sold out all its U.S. and European dates (her first in two decades). Hello, I'm Dolly Tour She returned to mid-sized-stadium venues in 2004 with her 36-city, U.S. and Canadian Hello, I'm Dolly Tour, a glitzier, more-elaborate stage show than two years earlier. With nearly 140,000 tickets sold, it was the tenth-biggest country tour of the year and grossed more than $6 million. The Vintage Tour In late 2005 Parton completed a 40-city tour with The Vintage Tour promoting her new Those Were the Days (2005). European Tour 2007 Parton scheduled mini concerts in late 2006 throughout the U.S. and Canada as a gear-up to her 17-city, 21-date European Tour 2007. Running from March 6-April 3, 2007, this was her first world tour in many years and her first tour in the United Kingdom since 2002. "Dollymania FAQ - No 2" The European Tour 2007 sold out in every European city and gained mostly positive reviews. It took grossed just over $16 million. The most-noted feature of the shows was that very few in attendance, despite Parton being 60, had ever seen her in concert. This, coupled with Parton's European popularity, led to a very well-received reception when she took the stage. Backwoods Barbie Tour In 2008 Parton went on the Backwoods Barbie Tour. It was set to begin in the U.S. (February-April 2008) to coincide with the release of Backwoods Barbie (2008), her first mainstream-country album in 17 years. "Dolly Parton website" However, because of back problems she postponed all U.S. dates. The tour started March 28, 2008, with 13 U.S. dates, followed by 17 European ones. "Dolly Parton Online - Tour and Concert Tickets" "Dollymania FAQ No. 2", accessed August 10, 2008. She returned to the U.S. with a concert at Humphrey's By The Bay in San Diego, California, on August 1, 2008. She performed her Backwoods Barbie Tour on August 3, 2008, at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles, California, to a sold-out crowd and standing ovations. From August 1 to November 1, she has scheduled 16 dates on both the east and west coasts of the U.S. Songwriting Parton is a hugely successful songwriter, having begun by writing country-music songs with strong elements of folk music, based upon her upbringing in humble mountain surroundings, and reflecting her family's evangelical-Christian background. Her songs "Coat of Many Colors", "I Will Always Love You" and "Jolene" have become classics in the field, as have a number of others. As a songwriter, she is also regarded as one of country music's most-gifted storytellers, with many of her narrative songs based on persons and events from her childhood. Parton has listed almost 600 songs with Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) to date and has earned 37 BMI awards for her material. "Dolly Parton to be Honored as BMI ICON at Country Awards", BMI News, November 2, 2003. In 2001, she was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. Songwriters Hall of Fame press release announcing 2001 inductees, April 16, 2001 In a 2009 interview with CNN's Larry King Live, Parton indicated that she had written "at least 3,000" songs, having written seriously since the age of seven. Parton went on to say that she writes something every day, be it a song or an idea. Her compositions in films and covers Parton's songwriting has been featured prominently in several films. In addition to the title song for Nine to Five (1980), she also recorded a second version of "I Will Always Love You" for The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982); the second version proved to be another number one country hit and also managed to reach the pop charts going to number 53 in the United States. "I Will Always Love You" has been covered by many country artists, including Ronstadt, on Prisoner In Disguise (1975) and Kenny Rogers on Always and Forever (1997) which sold over four million copies worldwide, and by LeAnn Rimes. In 1992, Whitney Houston performed it on The Bodyguard soundtrack and Houston's version became the best-selling hit ever written and performed by a female vocalist, with worldwide sales of over twelve million copies. As mentioned earlier, as a songwriter, Parton has twice been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, for "9 to 5" (1980)and "Travelin' Thru" (2005). She was considered the front-runner in 2005, but "Travelin' Thru" lost to "It's Hard Out Here for a Pimp," from Hustle and Flow (2005). Had Parton's song won, she would have become the first country songwriter to win an Academy Award. (Although other country songs have previously won the Best Original Song category, all winning songs were written by non-country artists, most often classical or pop composers.) "Travelin' Thru" did win as Best Original Song award at the 2005 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards. The song was also nominated for both the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award (also known as the Critics' Choice Awards) for Best Song. American Idol appearance The music-competition, reality-television show American Idol (2002-present) has weekly themes and the April 1-2, 2008, espisodes' theme was "Dolly Parton Songs" with the nine then-remaining contestants each singing a Parton composition. Parton participated as a "guest mentor" to the contestants and also performed "Jesus and Gravity" (from Backwoods Barbie and released as a single in March 2008) receiving a standing ovation from the studio audience. 9 to 5: The Musical Parton wrote the score (and Patricia Resnick wrote the book) for 9 to 5: The Musical, a musical-theatre adaptation of Parton's feature film Nine to Five (1980). The musical ran at the Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, California, in Fall 2008. It opened on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre in New York City, New York, on April 30, 2009, to mixed reviews. "9 to 5 The Musical" The title track of her Backwoods Barbie (2008), was written for the musical's character Doralee. Jones, Kenneth."Hello, Dolly! 9 to 5 Books Broadway's Marquis; Full Casting Announced", Playbill.com, July 15, 2008 Developing the musical was not an overnight process. According to a broadcast of the public-radio program Studio 360 (October 29, 2005), in October 2005 Parton was in the midst of composing the songs for a Broadway musical-theatre adaptation of the film. In late June 2007, 9 to 5: the Musical was read for industry presentations. The readings starred Megan Hilty, Allison Janney, Stephanie J. Block, Bebe Neuwirth and Marc Kudisch. Playbill News: A Cup of Ambition: 9 to 5 Musical Takes Next Step in NYC Reading with Neuwirth, Janney, Block Musician Parton plays the autoharp, banjo, drums, dulcimer, fiddle, guitar, harmonica, pennywhistle and piano. "Dollymania FAQ No. 30" She began composing songs at the age of four, her mother often writing down the music as she heard Parton singing around the house. Parton often describes her talent as having "the gift of rhyme". Acting career During the mid-1970s, Parton wanted to expand her audience base. Although her first attempt, the television variety show Dolly! (1976-1977), had high ratings it lasted only one season, with Parton requesting to be released from her contract because of the stress it was causing her vocal cords. (She later tried a second television variety show, also entitled Dolly (1987-1988); it also lasted only one season.) Film In her first feature film, in 1980, she portrayed a secretary in a co-starring role with Fonda and Tomlin in Nine to Five. Parton received Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actress — Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and New Star Of The Year – Actress. She also wrote and recorded the biggest solo hit of her career with the film's title song. It received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song along with a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Song. Released as a single, the song won two Grammy Awards: Best Female Country Vocal Performance and Best Country Song. The song also reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and in was placed number 78 on the American Film Institute's "100 Years... 100 Songs" list released in 2004. Parton was also named Top Female Box Office Star by the Motion Picture Herald in both 1981 and 1982. Parton's second film was The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982), with her receiving a second Golden Globe nomination for Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. She followed with Rhinestone (1984) co-starring Sylvester Stallone and Steel Magnolias (1989) with an ensemble cast. The last leading role for Parton was portraying a plainspoken radio-program host (with listeners telephoning in to share their problems) in the Straight Talk, (1992) opposite James Woods. The film, while not a blockbuster, did respectably well. She played an overprotective mother in Frank McKlusky, C.I. (2002) with Dave Sheridan, Cameron Richardson and Randy Quaid. Parton played herself in a cameo appearance in The Beverly Hillbillies (1993), an adaptation of the long-running television situation comedy of the same name and also in Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous (2005) (the sequel to Sandra Bullock's earlier hit Miss Congeniality (2000)). She was featured in The Book Lady (2008) a documentary about her campaign for children’s literacy The Book Lady and she was expecting to repeat her television role as Hannah's godmother in Hannah Montana: The Movie (2008) but the character was omitted from the final screenplay. Television In addition to her performing appearances on the Wagoner Show (in the 1960s and into the 1970s); her two self-titled television variety shows (in the 1970s and 1980s); and on American Idol (in 2001) and other guest appearances, Parton has also acted in television roles. She starred in the television movie Smoky Mountain Christmas (1986); Unlikely Angel (1996), portraying an angel sent back to earth following a deadly car crash; and Blue Valley Songbird (1999), where her character lives through her music. Parton has also done voice work for animation for television series, playing herself in the Alvin & the Chipmunks (episode: "Urban Chipmunk" (1983)) and the character Katrina Eloise "Murph" Murphy in The Magic School Bus (episode: "The Family Holiday Special" (1994)). Dolly guest starred on an episode of "Designing Women" as herself, the guardian movie star of Charlene's baby. (season 4, episode - THE FIRST DAY OF THE LAST DECADE OF THE ENTIRE TWENTIETH CENTURY -(60 minute episode) airdate January 1, 1990) http://www.designingwomenonline.com/Episodes/Four.html She also appeared in the situation comedy series Reba (episode: "Reba's Rules Of Real Estate") portraying a real-estate agency owner and on The Simpsons (episode: "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday" (1999)). She also made cameo appearances on the Disney Channel as "Aunt Dolly" visiting Hannah and her family in the fellow Tennessean Miley Cyrus series Hannah Montana (episodes: "Good Golly, Miss Dolly" (2006) and "I Will Always Loathe You" (2007)). The role came about because of her real-life relationship as Cyrus's godmother. Businesses Parton's net worth has been estimated at between $520 and $600 million, making her one of the wealthiest female entertainers in the world. In 1998, Nashville Business ranked her as the wealthiest country-music star. "Dollymania FAQ - No 24" The Dollywood Company Parton invested much of her earnings into business ventures in her native East Tennessee, notably Pigeon Forge. She is a co-owner of The Dollywood Company, which operates the theme park Dollywood (a former Silver Dollar City), a dinner theatre, Dolly Parton's Dixie Stampede, and the waterpark, Dollywood's Splash Country, all in Pigeon Forge. Dollywood is ranked as the 24th-most-popular theme park in the U.S., with about three million visitors annually. "Dollymania FAQ No 23", accessed May 1, 2009 The area is a thriving tourist attraction, drawing visitors from large parts of the Southeastern and Midwestern U.S. This region of the U.S., like most areas of Appalachia, had suffered economically for decades; Parton's business investment has helped revitalized the area. The Dixie Stampede business also has venues in Branson, Missouri, and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. A former Dixie Stampede location in Orlando, Florida closed in January 2008 after the business's land and building were sold to a developer. Film and television production company Parton is a co-owner of Sandollar Productions with Sandy Gallin, her former manager. A film-and-television-production company, it produced the Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt (1989) which won an Academy Award for Best Documentary (Feature); the television series Babes (1990-1991) and Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997-2003); and the feature films Father of the Bride (1991), Father of the Bride: Part II (1995) Straight Talk (1992) (in which Parton also starred), Sabrina (1995), among other shows. Other businesses Briefly from 1987, Parton owned Dockside Plantation, a restaurant in the upscale neighborhood of Hawaii Kai in Honolulu, Hawaii. She also had a "signature line" of wigs from Revlon in the early 1990s. The best-selling style, "Dolly's Own", is still sold by Revlon, albeit under a new style name. Philanthropic efforts Since the mid-1980s Parton has been praised for her many charitable efforts, particularly in the area of literacy, primarily through her Dollywood Foundation. Dolly Parton's Imagination Library Her literacy program, "Dolly Parton's Imagination Library" Dolly Parton's Imagination Library, official website , a part of the Dollywood Foundation, mails one book per month to each enrolled child from the time of their birth until they enter kindergarten. It began in Sevier County but has now been replicated in 566 counties across thirty-six U.S. states (as well as in Canada Details of Canadian Scheme ). In December 2007 it expanded to Europe with the South Yorkshire town of Rotherham, United Kingdom, being the first British locality to receive the books. The program distributes more than 2.5 million free books to children annually. In 2006 Parton published a cookbook Dolly's Dixie Fixin's: Love, Laughter and Lots of Good Food. Penguin USA (2006) Dolly's Dixie Fixin's: Love, Laughter and Lots of Good Food at Amazon.com, ASIN: B000SSP25C Dolly's Dixie Fixin's, official website. The net profits support the Dollywood Foundation. Other philanthropy Dollywood has also been noted for bringing jobs and tax revenues to a previously depressed region. She has also worked to raise money on behalf of several other causes, including the American Red Cross and a number of HIV/AIDS-related charities. In December 2006, Parton pledged $500,000 toward a proposed $90-million hospital and cancer center to be constructed in Sevierville in the name of Dr. Robert F. Thomas, the physician who delivered her; she also announced plans for a benefit concert to raise additional funds for the project. The concert went ahead playing to about 8,000 people. Awards and honors Parton is one of the most-honored female country performers of all time. The Record Industry Association of America has certified 25 of her single or album releases as either Gold Record, Platinum Record or Multi-Platinum Record. She has had 26 songs reach number one on the Billboard country charts, a record for a female artist. She has 42 career-top-10 country albums, a record for any artist, and 110 career-charted singles over the past 40 years. All inclusive sales of singles, albums, hits collections, paid digital downloads and compilation usage during Parton's career have reportedly topped 100 million records around the world. "Dollymania - Awards" She has received seven Grammy Awards and a total of 42 Grammy Award nominations. At the American Music Awards she has won three awards, but has received 18 nominations. At the Country Music Association, she has received 10 awards and 42 nominations. At the Academy of Country Music, she has won seven awards and 39 nominations. She is one of only five female artists (including Reba McEntire, Barbara Mandrell, Shania Twain and Loretta Lynn), to win the Country Music Association's highest honor, Entertainer of the Year (1978). She was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Recording in 1984, located at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California; a star on the Nashville Star Walk for Grammy winners; and a bronze sculpture on the courthouse lawn in Sevierville. She has called that statue of herself in her hometown "the greatest honor," because it came from the people who knew her. Parton was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1969, and in 1986 was named one of Ms. Magazine'''s Women of the Year. In 1986, Parton was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame. In 1999, Parton received country music's highest honor, an induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame. She received an honorary doctorate degree from Carson-Newman College (Jefferson City, Tennessee) in 1990. This was followed by induction into the National Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2001. In 2002, Parton ranked number four in CMT's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music.Parton during a reception for the Kennedy Center honorees in the East Room of the White House on December 3, 2006. She was honored in 2003 with a tribute album called Just Because I'm a Woman: Songs of Dolly Parton. The artists who recorded versions of Parton's songs included Melissa Etheridge ("I Will Always Love You"), Alison Krauss ("9 to 5"), Twain ("Coat of Many Colors"), Me'Shell NdegéOcello ("Two Doors Down"), Norah Jones ("The Grass is Blue"), and Sinéad O'Connor ("Dagger Through the Heart"); Parton herself contributed a rerecording of the title song, originally the title song for her first RCA album in 1968. Parton was awarded the Living Legend Medal by the U.S. Library of Congress on April 14, 2004, for her contributions to the cultural heritage of the United States. This was followed in 2005 with the National Medal of Arts, the highest honor given by the U.S. government for excellence in the arts and is presented by the U.S. President. On December 3, 2006, Parton received the Kennedy Center Honors from the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts for her lifetime of contributions to the arts. Other 2006 honorees included Zubin Mehta, Steven Spielberg, Smokey Robinson and Andrew Lloyd Webber. During the show, some of country music's biggest names came to show their admiration. Carrie Underwood performed Parton's hit "Islands in the Stream" with Rogers, Parton's original duet partner. Krauss performed "Jolene" and duetted "Coat of Many Colors" with Twain. McEntire and Reese Witherspoon also came to pay tribute. On May 8, 2009, Parton received an honorary degree from the University of Tennessee. It was only the second honorary degree to be given by the university. The degree, a doctorate of humane and musical letters, was given at the commencement ceremony for the UT Knoxville College of Arts and Sciences. Philanthropy-related honors In 2003, her efforts to preserve the bald eagle through the American Eagle Foundation's sanctuary at Dollywood earned her the Partnership Award from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Parton received the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service from the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution at a ceremony in Nashville on November 8, 2007. For her work in literacy, Parton has received various awards including: Association of American Publishers - AAP Honors Award (2000) Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval (2001) (the first time the seal had been awarded to a person) American Association of School Administrators - Galaxy Award (2002) National State Teachers of the Year - Chasing Rainbows Award (2002) Parents as Teachers National Center - Child and Family Advocacy Award (2003) Dolly Parton received an honorary doctorate of humane and musical letters from the University of Tennessee in Knoxville, TN on May 8, 2009 for her philanthropic works. Image Parton has turned down several offers to pose for Playboy magazine's similar publications, although she did appear on the cover of Playboy's October 1978 issue wearing a Playboy bunny outfit, complete with ears. Breast-obsessed filmmaker Russ Meyer wanted to make movies about her 40DD breasts. The association of breasts with Parton's public image is illustrated in the naming of Dolly the sheep after her, since the sheep was cloned from a cell taken from an adult ewe's mammary gland. On a 2003 broadcast of The Oprah Winfrey Show'', Winfrey asked what kind of cosmetic surgery Parton had undergone. Parton stated that she felt that cosmetic surgery was imperative in keeping with her famous image, but jokingly admitted, "If I have one more facelift, I'll have a beard!" Parton has repeatedly joked about her physical image and surgeries, saying, "If I see something sagging, bagging, and dragging, I’m going to nip it, tuck it, and suck it. Why should I look like an old barn yard dog if I don't have to!" and "It takes a lot of money to look this cheap." (The latter comment often referred to her clothing style and make-up, as well as her surgeries.) Her size 40DD breasts also got her into several songs in the 1980s and 1990s, including "Dolly Parton's Hits" by Bobby Braddock, "Talk Like Sex" by Kool G Rap and DJ Polo, and "Dolly Parton's Tits" by MacLean & MacLean. Press agent Lee Solters represented Parton and would say he knew her "since she was flat-chested". Martin, Douglas. "Lee Solters, Razzle-Dazzle Press Agent, Dies at 89", The New York Times, May 21, 2009. Accessed May 22, 2009. Discography Filmography Film Year Title Role Notes 1980 Nine to Five Doralee Rhodes Nominated - Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy 1982 The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas Mona Stangley Nominated - Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy 1984 Rhinestone Jake 1989 Steel Magnolias Truvy Jones 1992 Straight Talk Shirlee Kenyon 1993 The Beverley Hillbillies Herself cameo appearance 2002 Frank McKlusky, C.I. Edith McKlusky 2005 Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous Herself cameo appearance Television Year Show Role Notes 1967 - 1974 The Porter Wagoner Show regular singer 1976 - 1977 Dolly! host 1978 Cher... Special herself Nominated - Primetime Emmy Award for Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program 1981 The Lily Tomlin Special herself 1986 A Smoky Mountain Christmas Lorna Davis 1987 Alvin and the Chipmunks herself 1987 - 1988 Dolly host 1988 Bob Hope's Christmas Special herself 1990 Designing Women The Guardian Movie Star two episodes; "The First Day of the Last Decade of the Entire 20th Century: Part 1" & "Part 2" 1991 Babes Herself cameo appearance one episode; "Hello Dolly" Wild Texas Wind Thiola "Big T" Rayfield 1994 Heavens to Betsy Betsy Baxter 1995 Big Dreams and Broken Hearts: The Dottie West Story Herself cameo appearance Naomi & Wynonna: Love Can Build a Bridge Herself guest performer 1996 Unlikely Angel Ruby Diamond The Magic School Bus Katrina Eloise one episode; "The Family Holiday Special" 1997 Get to the Heart: The Barbara Mandrell Story Herself cameo appearance 1999 Blue Valley Songbird Leanna Taylor The Simpsons Herself cameo appearance one episode; "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday" Jackie's Back Herself cameo appearance 2000 Bette Herself cameo appearance one episode; "Halloween" 2005 Reba Dolly Majors one episode; "Reba's Rules of Real Estate" 2006-2007 Hannah Montana Aunt Dolly two episodes; "Good Golly Miss Dolly" (2006) & "I Will Always Loathe You" (2007) See also Academy of Country Music Country Music Association Country Music Hall of Fame List of country music performers List of best-selling music artists Chasing Rainbows Footnotes Bibliography Further reading External links Dolly Parton Music (official music site) Dolly Parton.com (official site) Dolly Parton On-Line Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum Dolly Parton (Legacy Recordings Page) | Dolly_Parton |@lemmatized dolly:48 rebecca:1 parton:144 born:1 january:3 grammy:11 award:48 win:17 american:10 singer:11 songwriter:13 author:1 actress:9 philanthropist:1 know:6 prolific:1 work:6 country:65 music:43 four:9 half:4 decade:11 since:8 national:6 chart:26 début:1 remain:2 successful:5 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3,955 | Moctezuma_I | Moctezuma I (c. 1398 – 1469), also known as Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina, Huehuemotecuhzoma or Montezuma I (, ), was the fifth Aztec emperor. During his reign the Aztec Empire was consolidated, major expansion was undertaken and Tenochtitlan started becoming the dominant partner of the Aztec Triple Alliance. His brother Tlacaelel held the position of Cihuacoatl "First councillor" during his reign and some sources ascribe a lot of the success of Moctezuma to Tlacaelel, but this may be a postconquest invention (Gillespie 1989:132). Name Moctezuma I in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, using the diadem glyph. His first name, in Classical Nahuatl, means "he frowns like a lord". It is also written Montezuma, Motecuhzoma, and several other spellings. Ilhuicamina, pronounced , means "he shoots a bolt into the sky". In Aztec writing, he can be indicated by either a diadem representing "lord", or an arrow piercing a stylized representation of the sky. Huehemotecuhzoma means "old man Moctezuma" or "Moctezuma the Elder", to distinguish him from Moctezuma II. Ethnohistorian Susan D. Gillespie (1989) has suggested that his actual name while alive was not Moctezuma but only Ilhuicamina, and that he was later renamed Moctezuma by the postconquest chroniclers in order to describe him as a parallel to the later Moctezuma. The nahua view of history was cyclic and it was seen as fitting that the first and the last rulers of a dynasty would live parallel histories. The assumption of a posthumous namechange is supported by the sources some of which state that his original name was Ilhuicamina but that it was changed by his father. Pictographic sources also support the notion since the Tlatoanis name glyph only reads Ilhuicamina and never Moctezuma. Family Moctezuma was the son of Huitzilihuitl, the second Aztec emperor, and Miahuaxihuitl, the daughter of Tezcacohuatzin, (also called Ozomatzin or Ozomatzinteuctli in some sources), the tlatoani of Cuauhnahuac who was also a sorcerer. According to legend, after Huitzilihuitl's request for Miahuaxihuitl, was refused by Tezcacohuatzin, he fired a hollow arrow containing jewels into Miahuaxihuitl's palace, and Miahuaxihuitl miraculously became pregnant with Moctezuma after swallowing a jewel. This may be the origin of the name Ilhuicamina. Moctezuma would later wed Chichimecacihuatzin, his mother's niece. Reign Moctezuma took power in 1440, after the death of his uncle Itzcoatl. As tlatoani, Moctezuma solidified the alliance with two neighboring peoples, Tlacopan (a small ) and Texcoco. In this skillfully crafted Triple Alliance, 4/5ths of a newly conquered territory would be divided between Texcoco and the Aztecs, with the remaining 1/5th given to Tlacopan. Among the Aztecs' greatest achievements, Moctezuma I and Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco organized the construction and completion of a double aqueduct pipe system, supplying the city of Tenochtitlan with fresh water. Moctezuma extended the boundaries of the Aztec empire beyond the Valley of México to the Gulf Coast, subjugating the Huastec people and Totonac peoples and thereby gaining access to exotic goods such as cocoa, rubber, cotton, fruits, feathers, and seashells. About 1458, Moctezuma lead an expedition into Mixtec territory against the city-state of Coixtlahuaca, the pretext being the mistreatment of Aztec merchants. Despite the support of contingents of Tlaxcala and Huexotzingo warriors, traditional enemies of the Aztecs, the Mixtecs were defeated. While most of the defeated chieftains were allowed to retain their positions, the Mixtec ruler Atonal was ritually strangled and his family was taken as slaves. The Codex Mendoza records that the tribute owed by Coixtlahuaca consisted of 2000 blankets (of 5 types), 2 military outfits with headresses and shields, green gemstone beads, 800 bunches of green feathers, 40 bags of cochineal dye, and 20 bowls of gold dust. Smith (2003, p.161). Similar campaigns were conducted against Cosamaloapan, Ahuilizapan (Orizaba), and Cuetlachtlan (Cotaxtla). Map showing the expansion of the Aztec empire showing the areas conquered by the Aztec rulers. The conquests of Moctezuma I is marked by the colour pink. Map based on Hassig (1988) In popular culture In the 1991 Mexican film, In Necuepaliztli in Aztlan (Retorno a Aztlán), by Juan Mora Catlett, Moctezuma sends tribute to Coatlicue to end a drought. Notes References | Moctezuma_I |@lemmatized moctezuma:20 c:1 also:5 know:1 motecuhzoma:2 ilhuicamina:6 huehuemotecuhzoma:1 montezuma:2 fifth:1 aztec:12 emperor:2 reign:3 empire:3 consolidate:1 major:1 expansion:2 undertaken:1 tenochtitlan:2 start:1 become:2 dominant:1 partner:1 triple:2 alliance:3 brother:1 tlacaelel:2 hold:1 position:2 cihuacoatl:1 first:3 councillor:1 source:4 ascribe:1 lot:1 success:1 may:2 postconquest:2 invention:1 gillespie:2 name:6 codex:2 telleriano:1 remensis:1 use:1 diadem:2 glyph:2 classical:1 nahuatl:1 mean:3 frown:1 like:1 lord:2 write:1 several:1 spelling:1 pronounce:1 shoot:1 bolt:1 sky:2 writing:1 indicate:1 either:1 represent:1 arrow:2 pierce:1 stylized:1 representation:1 huehemotecuhzoma:1 old:1 man:1 elder:1 distinguish:1 ii:1 ethnohistorian:1 susan:1 suggest:1 actual:1 alive:1 later:2 rename:1 chronicler:1 order:1 describe:1 parallel:2 late:1 nahua:1 view:1 history:2 cyclic:1 see:1 fitting:1 last:1 ruler:3 dynasty:1 would:3 live:1 assumption:1 posthumous:1 namechange:1 support:3 state:2 original:1 change:1 father:1 pictographic:1 notion:1 since:1 tlatoanis:1 reads:1 never:1 family:2 son:1 huitzilihuitl:2 second:1 miahuaxihuitl:4 daughter:1 tezcacohuatzin:2 call:1 ozomatzin:1 ozomatzinteuctli:1 tlatoani:2 cuauhnahuac:1 sorcerer:1 accord:1 legend:1 request:1 refuse:1 fire:1 hollow:1 contain:1 jewel:2 palace:1 miraculously:1 pregnant:1 swallow:1 origin:1 wed:1 chichimecacihuatzin:1 mother:1 niece:1 take:2 power:1 death:1 uncle:1 itzcoatl:1 solidify:1 two:1 neighbor:1 people:3 tlacopan:2 small:1 texcoco:3 skillfully:1 craft:1 newly:1 conquer:2 territory:2 divide:1 remain:1 give:1 among:1 great:1 achievement:1 nezahualcoyotl:1 organize:1 construction:1 completion:1 double:1 aqueduct:1 pipe:1 system:1 supply:1 city:2 fresh:1 water:1 extend:1 boundary:1 beyond:1 valley:1 méxico:1 gulf:1 coast:1 subjugate:1 huastec:1 totonac:1 thereby:1 gain:1 access:1 exotic:1 good:1 cocoa:1 rubber:1 cotton:1 fruit:1 feather:2 seashell:1 lead:1 expedition:1 mixtec:2 coixtlahuaca:2 pretext:1 mistreatment:1 merchant:1 despite:1 contingent:1 tlaxcala:1 huexotzingo:1 warrior:1 traditional:1 enemy:1 mixtecs:1 defeat:1 defeated:1 chieftain:1 allow:1 retain:1 atonal:1 ritually:1 strangle:1 slave:1 mendoza:1 record:1 tribute:2 owe:1 consist:1 blanket:1 type:1 military:1 outfit:1 headresses:1 shield:1 green:2 gemstone:1 bead:1 bunch:1 bag:1 cochineal:1 dye:1 bowl:1 gold:1 dust:1 smith:1 p:1 similar:1 campaign:1 conduct:1 cosamaloapan:1 ahuilizapan:1 orizaba:1 cuetlachtlan:1 cotaxtla:1 map:2 show:2 area:1 conquest:1 mark:1 colour:1 pink:1 base:1 hassig:1 popular:1 culture:1 mexican:1 film:1 necuepaliztli:1 aztlan:1 retorno:1 aztlán:1 juan:1 mora:1 catlett:1 sends:1 coatlicue:1 end:1 drought:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram classical_nahuatl:1 |
3,956 | Anchor | For the anchors used in web pages, see HTML element. For their usage on Wikipedia, see Help:Anchors. An anchor is an object, often made out of metal, that is used to attach a ship to the bottom of a body of water at a specific point. There are two primary classes of anchors—temporary and permanent. A permanent anchor is often called a mooring, and is rarely moved; it is quite possible the vessel cannot hoist it aboard but must hire a service to move or maintain it. Vessels carry one or more temporary anchors which may be of different designs and weights. A sea anchor is a related device used when the water depth makes using a mooring or temporary anchor impractical. The vessel is attached to the anchor by the rode which is made with chain, cable or line or a combination of these. The hole in the hull through which the anchor rode passes is called "hawsepipe" because thick mooring lines are called "hawsers". An anchor works by resisting the movement force of the vessel which is attached to it. There are two primary ways to do this—via sheer mass, and by "hooking" into the seabed. While permanent moorings can use large masses resting on this seabed this is not practical for temporary anchors which need to be stowed onboard so almost all temporary anchors are of the type which have metal flukes which hook on to rocks in the bottom or bury themselves in soft bottoms. An interesting element of anchor jargon is the term aweigh, which describes the anchor when it is hanging on the rope, not resting on the bottom; this is linked to the term to weigh anchor, meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. An anchor is described as aweigh when it has been broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to be stowed. Aweigh should not be confused with under way, which describes a vessel which is not moored to a dock or anchored, whether or not it is moving through the water. Thus, a vessel can be under way (or underway) with no way on (i.e., not moving). Development See full article: History of the Anchor. The earliest anchors were probably rocks and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the Bronze Age. Many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design. However, using pure mass to resist the forces of a storm only works well as a permanent mooring; trying to move a large enough rock to another bay is nearly impossible. Designs of temporary anchors A modern temporary anchor usually consists of a central bar called the shank, and an armature with some form of flat surface (fluke or palm) to grip the bottom and a point to assist penetration of the bottom; the position at which the armature is attached to the shank is called the crown, and the shank is usually fitted with a ring or shackle to attach it to the cable. There are many variations and additions to these basic elements—for example, the whole class of anchors which include a stock such as the fisherman and fluke anchors. The range of designs is wide, but there are actually trends in designs for modern anchors which allow them to be classed as hook, plough, and fluke types, depending on the method by which they set. Hook designs use a relatively small fluke surface on a heavy, narrow arm to penetrate deeply into problematic bottoms such as rocky, heavy kelp or eel grass, coral, or hard sand. Two of the more common versions of this design are the fisherman and the grapnel. Plough designs are reminiscent of the antique farm plough, and are designed to bury themselves in the bottom as force is applied to them, and are considered good in most bottom conditions from soft mud to rock. North sea designs are actually a variation of a plough in how they work; they bury into the bottom using their shape. Fluke designs use large fluke surfaces to develop very large resistance to loads once they dig into the seabed. Although they have less ability to penetrate and are designed to reset rather than turn, their light weight makes them very popular. Drogues and sea anchors simply use the water itself as a weight, hereby allowing the "anchor" to consist of merely a canvas and a rope (to hold the textile in place). In the past 20 years or so, many new anchor designs have appeared. Driven by the popularity of private pleasure boats, these anchors are usually designed for small to medium sized vessels, and are usually not appropriate for large ships. See modern designs. Fisherman A fisherman's anchor A traditional design, the fisherman, also known as a kedge (not be confused with a modern-day light kedge anchor), is the most familiar among non-sailors. The design is a non-burying type, with one arm penetrating the seabed and the other standing proud. The anchor is ancient in design and has not changed substantially over time. It has a good reputation for use in rock, kelp, and grass, but is unlikely to be any more effective than a good modern design and its holding power to weight ratio is among the worst of all anchor types. Three piece versions can be stowed quite compactly, and most versions include a folding stock so the anchor may be stowed flat on deck. The primary weakness of the design is its ability to foul the cable over changing tides. Once fouled the anchor is likely to drag. In comparison tests the fisherman design developed much less resistance than other anchors of similar weight. It is difficult to bring aboard without scarring the topsides, and does not stow in a hawse pipe or over an anchor roller. A fouled kedge or killick features on the badges of Royal Navy non-commissioned officers. Fluke A fluke-style anchor The most common commercial brand is the Danforth, which is sometimes used as a generic name for the class. The fluke style uses a stock at the crown to which two large flat surfaces are attached. The stock is hinged so the flukes can orient toward the bottom (and on some designs may be adjusted for an optimal angle depending on the bottom type.) The design is a burying variety, and once well set can develop an amazing amount of resistance. Its light weight and compact flat design make it easy to retrieve and relatively easy to store; some anchor rollers and hawse pipes can accommodate a fluke-style anchor. A few high-performance designs are available, such as the Fortress, which are lighter in weight for a given area and in tests have shown better than average results. The fluke anchor has difficulty penetrating kelp and weed-covered bottoms, as well as rocky and particularly hard sand or clay bottoms. If there is much current or the vessel is moving while dropping the anchor it may "kite" or "skate" over the bottom due to the large fluke area acting as a sail or wing. Once set, the anchor tends to break out and reset when the direction of force changes dramatically, such as with the changing tide, and on some occasions it might not reset but instead drag. Grapnel A traditional design, the grapnel style is simple to design and build. It has a benefit in that no matter how it reaches the bottom one or more tines will be aimed to set. The design is a non-burying variety, with one or more tines digging in and the remainder above the seabed. In coral it is often able to set quickly by hooking into the structure, but may be more difficult to retrieve. A grapnel is often quite light, and may have additional uses as a tool to recover gear lost overboard; its weight also makes it relatively easy to bring aboard. Grapnels rarely have enough fluke area to develop much hold in sand, clay, or mud. It is not unknown for the anchor to foul on its own rode, or to foul the tines with refuse from the bottom, preventing it from digging in. On the other hand, it is quite possible for this anchor to find such a good hook that, without a trip line, it is impossible to retrieve. The shape is generally not very compact, and is difficult to stow, although there are a few collapsing designs available. CQR/Plough CQR anchor So named due to its resemblance to a traditional agricultural plough (or more specifically two ploughshares), many manufacturers produce a plough-style design, all based on or direct copies of the original CQR (Secure), a 1933 design by mathematician Geoffrey Ingram Taylor. Cited by Owing to a now well established history, ploughs are particularly popular with cruising sailors and other private boaters. They are generally good in all bottoms, but not exceptional in any. The CQR design has a hinged shank, allowing the anchor to turn with direction changes rather than breaking out, and also arranged to force the point of the plough into the bottom if the anchor lands on its side. Another more recent commercial design, the Delta uses an unhinged shank and a plough with specific angles to develop slightly superior performance. Both can be stored in most regular anchor roller systems. Owing to the use of lead or other dedicated tip-weight, the plough is heavier than average for the amount of resistance developed, and may take a slightly longer pull to set thoroughly. It cannot be stored in a hawse pipe. The genuine CQR and Delta brands are now owned by Lewmar, although they have both been on-sold several times during their lifetimes. Bruce/Claw Bruce anchor This claw shaped anchor was designed by Peter Bruce from the Isle of Man in the 1970s Bruce, Peter, August 9, 1983 . Bruce gained its early reputation from the production of large scale commercial anchors for ships and fixed installations such as oil rigs in the North Sea. The Bruce and its copies, known generically as "claws", have become a popular option for smaller boaters. It was intended to address some of the problems of the only general-purpose option then available, the plough. Claw-types set quickly in most seabeds and although not an articulated design, they have the reputation of not breaking out with tide or wind changes, instead slowly turning in the bottom to align with the force. Claw types have difficulty penetrating weedy bottoms and grass. They offer a fairly low holding power to weight ratio and generally have to be over-sized to compete with other types. On the other hand they perform relatively well with low rode scopes and set fairly reliably. They cannot be used with hawse pipes. Bruce Anchor Group no longer produces the genuine Bruce, although other companies manufacture copies. Modern designs Rocna anchor In recent years there has been something of a spurt in anchor design. Primarily designed to set very quickly, then generate high holding power, these anchors (mostly proprietary inventions still under patent) are finding homes with users of small to medium sized vessels. The German designed Bügel (or Wasi) has a sharp tip for penetrating weed, and features a roll-bar which allows the correct setting attitude to be achieved without the need for extra weight to be inserted into the tip Ginsberg-Klemmt, Erika & Achim, and Poiraud, Alain: "The Complete Anchoring Handbook", Ragged Mountain Press, 2007 (ISBN 0071475087) . The Bulwagga is a unique design featuring three flukes instead of the usual two. It has performed well in tests by independent sources such as American boating magazine Practical Sailor Practical Sailor: "Anchor Reset Tests", Belvoir Pubs, January 2001 . The Spade is a French design which has proved successful since 1996. It features a demountable shank and the choice of galvanized steel, stainless steel, or aluminium construction, which means a lighter and more easily stowable anchor Poiraud, Alain: "Tout savoir sur le mouillage", Loisirs Nautiques, 2003 (ISBN 2-914423-46-2) . The New Zealand designed Rocna has been produced since 2004. It too features a sharp toe like the Bügel for penetrating weed and grass, sets quickly Lowe, Colin: "Gear Test: Rocna Anchor", Boating NZ, July 2006 , and has a particularly large fluke area. Its roll-bar is also similar to that of the Bügel. The Rocna obtained the highest averaged holding power in SAIL magazine's comparison testing in 2006 http://www.hisse-et-oh.com/articles/article.php?article=367 http://www.accademiavelica.it/IT/documentazione/_prova-ancore/index.html . Designs of permanent anchors These are used where the vessel is permanently sited, for example in the case of lightvessels or channel marker buoys. The anchor needs to hold the vessel in all weathers, including the most severe storm, but only occasionally, or never, needs to be lifted, only for example if the vessel is to be towed into port for maintenance. An alternative to using an anchor under these circumstances may be to use a pile driven into the seabed. Permanent anchors come in a wide range of types and have no standard form. A slab of rock with an iron staple in it to attach a chain to would serve the purpose, as would any dense object of appropriate weight (e.g., an engine block). Modern moorings may be anchored by sand screws which look and act very much like over-sized screws drilled into the seabed, or by barbed metal beams pounded in (or even driven in with explosives) like pilings, or a variety of other non-mass means of getting a grip on the bottom. One method of building a mooring is to use three or more temporary anchors laid out with short lengths of chain attached to a swivel, so no matter which direction the vessel moves one or more anchors will be aligned to resist the force. Mushroom Mushroom Anchor on the Lightship Portsmouth in Virginia. The mushroom anchor is suitable where the seabed is composed of silt or fine sand. It was invented by Robert Stevenson, for use by an 82 ton converted fishing boat, Pharos, which was used as a lightvessel between 1807 and 1810 near to Bell Rock whilst the lighthouse was being constructed. It was equipped with a 1.5 ton example. It is shaped like an inverted mushroom, the head becoming buried in the silt. A counterweight is often provided at the other end of the shank to lay it down before it becomes buried. A mushroom anchor will normally sink in the silt to the point where it has displaced its own weight in bottom material, thus greatly increasing its holding power. As it can take time for the mushroom anchor to imbed itself into the seabed and achieve its full holding potential, it is often recommended (that if it is to be lifted when it is checked), that the timing of the check be coordinated to follow the stormy part of the season. These anchors are only suitable for a silt or mud bottom, since they rely upon suction and cohesion of the bottom material, which rocky or coarse sand bottoms lack. The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice its weight unless it becomes buried, when it can be as much as ten times its weight. They are available in sizes from about 10 lb up to several tons. Deadweight This is an anchor which relies solely on being a heavy weight. It is usually just a large block of concrete or stone at the end of the chain. Its holding power is defined by its weight underwater (i.e. taking its buoyancy into account) regardless of the type of seabed, although suction can increase this if it becomes buried. Consequently deadweight anchors are used where mushroom anchors are unsuitable, for example in rock, gravel or coarse sand. An advantage of a deadweight anchor over a mushroom is that if it does become dragged, then it continues to provide its original holding force. The disadvantage of using deadweight anchors in conditions where a mushroom anchor could be used is that it needs to be around ten times the weight of the equivalent mushroom anchor. Screw Screw anchors can be used to anchor permanent moorings, floating docks, fish farms, etc. These anchors must be screwed into the seabed with the use of a tool, so require access to the bottom, either at low tide or by use of a diver. Hence they can be difficult to install in deep water without special equipment. Weight for weight, screw anchors have a higher holding than other permanent designs, and so can be cheap and relatively easily installed, although may not be ideal in extremely soft mud. Anchoring gear Naval anchor incorporated into HMAS Canberra (1927) memorial, Canberra, Australia The elements of anchoring gear include the anchor, the cable (also called a rode), the method of attaching the two together, the method of attaching the cable to the ship, charts, and a method of learning the depth of the water. Charts are vital to good anchoring. Knowing the location of potential dangers, as well as being useful in estimating the effects of weather and tide in the anchorage, is essential in choosing a good place to drop the hook. One can get by without referring to charts, but they are an important tool and a part of good anchoring gear, and a skilled mariner would not choose to anchor without them. The depth of water is necessary for determining scope, which is the ratio of length of cable to the depth measured from the highest point (usually the anchor roller or bow chock) to the seabed. For example, if the water is 25 ft (8 m) deep, and the anchor roller is 3 ft (1 m) above the water, the scope is the ratio between the amount of cable let out and 28 ft (9 m). For this reason it is important to have a reliable and accurate method of measuring the depth of water. A cable or rode is the rope, chain, or combination thereof used to connect the anchor to the vessel. Neither rope nor chain is fundamentally superior as a cable. Anchoring techniques Anchor winch on research vessel POLARSTERN Colored plastic inserts on a modern anchor chain show the operator how much chain has been paid out. This knowledge is very important in all anchoring methods The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor, laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. After using the chart to determine a desirable location, the crew needs to actually see what the situation is like; there may be other boats whose crew thought that would be a good spot, or weather conditions may be different from those expected, or even additional hazards not noted on the chart may make a planned location undesirable. If the location is good, the location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should be lowered quickly but under control until it is on the bottom. The vessel should continue to drift back, and the cable should be veered out under control so it will be relatively straight. Once the desired scope is laid out (a minimum of 8:1 for setting the anchor, and 5:1 for holding, though the preferred ratio is 10:1 for both setting, and holding power), the vessel should be gently forced astern, usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor is dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor continues to drag, or sets after having dragged too far, it should be retrieved and moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.) With the anchor set in the correct location, everything should be reconsidered. Is the location protected, now and for the forecast weather? Is the bottom a suitable holding ground, and is the anchor the right one for this type of bottom? Is there enough depth, both now and at low tide? Especially at low tide but also at all tide states, is there enough room for the boat to swing? Will another vessel swing into us, or will we swing into another vessel, when the tide or wind changes? Some other techniques have been developed to reduce swing, or to deal with heavy weather. Using an anchor weight, kellet or sentinel Forked moor Bow and Stern Bahamian moor Backing an anchor Protection A good anchorage offers protection from the current weather conditions, and will also offer protection from the expected weather. The anchorage should also be suitable for other purposes; for example, proximity to shore is beneficial if the crew plans to land. Seabed Charts should indicate the type of bottom, and a sounding lead may be used to collect a sample from the bottom for analysis. Generally speaking, most anchors will hold well in sandy mud, mud and clay, or firm sand. Loose sand and soft mud are not desirable bottoms, especially soft mud which should be avoided if at all possible. Rock, coral, and shale prevent anchors from digging in, although some anchors are designed to hook into such a bottom. Grassy bottoms may be good holding, but only if the anchor can penetrate the foliage. Depth and tides If the anchorage is affected by tide, tide ranges, as well as the times of high and low water, should be known. Enough depth is needed so that low tide does not present obstacles to where the vessel might swing. This is also important when determining scope, which should be figured for high tide and not the current tide state. Swing range If the anchorage is affected by tide, one should keep in mind that the swing range will be larger at low tide than at high tide. However, no matter where the vessel is anchored, the largest possible swing range should be considered, as well as what obstacles and hazards might be within that range. Other vessels' swing ranges may overlap, presenting a further variable. Boats on permanent moorings, or shorter scope, may not swing as far as expected, or may swing either more rapidly or more slowly (all-chain cables tend to swing more slowly than all-rope or chain-and-rope cables.) There are techniques of anchoring to limit the swing of a vessel if the anchorage has limited room. Using an anchor weight, kellet or sentinel Lowering a concentrated, heavy weight down the anchor line - rope or chain - directly in front of the bow to the seabed, behaves like a heavy chain rode and lowers the angle of pull on the anchor. Hinz, Earl R.; The Complete Book of Anchoring and Mooring, first ed., 1986, Cornell Maritime Press; ISBN 0-87033-348-8 If the weight is suspended off the seabed it acts as a spring or shock absorber to dampen the sudden actions that are normally transmitted to the anchor and can cause it to dislodge and drag. In light conditions, a kellet will reduce the swing of the vessel considerably. In heavier conditions these effects disappear as the rode becomes straightened and the weight ineffective. Forked moor Using two anchors set approximately 45° apart, or wider angles up to 90°, from the bow is a strong mooring for facing into strong winds. To set anchors in this way, first one anchor is set in the normal fashion. Then, taking in on the first cable as the boat is motored into the wind and letting slack while drifting back, a second anchor is set approximately a half-scope away from the first on a line perpendicular to the wind. After this second anchor is set, the scope on the first is taken up until the vessel is lying between the two anchors and the load is taken equally on each cable. This moor also to some degree limits the range of a vessel's swing to a narrower oval. Care should be taken that other vessels will not swing down on the boat due to the limited swing range. Bow and stern Not to be mistaken with the Bahamian moor, below. In the Bow and Stern technique, an anchor is set off each the bow and the stern, which can severely limit a vessel's swing range and also align it to steady wind, current or wave conditions. One method of accomplishing this moor is to set a bow anchor normally, then drop back to the limit of the bow cable (or to double the desired scope, e.g. 8:1 if the eventual scope should be 4:1, 10:1 if the eventual scope should be 5:1, etc.) to lower a stern anchor. By taking up on the bow cable the stern anchor can be set. After both anchors are set, tension is taken up on both cables to limit the swing or to align the vessel. Bahamian moor Similar to the above, a Bahamian moor is used to sharply limit the swing range of a vessel, but allows it to swing to a current. One of the primary characteristics of this technique is the use of a swivel as follows: the first anchor is set normally, and the vessel drops back to the limit of anchor cable. A second anchor is attached to the end of the anchor cable, and is dropped and set. A swivel is attached to the middle of the anchor cable, and the vessel connected to that. The vessel will now swing in the middle of two anchors, which is acceptable in strong reversing currents but a wind perpendicular to the current may break out the anchors as they are not aligned for this load. Backing an anchor Also known as Tandem anchoring, in this technique two anchors are deployed in line with each other, on the same rode. With the foremost anchor reducing the load on the aft-most, this technique can develop great holding power and may be appropriate in "ultimate storm" circumstances. It does not limit swinging range, and might not be suitable in some circumstances. There are complications and the technique requires careful preparation and a level of skill and experience above that required for a single anchor. Kedging Statue of Peter the Great leaning on an anchor, in symbol of that Tsar's ship-building activity (Voronezh, 1860). Kedging is a technique for moving or turning a ship by using a relatively light anchor known as a kedge. In yachts, a kedge anchor is an anchor carried in addition to the main, or bower anchors, and usually stowed aft. Every yacht should carry at least two anchors - the main or bower anchor and a second lighter kedge anchor. It is used occasionally when it is necessary to limit the turning circle as the yacht swings when it is anchored, such as in a very narrow river or a deep pool in an otherwise shallow area. For ships, a kedge may be dropped while a ship is underway, or carried out in a suitable direction by a tender or ship's boat to enable the ship to be winched off if aground or swung into a particular heading, or even to be held steady against a tidal or other stream. Historically, it was of particular relevance to sailing warships which used them to out-maneuver opponents when the wind had dropped but might be used by any vessel in confined, shoal water to place it in a more desirable position, provided she had enough manpower. In Heraldry A 1914 Russian poster depicting the Triple Entente. Britannia's association with the oceanic British Empire is indicated by her holding a large anchor. An anchor frequently appears on the flags and coats-of-arms of institutions involved with the sea, both naval and commercial, as well as of port cities and seacoast regions and provinces in various countries. There also exists in heraldry the "Anchored Cross", or Mariner's Cross, a stylized cross in the shape of an anchor. The symbol can be used to signify 'fresh start' or 'hope'. The Mariner's Cross is also referred to as St. Clement's Cross in reference to the way this saint was martyred (being tied to an anchor and thrown from a boat into the Black Sea in the year 102). Anchored crosses are occasionally a feature of coats of arms in which context they are referred to by the heraldic terms anchry or ancre. References Edwards, Fred; Sailing as a Second Language: An illustrated dictionary, 1988 Highmark Publishing; ISBN 0-87742-965-0 Hinz, Earl R.; The Complete Book of Anchoring and Mooring, Rev. 2d ed., 1986, 1994, 2001 Cornell Maritime Press; ISBN 0-87033-539-1 Hiscock, Eric C.; Cruising Under Sail, second edition, 1965 Oxford University Press; ISBN 0-19-217522-X Pardey, Lin and Larry; The Capable Cruiser; 1995 Pardey Books/Paradise Cay Publications; ISBN 0-9646036-2-4 Rousmaniere, John; The Annapolis Book of Seamanship, 1983, 1989 Simon and Schuster; ISBN 0-671-67447-1 Smith, Everrett; Cruising World's Guide to Seamanship: Hold me tight, 1992 New York Times Sports/Leisure Magazines External links "Ultimate Holding Power" - Anchor Test from Yachting Monthly December 2006 "Holding Power" - 14 Anchors Tested from SAIL magazine October 2006 | Anchor |@lemmatized anchor:160 use:42 web:1 page:1 see:5 html:2 element:5 usage:1 wikipedia:1 help:1 object:2 often:6 make:7 metal:3 attach:12 ship:11 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3,957 | Indictable_offence | In many common law jurisdictions (e.g. the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Canada, United States, India, Australia, New Zealand), an indictable offence is an offence which can only be tried on an indictment after a preliminary hearing to determine whether there is a prima facie case to answer or by a grand jury. In trials for indictable offences, the accused normally has the right to a jury trial, unless he or she waives that right. In the United States, a crime of similar severity is a felony, although it too proceeds after an indictment. In English law the term refers to either way and indictable only offences. An either way or hybrid offence allows the defendant to elect between trial by jury on indictment in the Crown Court and summary trial in the Magistrates' Court. However. the election may be overruled by the court of first instance if the facts suggest that the sentencing powers of a Magistrates' Court would be inadequate to represent the seriousness of the offence. Some offences such as murder and rape are considered so serious that they can only be tried on indictment at the Crown Court where the widest range of sentencing powers is available to the judge. When the accused is charged with an indictable offence he/she is sent to the Crown Court for trial. See also Summary offence Felony Indictment | Indictable_offence |@lemmatized many:1 common:1 law:2 jurisdiction:1 e:1 g:1 united:3 kingdom:1 republic:1 ireland:1 canada:1 state:2 india:1 australia:1 new:1 zealand:1 indictable:4 offence:8 try:2 indictment:5 preliminary:1 hearing:1 determine:1 whether:1 prima:1 facie:1 case:1 answer:1 grand:1 jury:3 trial:5 accuse:2 normally:1 right:2 unless:1 waive:1 crime:1 similar:1 severity:1 felony:2 although:1 proceed:1 english:1 term:1 refers:1 either:2 way:2 offences:1 hybrid:1 allow:1 defendant:1 elect:1 crown:3 court:6 summary:2 magistrate:2 however:1 election:1 may:1 overrule:1 first:1 instance:1 fact:1 suggest:1 sentence:2 power:2 would:1 inadequate:1 represent:1 seriousness:1 murder:1 rape:1 consider:1 serious:1 wide:1 range:1 available:1 judge:1 charge:1 send:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram indictable_offence:3 preliminary_hearing:1 prima_facie:1 grand_jury:1 jury_trial:2 |
3,958 | Inquisition | Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition The term Inquisition can refer to any one of several institutions charged with trying and convicting heretics (or other offenders against canon law) within the Roman Catholic Church. It may refer to: Medieval Sourcebook: Inquisition - Introduction an ecclesiastical tribunal the institution of the Roman Catholic Church for combating or suppressing heresy a number of historical expurgation movements against heresy (orchestrated by the Roman Catholic Church) the trial of an individual accused of heresy. Inquisition tribunals and institutions Before the 12th century, the Western Christian Church already suppressed what it saw as heresy, usually through a system of ecclesiastical proscription or imprisonment, but rarely resorting to torture or executions as this form of punishment had many ecclesiastical opponents, although some non-secular countries punished heresy with the death penalty. Catholic Encyclopedia: Inquisition In the 12th century, in order to counter the spread of Catharism, prosecutions against heresy became more frequent. The Church charged councils composed of bishops and archbishops with establishing inquisitions. (see Episcopal Inquisition) In the 13th century, Pope Gregory IX (reigned 1227-1241) assigned the duty of carrying out inquisitions to the Dominican Order. Inquisitors acted in the name of the Pope and with his full authority. They used inquisitorial procedures, a legal practice commonly used at the time. They judged heresy alone, using the local authorities to establish a tribunal and to prosecute heretics. After the end of the twelfth century, a Grand Inquisitor headed each Inquisition. Inquisition in this way persisted until the 19th century. consejo_de_inquisición In the 16th century, Pope Paul III established a system of tribunals, ruled by the "Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Universal Inquisition", and staffed by cardinals and other Church officials. This system would later become known as the Roman Inquisition. In 1908 Saint Pope Pius X renamed the organisation: it became the "Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office". This in its turn became the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Profile in 1965, which name continues . Purpose A 1578 handbook for inquisitors spelled out the purpose of inquisitorial penalties: ... quoniam punitio non refertur primo & per se in correctionem & bonum eius qui punitur, sed in bonum publicum ut alij terreantur, & a malis committendis avocentur. [Translation from the Latin: "... for punishment does not take place primarily and per se for the correction and good of the person punished, but for the public good in order that others may become terrified and weaned away from the evils they would commit."] Directorium Inquisitorum, edition of 1578, Book 3, page 137, column 1. Online in the Cornell University Collection. Retrieved: 2008-05-16. Inquisition movements Historians distinguish between four different manifestations of the Inquisition: the Medieval Inquisition (1184- 1230s) the Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834) the Portuguese Inquisition (1536-1821) the Roman Inquisition (1542- ~1860 ) Because of its objective — combating heresy — the Inquisition had jurisdiction only over baptised members of the Church (which, however, encompassed the vast majority of the population in Catholic countries). Secular courts could still try non-Christians for blasphemy. (Most of the witch trials went through secular courts.) Different areas faced different situations with regard to heresies and suspicion of heresies. Most of Medieval Western and Central Europe had a long-standing veneer of Catholic standardisation, with intermittent localised outbreaks of new ideas and periodic anti-Semitic/anti-Judaic activity. Exceptionally, Portugal and Spain in the late Middle Ages consisted largely of multicultural territories fairly recently re-conquered from Muslim control, and the new Christian authorities could not assume that all their subjects would suddenly become and remain orthodox Catholics. So the Inquisition in Iberia had a special socio-political basis as well as more conventional religious motives. With the rise of Protestantism and ideas of the Renaissance perceived as heretical by the Catholic church, the extirpation of heretics became a much broader and more complex enterprise, complicated by the politics of territorial Protestant powers, especially in northern Europe: war, massacres and the educational and propaganda work of the Counter-Reformation became more common than a judicial approach to heresy in these circumstances. Medieval Inquisition Historians use the term 'Medieval Inquisition" to describe the various inquisitions that started around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184-1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). These inquisitions responded to large popular movements throughout Europe considered apostate or heretical to Christianity, in particular the Cathars and Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. Other Inquisitions followed after these first inquisition movements. Legal basis for some inquisitorial activity came from Pope Innocent IV's papal bull Ad exstirpanda of 1252, which authorized and regulated the use of torture in investigating heresy. Spanish Inquisition [[Image:Pedro Berruguete - Saint Dominic Presiding over an Auto-da-fe (1475).jpg|right|thumb|225px|Representation of an Auto de fe, (around 1495 Page of the painting at Prado Museum. ). Many artistic representations depict torture and burning at the stake as occurring during the auto da fe.]] King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile set up the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 with the approval of Pope Sixtus IV. In contrast to the previous inquisitions, it operated completely under royal authority, though staffed by secular clergy and orders, and independently of the Holy See. It operated in Spain and in all Spanish colonies and territories, which included the Canary Islands, the Spanish Netherlands, the Kingdom of Naples, and all Spanish possessions in North, Central, and South America. It targeted primarily converts from Judaism (Conversos and Marranos) and from Islam (Moriscos or secret Moors) — both groups still resided in Spain after the end of the Islamic control of Spain — who came under suspicion of either continuing to adhere to their old religion or of having fallen back into it. Somewhat later the Spanish Inquisition took an interest in Protestants of virtually any sect, notably in the Spanish Netherlands. In the Spanish possessions of the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples in southern Italy, which formed part of the Spanish Crown's hereditary possessions, it also targeted Greek Orthodox Christians. The Spanish Inquisition, tied to the authority of the Spanish Crown, also examined political cases. In the Americas, King Philip II set up two tribunals (each formally titled Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición), one in Peru and the other in Mexico. The Mexican office administered the Audiencias of Guatemala (Guatemala, Chiapas, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), Nueva Galicia (northern and western Mexico), Mexico (central and southeastern Mexico), and the Philippines. The Peruvian Inquisition, based in Lima, administered all the Spanish territories in South America and Panama. From 1610 a new Inquisition seat established in Cartagena (Colombia) administered much of the Spanish Caribbean in addition to Panama and northern South America. The Inquisition continued to function in North America until the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821). In South America Simón Bolívar abolished the Inquisition; in Spain itself the institution survived until 1834. Portuguese Inquisition Copper engraving intitled "Die Inquisition in Portugall", by Jean David Zunner from the work Description de L'Univers, Contenant les Differents Systemes de Monde, Les Cartes Generales & Particulieres de la Geographie Ancienne & Moderne by Alain Manesson Mallet, Frankfurt, 1685. The Portuguese Inquisition formally started in Portugal in 1536 at the request of the King of Portugal, João III. Manuel I had asked Pope Leo X for the installation of the Inquisition in 1515, but only after his death (1521) did Pope Paul III acquiesce. However, many place the actual beginning of the Portuguese Inquisition during the year of 1497, when the authorities expelled many Jews from Portugal and forcibly converted others to Catholicism. The Portuguese Inquisition principally targeted the Sephardic Jews, whom it forced to convert to Christianity. Spain had expelled its Sephardic population in 1492 (see Alhambra decree); after 1492 many of these Spanish Jews left Spain for Portugal but eventually became targeted there as well. The Portuguese Inquisition came under the authority of the King. At its head stood a Grand Inquisitor, or General Inquisitor, named by the Pope but selected by the Crown, and always from within the royal family. The Grand Inquisitor would later nominate other inquisitors. In Portugal, Cardinal Henry served as the first Grand Inquisitor: he would later become King Henry of Portugual. Courts of the Inquisition operated in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and Évora. The Portuguese Inquisition held its first auto da fé in Portugal in 1540. It concentrated its efforts on rooting out converts from other faiths (overwhelmingly Judaism) who did not adhere to the strictures of Catholic orthodoxy; the Portuguese inquisitors mostly targeted the Jewish "New Christians," conversos, or marranos. The Portuguese Inquisition expanded its scope of operations from Portugal to Portugal's colonial possessions, including Brazil, Cape Verde, and Goa, where it continued as a religious court, investigating and trying cases of breaches of the tenets of orthodox Roman Catholicism until 1821. King João III (reigned (1521-1557) extended the activity of the courts to cover book-censorship, divination, witchcraft and bigamy Originally oriented for a religious action, the Inquisition had an influence in almost every aspect of Portuguese society: politically, culturally and socially. The Goa Inquisition, another inquisition rife with antisemitism and anti-Hinduism and which mostly targeted Jews and Hindus, started in Goa in 1560. Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques set it up in the palace of the Sabaio Adil Khan. According to Henry Charles Lea Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain, vol. 3, Book 8. between 1540 and 1794 tribunals in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra and Évora resulted in the burning of 1,175 persons, the burning of another 633 in effigy, and the penancing of 29,590. But documentation of fifteen out of 689 António José Saraiva, Herman Prins Salomon, I. S. D. Sassoon, The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquistion and Its New Christians 1536-1765, 2001, p. 102 Autos-da-fé has disappeared, so these numbers may slightly understate the activity. The "General Extraordinary and Constituent Courts of the Portuguese Nation" abolished the Portuguese inquisition in 1821. Roman Inquisition In 1542, Pope Paul III established the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition as a permanent congregation staffed with cardinals and other officials. It had the tasks of maintaining and defending the integrity of the faith and of examining and proscribing errors and false doctrines; The Galileo Project | Christianity | The Inquisition it thus became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. Arguably the most famous case tried by the Roman Inquisition involved Galileo Galilei in 1633. Following the French invasion of 1798, the new authorities sent 3,000 chests containing over 100,000 Inquisition documents to France from Rome. After the restoration of the Pope as the ruler of the Papal States after 1814, Roman Inquisition activity continued until the mid-19th century, notably in the well-publicised Mortara Affair (1858-1870). In 1908 the name of the Congregation became "The Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office", which in 1965 further changed to "Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith", as retained to . The Pope appoints a cardinal to preside over the Congregation, which usually includes ten other cardinals, as well as a prelate and two assistants, all chosen from the Dominican Order. The Holy Office also has an international group of consultants, experienced scholars in theology and canon law, who advise it on specific questions. Derivative works The Inquisitions appear in many cultural works. Some include: The Grand Inquisitor, a parable told by Ivan to Alyosha in Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel The Brothers Karamazov (1879-1880). The Spanish Inquisition, the subject of a classic Monty Python sketch of 1970 ("Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!"), became referenced conspicuously in the film Sliding Doors (1998). The short story by Edgar Allan Poe, "The Pit and the Pendulum" takes place against the background of the Spanish Inquisition. In the alternative history novel The Two Georges by Harry Turtledove and Richard Dreyfuss, the Spanish Inquisition remains active, in Spain itself and throughout Latin America, during the whole of the twentieth century. A body known as the Inquisition exists in the fictional Warhammer 40,000 universe. Mel Brooks's 1981 film The History of the World, Part I contains a musical number about the Spanish Inquisition. In Terry Pratchett's Small Gods, the Omnian church has a Quisition, with sub-sections called Inquisition and Exquisition: "... some of the inquisitors had an enviable knowledge of the insides of the human body that is denied to all those who are not allowed to open it while it's still working ..." In J.K. Rowling's 2003 book Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Professor Dolores Umbridge sets up an Inquisition at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, with herself as the High Inquisitor. The "Dark Ages" setting in the World of Darkness (WoD) fantasy universe makes heavy use of the Inquisition: that particular setting takes place during the early 13th century. The computer game "Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader" made by the former Black Isle Studios uses the Spanish Inquisition as a key plot element for the storyline and development of the game. Man of La Mancha, a Broadway musical, tells the story of the classic novel Don Quixote as a play-within-a-play performed by prisoners as they await a hearing with the Spanish Inquisition. Starways Congress forms an element of the Ender-verse by Orson Scott Card. In the later books, they play an important part in determining the fate of the fictional planet Lusitania. In Speaker for the Dead, Ender Wiggin threatens to become an Inquisitor and thus revoke the catholic licence of Lusitania, thus ruining the fragile catholic culture there. The 2006 film The Fountain features elements of the Spanish Inquisition. Voltaire's satire Candide has a scene featuring the Portuguese Inquisition, with the title-character and Dr. Pangloss both found guilty of heresy. Arturo Ripstein's 1973 film El Santo Oficio about the Inquisition in Mexico. Dave Sim's award-winning independent comic book Cerebus the Aardvark featured Inquisition-inspired characters in the High Society issues of the series. The 2006 film Goya's Ghosts starring Stellan Skarsgård, Natalie Portman, and Javier Bardem features the Spanish Inquisition. In the film, the painter Goya (Skarsgård) attempts to save his muse, Ines (Portman), from persecution by the Holy Office. He turns to Brother Lorenzo (Bardem) for help who, unknown to Goya, has an agenda of his own. The music video for the song It's A Sin by the Pet Shop Boys shows Neil Tennant under the influence of the Inquisition An example of a science-fiction type inquisition appears in "The Inquisitor", an episode of the British sci-fi series Red Dwarf, in which the villain holds inquisitions for the people he encounters. See also Historical revision of the Inquisition Inquisitorial system Marian Persecutions: Roman Catholic heretic-hunting in Tudor England Vatican Secret Archives Witchhunt Documents and works Directorium Inquisitorum Histoire de l'Inquisition en France Malleus Maleficarum Notable inquisitors List of Grand Inquisitors Konrad von Marburg Tomás de Torquemada Bernardo Gui Notable cases involving the Inquisition Trial of Joan of Arc Trial of Galileo Galilei Edgardo Mortara's abduction References Notes Bibliography Edward Burman, The Inquisition: The Hammer of Heresy (Sutton Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0-7509-3722-X A new edition of a book first published in 1984, a general history based on the main primary sources. Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. (Yale University Press, 1999). ISBN 0-300-07880-3 This revised edition of his 1965 original contributes to the understanding of the Spanish Inquisition in its local context. Edward M. Peters, Inquisition. (University of California Press, 1989). ISBN 0-520-06630-8 A brief, balanced inquiry, with an especially good section on the 'Myth of the Inquisition' (see The Inquisition Myth). This work has particular value because much of the history of the Inquisition available in English originated in the 19th century from Protestants interested in documenting the dangers of Catholicism or from Catholic apologists presenting the Inquisition as an entirely reasonable judicial body without flaws. Cecil & Irene Roth, A history of the Marranos, Sepher-Hermon Press, 1974. William Thomas Walsh, Characters of the Inquisition (TAN Books and Publishers, Inc, 1940/97). ISBN 0-89555-326-0 Ludovico a Paramo, De Origine et Progressu Sanctae Inquisitionis (1598). E. N Adler, Autos de fe and the Jew (1908). J. Baker, History of the Inquisition (1736). R. Cappa, La Inquisicion Espanola (1888). Genaro Garcia, Autos de fe de la Inquisicion de Mexico (1910). F. Garau, La Fee Triunfante (1691-reprinted 1931). Given, James B Inquisition and Medieval Society New York, Cornell University Press, 2001 Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain (4 volumes), (New York and London, 1906–1907). Juan Antonio Llorente, Historia Critica de la Inquisicion de Espana J. Marchant, A Review of the Bloody Tribunal (1770). J.M. Marin, Procedimientos de la Inquisicion (2 volumes), (1886). Antonio Puigblanch, La Inquisición sin máscara (Cádiz, 1811-1813). [The Inquisition Unmasked (London, 1816)] V. Vignau, Catalogo... de la Inquisicion de Toledo (1903). W.T. Walsh, Isabella of Spain (1931). Simon Whitechapel, Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition (Creation Books, 2003). ISBN 1-84068-105-5 "A good example of how uncritical acceptance of disjointed historical data helps inform contemporary notions of the black legend" Sir Alexandr G. Cardew, A Short History of the Inquisition (1933). Warren H. Carroll, Isabel: the Catholic Queen Front Royal, Virginia, 1991 (Christendom Press) G. G. Coulton, The Inquisition (1929). Ramon de Vilana Perlas, La Verdadera Practica Apostolica de el S. Tribunal de la Inquisicion (1735). A. Herculano, Historia da Origem e Estabelecimento da Inquisicao em Portugal (English translation, 1926). M. Jouve, Torquemada (1935). A.L. Maycock, The Inquisition (1926). H. Nickerson, The Inquisition (1932). H.B. Piazza, A Short and True Account of the Inquisition and its Proceeding (1722). L. Tanon, Histoire des Tribunaux de l’Inquisition (1893). Miranda Twiss, The Most Evil Men And Women In History (Michael O'Mara Books Ltd., 2002). Emile van der Vekene: Bibliotheca bibliographica historiae sanctae inquisitionis. Bibliographisches Verzeichnis des gedruckten Schrifttums zur Geschichte und Literatur der Inquisition. Vol. 1 - 3. Topos-Verlag, Vaduz 1982-1992, ISBN 3-289-00272-1, ISBN 3-289-00578-X (7110 titres sur le thème de l'Inquisition) Emile van der Vekene: La Inquisición en grabados originales. Exposición realizada con fondos de la colección Emile van der Vekene de la Universidad San Pablo-CEU, Aranjuez, 4-26 de Mayo de 2005, Madrid: Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 2005. ISBN 84-96144-86-0 Online works Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages''; Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and other original sources, 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 Joseph de Maistre, tr. John Fletcher, Letters on the Spanish Inquisition, London: Printed by W. Hughes, 1838 (composed 1815):— late defense of the Inquisition by the principal author of the Counter-Enlightenment. Sister Antoinette Marie Pratt, A.M., The attitude of the Catholic Church towards witchcraft and the allied practices of sorcery and magic, A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Philosophy of The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. June 1915, reprinted 1982, New York: AMS Press, ISBN 0-404-18429-4 - Google Books External links The Inquisition: Myth or Reality The Inquisition by Jewish Virtual Library Frequently Asked Questions About the Inquisition by James Hannam Catholic Encyclopedia: "Inquisition" The Secret Files of The Inquistion. PBS The Protestant Inquisition:"Reformation" Intolerance and Persecution by Dave Armstrong "The Immeasurable Curiousity of Edward Peters", p.4 as found in the Pennsylvania Gazzette, a publication of the University of Pennsylvania : online copy of a column by a professor of law at the University of Notre Dame Spain and the Spaniard Scholarly studies including Lea's History Jewish Virtual Library on the Spanish Inquisition Galileo Project: Christianity: Inquisition Spanish Inquisition (1478-1813) (in Spanish language) Index of the court proceedings and other documents of the Portuguese Inquisition (in Portuguese) Clandestine Judaism in the Shadow of the Inquisition, Dr. Rivkah Shafek Lissak L. D. Barnett, "Two Documents of the Inquisition", in The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Ser., Vol. 15, No. 2 (Oct., 1924), pp. 213-239 Inquisition against the Jews 1481-1834 (from Encyclopaedia Judaica 1971) | Inquisition |@lemmatized galileo:5 face:2 roman:11 inquisition:118 term:2 refer:2 one:2 several:1 institution:4 charge:2 try:4 convict:1 heretic:4 offender:1 canon:2 law:3 within:3 catholic:17 church:10 may:3 medieval:6 sourcebook:1 introduction:1 ecclesiastical:3 tribunal:9 combat:2 suppress:2 heresy:14 number:3 historical:4 expurgation:1 movement:4 orchestrate:1 trial:4 individual:1 accused:1 century:10 western:3 christian:6 already:1 saw:1 usually:2 system:4 proscription:1 imprisonment:1 rarely:1 resort:1 torture:3 execution:1 form:3 punishment:2 many:6 opponent:1 although:1 non:3 secular:4 country:2 punish:2 death:2 penalty:2 encyclopedia:2 order:6 counter:3 spread:1 catharism:1 prosecution:1 become:14 frequent:1 council:1 compose:1 bishop:1 archbishop:1 establish:5 see:5 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3,959 | Chopsticks | Chopsticks are a pair of small, equal-length, tapered sticks. They are used as the traditional eating utensils of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Generally believed to have originated in ancient China, they can also be found in some areas of Tibet and Nepal that are close to Han Chinese populations. Chopsticks are most commonly made of bamboo or plastic, but are also made of metal, bone, ivory, and various types of wood. The pair of sticks is maneuvered in one hand, between the thumb and fingers, and used to pick up pieces of food. History Chopsticks originated in ancient China as early as the Shang dynasty (1600-1100 BC), and were widely used throughout East Asia. The earliest evidence of a pair of chopsticks made out of bronze was excavated from Yin Ruins's Tomb 1005 at Houjiazhuang, Anyang, Henan, dated roughly 1200 BC. Lu, Maocun. "An Introduction to Chopsticks," in Agricultural Archaeology, 2004, No. 1:209-216. ISSN 1006-2335. Le due leggende sulle bacchette cinesi Etymology The English word "chopstick" seems to have been derived from Chinese Pidgin English, a pidgin in which "chop chop" meant quickly. Norman, Jerry (1988) Chinese, Cambridge University Press, p267. The Mandarin Chinese word for chopsticks is kuàizi 筷子. 筷 is a semantic-phonetic (xíngshēng) compound with a phonetic part of "快", which means quick, and a semantic part, 竹, meaning bamboo.Chopsticks being used to eat the Japanese dish nattō. In Chinese, the old word for "chopsticks", and also in some varieties of modern Chinese such as Hokkien, was zhù (MC: ) (箸 Pinyin:zhù, Minnan: tī). However, zhù became a taboo on ships because it sounded the same as another word meaning "to stop" (住). Consequently, it was replaced by a word of opposite meaning, kuài (fast, quick). This gradually spread until it became the word for "chopsticks" in most varieties of modern Chinese. The character for this new meaning of "chopsticks" (筷) for kuài has the semantic element of bamboo added to the character meaning "fast" kuài (快). Norman, Jerry (1988) Chinese, Cambridge University Press, p76. In Japanese, chopsticks are called hashi, written . They are also known as or o-temoto, a phrase commonly printed on the wrappers of disposable chopsticks. "O" is honorific and "temoto" was euphemistic jargon invented by the clique of the ladies in attendance at the imperial court meaning that which is within your reach. More fundamentally, "te" means hand and "moto" is related to the "kyo" of "kyoka" (permission). otemoto In Korean, 저(箸, jeo) is used in the compound jeokkarak (젓가락) which is composed of jeo (chopsticks) and garak (stick). Jeo cannot be used alone. In Vietnamese, chopsticks are called "đũa". Spread to other Asian countries While China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam had long included chopsticks as part of their traditional eating utensils, the use of chopsticks in a limited sense spread to other Asian countries in recent centuries with the influx of Chinese immigrants in Southeast Asia. Many countries in Southeast Asia had traditionally eaten with their hands, but through the influence of Chinese immigrants, countries such as Thailand began to use chopsticks, almost exclusively in noodle dishes. Rice and other foods are generally eaten with a western spoon and fork rather than chopsticks. Usage Many rules of etiquette govern the proper conduct of the use of chopsticks. Held between the thumb and fingers of one hand, chopsticks are used tong-like to pick up portions of food, which are prepared and brought to the table in small and convenient pieces. Chopsticks may also be used (except in Korea) as means for sweeping rice and other nominal morsels into the mouth directly from the bowl. Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by left-handed people. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use as improper etiquette. Some historians believe this rule of etiquette originated from a Chinese legend. In chopstick-using cultures, food is generally made into small pieces; however, some chopstick designs have carved rings encircling the tips to aid in grasping larger pieces of food. Rice, which would be difficult to eat with chopsticks if prepared using Western methods, is usually prepared in East Asia with more water, which leads to "clumping" of the rice conducive to eating with chopsticks. The sticky characteristics of the rice also depend on the cultivar of rice; the cultivar used in East Asian countries is usually japonica, which is a more naturally clumping kind of rice than indica, the rice used in most Western and South Asian countries. Types Wooden and plastic chopsticks There are several styles of chopsticks that vary in respect to: Length: Very long chopsticks, usually about 30 or 40 centimeters, tend to be used for cooking, especially for deep frying foods. In Japan they are called saibashi (). Shorter chopsticks are generally used as eating utensils but are also used for cooking. Tapering: The end of the chopsticks for picking up food are tapered to a blunt or a pointed end. Blunt tapered chopsticks provide more surface area for holding food and for pushing rice into the mouth. Pointed tapered chopsticks allow for easier manipulation of food and for picking out bones from whole cooked fish. These pointed ends are also helpful in spearing the food, if the proper technique cannot be mastered. This improper etiquette is seen mainly in America. Material: Chopsticks are made from a variety of materials: bamboo, plastic, wood, bone, metal, jade, and ivory. Bamboo and wood chopsticks are cheap, low in temperature conduction and provide good grip for holding food due to their matte surfaces. They can warp and deteriorate with continued use. Almost all cooking and disposable chopsticks are made of either bamboo or wood. Disposable unlacquered chopsticks are used especially in restaurants. These often come as a piece of wood which is partially cut and must be split apart into two chopsticks by the user (demonstrating that they have not been previously used). In Japanese, these are known as waribashi (). Natural wood chopsticks, like natural wood food preparation surfaces, have an innate antibacterial property absent from other materials Study on Antibacterial Properties of Wood . Plastic chopsticks are cheap, low in temperature conduction and are resistant to wear. However, due to their composition, plastic chopsticks are not as effective as wood and bamboo chopsticks for picking up food as they tend to be slippery. Also, plastic chopsticks cannot be used for cooking since high temperatures may damage the chopsticks and produce toxic compounds. Metal chopsticks are durable and easy to clean. They also tend to be more expensive. Materials such as ivory, jade, gold, and silver are typically chosen for luxury. Embellishments: Wooden or bamboo chopsticks can be painted or lacquered to decorate them and make them waterproof. Metal chopsticks are sometimes roughened or scribed on the tapered end to make them less slippery when picking up foods. Higher priced metal chopstick pairs are sometimes connected by a short chain at the untapered end to prevent their separation. Styles of chopstick used in different cultures From top to bottom: plastic chopsticks from Taiwan, porcelain chopsticks from mainland China, bamboo chopsticks from Tibet, palmwood chopsticks from Indonesia (Vietnamese style), stainless flat chopsticks from Korea (plus a matching spoon), a Japanese couple's set (two pairs), Japanese child's chopsticks, and disposable "hashi" (in wrapper) Chinese: longer sticks that are square in cross section at one end (where they are held) and round in cross section at the other (where they contact the food), ending in a blunt tip. Japanese: short to medium length sticks that taper to a pointed end. Japanese chopsticks are traditionally made of wood and are lacquered. Some chopstick sets include two lengths of chopsticks: shorter ones for women and longer ones for men. Child-sized chopsticks are widely sold. Korean: medium-length stainless-steel tapered rods, with a flat rectangular cross section. (Traditionally, they were made of brass or silver.) Many Korean metal chopsticks are ornately decorated at the grip. They are sometimes used to pick up food onto a spoon,which then brings food to the mouth. Vietnamese: long sticks that taper to a blunt point; traditionally wooden, but now made of plastic as well. A đũa cả is a large pair of flat chopsticks that is used to serve rice from a pot. Etiquette It is important to note that chopsticks are used in many parts of the world. While principles of etiquette are similar, the finer points may differ from region to region, and there is no single standard for the use of chopsticks. Generally, chopsticks etiquette is similar to general western etiquette regarding eating utensils. Universal etiquette Chopsticks are not used to make noise, to draw attention, or to gesticulate. Playing with chopsticks is considered bad mannered and vulgar (just as playing with cutlery in a Western environment would be deemed crass). Chopsticks are not used to move bowls or plates. Chopsticks are not used to toy with one's food or with dishes in common. Chopsticks are not used to pierce food, save in rare instances. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables and kimchi. In informal use, small, difficult-to-pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed, but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. Chopsticks should not be left standing vertically in a bowl of rice or other food. Any stick-like object pointed upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members; certain funerary rites designate offerings of food to the dead using standing chopsticks. Chinese etiquette In Chinese culture, it is normal to hold the rice bowl—rice in China is rarely served on a plate—up to one's mouth and use chopsticks to push rice directly into the mouth. It is acceptable to transfer food to closely related people (e.g. grandparents, parents, spouse, children, or significant others) if they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts. It is poor etiquette to tap chopsticks on the edge of one's bowl, as beggars are believed to make this noise to attract attention. http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/English/chinatours/difference.htm http://www.pandaphone.com/chinese_food_culture.htm It is impolite to spear food with a chopstick. It is rude to use the chopstick to dig for food in the common dish. It is considered poor etiquette to point rested chopsticks towards others seated at the table. http://www.renmenbi.com/chopstick-faux-pas Chopsticks should not be left vertically stuck into a bowl of rice because it resembles the ritual of incense-burning that symbolizes "feeding" the dead and death in general. Taiwanese etiquette Food should not be transferred between chopsticks. Food in need of transportation should be placed onto the recipient's plate or on a new plate for collection. Using chopsticks like a knife and fork to cut soft foods such as sashimi and omelet into smaller portions, usually for children, is widely accepted. Rice should not be pushed into one's mouth from the bowl as this is seen as unsanitary and primitive. Chopsticks should not be rested on the table but rather on a provided chopstick rest or laying across the rice bowl in a sideways fashion. Chopsticks should not be bitten on, or linger in one's mouth for too long. Every last grain of rice in a rice bowl should be consumed due to courteous and superstitious beliefs. Japanese etiquette Food should not be transferred from one's own chopsticks to someone else's chopsticks. Japanese people will always offer their plate to transfer it directly, or pass a person's plate along if the distance is great. Transferring directly is how bones are passed as part of Japanese funeral rites. The pointed ends of the chopsticks should be placed on a chopstick rest when the chopsticks are not being used. However, when a chopstick rest is not available as it is often the case in restaurants using waribashi (disposable chopsticks), a person may make a chopstick rest by folding the paper case that contained the chopsticks. Reversing chopsticks to use the opposite clean end is commonly used to move food from a communal plate, although it is not considered to be proper manners. Rather, the group should ask for extra chopsticks to transfer food from a communal plate. Chopsticks should not be crossed on a table, as this symbolizes death, or vertically stuck in the rice, which is done during a funeral. It is rude to rub wooden chopsticks together after breaking them apart, as this communicates to the host that the user thinks the chopsticks are cheap. Korean etiquette Koreans consider it uncultured and rude to eat rice with chopsticks by picking up the rice bowl and bringing it closer to one's mouth. Dishes are to be left on the table and a spoon and chopsticks used accordingly. When laying chopsticks down on the table next to a spoon, one must never put the chopsticks to the left of the spoon. Chopsticks are only laid to the left for deceased family members. Vietnamese etiquette As with Chinese etiquette, the rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice is pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Unlike with Chinese dishes, it is also practical to use chopsticks to pick up rice in plates, such as fried rice, because Vietnamese rice is typically sticky. It is proper to always use two chopsticks at once, even when using them for stirring. One should not pick up food from the table and place it directly in the mouth. Food must be placed in your own bowl first. Chopsticks should not be placed in the mouth while choosing food. Chopsticks should never be placed in a "V" shape when done eating; it is interpreted as a bad omen. Travel chopsticks Environmental impact In China alone, an estimated 45 billion pairs of disposable chopsticks are used and thrown away annually. This adds up to 1.7 million cubic metres of timber or 25 million fully grown trees every year. To encourage that people use and throw away less, in April 2006 a five percent tax was added to the price of chopsticks in China. This measure is part of the first tax package in 12 years. Reusable metal chopsticks have grown in popularity in recent years. The Taiwanese-American singer Wang Lee-Hom has publicly advocated their use. http://music.msn.com.tw/liveearth/celebrity21.asp , accessed 2008-09-07 Medical problems A 2003 study found that regular use of chopsticks by the elderly may slightly increase the risk of osteoarthritis in the hand, a condition in which cartilage is worn out, leading to pain and swelling in the hand joints. There have also been concerns regarding the use of certain disposable chopsticks made from dark wood bleached white that may pose a health risk, causing coughing or leading to asthma. Xinhuanet News Article A 2006 Hong Kong Department of Health survey found that the proportion of people using serving chopsticks, spoons or other serving utensils has increased from 46% to 65% since the SARS outbreak in 2003. Hong Kong Department of Health survey See also List of eating utensils Chopstick rest References External links Chopsticks Do's and Dont's I Heart Japan: Learn by Pictures Japanese etiquette for chopsticks Japanese chop stick faux pas A gallery of chopstick images Bring Your Own Chopsticks Movement Gains Traction in Asia, article examining the link between chopsticks and deforestation How to use Chopsticks? Article about chopsticks from MrsLinsKitchen.com, March 2001 Chinese Chopstick Etiquette | Chopsticks |@lemmatized chopstick:125 pair:7 small:5 equal:1 length:5 taper:6 stick:11 use:55 traditional:2 eating:4 utensil:4 china:8 japan:4 korea:4 taiwan:2 vietnam:2 generally:5 believe:3 originate:3 ancient:2 also:14 find:4 area:2 tibet:2 nepal:1 close:2 han:1 chinese:17 population:1 commonly:3 make:15 bamboo:9 plastic:8 metal:7 bone:4 ivory:3 various:1 type:2 wood:11 maneuver:1 one:14 hand:10 thumb:2 finger:2 pick:12 piece:5 food:35 history:1 early:2 shang:1 dynasty:1 bc:2 widely:3 throughout:1 east:3 asia:5 evidence:1 bronze:1 excavate:1 yin:1 ruin:1 tomb:1 houjiazhuang:1 anyang:1 henan:1 date:1 roughly:1 lu:1 maocun:1 introduction:1 chopsticks:1 agricultural:1 archaeology:1 issn:1 le:1 due:4 leggende:1 sulle:1 bacchette:1 cinesi:1 etymology:1 english:3 word:6 seem:1 derive:1 pidgin:2 chop:3 mean:6 quickly:1 norman:2 jerry:2 cambridge:2 university:2 press:2 mandarin:1 kuàizi:1 筷子:1 筷:2 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3,960 | Convention_on_Fishing_and_Conservation_of_the_Living_Resources_of_the_High_Seas | The Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas is an agreement that was designed to solve through international cooperation the problems involved in the conservation of living resources of the high seas, considering that because of the development of modern technology some of these resources are in danger of being overexploited. opened for signature - 29 April 1958 entered into force - 20 March 1966 parties - (38) Australia, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Colombia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Finland, France, Haiti, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Netherlands, Nigeria, Portugal, Senegal, Serbia, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Thailand, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United Kingdom, United States, Venezuela countries that have signed, but not yet ratified - (20) Afghanistan, Argentina, Bolivia, Canada, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ghana, Iceland, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Lebanon, Liberia, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Panama, Sri Lanka, Tunisia, Uruguay Source: CIA World Factbook, edition Indonesian Law #19/1961 See also Environmental effects of fishing External links Indonesian Law #19/1961 Convention of the High Seas (1958) | Convention_on_Fishing_and_Conservation_of_the_Living_Resources_of_the_High_Seas |@lemmatized convention:2 fishing:1 conservation:2 living:2 resource:3 high:3 sea:3 agreement:1 design:1 solve:1 international:1 cooperation:1 problem:1 involve:1 consider:1 development:1 modern:1 technology:1 danger:1 overexploit:1 open:1 signature:1 april:1 enter:1 force:1 march:1 party:1 australia:1 belgium:1 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 burkina:1 faso:1 cambodia:1 colombia:1 denmark:1 dominican:1 republic:1 fiji:1 finland:1 france:1 haiti:1 indonesia:1 jamaica:1 kenya:1 lesotho:1 madagascar:1 malawi:1 malaysia:1 mauritius:1 mexico:1 netherlands:1 nigeria:1 portugal:1 senegal:1 serbia:1 sierra:1 leone:1 solomon:1 island:1 south:1 africa:1 spain:1 switzerland:1 thailand:1 tonga:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 uganda:1 united:2 kingdom:1 state:1 venezuela:1 country:1 sign:1 yet:1 ratify:1 afghanistan:1 argentina:1 bolivia:1 canada:1 costa:1 rica:1 cuba:1 ghana:1 iceland:1 iran:1 ireland:1 israel:1 lebanon:1 liberia:1 nepal:1 new:1 zealand:1 pakistan:1 panama:1 sri:1 lanka:1 tunisia:1 uruguay:1 source:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 edition:1 indonesian:2 law:2 see:1 also:1 environmental:1 effect:1 fish:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram bosnia_herzegovina:1 burkina_faso:1 dominican_republic:1 madagascar_malawi:1 sierra_leone:1 tonga_trinidad:1 trinidad_tobago:1 argentina_bolivia:1 costa_rica:1 sri_lanka:1 external_link:1 |
3,961 | History_of_Chile | The territory of present-day Chile has been populated since at least 12,000 BC. In the 16th century Spanish conquistadors began to subdue and colonize the region of present-day Chile, and the territory became a colony from 1540 to 1818, when it gained independence from Spain. Chile's economic development was successively marked by the export of first agricultural produce, then saltpeter and later copper until the 1980s. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighboring states. The country was governed during most of its first 150 years of independent life by different forms of restricted democracy, where the electorate was carefully vetted and controlled by an elite. Failure to address the economic and social disparities and increasing political awareness of the less-affluent population, as well as indirect intervention and economic funding to the main political groups by both the KGB and the CIA http://foia.state.gov/Reports/ChurchReport.asp , as part of the Cold War, led to a political polarization under socialist President Salvador Allende which in turn resulted in the Chilean coup of 1973 and the government of General Augusto Pinochet. The 17-year military-led government was marked by severe human-rights violations and deep market-oriented economic reforms. In 1988, Chile made a peaceful transition to democracy. Sound economic policies have contributed to steady growth. {{Cite web| url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ci.html| title=CIA - The World Factbook - Chile| work=Central Intelligence Agency Early history About 12,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in the fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present day Chile. Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different Amerindian societies. The current prevalent theories are that the initial arrival of humans to the continent took place either along the Pacific coast southwards in a rather rapid expansion long preceding the Clovis culture, or even trans-Pacific migration. These theories are backed by findings in the Monte Verde archaeological site, which predates the Clovis site by thousands of years. Specific early human settlement sites from the very early human habitation in Chile include the Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Crater's lava tube . "Tulor" settlement near San Pedro de Atacama, a Pre-columbian Atacameño culture (800 BCE - 1100 BCE). Despite such diversity, it is possible to classify the indigenous people into three major cultural groups: the northern people, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by pre-Incan cultures; the Araucanian culture, who inhabited the area between the river Choapa and the island of Chiloé, and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture, composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting (and who in Pacific/Pacific Coast immigration scenario would be descended partly from the most ancient settlers). No elaborate, centralized, sedentary civilization reigned supreme. The Araucanians, a fragmented society of hunters, gatherers, and farmers, constituted the largest native American group in Chile. A mobile people who engaged in trade and warfare with other indigenous groups, they lived in scattered family clusters and small villages. Although the Araucanians had no written language, they did use a common tongue. Those in what became central Chile were more settled and more likely to use irrigation. Those in the south combined slash-and-burn agriculture with hunting. Of the three Araucanian groups, the one that mounted the fiercest resistance to the attempts at seizure of their territory were the Mapuche, meaning "people of the land." The Mapuche were the original inhabitants of central and southern Chile. The Inca Empire briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, where they collected tribute from small groups of fishermen and oasis farmers but were not able to establish a strong cultural presence in the area . As the Spaniards would after them, the Incas encountered fierce resistance and so were unable to exert control in the south. During their attempts at conquest in 1460 and again in 1491, the Incas established forts in the Central Valley of Chile, but they could not colonize the region. The Mapuche fought against the Sapa Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-93 CE) and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm , which subsequently became the boundary between the Incan empire and the Mapuche lands until the arrival of the Spaniards. Scholars speculate that the total Araucanian population may have numbered 1 million at most when the Spaniards arrived in the 1530s; a century of European conquest and disease reduced that number by at least half. During the conquest, the Araucanians quickly added horses and European weaponry to their arsenal of clubs and bows and arrows. They became adept at raiding Spanish settlements and, albeit in declining numbers, managed to hold off the Spaniards and their descendants until the late nineteenth century. The Araucanians' valor inspired the Chileans to mythologize them as the nation's first national heroes, a status that did nothing, however, to elevate the wretched living standard of their descendants. Spanish conquest and colony Pedro de Valdivia The first European to sight Chilean territory was Ferdinand Magellan, who crossed the Strait of Magellan on November 1, 1520. However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to Diego de Almagro. Almagro was Francisco Pizarro's partner, and he received command of the southern part of the Inca Empire (Nueva Toledo). He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in 1537, but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru. Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to die in a Civil War. After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile. However, Pedro de Valdivia, captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro's permission to invade and conquer the southern lands. With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now Santiago de Chile, on February 12, 1541 . Although Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land. He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first encomiendas. The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the Mapuche culture, who opposed European conquest and colonization until 1880s; this resistance is known as the Arauco War. Valdivia died at the Battle of Tucapel, defeated by Lautaro, a young Mapuche toqui (war chief), but the European conquest was well underway. The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempts at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed. The Great Uprising of 1598 swept all Spanish presence south of the Bío-Bío River except Chiloé (and Valdivia which was decades later reestablished as a fort), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm. North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the Viceroyalty of Peru. Valdivia became the first governor of the Captaincy General of Chile. In that post, he obeyed the viceroy of Peru and, through him, the King of Spain and his bureaucracy. Responsible to the governor, town councils known as Cabildo administered local municipalities, the most important of which was Santiago, which was the seat of a Royal Appeals Court () from 1609 until the end of colonial rule. Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history. Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's Bourbon dynasty and a more stable situation along the frontier. Independence (1810-1826) Bernardo O'Higgins The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the larger South American Wars of Independence movement, and it was far from having unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists. What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full-fledged civil war between pro-Independence criollos who sought political and economic independence from Spain and Royalist criollos, who supported the continued allegiance to and permanence within the Spanish Empire of the Kingdom of Chile. The struggle for independence was a war within the upper class, although the majority of troops on both sides consisted of conscripted mestizos and native Americans. The beginning of the Independence movement is traditionally dated as September 18, 1810 when a national junta was established to govern Chile in the name of the deposed king Ferdinand VII. Depending on what terms one uses to define the end, the movement extended until 1821 (when the Spanish were expelled from mainland Chile) or 1826 (when the last Spanish troops surrendered and Chiloé was incorporated to the Chilean republic). The independence process is normally divided into three stages: Patria Vieja, Reconquista, and Patria Nueva. Chile's first experiment with self-government, the "Patria Vieja" (old republic, 1810-14), was led by José Miguel Carrera, an aristocrat then in his mid-twenties. The military-educated Carrera was a heavy-handed ruler who aroused widespread opposition. Another of the earliest advocates of full independence, Bernardo O'Higgins, captained a rival faction that plunged the criollos into civil war. For him and for certain other members of the Chilean elite, the initiative for temporary self-rule quickly escalated into a campaign for permanent independence, although other criollos remained loyal to Spain. Among those favoring independence, conservatives fought with liberals over the degree to which French revolutionary ideas would be incorporated into the movement. After several efforts, Spanish troops from Peru took advantage of the internecine strife to reconquer Chile in 1814, when they reasserted control by winning the Battle of Rancagua on October 12. O'Higgins, Carrera and many of the Chilean rebels escaped to Argentina. The second period was characterized by the Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known as the Reconquista of 1814-17 ("Reconquest": the term echoes the Reconquista in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims). During this period, the harsh rule of the Spanish loyalists, who punished suspected rebels, drove more and more Chileans into the insurrectionary camp. More members of the Chilean elite were becoming convinced of the necessity of full independence, regardless of who sat on the throne of Spain. As the leader of guerrilla raids against the Spaniards, Manuel Rodríguez became a national symbol of resistance. Chilean and Argentinean troops going to the Battle of Chacabuco (February 12, 1817) lead by José de San Martín. In exile in Argentina, O'Higgins joined forces with José de San Martín. Their combined army freed Chile with a daring assault over the Andes in 1817, defeating the Spaniards at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12 and marking the beginning of the Patria Nueva. San Martín considered the liberation of Chile a strategic stepping-stone to the emancipation of Peru, which he saw as the key to hemispheric victory over the Spanish. Chile won its formal independence when San Martín defeated the last large Spanish force on Chilean soil at the Battle of Maipú on April 5, 1818. San Martín then led his Argentine and Chilean followers north to liberate Peru; and fighting continued in Chile's southern provinces, the bastion of the royalists, until 1826. A declaration of independence was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1840, when full diplomatic relations were established. Republican period Constitutional organization (1818-1833) From 1817 to 1823, Bernardo O'Higgins ruled Chile as supreme director (president). He won plaudits for defeating royalists and founding schools, but civil strife continued. O'Higgins alienated liberals and provincials with his authoritarianism, conservatives and the church with his anticlericalism, and landowners with his proposed reforms of the land tenure system. His attempt to devise a constitution in 1818 that would legitimize his government failed, as did his effort to generate stable funding for the new administration. O'Higgins's dictatorial behavior aroused resistance in the provinces. This growing discontent was reflected in the continuing opposition of partisans of Carrera, who was executed by the Argentine regime in Mendoza in 1821, like his two brothers were three years earlier. Although opposed by many liberals, O'Higgins angered the Roman Catholic Church with his liberal beliefs. He maintained Catholicism's status as the official state religion but tried to curb the church's political powers and to encourage religious tolerance as a means of attracting Protestant immigrants and traders. Like the church, the landed aristocracy felt threatened by O'Higgins, resenting his attempts to eliminate noble titles and, more important, to eliminate entailed estates. O'Higgins's opponents also disapproved of his diversion of Chilean resources to aid San Martín's liberation of Peru. O'Higgins insisted on supporting that campaign because he realized that Chilean independence would not be secure until the Spaniards were routed from the Andean core of the empire. However, amid mounting discontent, troops from the northern and southern provinces forced O'Higgins to resign. Embittered, O'Higgins departed for Peru, where he died in 1842. After O'Higgins went into exile in 1823, civil conflict continued, focusing mainly on the issues of anticlericalism and regionalism. Presidents and constitutions rose and fell quickly in the 1820s. The civil struggle's harmful effects on the economy, and particularly on exports, prompted conservatives to seize national control in 1830. In the minds of most members of the Chilean elite, the bloodshed and chaos of the late 1820s were attributable to the shortcomings of liberalism and federalism, which had been dominant over conservatism for most of the period. The abolition of slavery in 1823--long before most other countries in the Americas--was considered one of the liberals' few lasting achievements. One liberal leader from the south, Ramón Freire, rode in and out of the presidency several times (1823-27, 1828, 1829, 1830) but could not sustain his authority. From May 1827 to September 1831, with the exception of brief interventions by Freire, the presidency was occupied by Francisco Antonio Pinto, Freire's former vice president. In August 1828, Pinto's first year in office, Chile abandoned its short-lived federalist system for a unitary form of government, with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. By adopting a moderately liberal constitution in 1828, Pinto alienated both the federalists and the liberal factions. He also angered the old aristocracy by abolishing estates inherited by primogeniture (mayorazgo) and caused a public uproar with his anticlericalism. After the defeat of his liberal army at the Battle of Lircay on April 17, 1830, Freire, like O'Higgins, went into exile in Peru. Conservative Era (1830-1861) Diego Portales. Although never president, Diego Portales dominated Chilean politics from the cabinet and behind the scenes from 1830 to 1837. He installed the "autocratic republic," which centralized authority in the national government. His political program enjoyed support from merchants, large landowners, foreign capitalists, the church, and the military. Political and economic stability reinforced each other, as Portales encouraged economic growth through free trade and put government finances in order. Portales was an agnostic who said that he believed in the clergy but not in God. He realized the importance of the Roman Catholic Church as a bastion of loyalty, legitimacy, social control, and stability, as had been the case in the colonial period. He repealed Liberal reforms that had threatened church privileges and properties. Portales brought the military under civilian control by rewarding loyal generals, cashiering troublemakers, and promoting a victorious war against the Peru-Bolivia Confederation (1836-39). After defeating Peru and Bolivia, Chile dominated the Pacific Coast of South America. The victory over its neighbors gave Chile and its new political system a psychological boost. Chileans experienced a surge of national enthusiasm and cohesion behind a regime accepted as legitimate and efficacious. Portales also achieved his objectives by wielding dictatorial powers, censoring the press, and manipulating elections. For the next forty years, Chile's armed forces would be distracted from meddling in politics by skirmishes and defensive operations on the southern frontier, although some units got embroiled in domestic conflicts in 1851 and 1859. The "Portalian State" was institutionalized by the 1833 constitution. One of the most durable charters ever devised in Latin America, the Portalian constitution lasted until 1925. The constitution concentrated authority in the national government, more precisely, in the hands of the president, who was elected by a tiny minority. The chief executive could serve two consecutive five-year terms and then pick a successor. Although the Congress had significant budgetary powers, it was overshadowed by the president, who appointed provincial officials. The constitution also created an independent judiciary, guaranteed inheritance of estates by primogeniture, and installed Catholicism as the state religion. In short, it established an autocratic system under a republican veneer. The first Portalian president was General Joaquín Prieto, who served two terms (1831-36, 1836-41). President Prieto had four main accomplishments: implementation of the 1833 constitution, stabilization of government finances, defeat of provincial challenges to central authority, and victory over the Peru-Bolivia Confederation. During the presidencies of Prieto and his two successors, Chile modernized through the construction of ports, railroads, and telegraph lines, some built by United States entrepreneur William Wheelwright. These innovations facilitated the export-import trade as well as domestic commerce. Prieto and his adviser, Portales, feared the efforts of Bolivian general Andrés de Santa Cruz to unite with Peru against Chile. These qualms exacerbated animosities toward Peru dating from the colonial period, now intensified by disputes over customs duties and loans. Chile also wanted to become the dominant South American military and commercial power along the Pacific. Portales got Congress to declare war on Peru in 1836. Liberal era (1861-1891) The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the Mapuche during the Occupation of the Araucanía. In 1881, it signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan, but conceding all of oriental Patagonia, and a considerable fraction of the territory it had during colonial times. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879-1883), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. In the 1870s, the church influence started to diminish slightly with the passing of several laws that took some old roles of the church into the State's hands such as the registry of births and marriages. José Manuel Balmaceda In 1886, José Manuel Balmaceda was elected president. His economic policies visibly changed the existing liberal policies. He began to violate the constitution and slowly began to establish a dictatorship. Congress decided to depose Balmaceda, who refused to step down. Jorge Montt, among others, directed an armed conflict against Balmaceda, which soon extended into the Chilean Civil War of 1891. Defeated, Balmaceda fled to Argentina's embassy, where he committed suicide. Jorge Montt became the new president. Parliamentary republic (1891-1925) The so-called Parliamentary Republic was not a true parliamentary system, in which the chief executive is elected by the legislature. It was, however, an unusual regime in presidentialist Latin America, for Congress really did overshadow the rather ceremonial office of the president and exerted authority over the chief executive's cabinet appointees. In turn, Congress was dominated by the landed elites. This was the heyday of classic political and economic liberalism. For many decades thereafter, historians derided the Parliamentary Republic as a quarrel-prone system that merely distributed spoils and clung to its laissez-faire policy while national problems mounted. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-2410.html The characterization is epitomized by an observation made by President Ramón Barros Luco (1910-15), reputedly made in reference to labor unrest: "There are only two kinds of problems: those that solve themselves and those that can't be solved." At the mercy of Congress, cabinets came and went frequently, although there was more stability and continuity in public administration than some historians have suggested. Chile also temporary resolved its border disputes with Argentina with the Puna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899, the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina and the 1902 General Treaty of Arbitration. Political authority ran from local electoral bosses in the provinces through the congressional and executive branches, which reciprocated with payoffs from taxes on nitrate sales. Congressmen often won election by bribing voters in this clientelistic and corrupt system. Many politicians relied on intimidated or loyal peasant voters in the countryside, even though the population was becoming increasingly urban. The lackluster presidents and ineffectual administrations of the period did little to respond to the country's dependence on volatile nitrate exports, spiraling inflation, and massive urbanization. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-2410.html In recent years, however, particularly when the authoritarian regime of Augusto Pinochet is taken into consideration, some scholars have reevaluated the Parliamentary Republic of 1891-1925. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-2410.html Without denying its shortcomings, they have lauded its democratic stability. They have also hailed its control of the armed forces, it respect for civil liberties, its expansion of suffrage and participation, and its gradual admission of new contenders, especially reformers, to the political arena. In particular, two young parties grew in importance - the Democrat Party, with roots among artisans and urban workers, and the Radical Party, representing urban middle sectors and provincial elites. By the early twentieth century, both parties were winning increasing numbers of seats in Congress. The more leftist members of the Democrat Party became involved in the leadership of labor unions and broke off to launch the Socialist Workers' Party ( - POS) in 1912. The founder of the POS and its best-known leader, Luis Emilio Recabarren, also founded the Communist Party of Chile ( - PCCh) in 1922. Presidential republic (1925-1973) By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri Palma. Alessandri appealed to those who believed the social question should be addressed, to those worried by the decline in nitrate exports during World War I, and to those weary of presidents dominated by Congress. Promising "evolution to avoid revolution," he pioneered a new campaign style of appealing directly to the masses with florid oratory and charisma. After winning a seat in the Senate representing the mining north in 1915, he earned the sobriquet "Lion of Tarapacá." As a dissident Liberal running for the presidency, Alessandri attracted support from the more reformist Radicals and Democrats and formed the so-called Liberal Alliance. He received strong backing from the middle and working classes as well as from the provincial elites. Students and intellectuals also rallied to his banner. At the same time, he reassured the landowners that social reforms would be limited to the cities. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-2412.html Alessandri soon discovered that his efforts to lead would be blocked by the conservative Congress. Like Balmaceda, he infuriated the legislators by going over their heads to appeal to the voters in the congressional elections of 1924. His reform legislation was finally rammed through Congress under pressure from younger military officers, who were sick of the neglect of the armed forces, political infighting, social unrest, and galloping inflation. whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. A double military coup set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. First military right-wingers opposing Alessandri seized power in September 1924, and then reformers in favor of the ousted president took charge in January 1925. The Saber noise (ruido de sables) incident of September 1924, provoked by discontent of young officers, mostly lieutenants from middle and working classes, lead to the establishment of the September Junta led by General Luis Altamirano and the exile of Alessandri. However, fears of a conservative restoration in progressive sectors of the army led to another coup in January, which ended with the establishment of the January Junta as interim government while waiting for Alessandri's return. The latter group was led by two colonels, Carlos Ibáñez del Campo and Marmaduke Grove. They returned Alessandri to the presidency that March and enacted his promised reforms by decree. The latter re-assumed power in March, and a new Constitution encapsulating his proposed reforms was ratified in a plebiscite in September 1925. The new constitution gave increased powers to the presidency. Alessandri broke with the classical liberalism's policies of laissez-faire by creating a Central Bank and imposing a revenue tax. However, social discontents were also crushed, leading to the Marusia massacre in March 1925 followed by the La Coruña massacre. The longest lasting of the ten governments between 1924 and 1932 was that of General Carlos Ibáñez, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. The Seguro Obrero Massacre took place on September 5, 1938, in the midst of a heated three-way election campaign between the ultraconservative Gustavo Ross Santa María, the radical Popular Front's Pedro Aguirre Cerda, and the newly-formed Popular Alliance candidate, Carlos Ibáñez del Campo. The National Socialist Movement of Chile supported Ibáñez's candidacy, which had been announced on September 4. In order to preempt Ross's victory, the National Socialists mounted a coup d'etat that was intended to take down the rightwing government of Arturo Alessandri Palma and place Ibáñez in power. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932-52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez to office for another 6 years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez in 1958. The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals. Collapse of democracy In the 1970 presidential election, Senator Salvador Allende Gossens won a plurality of votes in a three-way contest. He was a Marxist physician and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the "Popular Unity" (UP or "Unidad Popular") coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action. Allende had two main competitors in the election — Radomiro Tomic, representing the incumbent Christian Democratic party, who ran a left-wing campaign with much the same theme as Allende's, and the right-wing former president Jorge Alessandri. In the end, Allende received a plurality of the votes cast, getting 36% of the vote against Alessandri's 34% and Tomic's 27%. Despite pressure from the government of the United States , the Chilean Congress, keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri. This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970. After assurances of legality on Allende's part, the murder of the Army Commander-in-Chief, General René Schneider and Frei's refusal to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende - on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs - Allende was chosen by a vote of 153 to 35. . The Popular Unity platform included the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines, the advancement of workers' rights, implementation of land reform, reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors, a foreign policy of "international solidarity" and national independence and a new institutional order (the "people's state" or "poder popular"), including the institution of a unicameral congress. Immediately after the election, the United States expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile. In addition, the CIA's website reports that the agency aided three different Chilean opposition groups during that time period and "sought to instigate a coup to prevent Allende from taking office". At the same time, indigenous and peasant forces across the country violently started to take control of agricultural lands, forcibly fulfilling Allende's land redistribution promises. In the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Economics Minister Pedro Vuskovic's expansive monetary policy were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in GDP, accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, which had the effect of increasing consumer spending and redistributing income downward. Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the banking sector was nationalized. Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the administration's first year. However, these results were not sustainable and in 1972 the Chilean escudo had runaway inflation of 140%. An economic depression that had begun in 1967 peaked in 1972, exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing led to the rise of black markets in rice, beans, sugar, and flour, and a "disappearance" of such basic commodities from supermarket shelves . The Cuban packages scandal revealed arms smuggling from the Communist Cuba to Chile; Allende - surrounded by KGB advisors - had turned Chile into a center for Soviet operations in Latin America . Salvador Allende now had a personal KGB adviser. According to Allende’s KGB file, Allende "was made to understand the necessity of reorganising Chile's army and intelligence services, and of setting up a relationship between Chile’s and the USSR's intelligence services" . The nationalization of U.S. and other foreign-owned companies led to increased tensions with the United States. As a result, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to quickly destabilize Allende’s government. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch01-01.htm http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch27-01.htm http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch05-01.htm http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm In addition, international financial pressure restricted economic credit to Chile. Simultaneously, the CIA funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization. http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/chile/doc/hinchey.html By 1972, the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed, and the economy was in crisis. Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes. By 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government. Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside. A failed military coup was attempted against Allende in June 1973 . In its "Declaration of the Breakdown of Chile’s Democracy", on August 22, 1973, the Chamber of Deputies of Chile asserted that Chilean democracy had broken down and called for Allende's removal, by military force if necessary, to restore constitutional rule. Less than a month later, on September 11, 1973, the Chilean military deposed Allende, who committed suicide as the Presidential Palace was surrounded and bombed. Subsequently, rather than restore governmental authority to the civilian legislature, Augusto Pinochet exploited his role as Commander of the Army to seize total power and to establish himself at the head of a junta. Controversy surrounds alleged CIA involvement in the coup. Peter Kornbluh, CIA Acknowledges Ties to Pinochet’s Repression Report to Congress Reveals U.S. Accountability in Chile, Chile Documentation Project, National Security Archive, September 19, 2000. Accessed online November 26, 2006. As early as the Church Committee Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowledging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power. The Kissinger Telcons: Kissinger Telcons on Chile, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Peter Kornbluh, posted May 26, 2004. This particular dialogue can be found at TELCON: September 16, 1973, 11:50 a.m. Kissinger Talking to Nixon. Accessed online November 26, 2006. According to the Vasili Mitrokhin and Christopher Andrew, the KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate launched a disinformation campaign Operation TOUCAN. For instance, in 1976, the New York Times published 66 articles on alleged human rights abuses in Chile and only 4 on Cambodia, where the communist Khmer Rouge killed some 1.5 million people of 7.5 million people in the country. . Military government (1973-1989) Augusto Pinochet. By early 1973, inflation was out of control. The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous strikes by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. A military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende committed suicide. A military government, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, took over control of the country. The first years of the regime were marked by allegations of human rights violations. On October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death. At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the Rettig Report. http://www.usip.org/library/tc/doc/reports/chile/chile_1993_toc.html About 30,000 left the country, and tens of thousands of people were detained and tortured, as investigated by the 2004 Valech Commission. Chile torture victims win payout A new Constitution was approved by plebiscite characterized by the absence of registration lists, on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an 8-year term. In the late 1980s, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity. The government launched market-oriented reforms, which have continued ever since. Chile moved toward a free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened for competition. In a plebiscite on October 5, 1988, General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president (56% against 44%) . After the coup, Chileans witnessed a large-scale repression, which started as soon as October 1973, with at least 70 persons murdered by the Caravan of Death. Pinochet's rule: Repression and economic success The four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished civil liberties, dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms. Terrorism and Political Violence during the Pinochet Years: Chile, 1973-1989 The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans. According to the Rettig commission and the Valech Report, close to 3,200 were executed or "disappeared" , and at least 29,000 imprisoned and tortured . According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), "situations of extreme trauma" affected about 200,000 persons. ; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families. Chilean (blue) and average Latin American (orange) GDP per capita (1950-2007). The junta embarked on a radical program of liberalization and privatization, slashing tariffs as well as government welfare programs and deficits. http://crs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/17/2/57 In 1973, Chile was in shambles - inflation was hundreds of percents, the country had no foreign reserves, and GDP was falling. In order to halt the ongoing economic collapse, economic reforms were drafted by a group of technocrats known as the Chicago boys because many of them had been trained or influenced by University of Chicago professors. The first reforms were implemented in three rounds - 1974-1983, 1985, and 1990. After the economic crisis of 1982, Hernan Buchi became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989. He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country. He introduced banking legislation, simplified and reduced the corporate tax. Chile pressed ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982–1983 crisis. Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped from about 1,000% per year to about 10% per year. While this was still a high rate of inflation, it allowed the economy to start recovering. From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent. Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices. An important initiative begun in 1981 and carried on until today, aimed at modernizing the use of Information and Communication technology, greatly contributed to disentangle the traditional bureaucratic and cumbersome clerical procedures in all dealings with branches of the government, from civil registry to import/export documentation, thereby fostering a more agile economy and a more efficient public administration. The military junta began to change during the late 1970s. Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in 1978 and replaced by General Fernando Matthei. Due to the Caso Degollados ("slit throats case"), in which three Communist party members were assassinated, César Mendoza, member of the junta since 1973 and representants of the carabineros, resigned in 1985 and was replaced by Rodolfo Stange. The next year, Carmen Gloria Quintana was burnt alive in what became known as the Caso Quemado ("Burnt Alive case"). http://www.cidh.oas.org/annualrep/87.88sp/Chile9755.htm Problems with Argentina coming from the 19th century reached a high in 1978, with disagreements over the Beagle Canal. The two countries agreed to papal mediation over the canal. Chilean-Argentine relations remained bad, however, and Chile helped Britain during the Falklands War. Chile's constitution was approved in a national plebiscite held in September 1980. It came into force in March 1981. It established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta. Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, and he was denied a second 8 year term by 54.5% of the vote. Return to Democracy Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on December 14, 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%) . President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In February 1991 Aylwin created the National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation, which released in February 1991 the Rettig Report on human rights violations committed during the military rule. This report counted 2,279 cases of "disappearances" which could be proved and registered. Of course, the very nature of "disappearances" made such investigations very difficult. The same problem arose, several years later, with the Valech Report, released in 2004 and which counted almost 30,000 victims of torture, among testimonies from 35,000 persons. In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%) . Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile , by a very tight score of less than 200,000 votes (51,32%). In 1998, Augusto Pinochet traveled to London for back surgery. But under orders of Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón, he was arrested there, attracting worldwide attention, not only because of the past history of Chile and South America, but also because this was one of the first arrest of a former president based on the universal jurisdiction principle. Pinochet tried to defend himself by referring to the State Immunity Act of 1978, an argument rejected by the British justice. However, UK Home Secretary Jack Straw took the responsibility to release him on medical grounds, and refused to extradite him to Spain. Thereafter, Pinochet returned to Chile in March 2000. Upon descending the plane on his wheelchair, he stood up and saluted the cheering crowd of supporters, including an army band playing his favorite military march tunes, which was awaiting him at the airport in Santiago. President Ricardo Lagos later commented that the retired general's televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile, while thousands demonstrated against him . The Concertación coalition has continued to dominate Chilean politics for last two decades. In January 2006 Chileans elected their first woman president, Michelle Bachelet, of the Socialist Party . She was sworn in on March 11, 2006, extending the Concertación coalition governance for another four years . In 2002 Chile signed an association agreement with the European Union (comprising FTA, political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the United States, and in 2004 with South Korea, expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub. Continuing the coalition's free-trade strategy, in August 2006 President Bachelet promulgated a free trade agreement with the People's Republic of China (signed under the previous administration of Ricardo Lagos), the first Chinese free-trade agreement with a Latin American nation; similar deals with Japan and India were promulgated in August 2007. In October 2006, Bachelet promulgated a multilateral trade deal with New Zealand, Singapore and Brunei, the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (P4), also signed under Lagos' presidency. Regionally, she has signed bilateral free-trade agreements with Panama, Peru and Colombia. See also List of Chile-related topics Timeline of Chilean history Arauco War War of the Confederation Chincha Islands War War of the Pacific Occupation of the Araucanía U.S. intervention in Chile History of South America Economy of South America Economic history of Chile Economy of Chile Miracle of Chile Agriculture in Chile Fishing in Chile Tourism in Chile Mining in Chile References Sources Cronología de Chile in the Spanish-language Wikipedia. be-x-old:Гісторыя Чылі | History_of_Chile |@lemmatized territory:8 present:3 day:5 chile:85 populate:1 since:3 least:8 bc:1 century:8 spanish:19 conquistador:1 begin:8 subdue:2 colonize:2 region:3 become:21 colony:2 gain:1 independence:18 spain:9 economic:25 development:1 successively:1 mark:4 export:9 first:19 agricultural:4 produce:2 saltpeter:1 later:6 copper:5 wealth:1 raw:1 material:1 lead:19 upturn:1 also:14 dependency:1 even:3 war:20 neighboring:1 state:16 country:14 govern:2 year:25 independent:3 life:1 different:3 form:5 restricted:1 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3,962 | Lake_Champlain | Lake Champlain (French: lac Champlain) is a natural, freshwater lake in North America, located mainly within the borders of the United States (states of Vermont and New York) but partially situated across the Canada – United States border in the Canadian province of Quebec. Hydrology Landsat photo Lake Champlain is situated in the Champlain Valley between the Green Mountains of Vermont and the Adirondack Mountains of New York, drained northward by the Richelieu River into the St. Lawrence River at Sorel-Tracy, Quebec (northeast of Montreal) and fed by Otter Creek, the Winooski, Missisquoi, and Lamoille Rivers in Vermont, and the Ausable, Chazy, Boquet, and Saranac Rivers in New York. Lake Champlain also receives water from Lake George via the La Chute River. Geology Lake Champlain is one of a large number of large lakes spread in an arc from Labrador through the northern United States and into the Northwest Territories of Canada. Although it is much smaller than the Great Lakes of Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, or Michigan, Lake Champlain is a large body of fresh water. Approximately 1130 km² (435 square miles) in area, the lake is roughly 180 km (110 miles) long, and 19 km (12 miles) across at its widest point. The maximum depth is approximately 400 feet. The lake varies seasonally from about 95 to 100 feet above mean sea level. Natural history Coral The Chazy Reef, which has been called the oldest reef in the world, is huge, but most easily studied on Isle La Motte, a Vermont island on Lake Champlain. However, there are two even older reefs on the island, which are the subject of study by scientists. The oldest reefs are around "The Head" of the south end of the island, slightly younger reefs are found at the Fisk Quarry and the youngest (the famous coral reefs) are located in fields to the north. University of Vermont Professor of Geology, Charlotte Mehrtens Together, these three sites provide a unique narrative of events which took place over 450 million years ago in ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, long before the emergence of Lake Champlain - 20 thousand years ago. History The lake was named for the French explorer Samuel de Champlain, who encountered it in 1609. While the ports of Burlington, Vermont, Port Henry, New York, and Plattsburgh, New York are little used nowadays except by small craft, ferries and lake cruise ships, they had substantial commercial and military importance in the 18th and 19th century. Colonial America and the Revolutionary War In colonial times, Lake Champlain provided an easily traversed water (or, in winter, ice) passage between the Saint Lawrence and the Hudson Valleys. Boats and sledges were usually preferable to the unpaved and frequently mud-bound roads of the time. The northern tip of the lake at Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec (St. John in colonial times) is a short distance from Montreal. The southern tip at Whitehall (Skenesborough in colonial times) is a short distance from Saratoga, Glens Falls, and Albany, New York. Forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point (Fort St. Frederic) controlled passage of the lake in colonial times. Important battles were fought at Ticonderoga in 1758 and 1775. Following a frenetic shipbuilding race through the Spring and Summer of 1776 by the British at the north end of the lake and the Americans at the south end, a significant naval engagement was fought on October 11 at the Battle of Valcour Island, which saw the destruction of the first US Navy vessel to carry the name Enterprise. While the battle was a tactical defeat for the Americans and the small fleet led by Benedict Arnold was almost entirely destroyed, it was a strategic victory. The British invasion was delayed long enough so that the approach of Winter prevented the fall of these forts until the following year, allowing the Continental Army to grow stronger and enabling the later victory at Saratoga. War of 1812 The Battle of Lake Champlain, also known as the Battle of Plattsburgh, fought on September 11, 1814, ended the final invasion of the northern states during the War of 1812. Fought just prior to the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, the American victory denied the British any leverage to demand exclusive control over the Great Lakes and any territorial gains against the New England states. Three US Naval ships have been named after this battle including the USS Lake Champlain (CV-39), the USS Lake Champain (CG-57), and a cargo ship used during World War I. Following the War of 1812, construction was begun on "Fort Blunder," an unnamed fortification built by the Americans at the northernmost end of Lake Champlain to protect against any further attacks from British Canada. Its nickname came from a surveying error: the initial phase of construction on the fort turned out to be taking place on a point three quarters of a mile north of the Canadian border. Once this error was spotted, construction was abandoned and many of the materials used in the aborted fort were scavenged by locals for use in their own homes and public buildings. The signing of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842 later adjusted the U.S. boundary northward to include the strategically important site of "Fort Blunder." Following this in 1844, work was commenced once again, replacing the remains of the 1812 era fort with a massive new 3rd system masonary fortification known as Fort Montgomery, portions of which still remain today. Modern history A 1902 photograph of Fort Henry at Lake Champlain. In the early 19th century, the construction of the Champlain Canal connected Lake Champlain to the Hudson River system, allowing north-south commerce by water from New York City to Montreal and Atlantic Canada. In 1909, 65,000 people celebrated the 300th anniversary of the discovery of the lake. Attending dignitaries included President William Howard Taft, along with representatives from France, Canada and the United Kingdom. 1909 Champlain Tercentenary Celebration of the Discovery of Lake Champlain. Lake Champlain briefly became the nation's sixth Great Lake on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signed Senate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized the National Sea Grant Program, contained a line declaring Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake. Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources. Following a small uproar, the Great Lake status was rescinded on March 24 (although Vermont universities continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake). One of the more enduring mysteries surrounding Lake Champlain is the legend of Champ. Reminiscent of the Loch Ness monster, Ogopogo and other phenomena of cryptozoology, Champ is purportedly a giant aquatic animal that makes the lake its home. Sightings have been sporadic over time. Regardless, locals and tourists have developed something of a fondness for the creature and its legend and representations of Champ can now be found on tee shirts, coffee mugs, and many other tourist souvenirs. The Vermont Lake Monsters, a minor-league baseball team, have a cartoonish version of Champ as their mascot. Ecology A pollution prevention, control, and restoration plan for Lake Champlain was first endorsed in October 1996 by the governors of New York and Vermont and the regional administrators of the EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). In April 2003, the plan was updated and Quebec signed onto it. The plan is being implemented by the Lake Champlain Basin Program and its partners at the state, provincial, federal and local level. It is renowned as a model for interstate and international cooperation. It primary goals are to reduce phosphorus inputs to Lake Champlain; reduce toxic contamination; minimize the risks to humans from water-related health hazards; and control the introduction, spread, and impact of nonnative nuisance species in order to preserve the integrity of the Lake Champlain ecosystem. Agricultural and urban runoff from the watershed or drainage basin is the primary source of excess phosphorus which exacerbates algae blooms in Lake Champlain. The most problematic blooms have been cyanobacteria, commonly called blue-green algae, in the northeastern part of the Lake, primarily Missisquoi Bay. Abstract online In order to reduce phosphorus inputs to this part of the Lake, Vermont and Quebec agreed to reduce their inputs by 60% and 40%, respectively by an agreement signed in 2002. While agricultural sources (manure and fertilizers) are the primary sources of phosphorus (about 70%) in the Missisquoi basin, runoff from developed land and suburbs is estimated to contribute about 46% of the phosphorus runoff basin-wide to Lake Champlain and agricultural lands contributed about 38%. In 2008, the EPA expressed concerns to the State of Vermont that the Lake's cleanup was not progressing fast enough to meet the original cleanup goal of 2016. The State, however, cites its Clean and Clear Action Plan as a model that will see positive results for Lake Champlain. Although there are pollution issues, Lake Champlain is safe for swimming, fishing, and boating, and it is considered a world-class fishery for salmonid species (Lake trout and Atlantic salmon) and bass. About 81 fish species live in the Lake and more than 300 bird species rely on it for habitat and as a migration route. Lake Champlain Basin Atlas: Plants and Animals, 2004. By 2008 there were six institutions monitoring lake water health: 1) In 2002 the Conservation Law Foundation appointed a "lakekeeper" who criticizes the state's pollution controls, 2) Friends of Missisquoi Bay was formed in 2003, 3) In 2007 the Vermont Natural Resources Council appoints a "Lake czar" who criticize weakness in the state's pollution control, 4) Vermont Water Resources Board hired a water quality expert in 2008 to write water quality standards and create wetland protection rules, 5) Clean and Clear, an agency of the Vermont state government established in 2004 and 6) the Nature Conservancy which focuses on biodiversity and ecosystem health. Biologists have been trying to control lampreys in the lake since 1985 or earlier. Lampreys are native to the area but expanded until they were wounding nearly all Lake trout in 2006 and 70-80% of salmon. This had been reduced by pesticides in 2008 so that 35% of salmon were affected and 31% of lake trout. The goal was 15% of salmon and 25% of lake trout. Railroad Lake Champlain Lake Champlain Ferry at Burlington Map showing the Lake Champlain-River Richelieu watershed Lake Champlain from Burlington Vermont Lake Champlain looking south while crossing the bridge going west towards South Hero, Grand Isle on U.S. Route 2 The LCTC ferry slip at Grand Isle, VT Through history there were four significant railroad crossings over the lake. Currently, only one such crossing remains. The "floating" rail trestle from Larabees Point, Vermont to Ticonderoga, New York. This crossing used a floating trestle that was abandoned in 1918 due to many accidents resulting in locomotives and rail cars being dumped in the lake. This crossing was operated by the Addison Branch of the Rutland Railroad. The Island Line Causeway. This marble rock landfill causeway stretched from Colchester, Vermont (on the mainland) three miles north and west to South Hero, Vermont. Two breaks in the causeway were spanned by a fixed iron trestle and a swing bridge that could be opened to allow nautical navigation. The Rutland Railroad (later Rutland Railway) operated trains over this causeway from 1901-1961. The Railway was officially abandoned in 1963, with tracks and trestles removed over the course of the ten years that followed. The marble causeway still remains, as does the fixed iron trestle that bridges the lesser of the two gaps. The swing bridge over the navigation channel was removed sometime in the early 1970s. The main three mile causeway is a recreation area, Colchester Park, for cyclists, runners, and anglers. Two smaller marble rock landfill causeways were also erected as part of this line that connected Grand Isle, Vermont to North Hero, Vermont and from North Hero to Alburgh (town), Vermont. The Rouses Point, New York rail trestle. This wooden trestle carried two railroads (the Rutland Railroad and the Central Vermont Railroad) over the lake adjacent and to the south of the US 2 vehicular bridge. This trestle carried rolling stock from sometime in the late 19th century until 1964. The iron swing bridge at the center (over the navigation channel) has been removed, but most of the wooden piles that carried the railroads still remain and can easily be seen looking south from the U.S. 2 bridge. The Rouses Point side of the bridge has been converted, in part, to an access pier associated with the local marina. The Swanton, Vermont, to East Alburg, Vermont rail trestle. This wooden trestle was built in the same manner as the Rouses Point trestle. It crosses the lake just south of Missisquoi Bay and the Canadian border, running directly south of the VT 78 highway causeway. This rail crossing carries the New England Central Railroad, and is still being used to this day. Economy Lake crossings The Alburgh Peninsula (also known as the Alburgh Tongue), extending south from the Quebec shore of the lake into Vermont, shares with Point Roberts, Washington, and the Northwest Angle in Minnesota as well as Province Point (see below) the distinction of being reachable by land from the rest of its state only via Canada. However, unlike the other three cases, this is no longer of practical significance since highway bridges across the lake do provide access to the peninsula within the United States (from three directions, in fact). A few kilometres to the north-east of the town of East Alburgh, Vermont, however, the southernmost tip of a small promontory, Province Point, is cut through by the US-Canadian border. Mainland Lake Champlain can be crossed by road at only two points, near the very far southern and northern reaches of the lake. In the south, it is crossed by road at only one southerly point, the Champlain Bridge, connecting Chimney Point in Vermont with Crown Point, New York. To the north, US 2 runs from Rouses Point, New York to Grand Isle County, Vermont in the town of Alburgh, before continuing south along a chain of islands towards Burlington. To the east, Vermont Route 78 runs from an intersection with US 2 in Alburgh through East Alburgh to Swanton. The US 2-VT 78 route technically runs from the New York mainland to an extension of the mainland between two arms of the lake and then to the Vermont mainland, but it provides a rather direct route across the two main arms of the northern part of the lake. Ferry North of Ticonderoga, New York, the lake widens appreciably; ferry service is provided by the Lake Champlain Transportation Company at: Charlotte, Vermont to Essex, New York (may not travel when the lake is frozen) Burlington, Vermont to Port Kent, New York (seasonal) Grand Isle, Vermont to Cumberland Head, part of Plattsburgh, New York (year-round icebreaking service) The most southerly crossing is the Fort Ticonderoga Ferry, connecting Ticonderoga, New York with Shoreham, Vermont just north of the historic fort. Railroad The Swanton, VT, to East Alburg, Vermont, rail trestle. Waterways Lake Champlain has been connected to the Erie Canal via the Champlain Canal since the canal's official opening 1823-09-10, the same day as the opening of the Erie Canal from Rochester on Lake Ontario to Albany. It connects to the St. Lawrence River via the Richelieu River, with the Chambly Canal bypassing rapids on the river since 1843. Together with these waterways the lake is part of the Lakes to Locks Passage. Surroundings Major Cities Burlington, Vermont (pop. 38,889, 2000 Census) is by far the largest city on the lake, having a larger population than the 2nd and 3rd most populated cities (Plattsburgh, New York, and Colchester, Vermont, respectively) combined. Islands Lake Champlain contains roughly 80 islands, three of which comprise four entire Vermont towns (most of Grand Isle County). The largest islands: Isle La Motte, Vermont Grand Isle, Vermont, including South Hero, Vermont North Hero, Vermont Valcour Island, New York Juniper Island Three Sisters Four Brothers Savage Island Burton Island (State Park) Cloak Island Garden Island - "Gunboat Island" Crab Island, New York Damon Island Hen Island Carleton's prize Young Island, also known as "Bird Island" due to the birds that have overrun the island Providence Island Stave Island Lighthouses There is a historic stone lighthouse located on Cumberland Head, which is privately owned. On Isle La Motte, a pink lighthouse is located on the northern end. The privately owned cast iron Juniper Island Light dates from 1846. In 1954 it was deactivated and replaced by a steel tower. On Point Au Roche, part of Beekmantown, New York, there is a privately owned, historic lighthouse. Valcour Island, near the New York shore is home to Bluff Point Lighthouse, built in 1871. It was manned by a full time lightkeeper until 1930, making it one of the last lighthouses to be manned on the Lake along with the Cumberland Head Light, which was deactivated in 1934. Parks There are many large parks in the Lake Champlain region of both Vermont and New York. Two notable ones on the New York side of the lake is Point Au Roche State Park, which features many hiking and cross country skiing trails. A popular public beach is also located on park grounds. The Cumberland Bay State Park is located on Cumberland Head, featuring a campground, city beach, and sports fields. See also Champlain Sea, post-glacial predecessor to Lake Champlain Cumberland Head, New York Ile aux Noix List of New York rivers Richelieu River Lakes to Locks Passage Chambly Canal Champlain Canal Notes External links Lake Champlain - Information Directory Lake Champlain Maritime Museum Lake Champlain Basin Program ECHO Lake Aquarium and Science Center - Leahy Center for Lake Champlain Lake Champlain Basin Atlas | Lake_Champlain |@lemmatized lake:93 champlain:51 french:2 lac:1 natural:3 freshwater:1 north:13 america:2 locate:6 mainly:1 within:2 border:5 united:5 state:19 vermont:43 new:30 york:27 partially:1 situate:2 across:4 canada:6 unite:1 canadian:4 province:3 quebec:6 hydrology:1 landsat:1 photo:1 valley:2 green:2 mountain:2 adirondack:1 drain:1 northward:2 richelieu:5 river:12 st:4 lawrence:3 sorel:1 tracy:1 northeast:1 montreal:3 feed:1 otter:1 creek:1 winooski:1 missisquoi:5 lamoille:1 ausable:1 chazy:2 boquet:1 saranac:1 also:7 receive:2 water:9 george:1 via:4 la:4 chute:1 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intersection:1 technically:1 extension:1 arm:2 rather:1 direct:1 widen:1 appreciably:1 service:2 transportation:1 company:1 essex:1 may:1 travel:1 frozen:1 kent:1 seasonal:1 cumberland:6 round:1 icebreaking:1 shoreham:1 historic:3 waterway:2 official:1 opening:2 rochester:1 chambly:2 bypassing:1 rapid:1 lock:2 surroundings:1 major:1 pop:1 census:1 population:1 populated:1 combine:1 contains:1 comprise:1 entire:1 juniper:2 sister:1 brother:1 savage:1 burton:1 cloak:1 garden:1 gunboat:1 crab:1 damon:1 hen:1 carleton:1 prize:1 overrun:1 providence:1 stave:1 lighthouse:6 stone:1 privately:3 pink:1 cast:1 light:2 date:1 deactivate:2 steel:1 tower:1 au:2 roche:2 beekmantown:1 bluff:1 man:2 full:1 lightkeeper:1 last:1 region:1 notable:1 feature:2 hiking:1 country:1 ski:1 trail:1 popular:1 beach:2 ground:1 campground:1 sport:1 post:1 glacial:1 predecessor:1 ile:1 aux:1 noix:1 list:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 directory:1 maritime:1 museum:1 echo:1 aquarium:1 science:1 leahy:1 |@bigram lake_champlain:42 freshwater_lake:1 drain_northward:1 la_motte:3 coral_reef:1 southern_hemisphere:1 burlington_vermont:4 benedict_arnold:1 strategically_important:1 champlain_canal:3 celebrate_anniversary:1 howard_taft:1 loch_ness:1 ness_monster:1 league_baseball:1 drainage_basin:1 algae_bloom:1 green_algae:1 nature_conservancy:1 biodiversity_ecosystem:1 trout_salmon:1 southernmost_tip:1 erie_canal:2 external_link:1 |
3,963 | Hosea | Russian icon of the prophet Hosea, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration Church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). Hosea (, Greek = Ōsēe) was the son of Beeri and a prophet in Israel in the 8th century BC. He is one of the Twelve Prophets of the Jewish Hebrew Bible, also known as the Minor Prophets of the Christian Old Testament. We know practically nothing about the life or social status of Hosea. According to the Book of Hosea, he married the prostitute Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim, at God's command. He lived in the Northern Kingdom in the period 780–725 BC. In ff., there is a reference to the wars which led to the capture of the kingdom by the Assyrians (ca. 734–732 BC). It is not certain if he has also experienced the destruction of Samaria, which is foreseen in . Hosea's family life reflected the "adulterous" relationship which Israel had built with polytheistic gods. His children's names made them like walking prophecies of the fall of the ruling dynasty and the severed covenant with God — much like the prophet Isaiah a generation later. Hosea is often seen as a "prophet of doom", but underneath his message of destruction is a promise of restoration. The Talmud (Pesachim 87a) claims that he was the greatest prophet of his generation, which included the more famous Isaiah. Christian thought One of the early writing prophets, Hosea used his own marital experience as a symbolic representation of God and Israel: God the husband, Israel the wife. Hosea's wife left him to go with other men; Israel left the Lord to go with other gods. Hosea searched for his wife, found her and brought her back; God would not abandon Israel and brought them back even though they had forsaken him. The book of Hosea was a severe warning to the northern kingdom against the growing idolatry being practiced there; the book was a dramatic call to repentance. Christians extend the analogy of Hosea to Christ and the church: Christ the husband, his church the bride. Christians see in this book a comparable call to the church not to forsake the Lord Jesus Christ. Christians also take the buying back of Gomer as the redemptive qualities of Jesus Christ's sacrifice on the cross. Observances He is commemorated with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. He is commemorated on the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, with a feast day on October 17 (for those churches which follow the Julian Calendar, October 17 currently falls on October 30 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is also commemorated on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord). External links Prophet Hosea Orthodox icon and synaxarion | Hosea |@lemmatized russian:1 icon:2 prophet:10 hosea:12 century:2 iconostasis:1 transfiguration:1 church:6 kizhi:1 monastery:1 karelia:1 russia:1 greek:1 ōsēe:1 son:1 beeri:1 israel:6 bc:3 one:2 twelve:1 jewish:1 hebrew:1 bible:1 also:4 know:2 minor:2 christian:5 old:1 testament:1 practically:1 nothing:1 life:2 social:1 status:1 accord:1 book:4 marry:1 prostitute:1 gomer:2 daughter:1 diblaim:1 god:7 command:1 live:1 northern:2 kingdom:3 period:1 ff:1 reference:1 war:1 lead:1 capture:1 assyrian:1 ca:1 certain:1 experience:2 destruction:2 samaria:1 foreseen:1 family:1 reflect:1 adulterous:1 relationship:1 build:1 polytheistic:1 child:1 name:1 make:1 like:2 walk:1 prophecy:1 fall:2 ruling:1 dynasty:1 severed:1 covenant:1 much:1 isaiah:2 generation:2 later:1 often:1 see:2 doom:1 underneath:1 message:1 promise:1 restoration:1 talmud:1 pesachim:1 claim:1 great:1 include:1 famous:1 think:1 early:1 writing:1 use:1 marital:1 symbolic:1 representation:1 husband:2 wife:3 leave:2 go:2 men:1 lord:3 search:1 find:1 bring:2 back:3 would:1 abandon:1 even:1 though:1 forsake:2 severe:1 warning:1 grow:1 idolatry:1 practice:1 dramatic:1 call:2 repentance:1 extend:1 analogy:1 christ:4 bride:1 comparable:1 jesus:2 take:1 buying:1 redemptive:1 quality:1 sacrifice:1 cross:1 observance:1 commemorate:3 calendar:4 saint:1 armenian:1 apostolic:1 july:1 eastern:1 orthodox:2 liturgical:1 feast:1 day:1 october:3 follow:1 julian:1 currently:1 modern:1 gregorian:1 sunday:2 holy:1 father:1 nativity:1 external:1 link:1 synaxarion:1 |@bigram prophet_hosea:3 iconostasis_transfiguration:1 kizhi_monastery:1 monastery_karelia:1 karelia_russia:1 hebrew_bible:1 adulterous_relationship:1 jesus_christ:2 armenian_apostolic:1 eastern_orthodox:1 liturgical_calendar:1 julian_calendar:1 gregorian_calendar:1 sunday_nativity:1 external_link:1 icon_synaxarion:1 |
3,964 | Disaccharide | Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is the carbohydrate formed when two monosaccharides undergo a condensation reaction which involves the elimination of a small molecule, such as water, from the functional groups only. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides also dissolve in water, taste sweet and are called sugars. 'Disaccharide' is one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates (monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharide, and polysaccharide). Classification There are two basic types of disaccharides: reducing disaccharides, in which the monosaccharide components are bonded by hydroxyl groups; and non-reducing disaccharides, in which the components bond through their anometric centers. Formation It is formed when two monosaccharides are joined together and a molecule of water is removed. For example; milk sugar (lactose) is made from glucose and galactose whereas cane sugar (sucrose) is made from glucose and fructose. The two monosaccharides are bonded via a dehydration reaction (also called a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis) that leads to the loss of a molecule of water and formation of a glycosidic bond. Properties The glycosidic bond can be formed between any hydroxyl group on the component monosaccharide. So, even if both component sugars are the same (e.g., glucose), different bond combinations (regiochemistry) and stereochemistry (alpha- or beta-) result in disaccharides that are diastereoisomers with different chemical and physical properties. Depending on the monosaccharide constituents, disaccharides are sometimes crystalline, sometimes water-soluble, and sometimes sweet-tasting and sticky-feeling. Common disaccharides Disaccharide Unit 1 Unit 2 Bond Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar, saccharose, or beet sugar) glucose fructose α(1→2) Lactose (milk sugar) galactose glucose β(1→4) Maltose glucose glucose α(1→4) Trehalose glucose glucose α(1→1)α Cellobiose glucose glucose β(1→4) Maltose and cellobiose are hydrolysis products of the polysaccharides, starch and cellulose, respectively. Less common disaccharides include : Disaccharide Units Bond Kojibiose two glucose monomers α(1→2) Nigerose two glucose monomers α(1→3) Isomaltose two glucose monomers α(1→6) β,β-Trehalose two glucose monomers β(1→1) Sophorose two glucose monomers β(1→2) Laminaribiose two glucose monomers β(1→3) Gentiobiose two glucose monomers β(1→6) Turanose a glucose monomer and a fructose monomer α(1→3) Maltulose a glucose monomer and a fructose monomer α(1→4) Palatinose a glucose monomer and a fructose monomer α(1→6) Gentiobiulose a glucose monomer and a fructose monomer β(1→6) Mannobiose two mannose monomers either α(1→2), α(1→3), α(1→4), or α(1→6) Melibiose a galactose monomer and a glucose monomer α(1→6) Melibiulose a galactose monomer and a fructose monomer α(1→6) Rutinose a rhamnose monomer and a glucose monomer α(1→6) Rutinulose a rhamnose monomer and a fructose monomer β(1→6) Xylobiose two xylopyranose monomers β(1→4) References External links | Disaccharide |@lemmatized sucrose:3 common:3 disaccharide:14 carbohydrate:2 form:3 two:13 monosaccharide:8 undergo:1 condensation:2 reaction:3 involve:1 elimination:1 small:1 molecule:3 water:5 functional:1 group:3 like:1 also:2 dissolve:1 taste:1 sweet:2 call:2 sugar:8 one:1 four:1 chemical:2 grouping:1 oligosaccharide:1 polysaccharide:2 classification:1 basic:1 type:1 reduce:2 component:4 bond:8 hydroxyl:2 non:1 anometric:1 center:1 formation:2 join:1 together:1 remove:1 example:1 milk:2 lactose:2 make:2 glucose:24 galactose:4 whereas:1 cane:2 fructose:8 via:1 dehydration:2 synthesis:1 lead:1 loss:1 glycosidic:2 property:2 even:1 e:1 g:1 different:2 combination:1 regiochemistry:1 stereochemistry:1 alpha:1 beta:1 result:1 diastereoisomers:1 physical:1 depend:1 constituent:1 sometimes:3 crystalline:1 soluble:1 tasting:1 sticky:1 feeling:1 unit:3 table:1 saccharose:1 beet:1 α:17 β:11 maltose:2 trehalose:2 cellobiose:2 hydrolysis:1 product:1 starch:1 cellulose:1 respectively:1 less:1 include:1 kojibiose:1 monomer:25 nigerose:1 isomaltose:1 sophorose:1 laminaribiose:1 gentiobiose:1 turanose:1 maltulose:1 palatinose:1 gentiobiulose:1 mannobiose:1 mannose:1 either:1 melibiose:1 melibiulose:1 rutinose:1 rhamnose:2 rutinulose:1 xylobiose:1 xylopyranose:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram oligosaccharide_polysaccharide:1 glucose_galactose:1 sugar_sucrose:1 glucose_fructose:2 dehydration_synthesis:1 glycosidic_bond:2 alpha_beta:1 sugar_cane:1 starch_cellulose:1 glucose_monomer:13 monomer_α:9 α_β:1 monomer_β:7 monomer_fructose:6 fructose_monomer:6 external_link:1 |
3,965 | Cornwall | Cornwall (, ) is a county of England in the United Kingdom, located at the tip of the south-western peninsula of Great Britain. It is bordered to the north by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the English Channel, and to the east by the county of Devon, over the River Tamar. Taken with the Isles of Scilly Cornwall has a population of , covering an area of . The administrative centre and only city is Truro. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, and later (in the Iron Age) by Celts. Cornwall is part of the Brythonic (Celtic) area of Britain, separated from Wales after the Battle of Deorham, often coming into conflict with the expanding English kingdom of Wessex before King Athelstan in 936 A.D. set the boundary between English and Cornish people at the Tamar. Stenton, F. M. (1947) Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Clarendon Press; p. 337 Today, Cornwall's economy struggles after the decline of the mining and fishing industries, and has become more dependent on tourism. The area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its extensive and varied coastline and its mild climate. Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and diaspora, and is recognised as one of the "Celtic nations" by many residents and organisations. It continues to retain its distinct identity, with its own history, language and culture. Some inhabitants question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a self-government movement seeks greater autonomy within the UK. Cornish Constitutional Convention The Duchy of Cornwall - history supported by references to primary source material Etymology The name Cornwall comes from a merger of two different terms from separate languages. The Roman term for the Celtic tribe which inhabited what is now Cornwall at the time of Roman rule, Cornovii, came from a Brythonic tribal name which gave modern Cornish Kernow, also known as Corneu to the Brythons. This could be from two sources; the term may be related to the common Celtic root cern, or the Latin cornu, both of which mean "horn" or "peninsula", suggestive of the shape of Cornwall's landmass. The Cornovii were sufficiently established for their territory to be recorded as Cornubia by AD 700, the name meaning "people of the horn", and remained as such into the Middle Ages. The Ravenna Cosmography, of around 700, makes reference to Purocoronavis, (almost certainly a corruption of Durocornovium), 'a fort or walled settlement of the Cornovii', (unidentified, but possibly Tintagel or Carn Brea). Revised edition Cornwall: a history, Fowey: Cornwall Editions Ltd, 2004 ISBN 1-9048-8000-2 (Available online on Google Books) During the 6th and 7th centuries, the name Cornubia became corrupted by extensive changes in the Old English language. The Anglo-Saxons provided the suffix wealas, meaning "foreigners", creating the term Corn-wealas. Some historians note that this was the word for Wales, however it is understood that the term applied instead to all Brythonic peoples and lands, who were considered foreign by the Anglo-Saxons. As Cornwall was known as West Wales and present-day Cumberland as North Wales during those times, the "Wales" meaning is probable: this is because the word 'wealhas' is Anglo-Saxon (i.e. Old English) and from the perspective of Winchester, the capital of the Kings of Wessex from whom the English Crown derives, Cownwall is to Winchester's west, and Cumberland is to Winchester's north—hence the use of the terms West Wales and North Wales by English kings. History Mên-an-Tol. Prehistory, Roman and post-Roman periods The present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The pre-Roman inhabitants included speakers of a Celtic language that would develop into the Brythonic language Cornish. After a period of Roman rule, Cornwall reverted to independent Celtic chieftains. The first account of Cornwall comes from the Sicilian Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (c.90 BC–c.30 BC), supposedly quoting or paraphrasing the fourth-century BC geographer Pytheas, who had sailed to Britain: The identity of these merchants is unknown. There has been a theory that they were Phoenicians, however there is no evidence for this. Halliday, p. 52. (For further discussion of tin mining see the section on the economy below.) There is a theory that once silver was extracted from the copper ores of Cornwall in pre-Roman times, as silver is easily converted to its chloride (AgCl) by surface waters containing chlorine. Tylecote, R. F. (1962) Metallurgy in Archaeology Conflict with Wessex In the early Middle Ages Cornwall came into conflict with the expanding kingdom of Wessex. The Annales Cambriae report that in 722 AD the Britons of Cornwall won a battle at Hehil. Annales Cambriae However, it is not stated whether the Cornish fought the West Saxons or some other enemy. In 814 King Egbert laid waste to West Wealas from East to West. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles tells us that in 825 (adjusted date) a battle was fought between the "Welsh", presumably those of Cornwall, and the Anglo-Saxons. In 838, the Cornish and their Danish allies were defeated by Egbert at Hengestesdune (Anglo-Saxon Chronicles): an unknown location (various places have been suggested over the years from Hengistbury Head in Dorset, Hingston Down, Devon to Hingston Down in Cornwall). Around the 880s Anglo-Saxons from Wessex had established modest land holdings in the Eastern part of Cornwall, notably Alfred the Great had acquired estates. Keynes, Simon; Lapidge, Michael (tr.) (1983), Alfred the Great - Asser's Life of King Alfred and other contemporary sources, London, Penguin Books, p. 175; cf. ibid, p89. William of Malmesbury, writing around 1120, says that King Athelstan of England (924–939) fixed the boundary between English and Cornish people at the Tamar, their having until then lived as equals. Debate among the historians The chronology of English dominance over Cornwall is unclear. Astonishingly there are no recorded charters or legal agreements showing Cornwall as part of Wessex. Furthermore, there is no economic, military, social, cultural or archaeological evidence of Wessex having established control over Cornwall whatsoever. Anglo-Saxonists continually assert 'evidence' (notably Michael Swanton in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, 2nd ed. London, Phoenix Press, 2000, p. 177), despite the considerable evidence to the contrary. Indeed, this clash of historical perspectives is itself of interest, demonstrating that contemporary Anglo-Saxon and Cornish historians thoroughly disagree. One would be tempted to say that the clash of integrationist and autonomist ideologies are continuing the millennia-long struggle between these two geographical neighbours by other means. The Old English word translated by Swanton as "Cornwall" is "Wealas", which some translations render as "Wales". This is a pejorative Old English term equating roughly to 'aliens' or 'foreigners'. However, in the Anglo-Saxon period this terminology was applied equally to all Brythonic people and their lands, not specifically to Wales and the Welsh in the modern sense. Since this reference concerns a parcel of adjoining territories contiguous with Cornwall but not with Wales, and since Wales was not under English rule at this date whereas the evidence of Domesday Book indicates that Cornwall was, it may reasonably be concluded that the land in question was "West Wales" (i.e. Cornwall), not "North Wales". Norman period One interpretation of the Domesday Book is that by this time the native Cornish landowning class had been almost completely dispossessed and replaced by English landowners, the largest of whom was Harold Godwinson himself. However, this is highly questionable: The Bodmin manumissions show that two leading Cornish figures, nominally had Saxon names, but these were both glossed with native Cornish names. This suggests that Saxon names in Cornwall indicate not ethnicity, but preferences in naming, perhaps as means to establish membership of a pro-Saxon ruling class. However, after the Norman conquest most of the land was seized and transferred into the hands of a new Breton-Norman aristocracy, with the lion's share going to Robert, Count of Mortain, half-brother of King William and the largest landholder in England after the king. Williams, Ann, and Martin, G. H. (2002) (tr.) Domesday Book - a complete translation, London, Penguin, pp. 341-357 Ultimately this aristocracy eventually became a Cornu-Norman ruling class, a phenomenon closely resembling the situation in Ireland. Later medieval administration and society Subsequently however, Norman absentee landlords became replaced by a new Cornu-Norman elite. These families eventually became the new Cornish aristocracy (typically speaking Norman French, Cornish, Latin and eventually English), many becoming involved in the operation of the Stannary Parliament system, Earldom and eventually the Duchy. Payton (1998). Cornwall, pp. 100-108 The Cornish language continued to be spoken and it acquired a number of characteristics establishing its identity as a separate language from Breton. Cornwall showed a very different type of settlement pattern from that of Saxon Wessex and places continued, even after 1066, to be named in the Celtic Cornish tradition with Saxon architecture being uncommon. The earliest record for any Anglo-Saxon place-names west of the Tamar is around 1040. Christianity in Cornwall Many place names in Cornwall are associated with Christian missionaries described as coming from Ireland and Wales in the fifth century AD and usually called saints (See List of Cornish saints). The historicity of some of these missionaries is problematic Orme, Nicholas (2000) The saints of Cornwall, see also Article on "Saint Uny" at http://www.lelant.info/uny.htm. The patron Saint of Wendron Parish Church, "Saint Wendrona" is another example. and it has been pointed out by Canon Doble that it was customary in the Middle Ages to ascribe such geographic origins to saints. Doble, G. H. (1960) The saints of Cornwall 5 vols. Truro: Dean and Chapter, 1960-70 Some of these saints are not included in the early lists of saints. see for example absences from Olsen and Padel's 'A tenth century list of Cornish parochial saints' in Cambridge medieval Celtic studies; 12 (1986); and from Nova Legenda Angliae by John Capgrave (mid-15th cent.) It is notable that in Cornwall that most of the parish churches in existence in Norman times were generally not in the larger settlements and that the medieval towns which developed thereafter usually had only a chapel of ease with the right of burial remaining at the ancient parish church. Cornish Church Guide (1925) Truro: Blackford Over a hundred holy wells exist in Cornwall, each associated with a particular saint, though not always the same one as the dedication of the church. Jenner, Henry (1925) The Holy Wells of Cornwall. In: Cornish Church Guide. Truro: Blackford; pp. 249-257 Couch, M. Quiller & L. Quiller (1894) Ancient and Holy Wells of Cornwall. London : Chas. J. Clark Various kinds of religious houses existed in medieval Cornwall though none of them were nunneries; the benefices of the parishes were in many cases appropriated to religious houses within Cornwall or elsewhere in England or France. Oliver, George (1846) Monasticon Dioecesis Exoniensis: being a collection of records and instruments illustrating the ancient conventual, collegiate, and eleemosynary foundations, in the Counties of Cornwall and Devon, with historical notices, and a supplement, comprising a list of the dedications of churches in the Diocese, an amended edition of the taxation of Pope Nicholas, and an abstract of the Chantry Rolls [with supplement and index]. Exeter: P. A. Hannaford, 1846, 1854, 1889 St Piran, after whom Perranporth is named, is generally regarded as the patron saint of Cornwall. However in earlier times it is likely that St Michael the Archangel was recognized as the patron saint and the title has also been claimed for St Petroc. The Church in Cornwall in Celtic and Anglo-Saxon times The church in Cornwall until the time of Athelstan of Wessex observed more or less orthodox practices, being completely separate from the Anglo-Saxon church until then (and perhaps later). The See of Cornwall continued until much later: Bishop Conan apparently in place previously, but (re-?)consecrated in 931 AD by Athelstan. However, it is unclear whether he was the sole Bishop for Cornwall or the leading Bishop in the area. The situation in Cornwall may have been somewhat similar to Wales where each major religious house equated to a kevrang (cf. Welsh cantref), each under the control of a Bishop. Charles-Edwards, T. (1970-1972), "The Seven Bishop Houses of Dyfed," In: Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies, vol. 24, (1970-1972), pp. 247-252. Religious history from the Reformation to the Victorian period In the sixteenth century there was some violent resistance to the replacement of Catholicism with Protestantism in the 1549 uprising. From the late eighteenth to the mid-twentieth century Methodism was the leading form of Christianity in Cornwall but is now in decline. Shaw, Thomas (1967) A History of Cornish Methodism. Truro: Bradford Barton The Church of England was in the majority from the reign of Queen Elizabeth until the Methodist revival of the 19th century: before the Wesleyan missions dissenters were very few in Cornwall. The county remained within the Diocese of Exeter until 1876 when the Anglican Diocese of Truro was created Brown, H. Miles (1976). A century for Cornwall, Truro: Blackford (the first Bishop was appointed in 1877). Roman Catholicism was virtually extinct in Cornwall after the 17th century except for a few families such as the Arundells of Lanherne. From the mid-19th century the church reestablished episcopal sees in England, one of these being at Plymouth. Since then immigration to Cornwall has brought more Roman Catholics into the population. Religious houses have been established at several locations including Bodmin, and Roman Catholic churches have been built where the need for them is greatest. Physical geography Satellite image of Cornwall Cornwall forms the tip of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and is therefore exposed to the full force of the prevailing winds that blow in from the Atlantic Ocean. The coastline is composed mainly of resistant rocks that give rise in many places to impressive cliffs. Cornwall has a border with only one other county, Devon. The north and south coasts The north and south coasts have different characteristics. The north coast is more exposed and therefore has a wilder nature. The prosaically named High Cliff, between Boscastle and St Gennys, is the highest sheer-drop cliff in Cornwall at http://www.southwestcoastpath.com/main/sections/index.cfm?fsa=dspSectionDetail&w_id=147 . However, there are also many extensive stretches of fine golden sand which form the beaches that are so important to the tourist industry, such as those at Bude, St Agnes, St Ives, Perranporth, Porthtowan, Polzeath, Fistral Beach, Lusty Glaze Beach and Watergate Bay, Newquay. There are two river estuaries on the north coast: Hayle Estuary and the estuary of the River Camel, which provides Padstow and Rock with a safe harbour. The south coast, dubbed the "riviera", is more sheltered and there are several broad estuaries offering safe anchorages, such as at Falmouth and Fowey. Beaches on the south coast usually consist of coarser sand and shingle, interspersed with rocky sections of wave-cut platform. St Michael's Mount in Marazion. Inland areas The interior of the county consists of a roughly east-west spine of infertile and exposed upland, with a series of granite intrusions, such as Bodmin Moor, which contains the highest land within Cornwall. From east to west, and with approximately descending altitude, these are Bodmin Moor, the area north of St Austell, the area south of Camborne, and the Penwith or Land's End peninsula. These intrusions are the central part of the granite outcrops of south-west Britain, which include Dartmoor to the east in Devon and the Isles of Scilly to the west, the latter now being partially submerged. Cornwall is known for both its beaches and its rugged coastline. The intrusion of the granite into the surrounding sedimentary rocks gave rise to extensive metamorphism and mineralization, and this led to Cornwall being one of the most important mining areas in Europe until the early 20th century. It is thought Tin was mined here as early as the Bronze Age, and copper, lead, zinc and silver have all been mined in Cornwall. Alteration of the granite also gave rise to extensive deposits of China Clay, especially in the area to the north of St Austell, and the extraction of this remains an important industry. The uplands are surrounded by more fertile, mainly pastoral farmland. Near the south coast, deep wooded valleys provide sheltered conditions for flora that like shade and a moist, mild climate. These areas lie mainly on Devonian sandstone and slate. The north east of Cornwall lies on Carboniferous rocks known as the Culm Measures. In places these have been subjected to severe folding, as can be seen on the north coast near Crackington Haven and in several other locations. The Lizard Peninsula The geology of the Lizard peninsula is unusual, in that it is mainland Britain's only example of an ophiolite, a section of oceanic crust now found on land. Britain's only other example on an ophiolite, the Shetland ophiolite, is older, and linked to the Grampian Orogeny Much of the peninsula consists of the dark green and red Precambrian serpentine rock, which forms spectacular cliffs, notably at Kynance Cove, and carved and polished serpentine ornaments are sold in local gift shops. This ultramafic rock also forms a very infertile soil which covers the flat and marshy heaths of the interior of the peninsula. This is home to rare plants, such as the Cornish Heath, which has been adopted as the county flower. Cornwall County Council, "The County Flower." Ecology Cornwall has varied habitats including terrestrial and marine ecosystems. One of the lower plant forms in decline locally is the Reindeer lichen, which species has been made a priority for protection under the national UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Price, J. H., Hepton, C. E. L. and Honey, S. I. (1979). The Inshore Benthic Biota of the Lizard Peninsula, south west Cornwall: the marine algae -- History; Chlorophyta; Phaeophyta. Cornish Studies; no. 7: pp. 7-37 Bere, Rennie(1982) The Nature of Cornwall. Buckingham: Barracuda Books Red-billed chough: P. p. pyrrhocorax The birds of the coast are well worth observing: in 1935 an anonymous writer on Tintagel mentions Willapark as the scene of spectacular flocks of seabirds (eight species); inland he describes the crows (including the Cornish chough and the raven) and falcons which frequent the district. 'E.M.S.' contributes: "Within easy reach of Tintagel at least 385 varieties of flowers, 30 kinds of grasses, and 16 of ferns can be found ... a 'happy hunting ground' for botanists" and a list of thirty-nine of the rarest is given. Armstrong, W. J. C. (1935) A Rambler's Guide to Tintagel, and Camelford, 2nd ed. [Boscastle: the Author]; pp. 89-95 (by the 1950s there were no longer choughs to be seen). This bird is emblematic of Cornwall and is also said to embody the spirit of King Arthur. B. H. Ryves mentions the razorbill as numerous at Tintagel (perhaps the largest colony in the county) and summarises reports from earlier in the century. Ryves, B. H. (1948) Bird Life in Cornwall. London: Collins Botanists divide Cornwall and Scilly into two vice-counties: West (1) and East (2). The standard flora is by F. H. Davey Flora of Cornwall (1909). Davey was assisted by A. O. Hume and he thanks Hume, his companion on excursions in Cornwall and Devon, and for help in the compilation of that Flora, publication of which was financed by him. Climate Cornwall is the southernmost part of Britain, and therefore has a relatively warm and sunny climate. Winters are mild, and frost and snow are uncommon away from the central upland areas. The average annual temperature for most of Cornwall is 9.8 to 12 degrees Celsius (49.6 to 53.6 °F), with slightly lower temperatures at higher altitude. Met Office, 2000. Annual average temperature for the United Kingdom. Cornwall is exposed to mild, moist westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean and has relatively high rainfall, though less than more northern areas of the west coast of Britain, at 1051 to 1290 mm (41.4 to 50.8 in) per year. Met Office, 2000. Annual average rainfall for the United Kingdom. Most of Cornwall enjoys over 1541 hours of sunshine per year. Met Office, 2000. Annual average sunshine for the United Kingdom. Politics and administration Cornwall is a unitary authority (as of 1 April 2009) after a bid was accepted by the UK government, resulting in its six districts being scrapped and council functions being centralised in Truro. The new council is known as Cornwall Council. http://www.onecornwall.cornwall.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=44400 While projected to streamline services, cut red tape and save around £17 million a year, it was met with wide opposition, with a poll in 2008 giving a result of 89% disapproval from Cornish residents. Before April 2009, Cornwall was administered as a non-metropolitan county of England with six districts, Caradon, Carrick, Kerrier, North Cornwall, Penwith, and Restormel. Cornwall Council and Cornwall's Courts of Justice are located in Truro. The Isles of Scilly have in some periods been served by the same county administration as Cornwall, but are today a separate Unitary Authority. They are still grouped with Cornwall for many ceremonial and administrative purposes, such as the National Health Service and Devon and Cornwall Police. About The Force - Devon & Cornwall Constabulary As of April 2009, and before the elections to the new unitary council on 4 June, there are 82 county council seats, the majority of which are held by Liberal Democrats (2005 county council election). The six previous districts in Cornwall had a total of 249 council seats, and the numerically largest groups represented on them were Liberal Democrats, Conservatives, and independents. Cornwall currently elects five MPs to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, all of whom are Liberal Democrats as from the 2005 general election. A reshuffle of parliamentary boundaries will create a sixth parliamentary constituency in Cornwall which will be fought for the first time at the next British general election due in 2010. Until 1832, Cornwall had 44 MPs – more than any other county – reflecting the importance of tin to the English Crown. British Archaeology, no 30, December 1997: Letters The chief registered parties contesting elections in Cornwall are Conservatives, Greens, Labour, Liberal Democrats, Mebyon Kernow, Liberal Party and the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP). In July 2007, Conservative leader David Cameron appointed Mark Prisk to the newly-created post of Shadow Minister for Cornwall. Cornwall Council's headquarters in Truro There is a growing call within Cornwall for greater self-rule. Cornwall Council's Feb 2003 MORI poll showed 55% in favour of an elected, fully-devolved regional assembly for Cornwall and 13% against. (Previous result :46% in favour in 2002). Cornwall Council's Feb 2003 MORI poll Many residents advocate the creation of a Cornish Assembly, along the lines of those for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, and/or a separate Cornish Development Agency, a result of discontent with the South West Regional Development Agency. Some residents suggest a high degree of autonomy within England, or a split from England, creating a fifth home nation of the United Kingdom. Cornish Constitutional Convention Cornish political parties Cornish nationalists have organised into two political parties: Mebyon Kernow, formed in 1951, and the Cornish Nationalist Party. In addition to the political parties, there are various interest groups such as the Cornish Stannary Parliament and the Celtic League. In November 2000, the Cornish Constitutional Convention was formed to campaign for a Cornish Assembly. It is a cross-party organisation including representatives from the private, public, and voluntary sectors, of all political parties and none. Between 5 March 2000 and December 2001, the campaign collected the signatures of 41,650 Cornish residents endorsing the declaration for a devolved regional Cornish Assembly, along with 8,896 signatories from outside Cornwall. In 2003 a MORI poll showed 55 per cent of respondents favoured establishing a regional assembly for Cornwall. The campaign also has the support of all five Cornish Lib Dem MPs and Mebyon Kernow. The question of constitutional status Additionally, some groups and individuals question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, doubting the legality of Cornwall's current administration as a county of England, and Cornwall's relationship to the Duchy of Cornwall. Another political issue is the rights of the Cornish people as a minority. Settlements and communication Truro, Cornwall's administrative centre Cornwall's only city, and the home of the council headquarters, is Truro. Nearby Falmouth is notable as a port, while the ports at Penzance, the most westerly town in England, St Ives and Padstow have declined. Newquay on the north coast is famous for its beaches and is a popular surfing destination, as is Bude further north. St Austell is Cornwall's largest town and is interestingly larger than the capital Truro, and a centre of the china clay industry. Redruth and Camborne together form the largest urban area in Cornwall, and both towns were significant as centres of the global tin mining industry. Cornwall borders the county of Devon at the River Tamar. Major road links between Cornwall and the rest of Great Britain are the A38 which crosses the Tamar at Plymouth via the Tamar Bridge and the town of Saltash, the A39 road (Atlantic Highway) from Barnstaple, passing through North Cornwall to end eventually in Falmouth, and the A30 which crosses the border south of Launceston. A car ferry also links Plymouth with the town of Torpoint on the opposite side of the Hamoaze. A rail bridge, the Royal Albert Bridge, built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1859) provides the only other major transport link. Newquay Airport provides an airlink to the rest of the UK and Ireland. Cardiff and Swansea, across the Bristol Channel, are connected to Cornwall by ferry, usually to Padstow. Swansea in particular has several boat companies who can arrange boat trips to north Cornwall, which allow the traveller to pass by the north Cornish coastline, including Tintagel Castle and Padstow harbour. Very occasionally, the Waverley and Balmoral paddle steamers cruise from Swansea or Bristol to Padstow. The Isles of Scilly are served by ferry (from Penzance), helicopter (Penzance Heliport) and fixed wing aeroplane (Land's End Airport, near St Just) and from Newquay Airport. Further flights to St. Mary's, Isles of Scilly, are available from Exeter International Airport in Devon. Flag Souvenir flags outside a Cornish café Saint Piran's Flag is regarded as the national flag of Cornwall, and an emblem of the Cornish people; and by others as the county flag. The banner of Saint Piran is a white cross on a black background. Saint Piran is supposed to have adopted these two colours from seeing the white tin in the black coals and ashes during his supposed discovery of tin. Davies Gilbert in 1826 described it as anciently the flag of St Piran and the banner of Cornwall, and another history of 1880 said that: "The white cross of St. Piran was the ancient banner of the Cornish people." The Cornish flag is an exact reverse of the former Breton national flag (black cross) and is known by the same name " Kroaz Du". Commonly understood to represent the white tin metal against the black tin ore, symbolically, however, the flag is said to represent the light of truth shining through the blackness/darkness of evil. Another theory of the black and white colours is that the white cross represents the igneous/metamorphic rocks of colour such as granite and schists (mainly found in the southwest of Cornwall), while the black background represents the weathered Devonian slate and Carboniferous sandstone (both of which are mainly black-greyish in appearance) of the northern part of Cornwall. There are claims that the patron saint of Cornwall is Saint Michael or Saint Petroc, but Saint Piran is by far the most popular of the three and his emblem is internationally Cornwall (United Kingdom) British Flags (United Kingdom) from The World Flag Database recognised as the flag of Cornwall. St Piran's Day (5 March) is celebrated by the Cornish diaspora around the world. Economy Falmouth Docks is the major port of Cornwall, and the third-largest natural harbour in the world. The Eden Project, Cornwall's largest tourist attraction in terms of visitor numbers Cornwall is one of the poorest areas in the United Kingdom. The GVA per head was 65% of the UK average for 2004. ONS December 2006 The GDP per head for Cornwall and the Scillies was 79.2 of the EU-27 average for 2004, the UK per head average was 123.0. Eurostat Historically tin mining was important in the Cornish economy. The first reference to this appears to be by Pytheas: see above. Julius Caesar was the last classical writer to mention the tin trade, which appears to have declined during the Roman occupation. Halliday, p69. The tin trade revived in the Middle Ages, and the Cornish Rebellion of 1497 is attributed to tin miners. Halliday, p182. In the mid-nineteenth century, however, the tin trade again fell into decline. Cornwall is one of four UK areas that qualifies for poverty-related grants from the EU: it was granted Objective 1 status by the European Commission, followed by a further round of funding known as 'Convergence Funding'. Tourism Today, the Cornish economy depends heavily on its successful tourist industry, which makes up around a quarter of the economy. The official measures of deprivation and poverty at district and 'sub-ward' level show that there is great variation in poverty and prosperity in Cornwall with some areas among the poorest in England and others are among the top half in prosperity. For example, the ranking of 32,482 sub-wards in England in the index of multiple deprivation ranges from 819th (part of Penzance East) to 30, 899th (part of Saltash Burraton in Caradon), where the lower number represents the greater deprivation. Poverty and deprivation in Cornwall (June 2006) and Cornwall's unique culture, spectacular landscape and mild climate make it a popular tourist destination, despite being somewhat distant from the United Kingdom's main centres of population. Surrounded on three sides by the English Channel and Celtic Sea, Cornwall has many miles of beaches and cliffs. Other tourist attractions include moorland, country gardens, historic and prehistoric sites and wooded valleys. Five million tourists visit Cornwall each year, mostly drawn from within the UK. Cornwall Tourist Board, 2003. . Visitors to Cornwall are served by airports at Newquay and Plymouth, whilst private jets, charters and helicopters are also served by Perranporth airfield; nightsleeper and daily rail services run between Cornwall, London and other regions of the UK. Newquay and Porthtowan are popular destinations for surfers. In recent years, the Eden Project near St Austell has been a major financial success, drawing one in eight of Cornwall's visitors. Scottish Executive, 2004. A literature review of the evidence base for culture, the arts and sport policy. Other industries Redruth Mine in 1890 Other industries are fishing, although this has been significantly re-structured by EU fishing policies, (the Southwest Handline Fishermen's Association has started to revive the fishing industry), line caught wild bass from cornwall - south west handline fishermen's association and agriculture, which has also declined significantly. Mining of tin and copper was also an industry, but today the derelict mine workings survive only as a World Heritage Site . UNESCO Page on the Cornwall & West Devon application However, the Camborne School of Mines is still a world centre of excellence in its field. The University of Exeter :: Cornwall Campus :: Camborne School of Mines and the grant of World Heritage status has attracted funding for conservation and heritage tourism. Home China clay extraction has also been an important industry in the St Austell area, but this sector has been in decline, and this, coupled with increased mechanisation, has led to a decrease in employment in this sector. In recent years Cornwall's creative industries have undergone significant growth, thanks in part to Objective One funding, as it is the only British county poor enough to receive such money. There is now a significant creative industry in Cornwall, encompassing areas like graphic design, product design, web design, packaging design, environmental design, architecture, photography, art and crafts. Demographics Graph showing Cornwall's population from 1800 to 2000 Cornwall's population was 513,527 at the last count, and population density 144 people per square kilometre, ranking it 40th and 41st respectively compared with the other 47 counties of England. Cornwall has a relatively high level of population growth, however, at 11.2% in the 1980s and 5.3% in the 1990s, giving it the fifth highest population growth of the English counties. Office for National Statistics, 2001. Population Change in England by County 1981-2000. The natural change has been a small population decline, and the population increase is due to immigration into Cornwall. Office for National Statistics, 2001. Births, Deaths and Natural Change in Cornwall 1974 – 2001. According to the 1991 census, the population was 469,800. Cornwall has a relatively high retired population, with 22.9% of pensionable age, compared with 20.3% for the United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, 1996. % of Population of Pension Age (1996). This may be due to a combination of Cornwall's rural and coastal geography increasing its popularity as a retirement location, and the emigration of younger residents to more economically diverse areas. Immigration of pensioners from southern England to Cornwall, and emigration of young Cornish people, are persistent concerns. Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and diaspora, and is recognised by many people and organisations—alongside Brittany, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales—as one of the six "Celtic nations", including the Celtic League, Cornish Stannary Parliament, Mebyon Kernow, Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ), Celtic Congress and the BBC, and, as one of the eight Celtic nations—the other two being Asturias and Galicia—by the Isle of Man Government and the Welsh Assembly Government. Cornwall is represented, as one of the Celtic nations, at the Festival Interceltique de Lorient, a celebration of Celtic culture held annually in Brittany. There is some ambiguity over how many of the people living in Cornwall consider themselves to be Cornish, since results from different surveys (including the national census) have given results varying from 7% to 79%. Many people in Cornwall say that this issue would be resolved if a Cornish option became available on the census. Cornwall has a comprehensive education system, with 31 state and 8 independent secondary schools. There are three FE colleges - Penwith College (a former sixth form college), Cornwall College (occupying the former home of the Camborne School of Mines) and Truro College. The Isles of Scilly only has one school while the former Restormel district has the highest school population, and school year sizes are around 200, with none above 270. Higher education is provided by University College Falmouth, the Combined Universities in Cornwall (including Camborne School of Mines), and by Truro College, Penwith College and Cornwall College. Cornish language The Cornish language is closely related to Welsh and Breton, and less so to Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx. The language continued to function as a community language in parts of Cornwall until the late 18th century, and there has been a revival of the language since Henry Jenner's "Handbook of the Cornish Language" was published in 1904. A study in 2000 suggested that there were around 300 people who spoke Cornish fluently. http://www.gosw.gov.uk/gosw/docs/254795/mode_of_use.doc Cornish however has no legal status in the UK. Nevertheless, the language is taught in about twelve primary schools, and occasionally used in religious and civic ceremonies. In 2002 Cornish was officially recognised as a UK minority language BBC news - November 2002 - Cornish gains official recognition and in 2005 it received limited Government funding. BBC news - June 2005 -Cash boost for Cornish language A Standard Written Form was agreed in 2008. An Outline of the Standard Written Form of Cornish Several Cornish mining words are still in use in English language mining terminology, such as costean, gunnies, and vug. Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms by American Geological Institute and U S Bureau of Mines (pages 128, 249, and 613) Two of the current Members of Parliament (MPs) in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Andrew George, MP for St Ives, and Dan Rogerson, MP for North Cornwall, repeated their Parliamentary oaths in Cornish. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/4540887.stm Culture Minack Theatre, carved from the cliffs The Tate Gallery at St Ives Visual arts Since the 19th century, Cornwall, with its unspoilt maritime scenery and strong light, has sustained a vibrant visual art scene of international renown. Artistic activity within Cornwall was initially centred on the art-colony of Newlyn, most active at the turn of the 20th century, and associated with the names: Stanhope Forbes, Elizabeth Forbes, Norman Garstin and Lamorna Birch. Modernist writers such as D. H. Lawrence and Virginia Woolf lived in Cornwall between the wars, and Ben Nicholson, the painter, having visited in the 1920s came to live in St Ives with his then wife, the sculptor Barbara Hepworth, at the outbreak of the second world war. They were later joined by the Russian emigrant Naum Gabo, and other artists. These included Peter Lanyon, Terry Frost, Patrick Heron, Bryan Wynter and Roger Hilton. St Ives also houses the Leach Pottery, where Bernard Leach, and his followers championed Japanese inspired studio pottery. Much of this modernist work can be seen in Tate St Ives. The Newlyn Society and Penwith Society of Arts continue to be active, and contemporary visual art is documented in a dedicated online journal art cornwall .org: art and artists in Cornwall including Cornish galleries . Music and festivals Cornwall has a rich and vibrant folk music tradition which has survived into the present and is well-known for its unusual folk survivals such as Mummers Plays, the Furry Dance in Helston played by the famous Helston Town Band, and Obby Oss in Padstow. As in other former mining districts of Britain, male voice choirs and Brass Bands, e.g Brass on the Grass concerts during the summer at Constantine, are still very popular in Cornwall: Cornwall also has around 40 silver bands. Cornish players are regular participants in inter-Celtic festivals, and Cornwall itself has several lively inter-Celtic festivals such as Perranporth's Lowender Peran folk festival. On a more modern note, contemporary musician Richard D. James (also known as Aphex Twin) grew up in Cornwall, as did Luke Vibert and Alex Parks winner of Fame Academy 2003. Roger Taylor, the drummer from the band Queen was also raised in the county, and currently lives not far from Falmouth. The American singer/songwriter Tori Amos now resides predominantly in North Cornwall not far from Bude with her family. The whole Tori - Music - Entertainment - theage.com.au Fiction Daphne du Maurier lived in Fowey, Cornwall and set many of her novels there, including Rebecca, Jamaica Inn, Frenchman's Creek, My Cousin Rachel, and The House on the Strand. She is also noted for writing Vanishing Cornwall. Cornwall provided the inspiration for The Birds, one of her terrifying series of short stories, made famous as a film by Alfred Hitchcock. Conan Doyle's The Adventure of the Devil's Foot featuring Sherlock Holmes is set in Cornwall. Remains of Tintagel Castle, legendary birthplace of mythical King Arthur Medieval Cornwall is also the setting of the trilogy by Monica Furlong, Wise Child, Juniper, and Colman, as well as part of Charles's Kingsley's Hereward the Wake. Winston Graham's series Poldark, Kate Tremayne's Adam Loveday series, Susan Cooper's novels Over Sea, Under Stone and Greenwitch, and Mary Wesley's The Camomile Lawn are all set in Cornwall. Hammond Innes' novel, The Killer Mine; Charles de Lint's novel The Little Country; ; and Chapters 24 and 25 of J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows take place in Cornwall (the Harry Potter story at Shell Cottage, which is on the beach outside the fictional village of Tinworth in Cornwall). Novelists resident in Cornwall:- Highly respected spy author John le Carré lives and writes in Cornwall. The Nobel-prizewinning novelist William Golding was born in St Columb Minor in 1911, and returned to live near Truro from 1985 until his death in 1993. D. H. Lawrence spent a short time living in Cornwall. Poetry The late Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman was famously fond of Cornwall and it featured prominently in his poetry. He is buried in the churchyard at St Enodoc's Church, Trebetherick. Charles Causley, the poet laureate, was born in Launceston and is perhaps the best known of Cornish poets. The Scottish poet W. S. Graham lived in West Cornwall from 1944 until his death in 1986. The poet Laurence Binyon wrote For the Fallen (first published in 1914) while sitting on the cliffs between Pentire Point and The Rumps and a stone plaque was erected in 2001 to commemorate the fact. The plaque bears the inscription For The Fallen Composed on these cliffs 1914 The plaque also bears the fourth stanza (sometimes referred to as 'The Ode') of the poem: They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn At the going down of the sun and in the morning We will remember them Other literary works Cornwall produced a substantial number of passion plays such as the Ordinalia during the Middle Ages. Many are still extant, and provide valuable information about the Cornish language. See also Cornish literature Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch author of many novels and works of literary criticism lived in Fowey: his novels are mainly set in Cornwall. Prolific writer Colin Wilson, best known for his debut work The Outsider (1956) and for The Mind Parasites (1967), lives in Gorran Haven, a little village on the southern Cornish coast, not far from Mevagissey and St Austell. A. L. Rowse, the historian, was born near St. Austell. Thomas Hardy's drama The Queen of Cornwall (1923) is a version of the Tristan story; the second act of Richard Wagner's opera Tristan und Isolde takes place in Cornwall, as do Gilbert and Sullivan's operettas The Pirates of Penzance and Ruddigore. A level of Tomb Raider: Legend, a game dealing with Arthurian Legend, takes place in Cornwall at a tacky museum above King Arthur's tomb. The fairy tale Jack the Giant Killer takes place in Cornwall. Sports and games Cornish wrestling Among Cornwall's native sports are a distinctive form of Celtic wrestling related to Breton wrestling, and Cornish hurling, a kind of mediaeval football played with a silver ball (distinct from Irish Hurling). Cornish Wrestling is Cornwall's oldest sport and as Cornwall's native tradition it has travelled the world to places like Victoria, Australia and Grass Valley, California following the miners and gold rushes. Hurling now takes place at St. Columb Major and St Ives although hurling of a silver ball is part of the beating the bounds ceremony at Bodmin every five years. Rugby union football Though rugby is thought to have originated from Rugby School in the early 19th century, Richard Carew described in his 1602 work, 'Survey of Cornwall' a game which is rather similar to rugby yet distinct from hurling. Cornish 'hurlers' travelled to London to player 'demonstration matches' of the sport several times in the seventeenth century. It is thought that Cornish miners were responsible for taking the game to South Africa, Australia and New Zealand when they emigrated. Rugby union has the largest following in Cornwall with one team in National Division One, the Cornish Pirates , who are fully professional and play in front of average crowds of over 3000 at the Camborne Recreation Ground. Launceston RUFC, "the Cornish All Blacks", Redruth R.F.C. "the Reds" and Penzance based Mounts Bay play in National Division Two. Cornish Pirates (EDF National Trophy) were successful at Twickenham in 2007. Other famous Cornish clubs are Camborne RFC, who previously played in the national leagues, Penryn RFC and St. Ives RFC. The Cornish rugby team (dubbed Trelawny's Army) used to draw large crowds of supporters to its matches in the county championship, especially if they have progressed to a Twickenham final. London Cornish are an exiles team along the lines of London Irish, London Scottish and London Welsh. Association football While rugby is widely held to be the most popular sport in Cornwall, association football has in recent years increased in popularity. Truro City F.C. have the largest following; and currently play in the Western League Premier division. This fits in with their Chairman's (Kevin Heaney) ambitions to eventually play in league football, a prospect that is realistically expected to take around 5 years, as they still have several steps to progress up the pyramid structure of leagues. Truro City F.C. became the first ever Cornish football club to win a national competition when in 2007 they won the FA Vase, defeating AFC Totton 3-1 in the final. Infrastructure and facilities Currently the major hurdle for Cornish sports is the lack of infrastructure and facilities compared to other areas of the UK. There is no stadium suitable for professional sport, and although facilities have started to develop, the 30 year hiatus has had a lasting road blocking effect. Cornish Pirates and Truro City have been in discussions apparently to solve this problem, although with little assistance from Cornwall County Council, shamefully. From 2001 until 2003, the only fully professional sports team in Cornwall were the Trelawny Tigers speedway team, who raced at the Clay Country Moto Parc in the clay pits near St Austell. The team took over from the St Austell Gulls who were an amateur speedway team which operated from 1997 to 2000. The Gulls also operated at Par Moor in the 1950s. During the Trelawny Tigers years, a local young speedway rider emerged called Chris Harris who has since gone on to become one of the world's best riders. He is very popular in Cornwall and has twice won the local television personality of the year. Chris, nicknamed 'Bomber', came through the ranks of Grasstrack racing, another popular sport in Cornwall. He currently competes in the Speedway Grand Prix, the elite speedway tournament. Other ball games One of the earliest references to cricket in Cornwall is 1816 and Sir William Pratt Call of Whiteford House in Stoke Climsland, organised a match against the Plymouth Garrison, and noted:- tea and a meal in a marquee at 6 o'clock. Cornwall County Cricket Club competes in the Minor Counties Championship, the second tier National County structure. Water sports and climbing Surfers in Cornwall. Cornwall's north coast is known as a centre for surfing Due to its long coastline, various maritime sports are popular in Cornwall, notably sailing and surfing. International events in both are held in Cornwall. Cornwall hosted the Inter-Celtic Watersports Festival in 2006. Surfing in particular is very popular, as locations such as Bude and Newquay offer some of the best surf in the UK. Pilot gig rowing has been popular for many years and the World championships takes place annually on the Isles of Scilly. On September 2, 2007, 300 surfers arrived at Polzeath beach, Cornwall to set a new world record for the highest number of surfers riding the same wave (as part of the Global Surf Challenge and part of a project called Earthwave to raise awareness about global warming). BBC NEWS, Surfers aim to break world record Rock climbing on the sea cliffs and inland cliffs has been popular since the pioneering work of A. W. Andrews and others in the early 1900s, and is now highly developed. Commonwealth Games A recent application for a place in the 2006 Commonwealth Games was refused by the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF). The Cornwall Commonwealth Games Association claimed that Cornwall should be recognised with a team, in the way that other sub-state entities such as England, Guernsey and the Isle of Man are. However, the CGF noted that it was not their place to make political decisions on whether or not Cornwall is a separate nation. BBC News Online, 2006. "Cornish out of running for Games." Indoor games Euchre (also known as Five hundred) is a popular card game in Cornwall, it is normally a game for four players consisting of two teams. Its origins are unclear but some claim it is a Cornish game. There are several leagues in Cornwall at present. Whist and pub quizzes are also popular. Cuisine A Cornish Pasty Cornwall has a strong culinary heritage. Surrounded on three sides by the sea amid fertile fishing grounds, Cornwall naturally has fresh seafood readily available; Newlyn is the largest fishing port in the UK by value of fish landed. Objective One media release Television chef Rick Stein has long operated a fish restaurant in Padstow for this reason, and Jamie Oliver recently chose to open his second restaurant, Fifteen, in Watergate Bay near Newquay. Masterchef host and founder of Smiths of Smithfield, John Torode, in 2007 purchased Seiners in Perranporth. One famous local fish dish is Stargazy pie, a fish-based pie in which the heads of the fish stick through the piecrust, as though "star-gazing". The pie is cooked as part of traditional celebrations for Tom Bawcock's Eve. Cornwall is perhaps best known though for its pasties, a savoury dish made from pastry containing suet. Today's pasties usually contain a filling of beef steak, onion, potato and swede with salt and white pepper, but historically pasties had a variety of different fillings. "Turmut, 'tates and mate" (i.e. Turnip, potatoes and meat) describes a filling once very common. For instance, the licky pasty contained mostly leeks, and the herb pasty contained watercress, parsley, and shallots. http://www.alanrichards.org/cornish3.htm - Cornish recipe site Pasties are often locally referred to as oggies. Historically, pasties were also often made with sweet fillings such as jam, apple and blackberry, plums or cherries. The wet climate and relatively poor soil of Cornwall make it unsuitable for growing many arable crops. However, it is ideal for growing the rich grass required for dairying, leading to the production of Cornwall's other famous export, clotted cream. This forms the basis for many local specialities including Cornish fudge and Cornish ice cream. Cornish clotted cream is protected under EU law Official list of British protected foods and cannot be made anywhere else. Its principal manufacturer is Rodda's, based at Scorrier. Local cakes and desserts include Saffron cake, Cornish heavy (hevva) cake, Cornish fairings biscuits, figgy 'obbin, scones (often served with jam and clotted cream) and whortleberry pie. Mason, Laura; Brown, Catherine (1999) From Bath Chaps to Bara Brith. Totnes: Prospect Books Pettigrew, Jane (2004) Afternoon Tea. Andover: Jarrold Fitzgibbon, Theodora (1972) A Taste of England: the West Country. London: J. M. Dent There are also many types of beers brewed in Cornwall – those produced by Sharp's Brewery, Skinner's Brewery and St Austell Brewery are the best-known – including stouts, ales and other beer types. There is some small scale production of wine, mead and cider. See also References Further reading Balchin, W. G. V. (1954) Cornwall: an illustrated essay on the history of the landscape. (The Making of the English Landscape). London: Hodder and Stoughton (Available online on Google Books). ; illustrated edition Published by Victor Gollancz, London, 1981, ISBN 0-5750-2844-0, photographs by Christian Browning. (Available online on Digital Book Index) A 2nd edition was published in 2001 by the House of Stratus, Thirsk: the original text new illustrations and an afterword by Halliday's son (Available online on Google Books). Revised edition Cornwall: a history, Fowey: Cornwall Editions Ltd, 2004 ISBN 1-9048-8000-2 (Available online on Google Books). 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3,966 | Coma | In medicine, a coma (from the Greek koma, meaning deep sleep) is a profound state of unconsciousness. A comatose person cannot be awakened, fails to respond normally to pain or light, does not have sleep-wake cycles, and does not take voluntary actions. Coma may result from a variety of conditions, including intoxication, metabolic abnormalities, central nervous system diseases, acute neurologic injuries such as stroke, and hypoxia. A coma may also result from head trauma caused by mechanisms such as falls or car accidents. It may also be deliberately induced by pharmaceutical agents in order to preserve higher brain function following another form of brain trauma, or to save the patient from extreme pain during healing of injuries or diseases. The underlying cause of coma is bilateral damage to the Reticular formation of the midbrain, which is important in regulating sleep. If the cause of coma is not clear, various investigations (blood tests, medical imaging) may be performed to establish the cause and identify reversible causes. Coma usually necessitates admission to hospital and often the intensive care unit. Signs and symptoms The severity and mode of onset of coma depends on the underlying cause. For instance, deepening hypoglycemia (low blood sugars) or hypercapnia (increased carbon dioxide levels in the blood) initially causes mild agitation and confusion, then progressing to obtundation, stupor and finally complete unconsciousness. In contrast, coma resulting from a severe traumatic brain injury or subarachnoid hemorrhage can be instantaneous. The mode of onset may therefore be indicative of the underlying cause. In the initial assessment of coma, it is common to gauge the level of consciousness by spontaneously exhibited actions, response to vocal stimuli ("can you hear me?"), and painful stimuli; this is known as the AVPU (alert, vocal stimuli, painful stimuli, unconscious) scale. More elaborate scales, such as the Glasgow coma scale (see below), quantify individual reactions such as eye opening, movement and verbal response on a scale. In those with deep unconsciousness, there is a risk of asphyxiation as the control over the muscles in the face and throat is diminished. As a result, those presenting to hospital with coma are typically assessed for this risk ("airway management"). If the risk of asphyxiation is deemed to be high, doctors may use various devices (such as an oropharyngeal airway, nasopharyngeal airway or endotracheal tube) to safeguard the airway. Diagnosis Once a person in a coma is stable, investigations are performed to assess the underlying cause. These may be simple; a computed tomography scan of the brain, for example, is performed to identify specific causes of the coma, such as hemorrhage. Classification The severity of coma impairment is categorized into several levels. Patients may or may not progress through these levels. In the first level, the brain responsiveness lessens, normal reflexes are lost, the patient no longer responds to pain and cannot hear. Two scales of measurement often used in Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) diagnosis to determine the level of coma are the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and the Ranchos Los Amigos Scale (RLAS). The GCS is a simple 3 to 15-point scale (3 being the worst and 15 being that of a normal person) used by medical professionals to assess severity of neurologic trauma, and establish a prognosis. The RLAS is a more complex scale that has eight separate levels, and is often used in the first few weeks or months of coma while the patient is under closer observation, and when shifts between levels are more frequent. Prognosis Outcomes range from recovery to death. Comas generally last a few days to a few weeks. They rarely last more than 2 to 5 weeks but some have lasted as long as several years. After this time, some patients gradually come out of the coma, some progress to a vegetative state, and others die. Some patients who have entered a vegetative state go on to regain a degree of awareness. Others remain in a vegetative state for years or even decades (the longest recorded period being 37 years). According to the Guinness Book of Records, the longest period spent in coma was by Elaine Esposito. She did not wake up after being anaesthetized for an appendectomy on August 6, 1941, at age 6. She died on November 25 1978 at age 43 years 357 days, having been in a coma for 37 years 111 days. The outcome for coma and vegetative state depends on the cause, location, severity and extent of neurological damage. A deeper coma alone does not necessarily mean a slimmer chance of recovery, because some people in deep coma recover well while others in a so-called milder coma sometimes fail to improve. People may emerge from a coma with a combination of physical, intellectual and psychological difficulties that need special attention. Recovery usually occurs gradually — patients acquire more and more ability to respond. Some patients never progress beyond very basic responses, but many recover full awareness. Regaining consciousness is not instant: in the first days, patients are only awake for a few minutes, and duration of time awake gradually increases. Predicted chances of recovery are variable owing to different techniques used to measure the extent of neurological damage. All the predictions are based on statistical rates with some level of chance for recovery present: a person with a low chance of recovery may still awaken. Time is the best general predictor of a chance of recovery: after 4 months of coma caused by brain damage, the chance of partial recovery is less than 15%, and the chance of full recovery is very low. brain injury .com | Coma traumatic brain injury - Brain Injury Coma The most common cause of death for a person in a vegetative state is secondary infection such as pneumonia which can occur in patients who lie still for extended periods. Occasionally people come out of coma after long periods of time. After 19 years in a minimally conscious state, Terry Wallis spontaneously began speaking and regained awareness of his surroundings. Mother stunned by coma victim's unexpected words - smh.com.au Similarly, Polish railroad worker Jan Grzebski woke up from a 19-year coma in 2007. A brain-damaged man, trapped in a coma-like state for six years, was brought back to consciousness in 2003 by doctors who planted electrodes deep inside his brain. The method, called deep brain stimulation (DBS) successfully roused communication, complex movement and eating ability in the 38-year-old American man who suffered a traumatic brain injury. His injuries left him in a minimally conscious state (MCS), a condition akin to a coma but characterized by occasional, but brief, evidence of environmental and self-awareness that coma patients lack. See also Persistent vegetative state (vegetative coma), deep coma without detectable awareness Brain death (irreversible coma), irreversible end of all brain activity Process Oriented Coma Work, for an approach to working with residual consciousness in comatose patients Level of consciousness References | Coma |@lemmatized medicine:1 coma:39 greek:1 koma:1 mean:2 deep:7 sleep:3 profound:1 state:10 unconsciousness:3 comatose:2 person:5 cannot:2 awaken:2 fail:2 respond:3 normally:1 pain:3 light:1 wake:3 cycle:1 take:1 voluntary:1 action:2 may:11 result:4 variety:1 condition:2 include:1 intoxication:1 metabolic:1 abnormality:1 central:1 nervous:1 system:1 disease:2 acute:1 neurologic:2 injury:9 stroke:1 hypoxia:1 also:3 head:1 trauma:3 cause:13 mechanism:1 fall:1 car:1 accident:1 deliberately:1 induce:1 pharmaceutical:1 agent:1 order:1 preserve:1 high:2 brain:16 function:1 follow:1 another:1 form:1 save:1 patient:12 extreme:1 healing:1 underlying:4 bilateral:1 damage:5 reticular:1 formation:1 midbrain:1 important:1 regulate:1 clear:1 various:2 investigation:2 blood:3 test:1 medical:2 imaging:1 perform:3 establish:2 identify:2 reversible:1 usually:2 necessitate:1 admission:1 hospital:2 often:3 intensive:1 care:1 unit:1 sign:1 symptoms:1 severity:4 mode:2 onset:2 depends:2 instance:1 deepen:1 hypoglycemia:1 low:3 sugar:1 hypercapnia:1 increased:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 level:10 initially:1 mild:1 agitation:1 confusion:1 progress:4 obtundation:1 stupor:1 finally:1 complete:1 contrast:1 severe:1 traumatic:4 subarachnoid:1 hemorrhage:2 instantaneous:1 therefore:1 indicative:1 initial:1 assessment:1 common:2 gauge:1 consciousness:5 spontaneously:2 exhibit:1 response:3 vocal:2 stimulus:4 hear:2 painful:2 know:1 avpu:1 alert:1 unconscious:1 scale:9 elaborate:1 glasgow:2 see:2 quantify:1 individual:1 reaction:1 eye:1 opening:1 movement:2 verbal:1 risk:3 asphyxiation:2 control:1 muscle:1 face:1 throat:1 diminish:1 present:2 typically:1 assess:3 airway:4 management:1 deem:1 doctor:2 use:5 device:1 oropharyngeal:1 nasopharyngeal:1 endotracheal:1 tube:1 safeguard:1 diagnosis:2 stable:1 simple:2 computed:1 tomography:1 scan:1 example:1 specific:1 classification:1 impairment:1 categorize:1 several:2 first:3 responsiveness:1 lessens:1 normal:2 reflex:1 lose:1 longer:1 two:1 measurement:1 tbi:1 determine:1 gc:2 ranchos:1 los:1 amigos:1 rlas:2 point:1 bad:1 professional:1 prognosis:2 complex:2 eight:1 separate:1 week:3 month:2 close:1 observation:1 shift:1 frequent:1 outcome:2 range:1 recovery:9 death:3 generally:1 last:3 day:4 rarely:1 long:4 year:9 time:4 gradually:3 come:2 vegetative:7 others:3 die:2 enter:1 go:1 regain:2 degree:1 awareness:5 remain:1 even:1 decade:1 recorded:1 period:4 accord:1 guinness:1 book:1 record:1 spend:1 elaine:1 esposito:1 anaesthetize:1 appendectomy:1 august:1 age:2 november:1 location:1 extent:2 neurological:2 alone:1 necessarily:1 slim:1 chance:7 people:3 recover:2 well:1 call:2 milder:1 sometimes:1 improve:1 emerge:1 combination:1 physical:1 intellectual:1 psychological:1 difficulty:1 need:1 special:1 attention:1 occur:2 acquire:1 ability:2 never:1 beyond:1 basic:1 many:1 full:2 instant:1 awake:2 minute:1 duration:1 increase:1 predict:1 variable:1 owe:1 different:1 technique:1 measure:1 prediction:1 base:1 statistical:1 rate:1 still:2 best:1 general:1 predictor:1 partial:1 less:1 com:2 secondary:1 infection:1 pneumonia:1 lie:1 extend:1 occasionally:1 minimally:2 conscious:2 terry:1 wallis:1 begin:1 speak:1 regained:1 surroundings:1 mother:1 stun:1 victim:1 unexpected:1 word:1 smh:1 au:1 similarly:1 polish:1 railroad:1 worker:1 jan:1 grzebski:1 man:2 trap:1 like:1 six:1 bring:1 back:1 plant:1 electrode:1 inside:1 method:1 stimulation:1 db:1 successfully:1 rouse:1 communication:1 eat:1 old:1 american:1 suffer:1 leave:1 mcs:1 akin:1 characterize:1 occasional:1 brief:1 evidence:1 environmental:1 self:1 lack:1 persistent:1 without:1 detectable:1 irreversible:2 end:1 activity:1 process:1 orient:1 work:2 approach:1 residual:1 reference:1 |@bigram reticular_formation:1 sign_symptoms:1 carbon_dioxide:1 traumatic_brain:4 computed_tomography:1 smh_com:1 persistent_vegetative:1 |
3,967 | History_of_Mac_OS | Apple marketed its operating system software as "Mac OS", beginning in 1997. On January 24, 1984, Apple Computer, Inc. (now Apple Inc.) introduced the Macintosh personal computer, with the Macintosh 128K model, which came bundled with the Mac OS operating system, then known as the System Software. The Macintosh is often credited with popularizing the graphical user interface. The Mac OS has been pre-installed on almost every Macintosh computer ever sold. The operating system is also sold separately at Apple retail stores, and online. The original Mac OS was partially based on the Lisa OS, previously released by Apple for the Lisa computer in 1983 and, as part of an agreement allowing Xerox to buy shares in Apple at a favourable rate, it also used concepts from the Xerox PARC Xerox Alto which Steve Jobs and several other Macintosh team members had previewed. Early history Development The Macintosh project started in early 1979 with Jef Raskin, who envisioned an easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average consumer. In September 1979, Raskin was given permission to start hiring for the project and was, in particular, looking for an engineer that could put together a prototype. Bill Atkinson, a member of the Apple Lisa team, introduced him to Burrell Smith, a service technician who had been hired earlier that year. In January 1981, Steve Jobs completely took over the Macintosh project. Jobs and a number of Apple engineers visited Xerox PARC in December 1979, three months after the Lisa and Macintosh projects had begun. After hearing about the pioneering GUI technology being developed at Xerox PARC from former Xerox employees like Raskin, Jobs negotiated a visit to see the Xerox Alto computer and Smalltalk development tools in exchange for Apple stock options. The final Lisa and Macintosh operating systems mostly used concepts from the Xerox Alto, but many elements of the graphical user interface were created by Apple including the menubar and pop-up menus. Unlike the IBM PC, which used 8 kB of system ROM for power-on self-test (POST) and basic input/output system (BIOS), the Mac ROM was significantly larger (64 kB) and held key OS code. Much of the original Mac ROM was coded by Andy Hertzfeld, a member of the original Macintosh team. He was able to conserve some of the precious ROM space by interleaving some of the assembly language code. In addition to coding the ROM, he also coded the kernel, the Macintosh Toolbox and some of the desktop accessories (DAs) as well. The icons of the operating system, which represented folders and application software were designed by Susan Kare, who later designed the icons for Microsoft Windows 3.0. Bruce Horn and Steve Capps wrote the Macintosh Finder as well as a number of Macintosh system utilities. Apple was very strong in advertising their newfound machine. After it was created, the company bought all 39 pages of advertisement space in the Newsweek magazine, 1984 November/December edition. Apple was so successful in its marketing for the Macintosh, that it quickly outshone its more sophisticated predecessor, the Lisa, in sales – so much so that Apple quickly developed a product called MacWorks which allowed the Lisa to emulate Macintosh system software through System 3, by which time it had been discontinued as the re-branded Macintosh XL. Many of Lisa's operating system advances would not appear in the Macintosh OS until System 7. Release Original 1984 Mac OS desktop The first version of the Mac OS (simply called System) is easily distinguished between other operating systems from the same period because it does not use a command line interface; it was one of the first operating systems to use an entirely graphical user interface. Additional to the system kernel is the Finder, an application used for file management, which also displays the Desktop. The two files were contained in a folder directory labeled System Folder, which contained other resource files, like a printer driver, needed to interact with the System. System 1, 2, 3 & 4 System Software 0.1 System Software 0.3/0.5 System Software 0.7 System Software 2.0.1 These releases could only run one application at a time, though special application shells such as Switcher (discussed under MultiFinder) could work around this to some extent. System 1.0, 1.1, and 2.0 used a flat file system with only one kludged level of folders, called Macintosh File System (MFS); its support for folders (subdirectories) was incomplete. System 2.0 added support for AppleTalk and the newly introduced LaserWriter to use it. System 2.1 (Finder 5.0) introduced the HFS (Hierarchical File System) which had real directories. This version was specifically to support the Hard Disk 20 and only implemented HFS in RAM, startup and most floppy disks remained MFS 400K volumes. System 3.0 was introduced with the Mac Plus, officially implementing HFS and 800K startup drives and adding support for several new technologies including SCSI and AppleShare and introducing Trash "bulging" (i.e., when the Trash contained files, it would gain a bulged appearance). System 4.0 came with the Mac SE and Macintosh II, which required additional support for the first expansion slots, the Apple Desktop Bus (ADB), internal hard drives and on the Mac II, color, larger displays and the first Motorola 68020 processor. Mac II, SE Changes in early Macintosh operating systems are best reflected in the version number of the Finder, where major leaps are found between 1.x, 4.x, 5.x, and 6.x. System Software Release System VersionRelease DateFinder VersionLaserWriter VersionRelease InformationMac System Software1.0 (.97)January 24, 19841.0Initial ReleaseMac System Software (0.1)1.1May 5, 19841.1gMaintenance Release, Added Mountain scene, About box, Clean Up CommandMac System Software (0.3 & 0.5)2.0April 19854.1Finder UpdateSystem software 2.1September 19855.0Release for Hard Disk 20 supportMac System Software (0.7)3.0January 19865.11.1Introduced with Mac PlusSystem Software 1.03.1February 19865.21.1System Software 1.13.2February 19865.33.1Fixed problems with data loss, system crashes; updated Chooser and Calculator.System Software 2.03.3January 19875.43.1Release for Macintosh II and SESystem software 3.46.1Release for Macintosh 512Ke AppleShare 2.0 supportSystem Software 2.014.0March 19875.43.3Introduced AppleShareSystem Software 2.014.1April 19875.54.0Maintenance Release of System Software. Updated LaserWriter Driver System Software 5 System Software 5 (also referred to as simply System 5) added MultiFinder, an extension which let the system run several programs at once. The system used a co-operative multitasking model, meaning that time was given to the background applications only when the running application yielded control. A clever change in system functions that applications were already calling to handle events made many existing applications share time automatically. Users could also choose to not use MultiFinder, and thus stick with using a single application at a time as in previous releases of the system software. System Software 5 was also the first Macintosh operating system to be given a unified "Macintosh System Software" version number, as opposed to the numbers used for the System and Finder files. System Software 5 was available for a very short time and only in some countries, including the United States. System Software ReleaseSystem VersionRelease DateFinder VersionMultiFinder VersionLaserWriter VersionRelease Information5.04.21987 circa6.01.05.0Initial Release5.14.31988 circa6.01.05.1Updated LaserWriter Driver and new version of Apple HD SC Setup System Software 6 System Software 6.0.8 System Software 6 (also referred to simply as System 6) was a consolidation release of the Mac OS, producing a complete, stable, and long-lasting operating system. Two major hardware introductions requiring additional support under System 6 were the 68030 processor and 1.44MB SuperDrive debuting with the Macintosh IIx and Macintosh SE/30. Later it would include support for the first specialized laptop features with the introduction of the Macintosh Portable. From System 6 forward, the Finder would have a unified version number closely matching that of the System, alleviating much of the confusion caused by the often considerable differences between earlier Systems. Apple Macintosh before System 7 System VersionRelease DateFinder VersionMultiFinder VersionLaserWriter VersionRelease Information6.0April, 19886.16.05.2Initial Release6.0.1September 19, 19886.1.16.0.15.2Release for Macintosh IIx (1988)6.0.2Late 19886.16.0.15.2Maintenance Release6.0.3March 7, 19896.16.0.35.2Release for Macintosh IIcx (1989)6.0.4September 20, 19896.1.46.0.45.2Release for Macintosh Portable and IIci (1989)6.0.5March 19, 19906.1.56.0.55.2Release for Macintosh IIfx (1990)6.0.6October 15, 19906.1.66.0.65.2Not released because of AppleTalk bug http://support.apple.com/kb/TA45090 6.0.7October 16, 19906.1.76.0.75.2Official release for Macintosh LC, IIsi and Classic (1990)6.0.8April, 19916.1.86.0.87.0Updated printing software to match software of System 7.06.0.8LLate 1991/Early 19926.1.86.0.87.0Limited maintenance release for Pacific customers System 7 On May 13, 1991 System 7 was released. It was the second major upgrade to the Mac OS, adding a significant user interface overhaul, new applications, stability improvements and many new features. Its introduction coincided with the release of and provided support for the 68040 Macintosh line. Perhaps the most significant feature of System 7 was page swapping support, which previously had only been available as a third-party add-on. Accompanying this was a move to 32-bit memory addressing, necessary for the ever-increasing amounts of RAM available to the Motorola 68030 CPU. Earlier versions of Mac OS had used the lower 24 bits for addressing, and the upper 8 bits for flags. This had been an effective solution for earlier Macintosh models with very limited amounts of RAM, but it became a liability later. Apple described code that assumed the 24 + 8-bit addressing as being "not 32-bit clean", and most such applications would crash when 32-bit addressing was enabled by the user. The original Macs used the Motorola 68000 CPU which could address only 16 MB of memory. 24 Bits is all that is needed to address the 16MB memory space. This was a hardware limitation, not a system software design fault. The 68020/68030/68040 CPUs have 32-bit address buses and can address up to 4 GB of physical memory. As Apple moved to the 68030 CPU it needed to allow the use of more than 16 MB of memory. Thus the transition to 32-bit clean ROMs and software had to be implemented. One notable System 7 feature was the built-in co-operative multitasking. In System Software 6, this function was optional through the MultiFinder. System 7 also introduced aliases, similar to shortcuts that were introduced in later versions of Microsoft Windows. System extensions were enhanced, by being moved to their own subfolder; a subfolder in the System Folder was also created for the control panels. In System 7.5, Apple included the Extensions Manager, a previously third-party program which simplified the process of enabling and disabling extensions. The Apple menu, home only to desk accessories in System 6, was made more general-purpose: the user could now make often-used folders and applications—or anything else they desired—appear in the menu by placing aliases to them in an "Apple Menu Items" subfolder of the System Folder. AppleScript, a scripting language for automating tasks, was also introduced with System 7. 32-bit QuickDraw, supporting so-called "true color" imaging, was also included as standard; it was previously available as a system extension. TrueType, an outline font standard, was also introduced with System 7. The Trash, under System 6 and earlier, would empty itself automatically when shutting down the computer or, if MultiFinder were not running, when launching an application. System 7 reimplemented the Trash as a special hidden folder, allowing files to remain in it across reboots until the user deliberately chose the "Empty Trash" command. System 7.1 was mainly a bugfix release, with a few minor features added. System 7.1 was not only the first operating system to cost money (all previous versions were free or sold at the cost of the floppies), but also received a "Pro" sibling with extra features. System 7.1.2 was the first version to support PowerPC-based Macs. System 7.1 also introduced the System Enablers as a method to support new models without updating the actual System file. This led to extra files inside the system folder (one per new model supported) that some users found unpleasing. System 7.5 introduced a large number of "high level" additions, considered by some to be less well thought-out than they could have been. Many of the new features were based on shareware applications that Apple bought and included into the new system. On the newer PowerPC machines, System 7.5 was plagued by stability problems due partly to a new memory manager (which can be turned off), and poor OS handling of errors in PowerPC code (all PowerPC exceptions map to Type 11). These growing pains did not afflict the 68k-architecture machines. Mac OS 7.6 Stability improved in PPC Macs with Mac OS 7.6, which dropped the "System" moniker as a more-trademarkable name was needed in order to license the OS to the growing market of third-party Macintosh clone manufacturers. Mac OS 7.6 required a 68030 CPU and 32 bit clean ROMs, and so dropped support for many of the early Macs, including the Mac Plus and Mac II. Version history System 7.0 (integrated MultiFinder always enabled) System 7.0.1 (introduced with LC II and Quadra series) System 7 Tuner (update for both 7.0 and 7.0.1) System 7.1 System 7.1 Pro (version 7.1.1, combined with PowerTalk, Speech Manager & Macintalk, Thread Manager) System 7.1.2 (first version for Macs equipped with a PowerPC processor) System 7.1.2P (only for Performa/LC/Quadra 630 series, very quickly replaced by 7.5) System 7.5 System 7.5.1 (System 7.5 Update 1.0 — the first Macintosh operating system to call itself "Mac OS") System 7.5.2 (first version for Power Macs that use PCI expansion cards, usable only on these Power Macs and PowerBooks 5300 and Duo 2300) System 7.5.3 (System 7.5 Update 2.0) System 7.5.3L (only for Mac clones) System 7.5.3 Revision 2 System 7.5.3 Revision 2.1 (only for Performa 6400/180 and 6400/200) System 7.5.4, released very briefly and withdrawn within hours. Replaced by 7.5.5 System 7.5.5 Last to support non-32 bit clean Macs, including all with less than a 68030 CPU. Mac OS 7.6 (name formally changed because of the experimental clone program, although System 7.5.1 and later used the "Mac OS" name on the splash screen) Mac OS 7.6.1 Proper PowerPC error handling introduced. Performas used to have their own, exclusive operating system before they were merged into System 7.5. System 7.0.1P System 7.1P System 7.1P1 System 7.1P2 System 7.1P3 (last release with new features) System 7.1P4 System 7.1P5 System 7.1P6 Mac OS 8 Mac OS 8.1 desktop Mac OS 8 was released on July 26, 1997, shortly after Steve Jobs returned to the company. It was mainly released to keep the Mac OS moving forward during a difficult time for Apple. Initially planned as Mac OS 7.7, it was renumbered "8" to exploit a legal loophole to accomplish Jobs's goal of terminating third-party manufacturers' licenses to System 7 and shutting down the Macintosh clone market. 8.0 added a number of features from the stillborn Copland project, while leaving the underlying operating system unchanged. A multi-threaded Finder was included, enabling better multi-tasking. The GUI was changed in appearance to a new shaded greyscale look called Platinum, and the ability to change the appearance themes (also known as skins) was added with a new control panel. This capability was provided by a new "appearance" API layer within the OS, one of the few significant changes. Apple sold 1.2 million copies of Mac OS 8 in its first two weeks of availability and 3 million within six months. In light of Apple's financial difficulties at the time, there was a large grassroots movement among Mac users to upgrade and 'help save Apple'. Even some pirate groups refused to redistribute the OS. Mac OS 8.1 saw the introduction of an updated version of the Hierarchical File System called HFS Plus, which fixed many of the limitations of the earlier system (HFS Plus continues to be used in Mac OS X). There were some other interface changes such as separating network features from printing (the venerable, and rather odd Chooser was at last headed for retirement), and some improvements to application switching. However, in underlying technical respects, Mac OS 8 was not very different from System 7. Mac OS 8.5 focused on speed and stability, with lots of old 68k code replaced by modern code native to the PowerPC. It also improved the appearance on the system, although the theming feature was cut late in development. Mac OS 8.0 (first version to require a 68040 processor, dropping support for the remainder of the Macintosh II series and other 68030 Macs) Mac OS 8.1 (last version to run on a 68K processor, added support for USB on the Bondi iMac, added support for HFS+) Mac OS 8.5 (first version to run only on a PowerPC processor, added built-in support for Firewire on the PowerMac G3) Mac OS 8.5.1 Mac OS 8.6 (included a new nanokernel for improved performance and Multiprocessing Services 2.0 support, added support for the PowerPC G4 processor) Mac OS 9 Mac OS 9 was released on October 23, 1999. It was generally a steady evolution from Mac OS 8. Early development releases of Mac OS 9 were numbered 8.7. Mac OS 9 added improved support for AirPort wireless networking. It introduced an early implementation of multi-user support (though not considered a true multi-user operating system by modern standards). An improved Sherlock search engine added several new search plug-ins. Mac OS 9 also provided a much improved memory implementation and management. AppleScript was improved to allow TCP/IP and networking control. Mac OS 9 also made the first use of the centralized Apple Software Update to find and install OS and hardware updates. Other new features included its on-the-fly file encryption software with code signing and Keychain technologies, Remote Networking and File Server packages and much improved list of USB drivers. Mac OS 9 also added some transitional technologies to help application developers adopt some Mac OS X features before the introduction of the new OS to the public, again easing the transition. These included new APIs for the file system, and the bundling of the Carbon library that apps could link against instead of the traditional API libraries — apps that were adapted to do this can be run natively on Mac OS X as well. Other changes were made in Mac OS 9 to allow it to be booted in the "classic environment" within Mac OS X. This is a compatibility layer in Mac OS X (in fact a Mac OS X application, originally codenamed the "blue box") that runs a complete Mac OS 9 operating system, so allowing applications that have not been ported to Carbon to run on Mac OS X. This is reasonably seamless, though "classic" applications retain their original Mac OS 8/9 appearance and do not gain the Mac OS X "Aqua" appearance. Mac OS 9.0 Mac OS 9.0.2 Mac OS 9.0.3 Mac OS 9.0.4 Mac OS 9.1 Mac OS 9.2 Mac OS 9.2.1 Mac OS 9.2.2 Mac OS X Mac OS X () is the line of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc. which succeeded the original Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike the earlier Macintosh operating system, Mac OS X is a Unix-based operating system http://images.apple.com/macosx/pdf/MacOSX_UNIX_TB_v2.pdf built on technology developed at NeXT from the second half of the 1980s until early 1997, when Apple purchased the company. The first version was Mac OS X Server 1.0 in 1999, which retained the earlier Mac operating system's "platinum" appearance and even resembled OPENSTEP in places. The desktop-oriented version, Mac OS X v10.0, followed in March 2001 sporting the new Aqua user interface. Since then, Six more distinct "end-user" and "server" versions have been released, most recently Mac OS X v10.5 in October 2007. Releases of Mac OS X are named after big cats. For example, Apple calls Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard," while its previous release was called "Tiger." Versions of Mac OS X: Mac OS X v10.0 (Cheetah) Mac OS X v10.1 (Puma) Mac OS X v10.2 (Jaguar) Mac OS X v10.3 (Panther) Mac OS X v10.4 (Tiger) Mac OS X v10.5 (Leopard) Mac OS X v10.6 (Snow Leopard) Timeline See also A/UX Apple DOS Apple GS/OS Apple Lisa Apple ProDOS Apple SOS Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp. Comparison of operating systems History of the graphical user interface Inside Macintosh List of Apple software List of Macintosh software Versions of Mac OS X Notes Further reading External links System 7.5.3 from Apple.com Older Macintosh System Software from Apple.com | History_of_Mac_OS |@lemmatized apple:42 market:4 operating:12 system:143 software:40 mac:96 begin:2 january:3 computer:8 inc:4 introduce:14 macintosh:43 personal:1 model:5 come:2 bundle:1 know:2 often:3 credit:1 popularize:1 graphical:5 user:15 interface:8 pre:1 instal:1 almost:1 every:1 ever:2 sell:5 also:21 separately:1 retail:1 store:1 online:1 original:7 partially:1 base:4 lisa:9 previously:4 release:23 part:1 agreement:1 allow:7 xerox:8 buy:3 share:2 favourable:1 rate:1 use:22 concept:2 parc:3 alto:3 steve:4 job:6 several:4 team:3 member:3 preview:1 early:15 history:3 development:4 project:5 start:2 jef:1 raskin:3 envision:1 easy:1 low:2 cost:3 average:1 consumer:1 september:1 give:3 permission:1 hire:2 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3,968 | Law_of_definite_proportions | In chemistry, the law of definite proportions and also the elements states that a chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass. An equivalent statement is the law of constant composition, which states that all samples of a given chemical compound have the same elemental composition. For example, oxygen makes up 8/9 of the mass of any sample of pure water, while hydrogen makes up the remaining 1/9 of the mass. Along with the law of multiple proportions, the law of definite proportions forms the basis of stoichiometry. Zumdahl, S. S. “Chemistry” Heath, 1986: Lexington, MA. ISBN 0-669--04529-2. History This observation was first made by the French chemist Joseph Proust based on several experiments conducted between 1798 and 1804. For example: Proust, J.-L. (1799). Researches on copper, Ann. chim., 32:26-54. Excerpt, in Henry M. Leicester and Herbert S. Klickstein, A Source Book in Chemistry, 1400-1900, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1952. Accessed 2008-05-08. Based on such observations, Proust made statements like this one, in 1806: "I shall conclude by deducing from these experiments the principle I have established at the commencement of this memoir, viz. that iron like many other metals is subject to the law of nature which presides at every true combination, that is to say, that it unites with two constant proportions of oxygen. In this respect it does not differ from tin, mercury, and lead, and, in a word, almost every known combustible." The law of definite proportions might seem obvious to the modern chemist, inherent in the very definition of a chemical compound. At the end of the 18th century, however, when the concept of a chemical compound had not yet been fully developed, the law was novel. In fact, when first proposed, it was a controversial statement and was opposed by other chemists, most notably Proust's fellow Frenchman Claude Louis Berthollet, who argued that the elements could combine in any proportion. See Dalton, J. (1808). op. cit., ch. II, that Berthollet held the opinion that in all chemical unions, there exist insensible gradations in the proportions of the constituent principles. The very existence of this debate underscores that at the time, the distinction between pure chemical compounds and mixtures had not yet been fully developed. Proust argued that compound applies only to materials with fixed proportions: Proust, J.-L. (1806). Sur les mines de cobalt, nickel et autres, Journal de Physique, 63:566-8. Excerpt, from Maurice Crosland, ed., The Science of Matter: a Historical Survey, Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1971. Accessed 2008-05-08. The law of definite proportions contributed to, and was placed on a firm theoretical basis by, the atomic theory that John Dalton promoted beginning in 1803, which explained matter as consisting of discrete atoms, that there was one type of atom for each element, and that the compounds were made of combinations of different types of atoms in fixed proportions. Dalton, J. (1808). A New System of Chemical Philosophy, volume 1, Manchester. Excerpt. Accessed 2008-05-08. Non-stoichiometric compounds It may be noted that although very useful in the foundation of modern chemistry, the laws of definite proportions is not universally true. There exist non-stoichiometric compounds whose elemental composition can vary from sample to sample. An example is the iron oxide wüstite, which can contain between 0.83 and 0.95 iron atoms for every oxygen atom, and thus contain anywhere between 23% and 25% oxygen. In general, Proust's measurements were not accurate enough to detect such variations. In addition, the isotopic composition of an element can vary depending on its source, hence its weight in a pure stoichiometric compound may vary. This fact is used in geochemical dating since astronomical, atmospheric, oceanic, crustal and deep Earth processes may concentrate lighter or heavier isotopes preferentially. With the exception of hydrogen and its isotopes, the effect is usually small but measurable with modern instrumentation. An additional note: many natural polymers vary in composition (for instance RNA, proteins, carbohydrates) even when "pure". Polymers are generally not considered "pure chemical compounds" except when their molecular weight is uniform (monodisperse) and their stoichiometry is constant. In this unusual case, they still may violate the law due to isotopic variations. References | Law_of_definite_proportions |@lemmatized chemistry:4 law:10 definite:5 proportion:12 also:1 element:5 state:2 chemical:8 compound:11 always:1 contain:3 exactly:1 mass:3 equivalent:1 statement:3 constant:3 composition:5 sample:4 give:1 elemental:2 example:3 oxygen:4 make:5 pure:5 water:1 hydrogen:2 remain:1 along:1 multiple:1 form:1 basis:2 stoichiometry:2 zumdahl:1 heath:1 lexington:1 isbn:1 history:1 observation:2 first:2 french:1 chemist:3 joseph:1 proust:7 base:2 several:1 experiment:2 conduct:1 j:4 l:2 research:1 copper:1 ann:1 chim:1 excerpt:3 henry:1 leicester:1 herbert:1 klickstein:1 source:2 book:1 cambridge:1 harvard:1 accessed:3 like:2 one:2 shall:1 conclude:1 deduce:1 principle:2 establish:1 commencement:1 memoir:1 viz:1 iron:3 many:2 metal:1 subject:1 nature:1 preside:1 every:3 true:2 combination:2 say:1 unite:1 two:1 respect:1 differ:1 tin:1 mercury:1 lead:1 word:1 almost:1 know:1 combustible:1 might:1 seem:1 obvious:1 modern:3 inherent:1 definition:1 end:1 century:1 however:1 concept:1 yet:2 fully:2 develop:2 novel:1 fact:2 propose:1 controversial:1 oppose:1 notably:1 fellow:1 frenchman:1 claude:1 louis:1 berthollet:2 argue:2 could:1 combine:1 see:1 dalton:3 op:1 cit:1 ch:1 ii:1 hold:1 opinion:1 union:1 exist:2 insensible:1 gradation:1 constituent:1 existence:1 debate:1 underscore:1 time:1 distinction:1 mixture:1 apply:1 material:1 fixed:2 sur:1 les:1 mine:1 de:2 cobalt:1 nickel:1 et:1 autres:1 journal:1 physique:1 maurice:1 crosland:1 ed:1 science:1 matter:2 historical:1 survey:1 harmondsworth:1 uk:1 penguin:1 contribute:1 place:1 firm:1 theoretical:1 atomic:1 theory:1 john:1 promote:1 begin:1 explain:1 consist:1 discrete:1 atom:5 type:2 different:1 new:1 system:1 philosophy:1 volume:1 manchester:1 non:2 stoichiometric:3 may:4 note:2 although:1 useful:1 foundation:1 universally:1 whose:1 vary:4 oxide:1 wüstite:1 thus:1 anywhere:1 general:1 measurement:1 accurate:1 enough:1 detect:1 variation:2 addition:1 isotopic:2 depend:1 hence:1 weight:2 use:1 geochemical:1 dating:1 since:1 astronomical:1 atmospheric:1 oceanic:1 crustal:1 deep:1 earth:1 process:1 concentrate:1 lighter:1 heavy:1 isotope:2 preferentially:1 exception:1 effect:1 usually:1 small:1 measurable:1 instrumentation:1 additional:1 natural:1 polymer:2 instance:1 rna:1 protein:1 carbohydrate:1 even:1 generally:1 consider:1 except:1 molecular:1 uniform:1 monodisperse:1 unusual:1 case:1 still:1 violate:1 due:1 reference:1 |@bigram louis_berthollet:1 op_cit:1 sur_les:1 cobalt_nickel:1 et_autres:1 stoichiometric_compound:3 isotopic_composition:1 |
3,969 | Aeneas | In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas (Greek: , Aineías; in English) was a Trojan hero, the son of prince Anchises and the goddess Venus. His father was also the second cousin of King Priam of Troy. The journey of Aeneas from Troy, (led by Venus, his mother) which led to the founding of the city Rome, is recounted in Virgil's Aeneid. He is considered an important figure in Greek and Roman legend and history. Aeneas is a character in Homer's Iliad, Quintus Smyrnaeus' Posthomerica, and Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida. Also, Aeneas has been known for his skills in combat during the battle of Troy. He also was one of the keys to the founding of Rome. Mythology In the Iliad, Aeneas is the leader of the Dardanians (Trojans - descendants of Dardanus), and a principal lieutenant of Hector, son of the Trojan king Priam. In the poem, Aeneas's mother Aphrodite frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield; he is also a favorite of Apollo. Venus and Apollo rescue Aeneas from combat with Diomedes of Argos, who nearly kills him, and carry him away to Pergamos for healing. Even Poseidon, who normally favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue when the latter falls under the assault of Achilles, noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people. As seen in the first books of the Aeneid, Aeneas is one of the few Trojans who were not killed in battle or enslaved when Troy fell. When Troy was sacked by the Greeks, Aeneas, after being commanded by the gods to flee, gathered a group, collectively known as the Aeneads, who then traveled to Italy and became progenitors of the Romans. The Aeneads included Aeneas's trumpeter Misenus, his father Anchises, his friends Achates, Sergestus and Acmon, the healer Lapyx, the steady helmsman Palinurus, and his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus, Julus, or Ascanius Julius.) He carried with him the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to Italy. Aeneas tells Dido about the fall of Troy, by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin. (From here on, the Greek myths make room for the Roman mythology, so the Roman names of the gods will be used.) After a brief, but fierce storm sent up against the group at Juno's request, and several failed attempts to found cities, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at Carthage after six years of wanderings. Aeneas had a year long affair with the Carthaginian queen Dido (also known as Elissa), who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. Once again, this was in favour of Juno, who was told of the fact that her favorite city would eventually be defeated by the Trojans' descendants. However, the messenger god Mercury was sent by Jupiter and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, thus compelling him to leave secretly and continue on his way. When Dido learned of this, she ordered her sister Anna to construct a pyre, she said, to get rid of Aeneas' possessions, left behind by him in his haste to leave. Standing on it, Dido uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Rome. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself with the same sword she gave Aeneas when they first met and then falling on the pyre. Anna reproached the mortally wounded Dido. Meanwhile, Juno, looking down on the tragedy and moved by Dido's plight, sent Iris to make Dido's passage to Hades quicker and less painful. When Aeneas later traveled to Hades, he called to her ghost but she neither spoke to nor acknowledged him. The company stopped on the island of Sicily during the course of their journey. After the first trip, before the Trojans went to Carthage, Achaemenides, one of Odysseus' crew who had been left behind, traveled with them. After visiting Carthage, the Trojans returned to Sicily where they were welcomed by Acestes, king of the region and son of the river Crinisus by a Dardanian woman. Aeneas and the god Tiber, by Bartolomeo Pinelli. Latinus, king of the Latins, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled Trojans and let them reorganize their life in Latium. His daughter Lavinia had been promised to Turnus, king of the Rutuli, but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land — namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of Juno, who was aligned with King Mezentius of the Etruscans and Queen Amata of the Latins. Aeneas' forces prevailed. Turnus was killed and his people were captured. According to Livy, Aeneas was victorious but Latinus died in the war. Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, Anna Perenna, who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. After his death, his mother, Venus asked Jupiter to make her son immortal. Jupiter agreed and the river god Numicus cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and Venus anointed him with Ambrosia and Nectar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god Jupiter Indiges. Inspired by the work of James Frazer, some have posited that Aeneas was originally a life-death-rebirth deity. Family and legendary descendants Aeneas had an extensive family tree. His wet-nurse was Caieta, and he is the father of Ascanius with Creusa, and of Silvius with Lavinia. The former, also known as Iulus (or Julius), founded Alba Longa and was the first in a long series of kings. According to the mythology outlined by Virgil in the Aeneid, Romulus and Remus were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother Rhea Silvia, making Aeneas progenitor of the Roman people. Some early sources call him their father or grandfather, Romulus by Plutarch but considering the commonly accepted dates of the fall of Troy (1184 BC) and the founding of Rome (753 BC), this seems unlikely. The Julian family of Rome, most notably Julius Cæsar and Augustus, traced their lineage to Ascanius and Aeneas, thus to the goddess Venus. Through the Julians, the Palemonids also make this claim. The legendary kings of Britain also trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, Brutus. Medieval literature In the Divine Comedy Dante sees the shade of Aeneas among other Roman worthies in the section of Limbo reserved for "virtuous pagans". Roman d'Enéas Family tree Notes References Classical sources Homer, Iliad II, 819-21; V, 217-575; XIII, 455-544; XX, 75-352; Apollodorus, Bibliotheke III, xii, 2; Apollodorus, Epitome III, 32-IV, 2; V, 21; Virgil, Aeneid; Ovid, Metamorphoses XIV, 581-608; Ovid, Heroides, VII. 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3,970 | Borzoi | The Borzoi ([ˈbɔɹzɔɪ, ˈbɔːzɔɪ]) is a breed of domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) also called the Russian Wolfhound. They were brought to Russia from Middle-Asian countries. They have medium-length and slightly curly hair and are similar in shape to Greyhounds. They are a member of the sighthound family. The plural Borzois may be found in dictionaries. However, the Borzoi Club of America asserts Borzoi is the preferred form for both singular and plural. At least one manual of grammatical style rules that the breed name should not be capitalized except at the beginning of a sentence; again, breed fanciers usually differ, and capitalize it wherever found. The Times (of London, UK) Online Style Guide, see dog "Borzaya" ("quick dog") is a Russian term for various types of native sighthound. The Russkaya Psovaya Borzaya (Psovoi—the longhaired borzoi) is the dog we know as Borzoi. The system by which Russians over the ages named their sightdogs was a series of describing terms, not actual names, which makes the use of Borzoi for the Psovaya a mistake made by the first Western exporters of the breed. "Psovaya" means "longhaired", just as "Hortaya" (as in Hortaya Borzaya) means shorthaired. Other Russian sightdog breeds are e.g. "Stepnaya Borzaya" (from the steppe), called "Stepnoi" or "Krimskaya Borzaya" (from the Crimea), called "Krimskoi". Description Borzoi are very large, and are known as Russian sight hounds. Borzoi look a lot like many Middle-Asian dogs such as Afgan hound dog and Kyrgyz Taigan. Their fur is silky and flat, and wavy or slightly curly. Appearance Borzoi can come in any color or color combination. As a general approximation, "long haired greyhound" is a useful description. The long top-coat is silky and quite flat, with varying degrees of waviness or curling. The soft undercoat thickens in winter or cold climates but is shed in hot weather to prevent overheating. In its texture and distribution over the body, the Borzoi coat is unique. The Borzoi coat is silky and flat, often wavy or slightly curly The Borzoi is a large variety of sighthound, with males frequently reaching in excess of 100 pounds (45 kg). Males should stand at least 28 inches (about 70 centimeters) at the shoulder, while females shouldn't be less than 26 inches (about 66 centimeters). Despite their size the overall impression is of streamlining and grace, with a curvy shapeliness and compact strength. Temperament The Borzoi is a quiet and intelligent but athletic and independent dog. Most Borzoi are almost silent, barking only very rarely. They do not have strong territorial drives and cannot be relied on to raise the alarm upon sighting a human intruder. They are gentle and highly sensitive dogs with a natural respect for humans, and as adults they are decorative couch potatoes with remarkably gracious house-manners. Borzois should never display dominance or aggression towards people. Typically however, they are rather reserved and sensitive to invasion of their personal space; this can make them nervous around children unless they are brought up with them from an early age. Despite their size they adapt very well to suburban living, provided they have a spacious yard and regular opportunities for free exercise. Borzoi are gracious couch potatoes at home. The Borzoi ranks 75th out of 78 in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, being of the lowest breeds in degree of working/obedience intelligence. It took Borzois at least 80-100 repetitions to understand a new command and obeyed the first command less than 25% of the time. These are dogs used to pursue, or "course", game and they have a powerful instinct to chase things that run from them. Borzoi are built for speed and endurance, and they can cover incredible distances in a very short time. A fully-fenced yard is an absolute necessity for keeping any sighthound. They are highly independent and will range far and wide without containment, and they have no regard at all for road traffic. For off-lead exercise a Borzoi needs a very large field or park, either fully fenced or well away from any roads, to ensure their safety. Generally, Borzoi should not be territorially aggressive to other domestic dogs. Against wolves and other wild canids, they are born with specialized skills, but these are quite different from the dog-fighting instincts seen in some breeds. It is quite common for Borzoi at play to course (run down) another dog, seizing it by the neck and holding it immobile. Young pups do this with their littermates, trading off as to who is the prey. It is a specific hunting behavior, not a fighting or territorial domination behavior. Borzoi can be raised very successfully to live with cats and other small animals provided they are introduced to them at a young age. Some, however, will possess the hunting instinct to such a degree that they find it impossible not to chase a cat that is moving quickly. The hunting instinct is triggered by movement and much depends on how the cat behaves. Some Borzoi do well in competitive obedience and agility trials with the right kind of training, Scott pp.113 but it is not an activity that comes naturally to them. They are intelligent learners who quickly become bored with repetitive, apparently pointless, activity, and they can be very stubborn when they are not properly motivated. Like other sighthounds they cannot understand or tolerate harsh treatment or training based on punishment, and will be extremely unhappy if raised voices and threats are a part of their daily life. Health Borzois vary widely in colour Life expectancy is 7 to 10 years. Exceptional individuals have lived to be more than 14 years of age. Dogs that are physically fit and vigorous in their youth through middle age are more vigorous and healthy as elderly dogs, all other factors being equal. In the UK various cancers, followed by cardiac problems, seem to be the most frequent causes of premature death . Like its native relative the Hortaya Borzaya, the Borzoi is basically a very sound breed. OCD, hip and elbow dysplasia have remained almost unknown, as were congenital eye and heart diseases before the 1970s. However, in some countries modern breeding practices have unfortunately introduced a few problems. As with other very deep-chested breeds, gastric torsion is the most common serious health problem in the Borzoi. Also known as bloat, this life-threatening condition is believed to be anatomical rather than strictly genetic in origin. Many Borzoi owners recommend feeding the dog from a raised platform instead of placing the food-dish on the ground, and making sure that the dog rests quietly for several hours after eating, as the most reliable way to prevent bloat. Less common are cardiac problems including cardiomyopathy and cardiac arhythmia disorders. A controversy exists as to the presence of progressive retinal atrophy in the breed. A condition identified as Borzoi Retinopathy is seen in some individuals, usually active dogs, which differs from progressive retinal atrophy in several ways. First, it is unilateral, and rarely seen in animals less than 3 years of age; second, a clear cut pattern of inheritance has not been demonstrated; and finally, most affected individuals do not go blind. Borzoi puppies rapidly grow into strong and graceful sprinters.Correct nutrition during puppyhood is also debatable for Borzoi. These dogs naturally experience enormous growth surges in the first year or two of their lives. It is now widely accepted that forcing even faster growth by feeding a highly concentrated, high-energy diet is dangerous for skeletal development, causing unsoundness and increased tendency to joint problems and injury. Being built primarily for speed, Borzoi do not carry large amounts of body fat or muscle, and therefore have a rather different physiology to other dogs of similar size (such as the Newfoundland, St. Bernard or Alaskan Malamute). Laboratory-formulated diets designed for a generic "large" or "giant" breed are unlikely to take the needs of the big sighthounds into account. The issues involved in raw feeding may be particularly relevant to tall, streamlined breeds such as the Borzoi. It is interesting to note that the Hortaya Borzaya, undoubtedly a very close relative, is traditionally raised on a meagre diet of oats and table scraps. The Hortaya is also said to be intolerant of highly concentrated kibble feeds. Basically, a lean body weight in itself is nothing to be concerned about, and force-feeding of healthy young Borzoi is definitely not recommended. History A borzoi pack assisting in a Russian wolf hunt, as shown on Охота на волка 1873 It was long thought that Saluki type sighthounds were originally brought to Russia from Byzantium in the south about the 9th and 10th centuries and again later by the Mongol invaders from the East. However, now that the archeological archives and research results of the former USSR are open to scientists, it has become quite clear that the primal sightdog type evolved between the Kyrgyzstan, the lower Kazakhstan part of Altai and the Afghan plains, and that the earliest actual sightdog breeds were the plains Afghans and the Kyrgyz Taigan. These ancient breeds then migrated south (founding the Tazi/Saluki branch) and west (founding the Stepnaya, Krimskaya and Hortaya branches) to develop into breeds adapted to those regions. This was a slow process which happened naturally through normal spreading of trade, with the silk and spice trade via the Silk Road being the prime vector. The more modern Psovaya Borzaya was founded on Stepnaya, Hortaya and the Ukrainian-Polish version of old Hort. There were also imports of western sightdog breeds to add to the height and weight. It was crossed as well with the Russian Laika specifically and singularly to add resistance against northern cold and a longer and thicker coat than the southern sightdogs were equipped with. All of these foundation types - Tazi, Hortaya, Stepnaya, Krimskaya and Hort - already possessed the instincts and agility necessary for hunting and bringing down wolves. The Psovoi was popular with the Tsars before the 1917 revolution. For centuries, Psovoi could not be purchased but only given as gifts from the Tsar. The most famous breeder was Grand Duke Nicholas Nicolaievich of Russia, who bred countless Psovoi at Perchino, his private estate. Scott pp.10 The Russian concept of hunting trials was instituted during the era of the Tsars. As well as providing exciting sport, the tests were used for selecting borzoi breeding stock; only the quickest and most intelligent hunting dogs went on to produce progeny. For the aristocracy these trials were a well-organized ceremony, sometimes going on for days, with the borzoi accompanied by mounted hunters and Foxhounds on the Russian steppe. Hares and other small game were by far the most numerous kills, but the hunters especially loved to test their dogs on wolf. If a wolf was sighted, the hunter would release a team of two or three borzoi. The dogs would pursue the wolf, attack its neck from both sides, and hold it until the hunter arrived. The classical killing was by the human hunter with a knife. Wolf trials are still a regular part of the hunting diploma for all Russian sightdog breeds of the relevant type, either singly or in pairs or triplets, in their native country. In the 1917 Revolution, large numbers of native Psovoi were destroyed by the revolutionaries. The Tsars had turned them into a symbol of affluence and tyranny, and they were not welcomed into the new world of the Soviet Union. Some noblemen took it upon themselves to shoot their own dogs rather than allow them to fall into the hands of militants and be cruelly tortured. However, the Psovoi survived along with the other borzaya variants in the Russian countryside. In the late 1940s a Soviet soldier named Constantin Esmont made detailed records of the various types of borzoi dogs he found in the Cossack villages. Esmont's amazing pictures were recently published and can be viewed by clicking on the link below. Esmont was concerned that the distinct types of borzaya were in danger of degenerating without a controlled system of breeding. He convinced the Soviet government that borzoi were a valuable asset to the hunters who supported the fur industry and henceforth, their breeding was officially regulated. To this day short-haired Hortaya Borzaya are highly valued hunting dogs on the steppes, while the long-haired Psovaya Borzaya, still carrying some of the stigma of its association with the old White Russia, has become more common as a decorative companion. Exports of Borzoi to other countries were extremely rare during the Soviet era. However enough had been taken to England, Scandinavia, Western Europe and America in the late 19th century for the breed to establish itself outside its native country. Art In 2004, the UK Kennel Club held its 4th temporary exhibition entitled 'The Borzoi in Art'. The exhibition offered a unique insight into the Borzoi and how the breed has been depicted in art throughout the 19th and 20th Centuries. The exhibition included paintings, bronzes and porcelain which had previously never before been available for the public viewing. The exhibition ran from September 27 to December 3. Famous Borzoi The Borzoi is the symbol of Alfred A. Knopf publishing house. Tasha, a female Borzoi belonging to the noted vet Buster Lloyd-Jones (founder of Denes natural pet foods), was born in the UK during the Second World War and is the pedigree ancestor of most British Borzoi bloodlines. Scott pp.14 Ben was the white male borzoi, beloved of E.J. Smith, Captain of the Titanic. There exists a photo of the Captain and his dog outside his cabin on the ship. The Dog was not however on the maiden voyage. Kolchak Has been the mascot of the 27th Infantry Regiment since the Regiment participated in the Siberia Campaign. The 27th Infantry has been nicknamed 'The Wolfhounds' in recognition of their endurance during battles in Siberia. In the Disney movie "Lady and the Tramp", The philosophical dog named "Boris" That Lady meets in the pound is a Borzoi. In popular culture Borzoi Colophon of the publisher Alfred A. Knopf. "Mademoiselle Nobs" from Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii The book War and Peace contains a wolf hunting scene with borzois in book 7, chapters 3 to 6 . The 1968 film version War and Peace contains a hunting scene with Borzoi from the kennel of Ekhaga, Sweden. The 1999 film, Onegin has a couple of scenes with Borzoi in a Russian landowner's country mansion a) being led through snowy inner courtyard by one of the servants b) lounging next to enormous hearth/ fireplace next to their master. Uncle Zeke starred as "Digger" in the 2000 Disney film, 102 Dalmatians Rocket, Missile, and Jet in Ginga Densetsu Weed Boris in Walt Disney's film Lady and the Tramp D'or's Prince Igor owned by Barbara Todd (Zcerlov) and bred by Andre Legere appears in the film, Hello Dolly! Lyndell Ackerman's "Nessie" CH Windyglens Finesse in the TV show Wings. Borzoi can also been seen in cameo roles in the films Love at First Bite, Legends of the Fall ("Notchee Boy"), Excalibur, Bride of Frankenstein, Easter Parade, Wolfen, Ziegfeld Follies, Gangs of New York (2002), Chaplin, The Avengers (TV series), JAG, Maverick (1994), Sleepy Hollow, Last Action Hero, and A Knights Tale (on the DVD deleted scenes). In the book Dark Symphony by Christine Feehan, Byron gives his lifemate, Antonietta, a black Borzoi named "Celt". In an SCTV parody commercial for fictional Poochare dog food, a borzoi dog is seen being taken for a walk by Eugene Levy. Notes References The Borzoi Handbook Winifred E. Chadwick. London: Nicholson & Watson 1952. Including a translation of The Perchino Hunt By His Excellency Dmitri Walzoff (1912). External links Borzoi Canada Borzoi Club of America, inc. A collection of historical articles on the Borzoi breed, some dating as far back as 1891 some breed history: standards/description, hunting, coursing etc Constantin Esmont and his historic photographs Article: The Borzoi Coat Article: The Modern Borzoi Historical artistic and cultural album dedicated to the Borzoi. 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3,971 | Mackenzie_Bowell | Sir Mackenzie Bowell, PC, KCMG (December 27, 1823 – December 10, 1917) was the fifth Prime Minister of Canada from December 21, 1894 to April 27, 1896. Bowell was born in Rickinghall, Suffolk, England to John Bowell and Elizabeth Marshall. In 1832 his family emigrated thence to Belleville, Ontario, where he apprenticed with the printer at the town newspaper, The Intelligencer. He became a successful printer and editor with that newspaper, and later its owner. He was a Freemason A few famous freemasons at freemasonry.bcy.ca but also an outstanding Orangeman, becoming Grandmaster of the Orange Order of British North America, 1870 – 1878. In 1847 he married Harriet Moore (1829 – 1884), with whom he had four sons and five daughters. Bowell was first elected to the House of Commons in 1867, as a Conservative, for the riding of North Hastings, Ontario. He held his seat for the Conservatives when they lost the election of January 1874, in the wake of the Pacific Scandal. Later that year he was instrumental in having Louis Riel expelled from the House. In 1878, with the Conservatives again governing, he joined the cabinet as Minister of Customs. In 1892 he became Minister of Militia and Defence. A competent, hardworking administrator, Bowell remained in Cabinet as Minister of Trade and Commerce, a newly made portfolio, after he became a senator that same year. His visit to Australia in 1893 led to the first conference of British colonies and territories, held in Ottawa in 1894. He became Leader of the Government in the Senate on October 31 1893. In December 1894, Prime Minister Sir John Thompson died suddenly and Bowell, as the most senior Cabinet minister, was appointed in Thompson's stead by the Governor General. Bowell thus became the second of just two Canadian Prime Ministers to hold that office while serving in the Senate rather than the House of Commons. (The first was John Abbott.) As Prime Minister, Bowell faced the troublesome Manitoba Schools Question. In 1890 Manitoba had abolished public funding of its Catholic schools, contrary to the provisions made for Catholics in the Manitoba Act of 1870. Bowell and his predecessors had struggled to solve this problem. The issue had divided the country, the government, and even Bowell's own Cabinet. He was further hampered in his handling of the issue by his own indecisiveness on it, and by his inability, as a Senator, to take part in debates in the House of Commons. Bowell backed legislation, already drafted, that would have forced Manitoba to restore its Catholic schools, but then postsponed it due to opposition within his Cabinet. With the ordinary business of government at a standstill, Bowell's Cabinet decided he was incompetent to lead and so, to force him to step down, seven ministers resigned, then foiled the appointment of successors. Though Bowell denounced them as "a nest of traitors," he had to agree to resign. After ten days, through an intervention on Bowell's behalf by the Governor General, the government crisis was resolved and matters seemingly returned normal when six of the ministers were reinstated, but leadership was thenceforth effectively held by Charles Tupper, who had joined Cabinet at the same time, filling the seventh place. Tupper, who had been Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, had been recalled by the plotters to replace Bowell. Bowell formally resigned in favour of Tupper at the end of the parliamentary session. Bowell stayed on in the Senate, serving as his party's leader there till 1906, and afterward as a plain Senator until his death. He died of pneumonia in Belleville, only days short of turning 94, and was buried in the Belleville Cemetery. His funeral was attended by a full complement of the Orange Order, but not by any currently or formerly elected member of the government. Bowell's descendants live in Hertfordshire, England. In their 1999 study of the Canadian Prime Ministers up through Jean Chrétien, J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer found that a survey of Canadian historians ranked Bowell #19 out of the 20 Prime Ministers up until then. Supreme Court appointments The following jurist was appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor General during Bowell's tenure: Désiré Girouard (September 28, 1895 – March 22, 1911) Notes External links Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Political Biography from the Library of Parliament J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer, Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders Toronto: HarperCollinsPublishersLtd., A Phyllis Bruce Book, 1999. P.42-44. 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3,972 | Miss_Marple | Jane Marple, usually known as Miss Marple, is a fictional character appearing in twelve of Agatha Christie's crime novels. Miss Marple is an elderly spinster who acts as an amateur detective, and lives in the village of St. Mary Mead. She has been portrayed numerous times on screen, and is one of the most famous of Christie's creations. Her first published appearance was in issue 350 of The Royal Magazine for December 1927 with the first printing of the short story The Tuesday Night Club which later became the first chapter of The Thirteen Problems (1932). Her first appearance in a full-length novel was in The Murder at the Vicarage in 1930. Character Illustration by Gilbert Wilkinson of Miss Marple from the December 1927 issue of The Royal Magazine and the first-known image of the character (See The Thirteen Problems) Miss Jane Marple is an elderly lady who lives in the little English village of St. Mary Mead. Superficially stereotypical, she is dressed neatly in tweed and is frequently seen knitting or pulling weeds in her garden. Miss Marple sometimes comes across as confused or "fluffy", but when it comes to solving mysteries, she has a sharp logical mind, and an almost unmatched understanding of human nature with all its weaknesses, strengths, quirks and foibles. In the detective story tradition, she often embarrasses the local "professional" police by solving mysteries that have them stumped. Tape recordings, that she made in the mid-60s, reveal that 'Miss Marple' was partly based on Christie's grandmother. "Agatha Christie used her grandmother as a model for Miss Marple, new tapes reveal", Stephen Adams, The Daily Telegraph, 16 September 2008. However, there is no definitive source for the derivation of the name 'Marple'. "Was Miss Marple Born in cheshire?", Cheshire Life, accessed 30 March 2009. The most common explanation suggests that the name was taken from the railway station in Marple, Greater Manchester, through which Christie passed, with the alternative account that Christie took it from the home of a Marple family who lived at Marple Hall, near her sister Madge's home at Abney Hall. "Marple's Profile", Hercule Poirot Central, accessed 30 March 2009. Agatha Christie attributed the inspiration for the character of Miss Marple to a number of sources: Miss Marple was "the sort of old lady who would have been rather like some of my grandmother’s Ealing cronies – old ladies whom I have met in so many villages where I have gone to stay as a girl". Christie also used material from her fictional creation, spinster Caroline Sheppard, who appeared in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. When Michael Morton adapted Roger Ackroyd for the stage, he removed the character of Caroline replacing her with a young girl. This change saddened Christie and she determined to give old maids a voice: Miss Marple was born. The character of Jane Marple in the first Miss Marple book, The Murder at the Vicarage, is markedly different from how she appears in later books. This early version of Miss Marple is a gleeful gossip and not an especially nice woman. The citizens of St. Mary Mead like her but are often tired by her nosy nature and how she seems to expect the worst of everyone. In later books she becomes more modern and a kinder person. Miss Marple never married and has no close living relatives. Vicarage introduced Miss Marple's nephew, the "well-known author" Raymond West. His wife Joan (initially called Joyce), a modern artist, was introduced in 1933 in The Thirteen Problems. Raymond tends to be overconfident in himself and underestimates Miss Marple's mental powers. In her later years, Miss Marple has a live-in companion named Cherry Baker, who was first introduced in The Mirror Crack'd From Side To Side. Miss Marple is able to solve difficult crimes not only because of her shrewd intelligence, but because St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has given her seemingly infinite examples of the negative side of human nature. No crime can arise without reminding Miss Marple of some parallel incident in the history of her time. Miss Marple's acquaintances are sometimes bored by her frequent analogies to people and events from St. Mary Mead, but these analogies often lead Miss Marple to a deeper realization about the true nature of a crime. Although she looks like a sweet, frail old woman, Miss Marple is not afraid of dead bodies and is not easily intimidated. She also has a remarkable ability to latch onto a casual comment and connect it to the case at hand. Miss Marple has never worked for her living and is of independent means, though in her old age benefits from the financial support of Raymond West, her nephew (A Caribbean Mystery,1964). She demonstrates a remarkably thorough education, including some art courses that involved study of human anatomy through the study of human cadavers. In They Do It with Mirrors (1952), it is revealed that, in her distant youth, Miss Marple spent time in Europe at a finishing school. She is not herself from the aristocracy or landed gentry, but is quite at home amongst them; Miss Marple would probably have been happy to describe herself as a gentlewoman. Miss Marple may thus be considered a female version of that staple of British detective fiction, the gentleman detective. This education, history, and background are hinted at in the Margaret Rutherford films (see below), in which Miss Marple mentions her awards at marksmanship, fencing and equestrianism (although these hints are played for comedic value). Christie wrote a concluding novel to her Marple series, Sleeping Murder, in 1940. She locked it away in a bank vault so it would be safe should she be killed in The Blitz. The novel was not published until shortly after Christie's death in 1976, some thirty-six years after it was originally written. While Miss Marple is described as 'an old lady' in many of the stories, her age is never mentioned. Excluding "Sleeping Murder", forty-one years passed between the first and last-written novels, and many characters grow and age. An example would be the Vicar's son. At the end of The Murder at the Vicarage, the Vicar's wife is pregnant. In The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side, it is mentioned that the son is now grown, successful and has a career. The effects of aging are seen on Miss Marple, such as needing vacation after illness in A Caribbean Mystery or finding she can no longer knit due to poor eyesight in The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side. Novels featuring Miss Marple The Murder at the Vicarage (1930) The Body in the Library (1942) The Moving Finger (1943) A Murder is Announced (1950) They Do It with Mirrors, or Murder with Mirrors (1952) A Pocket Full of Rye (1953) 4.50 from Paddington, or What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw! (1957) The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side, or The Mirror Crack'd (1962) A Caribbean Mystery (1964) At Bertram's Hotel (1965) Nemesis (1971) Sleeping Murder (written around 1940, published 1976) Miss Marple short story collections The Tuesday Night Club (short story) featured Miss Marple for the first time ever. Written in 1927. The Thirteen Problems (short story collection featuring Miss Marple, also published as The Tuesday Club Murders) (1932) Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories (short stories collected posthumously, also published as Miss Marple's Final Cases, but only six of the eight stories actually feature Miss Marple) (written between 1939 and 1954, published 1979) Miss Marple also appears in Greenshaw's Folly, a short story traditionally included as part of the Poirot collection The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding (1960). Four stories in the Three Blind Mice collection (1950) feature Miss Marple: Strange Jest, Tape-Measure Murder, The Case of the Caretaker, and The Case of the Perfect Maid. Books about Miss Marple The Life and Times of Miss Jane Marple -- a biography by Anne Hart Movies Margaret Rutherford Although popular from her first appearance in 1930, Jane Marple had to wait thirty-two years for her first big-screen appearance. When she made it, the results were found disappointing to Christie purists and Christie herself, nevertheless Agatha Christie dedicated the novel The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side to Margaret Rutherford Murder, She Said (1962, directed by George Pollock) was the first of four British MGM productions starring Dame Margaret Rutherford. She presented the character as a bold old lady, different from the prim and birdlike character Christie created in her novels. This first film was based on the 1957 novel 4:50 from Paddington (U.S. title, What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy does not see anything because there is no Mrs. McGillicuddy. Miss Marple herself sees an apparent murder committed on a train running alongside hers. Likewise, it is Miss Marple herself who poses as a maid to find out the facts of the case, not a young friend of hers who has made a business of it. Joan Hickson played the part of the home help in this film and can claim to have appeared in two Miss Marple series. The other Rutherford films (all directed by George Pollock) were Murder at the Gallop (1963), based on the 1953 Hercule Poirot novel After the Funeral (In this film, she is identified as Miss JTV Marple, though there were no indication as to what the extra initials might stand for); Murder Most Foul (1964), based on the 1952 Poirot novel Mrs McGinty's Dead; and Murder Ahoy! (1964). The last film is not based on any Christie work but displays a few plot elements from They Do It With Mirrors (viz., the ship is used as a reform school for wayward boys and one of the teachers uses them as a crime force), and there is a kind of salute to The Mousetrap. Rutherford also appeared briefly as Miss Marple in the spoof Hercule Poirot adventure The Alphabet Murders (1965). Rutherford, who was 70 years-old when the first film was made, insisted that she wore her own clothes during the filming of the movie, as well as having her real-life husband, Stringer Davis appear alongside her as the character 'Mr Stringer'. The Rutherford films are frequently repeated on television in Germany, and in that country Miss Marple is generally identified with Rutherford's quirky portrayal. Angela Lansbury In 1980, Angela Lansbury played Miss Marple in The Mirror Crack'd (EMI, directed by Guy Hamilton), based on Christie's 1962 novel. However, Lansbury is only on screen for a short time, the bulk of the film being taken up with the machinations of an all-star cast that included Elizabeth Taylor, Rock Hudson, Geraldine Chaplin, Tony Curtis, and Kim Novak. Edward Fox appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork. Lansbury's Marple was a crisp, intelligent woman who moved stiffly and spoke in clipped tones. Unlike most incarnations of Miss Marple, this one smoked cigarettes. Ita Ever In 1983, Estonian stage and film actress Ita Ever starred in the Russian language film adaptation of Agatha Christie's novel A Pocket Full of Rye (using the Russian edition's translated title, The Secret of the Blackbirds) as the character of Miss Marple. PBS Mystery. Miss Marple Helen Hayes American stage and screen legend Helen Hayes portrayed Miss Marple in two American made-for-TV movies, both for CBS: A Caribbean Mystery (1983) and Murder with Mirrors (1984). Sue Grafton contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy. Rakhee The Bengali actress Rakhee played Miss Marple in the 2003 film Shubho Mahurat, the Indian film adaption of The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side directed by Rituparno Ghosh. Television, stage and radio adaptations Television American TV was the setting for the first dramatic portrayal of Miss Marple. Gracie Fields, a legendary British actress, played her in a 1956 episode of Goodyear TV Playhouse based on A Murder Is Announced, the 1950 Christie novel. In 1970, the character of Miss Marple was portrayed by Inge Langen in a West German television adaptation of The Murder at the Vicarage (Mord im Pfarrhaus). From 1984 to 1992, the BBC adapted all of the original Miss Marple novels as a series titled Miss Marple. Joan Hickson played the lead role. (Coincidentally, Hickson had played a cook in the first film in which Margaret Rutherford played Miss Marple.) These programs, which are actually a set of 12 feature-length TV movies rather than a TV series in the usual sense, followed the plots of the original novels more closely than previous film and television adaptations had, and Joan Hickson has come to be regarded by many as the definitive Miss Marple (indeed Agatha Christie herself once remarked years earlier that she would like Joan Hickson to play Miss Marple). Angela Lansbury, after playing Miss Marple in The Mirror Crack'd, went on to star in the TV series Murder, She Wrote as Jessica Fletcher, a mystery novelist who also solves crimes. The character was based in part on Miss Marple and another Christie character, Ariadne Oliver. Starting in 2004, ITV broadcast a new series of adaptations of Agatha Christie's books under the title Agatha Christie's Marple, usually referred to as Marple, with Geraldine McEwan in the lead role until her retirement after the third series. She will be replaced with actress Julia McKenzie. The adaptions are notable for returning the plots and characters of the original books (e.g. incorporating lesbian affairs, changing killer identities, re-naming or removing significant characters, and even using stories from other books where Miss Marple didn't originally feature). From 2004 to 2005, Japanese TV network NHK produced a 39 episode anime series titled Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, which features both Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Miss Marple's voice is provided by Kaoru Yachigusa. Stage In 1974, Barbara Mullen, much-loved, Boston (USA) born actress (BBC's "Dr Finlay's Casebook") played Miss Marple in "Murder at the Vicarage" at the Savoy Theatre, London. In September 1977, veteran actress and authoress Dulcie Gray played the Miss Marple character in a stage adaptation of A Murder Is Announced at the Vaudeville Theatre in London, England. Radio BBC Radio 4 dramatised all of the novels from 1993-2001 with June Whitfield as Miss Marple. See also Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories References External links A free and comprehensive guide to the life and work of Agatha Christie Yahoo Grouplist for Geraldine McEwan | Miss_Marple |@lemmatized jane:5 marple:83 usually:2 know:3 miss:69 fictional:2 character:17 appear:8 twelve:1 agatha:10 christie:25 crime:6 novel:17 elderly:2 spinster:2 act:1 amateur:1 detective:5 live:4 village:3 st:5 mary:5 mead:5 portray:3 numerous:1 time:6 screen:4 one:4 famous:1 creation:2 first:16 publish:6 appearance:4 issue:2 royal:2 magazine:2 december:2 printing:1 short:7 story:13 tuesday:3 night:2 club:3 later:2 become:2 chapter:1 thirteen:4 problem:4 full:3 length:2 murder:24 vicarage:7 illustration:1 gilbert:1 wilkinson:1 image:1 see:7 lady:5 little:1 english:1 superficially:1 stereotypical:1 dress:1 neatly:1 tweed:1 frequently:2 knitting:1 pull:1 weed:1 garden:1 sometimes:2 come:3 across:1 confused:1 fluffy:1 solve:4 mystery:8 sharp:1 logical:1 mind:1 almost:1 unmatched:1 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3,973 | Cebidae | The Cebidae form one of the four families of New World monkeys now recognised. It includes the marmosets, tamarins, capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys. They are found throughout tropical and subtropical South and Central America. Characteristics Cebid monkeys are arboreal animals that only rarely travel on the ground. They are generally small monkeys, ranging in size from the Pygmy Marmoset, with a head-body length of 17 to 19 cm, and a weight of 120 to 190 grams, to the Brown Capuchin, with a body length of 33 to 56 cm, and a weight of 2.5 to 3.9 kilograms. They are somewhat variable in form and coloration, but all have the wide, flat, noses typical of New World Monkeys. They are omnivorous, mostly eating fruit and insects, although the proportions of these foods vary greatly between species. They have the dental formula: Females give birth to one or two young after a gestation period of between 130 and 170 days, depending on species. They are social animals, living in groups of between five and forty individuals, with the smaller species typically forming larger groups. They are generally diurnal in habit. Classification Previously, New World monkeys were divided between the Callitrichidae and this family, but modern classifications place the genera from Callitrichidae as a subfamily in Cebidae (named Callitrichinae), while moving other genera into the other families. As it is most widely recognised today, Cebidae includes six genera organised into three subfamilies, though one of these genera is currently purely formal in that it contains only a single species. Family Cebidae: marmosets, tamarins, capuchins and squirrel monkeysEmperor Tamarin (Saguinus imperator) Subfamily Callitrichinae Genus Callithrix Black-headed Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) nigriceps Black-tailed Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) melanura Black-tufted Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) penicillata Buffy-headed Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) flaviceps Buffy-tufted Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) aurita Common Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) jacchus Emilia's Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) emiliae Gold-and-white Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) chrysoleuca Hershkovitz's Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) intermedia Manicore Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) manicorensis Marca's Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) marcai Maués Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) mauesi Pygmy Marmoset, Callithrix (Cebuella) pygmaea Rio Acari Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) acariensis Roosmalens' Dwarf Marmoset, Callithrix (Callibella) humilis Santarem Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) humeralifera Satéré Marmoset. Callithrix (Mico) saterei Silvery Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) argentata White Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) leucippe White-headed Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) geoffroyi Wied's Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) kuhlii Genus Leontopithecus Black Lion Tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysopygus Golden Lion Tamarin, Leontopithecus rosalia Golden-headed Lion Tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysomelas Superagui Lion Tamarin, Leontopithecus caissara Genus Saguinus Black Tamarin, Saguinus niger Black-mantled Tamarin, Saguinus nigricollis Brown-mantled Tamarin, Saguinus fuscicollis Cottontop Tamarin or Pinché Tamarin, Saguinus oedipus Emperor Tamarin, Saguinus imperator Geoffroy's Tamarin, Saguinus geoffroyi Golden-mantled Tamarin, Saguinus tripartitus Graells's Tamarin, Saguinus graellsi Martins's Tamarin, Saguinus martinsi Mottle-faced Tamarin, Saguinus inustus Moustached Tamarin, Saguinus mystax Pied Tamarin, Saguinus bicolor Red-capped Tamarin, Saguinus pileatus Red-handed Tamarin, Saguinus midas White-footed Tamarin, Saguinus leucopus White-lipped Tamarin, Saguinus labiatus White-mantled Tamarin, Saguinus melanoleucus Genus Callimico Goeldi's Marmoset, Callimico goeldiiWhite-fronted Capuchin (Cebus albifrons) Subfamily Cebinae Genus Cebus Black-striped Capuchin, Cebus libidinosus Black Capuchin, Cebus nigritus Golden-bellied Capuchin, Cebus xanthosternos Kaapori Capuchin, Cebus kaapori Tufted Capuchin, Cebus apella White-headed Capuchin, Cebus capucinus White-fronted Capuchin, Cebus albifrons Weeper Capuchin, Cebus olivaceus Blond Capuchin, Cebus flaviusCommon Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri sciureus) Subfamily Saimiriinae Genus Saimiri Bare-eared Squirrel Monkey, Saimiri ustus Black Squirrel Monkey, Saimiri vanzolini Black-capped Squirrel Monkey, Saimiri boliviensis Central American Squirrel Monkey, Saimiri oerstedi Common Squirrel Monkey, Saimiri sciureus Extinct taxa Subfamily Cebinae Genus Acrecebus Acrecebus fraileyi Genus Dolichocebus Dolichocebus gaimanensis Genus Chilecebus Chilecebus carrascoensis Genus Neosaimiri Neosaimiri fieldsi Genus Laventiana Laventiana annectens References | Cebidae |@lemmatized cebidae:4 form:3 one:3 four:1 family:4 new:3 world:3 monkey:13 recognise:2 include:2 marmoset:25 tamarin:25 capuchin:13 squirrel:8 find:1 throughout:1 tropical:1 subtropical:1 south:1 central:2 america:1 characteristic:1 cebid:1 arboreal:1 animal:2 rarely:1 travel:1 ground:1 generally:2 small:2 range:1 size:1 pygmy:2 head:6 body:2 length:2 cm:2 weight:2 gram:1 brown:2 kilogram:1 somewhat:1 variable:1 coloration:1 wide:1 flat:1 nose:1 typical:1 omnivorous:1 mostly:1 eat:1 fruit:1 insect:1 although:1 proportion:1 food:1 vary:1 greatly:1 specie:4 dental:1 formula:1 female:1 give:1 birth:1 two:1 young:1 gestation:1 period:1 day:1 depend:1 social:1 live:1 group:2 five:1 forty:1 individual:1 typically:1 large:1 diurnal:1 habit:1 classification:2 previously:1 divide:1 callitrichidae:2 modern:1 place:1 genus:15 subfamily:6 name:1 callitrichinae:2 move:1 widely:1 today:1 six:1 organise:1 three:1 though:1 currently:1 purely:1 formal:1 contain:1 single:1 monkeysemperor:1 saguinus:19 imperator:2 callithrix:28 black:10 mico:13 nigriceps:1 tailed:1 melanura:1 tufted:3 penicillata:1 buffy:2 flaviceps:1 aurita:1 common:2 jacchus:1 emilia:1 emiliae:1 gold:1 white:8 chrysoleuca:1 hershkovitz:1 intermedia:1 manicore:1 manicorensis:1 marca:1 marcai:1 maués:1 mauesi:1 cebuella:1 pygmaea:1 rio:1 acarus:1 acariensis:1 roosmalens:1 dwarf:1 callibella:1 humilis:1 santarem:1 humeralifera:1 satéré:1 saterei:1 silvery:1 argentata:1 leucippe:1 geoffroyi:2 wied:1 kuhlii:1 leontopithecus:5 lion:4 chrysopygus:1 golden:4 rosalia:1 chrysomelas:1 superagui:1 caissara:1 niger:1 mantle:3 nigricollis:1 mantled:1 fuscicollis:1 cottontop:1 pinché:1 oedipus:1 emperor:1 geoffroy:1 tripartitus:1 graells:1 graellsi:1 martin:1 martinsi:1 mottle:1 face:1 inustus:1 moustached:1 mystax:1 pied:1 bicolor:1 red:2 capped:1 pileatus:1 hand:1 midas:1 foot:1 leucopus:1 lipped:1 labiatus:1 melanoleucus:1 callimico:2 goeldi:1 goeldiiwhite:1 front:2 cebus:4 albifrons:2 cebinae:2 cebu:7 strip:1 libidinosus:1 nigritus:1 belly:1 xanthosternos:1 kaapori:2 apella:1 capucinus:1 weeper:1 olivaceus:1 blond:1 flaviuscommon:1 saimiri:7 sciureus:2 saimiriinae:1 bare:1 eared:1 ustus:1 vanzolini:1 cap:1 boliviensis:1 american:1 oerstedi:1 extinct:1 taxon:1 acrecebus:2 fraileyi:1 dolichocebus:2 gaimanensis:1 chilecebus:2 carrascoensis:1 neosaimiri:2 fieldsi:1 laventiana:2 annectens:1 reference:1 |@bigram marmoset_tamarin:2 capuchin_monkey:1 squirrel_monkey:7 tropical_subtropical:1 tamarin_saguinus:18 marmoset_callithrix:21 callithrix_mico:13 callithrix_callithrix:6 lion_tamarin:4 tamarin_leontopithecus:4 mantle_tamarin:3 goeldi_marmoset:1 capuchin_cebu:6 monkey_saimiri:6 |
3,974 | Chief_Minister_of_the_Northern_Territory | In Australia, a Chief Minister is the head of government of a self-governing territory, while the head of government of a state is a Premier. The Chief Minister is appointed by the Administrator of the Northern Territory, who in normal circumstances will appoint the head of whatever party holds the majority of seats in the legislature of the territory (in the Northern Territory, the Legislative Assembly). However, in times of constitutional crisis the Administrator can appoint someone else as Chief Minister. Chief Ministers of the Northern Territory Chief Minister Party Period in office Dr Goff Letts 1 Country Liberal Party 1974 - 1977 Paul Everingham Country Liberal Party 1977 - 1984 Ian Tuxworth Country Liberal Party 1984 - 1986 Stephen Hatton Country Liberal Party 1986 - 1988 Marshall Perron Country Liberal Party 1988 - 1995 Shane Stone Country Liberal Party 1995 - 1999 Denis Burke Country Liberal Party 1999 - 2001 Clare Martin Australian Labor Party 2001 - 2007 Paul Henderson Australian Labor Party 2007 - present 1 While the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly was created in 1974, self-government was not granted until 1978. As a result, members of the executive in the first parliament (1974-1977) and the first eighteen months of the second were known by alternative titles. While Dr Goff Letts and his successor Paul Everingham were officially known as Majority Leaders, their function was effectively the same as that of a Chief Minister from 1978. See also List of Chief Ministers of the Northern Territory by time in office | Chief_Minister_of_the_Northern_Territory |@lemmatized australia:1 chief:7 minister:7 head:3 government:3 self:2 govern:1 territory:7 state:1 premier:1 appoint:3 administrator:2 northern:5 normal:1 circumstance:1 whatever:1 party:11 hold:1 majority:2 seat:1 legislature:1 legislative:2 assembly:2 however:1 time:2 constitutional:1 crisis:1 someone:1 else:1 period:1 office:2 dr:2 goff:2 letts:2 country:7 liberal:7 paul:3 everingham:2 ian:1 tuxworth:1 stephen:1 hatton:1 marshall:1 perron:1 shane:1 stone:1 denis:1 burke:1 clare:1 martin:1 australian:2 labor:2 henderson:1 present:1 create:1 grant:1 result:1 member:1 executive:1 first:2 parliament:1 eighteen:1 month:1 second:1 know:2 alternative:1 title:1 successor:1 officially:1 leader:1 function:1 effectively:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 |@bigram legislative_assembly:2 someone_else:1 |
3,975 | Deception_Pass | Deception Pass, circled in red, is a strait connecting the Strait of Juan de Fuca to the west with Skagit Bay to the east. Whidbey Island is on the south side of Deception Pass, while Fidalgo Island is on the north. Puget Sound occupies the southern portion of the map. Deception Pass is a strait separating Whidbey Island from Fidalgo Island, in the northwest part of the U.S. state of Washington. It connects Skagit Bay, part of Puget Sound, with the Strait of Juan de Fuca. History View from bridge looking east The first Europeans to see Deception Pass were members of the 1790 expedition of Manuel Quimper on the Princesa Real. The Spanish gave it the name Boca de Flon. A group of sailors led by Joseph Whidbey, part of the Vancouver Expedition, found and mapped Deception Pass on June 1, 1792. George Vancouver gave it the name "Deception" because it had appeared to be a narrow bay instead of a strait, which would have made Whidbey Island a peninsula. In the waters of Deception Pass, just east of the present-day Deception Pass Bridge is a small island known as Ben Ure Island. The island became infamous for its activity of smuggling illegal Chinese immigrants for local labor. Ure and his partner Lawrence "Pirate" Kelly were quite profitable at their smuggling business and played hide-and-seek with the United States Customs Department for years. Ure's own operation at Deception Pass in the late 1880's consisted of Ure and his Native-American wife. Local tradition has it that his wife would camp on the nearby Strawberry Island (which was visible from the open sea) and signal him with a fire on the island's summit to alert him to whether or not it was safe to bring his illegal cargo ashore. For transport, Ure would tie the illegal immigrants up in burlap bags so that if customs agents were to approach then he could easily toss the bags overboard. The tidal currents would carry the discarded immigrant's bodies to San Juan Island to the north and west of the pass and many ended up in what became known as Dead Man's Bay. View looking west. Between the years 1910 and 1914, a prison rock quarry http://www.deceptionpassfoundation.org/quarry/quarry_panorama.htm Deception Pass Quarry panorama photo was operated on the Fidalgo Island side of the pass. Nearby barracks housed some 40 prisoners, members of an honors program out of Walla Walla State Penitentiary and the prison population was made up of all kinds of prisoners, including murderers. Guards stood watch at the quarry as the prisoners cut the rock into gravel and loaded it onto barges located at the base of the cliff atop the pass' waters. The quarried rock was then taken by barge to the Seattle waterfront. The camp was dismantled in 1924 and although abandoned as a quarry, the remains of the camp can still be found. The location, however, is hazardous and over the years there have been several fatal accidents when visitors have ventured onto the steep cliffs. Upon completion in July 1935, the 976 foot span Deception Pass Bridge connected Whidbey Island to the tiny Pass Island, and Pass Island to Fidalgo Island. Prior to the bridge, travellers and businessmen would use an inter-island ferry to commute between Fidalgo and Whidbey islands. Boats can be seen waiting on either side of the pass for the current to stop or change direction before going through. Thrill-seeking kayakers go there during large tide changes to surf the standing waves and brave the class 2 and 3 rapid conditions. The 2002 horror movie The Ring was in part filmed near the pass. Seattle grunge band Mudhoney named a song on their 1993 EP Five Dollar Bob's Mock Cooter Stew "Deception Pass." Deception Pass is a profoundly dramatic seascape where the tidal flow beneath the twin bridges connecting Fidalgo Island to Whidbey Island goes extremely fast and rough. During lower tides, the swift current can lead to standing waves, huge whirlpools, and roiling eddies. This swift current phenomenon can be viewed from the twin bridges' pedestrian walkways or from the trail leading below the larger south bridge from the parking lot on the Whidbey Island side. Recreation Deception Island. Deception Pass is today surrounded by Deception Pass State Park, the most-visited park in Washington with over 2 million visitors each year. The park was established in the 1930s when the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) built roads, trails, and buildings in order to develop the park. Deception Pass is also a destination for kayaking and boat tours. See also Juan Carrasco (explorer) References External links Deception Pass State Park webpage Deception Pass Park Foundation webpage Tourist sign at Deception Pass | Deception_Pass |@lemmatized deception:20 pas:25 circle:1 red:1 strait:5 connect:4 juan:4 de:3 fuca:2 west:3 skagit:2 bay:4 east:3 whidbey:8 island:22 south:2 side:4 fidalgo:6 north:2 puget:2 sound:2 occupy:1 southern:1 portion:1 map:2 separate:1 northwest:1 part:4 u:1 state:5 washington:2 history:1 view:3 bridge:7 look:2 first:1 european:1 see:3 member:2 expedition:2 manuel:1 quimper:1 princesa:1 real:1 spanish:1 give:2 name:3 boca:1 flon:1 group:1 sailor:1 lead:3 joseph:1 vancouver:2 find:2 june:1 george:1 appear:1 narrow:1 instead:1 would:5 make:2 peninsula:1 water:2 present:1 day:1 small:1 know:2 ben:1 ure:5 become:2 infamous:1 activity:1 smuggle:1 illegal:3 chinese:1 immigrant:3 local:2 labor:1 partner:1 lawrence:1 pirate:1 kelly:1 quite:1 profitable:1 smuggling:1 business:1 play:1 hide:1 seek:2 united:1 custom:2 department:1 year:4 operation:1 late:1 consist:1 native:1 american:1 wife:2 tradition:1 camp:3 nearby:2 strawberry:1 visible:1 open:1 sea:1 signal:1 fire:1 summit:1 alert:1 whether:1 safe:1 bring:1 cargo:1 ashore:1 transport:1 tie:1 burlap:1 bag:2 agent:1 approach:1 could:1 easily:1 toss:1 overboard:1 tidal:2 current:4 carry:1 discarded:1 body:1 san:1 many:1 end:1 dead:1 man:1 prison:2 rock:3 quarry:5 http:1 www:1 deceptionpassfoundation:1 org:1 htm:1 panorama:1 photo:1 operate:1 barrack:1 house:1 prisoner:3 honor:1 program:1 walla:2 penitentiary:1 population:1 kind:1 include:1 murderer:1 guard:1 stand:3 watch:1 cut:1 gravel:1 load:1 onto:2 barge:2 locate:1 base:1 cliff:2 atop:1 quarried:1 take:1 seattle:2 waterfront:1 dismantle:1 although:1 abandon:1 remains:1 still:1 location:1 however:1 hazardous:1 several:1 fatal:1 accident:1 visitor:2 venture:1 steep:1 upon:1 completion:1 july:1 foot:1 span:1 tiny:1 prior:1 traveller:1 businessmen:1 use:1 inter:1 ferry:1 commute:1 boat:2 wait:1 either:1 stop:1 change:2 direction:1 go:3 thrill:1 kayakers:1 large:2 tide:2 surf:1 wave:2 brave:1 class:1 rapid:1 condition:1 horror:1 movie:1 ring:1 film:1 near:1 grunge:1 band:1 mudhoney:1 song:1 ep:1 five:1 dollar:1 bob:1 mock:1 cooter:1 stew:1 profoundly:1 dramatic:1 seascape:1 flow:1 beneath:1 twin:2 extremely:1 fast:1 rough:1 low:1 swift:2 huge:1 whirlpool:1 roil:1 eddy:1 phenomenon:1 pedestrian:1 walkway:1 trail:2 parking:1 lot:1 recreation:1 today:1 surround:1 park:6 visit:1 million:1 establish:1 civilian:1 conservation:1 corp:1 ccc:1 build:1 road:1 building:1 order:1 develop:1 also:2 destination:1 kayak:1 tour:1 carrasco:1 explorer:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 webpage:2 foundation:1 tourist:1 sign:1 |@bigram deception_pas:18 de_fuca:2 whidbey_island:7 fidalgo_island:5 puget_sound:2 illegal_immigrant:1 san_juan:1 http_www:1 walla_walla:1 fatal_accident:1 steep_cliff:1 seattle_grunge:1 grunge_band:1 parking_lot:1 external_link:1 |
3,976 | Epilepsy | Epilepsy (from the Greek επιληψία /epili΄psia/ ) is a common chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms of abnormal, excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. About 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, with almost 90% of these people being in developing countries. Epilepsy is more likely to occur in young children, or people over the age of 65 years, however it can occur at any time. The National Society for Epilepsy (2009), What is Epilepsy?. Available from http://www.epilepsynse.org.uk/AboutEpilepsy/Whatisepilepsy (Accessed on 15 February 2009). Epilepsy is usually controlled, but not cured, with medication, although surgery may be considered in difficult cases. However, over 30% of people with epilepsy do not have seizure control even with the best available medications. Not all epilepsy syndromes are lifelong – some forms are confined to particular stages of childhood. Epilepsy should not be understood as a single disorder, but rather as a group of syndromes with vastly divergent symptoms but all involving episodic abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Classification Epilepsies are classified in five ways: By their first cause (or etiology). By the observable manifestations of the seizures, known as semiology. By the location in the brain where the seizures originate. As a part of discrete, identifiable medical syndromes. By the event that triggers the seizures, as in primary reading epilepsy or musicogenic epilepsy. In 1981, the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) proposed a classification scheme for individual seizures that remains in common use. This classification is based on observation (clinical and EEG) rather than the underlying pathophysiology or anatomy and is outlined later on in this article. In 1989, the ILAE proposed a classification scheme for epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. This can be broadly described as a two-axis scheme having the cause on one axis and the extent of localisation within the brain on the other. Since 1997, the ILAE have been working on a new scheme that has five axes: ictal phenomenon, seizure type, syndrome, etiology and impairment. Precipitants The diagnosis of epilepsy usually requires that the seizures occur spontaneously. Nevertheless, certain epilepsy syndromes require particular precipitants or triggers for seizures to occur. These are termed reflex epilepsy. For example, patients with primary reading epilepsy have seizures triggered by reading. Photosensitive epilepsy can be limited to seizures triggered by flashing lights. Other precipitants can trigger an epileptic seizure in patients who otherwise would be susceptible to spontaneous seizures. For example, children with childhood absence epilepsy may be susceptible to hyperventilation. In fact, flashing lights and hyperventilation are activating procedures used in clinical EEG to help trigger seizures to aid diagnosis. Finally, other precipitants can facilitate, rather than obligately trigger, seizures in susceptible individuals. Emotional stress, sleep deprivation, sleep itself, and febrile illness are examples of precipitants cited by patients with epilepsy. Notably, the influence of various precipitants varies with the epilepsy syndrome. . Likewise, the menstrual cycle in women with epilepsy can influence patterns of seizure recurrence. Catamenial epilepsy is the term denoting seizures linked to the menstrual cycle. Epidemiology Epilepsy is one of the most common of the serious neurological disorders. Genetic, congenital, and developmental conditions are mostly associated with it among younger patients; tumors are more likely over age 40; head trauma and central nervous system infections may occur at any age. The prevalence of active epilepsy is roughly in the range 5–10 per 1000 people. Up to 5% of people experience non febrile seizures at some point in life; epilepsy's lifetime prevalence is relatively high because most patients either stop having seizures or (less commonly) die of it. Epilepsy's approximate annual incidence rate is 40–70 per 100,000 in industrialized countries and 100–190 per 100,000 in resource-poor countries; socioeconomically deprived people are at higher risk. In industrialized countries the incidence rate decreased in children but increased among the elderly during the three decades prior to 2003, for reasons not fully understood. Beyond symptoms of the underlying diseases that can cause certain epilepsies, people with epilepsy are at risk for death from four main problems: status epilepticus (most often associated with anticonvulsant noncompliance), suicide associated with depression, trauma from seizures, and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) Those at highest risk for epilepsy-related deaths usually have underlying neurological impairment or poorly controlled seizures; those with more benign epilepsy syndromes have little risk for epilepsy-related death. Certain diseases also seem to occur in higher than expected rates in people with epilepsy, and the risk of these "comorbities" often varies with the epilepsy syndrome. These diseases include depression and anxiety disorders, migraine and other headaches, infertility and low sexual libido. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects three to five times more children with epilepsy than children in the general population. Epilepsy is prevalent in autism. Seizure types Seizure types are organized firstly according to whether the source of the seizure within the brain is localized (partial or focal onset seizures) or distributed (generalized seizures). Partial seizures are further divided on the extent to which consciousness is affected. If it is unaffected, then it is a simple partial seizure; otherwise it is a complex partial (psychomotor) seizure. A partial seizure may spread within the brain - a process known as secondary generalization. Generalized seizures are divided according to the effect on the body but all involve loss of consciousness. These include absence (petit mal), myoclonic, clonic, tonic, tonic-clonic (grand mal) and atonic seizures. Epilepsy syndromes There are over 40 different types of epilepsy, including: Absence seizures,atonic seizures, benign Rolandic epilepsy, childhood absence, clonic seizures, complex partial seizures, frontal lobe epilepsy, Febrile seizures, Infantile spasms, Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy, Juvenile Absence Epilepsy, lennox-gastaut syndrom, Landau-Kleffner Syndrome , myoclonic seizures, Mitochondrial Disorders, Progressive Myoclonic Epilepsies, Psychogenic Seizures , Reflex Epilepsy, Rasmussen's Syndrome, Simple Partial seizures, Secondarily Generalized Seizures, Temporal Lobe Epilepsy, Toni-clonic seizures, Tonic seizures, Psychomotor Seizures, Limbic Epilepsy, Partial-Onset Seizures, generalised-onset seizures, Status Epilepticus, Abdominal Epilepsy, Akinetic Seizures, Auto-nomic seizures, Massive Bilateral Myoclonus, Catamenial Epilepsy, Drop seizures, Emotional seizures, Focal seizures, Gelastic seizures, Jacksonian March, Lafora Disease, Motor seizures, Multifocal seizures, Neonatal seizures, Nocturnal seizures, Photosensitive seizure, Pseudo seizures, Sensory seizures, Subtle seizures, Sylvan Seizures, Withdrawal seizures, Visual Reflex Seizures amongst others. The National Society for Epilepsy (2009), What is Epilepsy?. Available from http://www.epilepsynse.org.uk/AboutEpilepsy/Whatisepilepsy (Accessed on 15 February 2009). Each type presents with its own unique combination of seizure type, typical age of onset, EEG findings, treatment, and prognosis. The most widespread classification of the epilepsies divides epilepsy syndromes by location or distribution of seizures (as revealed by the appearance of the seizures and by EEG) and by cause. Syndromes are divided into localization-related epilepsies, generalized epilepsies, or epilepsies of unknown localization. Localization-related epilepsies, sometimes termed partial or focal epilepsies, arise from an epileptic focus, a small portion of the brain that serves as the irritant driving the epileptic response. Generalized epilepsies, in contrast, arise from many independent foci (multifocal epilepsies) or from epileptic circuits that involve the whole brain. Epilepsies of unknown localization remain unclear whether they arise from a portion of the brain or from more widespread circuits. Epilepsy syndromes are further divided by presumptive cause: idiopathic, symptomatic, and cryptogenic. Idiopathic epilepsies are generally thought to arise from genetic abnormalities that lead to alteration of basic neuronal regulation. Symptomatic epilepsies arise from the effects of an epileptic lesion, whether that lesion is focal, such as a tumor, or a defect in metabolism causing widespread injury to the brain. Cryptogenic epilepsies involve a presumptive lesion that is otherwise difficult or impossible to uncover during evaluation. Some epileptic syndromes are difficult to fit within this classification scheme and fall in the unknown localization/etiology category. People who only have had a single seizure, or those with seizures that occur only after specific precipitants ("provoked seizures"), have "epilepsies" that fall into this category. Febrile convulsions are an example of seizures bound to a particular precipitant. Landau-Kleffner syndrome is another epilepsy which, because of its variety of EEG distributions, falls uneasily in clear categories. More confusingly, certain syndromes like West syndrome featuring seizures such as Infantile spasms can be classified as idiopathic, syndromic, or cryptogenic depending on cause and can arise from both focal or generalized epileptic lesions. Below are some common seizure syndromes: Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (ADNFLE) is an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy that is an inherited epileptic disorder that causes seizures during sleep. Onset is usually in childhood. These seizures arise from the frontal lobes and consist of complex motor movements, such as hand clenching, arm raising/lowering, and knee bending. Vocalizations such as shouting, moaning, or crying are also common. ADNFLE is often misdiagnosed as nightmares. ADNFLE has a genetic basis . These genes encode various nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Benign centrotemporal lobe epilepsy of childhood or Benign rolandic epilepsy is an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy that occurs in children between the ages of 3 and 13 years with peak onset in prepubertal late childhood. Apart from their seizure disorder, these patients are otherwise normal. This syndrome features simple partial seizures that involve facial muscles and frequently cause drooling. Although most episodes are brief, seizures sometimes spread and generalize. Seizures are typically nocturnal and confined to sleep. The EEG may demonstrate spike discharges that occur over the centrotemporal scalp over the central sulcus of the brain (the Rolandic sulcus) that are predisposed to occur during drowsiness or light sleep. Seizures cease near puberty. Seizures may require anticonvulsant treatment, but sometimes are infrequent enough to allow physicians to defer treatment. Benign occipital epilepsy of childhood (BOEC) is an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy and consists of an evolving group of syndromes. Most authorities include two subtypes, an early subtype with onset between 3–5 years and an late onset between 7–10 years. Seizures in BOEC usually feature visual symptoms such as scotoma or fortifications (brightly colored spots or lines) or amaurosis (blindness or impairment of vision). Convulsions involving one half the body, hemiconvulsions, or forced eye deviation or head turning are common. Younger patients typically experience symptoms similar to migraine with nausea and headache, and older patients typically complain of more visual symptoms. The EEG in BOEC shows spikes recorded from the occipital (back of head) regions. Lately, a group of epilepsies termed Panayiotopoulos syndrome that share some clinical features of BOEC but have a wider variety of EEG findings are classified by some as BOEC. Catamenial epilepsy (CE) is when seizures typically occur around a woman's menstrual cycle. Childhood absence epilepsy (CAE) is an idiopathic generalized epilepsy that affects children between the ages of 4 and 12 years of age, although peak onset is around 5–6 years old. These patients have recurrent absence seizures, brief episodes of unresponsive staring, sometimes with minor motor features such as eye blinking or subtle chewing. The EEG finding in CAE is generalized 3 Hz spike and wave discharges. Some go on to develop generalized tonic-clonic seizures. This condition carries a good prognosis because children do not usually show cognitive decline or neurological deficits, and the seizures in the majority cease spontaneously with onging maturation. Generalized 3 Hz spike and wave discharges in EEG Dravet's syndrome Severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy (SMEI). This generalized epilepsy syndrome is distinguished from benign myoclonic epilepsy by its severity and must be differentiated from the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and Doose’s myoclonic-astatic epilepsy. Onset is in the first year of life and symptoms peak at about 5 months of age with febrile hemiclonic or generalized status epilepticus. Boys are twice as often affected as girls. Prognosis is poor. Most cases are sporadic. Family history of epilepsy and febrile convulsions is present in around 25 percent of the cases. Frontal lobe epilepsy, usually a symptomatic or cryptogenic localization-related epilepsy, arises from lesions causing seizures that occur in the frontal lobes of the brain. These epilepsies can be difficult to diagnose because the symptoms of seizures can easily be confused with nonepileptic spells and, because of limitations of the EEG, be difficult to "see" with standard scalp EEG. Juvenile absence epilepsy is an idiopathic generalized epilepsy with later onset that CAE, typically in prepubertal adolescence, with the most frequent seizure type being absence seizures. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures can occur. 3 Hz spike-wave or multiple spike discharges can be seen on EEG. Prognosis is mixed, with some patients going on to a syndrome that is poorly distinguishable from JME. Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) is an idiopathic generalized epilepsy that occurs in patients aged 8 to 20 years. Patients have normal cognition and are otherwise neurologically intact. The most common seizures are myoclonic jerks, although generalized tonic-clonic seizures and absence seizures may occur as well. Myoclonic jerks usually cluster in the early morning after awakening. The EEG reveals generalized 4–6 Hz spike wave discharges or multiple spike discharges. Interestingly, these patients are often first diagnosed when they have their first generalized tonic-clonic seizure later in life when they experience sleep deprivation (e.g., freshman year in college after staying up late to study for exams). Alcohol withdrawal can also be a major contributing factor in breakthrough seizures as well. The risk of the tendency to have seizures is lifelong; however, the majority have well-controlled seizures with anticonvulsant medication and avoidance of seizure precipitants. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) is a generalized epilepsy that consists of a triad of developmental delay or childhood dementia, mixed generalized seizures, and EEG demonstrating a pattern of approximately 2 Hz "slow" spike-wave. Onset occurs between 2–18 years. As in West syndrome, LGS result from idiopathic, symptomatic, or cryptogenic causes, and many patients first have West syndrome. Authorities emphasize different seizure types as important in LGS, but most have astatic seizures (drop attacks), tonic seizures, tonic-clonic seizures, atypical absence seizures, and sometimes, complex partial seizures. Anticonvulsants are usually only partially successful in treatment. Ohtahara Syndrome is a rare but severe form of epilepsy syndrome combined with cerebral palsy and characterised with frequent seizures which typically start in the first few days of life. Sufferers trend to be severely disabled and their lives short (they are unlikely to reach adulthood). Primary reading epilepsy is a reflex epilepsy classified as an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy. Reading in susceptible individuals triggers characteristic seizures. Progressive myoclonic epilepsies define a group of symptomatic generalized epilepsies characterized by progressive dementia and myoclonic seizures. Tonic-clonic seizures may occur as well. Diseases usually classified in this group are Unverricht-Lundborg disease, myoclonus epilepsy with ragged red fibers (MERRF syndrome), Lafora disease, neuronal ceroid lipofucinosis, and sialdosis. Rasmussen's encephalitis is a symptomatic localization-related epilepsy that is a progressive, inflammatory lesion affecting children with onset before the age of 10. Seizures start as separate simple partial or complex partial seizures and may progress to epilepsia partialis continuata (simple partial status epilepticus). Neuroimaging shows inflammatory encephalitis on one side of the brain that may spread if not treated. Dementia and hemiparesis are other problems. The cause is hypothesized to involve an immulogical attack against glutamate receptors, a common neurotransmitter in the brain. Symptomatic localization-related epilepsies Symptomatic localization-related epilepsies are divided by the location in the brain of the epileptic lesion, since the symptoms of the seizures are more closely tied to the brain location rather than the cause of the lesion. Tumors, atriovenous malformations, cavernous malformations, trauma, and cerebral infarcts can all be causes of epileptic foci in different brain regions. Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), a symptomatic localization-related epilepsy, is the most common epilepsy of adults who experience seizures poorly controlled with anticonvulsant medications. In most cases, the epileptogenic region is found in the midline (mesial) temporal structures (e.g., the hippocampus, amygdala, and parahippocampal gyrus). Seizures begin in late childhood and adolescence. Most of these patients have complex partial seizures sometimes preceded by an aura, and some TLE patients also suffer from secondary generalized tonic-clonic seizures. If the patient does not respond sufficiently to medical treatment, epilepsy surgery may be considered. West syndrome is a triad of developmental delay, seizures termed infantile spasms, and EEG demonstrating a pattern termed hypsarrhythmia. Onset occurs between 3 months and 2 years, with peak onset between 8–9 months. West syndrome may arise from idiopathic, symptomatic, or cryptogenic causes. The most common cause is tuberous sclerosis. The prognosis varies with the underlying cause. In general most surviving patients remain with significant cognitive impairment and continuing seizures and may evolve to another eponymic syndrome, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Treatment Epilepsy is usually treated with medication prescribed by a physician; primary caregivers, neurologists, and neurosurgeons all frequently care for people with epilepsy. In some cases the implantation of a stimulator of the vagus nerve, or a special diet can be helpful. Neurosurgical operations for epilepsy can be palliative, reducing the frequency or severity of seizures; or, in some patients, an operation can be curative. Responding to a seizure In most cases, the proper emergency response to a generalized tonic-clonic epileptic seizure is simply to prevent the patient from self-injury by moving him or her away from sharp edges, placing something soft beneath the head, and carefully rolling the person into the recovery position to avoid asphyxiation. In some cases the person may seem to start snoring loudly following a seizure, before coming to. This merely indicates that the person is beginning to breathe properly and does not mean he or she is suffocating. Should the person regurgitate, the material should be allowed to drip out the side of the person's mouth by itself. If a seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes, or if the seizures begin coming in 'waves' one after the other - then Emergency Medical Services should be contacted immediately. Prolonged seizures may develop into status epilepticus, a dangerous condition requiring hospitalization and emergency treatment. Objects should never be placed in a person's mouth by anybody - including paramedics - during a seizure as this could result in serious injury to either party. Despite common folklore, it is not possible for a person to swallow their own tongue during a seizure. However, it is possible that the person will bite their own tongue, especially if an object is placed in the mouth. With other types of seizures such as simple partial seizures and complex partial seizures where the person is not convulsing but may be hallucinating, disoriented, distressed, or unconscious, the person should be reassured, gently guided away from danger, and sometimes it may be necessary to protect the person from self-injury, but physical force should be used only as a last resort as this could distress the person even more. In complex partial seizures where the person is unconscious, attempts to rouse the person should not be made as the seizure must take its full course. After a seizure, the person may pass into a deep sleep or otherwise they will be disoriented and often unaware that they have just had a seizure, as amnesia is common with complex partial seizures. The person should remain observed until they have completely recovered, as with a tonic-clonic seizure. After a seizure, it is typical for a person to be exhausted and confused. (this is known as post-ictal state). Often the person is not immediately aware that they have just had a seizure. During this time one should stay with the person - reassuring and comforting them - until they appear to act as they normally would. Seldom during seizures do people lose bladder or bowel control. In some instances the person may vomit after coming to. People should not eat or drink until they have returned to their normal level of awareness, and they should not be allowed to wander about unsupervised. Many patients will sleep deeply for a few hours after a seizure - this is common for those having just experienced a more violent type of seizure such as a tonic-clonic. In about 50% of people with epilepsy, headaches may occur after a seizure. These headaches share many features with migraines, and respond to the same medications. It is helpful if those present at the time of a seizure make note of how long and how severe the seizure was. It is also helpful to note any mannerisms displayed during the seizure. For example, the individual may twist the body to the right or left, may blink, might mumble nonsense words, or might pull at clothing. Any observed behaviors, when relayed to a neurologist, may be of help in diagnosing the type of seizure which occurred. Pharmacologic treatment The mainstay of treatment of epilepsy is anticonvulsant medications. Often, anticonvulsant medication treatment will be lifelong and can have major effects on quality of life. The choice among anticonvulsants and their effectiveness differs by epilepsy syndrome. Mechanisms, effectiveness for particular epilepsy syndromes, and side effects, of course, differ among the individual anticonvulsant medications. Some general findings about the use of anticonvulsants are outlined below. History and Availability- The first anticonvulsant was bromide, suggested in 1857 by Charles Locock who used it to treat women with "hysterical epilepsy" (probably catamenial epilepsy). Potassium bromide was also noted to cause impotence in men. Authorities concluded that potassium bromide would dampen sexual excitement thought to cause the seizures. In fact, bromides were effective against epilepsy, and also caused impotence; it is now known that impotence is a side effect of bromide treatment, which is not related to its anti-epileptic effects. It also suffered from the way it affected behaviour, introducing the idea of the 'epileptic personality' which was actually a result of the medication. Phenobarbital was first used in 1912 for both its sedative and antiepileptic properties. By the 1930s, the development of animal models in epilepsy research lead to the development of phenytoin by Tracy Putnam and H. Houston Merritt, which had the distinct advantage of treating epileptic seizures with less sedation . By the 1970s, an National Institutes of Health initiative, the Anticonvulsant Screening Program, headed by J. Kiffin Penry, served as a mechanism for drawing the interest and abilities of pharmaceutical companies in the development of new anticonvulsant medications. Currently there are 20 medications approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the use of treatment of epileptic seizures in the US: carbamazepine (common US brand name Tegretol), clorazepate (Tranxene), clonazepam (Klonopin), ethosuximide (Zarontin), felbamate (Felbatol), fosphenytoin (Cerebyx), gabapentin (Neurontin), lacosamide (Vimpat), lamotrigine (Lamictal), levetiracetam (Keppra), oxcarbazepine (Trileptal), phenobarbital (Luminal), phenytoin (Dilantin), pregabalin (Lyrica), primidone (Mysoline), tiagabine (Gabitril), topiramate (Topamax), valproate semisodium (Depakote), valproic acid (Depakene), and zonisamide (Zonegran). Most of these appeared after 1990. Medications commonly available outside the US but still labelled as "investigational" within the US are clobazam (Frisium) and vigabatrin (Sabril). Medications currently under clinical trial under the supervision of the FDA include retigabine, brivaracetam, and seletracetam. Other drugs are commonly used to abort an active seizure or interrupt a seizure flurry; these include diazepam (Valium, Diastat) and lorazepam (Ativan). Drugs used only in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus include paraldehyde (Paral), midazolam (Versed), and pentobarbital (Nembutal). Some anticonvulsant medications do not have primary FDA-approved uses in epilepsy but are used in limited trials, remain in rare use in difficult cases, have limited "grandfather" status, are bound to particular severe epilepsies, or are under current investigation. These include acetazolamide (Diamox), progesterone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, Acthar), various corticotropic steroid hormones (prednisone), or bromide. Effectiveness - The definition of "effective" varies. FDA-approval usually requires that 50% of the patient treatment group had at least a 50% improvement in the rate of epileptic seizures. About 20% of patients with epilepsy continue to have breakthrough epileptic seizures despite best anticonvulsant treatment. . Safety and Side Effects - 88% of patients with epilepsy, in a European survey, reported at least one anticonvulsant related side effect. Most side effects are mild and "dose-related" and can often be avoided or minimized by the use of the smallest effective amount. Some examples include mood changes, sleepiness, or unsteadiness in gait. Some anticonvulsant medications have "idiosyncratic" side-effects that can not be predicted by dose. Some examples include drug rashes, liver toxicity (hepatitis), or aplastic anemia. Safety includes the consideration of teratogenicity (the effects of medications on fetal development) when women with epilepsy become pregnant. Principles of Anticonvulsant Use and Management - The goal for individual patients is, of course, no seizures and no side effects, and the job of the physician is to aid the patient to find the best balance between the two during the prescribing of anticonvulsants. Most patients can achieve this balance best with monotherapy, the use of a single anticonvulsant medication. Some patients, however, require polypharmacy; the use of two or more anticonvulsants. Serum levels of AEDs can be checked to determine medication compliance, to assess the effects of new drug-drug interactions upon previous stable medication levels, or to help establish if particular symptoms such as instability or sleepiness can be considered a drug side-effect or are due to different causes. Children or impaired adults who may not be able to communicate side effects may benefit from routine screening of drug levels. Beyond baseline screening, however, trials of recurrent, routine blood or urine monitoring show no proven benefits and may lead to unnecessary medication adjustments in most older children and adults using routine anticonvulsants. If a person's epilepsy cannot be brought under control after adequate trials of two or three (experts vary here) different drugs, that person's epilepsy is generally said to be medically refractory. A study of patients with previously untreated epilepsy demonstrated that 47% achieved control of seizures with the use of their first single drug. 14% became seizure free during treatment with a second or third drug. An additional 3% became seizure-free with the use of two drugs simultaneously. Other treatments, in addition to or instead of, anticonvulsant medications may be considered by those people with continuing seizures. Surgical treatment Epilepsy surgery is an option for patients whose seizures remain resistant to treatment with anticonvulsant medications who also have symptomatic localization-related epilepsy; a focal abnormality that can be located and therefore removed. The goal for these procedures is total control of epileptic seizures , although anticonvulsant medications may still be required. The evaluation for epilepsy surgery is designed to locate the "epileptic focus" (the location of the epileptic abnormality) and to determine if resective surgery will affect normal brain function. Physicians will also confirm the diagnosis of epilepsy to make sure that spells arise from epilepsy (as opposed to non-epileptic seizures). The evaluation typically includes neurological examination, routine EEG, Long-term video-EEG monitoring, neuropsychological evaluation, and neuroimaging such as MRI, Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET). Some epilepsy centers use intracarotid sodium amobarbital test (Wada test), functional MRI or Magnetoencephalography (MEG) as supplementary tests. Certain lesions require Long-term video-EEG monitoring with the use of intracranial electrodes if noninvasive testing was inadequate to identify the epileptic focus or distinguish the surgical target from normal brain tissue and function. Brain mapping by the technique of cortical electrical stimulation or Electrocorticography are other procedures used in the process of invasive testing in some patients. The most common surgeries are the resection of lesions like tumors or arteriovenous malformations which, in the process of treating the underlying lesion, often result in control of epileptic seizures caused by these lesions. Other lesions are more subtle and feature epilepsy as the main or sole symptom. The most common form of intractable epilepsy in these disorders in adults is temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis, and the most common type of epilepsy surgery is the anterior temporal lobectomy, or the removal of the front portion of the temporal lobe including the amygdala and hippocampus. Some neurosurgeons recommend selective amygdalahippocampectomy because of possible benefits in postoperative memory or language function. Surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy is effective, durable, and results in decreased health care costs. . Despite the efficacy of epilepsy surgery, some patients decide not to undergo surgery owing to fear or the uncertainty of having a brain operation. Palliative surgery for epilepsy is intended to reduce the frequency or severity of seizures. Examples are callosotomy or commissurotomy to prevent seizures from generalizing (spreading to involve the entire brain), which results in a loss of consciousness. This procedure can therefore prevent injury due to the person falling to the ground after losing consciousness. It is performed only when the seizures cannot be controlled by other means. Multiple subpial transection can also be used to decrease the spread of seizures across the cortex especially when the epileptic focus is located near important functional areas of the cortex. Resective surgery can be considered palliative if it is undertaken with the expectation that it will reduce but not eliminate seizures. Hemispherectomy involves removal or a functional disconnection of most or all of one half of the cerebrum. It is reserved for people suffering from the most catastrophic epilepsies, such as those due to Rasmussen syndrome. If the surgery is performed on very young patients (2–5 years old), the remaining hemisphere may acquire some rudimentary motor control of the ipsilateral body; in older patients, paralysis results on the side of the body opposite to the part of the brain that was removed. Because of these and other side effects it is usually reserved for patients who have exhausted other treatment options. Other treatment Ketogenic diet- a high fat, low carbohydrate diet developed in the 1920s, largely forgotten with the advent of effective anticonvulsants, and resurrected in the 1990s. The mechanism of action is unknown. It is used mainly in the treatment of children with severe, medically-intractable epilepsies. Electrical stimulation - methods of anticonvulsant treatment with both currently approved and investigational uses. A currently approved device is vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). Investigational devices include the responsive neurostimulation system and deep brain stimulation. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS)- The VNS (US manufacturer = Cyberonics) consists of a computerized electrical device similar in size, shape and implant location to a heart pacemaker that connects to the vagus nerve in the neck. The device stimulates the vagus nerve at pre-set intervals and intensities of current. Efficacy has been tested in patients with localization-related epilepsies demonstrating that 50% of patients experience a 50% improvement in seizure rate. Case series have demonstrated similar efficacies in certain generalized epilepsies such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Although success rates are not usually equal to that of epilepsy surgery, it is a reasonable alternative when the patient is reluctant to proceed with any required invasive monitoring, when appropriate presurgical evaluation fails to uncover the location of epileptic foci, or when there are multiple epileptic foci. Responsive Neurostimulator System (RNS) (US manufacturer Neuropace) consists of an computerized electrical device implanted in the skull with electrodes implanted in presumed epileptic foci within the brain. The brain electrodes send EEG signal to the device which contains seizure-detection software. When certain EEG seizure criteria are met, the device delivers a small electrical charge to other electrodes near the epileptic focus and disrupt the seizure. The efficacy of the RNS is under current investigation with the goal of FDA approval. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) (US manufacturer Medtronics) consists of computerized electrical device implanted in the chest in a manner similar to the VNS, but electrical stimulation is delivered to deep brain structures through depth electrodes implanted through the skull. In epilepsy, the electrode target is the anterior nucleus of the thalamus. The efficacy of the DBS in localization-related epilepsies is currently under investigation. Noninvasive surgery- The use of the Gamma Knife or other devices used in radiosurgery are currently being investigated as alternatives to traditional open surgery in patients who would otherwise qualify for anterior temporal lobectomy. Avoidance therapy- Avoidance therapy consists of minimizing or eliminating triggers in patients whose seizures are particularly susceptible to seizure precipitants (see above). For example, sunglasses that counter exposure to particular light wavelengths can improve seizure control in certain photosensitive epilepsies. Warning systems- A seizure response dog is a form of service dog that is trained to summon help or ensure personal safety when a seizure occurs. These are not suitable for everybody and not all dogs can be so trained. Rarely, a dog may develop the ability to sense a seizure before it occurs. Development of electronic forms of seizure detection systems are currently under investigation. Alternative or complementary medicine- A number of systematic reviews by the Cochrane Collaboration into treatments for epilepsy looked at acupuncture, psychological interventions, vitamins and yoga and found there is no reliable evidence to support the use of these as treatments for epilepsy. Pathophysiology Mutations in several genes have been linked to some types of epilepsy. Several genes that code for protein subunits of voltage-gated and ligand-gated ion channels have been associated with forms of generalized epilepsy and infantile seizure syndromes. Several ligand-gated ion channels have been linked to some types of frontal and generalized epilepsies. One speculated mechanism for some forms of inherited epilepsy are mutations of the genes which code for sodium channel proteins; these defective sodium channels stay open for too long thus making the neuron hyper-excitable. Glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, may thereby be released from these neurons in large amounts which—by binding with nearby glumtamanergic neurons—triggers excessive CA++ release in these post-synaptic cells. Such excessive calcium release can be neurotoxic to the affected cell. The hippocampus, which contains a large volume of just such glutamanergic neurons (and NMDA receptors, which are permeable to CA++ entry after binding of both sodium and glutamate), is especially vulnerable to epileptic seizure, subsequent spread of excitation, and possible neuronal death. Another possible mechanism involves mutations leading to ineffective GABA (the brain's most common inhibitory neurotransmitter)action. Epilepsy-related mutations in some non-ion channel genes have also been identified. Epileptogenesis is the process by which a normal brain develops epilepsy after an insult. One interesting finding in animals is that repeated low-level electrical stimulation to some brain sites can lead to permanent increases in seizure susceptibility: in other words, a permanent decrease in seizure "threshold." This phenomenon, known as kindling (by analogy with the use of burning twigs to start a larger fire) was discovered by Dr. Graham Goddard in 1967. Chemical stimulation can also induce seizures; repeated exposures to some pesticides have been shown to induce seizures in both humans and animals. One mechanism proposed for this is called excitotoxicity. The roles of kindling and excitotoxicity, if any, in human epilepsy are currently hotly debated. Other causes of epilepsy are brain lesions, where there is scar tissue or another abnormal mass of tissue in an area of the brain. History and stigma The word epilepsy is derived from the Greek epilepsia, which in turn can be broken into epi- (upon) and lepsis (to take hold of, or seizure) In the past, epilepsy was associated with religious experiences and even demonic possession. In ancient times, epilepsy was known as the "Sacred Disease" because people thought that epileptic seizures were a form of attack by demons, or that the visions experienced by persons with epilepsy were sent by the gods. Among animist Hmong families, for example, epilepsy was understood as an attack by an evil spirit, but the affected person could become revered as a shaman through these otherworldly experiences. When Epilepsy Goes By Another Name | epilepsy.com However, in most cultures, persons with epilepsy have been stigmatized, shunned, or even imprisoned; in the Salpêtrière, the birthplace of modern neurology, Jean-Martin Charcot found people with epilepsy side-by-side with the mentally retarded, those with chronic syphilis, and the criminally insane. In Tanzania to this day, as with other parts of Africa, epilepsy is associated with possession by evil spirits, witchcraft, or poisoning and is believed by many to be contagious. Morbus sacer in Africa: some religious aspects of epilepsy in traditional cultures. Jilek-Aall L. PMID: 10080524 Retrieved 8 October 2006. In ancient Rome, epilepsy was known as the Morbus Comitialis ('disease of the assembly hall') and was seen as a curse from the gods. Stigma continues to this day, in both the public and private spheres, but polls suggest it is generally decreasing with time, at least in the developed world; Hippocrates remarked that epilepsy would cease to be considered divine the day it was understood. Hippocrates quotes Notable people with epilepsy Many notable people, past and present, have carried the diagnosis of epilepsy. In many cases, their epilepsy is a footnote to their accomplishments; for some, it played an integral role in their fame. Historical diagnoses of epilepsy are not always certain; there is controversy about what is considered an acceptable amount of evidence in support of such a diagnosis. Legal implications Most people diagnosed with epilepsy are forbidden by their local laws from operating vehicles. However, there are usually exceptions for those who can prove that they have stabilized their condition. Those few whose seizures do not cause impairment of consciousness, or whose seizures only arise from sleep, may be exempt from such restrictions, depending on local laws. There is an ongoing debate in bioethics over who should bear the burden of ensuring that an epilepsy patient does not drive a car or fly an airplane. In the U.S., people with epilepsy can drive if their seizures are controlled with treatment and they meet the licensing requirements in their state. How long they have to be free of seizures varies in different states, but it is most likely to be between three months and a year. Epilepsy Foundation Driving and You - Can you drive an automobile if you have epilepsy?. Epilepsy Foundation Driver Information by State The majority of the 50 states place the burden on patients to report their condition to appropriate licensing authorities so that their privileges can be revoked where appropriate. A minority of states place the burden of reporting on the patient's physician. After reporting is carried out, it is usually the driver's licensing agency that decides to revoke or restrict a driver's license. In the UK, it is the responsibility of the patients to inform the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) if they have epilepsy. UK Epilepsy Action: Driving and Epilepsy, I've had a seizure. What should I do? The DVLA rules are quite complex, UK Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency Guide to the Current Medical Standards Of Fitness to Drive. Full details for doctors regarding epilepsy are given in the Appendix. Information for drivers can be found in Medical Rules - Group 1 Licence Holders but in summary, UK Epilepsy Action: booklet with further details about driving PDF those that continue to have seizures or who are within 6 months of medication change may have their licence revoked. A person must be seizure free of a 'daytime' seizure for 12 months (or had only 'sleep' seizures for 3 years or more) before they can apply for a licence. Epilepsy Action (2009), Driving law relating to seizures. Available from http://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/driving/lawseizure (Accessed on 15 February 2009) A doctor who becomes aware that a patient with uncontrolled epilepsy is continuing to drive has, after reminding the patient of their responsibility, a duty to break confidentiality and inform the DVLA. The doctor should advise the patient of the disclosure and the reasons why their failure to notify the agency obliged the doctor to act. The Epilepsy Foundation's Jeanne A. Carpenter
Epilepsy Legal Defense Fund is dedicated to advancing the rights of people with epilepsy by changing discriminatory practices, policies and laws and to ending epilepsy-related discrimination and injustice through education and increased access to legal services for individuals with epilepsy through a system of managed referrals and legal support to a nationwide network of attorneys committed to this cause. Additionally, the Epilepsy Foundation is a vigorous advocate for people with epilepsy. In the United States, the Foundation has been active in Congress, the executive branch, and the courts, focusing attention on the needs of those with epilepsy. Priorities for the Foundation include: the availability of affordable quality health care, the search for the cure, and the protection of civil rights for people with epilepsy. Important investigators of epilepsy Jean-Martin Charcot John Hughlings Jackson Hans Berger Herbert Jasper Wilder Penfield H. Houston Merritt William G. Lennox Fritz E. Dreifuss See also Seizure Convulsion Non-epileptic seizures Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures Epilepsy in animals Seizure response dog Jacksonian seizure Photosensitive epilepsy Post-traumatic epilepsy Temporal lobe epilepsy Abdominal epilepsy Generalised epilepsy ISAS (Ictal-Interictal SPECT Analysis by SPM) Postictal state Epilepsy Phenome/Genome Project References External links | Epilepsy |@lemmatized epilepsy:204 greek:2 επιληψία:1 epili:1 psia:1 common:18 chronic:2 neurological:5 disorder:9 characterize:2 recurrent:3 unprovoked:1 seizure:200 transient:1 sign:1 symptom:11 abnormal:3 excessive:3 synchronous:1 neuronal:4 activity:2 brain:33 million:1 people:25 worldwide:1 almost:1 develop:5 country:4 likely:3 occur:20 young:4 child:12 age:10 year:14 however:8 time:6 national:3 society:2 available:5 http:3 www:3 epilepsynse:2 org:3 uk:7 aboutepilepsy:2 whatisepilepsy:2 access:4 february:3 usually:16 control:14 cure:2 medication:25 although:6 surgery:16 may:33 consider:7 difficult:6 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3,977 | Federal_Constitutional_Court_of_Germany | The Bundesverfassungsgericht The Federal Constitutional Court (in German: Bundesverfassungsgericht, BVerfG) is a special court established by the Grundgesetz, the German basic law. Since its inception, the Court has been located in the city of Karlsruhe, intentionally dislocated from the other federal institutions like the seat of the government (earlier in Bonn, now in Berlin), the head office of the Bundesnachrichtendienst (BND), the German intelligence agency (near Munich), or the seat of the Bundesbank in Frankfurt (Main). The sole task of the court is judicial review. It may therefore declare public acts unconstitutional and thus render them ineffective. As such, it is similar to the Supreme Court of the United States. Yet the Court possess a number of powers that the U.S. Supreme Court does not have (see below). However, it differs from the SCOTUS and other supreme courts in that it is not an integral part of the regular judicial system (save for the areas of constitutional law and public international law), but rather installed as a separate judicial institution. Many other countries around the world possess separate constitutional courts similar to the Federal Constitutional Court. Most importantly, the Court does not serve as a regular appellate court from lower courts or the Federal Supreme Courts as a sort of "superappellate court" on any violation of federal laws. Its jurisdiction is focused on constitutional issues, the integrity of the Grundgesetz and the immediate compliance of any governmental institution in any detail (article 1 subsection 3 of the Grundgesetz). Even constitutional amendments or changes passed by the Parliament are subject to its judicial review, since they have to be compatible with the most basic principles of the Grundgesetz (due to its Article 79 (III), the so called 'eternity clause'). The court's practice of enormous constitutional control frequency on the one hand, and the continuity in judicial restraint and political revision on the other hand, have created a unique defender of the Grundgesetz since World War II and given it a remarkably valuable role in Germany's modern democracy. Procedures Article 20 subsection 3 of the Grundgesetz stipulates that all the three branches of the state –legislative, executive and judicial– are bound directly by the constitution. As a result, the court can abolish acts of all three branches as unconstitutional — either for formal violations, e.g. exceeding powers or violating procedures, or for material conflicts, e.g. because the civil rights prescribed in the Grundgesetz were not respected. Decisions of the court on material conflicts are put into force through a federal law by the Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG). The Constitutional Court has several strictly defined procedures in which cases may be brought before it: With a Constitutional Complaint (Verfassungsbeschwerde), any person may file a complaint alleging that his or her constitutional rights were violated. Although only a small fraction of these are actually successful (ranging around 2.5 % since 1951), several of these resulted in major legislation overturns, especially in the field of taxation. The large majority of the court's procedures fall in this category, with 135,968 such Complaints filed from 1957 to 2002. Several political institutions, including the governments of the Bundesländer, may bring a law passed by the federal legislation before the court if they consider it unconstitutional (procedure of Abstract Regulation Control). The most well-known examples of these procedures included legislation legalizing abortion, which -- in highly debated rulings -- were declared unconstitutional twice by the Constitutional Court. In addition, any regular court which has doubts about whether a law in question for a certain case is in conformance with the constitution may suspend that case and bring this law before the Federal Constitutional Court (procedure of Specific Regulation Control). Federal institutions, including members of the Bundestag, may bring internal disputes over competences and procedures before the court (Federal Dispute). The Länder may bring disputes over competences and procedures between them and federal institutions before the court (State-Federal Dispute). Committee on parliament investigation, including single members of the Bundestag, or the federal government may bring internal disputes over competences and procedures in case of committee’s investigation before the court (Investigation Committee Control). Violations of election laws may be brought before the court by political institution or any involved voter (Federal Election Scrutiny). Impeachment cases against the President or a judge, member of one of the Federal Supreme Courts, brought by the Bundestag, the Bundesrat or the federal government, based on violation of constitutional or federal law (Impeachment Procedure). Finally, only the Constitutional Court has the power to prohibit a political party in Germany. This has only happened twice in the 1950s: the Sozialistische Reichspartei (SRP), an outright neo-nazi party, was banned in 1952, the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was banned in 1956. A third such procedure to prohibit the extremist right-wing National Democratic Party (NPD) spectacularly failed in 2003 after the court discovered that many of the party officials were in fact controlled by the German secret services that had injected its agents for the sake of surveillance. This was a 4-4 decision, which according to the court's rules is considered a dismissal. (It should be noted that the court did not decide on the ban itself) Organization First Senate 1989 Second Senate 1989 The Court consists of two Senates, each of which has eight members, headed by a senate’s chairman. The members of each Senate are allocated to three Chambers for hearings in Constitutional Complaint and Single Regulation Control cases. Each Chamber consists of three judges, so each Senate chairman is at the same time a member of two Chambers. Decisions by a Senate require an absolute majority of 5 votes (in some cases a ⅔ majority is required, i.e. 6 out of 8 votes), decisions by a Chamber need to be unanimous. A Chamber is not authorized to overrule a standing precedent of the Senate to which it belongs; such issues need to be submitted to the Senate as a whole. Similarly, a Senate may not overrule a standing precedent of the other Senate; such issues will be submitted to a plenary meeting of all 16 judges (the "Plenum"). Unlike all other German courts, the court often publishes the vote count on its decisions (though only the final tally, not every judge's personal vote) and even allows its members to issue a dissenting opinion. This possibility, which was only introduced in 1971, is a remarkable deviation from German judicial tradition. One of the two Senate Chairmen is also the President of the Court, the other one is the Vice-President. The presidency alternates between the two Senates, i.e. the successor of a President is always chosen from the other Senate. The current president of the Court is Hans-Jürgen Papier. Election of judges The Court's judges are elected by the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. According to the Basic Law, each of these bodies selects four members of each Senate, while the authority to select the Court's President alternates between them. The selection of a judge requires a two-third majority. The Bundestag has delegated this task to a special body ("Richterwahlausschuss", judges election board), consisting of a small number of Bundestag members. This procedure has caused some constitutional concern and is considered to be unconstitutional by many scholars. However, it has never been challenged in a court. The judges are elected for a 12-year term, but they must retire when reaching the age of 68. A judge must be at least 40 years old and must be a well-trained jurist. Three out of eight members of each Senate must have served as a judge of a Federal Supreme Court. Of the other five members of each Senate, most judges previously served as a professor of law at a University, a public servant or an attorney. After ending their term, most judges withdraw themselves from public life. However, there are some prominent exceptions, most notably Roman Herzog, who was elected Federal President in 1994, shortly before the end of his term as President of the Court. Members First Senate (current only) Name Term Nomination by Election byHans-Jürgen Papier (*1943)(President of the Court, Chairman of the Senate)2/1998 - 2/2010 (12-year term)CDU/CSUBundestagWilhelm Schluckebier (*1949)10/2006 - 11/2017 (retirement)CDU/CSUBundestagMichael Eichberger (*1953)4/2006 - 4/2018 (12-year-term)CDU/CSUBundesratFerdinand Kirchhof (*1950)10/2007 - 6/2018 (retirement)CDU/CSUBundestagChristine Hohmann-Dennhardt (*1950)1/1999 - 1/2011 (12-year term)SPDBundesratJohannes Masing (*1940)4/2008 - 4/2020 (12-year term)SPDBundesratBrun-Otto Bryde (*1943)1/2001 - 1/2011 (retirement)Alliance '90/The GreensBundestagReinhard Gaier (*1954)11/2004 - 11/2016 (retirement)SPDBundesrat Second Senate (current only) Name Term Nomination by Election byAndreas Voßkuhle (*1963)(Vice-President of the Court, Chairman of the Senate) 5/2008 - 5/2020 (12-year term)SPDBundesratSiegfried Broß (*1946)9/1998 - 9/2010 (12-year term)CDU/CSUBundestagLerke Osterloh (*1944)10/1998 - 10/2010 (12-year term)SPDBundestagUdo Di Fabio (*1954)12/1999 - 12/2011 (12-year term)CDU/CSUBundesratRudolf Mellinghoff (*1954)1/2001 - 1/2013 (12-year term)CDU/CSUBundesratGertrude Lübbe-Wolff (*1953)4/2002 - 4/2014 (12-year term)SPDBundestagMichael Gerhardt (*1948)7/2003 - 7/2015 (12-year term)SPDBundestagHerbert Landau (*1948)10/2005 - 4/2016 (retirement)CDU/CSUBundesrat Presidents of the Senate Josef Wintrich Gebhard Müller Ernst Benda Wolfgang Zeidler Roman Herzog Jutta Limbach Hans-Jürgen Papier All judges Ernst Benda Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde Werner Böhmer Siegfried Broß Hans Brox Brun-Otto Bryde Udo Di Fabio Thomas Dieterich Michael Eichberger Wilhelm Ellinghaus Hans Joachim Faller Reinhard Gaier Michael Gerhardt Karin Graßhof Dieter Grimm Karl Haager Evelyn Haas Winfried Hassemer Johann Friedrich Henschel Roman Herzog Konrad Hesse Martin Hirsch Dieter Hömig Hermann Höpker-Aschoff Christine Hohmann-Dennhardt Wolfgang Hoffmann-Riem Renate Jaeger Hans-Joachim Jentsch Rudolf Katz Dietrich Katzenstein Ferdinand Kirchhof Paul Kirchhof Hans Hugo Klein Konrad Kruis Jürgen Kühling Herbert Landau Gerhard Leibholz Jutta Limbach Gertrude Lübbe-Wolff Ernst Gottfried Mahrenholz Johannes Masing Rudolf Mellinghoff Gebhard Müller Engelbert Niebler Gisela Niemeyer Lerke Osterloh Hans-Jürgen Papier Theodor Ritterspach Joachim Rottmann Wiltraut Rupp-von Brünneck Erna Scheffler Fabian von Schlabrendorff Wilhelm Schluckebier Helga Seibert Otto Seidl Walter Seuffert Alfred Söllner Bertold Sommer Helmut Steinberger Udo Steiner Ernst Träger Friedrich Wilhelm Wagner Klaus Winter Wolfgang Zeidler External links www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de, the Court's website Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG) in German Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG) in English | Federal_Constitutional_Court_of_Germany |@lemmatized bundesverfassungsgericht:3 federal:22 constitutional:19 court:49 german:7 bverfg:1 special:2 establish:1 grundgesetz:7 basic:3 law:12 since:4 inception:1 locate:1 city:1 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3,978 | Rovi_Corporation | Macrovision Corporation is a globally-operating, U.S.-based company that develops and markets licensing, access control, and secure distribution technologies for electronically delivered creative works. This includes digital media (video, music), web publishing (text, images), and computer software (consumer software, enterprise software, and video games). The name is also sometimes used to refer to certain video copy protection schemes developed by that company early in its history. Its customers include the majority of the Fortune 500, as well as most major movie studios, record labels, PC video game publishers, ISVs, consumer electronic device manufacturers, and IC manufacturers. Macrovision: About the Company They also associate DVD releases of Universal Home Entertainment home releases since 1998. History Macrovision Corporation was established in 1983. The 1984 film The Cotton Club was the first video to be encoded with the Macrovision technology when it was released in 1985. By the end of the 1980s, most major Hollywood studios were utilizing the Macrovision technology. The technology was extended to DVD players and other consumer electronic recording and playback devices such as digital cable and satellite set-top boxes, digital video recorders, and personal media players. Macrovision has subsequently introduced products and services for facilitating access control and secure distribution of other forms of digital media, including music, video games, Web text and graphics, and computer software. On December 7, 2007 Macrovision agreed to buy Gemstar-TV Guide in a cash-and-stock deal worth about $2.8 billion. On April 1 2008, Macrovision announced that Thoma Cressey Bravo, a private equity firm, completed the acquisition of Macrovision's software business unit for 200 million USD, in order to form a separate entity called Acresso Software. Press Release on Yahoo! Finance site Marketing services Video games Macrovision's games division TryMedia, is a marketplace for downloadable video games for personal computers. It connects 30 publishers and their 300 top titles with 3,000 portals/websites in 30 countries. Its games distribution partners include Yahoo!, AOL, Earthlink, IGN, Disney and more than 300 other businesses for which the company provides a variety of distribution and security technologies and services. On February 22, 2008 Macrovision agreed to sell TryMedia to RealNetworks. Software publishing and licensing Macrovision provided the InstallShield, InstallAnywhere, and FLEXnet lines of products for software publishers and developers. Over 71,000 ISVs worldwide use Macrovision’s InstallShield and InstallAnywhere solutions for packaging, distributing, and electronically updating their software applications. More than 9,800 ISVs and enterprises have licensed FLEXnet technology for managing and enforcing licenses to their products. Many of the top 100 software publishers use InstallShield. On February 14, 2008 Macrovision agreed to sell their Software Unit to Thoma Cressey Bravo for $200 million. The deal closed on the 1st of April 2008. Online publishing Macrovision develops and markets RightAccess and RightCommerce for securing the delivery of digital goods and services, particularly Web-hosted text, images, and software applications. RightAccess provides authentication, authorization, product segmentation, and delegated administration capabilities. RightCommerce enables flexible pricing and billing for web content and web applications. It supports a number of different billing models (subscription, usage-based pricing, etc.). Macrovision: Online Publishing Digital home entertainment Macrovision provides a variety of software and hardware ingredient technologies for consumer electronics devices, particularly those with video recording or playback capabilities. Its heritage product is a technology for discouraging the copying of video through analog interfaces of consumer electronic devices. A companion product called RipGuard is designed to discourage ripping of video DVDs using a personal computer. More recently, through its acquisition of Mediabolic, Macrovision has begun developing and marketing software components for enabling video playback in consumer devices. Macrovision's home entertainment technologies are incorporated into the vast majority of all DVD players, digital cable/satellite set-top boxes, personal computers, Digital Video Recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo, and portable media players such as the iPod. Macrovison: Digital Home Entertainment Technology details RipGuard In February 2005, Macrovision introduced their new RipGuard technology. This is designed to prevent (or reduce) digital DVD copying by altering the format of the DVD content in such a way as to disrupt the ripping software. Although the technology can be circumvented by several current DVD rippers such as AnyDVD or DVDFab, Macrovision claims that 95% of casual users lack the knowledge and/or determination to be able to copy a DVD with RipGuard technology http://www.macrovision.com/products/anti_piracy/ripguard.htm . Analog copy protection A DVD recorder receiving a data stream encoded with Macrovision's legacy ACP copy protection signal will simply display a message saying the source is "copy-protected", and will pause the recording. This is achieved through a signal implanted within the offscreen range (vertical blanking interval) of the video signal—either physically recorded directly on the tape (as with VHS) or created on playback by a chip in the player (as with DVDs) or the digital cable/satellite box (as with all HDTV programs being down-converted to standard definition). NTSC and other video formats store the video signal as “lines.” A portion of these lines are used for constructing the visible image by transposing them on the screen, but there are approximately 20 to 40 lines outside the visible range that are used for different things in different countries, like closed captioning. Macrovision inserts pulses into this non-displayed area. These signals cause the automatic gain control on the recording VCR to compensate for the varying strength. This makes the recorded picture wildly change brightness, rendering it unwatchable. On most televisions, the viewer on the screen sees no effect in ordinary playback of the modified video because the signal is outside the visible area, but some TVs do not properly blank the vertical retrace and leave dotted white lines near the top of the picture. Some newer TVs also mistake the Macrovision pulses for synchronization pulses. Another modification also used in Macrovision is the addition of colorstripes—rapidly modulated colorburst signals. Historically, the original Macrovision technology was considered a nuisance to some specialist users because it could interfere with other electronic equipment. For example, if one were to run their video signal through a VCR before the television, some VCRs will output a ruined signal regardless of whether it is recording. This also occurs in some TV-VCR combo sets. Apart from this, many DVD recorders mistake the mechanical instability of worn videotapes for Macrovision signals, and so refuse to make what would be perfectly legal DVD dubs of people's old home movies and the like. This widespread problem provides a legitimate basis for the sale of devices that defeat Macrovision. The signal has also been known to confuse home theater line doublers (devices for improving the quality of video for large projection TVs) and some high-end television comb filters. In addition, Macrovision confuses many upconverters (devices that convert a video signal to a higher resolution), causing them to shut down and refuse to play Macrovision content. Some DVD players give the user the option of disabling the Macrovision technology. This is possible since the signal is not stored on the DVD itself; instead commercial DVDs contain an instruction to the player to create such a signal during playback. Some DVD players can be configured to ignore such instructions. There are also devices called stabilizers, video stabilizers or enhancers available that filter out the Macrovision spikes and thereby defeat the system. The principle of their function lies in detecting the vertical synchronization signal, and forcing the lines occurring during the vertical blanking interval to black level, removing the AGC-confusing pulses. They can be easily built by hobbyists, as nothing more than a cheap microcontroller together with an analog multiplexer and a little other circuitry is needed. Individuals less experienced with such things can purchase video stabilizers off the Internet. The best device for defeating Macrovision is a Time Base Corrector (TBC), although they are more expensive than the simpler video stabilizers. Discs made with DVD copying programs such as DVD Shrink automatically disable any Macrovision copy protection. USB-based video interfaces designed to allow DVD recording on PCs are legally required to detect the presence of Macrovision signals on any analog signals input to them, and if so, inhibit the recording. The MPAA maintains it has every right to limit copying of movies, comparing DVDs to pay-per-view where the consumer is allowed to view the movie in question but nothing more. Many are concerned that the organization is attempting to quash fair use by disallowing consumers to make personal copies. On the other hand the ease with which Macrovision and other copy protection measures can be defeated has prompted a steadily growing number of DVD releases that do not have copy protection of any kind, CSS or Macrovision. United States fair use law, as interpreted in the decision over Betamax (Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios), dictates that consumers are fully within their legal rights to copy videos they own. However, the legality has changed somewhat with the controversial Digital Millennium Copyright Act. After April 26 2002, no VCR may be manufactured or imported without Automatic Gain Control circuitry (which renders VCRs vulnerable to Macrovision). This is contained in title 17, section 1201(k) of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. However, there are a number of mostly older VCR models on the market that are not affected by Macrovision. On October 26 2001, the sale, purchase, or manufacture of any device that has no commercial purpose other than disabling Macrovision copy protection was made illegal under section 1201(a) of the same controversial act. In June 2005, Macrovision sent a cease and desist letter to "Lightning UK!", the maker of DVD Decrypter, a program that allows users to backup their DVDs by bypassing CSS and Macrovision. They later acquired the rights to this software http://www.afterdawn.com/news/archive/7056.cfm . In June 2005, Macrovision sued Sima Products under section 1201 of the DMCA, claiming that Sima's video processors provided a way to circumvent Macrovision's analog content protection (ACP). As of June 2006, Sima received an injunction barring the sale of this device, while the court proceedings continue. Digitizing video signals might violate the DMCA CD copy protection TotalPlay, formerly called Cactus Data Shield (CDS) is a form of copy control for audio compact discs developed by Midbar Tech, now owned by Macrovision. There are several types, commonly described as CDS100, CDS200 and CDS300. However, there are about seven subtly different versions of CDS200. CDS200 discs are usually labeled as 'copy controlled' (CCCD). (They are officially not designated CDs). CDS300 discs are labeled as 'content protected'. CDS300 discs cannot be ripped by iTunes in particular. However, they contain copies of the music in low bit-rate WMA format, which can be burned to a CD no more than three times. CDS300 was rebranded Totalplay in 2005 and contained a Windows CD software driver that denied access to the audio portion of the music disc. Apple computers were immune to CDS300. However, it could still be copied on the Windows platform by using the Musicmatch player and others. CDS100 is incompatible with many CD players, particularly car CD players, which generated negative press around 2002. The company claims this was fixed in (modern versions of) CDS200. Notable acquisitions In 2000, Macrovision acquired Globetrotter, creators of the FLEXlm, which was subsequently renamed Flexnet. In 2004, Macrovision acquired InstallShield, creators of installation authoring software. In 2005, Macrovision acquired the intellectual property rights to DVD Decrypter from its developer http://www.afterdawn.com/news/archive/7056.cfm In 2005, Macrovision acquired ZeroG Software, creators of InstallAnywhere (direct competition to InstallShield MP (MultiPlatform)), and Trymedia Systems. In 2006, Macrovision acquired eMeta. On January 1, 2007, Macrovision acquired Mediabolic, Inc. Macrovision announced its intention to acquire All Media Guide on November 6 2007. On December 7, 2007, Macrovision announced an agreement to acquire Gemstar-TV Guide. On December 19, 2007, Macrovision purchased BD+ DRM technology from Cryptography Research Inc. Notes References Fil's FAQ-Link-In Corner: MacroVision FAQ MPAA | DVD Frequently Asked Questions Columbia ISA: Macrovision Details Macrovision Agrees to Sell Software Unit Realnetworks Acquires Game Distributor From Macrovision External links Macrovision | Homepage Macrovision | Stock Quote Howstuffworks: "How does copy protection on a video tape work?" Ars Technica: "Digitizing video signals might violate the DMCA" | Rovi_Corporation |@lemmatized macrovision:61 corporation:2 globally:1 operating:1 u:1 base:4 company:5 develop:4 market:3 license:3 access:3 control:6 secure:3 distribution:4 technology:16 electronically:2 deliver:1 creative:1 work:2 include:4 digital:13 medium:5 video:30 music:4 web:5 publishing:3 text:3 image:3 computer:6 software:20 consumer:9 enterprise:2 game:8 name:1 also:7 sometimes:1 use:10 refer:1 certain:1 copy:18 protection:10 scheme:1 early:1 history:2 customer:1 majority:2 fortune:1 well:1 major:2 movie:4 studio:3 record:5 label:3 pc:2 publisher:4 isvs:3 electronic:4 device:12 manufacturer:2 ic:1 associate:1 dvd:25 release:5 universal:2 home:7 entertainment:4 since:2 establish:1 film:1 cotton:1 club:1 first:1 encode:2 end:2 hollywood:1 utilize:1 extend:1 player:11 recording:4 playback:6 cable:3 satellite:3 set:3 top:5 box:3 recorder:4 personal:5 subsequently:2 introduce:2 product:8 service:4 facilitate:1 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3,979 | Howitzer | Nineteenth century 12 pounder (5 kg) mountain howitzer displayed by the National Park Service at Fort Laramie in Wyoming, United States A howitzer is a type of artillery piece that is characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small explosive charges to propel projectiles at relatively high trajectories, with a steep angle of descent. In the taxonomies of artillery pieces used by European (and European-style) armies in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, the howitzer stood between the "gun" (which was characterized by a longer barrel, larger propelling charges, smaller shells, higher velocities and flatter trajectories) and the "mortar" (which has the ability to fire projectiles at even higher angles of ascent and descent). Etymology Howitzer at the Colorado State Capitol The English word howitzer derives from the German word Haufen (heap) which as Gewalthaufen designated a pike square formation. Already in the Battle of Grunwald (1410), the Teutonic Knights used artillery Stephen R. Turnbull: Tannenberg 1410 Disaster for the Teutonic Knights, p. 45 which was intended to break up enemy formations. In the Hussite Wars of the 1420s and 1430s, the Czechs used short barreled "houfnice" Stephen Turnbull: The Hussite Wars, 1419-36 cannons to fire at short distances into such crowds of Haufen infantry ("houf" came in use as the Czech word for crowd Christopher Gravett: German Medieval Armies 1300-1500 ), or into charging heavy cavalry, to make horses shy away. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1973), I, p. 992 From the aufeniz mentioned in 1440 derive the German Haussnitz and later Haubitze, the Swedish haubits, Italian obice, Spanish obús, and the Dutch word houwitser which led to the English word howitzer . Since the First World War, the word "howitzer" has been increasingly used to describe artillery pieces that, strictly speaking, belong to the category of "gun-howitzer". This is particularly true in the armed forces of the United States, where gun-howitzers have been officially described as "howitzers" for more than sixty years. Because of this practice, the word "howitzer" is used in some armies as a generic term for any kind of artillery piece that is designed to strike targets on land. Thus, a number of artillery pieces that bear little resemblance to howitzers of earlier eras, such as the multi-chamber "supergun" designed by the Canadian artillery expert Gerald Bull for Iraq in the 1980s, are sometimes described as "howitzers". The British had a further method of nomenclature that they adopted in the nineteenth century. Guns were categorised by projectile weight in pounds while howitzers were categorised by calibre in inches. This system broke down in the 1930s with the introduction of gun-howitzers. History Early modern period US M198 gun-howitzerThe first modern howitzers were invented in Sweden towards the end of the seventeenth century. These were characterized by a shorter trail than other field guns meaning less stability when firing, which reduced the amount of powder that could be used; armies using these had to rely on a greater elevation angle to achieve a given range, which gave a steeper angle of descent. Originally intended for use in siege warfare, they were particularly useful for delivering cast-iron shells filled with gunpowder or incendiary materials into the interior of fortifications. In contrast to contemporary mortars, which were fired at a fixed angle and were entirely dependent upon adjustments to the size of propellant charges in order to vary range, howitzers could be fired at a wide variety of angles. Thus, while howitzer gunnery was more complicated than the technique of employing mortars, the howitzer was an inherently more flexible weapon that could fire its projectiles along a wide variety of trajectories. OFG Hogg Artillery: its Origin, Heyday and Decline (London: C Hurst & Co, 1970), pp. 94 In the middle of the eighteenth century a number of European armies began to introduce howitzers that were mobile enough to accompany armies in the field. Though usually fired at the relatively high angles of fire used by contemporary siege howitzers, these field howitzers were rarely defined by this capability. Rather, as the field guns of the day were usually restricted to inert projectiles (which relied entirely upon momentum to achieve their destructive effects), the field howitzers of the eighteenth century were chiefly valued for their ability to fire explosive shells. Many, for the sake of simplicity and rapidity of fire, dispensed with adjustable propellant charges. Heinrich Rohne, "Zur Geschichte der schweren Feldhaubitze", Jahrbücher für die deutsche Armee und Marine, No. 423, pp. 567-68 French TRF1 155 mm gun-howitzer In the mid-nineteenth century, some armies attempted to simplify their artillery parks by introducing smoothbore artillery pieces that were designed to fire both explosive projectiles and cannonballs, thereby replacing both field howitzers and field guns. The most famous of these "gun-howitzers" was the Napoleon 12-pounder, a weapon of French design that saw extensive service in the American Civil War. Ildefonse Favé, “Résumé des Progrès de l’Artillerie Depuis l’Année 1800 Jusqu’a L’Année 1853”, in Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte and Ildefonse Favé, Études sur le passé et l'avenir de de l'artillerie, (Paris: J. Dumaine, 1846-71), V, pp. 223-25 In 1859 the armies of Europe (to include those which had recently adopted gun-howitzers) began to rearm their field batteries with rifled field guns. These new field pieces used cylindrical projectiles that, while smaller in calibre than the spherical shells of smoothbore field howitzers, could carry a comparable charge of gunpowder. Moreover, their greater range allowed them to create many of the same effects (such as firing over low walls) that had previously required the sharply curved trajectories of smoothbore field howitzers. Because of this, military authorities saw no point in obtaining rifled field howitzers to replace their smoothbore counterparts but, instead, used rifled field guns to replace both guns and howitzers. Charles Thoumas, Les transformations de l'Armée française: essais d'histoire et de critique sur l'état militaire de la France, (Paris : Berger-Levrault, 1887), II, pp. 123-26 In siege warfare the introduction of rifling had the opposite effect. In the 1860s artillery officers discovered that rifled siege howitzers (which were substantially larger than field howitzers) were a much more efficient means of destroying walls (and particularly walls that were protected by intervening obstacles of certain kinds) than either siege guns or siege mortars. Thus, at the same time that armies were taking howitzers of one sort out of their field batteries, they were introducing howitzers of another sort into their siege trains and fortresses. The lightest of these weapons (which would later become known as "light siege howitzers") had calibers in the vicinity of 150 mm or so and fired shells that weighed between 40 and 50 kilograms. The heaviest (which would later be called "medium siege howitzers") had calibers between 200 mm and 220 mm and fired shells that weighed about 100 kilograms(220 pounds). Hermann von Müller, Die Entwickelung der deutschen Festungs und Belagerungstrains, (Berlin: E. S. Mittler, 1896), pp. 328-35 In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 the inability of rifled field guns to inflict significant damage upon field fortifications led to a revival of interest in field howitzers. By the 1890s a number of European armies fielded either light (105 mm to 127 mm) or heavy (149 mm to 155 mm) field howitzers and a few, such as that of Germany, fielded both. During the 1880s a third type of siege howitzer was added to inventories of a number of European armies. With calibers that ranged between 240 mm and 270 mm and shells that weighed more than 150 kilos, these soon came to be known as "heavy siege howitzers." A good example of a weapon of this class is provided by the 9.45-inch (240 mm) weapon that the British Army purchased from the Skoda works in 1899. Intended for use against the fortifications of Pretoria, which fell before the howitzer could be used, and subsequently deployed to China for use against the fortifications of Peking, which also fell without a siege, the howitzer was never fired in anger. Twentieth century 15-inch howitzer of the Royal Marine ArtilleryIn the early twentieth century the introduction of howitzers that were significantly larger than the heavy siege howitzers of the day made necessary the creation of a fourth category, that of "super-heavy siege howitzers". Weapons of this category include the famous Big Bertha of the German Army and the 15-inch (381 mm) howitzer of the Royal Marine Artillery. These large howitzers were transported mechanically rather than by teams of horses. They were transported as several loads and had to be assembled on their firing position. These field howitzers introduced at the end of the nineteenth century could fire shells with high trajectories giving a steep angle of descent and, as a result, could strike targets that were protected by intervening obstacles. They could also fire shells that were about twice as large as shells fired by guns of the same size. Thus, while a 75 mm field gun that weighed one ton or so was limited to shells that weighed less than 8 kilograms, a 105 mm howitzer of the same weight could fire 15 kilogram shells. This is a matter of fundamental mechanics affecting the stability and hence the weight of the carriage. However, howitzers had a shorter maximum range than the equivalent gun. As heavy field howitzers and light siege howitzers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries used ammunition of the same size and types, there was a marked tendency for the two types to merge. At first this was largely a matter of the same basic weapon being employed on two different mountings. Later, as on-carriage recoil-absorbing systems eliminated many of the advantages that siege platforms had enjoyed over field carriages, the same combination of barrel assembly, recoil mechanism and carriage was used in both roles. By the early twentieth century the differences between guns and howitzers were relative not absolute and generally recognised HA Bethell, Modern Guns and Gunnery, (Woolwich: FJ Cattermole, 1905, 1907, 1910) as follows: Guns - higher velocity and longer range, single charge propellant, maximum elevation generally less than 35 degrees. Howitzers - lower velocity and shorter range, multi-charge propellant, maximum elevation typically more than 45 degrees. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of First World War greatly increased the demand for howitzers that gave a steep angle of descent, which were better suited than guns to the task of striking targets on a horizontal plane (such as trenches), with large amounts of explosive and considerably less barrel wear. The German army was well equipped with howitzers, having far more at the beginning of the war than France. German 10.5 cm leFH 18/40 howitzer (dating from World War II), employed as a monument on the site of the World War I Battle of Turtucaia. Many howitzers introduced in the course of World War I had longer barrels than pre-war howitzers. The standard German light field howitzer at the start of the war (the 10.5 cm leichte Feldhaubitze 98/09) had a barrel that was 16 calibres long, but the light field howitzer adopted by the German Army in 1916 (105 mm leichte Feldhaubitze 16, see on the left) had a barrel that was 22 calibres long. At the same time, new models of field gun introduced during that conflict, such as the 77 mm field gun adopted by the German Army in 1916 (7,7 cm Feldkanone 16) were often provided with carriages that allowed firing at comparatively high angles, and adjustable propellant cartridges. Hans Linnenkohl, Vom Einzelschuss zur Feuerwalze, (Koblenz: Bernard und Graefe, 1990), pp. 86 and 219-220 In other words, there was a marked tendency for howitzers to become more "gun-like" while guns were taking on some of the attributes of howitzers. Nine-man gun crew firing a US M198 howitzer In the years after World War I, the tendency of guns and howitzers to acquire each other's characteristics led to the renaissance of the concept of the gun-howitzer. This was a product of technical advances such as the French invention of autofrettage just before World War I, which led to stronger and lighter barrels, the use of cut-off gear to control recoil length depending on firing elevation angle, and the invention of muzzle brakes to reduce recoil forces. Like the gun-howitzers of the nineteenth century, those of the twentieth century replaced both guns and howitzers. Thus, the 25-pounder "gun-howitzer" of the British Army replaced both the 18-pounder field gun and the 4.5-inch howitzer. While this had the effect of simplifying such things as organization, training and the supply of ammunition, it created considerable confusion in the realm of nomenclature. Breech of a US M109 self-propelled gun-howitzer In the US Army, however, the preferred term was "howitzer". Thus, as gun-howitzers replaced both guns and howitzers, words such as "obusier" (French) and "Haubitze" (German), which had originally been used to designate weapons with relatively short barrels, were applied to weapons with much longer barrels. Since World War II most of the artillery pieces adopted by land armies for attacking targets on land have combined the traditional characteristics of guns and howitzers—high muzzle velocity, long barrels, long range, multiple charges and maximum elevation angles greater than 45 degrees. The term 'gun-howitzer' is sometimes used for these (e.g., in Russia); many nations use "howitzer" while the UK calls them "guns". Types Self-propelled howitzer PzH 2000 of the German Army A self-propelled howitzer is mounted on a tracked or wheeled motor vehicle. In many cases, it is protected by some sort of armor so that it superficially resembles a tank. A pack howitzer is a relatively light howitzer that is designed to be easily broken down into several pieces, each of which is small enough to be carried by a mule or a packhorse. A mountain howitzer is a relatively light howitzer designed for use in mountainous terrain. Most, but not all, mountain howitzers are also pack howitzers. A siege howitzer is a howitzer that is designed to be fired from a mounting on a fixed platform of some sort. A field howitzer is a howitzer that is mobile enough to accompany a field army on campaign. It is invariably provided with a wheeled carriage of some sort. Examples Tsar Cannon, the largest howitzer ever made and possibly used, although never documented as having been fired BL 6-inch 26 cwt British howitzer of the First World War QF 25 pounder British gun-howitzer of the Second World War L118 Light Gun British towed gun-howitzer of the late twentieth century M198 howitzer US towed gun-howitzer of the late twentieth century M777 howitzer British towed gun-howitzer of the early twenty-first century M109 howitzer US self-propelled gun-howitzer of the late twentieth century SSPH Primus Singaporean self-propelled gun-howitzer of the early twenty-first century PzH 2000 German self-propelled gun-howitzer of the early twenty-first century M110 howitzer US self-propelled gun-howitzer of the late twentieth century G5 howitzer South African towed gun-howitzer of the early 1980s. For more examples, see List of artillery See also Gun Missiles Mortar Rocket References External links French Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars | Howitzer |@lemmatized nineteenth:7 century:21 pounder:5 kg:1 mountain:3 howitzer:107 display:1 national:1 park:2 service:2 fort:1 laramie:1 wyoming:1 united:2 state:3 type:5 artillery:15 piece:9 characterize:3 relatively:6 short:6 barrel:12 use:24 comparatively:2 small:4 explosive:4 charge:9 propel:7 projectile:7 high:8 trajectory:5 steep:4 angle:12 descent:5 taxonomy:1 european:5 style:1 armies:1 eighteenth:3 twentieth:10 stand:1 gun:52 long:8 large:7 propelling:1 shell:12 velocity:4 flatter:1 mortar:5 ability:2 fire:22 even:1 ascent:1 etymology:1 colorado:1 capitol:1 english:3 word:9 derive:2 german:12 haufen:2 heap:1 gewalthaufen:1 designate:2 pike:1 square:1 formation:2 already:1 battle:2 grunwald:1 teutonic:2 knight:2 stephen:2 r:1 turnbull:2 tannenberg:1 disaster:1 p:2 intend:3 break:3 enemy:1 hussite:2 war:18 czech:2 houfnice:1 cannon:2 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3,980 | History_of_astronomy | Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, and astrological practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy, and not completely disentangled from it until a few centuries ago in the Western World (see astrology and astronomy). Early astronomy involved observing the regular patterns of the motions of visible celestial objects, especially the Sun, Moon, stars and naked eye planets. An example of this early astronomy might involve a study of the changing position of the Sun along the horizon or the changing appearances of stars in the course of the year, which could be used to establish an agricultural or ritual calendar. In some cultures astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication. Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the centuries while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short time. Early history Early cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits. They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides. It is generally believed that the first "professional" astronomers were priests (such as the Magi), and that their understanding of the "heavens" was seen as "divine", hence astronomy's ancient connection to what is now called astrology. Ancient structures with possibly astronomical alignments (such as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled both astronomical and religious functions. Calendars of the world have usually been set by the Sun and Moon (measuring the day, month and year), and were of importance to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year. The most common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar, which divided the year into twelve months of alternating thirty and thirty-one days apiece. In 46 BC Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform and adopted a calendar based upon the 365 1/4 day year length originally proposed by 4th century BC Greek astronomer Callippus. The Bible contains a number of unsophisticated statements on the position of the Earth in to the universe and the nature of the stars and planets; see Biblical cosmology. Mesopotamia The origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were located. A form of writing known as cuneiform emerged among the Sumerians around 3500-3000 BC. The Sumerians only practiced a basic form of astronomy, but they had an important influence on the sophisticated astronomy of the Babylonians. Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians. They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, of 60 minutes each, began with the Sumerians. For more information, see the articles on Babylonian numerals and mathematics. Classical sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination. The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enūma Anu Enlil. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enūma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water-clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences. A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747-733 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time. The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323-60 BC). In the third century BC, astronomers began to use "goal-year texts" to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting past records. A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was Seleucus of Seleucia, who was a supporter of the heliocentric model. Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe. Egypt The precise orientation of the Egyptian pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the 3rd millennium BC. It has been shown the Pyramids were aligned towards the pole star, which, because of the precession of the equinoxes, was at that time Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. Ruggles, C.L.N. (2005), Ancient Astronomy, pages 354-355. ABC-Clio. ISBN 1-85109-477-6. Evaluation of the site of the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic, has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun. Krupp, E.C. (1988). "Light in the Temples", in C.L.N. Ruggles: Records in Stone: Papers in Memory of Alexander Thom. CUP, 473-499. ISBN 0-521-33381-4. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. Astronomy played a considerable part in religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the night. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the sun, moon and stars. The rising of Sirius (Egyptian: Sopdet, Greek: Sothis) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar. Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites: And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a horologium (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a palm (φοίνιξ), the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the sun and moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the sun and moon; and one concerns their risings. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, vi. 4 The Astrologer's instruments (horologium and palm) are a plumb line and sighting instrument. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the Berlin Museum; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arms length. The "Hermetic" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with Hellenistic Hermetism. O Neugebauer, Egyptian Planetary Texts, Transactions, American Philosophical Society, Vol. 32, Part 2, 1942, Page 237. From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the pole star passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy. China The astronomy of East Asia began in China. Solar term was completed in Warring States Period. The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia. Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BCE, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict comets and eclipses. Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose. Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of "guest stars" which suddenly appeared among the fixed stars. They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 A.D. Also, the supernova that created the Crab Nebula in 1054 is an example of a "guest star" observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies. The world's first star catalogue was made by Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, in 4th century BC. Greece and Hellenistic world The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus . Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his Timaeus Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul. Plato, Timaeus, 33B-36D Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric spheres, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the earth. Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1072a18-1074a32 This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the Sixteenth century. Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an eccentric circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an epicycle which in turn carried around a planet. The first such model is attributed to Apollonius of Perga and further developments in it were carried out in the 2nd century BC by Hipparchus of Nicea. Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of apparent magnitudes. The study of astronomy by the ancient Greeks was not limited to Greece itself but was further developed in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, in the Hellenistic states and in particular in Alexandria. However, the work was still done by ethnic Greeks. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive. Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy, pp. 55-6 Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely-separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy. Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy, pp. 45-7 The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 B.C., and was the first ancestor of an astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica. Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of physical Greek astronomy is seen with Ptolemy of Alexandria, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title Almagest, which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the Renaissance. In his Planetary Hypotheses Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of Aristarchus of Samos four centuries earlier. India Ancient Indian astrology is based upon sidereal calculation. The sidereal astronomy is based upon the stars and the sidereal period is the time that it takes the object to make one full orbit around the Sun, relative to the stars. It can be traced to the final centuries BC with the Vedanga Jyotisha attributed to Lagadha, one of the circum-Vedic texts, which describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. After formation of Indo-Greek kingdoms, Indian astronomy was influenced by Hellenistic astronomy (adopting the zodiacal signs or rāśis). Identical numerical computations for lunar cycles have been found to be used in India and in early Babylonian texts. Neugebauer, O. (1952) Tamil Astronomy: A Study in the History of Astronomy in India. Osiris, 10:252-276. Around 500 AD, Aryabhata presented a mathematical system that took the Earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the Sun. He also made an accurate approximation of the Earth's circumference and diameter, and also discovered how the lunar eclipse and solar eclipse happen. He gives the radius of the planetary orbits in terms of the radius of the Earth/Sun orbit as essentially their periods of rotation around the Sun. He was also the earliest to discover that the orbits of the planets around the Sun are ellipses. Astronomy was advanced during the Sunga Empire and many star catalogues were produced during this time. The Sunga period is known as the "Golden age of astronomy in India". Brahmagupta (598-668) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain and during his tenure there wrote a text on astronomy, the Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628. He was the earliest to use algebra to solve astronomical problems. He also developed methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses. Bhaskara (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University of Nalanda at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies. Other important astronomers from India include Madhava of Sangamagrama, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeshtadeva, who were members of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics from the 14th century to the 16th century. Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more effient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model. George G. Joseph (2000), The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, 2nd edition, p. 408, Penguin Books, London, ISBN 0691006598 K. Ramasubramanian, M. D. Srinivas, M. S. Sriram (1994). "Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion", Current Science 66, p. 784-790. Mesoamerica Maya astronomical codices include detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon, the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of Venus as morning and evening star. The Maya based their calendrics in the carefully calculated cycles of the Pleiades, the Sun, the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the Dresden Codex, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the Milky Way was crucial in their Cosmology. http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_astronomy.htm Maya Astronomy . A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus. To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet. Mars is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early mythology. A. F. Aveni, Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico, (Austin: Univ. of Texas Pr., 1980), pp. 173-99. Although the Maya calendar was not tied to the Sun, John Teeple has proposed that the Maya calculated the solar year to somewhat greater accuracy than the Gregorian calendar. A. F. Aveni, Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico, (Austin: Univ. of Texas Pr., 1980), pp. 170-3. Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of Maya religion. Islamic astronomy The Arabic world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from Greek astronomy and Indian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. The late 9th century Persian astronomer Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī wrote extensively on the motion of celestial bodies. His work was translated into Latin during the Latin translations of the 12th century. In the 9th century, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (Albumasar) developed a planetary model which has been interpreted as a heliocentric model. This is due to his orbital revolutions of the planets being given as heliocentric revolutions rather than geocentric revolutions, and the only known planetary theory in which this occurs is in the heliocentric theory. His work on planetary theory has not survived, but his astronomical data was later recorded by al-Hashimi and al-Biruni. Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), 525–545 [534-537]. In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the Andromeda Galaxy. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers, very probably before 905 AD. The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given by al-Sufi. In 1006, Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN 1006, the brightest supernova in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star. In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near Tehran, Iran, by the astronomer Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic, also known as the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. In 11th-century Persia, Omar Khayyám compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the calendar that was more accurate than the Julian and came close to the Gregorian. An amazing feat was his calculation of the year to be 365.24219858156 days long, which is accurate to the 6th decimal place. In the early 11th century, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On the Light of the Moon) some time before 1021. This was the earliest attempt at applying the experimental method to astronomy and astrophysics, and thus the first successful at combining mathematical astronomy with "physics" (which then referred to Aristotelian physics) for several of his astronomical hypotheses. He disproved the universally held opinion that the moon reflects sunlight like a mirror and correctly concluded that it "emits light from those portions of its surface which the sun's light strikes." In order to prove that "light is emitted from every point of the moon's illuminated surface," he built an "ingenious experimental device." Ibn al-Haytham had "formulated a clear conception of the relationship between an ideal mathematical model and the complex of observable phenomena; in particular, he was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up." Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the construction of the first observatory as a research institute in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun, the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Arzachel, the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir theorized that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth, George Saliba (1994). "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", Journal for the History of Astronomy 25, p. 115-141 [116]. the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology by Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, S. Pines (September 1964). "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", Isis 55 (3), p. 343-349. introduction of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques, Toby Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, p. 326. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521529948. and the introduction of empirical testing by Ibn al-Shatir, who produced the first model of lunar motion which matched physical observations. Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise", International Education Journal 7 (4), p. 395-396. The Earth's rotation and heliocentrism were also discussed by several Muslim astronomers, such as Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Al-Sijzi and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1964), An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, (Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press), p. 135-136 while the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation was given by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji, and al-Birjandi developed an early hypothesis on "circular inertia." F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", Science in Context 14 (1-2), p. 145–163. Cambridge University Press. Natural philosophy was also separated from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Ibn al-Shatir, Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 17, p. 7-55. Cambridge University Press. and al-Qushji. It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus was adapted from the geocentric model of Ibn al-Shatir and the Maragha school (including the Tusi-couple) in a heliocentric context, George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University. The relationship between Copernicus and the Maragha school is detailed in Toby Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, Cambridge University Press. and that his arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji. Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, p. 245, 250, 256-257. New York University Press, ISBN 0814780237. Medieval Western Europe After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the Twelfth century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages. Henry Smith Williams, The Great Astronomers (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1930), pp. 99-102 describes "the record of astronomical progress" from the Council of Nicea (325 AD) to the time of Copernicus (1543 AD) on four blank pages. Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the Fourth to the Sixteenth centuries. Stephen C. McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-521-77852-2. Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius. Bruce S. Eastwood, Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance, (Leiden: Brill, 2007) ISBN 979-90-04-16186-3. In the Sixth Century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars. Stephen C. McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 101-110 ISBN 0-521-77852-2. In the Seventh Century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text, On the Reckoning of Time, providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of Easter using a procedure called computus. This text remained an important element of the education of Clergy from the Seventh Century until well after the rise of the Universities in the Twelfth Century. Faith Wallis, ed. and trans., Bede: The Reckoning of Time, (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2004), pp. xviii-xxxiv ISBN 0-85323-693-3 The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the revival of learning sponsored by the emperor Charlemagne. Stephen C. McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 131-164 ISBN 0-521-77852-2. By the Ninth Century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their technical flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance. David Juste, "Neither Observation nor Astronomical Tables: An Alternative Way of Computing the Planetary Longitudes in the Early Western Middle Ages," pp. 181-222 in Charles Burnett, Jan P. Hogendijk, Kim Plofker, and Michio Yano, Studies in the Exact Sciences in Honour of David Pingree, (Leiden: Brill, 2004) Building on this astronomical background, in the Tenth Century European scholars such as Gerbert of Aurillac began to travel to the Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world. There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the astrolabe. Soon scholars such as Hermann of Reichenau were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as Walcher of Malvern, were using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables. Stephen C. McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 171-187 ISBN 0-521-77852-2. By the Twelfth century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they translated into Latin from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe. The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home. Stephen C. McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 188-192 ISBN 0-521-77852-2. Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, John of Sacrobosco wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the Sphere, a Computus, a text on the Quadrant, and another on Calculation. Olaf Pedersen, "In Quest of Sacrobosco", Journal for the History of Astronomy, 16(1985): 175-221 In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme, later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and not the heavens. However, he concluded "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved." Nicole Oresme, Le Livre du ciel et du monde, xxv, ed. A. D. Menut and A. J. Denomy, trans. A. D. Menut, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1968), quotation at pp. 536-7. In the 15th century, cardinal Nicholas of Cusa suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe. Copernican revolution Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that our Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like our Moon. The renaissance came to astronomy with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. His De revolutionibus provided a full mathematical discussion of his system, using the geometrical techniques that had been traditional in astronomy since before the time of Ptolemy. His work was later defended, expanded upon and modified by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. Galileo was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that our Moon had craters and observed (and correctly explained) sunspots. Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases. Galileo argued that these observations supported the Copernican system and were, to some extent, incompatible with the favored model of the Earth at the center of the universe. Uniting physics and astronomy Table of astronomy, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia Although the motions of celestial bodies had been qualitatively explained in physical terms since Aristotle introduced celestial movers in his Metaphysics and a fifth element in his On the Heavens, Johannes Kepler was the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes. Bruce Stephenson, Kepler's physical astronomy, (New York: Springer, 1987), pp. 67-75. "[Kepler's] revolutionary role lay in his successful attempt to solve the problem of uniting astronomy and natural philosophy which had been sought for two thousand years." P. 484 in Wilbur Applebaum, "Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems," History of Science, 34 (1996): 451-504. Combining his physical insights with the unprecedentedly accurate naked-eye observations made by Tycho Brahe, "We have found Tycho's mature planetary observations to be consistently accurate to within about 1'." P. 30, n. 2 in Owen Gingerich and James R. Voelkel, "Tycho Brahe's Copernican Campaign," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 29(1998): 2-34 The average error of Tycho's stellar observations, as recorded in his observational logs, varied from 32.3" to 48.8" for different instruments. Table 4 in Walter G. Wesley, "The Accuracy of Tycho Brahe's Instruments," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 9(1978): 42-53. An error of as much as 3' was introduced into some of the stellar positions published in Tycho's star catalog due to Tycho's application of an erroneous ancient value of parallax and his neglect of refraction. See Dennis Rawlins, "Tycho's 1004 Star Catalog", DIO 3 (1993), p. 20. Kepler discovered the three laws of planetary motion that now carry his name. Holmes, John, Astronomy Ancient and Modern (1751) Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his law of universal gravitation. Realising that the same force that attracted objects to the surface of the Earth held the moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain - in one theoretical framework - all known gravitational phenomena. In his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he derived Kepler's laws from first principles. Newton's theoretical developments lay many of the foundations of modern physics. Modern astronomy At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of spectral lines were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique elements. It was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun (chiefly hydrogen and helium) were also found on Earth. During the 20th century spectrometry (the study of these lines) advanced, especially because of the advent of quantum physics, that was necessary to understand the observations. Although in previous centuries noted astronomers were exclusively male, at the turn of the 20th century women began to play a role in the great discoveries. In this period prior to modern computers, women at the United States Naval Observatory (USNO), Harvard University, and other astronomy research institutions often served as human "computers," who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge. A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women "computers" and reported to their supervisors. For example, Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered the cepheid variable star period-luminosity relation, Annie Jump Cannon organized the stellar spectral types according to stellar temperature, and Maria Mitchell discovered a comet using a telescope. (See for more women astronomers.) Some of these women received little or no recognition during their lives due to their lower professional standing in the field of astronomy. Although their discoveries are taught in classrooms around the world, few students of astronomy can attribute the works to their authors. Cosmology and the expansion of the universe Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century. With the help of the use of photography, fainter objects were observed. Our sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 1010 stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of the great debate, was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy. Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot big bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law and cosmological abundances of elements. New windows into the Cosmos open Late in the 19th century, scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-Rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proven that other stars were similar to our own sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes. The existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. Notes See also Archaeoastronomy History of astrology History of astronomical interferometry History of supernova observation List of Astronomical Instrument Makers List of Observatories History of telescopes Hebrew astronomy Historians of astronomy Scholars Past. Willy Hartner, Otto Neugebauer, B. L. van der Waerden Scholars Present. Stephen G. Brush, Stephen J. Dick, Owen Gingerich, Bruce Stephenson, Michael Hoskin, Alexander R. Jones, Curtis A. Wilson Astronomer-historians. J. B. J. Delambre, J. L. E. Dreyer, Donald Osterbrock, Carl Sagan, F. Richard Stephenson References Aaboe, Asger. Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy. Springer-Verlag 2001 ISBN 0-387-95136-9 Aveni, Anthony F. Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico. University of Texas Press 1980 ISBN 0-292-77557-1 Dreyer, J. L. E. History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, 2nd edition. Dover Publications 1953 (revised reprint of History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler, 1906) Eastwood, Bruce. The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe, Variorum Collected Studies Series CS 279 Ashgate 2002 ISBN 0-86078-868-7 . Antoine Gautier, L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), December 2005, volume 119. Hodson, F. R. (ed.). The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World: A Joint Symposium of the Royal Society and the British Academy. Oxford University Press, 1974 ISBN 0-19-725944-8 Hoskin, Michael. The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280306-9 McCluskey, Stephen C. Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe. Cambridge University Press 1998 ISBN 0-521-77852-2 Neugebauer, Otto. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, 2nd edition. Dover Publications 1969 Pannekoek, Anton. A History of Astronomy. Dover Publications 1989 Pedersen, Olaf. Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction, revised edition. Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0-521-40899-7 . . Stephenson, Bruce. Kepler's Physical Astronomy, Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, 13. New York: Springer, 1987 ISBN 0-387-96541-6 Walker, Christopher (ed.). Astronomy before the telescope. British Museum Press 1996 ISBN 0-7141-1746-3 Refereed Journals DIO: The International Journal of Scientific History Journal for the History of Astronomy Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage External links Astronomiae Historia / History of Astronomy at the Astronomical Institutes of Bonn University. Commission 41 (History of Astronomy) of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) Society for the History of Astronomy Mayan Astronomy Caelum Antiquum: Ancient Astronomy and Astrology at LacusCurtius The Antikythera Calculator (Italian and English versions) - Ing. 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3,981 | Martin_Scorsese | Martin Marcantonio Luciano Scorsese (born November 17, 1942) is an Academy Award winning American film director, screenwriter, producer, and film historian. He is the founder of the World Cinema Foundation and a recipient of the AFI Life Achievement Award for his contributions to the cinema and has won awards from the Golden Globe, BAFTA, and Directors Guild of America. Scorsese is president of the Film Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to film preservation and the prevention of the decaying of motion picture film stock. Scorsese's body of work addresses such themes as Italian American identity, Roman Catholic concepts of guilt and redemption, The Religious Affiliation of Director Martin Scorsese Webpage created May 27, 2005. Last modified September 5, 2005. Retrieved 2007-04-01. machismo, and violence. Scorsese is widely considered to be one of the most significant and influential American filmmakers of his era, directing landmark films such as Taxi Driver, Raging Bull and Goodfellas; all of which he collaborated on with actor Robert De Niro. Yahoo! Movies He won the Academy Award for Best Director for The Departed and earned an MFA in film directing from the New York University Tisch School of the Arts. Life Martin Scorsese was born in New York City. His father, Luciano Charles Scorsese (1913–1993), and mother, Catherine Scorsese (née Cappa; 1912–1997), both worked in New York's Garment District, his father as a clothes presser and his mother as a seamstress. Martin Scorsese Biography (1942-) As a boy his parents would often take him to the movie theaters; it was at this stage in his life that he developed his passion for cinema. Obsessed with historical epics at an early age, at least two films of the genre, "Land of the Pharaohs"(1955), and "El Cid"(1961), appear to have had a deep and lasting impact on his cinema psyche. Scorsese also developed an admiration for neo-realist cinema at this time. He recounted its influence in a documentary on Italian neorealism, and commented on how The Bicycle Thief alongside Paisà, Rome, Open City inspired him and how this influenced his view or portrayal of his Sicilian heritage. In his documentary, Il Mio Viaggio in Italia, Scorsese noted that the Sicilian episode of Roberto Rossellini's Paisà which he first saw on television alongside his relatives, who were themselves Sicilian immigrants, made a significant impact on his life. He has also cited the Indian neorealist filmmaker Satyajit Ray as a major influence on his career. His initial desire to become a priest while attending Cardinal Hayes High School in the Bronx, this was forsaken for cinema the seminary traded for NYU Film School, where he received his MFA in film directing in 1969. Scorsese has been married to Helen Morris since 1999; she is his fifth wife. They have a daughter, Francesca, who appeared in The Departed and The Aviator. He has a daughter, Cathy (Catherine), from his first marriage to Laraine Brennan, and a daughter, Domenica Cameron-Scorsese, who is an actress, from his second marriage to Julia Cameron. Scorsese was also married to actress Isabella Rossellini from 1979 to their divorce in 1983. He married producer Barbara De Fina in 1985; their marriage ended in divorce as well. He is primarily based in New York City. Career Early career Although the Vietnam War had started at the time, Scorsese (who had struggled with asthma since his childhood ) did not serve in the military. He attended New York University's film school (B.A., English, 1964; M.F.A., film, 1966 ) making the short films What's a Nice Girl Like You Doing in a Place Like This? (1963) and It's Not Just You, Murray! (1964). His most famous short of the period is the darkly comic The Big Shave (1967), which featured an unnamed man who shaves himself until profusely bleeding, ultimately slitting his own throat with his razor. The film is an indictment of America's involvement in Vietnam, suggested by its alternative title Viet '67. Also in 1967, Scorsese made his first feature-length film, the black and white I Call First, which was later retitled Who's That Knocking at My Door with fellow student, actor Harvey Keitel, and editor Thelma Schoonmaker both of whom were to become long-term collaborators. This film was intended to be the first of Scorsese's semi-autobiographical 'J.R. Trilogy', which also would have included his later film, Mean Streets. Even in embryonic form, the "Scorsese style" was already evident: a feel for New York Italian American street-life, rapid editing, an eclectic rock soundtrack, and a troubled male protagonist. 1970s From there he became friends with the influential "movie brats" of the 1970s: Francis Ford Coppola, Brian De Palma, George Lucas, and Steven Spielberg. Indeed, it was Brian De Palma who introduced Scorsese to a young actor named Robert De Niro. During this period the director worked as one of the editors on the movie Woodstock and met actor-director John Cassavetes, who would also go on to become a close friend and mentor. Scorsese on DVD (Film Freak Central) Mean Streets In 1972 Scorsese made the Depression-era exploiter Boxcar Bertha for B-movie producer Roger Corman, who had also helped directors such as Francis Ford Coppola, James Cameron, and John Sayles launch their careers. It was Corman who taught Scorsese that entertaining films could be shot with next to no money or time, preparing the young director well for the challenges to come with Mean Streets. Following the film's release, Cassavetes encouraged Scorsese to make the films that he wanted to make, rather than someone else's projects. Championed by influential movie critic Pauline Kael, Mean Streets was a breakthrough for Scorsese, De Niro, and Keitel. By now the signature Scorsese style was in place: macho posturing, bloody violence, Catholic guilt and redemption, gritty New York locale (though the majority of Mean Streets was actually shot in Los Angeles), rapid-fire editing, and a rock soundtrack. Although the film was innovative, its wired atmosphere, edgy documentary style, and gritty street-level direction owed a debt to directors Cassavetes, Samuel Fuller, and early Jean-Luc Godard. (Indeed the film was completed with much encouragement from Cassavetes, who felt Boxcar Bertha was undeserving of the young director's prodigious talent.) In 1974, actress Ellen Burstyn chose Scorsese to direct her in Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore, for which she won an Academy Award for Best Actress. Although well regarded, the film remains an anomaly in the director's early career, as it focuses on a central female character. Returning to Little Italy to explore his ethnic roots, Scorsese next came up with Italianamerican, a documentary featuring his parents, Charles and Catherine Scorsese. Taxi Driver The iconic Taxi Driver followed in 1976 - Scorsese's dark, urban nightmare of one lonely man's slow, deliberate descent into insanity. The film is important for various reasons. Foremost, it established Scorsese as an accomplished filmmaker operating on a highly skilled level along with cinematographer Michael Chapman whose style tends towards high contrasts, strong colors and complex camera movements. Also, the groundbreaking performance of Robert De Niro as the troubled and psychotic, Travis Bickle, instantly became one of the cinema's most legendary turns. The film also co-starred Jodie Foster in a highly controversial role as an underage prostitute, and Harvey Keitel as her pimp, Matthew a.k.a. "Sport." Taxi Driver also marked the start of a series of collaborations with writer Paul Schrader, whose influences included the diary of would-be assassin Arthur Bremer and Pickpocket a film by the French director Robert Bresson. Writer/director Schrader often returns to Bresson's work in films such as American Gigolo, Light Sleeper, and Scorsese's later Bringing Out the Dead. Citizen Bickle, or the Allusive Taxi Driver: Uses of Intertextuality Already controversial upon its release, Taxi Driver hit the headlines again five years later, when John Hinckley, Jr., made an assassination attempt on then-President Ronald Reagan. He subsequently blamed his act on his obsession with Jodie Foster's Taxi Driver character (in the film, De Niro's character, Travis Bickle, makes an assassination attempt on a senator). Taxi Driver won the Palme d'Or at the 1976 Cannes film festival, also receiving four Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, although all were unsuccessful. Scorsese was subsequently offered the role of Charles Manson in the movie Helter Skelter and a part in Sam Fuller's war movie The Big Red One, but he turned both down. However he did accept the role of a gangster in exploitation movie Cannonball directed by Paul Bartel. In this period there were also several directorial projects that never got off the ground including Haunted Summer, about Mary Shelley and a film with Marlon Brando about the Indian massacre at Wounded Knee. New York, New York and The Last Waltz The critical success of Taxi Driver encouraged Scorsese to move ahead with his first big-budget project: the highly stylized musical New York, New York. This tribute to Scorsese's home town and the classic Hollywood musical was a box-office failure. New York, New York was the director's third collaboration with Robert De Niro, co-starring with Liza Minnelli (a tribute and allusion to her father, legendary musical director Vincente Minnelli). The film is best remembered today for the title theme song, which was popularized by Frank Sinatra. Although possessing Scorsese's usual visual panache and stylistic bravura, many critics felt its enclosed studio-bound atmosphere left it leaden in comparison to his earlier work. Often overlooked, it remains one of the director's early key studies in male paranoia and insecurity (and hence is in direct thematic lineage with Mean Streets, Taxi Driver, as well as the later Raging Bull and The Departed). The disappointing reception New York, New York received drove Scorsese into depression. By this stage the director had also developed a serious cocaine addiction. However, he did find the creative drive to make the highly regarded The Last Waltz, documenting the final concert by The Band. It was held at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco, and featured one of the most extensive lineups of prominent guest performers at a single concert, including Eric Clapton, Neil Young, Neil Diamond, Ringo Starr, Muddy Waters, Joni Mitchell, Bob Dylan, Paul Butterfield, Ronnie Wood and Van Morrison. However, Scorsese's commitments to other projects delayed the release of the film until 1978. Another Scorsese-directed documentary entitled American Boy also appeared in 1978, focusing on Steven Prince, the cocky gun salesman who appeared in Taxi Driver. A period of wild partying followed, damaging the director's already fragile health. 1980s Raging Bull By several accounts (Scorsese's included), Robert De Niro practically saved Scorsese's life when he persuaded Scorsese to kick his cocaine addiction to make what many consider his greatest film, Raging Bull. Convinced that he would never make another movie, he poured his energies into making this violent biopic of middleweight boxing champion Jake La Motta, calling it a Kamikaze method of film-making. The film is widely viewed as a masterpiece and was voted the greatest film of the 1980s by Britain's Sight & Sound magazine. It received eight Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Actor for Robert De Niro, and Scorsese's first for Best Director. De Niro won, as did Thelma Schoonmaker for editing, but best director went to Robert Redford for Ordinary People. Raging Bull, filmed in high contrast black and white, is where the director's style reached its zenith: Taxi Driver and New York, New York had used elements of expressionism to replicate psychological points of view, but here the style was taken to new extremes, employing extensive slow-motion, complex tracking shots, and extravagant distortion of perspective (for example, the size of boxing rings would change from fight to fight). Raging Bull Thematically too, the concerns carried on from Mean Streets and Taxi Driver: insecure males, violence, guilt, and redemption. Although the screenplay for Raging Bull was credited to Paul Schrader and Mardik Martin (who earlier co-wrote Mean Streets), the finished script differed extensively from Schrader's original draft. It was re-written several times by various writers including Jay Cocks (who went on to co-script later Scorsese films The Age of Innocence and Gangs of New York). The final draft was largely written by Scorsese and Robert De Niro. The King of Comedy Scorsese's next project was his fifth collaboration with Robert De Niro, The King of Comedy (1983). An absurdist satire on the world of media and celebrity, it was an obvious departure from the more emotionally committed films he had become associated with. Visually too it was far less kinetic than the style the director had developed up until this point, often using a static camera and long takes. The King of Comedy The expressionism of his recent work here gave way to moments of almost total surrealism. However it was still an obvious Scorsese work, and apart from the New York locale, it bore many similarities to Taxi Driver, not least of which was its focus on an obsessed troubled loner who ironically achieves iconic status through a criminal act (murder and kidnapping, respectively). The King of Comedy Film Review The King of Comedy failed at the box office but has become increasingly well regarded by critics in the years since its release. German director Wim Wenders numbered it among his fifteen favourite films. Wim Wenders - The Official Site Next Scorsese made a brief cameo appearance in the movie Pavlova: A Woman for All Time, originally intended to be directed by one of his heroes, Michael Powell. This led to a more significant role in Bertrand Tavernier's jazz movie Round Midnight. In 1983 Scorsese began work on a long-cherished personal project, The Last Temptation of Christ, based on the 1951 book written by Nikos Kazantzakis (who was introduced to the director by actress Barbara Hershey when they were both attending New York University in the late 1960s). The movie was slated to shoot under the Paramount Pictures banner, but shortly before principal photography was to commence, Paramount pulled the plug on the project, citing pressure from religious groups. In this aborted 1983 version, Aidan Quinn was cast as Jesus, and Sting was cast as Pontius Pilate. (In the 1988 version, these roles were played respectively by Willem Dafoe and David Bowie.) After Hours After the collapse of this project Scorsese again saw his career at a critical point, as he described in the documentary Filming for Your Life: Making 'After Hours''' (2004). He saw that in the increasingly commercial world of 1980s Hollywood, the highly stylized and personal 1970s films he and others had built their careers on would not continue to enjoy the same status. Scorsese decided then on an almost totally new approach to his work. With After Hours (1985) he made an aesthetic shift back to a pared-down, almost "underground" film-making style — his way of staying viable. Filmed on an extremely low budget, on location, and at night in the SoHo neighborhood of Manhattan, the film is a black comedy about one increasingly misfortunate night for a mild New York word processor (Griffin Dunne) and featured cameos by such disparate actors as Teri Garr and Cheech and Chong. A bit of a stylistic anomaly for Scorsese, After Hours fits in well with popular low-budget "cult" films of the 1980s, e.g. Jonathan Demme's Something Wild and Alex Cox's Repo Man. The Color of Money Along with the iconic 1987 Michael Jackson music video Bad, in 1986 Scorsese made The Color of Money, a sequel to the much admired Paul Newman film The Hustler (1961). (The Hustler was directed by Robert Rossen, whose 1940s boxing film Body and Soul was a major influence on Raging Bull.) Although typically visually assured, The Color of Money was the director's first foray into mainstream commercial film-making. It won actor Paul Newman a belated Oscar and gave Scorsese the clout to finally secure backing for a project that had been a long time goal for him: The Last Temptation of Christ. He also made a brief venture into television, directing an episode of Steven Spielberg's Amazing Stories. The Last Temptation of Christ After his mid-80s flirtation with commercial Hollywood, Scorsese made a major return to personal film-making with the Paul Schrader-scripted The Last Temptation of Christ in 1988. Based on Nikos Kazantzakis's controversial 1951 book, it retold the life of Christ in human rather than divine terms. Even prior to its release the film caused a massive furor, worldwide protests against its perceived blasphemy effectively turning a low budget independent movie into a media sensation. Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ Most controversy centered on the final passages of the film which depicted Christ marrying and raising a family with Mary Magdalene in a Satan-induced hallucination while on the cross. Looking past the controversy, The Last Temptation of Christ gained critical acclaim and remains an important work in Scorsese's canon: an explicit attempt to wrestle with the spirituality which had under-pinned his films up until that point. The director went on to receive his second nomination for a Best Director Academy Award (again unsuccessfully, this time losing to Barry Levinson for Rain Man). Along with directors Woody Allen and Francis Coppola, in 1989 Scorsese provided one of three segments in the portmanteau film New York Stories, called "Life Lessons". 1990s Goodfellas After a decade of mostly mixed results, gangster epic Goodfellas (1990) was a return to form for Scorsese and his most confident and fully realized film since Raging Bull. A return to Little Italy, De Niro, and Joe Pesci, Goodfellas offered a virtuoso display of the director's bravura cinematic technique and re-established, enhanced, and consolidated his reputation. The film is widely considered one of the director's greatest achievements. :: rogerebert.com :: Reviews :: GoodFellas (xhtml) GoodFellas GoodFellas (1990) However, Goodfellas also signified an important shift in tone in the director's work, inaugurating an era in his career which was technically accomplished but some have argued emotionally detached. Goodfellas (Wide Screen) Despite this, many view Goodfellas as a Scorsese archetype — the apogee of his cinematic technique. Scorsese earned his third Best Director nomination for Goodfellas but again lost to a first-time director, Kevin Costner (Dances with Wolves). The film also earned Joe Pesci an Academy Award (Best Supporting Actor) In 1990, he acted in a cameo role as Vincent Van Gogh in the film Dreams by legendary Japanese director Akira Kurosawa. Cape Fear 1991 brought Cape Fear, a remake of a cult 1962 movie of the same name, and the director's seventh collaboration with De Niro. Another foray in to the mainstream, the film was a stylized Grand Guignol thriller taking its cues heavily from Alfred Hitchcock and Charles Laughton's The Night of the Hunter (1955). Cape Fear received a mixed critical reception and was lambasted in many quarters for its scenes depicting misogynistic violence. However, the lurid subject matter did give Scorsese a chance to experiment with a dazzling array of visual tricks and effects. The film garnered two Oscar nominations. Earning eighty million dollars domestically, it would stand as Scorsese's most commercially successful release until The Aviator (2004), and then The Departed (2006). The film also marked the first time Scorsese used wide-screen Panavision with an aspect ratio of 2.35:1. The Age of Innocence The opulent and handsomely mounted The Age of Innocence (1993) was on the surface a huge departure for Scorsese, a period adaptation of Edith Wharton's novel about the constrictive high society of late-19th Century New York. It was highly lauded by critics upon original release, but was a box office bomb. As noted in Scorsese on Scorsese by editor/interviewer Ian Christie, the news that Scorsese wanted to make a film about a 19th Century failed romance raised many eyebrows among the film fraternity all the more when Scorsese made it clear that it was a personal project and not a studio for-hire job. Scorsese was interested in doing a "romantic piece". His friend, Jay Cocks gave him the Wharton novel in 1980, suggesting that this should be the romantic piece Scorsese should film as Cocks felt it best represented his sensibility. In Scorsese on Scorsese he noted that:"Although the film deals with New York aristocracy and a period of New York history that has been neglected, and although it deals with code and ritual, and with love that's not unrequited but unconsummated - which pretty much covers all the themes I usually deal with - when I read the book, I didn't say, 'Oh good, all those themes are here.'"Scorsese who was strongly drawn to the characters and the story of Wharton's text, wanted his film to be as rich an emotional experience as the book was to him rather than the traditional academic adaptations of literary works. To this aim, Scorsese sought influence from diverse period films which made an emotional impact on him. In Scorsese on Scorsese, he documents influences from films such as Luchino Visconti's Senso and his Il Gattopardo as well as Orson Welles's The Magnificent Ambersons and also Roberto Rossellini's La Prise de Pouvoir par Louis XIV. Although The Age of Innocence was ultimately different than these films in terms of narrative, story and thematic concern, the presence of a lost society, of lost values as well as detailed re-creations of social customs and rituals continues the tradition of these films. Recently, it has started to come back into the public eye, especially in countries such as the UK and France, but still is largely neglected in North America. The film earned five Academy Award nominations (including for Scorsese for Best Adapted Screenplay), winning the Costume Design Oscar. It also made a significant impact on directors such as Chinese auteur Tian Zhuangzhuang, http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/voter.php?forename=Tian&surname=Zhuang-Zhuang and British film-maker Terence Davies http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/voter.php?forename=Terence&surname=Davies both of whom ranked it among their ten favourite films. This was his first collaboration with the Academy Award winning actor, Daniel Day-Lewis, with whom he would work again in Gangs of New York. Casino 1995's expansive Casino, like The Age of Innocence before it, focused on a tightly wound male whose well-ordered life is disrupted by the arrival of unpredictable forces. The fact that it was a violent gangster film made it more palatable to fans of the director who perhaps were baffled by the apparent departure of the earlier film. Critically, however, Casino received mixed notices. In large part this was due to its huge stylistic similarities to his earlier Goodfellas. Indeed many of the tropes and tricks of the earlier film resurfaced more or less intact, most obviously the casting of both Robert DeNiro and Joe Pesci, Pesci once again being an unbridled psychopath. Sharon Stone was nominated for the Best Actress Academy Award for her performance. During the filming Scorsese played a background part as a gambler at one of the tables. It is quite often rumored that a real game of poker was being held at the time between extras and that a pot of $2000 was at stake. In the Film Comment issue of January 2000, devoted to the best films of the 90s, Thierry Fremaux of the Institut Lumière stated that, "The best film of the decade is also the most underrated film of the decade: 'Casino'", while Michael Wilmington called both GoodFellas and Casino, "Great late pinnacles of noir". http://www.filmlinc.com/fcm/1-2-2000/decade.htm A Personal Journey with Martin Scorsese Through American Movies Scorsese still found time for a four hour documentary in 1995 offering a thorough trek through American cinema. It covered the silent era to 1969, a year after which Scorsese began his feature career, stating "I wouldn't feel right commenting on myself or my contemporaries." Kundun If The Age of Innocence alienated and confused some fans, then Kundun (1997) went several steps further, offering an account of the early life of Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, the People's Liberation Army's entering of Tibet, and the Dalai Lama's subsequent exile to India. Not least a departure in subject matter, Kundun also saw Scorsese employing a fresh narrative and visual approach. Traditional dramatic devices were substituted for a trance-like meditation achieved through an elaborate tableau of colourful visual images. Kundun - Time Out The film was a source of turmoil for its distributor, Disney, who were planning significant expansion into the Chinese market at the time. Initially defiant in the face of pressure from Chinese officials, Disney has since distanced itself from the project, hurting Kundun's commercial profile. In the short term, the sheer eclecticism in evidence enhanced the director's reputation. In the long term however, it generally appears Kundun has been sidelined in most critical appraisals of the director, mostly noted as a stylistic and thematic detour. Kundun was the director's second attempt to profile the life of a great religious leader, following The Last Temptation of Christ. Bringing Out the DeadBringing Out the Dead (1999) was a return to familiar territory, with the director and writer Paul Schrader constructing a pitch-black comic take on their own earlier Taxi Driver. Bringing Out The Dead Like previous Scorsese-Schrader collaborations, its final scenes of spiritual redemption explicitly recalled the films of Robert Bresson. Reinert on Bringing Out the Dead (It's also worth noting that the film's incident-filled nocturnal setting is reminiscent of After Hours.) It received generally positive reviews, rottentomatoes.com, Bringing Out the Dead Entry, accessed January 29, 2007 although not the universal critical acclaim of some of his other films. 2000s Gangs of New York In 1999 Scorsese also produced a documentary on Italian filmmakers entitled Il Mio Viaggio in Italia, also known as My Voyage to Italy. The documentary foreshadowed the director's next project, the epic Gangs of New York (2002), influenced by (amongst many others) major Italian directors such as Luchino Visconti and filmed in its entirety at Rome's famous Cinecittà film studios. Scorsese at the Gangs of New York screening at the Cannes Film Festival with Leonardo DiCaprio and Cameron Diaz With a production budget said to be in excess of $100 million, Gangs of New York was Scorsese's biggest and arguably most mainstream venture to date. Like The Age of Innocence, it was set in 19th-century New York, although focusing on the other end of the social scale (and like that film, also starring Daniel Day-Lewis). The film also marked the first collaboration between Scorsese and actor Leonardo DiCaprio, who since then has become a fixture in later Scorsese films. The production was highly troubled with many rumors referring to the director's conflict with Miramax boss Harvey Weinstein. Gangs of Los Angeles | News | Guardian Unlimited Film Despite denials of artistic compromise, Gangs of New York revealed itself to be the director's most conventional film: standard film tropes which the director had traditionally avoided, such as characters existing purely for exposition purposes and explanatory flashbacks, here surfaced in abundance. Gangs of New York | Reviews | Guardian Unlimited Film Compare Prices and Read Reviews on Gangs of New York at Epinions.com Past master | Features | Guardian Unlimited Film The original score composed by regular Scorsese collaborator Elmer Bernstein was rejected at a late stage for a score by Howard Shore and mainstream rock artists U2 and Peter Gabriel. ScoreTrack.Net - Music for The Movies: Elmer Bernstein The final cut of the movie ran to 168 minutes, while the director's original cut was over 180 minutes in length. Nonetheless, the themes central to the film were consistent with the director's established concerns: New York, violence as culturally endemic, and sub-cultural divisions down ethnic lines. Originally filmed for a release in the winter of 2001 (to qualify for Academy Award nominations), Scorsese delayed the final production of the film until after the beginning of 2002; the studio consequently delayed the film for nearly a year until its release in the Oscar season of late 2002. In briefs: Gangs of New York release delayed again Gangs of New York earned Scorsese his first Golden Globe for Best Director. In February 2003, Gangs of New York received ten Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Actor for Daniel Day-Lewis. This was Scorsese's fourth Best Director nomination, and many thought it was finally his year to win. Ultimately, however, the film took home not a single Academy Award, and Scorsese lost his category to Roman Polanski for The Pianist. 2003 also saw the release of The Blues, an expansive seven part documentary tracing the history of blues music from its African roots to the Mississippi Delta and beyond. Seven film-makers including Wim Wenders, Clint Eastwood, Mike Figgis, and Scorsese himself each contributed a 90 minute film (Scorsese's entry was entitled “Feel Like Going Home”). Scorsese also had uncredited involvement as executive director with the 2002 film Deuces Wild, IMDB: Dueces Wild credits written Paul Kimatian. The Aviator Scorsese's film The Aviator (2004), was a lavish, large-scale biopic of eccentric aviation pioneer and film mogul Howard Hughes and would reunite Scorsese with actor Leonardo DiCaprio. The film received highly positive reviews, rottentomatoes.com, The Aviator entry, accessed January 24, 2007 Are you talking to me - again? Right guy, wrong film Empire Reviews Central - Review of The Aviator Rolling Stone : Aviator : Review The film also met with widespread box office success and gained Academy recognition.The Aviator was nominated for six Golden Globe awards, including Best Picture - Drama, Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best Actor - Drama for Leonardo DiCaprio. It won three, including Best Picture and Best Actor- Drama In January 2005, The Aviator became the most-nominated film of the 77th Academy Award nominations, nominated in 11 categories including Best Picture. The film also garnered nominations in nearly all of the other major categories, including a fifth Best Director nomination for Scorsese, Best Actor (Leonardo DiCaprio), Best Supporting Actress (Cate Blanchett), and Alan Alda for Best Supporting Actor. Despite having a leading tally, the film ended up with only five Oscars: Best Supporting Actress, Art Direction, Costume Design, Film Editing and Cinematography. Scorsese lost again, this time to director Clint Eastwood for Million Dollar Baby (which also won Best Picture). No Direction HomeNo Direction Home is a documentary film by Martin Scorsese that traces the life of Bob Dylan, and his impact on American popular music and culture of the 20th century. The film does not cover Dylan's entire career; rather, it focuses on his beginnings, his rise to fame in the 1960s, his then-controversial transformation from an acoustic guitar-based musician and performer to an electric guitar-influenced sound and his "retirement" from touring in 1966 following an infamous motorcycle accident. The film was first presented on television in both the United States (as part of the PBS American Masters series) and the United Kingdom (as part of the BBC Two Arena series) on September 26–27 2005. A DVD version of the film was released that same month. The film won a Peabody award. In addition, Scorsese received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Directing for Nonfiction Programming. The Departed Scorsese returned to the crime genre with the Boston-set thriller The Departed, based on the Hong Kong police drama Infernal Affairs. Along with Leonardo DiCaprio, The Departed would feature Scorsese's first collaboration with Oscar Award winning actors Jack Nicholson and Matt Damon.The Departed opened to widespread critical acclaim with some proclaiming it as one of the best efforts Scorsese had brought to the screen since 1990's Goodfellas, REVIEW: DEPARTED, THE Movie Review - Departed, The - eFilmCritic and still others putting it at the same level as Scorsese's most celebrated classics Taxi Driver and Raging Bull. Reel Views All Movie - The Departed With domestic box office receipts surpassing $129,402,536, The Departed is Scorsese's highest grossing film (not accounting for inflation). Martin Scorsese's direction of The Departed earned him his second Golden Globe for Best Director, as well as a Critic's Choice Award, his first Director's Guild of America Award, and the Academy Award for Best Director. The latter was thought to be long overdue, and some entertainment critics subsequently referred to it as Scorsese's "Lifetime Achievement" Oscar. Some critics indeed further suggested that Scorsese did not deserve to win for The Departed. It was presented to him by his longtime friends and colleagues Steven Spielberg, Francis Ford Coppola, and George Lucas. The Departed also received the Academy Award for the Best Motion Picture of 2006, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Film Editing by longtime Scorsese editor Thelma Schoonmaker, her third win for a Scorsese film. Shine a LightShine a Light is a concert film of rock and roll band The Rolling Stones' performances at New York City's Beacon Theater on October 29 and November 1, 2006, intercut with brief news and interview footage from throughout the band's career. The film was initially scheduled for release on September 21, 2007, but Paramount Classics postponed its general release until April 2008. Its world premiere was at the opening of the 58th Berlinale Film Festival on February 7, 2008. Shutter Island On October 22, 2007, the Daily Variety reported that Scorsese will reunite with Leonardo DiCaprio on a fourth picture, Shutter Island. Principal photography on the Laeta Kalogridis screenplay, based on the novel of the same name by Dennis Lehane, began in Massachusetts in March 2008. In December 2007, actors Mark Ruffalo, Ben Kingsley, and Michelle Williams joined the cast. The film is slated to be released on October 2, 2009. Future films Scorsese announced his intention to shoot a film based on Shusaku Endo’s novel, Silence. Silence will begin shooting in New Zealand in 2009, with Daniel Day-Lewis, Gael Garcia Bernal, and Benicio del Toro set to star. Scorsese is also shooting an upcoming documentary on the life of Beatle member George Harrison. Scorsese has also been in contact with reputed mobster John Martarano concerning the upcoming film "The Executioner". Scorsese and De Niro plan to reunite with a film adaptation of the Charles Brandt novel I Heard You Paint Houses, about the life of Frank Sheeran. Scorsese also plans to cast Leonardo DiCaprio in two more films, The Wolf of Wall Street and a film adaptation of The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt. Scorsese has also recently announced his involvement on an upcoming HBO series, Boardwalk Empire, based upon Nelson Johnson's book Boardwalk Empire: The Birth, High Times and Corruption of Atlantic City. The series will be produced by Entourage duo Mark Wahlberg and Stephen Levinson and is written by The Sopranos scribe Terence Winter. It stars Steve Buscemi and Michael Pitt. Scorsese will direct the pilot episode. On May 13, 2009, Universal Pictures and Mandalay Pictures announced that Scorcese will direct a biopic on the life of iconic singer/actor Frank Sinatra. Warner Music Group and Sinatra's estate are partners on the project. Academy Award-nominated screenwriter Phil Alden Robinson is working on a screenplay. Leonardo DiCaprio is Scorsese's top pick for the lead role on the condition that he can train his voice to sound like Sinatra's. Pop cultural influence In an episode of American Dad! titled "The Best Christmas Story Never", Stan convinces Scorsese to stop taking drugs in the 70s, causing Scorsese not to make the film Taxi Driver, leading to an alternate timeline where the Soviet Union had conquered the United States. In an episode of The Simpsons titled A Star Is Burns, Marge Simpson crosses out Scorsese's name as a film critic at the Springfield Film Festival in favor of Homer. The band King Missile included on its 1992 album Happy Hour a song entitled "Martin Scorsese," in which frontman John S. Hall assumes the persona of a crazed Scorsese obsessive who wishes to express his appreciation of the director's work by savagely assaulting him. In the 1990s animated TV show Animaniacs, the Goodfeathers, a gang of pigeons based on the three main characters in the film Goodfellas, hang out at a statue of the director. In an episode of the HBO series The Sopranos, Christopher Moltisanti sees Scorsese (an actor portraying Scorsese) going into a club and yells out at him "Hey! Marty! Kundun! I liked it!" Scorsese appears as himself in the Curb Your Enthusiasm episodes "The Special Section" and "Krazee Eyez Killa". In TV show Friends, Joey Tribbiani mentions he could get a job with 'the NEXT, NEXT Martin Scorsese', since 'the NEXT Martin Scorsese' already exists, being a guy from Chicago. In 2007, Scorsese was listed among Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in The World. Scorsese appeared in a series of American Express commercials as a director. Scorsese directed two commercials for Armani in the 80s. They were not seen in the US. In August 2007 Scorsese was named the 2nd greatest director of all time in a poll by Total Film magazine, in front of Steven Spielberg and behind Alfred Hitchcock. In the movie "Singles", the girl behind the counter of the video dating service alleges that her co-worker Brian (played by Tim Burton) should direct Debbie's (Sheila Kelley) video, claiming that he is the "next Martin Scorsese". In the online mockmentary "Pure Pwnage", the characters refer to Martin Scorsese's last name few times in the show. A scene of the character Doug looking in the mirror pointing a plastic gun at his reflection is a reference to a similar scene in Taxi Driver. In the movie Threesome, the main characters ask their less gifted friend whether she likes Scorsese and she responds "No, I don't eat spicy food". In the computer game, "Mafia: The City of Lost Heaven", the import company's name is Scorsese. He appeared as himself in the HBO TV series "Entourage", offering the main character Vincent Chase the lead role of Nick Carraway in a modern day adaptation of The Great Gatsby. In Jibjab.com's 2007 year in review, the phrase "Marty won one finally" is sung referring to his Oscar win in 2007 for directing. Director trademarks Begins his films with segments taken from the middle or end of the story. Examples include Raging Bull (1980), Raging Bull by Tim Dirks, Filmsite.org (online), 2008 Goodfellas (1990), Goodfellas by Tim Dirks, Filmsite.org (online), 2008 Casino (1995), Casino Script Screenplays For You (online), 1995 and The Last Waltz. Rock Doc Philidelpia Weekly (online), April 17 2002 Frequent use of slow motion, e.g. Mean Streets (1973), Taxi Driver (1976), Raging Bull (1980). Martin Scorsese by Marc Raymond, Senses of Cinema (online), May 2002 His lead characters are often sociopathic and/or want to be accepted in society. Martin Scorsese: Master of Violence by Nicholas Tana, Moving Pictures Magazine (online) His blonde leading ladies are usually seen through the eyes of the protagonist as angelic and ethereal; they always wear white in their first scene and are photographed in slow-motion (Cybill Shepherd in Taxi Driver; Cathy Moriarty's white bikini in Raging Bull; Sharon Stone's white minidress in Casino). Martin Scorsese, Frankie's Films (online), January 2007 This may possibly be a nod to director Alfred Hitchcock. Hitchcock and Women Often uses long tracking shots. Use of MOS sequences set to popular music or voice over, often involving aggressive camera movement and/or rapid editing. Martin Scorsese’s Comfortable State of Anxiety by Timothy Rhys, Movie Maker Magazine (online), October 16 2002 Often has a quick cameo in his films (Mean Streets, Taxi Driver, The King of Comedy, After Hours, The Last Temptation of Christ (albeit hidden under a hood), The Age of Innocence, Gangs of New York). Also, often contributes his voice to a film without showing his face on screen. E.g., provides the opening voice-over narration in Mean Streets and The Color of Money; plays the off-screen dressing room attendant in the final scene of Raging Bull; provides the voice of the unseen ambulance dispatcher in Bringing out the Dead. Most Famous Film Director Cameos by Tim Dirks, Filmsite.org (online), 2008 Frequently uses New York City as the main setting in his films, eg. Gangs of New York, Taxi Driver, Goodfellas, The Age of Innocence, After Hours, New York, New York. Sanders, James (October 2006). Scenes from the City: Filmmaking in New York. New York: Rizzoli, 288 Pages. ISBN 0847828905 Sometimes highlights characters in a scene with an iris, an homage to 1920s silent film cinema (as most scenes at the time used this transition). This effect can be seen in Casino (it is used on Sharon Stone and Joe Pesci), Life Lessons, and The Departed (on Matt Damon). Iris is also the name of Jodie Foster's character in "Taxi Driver". Some of his films include references/allusions to classic Westerns, particularly Shane and The Searchers. More recently, his films have featured corrupt authority figures, such as policemen in The Departed Revisiting Southie's culture of death By Michael Patrick MacDonald, The Boston Globe (online), October 11 2006 and politicians in Gangs of New York Gangs of New York Review by Roger Ebert, Chicago Sun-Times (online), December 20 2002 and The Aviator. High Rollers by David Denby, The New Yorker (online), December 20 2004 Guilt is a prominent theme in many of his films, as is the role of Catholicism in creating and dealing with guilt (Raging Bull, GoodFellas, Bringing Out the Dead, Mean Streets, Who's That Knocking at My Door, etc.) Scorsese's Circle Scorsese has been known to cast the same actors in his films, particularly Robert De Niro, who collaborated with Scorsese for eight films. Included are the three films that made the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list. Though a majority of critics cite Raging Bull to be De Niro's best performance, Scorsese has often stated that he thought Robert De Niro's best work under his direction was Rupert Pupkin in The King of Comedy. Most recently, Scorsese has found a new muse with young actor Leonardo DiCaprio, with whom he has collaborated for four films, with two others confirmed to be in the works. Leo & Marty: Yes, Again! Several critics have compared Scorsese's new partnership with DiCaprio with his previous one with De Niro. Scorsese Likens DiCaprio To De Niro Successful Hollywood Duos Other frequent collaborators include Victor Argo (6), Harry Northup (6), Harvey Keitel (5), Murray Moston (5), Joe Pesci (3), Frank Vincent (3), Verna Bloom (3), Steven Prince (2), Barbara Hershey (2), Alec Baldwin (2), David Carradine (2), Willem Dafoe (2), Nick Nolte (2) and John C. Reilly (2). Scorsese has also collaborated twice with the acclaimed actor Daniel Day-Lewis, who had become very reclusive to the Hollywood scene. Before their deaths, Scorese's parents, Charles and Catherine, would be given bit parts, walk-ons, or supporting roles. For his crew, Scorsese frequently worked with editor Thelma Schoonmaker, IMDb list of films featuring Scorsese and Schoonmaker cinematographers Michael Ballhaus Michael Ballhaus, ASC takes on Martin Scorsese's Gangs of New York, a 19th-century tale of vengeance and valor set in the city's most notorious neighborhood. and Robert Richardson, screenwriters Paul Schrader and Mardik Martin, costume designer Sandy Powell, production designer Dante Ferretti, and composers Robbie Robertson, Howard Shore Scorsese Films: The Aviator. and Elmer Bernstein. Some You Win. Schoonmaker, Richardson, Powell, and Ferretti have all won Academy Awards in their respective categories due to their collaborations with Scorsese. Elaine and Saul Bass, the latter being Hitchcock's title designer of choice, have designed the opening credits for Goodfellas, The Age of Innocence, Casino and Cape Fear. He was the executive producer of the film "Brides," which was directed by Pantelis Voulgaris and starred Victoria Haralabidou, Damien Lewis, Steven Berkoff and Kosta Sommer. TV Venture Aleksa Palladino, Paul Sparks, Shea Whigham and Anthony Laciura round out the cast of "Boardwalk Empire," Martin Scorsese's drama pilot for HBO. Written by Terence Winter and to be directed by Scorsese, the series chronicles the early 20th century origins of Atlantic City and revolves around Nucky Johnson (Steve Buscemi), who runs a liquor-distribution ring, and Jimmy Darmody (Michael Pitt), his ruthless flunky. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/television/news/e3i435ae21676ac96700bbcc7e10282c45a Awards and Recognitions On September 11, 2007, the prestigious Kennedy Center Honors committee which recognizes career excellence and cultural influence named Scorsese as one of the honorees at the ceremony to be held on December 1. At a ceremony in Paris, France, on January 5, 2005, Martin Scorsese was awarded the French Legion of Honor in recognition of his contribution to cinema. In 2007 Scorsese won the Academy Award for Best Director for The Departed'', which also won Best Picture. Filmography (as director) Year Film No. of Oscar Nominations No. of Oscar Wins 1963 What's a Nice Girl Like You Doing in a Place Like This? 1964 It's Not Just You, Murray! 1967 The Big Shave Who's That Knocking at My Door, originally titled I Call First 1970 Street Scenes 1972 Boxcar Bertha 1973 Mean Streets 1974 Italianamerican Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore 3 1 1976 Taxi Driver 4 1977 New York, New York 1978 The Last Waltz American Boy: A Profile of Steven Prince 1980 Raging Bull 8 2 1983 The King of Comedy 1985 After Hours 1986 The Color of Money 4 1 1987 Bad (music video with Michael Jackson) 1988 The Last Temptation of Christ 1 1989 New York Stories (segment Life's Lessons) 1990 Goodfellas 6 1 1991 Cape Fear 2 1993 The Age of Innocence 5 1 1995 Casino 1 1997 Kundun 4 1999 Bringing Out the Dead 2002 Gangs of New York 10 2004 The Aviator 11 5 2005 No Direction Home: Bob Dylan 4 (Emmys) 1 (Emmys) 2006 The Departed 5 4 2007 The Key to Reserva (short) 2008 Shine a Light 2009 Shutter Island Selected filmography (as actor) 1973 Mean Streets (cameo) as Jimmy Shorts 1976 Taxi Driver (cameo) as Passenger in Travis' Cab 1978 The Last Waltz (as himself) 1983 The King of Comedy (cameo) as TV Director 1986 Round Midnight || as Goodley |- | 1990 || Dreams || as Vincent Van Gogh |- | 1994 || Quiz Show || as Martin Rittenhome |- | 1999 || The Muse || (as himself) |- | 1999 || Bringing Out the Dead || (dispatcher) |- | 2004 || Shark Tale || (voice) Sykes |- | 2005 || Curb Your Enthusiasm || (as himself) |- | 2008 || Entourage'' (as himself) See also List of directors List of film collaborations References External links Martin Scorsese Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) They Shoot Pictures, Don't They? Scorsese interviews on BBC 1999 Princeton Q&A lecture (RealMedia video) Podcast: Scorsese Discusses His Digital Workflow Techniques Martin Scorsese Tops UGO's List for Best Uses of Classic Rock in Cinema Literature |- |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Cannes Film Festival |- |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | BAFTA Award |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Venice Film Festival |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Golden Globe Award |- |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Academy Award and Directors Guild of America Award |- be-x-old:Марцін Скарсэзэ | Martin_Scorsese |@lemmatized martin:25 marcantonio:1 luciano:2 scorsese:165 born:1 november:2 academy:19 award:30 win:22 american:13 film:158 director:70 screenwriter:3 producer:4 historian:1 founder:1 world:5 cinema:12 foundation:2 recipient:1 afi:2 life:18 achievement:3 contribution:2 golden:5 globe:6 bafta:2 guild:3 america:5 president:2 non:1 profit:1 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3,982 | Hexadecimal | In mathematics and computer science, hexadecimal (also base-, hexa, or hex) is a numeral system with a radix, or base, of 16. It uses sixteen distinct symbols, most often the symbols 0–9 to represent values zero to nine, and A, B, C, D, E, F (or a through f) to represent values ten to fifteen. Its primary use is as a human friendly representation of binary coded values, so it is often used in digital electronics and computer engineering. Since each hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits (bits)—also called a nibble—it is a compact and easily translated shorthand to express values in base two. __TOC__ Uses 0hex = 0dec = 0oct 0000 1hex = 1dec = 1oct 0001 2hex = 2dec = 2oct 0010 3hex = 3dec = 3oct 0011 4hex = 4dec = 4oct 0100 5hex = 5dec = 5oct 0101 6hex = 6dec = 6oct 0110 7hex = 7dec = 7oct 0111 8hex = 8dec = 10oct 1000 9hex = 9dec = 11oct 1001 Ahex = 10dec = 12oct 1010 Bhex = 11dec = 13oct 1011 Chex = 12dec = 14oct 1100 Dhex = 13dec = 15oct 1101 Ehex = 14dec = 16oct 1110 Fhex = 15dec = 17oct 1111 In digital computing, hexadecimal is primarily used to represent bytes. Attempts to represent the 256 possible byte values by other means have led to problems. Directly representing each possible byte value with a single character representation runs into unprintable control characters in the ASCII character set. Even if a standard set of printable characters were devised for every byte value, neither users nor input hardware are equipped to handle 256 unique characters. Most hex editing software displays each byte as a single character, but unprintable characters are usually substituted with a period or blank. Representing hexadecimal In situations where there is no context, a hexadecimal number might be ambiguous and confused with numbers expressed in other bases. There are several conventions for unambiguously expressing values. In mathematics, a subscript (itself written in decimal) is often used on each number explicitly giving the base: 15910 is decimal 159; 15916 is hexadecimal 159 which is equal to 34510. Some authors prefer a text subscript, such as 159decimal and 159hex. In linear text systems, such as those used in most computer programming environments, a variety of methods have arisen: In URLs, character codes are written as hexadecimal pairs prefixed with %: http://www.example.com/name%20with%20spaces where %20 is the space (blank) character, code 20 hex, or 32 decimal. In XML and XHTML, characters can be expressed as hexadecimal using the notation . Color references are expressed in hex prefixed with #: #FFFFFF which gives white. The C programming language (and its syntactical descendants Some of C's syntactical descendants are C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, and Windows PowerShell ) use the prefix 0x: 0x5A3. Character and string constants may express character codes in hexadecimal with the prefix \x followed by two hex digits: '\x1B' (specifies the Esc control character), "\x1B[0m\x1B[25;1H" is a string containing 11 characters (not including an implied trailing NUL). The string "\x1B[0m\x1B[25;1H" specifies the characters: Esc [ 0 m Esc [ 2 5 ; 1 H. This expresses the escape sequences used to reset the character set and color then move the cursor to line 25 in an ANSI terminal. To output a value as hexadecimal with the printf function family, the format conversion code %X or %x is used. In the Unicode standard, a character value is represented with <code>U+<code> followed by the hex value: U+20AC is the Euro sign (€). MIME (e-mail extensions) quoted-printable characters by code inside a text/plain MIME-part body prefix non-printable ASCII characters with an equal to sign =, as in Espa=D1a to send "España" (Spain). In Intel-derived assembly languages, hexadecimal is indicated with a suffixed H or h: FFh or 0A3CH. Some implementations require a leading zero when the first character is not a digit: 0FFh Other assembly languages (6502, AT&T, Motorola), Pascal, and some versions of BASIC (Commodore) and Forth use $ as a prefix: $5A3. Some assembly languages (Microchip) use the notation H'ABCD' (for ABCD16). *nix (UNIX and related) shells use an escape character form \x0FF in expressions and 0xFF for constants. Ada and VHDL enclose hexadecimal numerals in based "numeric quotes": 16#5A3# Verilog represents hexadecimal constants in the form 8'hFF, where 8 is the number of bits in the value and FF is the hexadecimal constant. Modula 2 and some other languages use # as a prefix: #01AF The Smalltalk programming language uses the prefix 16r: 16r6EF7 Postscript indicates hex with prefix 16#: 16#ABCD. Binary data (such as image pixels) can be expressed as unprefixed consecutive hexadecimal pairs: AA213FD51B3801043FBC... Common Lisp use the prefixes #x and #16r. FreeBASIC, QBasic and Visual Basic, prefix hexadecimal numerals with &H: &H5A3 BBC BASIC and Locomotive BASIC use & for hex. BBC BASIC is not portable to Microsoft BASIC since the latter takes & to prefix octal values. TI-89 and 92 series uses 0h: 0hA3 Notations such as X'5A3' are sometimes seen, such as in PL/I. This is the most common format for hexadecimal on IBM mainframes (zSeries) and midrange computers (iSeries) running traditional OS's (zOS, zVSE, zVM, TPF, OS/400), and is used in Assembler, PL/1, Cobol, JCL, scripts, commands and other places. This format was common on other (and now obsolete) IBM systems as well. Donald Knuth introduced the use of a particular typeface to represent a particular radix in his book The TeXbook. Donald E. Knuth. The TeXbook (Computers and Typesetting, Volume A). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1984. ISBN 0-201-13448-9. The source code of the book in TeX (and a needed set of macros ) is available online on CTAN. There, hexadecimal representations are written in a typewriter typeface: 5A3 Bruce A. Martin's hexadecimal notation proposal There is no universal convention to use lowercase or uppercase for the letter digits, and each is prevalent or preferred by particular environments by community standards or convention. The choice of the letters A through F to represent the digits above nine was not universal in the early history of computers. During the 1950s, some installations favored using the digits 0 through 5 with a macron character ("¯") to indicate the values 10-15. Users of Bendix G-15 computers used the letters U through Z. Bruce A. Martin of Brookhaven National Laboratory considered the choice of A-F "ridiculous" and in 1968 proposed in a letter to the editor of the ACM an entirely new set of symbols based on the bit locations, which did not gain much acceptance. Letters to the editor: On binary notation, Bruce A. Martin, Associated Universities Inc., Communications of the ACM, Volume 11, Issue 10 (October 1968) Page: 658 Verbal and digital representations Not only are there no digits to represent the quantities from ten to fifteen—so letters are used as a substitute—but most Western European languages also lack a nomenclature to name hexadecimal numbers. "Thirteen" and "fourteen" are decimal-based, and even though English has names for several non-decimal powers: pair for the first binary power; score for the first vigesimal power; dozen, gross, and great gross for the first three duodecimal powers. However, no English name describes the hexadecimal powers (corresponding to the decimal values 16, 256, 4096, 65536, ...). Some people read hexadecimal numbers digit by digit like a phone number: 4DA is "four-dee-eh". However, the letter 'A' sounds similar to eight, 'C' sounds similar to three, and 'D' can easily be mistaken for the 'ty' suffix: Is it 4D or forty? Other people avoid confusion by using the NATO phonetic alphabet: 4DA is "four-delta-alpha". Similarly, some use the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet ("four-dog-able"), or a similar ad hoc system. Hexadecimal finger-counting scheme. Systems of counting on (digits) have been devised for both binary and hexadecimal. Arthur C. Clarke suggested using each finger as an on/off bit, allowing finger counting from zero to 1023 on ten fingers. Another system for counting up to FF (255) is illustrated on the right; it seems to be an extension of an existing system for counting in twelves (dozens and grosses), that is common in South Asia and elsewhere. Signs The hexadecimal system can express negative numbers the same way as in decimal: –2A to represent –42 and so on. However, some prefer instead to express the exact bit patterns used in the processor and consider hexadecimal values best handled as unsigned values. This way, the negative number –42 can be written as FFFF FFD6 in a 32-bit CPU register, as C228 0000 in a 32-bit FPU register or C045 0000 0000 0000 in a 64-bit FPU register. Real numbers As with other numeral systems, the hexadecimal system can be used to represent rational numbers, although recurring digits are common since sixteen (10h) has only a single prime factor (two): <center> = 0.8 <center> = 0.2AAAAAAAA... <center> = 0.1999999999... <center> = 0.1249249249... <center> = 0.5555555555... <center> = 0.2492492492... <center> = 0.1745D1745D... <center> = 0.1111111111... <center> = 0.4 <center> = 0.2 <center> = 0.1555555555... <center> = 0.1 <center> = 0.3333333333... <center> = 0.1C71C71C71... <center> = 0.13B13B13B1... <center> = 0.0F0F0F0F0F... For any base, 0.1 (or "1/10") is always equivalent to one divided by the representation of that base value in its own number system: Counting in base 3 is 0, 1, 2, 10 (three). Thus, whether dividing one by two for binary or dividing one by sixteen for hexadecimal, both of these fractions are written as 0.1. Because the radix 16 is a perfect square (4²), fractions expressed in hexadecimal have an odd period much more often than decimal ones, and there are no cyclic numbers (other than trivial single digits). Recurring digits are exhibited when the denominator in lowest terms has a prime factor not found in the radix; thus, when using hexadecimal notation, all fractions with denominators that are not a power of two result in an infinite string of recurring digits (such as thirds and fifths). This makes hexadecimal (and binary) less convenient than decimal for representing rational numbers since a larger proportion lie outside its range of finite representation. All rational numbers finitely representable in hexadecimal are also finitely representable in decimal, duodecimal and sexagesimal: that is, any hexadecimal number with a finite number of digits has a finite number of digits when expressed in those other bases. Conversely, only a fraction of those finitely representable in the latter bases are finitely representable in hexadecimal: That is, decimal 0.1 corresponds to the infinite recurring representation 0.199999999999... in hexadecimal. However, hexadecimal is more efficient than bases 12 and 60 for representing fractions with powers of two in the denominator (e.g., decimal one sixteenth is 0.1 in hexadecimal, 0.09 in duodecimal, 0;3,45 in sexagesimal and 0.0625 in decimal). Decimal basePrime factors of the base: 2, 5 Hexadecimal basePrime factors of the base: 2 Fraction <SMALL>Prime factorsof the denominator<SMALL> Positional representation Positional representation <SMALL>Prime factorsof the denominator<SMALL> Fraction 1/2 2 0.5 0.8 2 1/2 1/3 3 0.3333... = 0. 0.5555... = 0. 3 1/3 1/4 2 0.25 0.4 2 1/4 1/5 5 0.2 0. 5 1/5 1/6 2, 3 0.1 0.2 2, 3 1/6 1/7 7 0. 0. 7 1/7 1/8 2 0.125 0.2 2 1/8 1/9 3 0. 0. 3 1/9 1/10 2, 5 0.1 0.1 2, 5 1/A 1/11 11 0. 0. B 1/B 1/12 2, 3 0.08 0.1 2, 3 1/C 1/13 13 0. 0. D 1/D 1/14 2, 7 0.0 0.1 2, 7 1/E 1/15 3, 5 0.0 0. 3, 5 1/F 1/16 2 0.0625 0.1 2 1/10 1/17 17 0. 0. 11 1/11 1/18 2, 3 0.0 0.0 2, 3 1/12 1/19 19 0. 0.0 13 1/13 1/20 2, 5 0.05 0.0 2, 5 1/14 1/21 3, 7 0. 0. 3, 7 1/15 1/22 2, 11 0.0 0.0 2, B 1/16 1/23 23 0. 0.0 17 1/17 1/24 2, 3 0.041 0.0 2, 3 1/18 1/25 5 0.04 0.0 5 1/19 1/26 2, 13 0.0 0.0 2, B 1/1A 1/27 3 0. 0. 3 1/1B 1/28 2, 7 0.03 0.0 2, 7 1/1C 1/29 29 0. 0. 1D 1/1D 1/30 2, 3, 5 0.0 0.0 2, 3, 5 1/1E 1/31 31 0. 0. 1F 1/1F 1/32 2 0.03125 0.08 2 1/20 1/33 3, 11 0. 0. 3, B 1/21 1/34 2, 17 0.0 0.0 2, 11 1/22 1/35 5, 7 0.0 0. 5, 7 1/23 1/36 2, 3 0.02 0.0 2, 3 1/24 Algebraic irrational number In decimal In Hexadecimal √2 (the length of the diagonal of a unit square) 1.41421356237309... (≈ 1.414) 1.6A09E667F3BCD... (≈ 1.6A) √3 (the length of the diagonal of a unit cube, or twice the height of an equilateral triangle of unit side) 1.73205080756887... (≈ 1.732) 1.BB67AE8584CAA... (≈ 1.BB) √5 (the length of the diagonal of a 1×2 rectangle) 2.2360679774997... (≈ 2.236) 2.3C6EF372FE95... (≈ 2.3C) φ (phi, the golden ratio = ) 1.6180339887498... (≈ 1.618) 1.9E3779B97F4A... (≈ 1.9E) Transcendental irrational number In decimal In Hexadecimal <SMALL>(pi, the ratio of circumference to diameter)<SMALL> 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510...(≈ 3.1416) 3.243F6A8885A308D313198A2E03707344A4093822299F31D008...(≈ 3.243F) e (the base of the natural logarithm) 2.7182818284590452...(≈ 2.718) 2.B7E151628AED2A6B...(≈ 2.B7E) τ <SMALL>(the Thue–Morse constant) 0.412454033640... 0.6996 9669 9669 6996 ... Number In decimal In Hexadecimal γ (the limiting difference between the harmonic series and the natural logarithm) 0.5772156649015328606...(≈ 0.577) 0.93C467E37DB0C7A4D1B...(≈ 0.93C) Binary translation Most computers manipulate binary data, but it is difficult for humans to work with the large number of digits for even a relatively small binary number. Although most humans are familiar with the base 10 system, it is much easier to map binary to hexadecimal than to decimal because each hexadecimal digit maps to a whole number of bits (410). This example converts 11112 to base ten. Since each position in a binary numeral can contain either a 1 or 0, its value may be easily determined by its position from the right: 00012 = 110 00102 = 210 01002 = 410 10002 = 810 Therefore: 11112 = 810 + 410 + 210 + 110 = 1510 With surprisingly little practice, mapping 11112 to F16 in one step becomes easy: see table in Uses. The advantage of using hexadecimal rather than decimal increases rapidly with the size of the number. When the number becomes large, conversion to decimal is very tedious. However, when mapping to hexadecimal, it is trivial to regard the binary string as 4 digit groups and map each to a single hexadecimal digit. This example shows the conversion of a binary number to decimal, mapping each digit to the decimal value, and adding the results. <table> 010111101011010100102 = 26214410 + 6553610 + 3276810 + 1638410 + 819210 + 204810 + 51210 + 25610 + 6410 + 1610 + 210 </tr> = 38792210 </table> Compare this to the conversion to hexadecimal, where each group of four digits can be considered independently, and converted directly: 010111101011010100102 = 0101 1110 1011 0101 00102 = 5 E B 5 216 = 5EB5216 The conversion from hexadecimal to binary is equally direct. The octal system can also be useful as a tool for people who need to deal directly with binary computer data. Octal represents data as three bits per character, rather than four. Converting from other bases Division-remainder in source base As with all bases there is a simple algorithm for converting a representation of a number to hexadecimal by doing integer division and remainder operations in the source base. Theoretically this is possible from any base but for most humans only decimal and for most computers only binary (which can be converted by far more efficient methods) can be easily handled with this method. Let d be the number to represent in hexadecimal, and the series hihi-1...h2h1 be the hexadecimal digits representing the number. i := 1 hi := d mod 16 d := (d-hi) / 16 If d = 0 (return series hi) else increment i and go to step 2 "16" may be replaced with any other base that may be desired. The following is a JavaScript implementation of the above algorithm for converting any number to a hexadecimal in String representation. Its purpose is to illustrate the above algorithm. To work with data seriously however, it is much more advisable to work with bitwise operators. function toHex(d) { var r = d % 16; var result; if (d-r == 0) result = toChar(r); else result = toHex( (d-r)/16 ) + toChar(r); return result; } function toChar(n) { const alpha = "0123456789ABCDEF"; return alpha.charAt(n); } Addition and multiplication A hexadecimal multiplication table It is also possible to make the conversion by assigning each place in the source base the hexadecimal representation of its place value and then performing multiplication and addition to get the final representation. I.e. to convert the number B3AD to decimal one can split the conversion into D (1310), A (1010), 3 (310) and B (1110) then get the final result by multiplying each decimal representation by 16p, where 'p' is the corresponding position from right to left, beginning with 0. In this case we have 13*(160) + 10*(161) + 3*(162) + 11*(163), which is equal 45997 in the decimal system. Tools for conversion Most modern computer systems with graphical user interfaces provide a built-in calculator utility, capable of performing conversions between various radixes, generally including hexadecimal. In Microsoft Windows, the Calculator utility can be set to scientific calculator mode, which allows conversions between radix 16 (hexadecimal), 10 (decimal), 8 (octal) and 2 (binary); the bases most commonly used by programmers. In Scientific Mode, the on screen numeric keypad includes the hexadecimal digits A through F which are active when "Hex" is selected. The Windows Calculator however only supports integers. Cultural Etymology The word "hexadecimal" is strange in that hexa is derived from the Greek έξ (hex) for "six" and decimal is derived from the Latin for "tenth". It may have been derived from the Latin root, but Greek deka is so similar to the Latin decem that some would not consider this nomenclature inconsistent. However, the word "sexagesimal" (base 60) retains the Latin prefix. The earlier Bendix documentation used the term "sexadecimal". Donald Knuth has pointed out that the etymologically correct term is "senidenary", from the Latin term for "grouped by 16". (The terms "binary", "ternary" and "quaternary" are from the same Latin construction, and the etymologically correct term for "decimal" arithmetic is "denary".) Knuth, Donald. (1969). Donald Knuth, in The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2. ISBN 0-201-03802-1. (Chapter 17.) Schwartzman notes that the pure expectation from the form of usual Latin-type phrasing would be "sexadecimal", but then computer hackers would be tempted to shorten the word to "sex". Schwartzman, S. (1994). The Words of Mathematics: an etymological dictionary of mathematical terms used in English. ISBN 0-88385-511-9. Incidentally, the etymologically proper Greek term would be hexadecadic (although in Modern Greek deca-hexadic (δεκαεξαδικός) is more commonly used). Common patterns and humor Hexadecimal is sometimes used in programmer jokes because certain words can be formed using only hexadecimal digits. Some of these words are "dead", "beef", "babe", and with appropriate substitutions "c0ffee". Since these are quickly recognizable by programmers, debugging setups sometimes initialize memory to them to help programmers see when something has not been initialized. Some people add an H after a number if they want to show that it is written in hexadecimal. In older Intel assembly syntax, this is sometimes the case. "Hexspeak" may be the forerunner of the modern web parlance of "1337speak" An example is the magic number in FAT Mach-O files and java class file structure, which is "CAFEBABE". Single-architecture Mach-O files have the magic number "FEEDFACE" at their beginning. "DEADBEEF" is sometimes put into uninitialized memory. Microsoft Windows XP clears its locked index.dat files with the hex codes: "0BADF00D". The Visual C++ remote debugger uses "BADCAB1E" to denote a broken link to the target system. Two common bit patterns often employed to test hardware are 01010101 and 10101010 (their corresponding hex values are 55h and AAh, respectively). The reason for their use is to alternate between off ('0') to on ('1') or vice versa when switching between these two patterns. These two values are often used together as signatures in critical PC system sectors (e.g., the hex word, 0xAA55 which on little-endian systems is 55h followed by AAh, must be at the end of a valid Master Boot Record). The following table shows a joke in hexadecimal: 3x12=36 2x12=24 1x12=12 0x12=18 The first three are interpreted as multiplication, but in the last, "0x" signals Hexadecimal interpretation of 12, which is 18. Another joke based on the use of a word containing only letters from the first six in the alphabet (and thus those used in hexadecimal) is... If only DEAD people understand hexadecimal, how many people understand hexadecimal? In this case, DEAD refers to a hexadecimal number (57005 base 10), not the state of being no longer alive. Obviously, DEAD normally should not be written in all-caps (as in the preceding) as it makes it stand out, thus ruining the riddle. A Knuth reward check is one hexadecimal dollar, or $2.56. Primary numeral system Similar to dozenal advocacy, There have been occasional attempts to promote hexadecimal as the preferred numeral system. These attempts usually propose pronunciation and/or symbology. Sometimes the proposal unifies standard measures so that they are multiples of 16. An example of unifying standard measures is Hexadecimal time which subdivides a day by 16 so that there are 16 "hexhours" in a day. See also Base 32 Base 64 Base32 (content encoding scheme) Base64 (content encoding scheme) Web colours Hex editor Hexadecimal time Hexspeak Nibble — one hexadecimal digit can exactly represent one "nibble" Numeral system — a list of other base systems Binary numeral system HTML Bubble Babble References | Hexadecimal |@lemmatized mathematics:3 computer:13 science:1 hexadecimal:72 also:7 base:33 hexa:2 hex:14 numeral:9 system:23 radix:6 use:43 sixteen:3 distinct:1 symbol:3 often:6 represent:20 value:23 zero:3 nine:2 b:8 c:9 e:9 f:6 ten:4 fifteen:2 primary:2 human:4 friendly:1 representation:14 binary:21 cod:1 digital:3 electronics:1 engineering:1 since:6 digit:27 four:6 bit:11 call:1 nibble:3 compact:1 easily:4 translate:1 shorthand:1 express:12 two:9 ahex:1 bhex:1 chex:1 dhex:1 ehex:1 fhex:1 computing:1 primarily:1 byte:5 attempt:3 possible:4 mean:1 lead:1 problem:1 directly:3 single:6 character:23 run:2 unprintable:2 control:2 ascii:2 set:6 even:3 standard:5 printable:3 devise:2 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choice:2 early:2 history:1 installation:1 favor:1 macron:1 bendix:2 g:3 z:1 brookhaven:1 national:1 laboratory:1 consider:4 ridiculous:1 propose:2 editor:3 acm:2 entirely:1 new:1 location:1 gain:1 much:4 acceptance:1 associate:1 university:1 inc:1 communication:1 issue:1 october:1 page:1 verbal:1 quantity:1 western:1 european:1 lack:1 nomenclature:2 thirteen:1 fourteen:1 though:1 english:3 power:7 score:1 vigesimal:1 dozen:2 gross:3 great:1 three:5 duodecimal:3 however:8 describe:1 correspond:1 people:6 read:1 like:1 phone:1 dee:1 eh:1 sound:2 similar:5 eight:1 mistake:1 ty:1 suffix:1 forty:1 avoid:1 confusion:1 nato:1 phonetic:2 alphabet:3 delta:1 alpha:3 similarly:1 joint:1 army:1 navy:1 dog:1 able:1 ad:1 hoc:1 finger:4 counting:2 scheme:3 count:4 arthur:1 clarke:1 suggest:1 allow:2 another:2 illustrate:2 right:3 seem:1 exist:1 twelve:1 south:1 asia:1 elsewhere:1 negative:2 way:2 instead:1 exact:1 pattern:4 processor:1 best:1 unsigned:1 ffff:1 cpu:1 register:3 fpu:2 real:1 rational:3 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3,983 | Daniel_Jones_(phonetician) | Daniel Jones (12 September 1881 – 4 December 1967) was a London-born British phonetician. A pupil of Paul-Édouard Passy, professor of phonetics at the École des Hautes Études at the Sorbonne (University of Paris), Daniel Jones is considered by many to be the greatest phonetician of the early 20th century. Biography In 1900, Jones studied briefly at William Tilly's Marburg Language Institute in Germany where he was first introduced to phonetics. In 1903 he received his BA degree in mathematics at Cambridge, converted by payment to MA in 1907. From 1905 to 1906, he studied at Paris under Paul Passy, who was one of the founders of the International Phonetic Association, and in 1911 married Passy's niece Cyrille Motte. He briefly took private lessons from the great British phonetician Henry Sweet. In 1907 he became a part-time lecturer at University College London, and was afterwards appointed to a full-time position. In 1912 he became the head of the Department of Phonetics and was appointed to a chair in 1921, a post he held until his retirement in 1949. From 1906 onwards, Jones was an active member of the International Phonetic Association, and was Assistant Secretary from 1907-1927, Secretary from 1927 to 1949 and President from 1950 to 1967. In 1909, Jones wrote the short Pronunciation of English, a book which he later radically revised. The Outline of English Phonetics which followed in 1918 is the first truly comprehensive description of British Received Pronunciation, and indeed the first such description of the standard pronunciation of any language. The year 1917 was a landmark in many ways. Jones became the first linguist in the western world to use the term phoneme in its current sense, employing the word in his article The phonetic structure of the Sechuana Language Jones, 1917b . Jones had made an earlier notable attempt at a pronunciation dictionary Michaelis and Jones, 1913 but it was now that he produced the first edition of his famous English Pronouncing Dictionary Jones 1917a , a work which in revised form is still in print. It was here that the cardinal vowel diagram made a first appearance p. ii . The problem of the phonetic description of vowels is of long standing, going back to the era of the ancient Indian linguists. Three nineteenth century British phoneticians deserve mention. Alexander Melville Bell (1867) devised an ingenious iconic phonetic alphabet which included an elaborate system for vowels. Alexander Ellis had also suggested vowel symbols for his phonetic alphabets. Henry Sweet did much work on the systematic description of vowels, coming up with what must be considered a somewhat over-elaborate system of vowel description involving a multitude of symbols. Jones however was the one who is generally credited with having gone much of the way towards a practical solution through his scheme of 'Cardinal Vowels', a relatively simple system of reference vowels which for many years has been taught systematically to students within the British tradition. It is worth pointing out, however, that much of the inspiration for this scheme can be found in the earlier publications of Paul Passy. In the original form of the Cardinal Vowels, Jones employed a dual-parameter system of description based on the supposed height of the tongue arch together with the shape of the lips. This he reduced to a simple quadrilateral diagram which could be used to help visualize how vowels are articulated. Tongue height (close vs. open) is represented on the vertical axis and front vs. back on the horizontal axis indicates the portion of the tongue raised on the horizontal axis. Lip-rounding is also built into the system, so that front vowels (such as [i, e, a]) have spread or neutral lip postures, but the back vowels (such as [o,u]) have more marked lip-rounding as vowel height increases. Jones thus arrived at a set of eight "primary Cardinal Vowels", and recorded these on gramophone disc for HMV in 1917. Later modifications to his theory allowed for an additional set of eight "secondary Cardinal Vowels" with reverse lip shapes, permitting the representation of eight secondary cardinal vowels (front rounded and back unrounded). Eventually Jones also devised symbols for central vowels and positioned these on the vowel diagram. He made two further disc recordings for Linguaphone in 1943 and 1956. With the passing years, the accuracy of many of Jones's statements on vowels has come increasingly under question, and most linguists now consider that the vowel quadrilateral must be viewed as a way of representing auditory space in visual form, rather than the tightly defined articulatory scheme envisaged by Jones. Nevertheless, the International Phonetic Association still uses a version of Jones's model, and includes a Jones-type vowel diagram on its influential International Phonetic Alphabet leaflet contained in the "Handbook of the International Association". Many phoneticians (especially those trained in the British school) resort to it constantly as a quick and convenient form of reference. Although Jones is especially remembered for his work on the phonetics and phonology of English, he ranged far more widely. He produced phonetic/phonolological treatments which were masterly for their time on the sound systems of Cantonese, Tswana (Sechuana as its was then known), Sinhalese, and Russian. He was the first phonetician to produce, in his "Sechuana Reader", a competent description of an African tone language, including the concept of downstep. Jones helped develop new alphabets for African languages, and suggested systems of romanisation for Indian languages and Japanese. He also busied himself with support for revised spelling for English through the Simplified Spelling Society. Apart from his own vast array of published work, Jones will be remembered for having acted as mentor to numerous scholars who later went on to become famous linguists in their own right. These included such names as Lilias Armstrong, Harold Palmer, Ida Ward, Hélène Coustenoble, Arthur Lloyd James, Dennis Fry, A.C. Gimson, Gordon Arnold, J.D. O'Connor, and many more. For several decades his department at University College was pivotal in the development of phonetics and in making its findings known to the wider world. A point of interest is that it is probably Daniel Jones (and not as is often thought Henry Sweet) who provided George Bernard Shaw with the basis for his fictional character Henry Higgins in "Pygmalion". See the discussion in "The Real Professor Higgins" Collins and Mees 1998: 97-103 . After retirement, Jones worked assiduously at his publications almost up to the end of his long life. He died at his home in Gerrards Cross on December 4, 1967. Notes References R. E. Asher (1994), Encyclopedia of language and linguistics, Oxford: Pergamon Press. Bell, A. Melville (1967), "Visible Speech", London: Simpkin Marshall; rpt in facsimile in B. Collins and I. Mees (2006), "Phonetics of English in the 19th Century", London: Routledge. Collins, B. and I. Mees (1998), "The Real Professor Higgins, the Life and Career of Daniel Jones", Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. IPA (1999), "Handbook of the International Phonetic Association", Cambridge: CUP. Jones, D. 1909), "The Pronunciation of English", Cambridge: CUP; rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002). 1917a), "An English Pronouncing Dictionary", London: Dent, rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002). 17th edn, P. Roach, J. Hartman and J. Setter (eds), Cambridge: CUP, 2006. Jones, D.(1917b), The phonetic structure of the Sechuana language, Transactions of the Philological Society 1917-20, pp. 99-106; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D.(1918), "An Outline of English Phonetics", Leipzig: Teubner; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. and Kwing Tong Woo (1912), "A Cantonese Phonetic Reader", London: University of London Press; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. and H.Michaelis (1913), "A Phonetic Dictionary of the English Language", Hanover-Berlin: Carl Meyer and Gustav Prior; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. and S. Plaatje (1916), "A Sechuana Reader", London: ULP; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D.and H.S. Perera (1919), "A Colloquial Sinhalese Reader", Manchester: Manchester University Press; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. and M.Trofimov (1923), "The Pronunciation of Russian", Cambridge: CUP; rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002). Jones, D. (2002), Daniel Jones: Collected Works, Vols. 1-8, ed. B. Collins and I.M. Mees, London: Routledge. External links Section on Daniel Jones Parts of his book An Outline of English Phonetics | Daniel_Jones_(phonetician) |@lemmatized daniel:6 jones:44 september:1 december:2 london:9 born:1 british:6 phonetician:6 pupil:1 paul:3 édouard:1 passy:4 professor:3 phonetics:9 école:1 de:2 hautes:1 études:1 sorbonne:1 university:5 paris:2 consider:3 many:6 great:2 early:2 century:3 biography:1 study:2 briefly:2 william:1 tilly:1 marburg:1 language:9 institute:1 germany:1 first:7 introduce:1 receive:2 ba:1 degree:1 mathematics:1 cambridge:5 convert:1 payment:1 one:2 founder:1 international:6 phonetic:13 association:5 married:1 niece:1 cyrille:1 motte:1 take:1 private:1 lesson:1 henry:4 sweet:3 become:4 part:2 time:3 lecturer:1 college:2 afterwards:1 appoint:2 full:1 position:2 head:1 department:2 chair:1 post:1 hold:1 retirement:2 onwards:1 active:1 member:1 assistant:1 secretary:2 president:1 write:1 short:1 pronunciation:6 english:11 book:2 later:2 radically:1 revise:2 outline:3 follow:1 truly:1 comprehensive:1 description:7 indeed:1 standard:1 year:3 landmark:1 way:3 linguist:4 western:1 world:2 use:3 term:1 phoneme:1 current:1 sense:1 employ:2 word:1 article:1 structure:2 sechuana:5 make:4 earlier:1 notable:1 attempt:1 dictionary:4 michaelis:2 produce:3 edition:1 famous:2 pronouncing:2 work:6 revised:1 form:4 still:2 print:1 cardinal:6 vowel:21 diagram:4 appearance:1 p:2 ii:1 problem:1 long:2 standing:1 go:3 back:4 era:1 ancient:1 indian:2 three:1 nineteenth:1 deserve:1 mention:1 alexander:2 melville:2 bell:2 devise:2 ingenious:1 iconic:1 alphabet:4 include:4 elaborate:2 system:7 elli:1 also:4 suggest:2 symbol:3 much:3 systematic:1 come:2 must:2 somewhat:1 involve:1 multitude:1 however:2 generally:1 credit:1 towards:1 practical:1 solution:1 scheme:3 relatively:1 simple:2 reference:3 teach:1 systematically:1 student:1 within:1 tradition:1 worth:1 point:2 inspiration:1 find:1 publication:2 original:1 dual:1 parameter:1 base:1 suppose:1 height:3 tongue:3 arch:1 together:1 shape:2 lip:5 reduce:1 quadrilateral:2 could:1 help:2 visualize:1 articulate:1 close:1 v:2 open:1 represent:2 vertical:1 axis:3 front:3 horizontal:2 indicate:1 portion:1 raise:1 rounding:2 build:1 e:2 spread:1 neutral:1 posture:1 u:1 mark:1 increase:1 thus:1 arrive:1 set:2 eight:3 primary:1 record:1 gramophone:1 disc:2 hmv:1 late:1 modification:1 theory:1 allow:1 additional:1 secondary:2 reverse:1 permit:1 representation:1 round:1 unrounded:1 eventually:1 central:1 two:1 recording:1 linguaphone:1 passing:1 accuracy:1 statement:1 increasingly:1 question:1 view:1 auditory:1 space:1 visual:1 rather:1 tightly:1 define:1 articulatory:1 envisage:1 nevertheless:1 version:1 model:1 type:1 influential:1 leaflet:1 contain:1 handbook:2 especially:2 train:1 school:1 resort:1 constantly:1 quick:1 convenient:1 although:1 remember:2 phonology:1 range:1 far:1 widely:1 phonolological:1 treatment:1 masterly:1 sound:1 cantonese:2 tswana:1 know:2 sinhalese:2 russian:2 reader:4 competent:1 african:2 tone:1 concept:1 downstep:1 develop:1 new:1 romanisation:1 japanese:1 busy:1 support:1 spelling:2 simplified:1 society:2 apart:1 vast:1 array:1 publish:1 act:1 mentor:1 numerous:1 scholar:1 right:1 name:1 lilias:1 armstrong:1 harold:1 palmer:1 ida:1 ward:1 hélène:1 coustenoble:1 arthur:1 lloyd:1 james:1 dennis:1 fry:1 c:1 gimson:1 gordon:1 arnold:1 j:3 connor:1 several:1 decade:1 pivotal:1 development:1 finding:1 wider:1 interest:1 probably:1 often:1 think:1 provide:1 george:1 bernard:1 shaw:1 basis:1 fictional:1 character:1 higgins:3 pygmalion:1 see:1 discussion:1 real:2 collins:4 mees:4 assiduously:1 almost:1 end:1 life:2 die:1 home:1 gerrards:1 cross:1 note:1 r:1 asher:1 encyclopedia:1 linguistics:1 oxford:1 pergamon:1 press:3 visible:1 speech:1 simpkin:1 marshall:1 rpt:10 facsimile:4 b:3 routledge:2 career:1 berlin:2 mouton:1 gruyter:1 ipa:1 cup:4 dent:1 edn:1 roach:1 hartman:1 setter:1 eds:1 transaction:1 philological:1 pp:1 leipzig:1 teubner:1 kwing:1 tong:1 woo:1 h:2 hanover:1 carl:1 meyer:1 gustav:1 prior:1 plaatje:1 ulp:1 perera:1 colloquial:1 manchester:2 trofimov:1 collect:1 vols:1 ed:1 external:1 link:1 section:1 |@bigram hautes_études:1 nineteenth_century:1 phonetic_alphabet:3 phonetics_phonology:1 bernard_shaw:1 oxford_pergamon:1 berlin_mouton:1 de_gruyter:1 rpt_jones:6 leipzig_teubner:1 manchester_manchester:1 external_link:1 |
3,984 | Northern_blot | The northern blot is a technique used in molecular biology research to study gene expression by detection of RNA (or isolated mRNA) in a sample. Kevil, C. G., Walsh, L., Laroux, F. S., Kalogeris, T., Grisham, M. B., Alexander, J. S. (1997) An Improved, Rapid Northern Protocol. Biochem. and Biophys. Research Comm. 238:277-279. Flow diagram outlining the general procedure for RNA detection by northern blotting. With northern blotting it is possible to observe cellular control over structure and function by determining the particular gene expression levels during differentiation, morphogenesis, as well as abnormal or diseased conditions. Schlamp, K., Weinmann, A., Krupp, M., Maass, T., Galle, P. R., Teufel, A. (2008) BlotBase: A northern blot database. Gene. 427: 47-50. Northern blotting involves the use of electrophoresis to separate RNA samples by size, and detection with a hybridization probe complementary to part of or the entire target sequence. The term 'northern blot' actually refers specifically to the capillary transfer of RNA from the electrophoresis gel to the blotting membrane, however the entire process is commonly referred to as northern blotting. Trayhurn, P. (1996) Northern Blotting. Pro. Nutrition Soc. 55:583-589. The northern blot technique was developed in 1977 by James Alwine, David Kemp, and George Stark at Stanford University. Northern blotting takes its name from its similarity to the first blotting technique, the Southern blot, named for biologist Edwin Southern. Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J. Raff, M., Roberts, K., Walter, P. 2008. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th ed. Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group, NY, pp 538-539. The major difference is that RNA, rather than DNA, is analyzed in the northern blot. Procedure A general blotting procedure starts with extraction of total RNA from a homogenized tissue sample. The mRNA can then be isolated through the use of oligo (dT) cellulose chromatography to maintain only those RNAs with a poly(A) tail. Durand, G. M., Zukin, R. S. (1993) Developmental Regulation of mRNAs Encoding Rat Brain Kainate/AMPA Receptors: A Northern Analysis Study. J. Neurochem. 61: 2239-2246. Mori, H., Takeda-Yoshikawa, Y., Hara-Nishimura, I., Nishimura, M. (1991) Pumpkin malate synthase Cloning and sequencing of the cDNA and Northern blot analysis. Eur. J. Biochem. 197: 331-336. RNA samples are then separated by gel electrophoresis. Since the gels are fragile and the probes are unable to enter the matrix, the RNA samples, now separated by size, are transferred to a nylon membrane through a capillary or vacuum blotting system. Capillary blotting system setup for the transfer of RNA from an electrophoresis gel to a blotting membrane. A nylon membrane with a positive charge is the most effective for use in northern blotting since the negatively charged nucleic acids have a high affinity for them. The transfer buffer used for the blotting usually contains formamide because it lowers the annealing temperature of the probe-RNA interaction preventing RNA degradation by high temperatures. Yang, H., McLeese, J., Weisbart, M., Dionne, J.-L., Lemaire, I., Aubin, R. A. (1993) Simplified high throughput protocol for Northern hybridization. Nucleic Acids Research. 21: 3337-3338. Once the RNA has been transferred to the membrane it is immobilized through covalent linkage to the membrane by UV light or heat. After a probe has been labeled, it is hybridized to the RNA on the membrane. Experimental conditions that can affect the efficiency and specificity of hybridization include ionic strength, viscosity, duplex length, mismatched base pairs, and base composition. Streit, S., Michalski, C. W., Erkan, M., Kleef, J., Friess, H. (2008) Northern blot analysis for detection of RNA in pancreatic cancer cells and tissues. Nature Protocols. 4: 37-43. The membrane is washed to ensure that the probe has bound specifically and to avoid background signals from arising. The hybrid signals are then detected by X-ray film and can be quantified by densitometry. To create controls for comparison in a northern blot, samples not displaying the gene product of interest can be used after determination by microarrays or RT-PCR. Gels RNA run on a formaldehyde agarose gel to highlight the 28S (top band) and 18S (lower band) ribosomal subunits. The RNA samples are most commonly separated on agarose gels containing formaldehyde as a denaturing agent for the RNA to limit secondary structure. Yamanaka, S., Poksay, K. S., Arnold, K. S., Innerarity, T. L. (1997) A novel translational repressor mRNA is edited extensively in livers containing tumors caused by the transgene expression of the apoB mRNA-editing enzyme. Genes Dev. 11: 321-333. The gels can be stained with ethidium bromide (EtBr) and viewed under UV light to observe the quality and quantity of RNA before blotting. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoeresis with urea can also be used in RNA separation but it is most commonly used for fragmented or microRNAs. Valoczi, A., Hornyik, C., Varga, N., Burgyan, J., Kauppinen, S., Havelda, Z. (2004) Sensitive and specific detection of microRNAs by northern blot analysis using LNA-modified oligonucleotide probes. Nuc. Acids Research. 32: e175. An RNA ladder is often run alongside the samples on an electrophoresis gel to observe the size of fragments obtained but in total RNA samples the ribosomal subunits can act as size markers. Since the large ribosomal subunit is 28S (approximately 5kb) and the small ribosomal subunit is 18S (approximately 2kb) two prominent bands will appear on the gel, the larger at close to twice the intensity of the smaller. Gortner, G., Pfenninger, M., Kahl, G., Weising, K. (1996) Northern blot analysis of simple repetitive sequence transcription in plants. Electrophoresis. 17: 1183-1189. Probes Probes for northern blotting are composed of nucleic acids with a complementary sequence to all or part of the RNA of interest, they can be DNA, RNA, or oligonucleotides with a minimum of 25 complementary bases to the target sequence. RNA probes (riboprobes) that are transcribed in vitro are able to withstand more rigorous washing steps preventing some of the background noise. Commonly cDNA is created with labelled primers for the RNA sequence of interest to act as the probe in the northern blot. Liang, P. Pardee, A. B. (1995) Recent advances in differential display. Current Opinion Immunol. 7: 274-280. The probes need to be labelled either with radioactive isotopes (32P) or with chemiluminescence in which alkaline phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase breakdown chemiluminescent substrates producing a detectable emission of light. Engler-Blum, G., Meier, M., Frank, J., Muller, G. A. (1993) Reduction of Background Problems in Nonradioactive Northern and Southern Blot Analysis Enables Higher Sensitivity Than 32P-Based Hybridizations. Anal. Biochem. 210: 235-244. The chemiluminescent labelling can occur in a couple ways, the probe attached to the enzyme, or the probe labelled with a ligand (e.g. biotin) for which the antibody (e.g. avidin or streptavidin) is attached to the enzyme. X-ray film can detect both the radioactive and chemiluminescent signals and many researchers prefer the chemiluminescent signals because they are faster, more sensitive, and reduce the health hazards that go along with radioactive labels. The same membrane can be probed up to five times without a significant loss of the target RNA. Applications Northern blotting allows one to observe a particular gene's expression pattern between tissues, organs, developmental stages, environmental stress levels, pathogen infection, and over the course of treatment. Baldwin, D., Crane, V., Rice, D. (1999) A comparison of gel-based, nylon filter and microarray techniques to detect differential RNA expression in plants. Current Opinion in Plant Biol. 2: 96-103. The technique has been used to show overexpression of oncogenes and downregulation of tumor-suppressor genes in cancerous cells when compared to 'normal' tissue, as well as the gene expression in the rejection of transplanted organs. Utans, U., Liang, P., Wyner, L. R., Karnovsky, M. J., Russel, M. E. (1994) Chronic cardiac rejection: Identification of five upregulated genes in transplanted hearts by differential mRNA display. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91:6463-6467. If an upregulated gene is observed by an abundance of mRNA on the northern blot the sample can then be sequenced to determine if the gene is known to researchers or if it is a novel finding. The expression patterns obtained under given conditions can provide insight into the function of that gene. Since the RNA is first separated by size, if only one probe type is used variance in the level of each band on the membrane can provide insight into the size of the product, suggesting alternative splice products of the same gene or repetitive sequence motifs. The variance in size of a gene product can also indicate deletions or errors in transcript processing, by altering the probe target used along the known sequence it is possible to determine which region of the RNA is missing. BlotBase is an online database publishing northern blots. BlotBase has over 700 published northern blots of human and mouse samples, in over 650 genes across more than 25 different tissue types. Northern blots can be searched by a blot ID, paper reference, gene identifier, or by tissue. The results of a search provide the blot ID, species, tissue, gene, expression level, blot image (if available), and links to the publication that the work originated from. This new database provides sharing of information between members of the science community that was not previously seen in northern blotting as it was in sequence analysis, genome determination, protein structure, etc. Advantages & Disadvantages Analysis of gene expression can be done by several different methods including RT-PCR, RNase protection assays, microarrays, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), as well as northern blotting. Microarrays are quite commonly used and are usually consistent with data obtained from northern blots, however at times northern blotting is able to detect small changes in gene expression that microarrays cannot. Taniguchi, M., Miura, K., Iwao, H., Yamanaka, S. (2001) Quantitative Assessment of DNA Microarrays – Comparison with Northern Blot Analysis. Genomics. 71:34-39. The advantage that microarrays have over northern blots is that thousands of genes can be visualized at a time while northern blotting is usually looking at one or a small number of genes. A problem in northern blotting is often sample degradation by RNases (both endogenous to the sample and through environmental contamination) which can be avoided by proper sterilization of glassware and the use of RNase inhibitors such as DEPC (diethylpyrocarbonate). The chemicals used in most northern blots can be a risk to the researcher, since formaldehyde, radioactive material, ethidium bromide, DEPC, and UV light are all harmful under certain exposures. Compared to RT-PCR northern blotting has a low sensitivity but it also has a high specificity which is important to reduce false positive results. The advantages of using northern blotting include the detection of RNA size, the observation of alternate splice products, the use of probes with partial homology, the quality and quantity of RNA can be measured on the gel prior to blotting, and the membranes can be stored and reprobed for years after blotting. Reverse northern blot A variant of the procedure known as the reverse northern blot is occasionally used. In this procedure, the substrate nucleic acid (that is affixed to the membrane) is a collection of isolated DNA fragments, and the probe is RNA extracted from a tissue and radioactively labelled. The use of DNA microarrays that have come into widespread use in the late 1990s and early 2000s is more akin to the reverse procedure, in that they involve the use of isolated DNA fragments affixed to a substrate, and hybridization with a probe made from cellular RNA. Thus the reverse procedure, though originally uncommon, enabled northern analysis to evolve into gene expression profiling, in which many (possibly all) of the genes in an organism may have their expression monitored. References See also Western blot Far-Eastern blot Far-western blotting Eastern blotting | Northern_blot |@lemmatized northern:42 blot:36 technique:5 use:21 molecular:2 biology:2 research:4 study:2 gene:24 expression:13 detection:6 rna:34 isolate:2 mrna:7 sample:13 kevil:1 c:3 g:8 walsh:1 l:4 laroux:1 f:1 kalogeris:1 grisham:1 b:3 alexander:1 j:10 improve:1 rapid:1 protocol:3 biochem:3 biophys:1 comm:1 flow:1 diagram:1 outline:1 general:2 procedure:7 blotting:20 possible:2 observe:5 cellular:2 control:2 structure:3 function:2 determine:3 particular:2 level:4 differentiation:1 morphogenesis:1 well:3 abnormal:1 diseased:1 condition:3 schlamp:1 k:6 weinmann:1 krupp:1 maass:1 galle:1 p:5 r:4 teufel:1 blotbase:3 database:3 involve:2 electrophoresis:6 separate:5 size:8 hybridization:5 probe:19 complementary:3 part:2 entire:2 target:4 sequence:9 term:1 actually:1 refers:1 specifically:2 capillary:3 transfer:5 gel:13 membrane:12 however:2 process:1 commonly:5 refer:1 trayhurn:1 pro:1 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3,985 | Motion_(physics) | Motion involves change in position, such as in this perspective of rapidly leaving Yongsan Station In physics, motion means a change in the location of a body. Change in motion is the result of applied force. Motion is typically described in terms of velocity, acceleration, displacement, and time. Nave, R. 2005. Motion. HyperPhysics. Georgia State University An object's velocity cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described by Newton's first law also known as Inertia. An object's momentum is directly related to the object's mass and velocity, and the total momentum of all objects in a closed system (one not affected by external forces) does not change with time, as described by the law of conservation of momentum. A body which does not move is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary, or to have constant (time-invariant) position. Motion is always observed and measured relative to a frame of reference. As there is no absolute reference frame, absolute motion cannot be determined; this is emphasised by the term relative motion. Wåhlin, L. 1997. "THE DEADBEAT UNIVERSE", Chapter 9. Colutron Research Corporation ISBN 0 933407 03 3 A body which is motionless relative to a given reference frame, moves relative to infinitely many other frames. Thus, everything in the universe is moving. De Grasse Tyson, N., Liu, C., & Irion, R. 2000. One Universe: At home in the cosmos. p.20-21. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-06488-0 List of "imperceptible" human motions Humans, like all things in the universe are in constant motion, De Grasse Tyson, N., Liu, C., & Irion, R. 2000. One Universe: At home in the cosmos. p.8-9. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-06488-0 however, aside from obvious movements of the various external body parts and locomotion, humans are in motion in a variety of ways which are more difficult to perceive. Many of these "imperceptible motions" are only perceivable with the help of special tools and careful observation. The larger scales of "imperceptible motions" are difficult for humans to perceive for two reasons: 1) Newton's laws of motion (particularly Inertia) which prevent humans from feeling motions of a mass to which they are connected, and 2) the lack of an obvious frame of reference which would allow individuals to easily see that they are moving. Safkan, Y. 2007 "f the term 'absolute motion' has no meaning, then why do we say that the earth moves around the sun and not vice versa?" Ask the Experts. PhysicsLink The smaller scales of these motions are too small for humans to sense. Universe Spacetime (the fabric of the universe) is actually expanding. Essentially, everything in the universe is stretching like a rubber band. This motion is the most obscure as it is not physical motion as such, but rather a change in the very nature of the universe. The primary source of verification of this expansion was provided by Edwin Hubble who demonstrated that all galaxies and distant astronomical objects were moving away from us ("Hubble's law") as predicted by a universal expansion. Hubble, Edwin, "A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" (1929) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Volume 15, Issue 3, pp. 168-173 (Full article, PDF) Galaxy The Milky Way Galaxy, is hurtling through space at an incredible speed. It is powered by the force left over from the Big Bang. Many astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 600 km/s relative to the observed locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave background. This frame of reference indicates that The Milky Way is moving at around 552 km/s. Solar System The Milky Way is rotating around its dense galactic center, thus the solar system is moving in a circle within the galaxy's gravity. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar velocity is between 210 and 240 km/s. Earth The Earth is rotating or spinning around its axis, this is evidenced by day and night, at the equator the earth has an eastward velocity of 0.4651 km/s (or 1040 mi/h). Ask and Astrophysicist. NASA Goodard Space Flight Center. The Earth is orbiting around the Sun in an orbital revolution. A complete orbit around the sun takes one year or about 365 days; it averages a speed of about 30 km/s (or 67,000 mi/h). Continents The Theory of Plate tectonics tells us that the continents are drifting on convection currents within the mantle causing them to move across the surface of the planet at the slow speed of approximately 1 inch (2.54 cm) per year. However, the velocities of plates range widely. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/yr (3.0 in/yr) and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/yr (2.1–2.7 in/yr). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of about 21 mm/yr (0.8 in/yr). Internal body The human heart is constantly contracting to move blood throughout the body. Through larger veins and arteries in the body blood has been found to travel at approximately 0.33 m/s. Penny, P. 2003. Hemodynamic: Blood Velocity Though considerable variation exists, and peak flows in the venae cavae have been found to range between 0.1 m/s and 0.45 m/s. The smooth muscles of hollow internal organs are moving. The most familiar would be peristalsis which is where digested food is forced throughout the digestive tract. Though different foods travel through the body at rates, an average speed through the human small intestine is 2.16 m/h or 0.036 m/s. Bowen, R. 2006. Gastrointestinal Transit: How Long Does It Take? Colorado State University. Typically some sound is audible at any given moment, when the vibration of these sound waves reaches the ear drum it moves in response and allows the sense of hearing. The human lymphatic system is constantly moving excess fluids, lipids, and immune system related products around the body. The lymph fluid has been found to move through a lymph capillary of the skin at approximately 0.0000097 m/s. Cells The cells of the human body have many structures which move throughout them. Cytoplasmic streaming is a way which cells move molecular substances throughout the cytoplasm. Cytoplasmic Streaming: Encyclopedia Britannica Various motor proteins work as molecular motors within a cell and move along the surface of various cellulars substrate such as microtubules. Motor proteins are typically powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate, (ATP), and convert chemical energy into mechanical work. Microtubule Motors: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Vesicles propelled by motor proteins have been found to have a velocity of approximately 0.00000152 m/s. Particles According to the laws of thermodynamics all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make you up are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; high temperatures (which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles) feel warmer to humans, whereas lower temperatures feel colder. Temperature and BEC. Physics 2000: Colorado State University Physics Department Subatomic particles Within each atom the electrons are speeding around the nucleus so fast that they are not actually in one location, but rather smeared across a region of the electron cloud. Electrons have a high velocity, and the larger the nucleus they are orbiting the faster they move. In a hydrogen atom, electrons have been calculated to be orbiting at a speed of approximately 2,420,000 m/s Ask a scientist archive. Argonne National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy Inside the atomic nucleus the protons and neutrons are also probably moving around due the electrical repulsion of the protons and the presence of angular momentum of both particles. Chapter 2, Nuclear Science- A guide to the nuclear science wall chart. Berkley National Laboratory. Light Light propagates at . According to the theory of relativity, nothing can move faster than the speed of light. Types Simple harmonic motion - pendulum). Linear motion - motion which follows a straight linear path, and whose displacement is exactly the same as its trajectory. Reciprocation (i.e. vibration) Brownian Motion (i.e. the random movement of particles) Circular motion (e.g. the orbits of planets) Rotary motion - a motion about a fixed point ex. the wheel of a bicycle See also Equation of motion Molecular dynamics Motion perception Newton's laws of motion Trajectory of a projectile Rigid body motion References | Motion_(physics) |@lemmatized motion:32 involve:1 change:6 position:2 perspective:1 rapidly:1 leave:2 yongsan:1 station:1 physic:3 mean:1 location:3 body:11 result:1 applied:1 force:5 typically:3 describe:3 term:3 velocity:10 acceleration:1 displacement:2 time:3 nave:1 r:4 hyperphysics:1 georgia:1 state:5 university:3 object:5 cannot:2 unless:1 act:1 upon:1 newton:3 first:1 law:6 also:3 know:1 inertia:2 momentum:4 directly:1 relate:1 mass:2 total:1 closed:1 system:5 one:5 affect:1 external:2 conservation:1 move:25 say:2 rest:1 motionless:2 immobile:1 stationary:1 constant:3 invariant:1 always:1 observe:1 measure:1 relative:5 frame:7 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3,986 | Politics_of_Macau | Politics of Macau takes place in a framework of a political system dominated by the People's Republic of China, an own legislature, the Chief Executive as the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Macau as part of the People's Republic of China In accordance with Article 31 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, Macau has Special Administrative Region status, which provides constitutional guarantees for implementing the policy of "one country, two systems" and the constitutional basis for enacting the Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region. Although geographically part of Guangdong Province, the Macau Special Administrative Region is directly under the authority of the central government of the People's Republic of China in Beijing, which controls the foreign affairs and defense of Macau but otherwise grants the region "a high degree of authority." The Basic Law took force upon handover of sovereignty from Portugal on December 20, 1999, and is to remain in effect for fifty years (that is, until 2049). Macau's seven deputies to the National People's Congress (NPC) are selected by an electoral conference; they attended their first session of the NPC in Beijing in March 2000. Previously, in December 1999, the NPC Standing Committee approved the membership of the NPC Committee for the Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region, chaired by NPC Vice Chairman Qiao Xiaoyang, for a five-year term. Half of the ten members are from Macau, the others from mainland China. Macau also has representation on the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. The headquarters of Macau Government Executive branch |Chief of State (President of the PRC) |Hu Jintao |Communist Party of China |March 2003 |- |Chief Executive |Edmund Ho Hau-wah | |20 December 1999 |} The Chief Executive of Macau is appointed by the People's Republic of China's central government after selection by an election committee, whose members are nominated by corporate bodies. The chief executive appears before a cabinet, the Executive Council, of between 7 and 11 members. The term of office of the chief executive is 5 years, and no individual may serve for more than two consecutive terms. The governor has strong policymaking and executive powers similar to those of a president. These powers are, however, limited from above by the central government in Beijing, to whom the governor reports directly, and from below (to a more limited extent) by the legislature. In May 1999, Edmund Ho, a community leader and banker, is the first PRC-appointed chief executive of the Macau SAR, having replaced General de Rocha Viera on 20 December 1999. He was elected by the 200-member Chief Executive Selection Committee. Ho, born in Macau in 1955, was the first Chinese person to govern the region since the 1550s. Prior to 20 December 1999, Ho nominated major officials in the new government and carried out other transfer tasks. The executive branch of the Macau government has the following cabinet departments, each headed by a secretary: Administration and Justice, Economic and Financial Affairs, Security, Social Affairs and Culture, and Transport and Public Works. There also are two commissions, Against Corruption and Audit, and a chief public prosecutor. Upon Macau's reversion to China, the executive offices were moved from Macau Government House temporarily to the Banco Tai Fung. The Legislative Assembly of Macau Legislative branch The legislative organ of the territory is the Legislative Assembly, a 29-member body comprising twelve directly elected members, ten indirectly elected members representing functional constituencies and seven members appointed by the chief executive. The Legislative Assembly is responsible for general lawmaking, including taxation, the passing of the budget and socioeconomic legislation. Terms are for four years, with annual sessions running from 15 October to 16 August. There are several standing committees in the assembly that perform the following functions: examination and issuance of reports and statements on projects and proposals of law, on resolutions and deliberations, and on proposals of alteration presented to the Legislative Assembly; examination of petitions submitted to the Legislative Assembly; voting on issues as approved in general by the Legislative Assembly General Meeting; and answering questions raised by the president or the General Meeting. The last election was held in 2005 and the current Legislative Assembly is chaired by its president, industrialist Susana Chou (曹其真), who is assisted by the vice president, lawyer Lau Cheok Va (劉焯華). Political parties and elections Judiciary The Court of Final Appeal is the court of last resort in the Macau Special Administrative Region. The legal system is based largely on Portuguese law. The territory has its own independent judicial system, with a high court. Judges are selected by a committee and appointed by the chief executive. Foreign judges may serve on the courts. In July 1999 the chief executive appointed a seven-person committee to select judges for the SAR. Twenty-four judges were recommended by the committee and were then appointed by Mr. Ho. Included are three judges who serve on the Macau SAR's highest court, the Court of Final Appeal (CFA): 39-year-old Sam Hou Fai (who will be chief justice), 32-year-old Chu Kin, and the 46-year-old Viriato Manuel Pinhiero de Lima. Political pressure groups and leaders Roman Catholic Church (José Lai, bishop) Macau Society of Tourism and Entertainment or STDM (Stanley Ho, managing director) Union for Democracy Development (Antonio Ng Kuok cheong, leader) Foreign Affairs The central government in Beijing controls the foreign affairs of Macau. The Commission of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs opened its office in Macau on 20 December 1999. A central government agency, the commission interacts with the Macau government in matters of foreign policy. It also processes applications from foreign nations and international organizations wishing to establish consulates or representative offices in Macau. Macau is also authorized to handle some external affairs on its own. These affairs include economic and cultural relations and agreements it concludes with states, regions, and international organizations. In such matters, Macau functions under the name "Macao, China." Macau displays the flag and national emblem of the People's Republic of China but is also authorized to display its own regional flag and emblem. Taiwanese organizations in Macau are allowed to continue operations and are required to abide by the Basic Law. International organization participation CCC, ESCAP (associate), International Maritime Organization (associate), Interpol (subbureau), UNESCO (associate), WMO, WToO (associate), WTrO See also Politics of the People's Republic of China References | Politics_of_Macau |@lemmatized politics:2 macau:29 take:2 place:1 framework:1 political:4 system:5 dominate:1 people:9 republic:7 china:11 legislature:2 chief:13 executive:16 head:2 government:12 multi:1 party:3 power:3 exercise:1 part:2 accordance:1 article:1 constitution:1 special:5 administrative:5 region:8 status:1 provide:1 constitutional:2 guarantee:1 implement:1 policy:2 one:1 country:1 two:3 basis:1 enact:1 basic:4 law:6 although:1 geographically:1 guangdong:1 province:1 directly:3 authority:2 central:5 beijing:4 control:2 foreign:7 affair:8 defense:1 otherwise:1 grant:1 high:3 degree:1 force:1 upon:2 handover:1 sovereignty:1 portugal:1 december:6 remain:1 effect:1 fifty:1 year:7 seven:3 deputy:1 national:3 congress:1 npc:5 select:3 electoral:1 conference:2 attend:1 first:3 session:2 march:2 previously:1 stand:2 committee:9 approve:2 membership:1 chair:2 vice:2 chairman:1 qiao:1 xiaoyang:1 five:1 term:4 half:1 ten:2 member:8 others:1 mainland:1 also:6 representation:1 chinese:2 consultative:1 headquarters:1 branch:3 state:2 president:5 prc:2 hu:1 jintao:1 communist:1 edmund:2 ho:6 hau:1 wah:1 appoint:6 selection:2 election:3 whose:1 nominate:2 corporate:1 body:2 appear:1 cabinet:2 council:1 office:4 individual:1 may:3 serve:3 consecutive:1 governor:2 strong:1 policymaking:1 similar:1 however:1 limit:1 report:2 limited:1 extent:1 community:1 leader:3 banker:1 sar:3 replace:1 general:5 de:2 rocha:1 viera:1 elect:3 bear:1 person:2 govern:1 since:1 prior:1 major:1 official:1 new:1 carry:1 transfer:1 task:1 following:2 department:1 secretary:1 administration:1 justice:2 economic:2 financial:1 security:1 social:1 culture:1 transport:1 public:2 work:1 commission:3 corruption:1 audit:1 prosecutor:1 reversion:1 move:1 house:1 temporarily:1 banco:1 tai:1 fung:1 legislative:9 assembly:8 organ:1 territory:2 comprise:1 twelve:1 indirectly:1 represent:1 functional:1 constituency:1 responsible:1 lawmaking:1 include:3 taxation:1 passing:1 budget:1 socioeconomic:1 legislation:1 four:2 annual:1 run:1 october:1 august:1 several:1 perform:1 function:2 examination:2 issuance:1 statement:1 project:1 proposal:2 resolution:1 deliberation:1 alteration:1 present:1 petition:1 submit:1 vote:1 issue:1 meeting:2 answer:1 question:1 raise:1 last:2 hold:1 current:1 industrialist:1 susana:1 chou:1 曹其真:1 assist:1 lawyer:1 lau:1 cheok:1 va:1 劉焯華:1 judiciary:1 court:6 final:2 appeal:2 resort:1 legal:1 base:1 largely:1 portuguese:1 independent:1 judicial:1 judge:5 july:1 twenty:1 recommend:1 mr:1 three:1 cfa:1 old:3 sam:1 hou:1 fai:1 chu:1 kin:1 viriato:1 manuel:1 pinhiero:1 lima:1 pressure:1 group:1 roman:1 catholic:1 church:1 josé:1 lai:1 bishop:1 society:1 tourism:1 entertainment:1 stdm:1 stanley:1 manage:1 director:1 union:1 democracy:1 development:1 antonio:1 ng:1 kuok:1 cheong:1 ministry:1 open:1 agency:1 interact:1 matter:2 process:1 application:1 nation:1 international:4 organization:5 wish:1 establish:1 consulate:1 representative:1 authorize:2 handle:1 external:1 cultural:1 relation:1 agreement:1 conclude:1 name:1 macao:1 display:2 flag:2 emblem:2 regional:1 taiwanese:1 allow:1 continue:1 operation:1 require:1 abide:1 participation:1 ccc:1 escap:1 associate:4 maritime:1 interpol:1 subbureau:1 unesco:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram guangdong_province:1 foreign_affair:4 hu_jintao:1 macau_sar:2 legislative_assembly:7 legislative_branch:1 vice_president:1 escap_associate:1 interpol_subbureau:1 wmo_wtoo:1 |
3,987 | Paralysis | Paralysed redirects here. For other uses see Paralysed (disambiguation) Paralysis is the complete loss of muscle function for one or more muscle groups. Paralysis can cause loss of feeling or loss of mobility in the affected area. Causes Paralysis is most often caused by damage to the nervous system or brain, especially the spinal cord. Major causes are stroke, trauma, poliomyelitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), botulism, spina bifida, multiple sclerosis, and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Temporary paralysis occurs during REM sleep, and dysregulation of this system can lead to episodes of waking paralysis. Drugs that interfere with nerve function, such as curare, can also cause paralysis. Many causes of this are varied, and could also be unknown. Variations Paralysis may be localized, or generalized, or it may follow a certain pattern. Most paralyses caused by nervous system damage (i.e.spinal cord injuries) are constant in nature; however, there are forms of periodic paralysis, including sleep paralysis, which are caused by other factors. Paralysis in the animal world Many species of animals use paralyzing toxins in order to capture prey, evade predation, or both. One famous example is the tetrodotoxin of fish species such as Takifugu rubripes, the famously lethal pufferfish of Japanese fugu. This toxin works by binding to sodium channels in nerve cells, preventing the cells' proper function. A non-lethal dose of this toxin results in temporary paralysis. This toxin is also present in many other species ranging from toads to nemerteans. Another interesting use of paralysis in the natural world is the behavior of some species of wasp. In order to complete the reproductive cycle, the female wasp first paralyzes a prey item such as a grasshopper and then places it into her nest. Eggs are then laid on the paralyzed insect, which is devoured by the larvae after they hatch. Many snakes also exhibit powerful neurotoxins that can cause non-permanent paralysis or death. Paralysis can be seen in breeds of dogs that are chondrodysplastic. These dogs have short legs, and may also have short muzzles. Their intervertebral disc material can calcify and become more brittle. In such cases, the disc may rupture, with disc material ending up in the spinal canal, or rupturing more laterally to press on spinal nerves. A minor rupture may only result in paresis, but a major rupture can cause enough damage to result in complete paralysis. If no signs of pain can be elicited, surgery should be performed within 24 hours of the incident, to remove the disc material and relieve pressure on the spinal cord. After 24 hours, the chance of recovery declines rapidly, since with continued pressure, the spinal cord tissue deteriorates and dies. Another type of paralysis is caused by a fibrocartilaginous embolism. This is a microscopic piece of disc material that breaks off and becomes lodged in a spinal artery. Nerves served by the artery will die when deprived of blood. The German Shepherd is especially prone to developing degenerative myelopathy. This is a deterioration of nerves in the spinal cord, starting in the posterior part of the cord. Dogs so affected will become gradually weaker in the hind legs as nerves die off. Eventually their hind legs become useless. They often also exhibit fecal and urinary incontinence. As the disease progresses, the paresis and paralysis gradually move forward. This disease also affects other large breeds of dogs. It is suspected to be an autoimmune problem. Cats with a heart murmur may develop blood clots which travel through arteries. If the clot is large enough to block one or both femoral arteries, there may be hind leg paralysis because the major source of blood flow to the hind leg is blocked. See also Spinal cord injuries Paraplegia Quadriplegia Muscle relaxant Ptosis Sleep paralysis Hemiparesis Beriberi Neuroprosthetics Brain-computer interface Tonic immobility Cerebral palsy Cobra Toxin Obdormition | Paralysis |@lemmatized paralyse:2 redirects:1 us:1 see:3 disambiguation:1 paralysis:20 complete:3 loss:3 muscle:3 function:3 one:3 group:1 cause:11 feeling:1 mobility:1 affected:2 area:1 often:2 damage:3 nervous:2 system:3 brain:2 especially:2 spinal:9 cord:7 major:3 stroke:1 trauma:1 poliomyelitis:1 amyotrophic:1 lateral:1 sclerosis:2 al:1 botulism:1 spina:1 bifida:1 multiple:1 guillain:1 barré:1 syndrome:1 temporary:2 occur:1 rem:1 sleep:3 dysregulation:1 lead:1 episode:1 wake:1 drug:1 interfere:1 nerve:6 curare:1 also:8 many:4 varied:1 could:1 unknown:1 variation:1 may:7 localize:1 generalize:1 follow:1 certain:1 pattern:1 e:1 injury:2 constant:1 nature:1 however:1 form:1 periodic:1 include:1 factor:1 animal:2 world:2 specie:4 use:2 paralyze:2 toxin:5 order:2 capture:1 prey:2 evade:1 predation:1 famous:1 example:1 tetrodotoxin:1 fish:1 takifugu:1 rubripes:1 famously:1 lethal:2 pufferfish:1 japanese:1 fugu:1 work:1 bind:1 sodium:1 channel:1 cell:2 prevent:1 proper:1 non:2 dose:1 result:3 present:1 range:1 toad:1 nemertean:1 another:2 interesting:1 natural:1 behavior:1 wasp:2 reproductive:1 cycle:1 female:1 first:1 item:1 grasshopper:1 place:1 nest:1 egg:1 lay:1 paralyzed:1 insect:1 devour:1 larva:1 hatch:1 snake:1 exhibit:2 powerful:1 neurotoxin:1 permanent:1 death:1 breed:2 dog:4 chondrodysplastic:1 short:2 leg:4 muzzle:1 intervertebral:1 disc:5 material:4 calcify:1 become:3 brittle:1 case:1 rupture:4 end:1 canal:1 laterally:1 press:1 minor:1 paresis:2 enough:2 sign:1 pain:1 elicit:1 surgery:1 perform:1 within:1 hour:2 incident:1 remove:1 relieve:1 pressure:2 chance:1 recovery:1 decline:1 rapidly:1 since:1 continued:1 tissue:1 deteriorates:1 dy:1 type:1 fibrocartilaginous:1 embolism:1 microscopic:1 piece:1 break:1 becomes:1 lodge:1 artery:4 serve:1 die:2 deprive:1 blood:3 german:1 shepherd:1 prone:1 develop:2 degenerative:1 myelopathy:1 deterioration:1 start:1 posterior:1 part:1 gradually:2 weak:1 hind:4 eventually:1 legs:1 useless:1 fecal:1 urinary:1 incontinence:1 disease:2 progress:1 move:1 forward:1 affect:1 large:2 suspect:1 autoimmune:1 problem:1 cat:1 heart:1 murmur:1 clot:2 travel:1 block:2 femoral:1 source:1 flow:1 paraplegia:1 quadriplegia:1 relaxant:1 ptosis:1 hemiparesis:1 beriberi:1 neuroprosthetics:1 computer:1 interface:1 tonic:1 immobility:1 cerebral:1 palsy:1 cobra:1 obdormition:1 |@bigram spinal_cord:6 amyotrophic_lateral:1 lateral_sclerosis:1 multiple_sclerosis:1 guillain_barré:1 rem_sleep:1 sleep_paralysis:2 lethal_dose:1 hind_leg:3 blood_clot:1 muscle_relaxant:1 cerebral_palsy:1 |
3,988 | Boötes | Boötes (, genitive Boötis OED ) is a constellation in the northern sky, located between 0° and +60° declination, 13 and 16 hours of right ascension on the celestial sphere. The name comes from the Greek Βοώτης, meaning herdsman (literally, ox-herder or plowman; from boos, related to the Latin Bovis, cow). The "ö" in the name is a diaeresis, not an umlaut, meaning that each 'o' is to be pronounced separately. Boötes was one of the 48 constellations described by the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy and is now one of the 88 modern constellations. It contains the third brightest star in the night sky, Arcturus. Notable features τ Boötis, a relatively Sun-like star, has the massive hot Jupiter τ Boötis Ab. It is the fourth extrasolar planet discovered and is one of the most studied. Boötes also hosts a large number of double stars suitable for viewing by amateur astronomers. NGC 5466 is a loose globular cluster that can be observed with most telescopes. It was discovered by William Herschel on May 17, 1784. The Boötes void, a large section of the universe devoid of galaxies, is located in the area of Boötes. Mythology Exactly whom Boötes is supposed to represent is not clear. According to one version, he was a ploughman who drove the oxen in the constellation Ursa Major using his two dogs Chara and Asterion (from the constellation Canes Venatici). The oxen were tied to the polar axis and so the action of Boötes kept the heavens in constant rotation. Boötes was also supposed to have invented the plough. This is said to have greatly pleased Ceres, the goddess of agriculture who asked Jupiter to give Boötes a permanent fixture in the heavens as a reward for doing this. Another version portrays Boötes as a grape grower called Icarius, who one day invited the Roman god Bacchus, also called Dionysus, to inspect his vineyards. Bacchus revealed the secret of wine making to Icarius, who was so impressed by this alcoholic beverage that he invited his friends round to sample it. Having never tasted wine before, they all drank too much and woke up the next morning with terrible hangovers; and they made the mistaken assumption that Icarius had tried to poison them. It was decided that Icarius should pay the price with his own life, and he was swiftly murdered in his sleep. Bacchus placed Icarius in the stars to honor him. Following another reading the constellation is identified with Arcas, son of Zeus and Callisto. Arcas was brought up by his maternal grandfather Lycaon, to whom one day Zeus went and had a meal. To verify that the guest was really the king of the gods, Lycaon killed his grandson and prepared a meal made from his flesh. Zeus noticed and became very angry, transforming Lycaon into a wolf and gave back life to his son. In the meantime Callisto had been transformed into a she-bear, by Zeus' wife, Hera, who was angry at Zeus' infidelity. When he was grown up, Arcas met with the she-bear and, since obviously he didn't recognize her as his mother, he began to chase Callisto. Callisto, followed by Arcas, sheltered herself in a temple, a sacred place whose profaners were convicted to death. To avoid such fate, Zeus decided to set them in the sky, Arcas as Boötes and Callisto as Ursa Major. This is a rare version of the myth surrounding Ursa Major, as the myth usually holds that Arcas is transformed into a bear as well (becoming Ursa Minor), and in such versions Boötes has no part. Ursa Minor, and Ursa Major, are constellations whose identification only originated in later classical Greece, and in Rome, and as such Boötes kept separate associations dating from much earlier. Boötes was considered to be Atlas by some ancient Greek legends, as well as those in other early Mediterranean cultures, since it takes an appropriate position in the sky (its arms near the pole star, but its body standing on/near the ecliptic). As such, together with earlier interpretations of other constellations in the zodiac sign of libra (i.e. of Draco (constellation), Ursa Major and Ursa Minor it may have formed the origin of the myth of the apples of the Hesperides, which forms part of The Twelve Labours of Herakles. Visualizations Boötes as depicted in Urania's Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825. In his left hand he holds his hunting dogs, Canes Venatici. Below them is the constellation Coma Berenices. Above the head of Boötes is Quadrans Muralis, now obsolete. Boötes represents a herdsman with a club or staff, holding two hunting dogs on a leash and following Ursa Major around the pole. Diagram of H.A. Rey's alternative method of connecting the stars of Boötes. H.A. Rey has suggested an alternative way to visualize the herdsman, in which he is seated and smoking a pipe. H. A. Rey, The Stars — A New Way To See Them. Enlarged World-Wide Edition. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1997. ISBN 0-395-24830-2. The stars ε Boo, δ Boo, μ Boo, β Boo, γ Boo, ρ Boo, and σ Boo form the herdsman's head. In addition, the stars δ Boo, μ Boo, and β Boo may be seen to form a cap. The stars γ Boo, λ Boo, θ Boo, and κ Boo form the herdsman's pipe. Star γ Boo is of the third magnitude and would be the herdsman's mouth. Stars ε Boo, ζ Boo, and α Boo (Arcturus) form the herdsman's body. Star ε Boo is of the third magnitude whereas Arcturus is of magnitude zero. Stars α Boo, η Boo and υ Boo form the herdsman's leg, with η Boo being the knee. Finally, stars υ Boo and τ Boo form the herdsman's foot. Star η Boo is of the third magnitude. Modern visualizations often refer to Boötes as looking like a kite. e.g., Tom Polakis, " Celestial Portraits: Boötes and Corona Borealis," from Astronomy Magazine. Named stars See also: List of stars in Boötes Bayer Name Origin Meaning ά Arcturus Greek Bear chaser β Nekkar Arabic constellation name γ Seginus Arabic name ε Izar Arabic girdle η Muphrid Arabic solitary one μ Alkalurops Arabic herdsman's staff h Merga Latin rake or hoe ψ Nadlat Arabic little ones References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. Richard Hinckley Allen, Star Names, Their Lore and Meaning, New York, Dover: various dates, ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Thomas Wm. Hamilton, Useful Star Names, Holbrook, NY, Viewlex: 1968. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Bootes WIKISKY.ORG: Boötes Star Tales – Boötes | Boötes |@lemmatized boötes:23 genitive:1 boötis:3 oed:1 constellation:13 northern:1 sky:4 locate:2 declination:1 hour:1 right:1 ascension:1 celestial:2 sphere:1 name:8 come:1 greek:3 βοώτης:1 mean:3 herdsman:10 literally:1 ox:3 herder:1 plowman:1 boo:27 relate:1 latin:2 bovis:1 cow:1 ö:1 diaeresis:1 umlaut:1 pronounce:1 separately:1 one:8 describe:1 century:1 astronomer:2 ptolemy:1 modern:2 contain:1 third:4 bright:1 star:22 night:1 arcturus:4 notable:1 feature:1 τ:3 relatively:1 sun:1 like:2 massive:1 hot:1 jupiter:2 ab:1 fourth:1 extrasolar:1 planet:2 discover:2 studied:1 also:4 host:1 large:2 number:1 double:1 suitable:1 view:1 amateur:1 ngc:1 loose:1 globular:1 cluster:1 observe:1 telescope:1 william:1 herschel:1 may:3 void:1 section:1 universe:1 devoid:1 galaxy:1 area:1 mythology:1 exactly:1 suppose:2 represent:2 clear:1 accord:1 version:4 ploughman:1 drive:1 ursa:9 major:6 use:1 two:2 dog:3 chara:1 asterion:1 cane:2 venatici:2 tie:1 polar:1 axis:1 action:1 keep:2 heaven:2 constant:1 rotation:1 invent:1 plough:1 say:1 greatly:1 pleased:1 cere:1 goddess:1 agriculture:1 ask:1 give:2 permanent:1 fixture:1 reward:1 another:2 portray:1 grape:1 grower:1 call:2 icarius:5 day:2 invite:2 roman:1 god:2 bacchus:3 dionysus:1 inspect:1 vineyard:1 reveal:1 secret:1 wine:2 making:1 impressed:1 alcoholic:1 beverage:1 friend:1 round:1 sample:1 never:1 taste:1 drink:1 much:2 wake:1 next:1 morning:1 terrible:1 hangover:1 make:2 mistaken:1 assumption:1 try:1 poison:1 decide:2 pay:1 price:1 life:2 swiftly:1 murder:1 sleep:1 place:2 honor:1 follow:3 read:1 identify:1 arca:5 son:2 zeus:6 callisto:5 bring:1 maternal:1 grandfather:1 lycaon:3 go:1 meal:2 verify:1 guest:1 really:1 king:1 kill:1 grandson:1 prepare:1 flesh:1 notice:1 become:2 angry:2 transform:3 wolf:1 back:1 meantime:1 bear:4 wife:1 hera:1 infidelity:1 grow:1 arcas:1 meet:1 since:2 obviously:1 recognize:1 mother:1 begin:1 chase:1 shelter:1 temple:1 sacred:1 whose:2 profaners:1 convict:1 death:1 avoid:1 fate:1 set:2 rare:1 myth:3 surround:1 usually:1 hold:3 well:2 minor:3 part:2 identification:1 originate:1 later:1 classical:1 greece:1 rome:1 separate:1 association:1 date:2 early:3 consider:1 atlas:1 ancient:1 legend:1 mediterranean:1 culture:1 take:1 appropriate:1 position:1 arm:1 near:2 pole:2 body:2 stand:1 ecliptic:1 together:1 interpretation:1 zodiac:1 sign:1 libra:1 e:2 draco:1 form:8 origin:2 apple:1 hesperides:1 twelve:1 labour:1 herakles:1 visualization:2 depict:1 urania:1 mirror:1 card:1 publish:1 london:2 c:1 left:1 hand:1 hunting:1 coma:1 berenices:1 head:2 quadrans:1 muralis:1 obsolete:1 club:1 staff:2 hunt:1 leash:1 around:1 diagram:1 h:4 rey:3 alternative:2 method:1 connect:1 suggest:1 way:2 visualize:1 seat:1 smoke:1 pipe:2 new:2 see:3 enlarge:1 world:1 wide:1 edition:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 boston:1 isbn:4 ε:4 δ:2 μ:3 β:3 γ:4 ρ:1 σ:1 addition:1 cap:1 λ:1 θ:1 κ:1 magnitude:4 would:1 mouth:1 ζ:1 α:2 whereas:1 zero:1 η:4 υ:2 leg:1 knee:1 finally:1 foot:1 often:1 refer:1 look:1 kite:1 g:1 tom:1 polakis:1 portrait:1 corona:1 borealis:1 astronomy:1 magazine:1 list:1 bayer:1 ά:1 chaser:1 nekkar:1 arabic:6 seginus:1 izar:1 girdle:1 muphrid:1 solitary:1 alkalurops:1 merga:1 rake:1 hoe:1 ψ:1 nadlat:1 little:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 guide:2 collins:1 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 richard:1 hinckley:1 allen:1 lore:1 meaning:1 york:1 dover:1 various:1 thomas:1 wm:1 hamilton:1 useful:1 holbrook:1 ny:1 viewlex:1 external:1 link:1 deep:1 photographic:1 bootes:1 wikisky:1 org:1 tale:1 |@bigram celestial_sphere:1 astronomer_ptolemy:1 extrasolar_planet:1 amateur_astronomer:1 globular_cluster:1 william_herschel:1 constellation_ursa:2 ursa_major:6 cane_venatici:2 alcoholic_beverage:1 mistaken_assumption:1 maternal_grandfather:1 ursa_minor:3 constellation_zodiac:1 apple_hesperides:1 depict_urania:1 urania_mirror:1 smoke_pipe:1 houghton_mifflin:1 corona_borealis:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 richard_hinckley:1 hinckley_allen:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
3,989 | Holy_Spirit | The Descent of the Holy Spirit in a 15th century illuminated manuscript. Musée Condé, Chantilly. The Holy Spirit is depicted as a dove in the topmost area of painting. In Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the Spirit of God. In mainstream (Trinitarian) Christian theology he is the third person of the Trinity and part of the Godhead, equal with God the Father and with God the Son. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully developed. There is also greater diversity in Christian theology of the Spirit (pneumatology) than there is in the theology of the Son (Christology) or of the Father. Doctrine Within mainstream Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the three persons of the Trinity. As such he is personal and also fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father and God the Son. He is different from the Father and the Son in that he proceeds from the Father (or from the Father and the Son) as described in the Nicene Creed. The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the Church. These include: Conviction of sin. The Holy Spirit acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of their moral standing as sinners before God. The Holy Spirit and His Gifts. J. Oswald Sanders. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5. Bringing to conversion. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith The new believer is "born again of the spirit" Though the term "born again" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia Enabling the Christian life. The Holy Spirit is believed to dwell in the individual believer and enable them to live a righteous and faithful life. The word Paraclete is specifically applied to the Holy Spirit in this regard. Inspiration and Interpretation of Scripture. The Holy Spirit both inspires the writing of the Scriptures and interprets them to the Christian and/or Church . The Holy Spirit was also believed to be active especially in the life of Jesus Christ, enabling him to fulfil his work on Earth. Particular actions of the Holy Spirit include: Cause of his birth According to the Gospel accounts of the birth of Jesus, the "beginning of his incarnate existence", was due to the Holy Spirit . Anointing him at his baptism. Empowerment of his ministry. The ministry of Jesus following his baptism (in which the Holy Spirit is described in the Gospels as "descending on him like a dove") is conducted in the power and at the direction of the Holy Spirit. Symbols of the Holy Spirit The Holy Spirit is frequently referred to by metaphor and symbol, both doctrinally and biblically. Theologically speaking these symbols are a key to understanding of the Holy Spirit and his actions. Water - signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism, such that in the manner that "by one Spirit [believers] were all baptized", so they are "made to drink of one Spirit". () Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified (; ) as its source and welling up in us to eternal life. Catechism of the Catholic Church> Anointing - The symbolism of anointing with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit is referred to as his "anointing". (Cf. ; ) In some denominations anointing is practiced in Confirmation; ("chrismation" in the Eastern Churches). Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. Christ (in Hebrew, messiah) means the one "anointed" by God's Spirit. Fire - symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues "as of fire", the Holy Spirit rested on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost. Cloud and light - The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and "overshadows" her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of Transfiguration, the Spirit in the "cloud came and overshadowed" Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and "a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'" () The dove. When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him. () Wind The Spirit is likened to the "wind that blows where it will" (John 3:8), and described as "a sound from heaven like the rush of a mighty wind" (Acts 2:2-4). Fruit of the Spirit Christians believe the "Fruit of the Spirit" consists of virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by the action of the Holy Spirit. They are those listed in : "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control." The Roman Catholic Church adds to this list generosity, modesty, and chastity. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Section 1832 Gifts of the Spirit Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian. They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, Charisma, from which the term Charismatic derives. The New Testament provides three different lists of such gifts which range from the supernatural (healing, prophecy, tongues) through those associated with specific callings (teaching) to those expected of all Christians in some degree (faith). Most consider these lists not to be exhaustive, and other have compiled their own lists. Saint Ambrose wrote of the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of Holy Fear. De Sacramentis 3.8 It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the supernatural gifts (sometimes called Charismatic Gifts), that the greatest disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists. One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the Apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time. This is the view of the Catholic Church and many other mainstream Christian groups. The alternate view, espoused mainly by Pentecostal denominations and the Charismatic movement, is that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the church. Although some small groups, such as the Montanists, practiced the supernatural gifts they were rare until the growth of the Pentecostal movement in the late nineteenth century. Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a Baptism of the Holy Spirit or Filling of the Holy Spirit which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches hold that the Baptism of the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit. Pentecostalism While the Holy Spirit is acknowledged as God in all mainstream denominations, he is given particular emphasis in Pentecostal churches. In those churches he is seen as the giver of natural and supernatural gifts, such as tongues and prophecy, to modern-day Christians. The Christian movement called Pentecostalism derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem (see Acts 2). Pentecostals believe that when a believer is "baptized in the Holy Spirit", the gifts of the Spirit (also called the charismata) are activated in the recipient to edify the Body of Christ, the Church. Some of these gifts are listed in 1 Corinthians 12. The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Much of Pentecostalism differentiates the 'Baptism with the Holy Spirit' from the salvific born again experience, considering it a usually distinct experience in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way, with the belief that the Christian can be more readily used to perform signs, miracles, and wonders for the sake of evangelism or for ministry within the church. There are also many Pentecostals who believe that Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation, not a "second blessing". These Pentecostals believe that in the baptism in the Holy Spirit, the power of the Spirit is released in their lives. Many Pentecostals believe that the normative initial evidence of this infilling (baptism) of the Holy Spirit is the ability to speak in other tongues (glossolalia), and that tongues are one of several spiritual manifestations of the presence of the Holy Spirit in an individual believer's life. Catholicism According to Roman Catholic theology the primary work of the Holy Spirit is through the church. According to the Catechism: "The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit. [...] Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body." Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy proclaims that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from whom the Son is begotten eternally, and also from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Note that unlike the Roman Catholic Church and western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the Filioque ("and the Son") in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is believed to eternally proceed from the Father, not from the Father and the Son. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith (Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed). Oriental Orthodox usage coincide with Eastern Orthodox usage and teachings on the matter. Protestantism With the obvious exception of Pentecostal denominations, the majority of mainstream Protestantism hold mostly the same general doctrines as the Catholic Church. The chief difference is the belief that the Holy Spirit interacts with the individual Christian instead of, or as well as, through the organisation of the Church There are significant variations in belief within the Protestant movement. Non-Trinitarian views Non-trinitarian views about the Holy Spirit generally fall into one of two categories. Some groups believe that the Holy Spirit is a separate being from God the Father and God the Son, and is 'one' with them in some other sense than of being one substance; Latter Day Saint beliefs fall within this category. Others believe that the Holy Spirit refers to some aspect (or aspects) of God (such as his 'spirit', 'active force' or 'mind') or is a term used to refer to God when he acts in a particular role (the latter is referred to as Modalism, Sabellianism, or Monarchianism); Christadelphian, Unitarian and Jehovah's Witness beliefs fall within this category. It is thought that these beliefs also existed within the Christianity up until the fourth century AD. Latter Day Saints In the Latter Day Saint movement, the Holy Ghost (usually synonymous with Holy Spirit. "The Holy Spirit is a term often used to refer to the Holy Ghost. In such cases the Holy Spirit is a personage." ) is considered the third distinct member of the Godhead (Father, Son and Holy Ghost). The Holy Ghost is considered to be a son of God the Father, "[T]he Holy Ghost is a spirit man, a spirit son of God the Father." and to have a body of "spirit," D&C 131:7-8 ("There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes; We cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that it is all matter.") which makes him unlike the Father and the Son who are said to have bodies "as tangible as man's." D&C 130:22 Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Holy Spirit is God's active force, and do not typically capitalize the term. A Jehovah's Witness brochure quotes Alvan Lamson: "...the Father, Son, and... Holy Spirit [are] not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One... The very reverse is the fact." "Is It Clearly a Bible Teaching?", Should You Believe in the Trinity?, ©1989 Watch Tower, page 7, Reproduced here </blockquote> Christadelphians Christadelphians believe that the phrase Holy Spirit refers to God's character or mind, depending on the context. Oneness Pentecostalism Oneness Pentecostalism teachs that the Holy Spirit is the Spirit of God himself both in action and in person, rather than a distinct individual. The Holy Spirit is the life giving power of the body of the man Jesus Christ both before death and after his resurrection; in heaven Jesus will be the visible appearance of God on the throne, of whom the church will be his bride. They believe the Spirit of Jesus is the same Spirit that moved over the face of the waters in Genesis 1, is the Comforter of John 14, and filled believers in the Book of Acts. His human flesh was created by himself and he chose to dwell with man in this way. Jesus' body had a spirit until death, which was separated at death, but because the spirit of Jesus Christ is the Holy Spirit of God, it was able to return, to raise his human body from the grave. The Holy Spirit had been manifested many times throughout biblical history as the burning bush, a pillar of fire, a finger writing on a wall (see Book of Daniel 5), and as angelic forms that spoke to Abraham, Gideon, and even wrestled with Jacob, but the greatest of all manifestations of the Holy Spirit was in the infant human form that was born of the virgin Mary in the city of Bethlehem. Jesus was conceived by the Holy Sprit, and he would be called Emanuel, meaning "God with us", being the only form that God ever took that was born flesh and blood, and that could legally take away the sins of the world. In this manifestation he would have to be tempted in all ways, yet without sin.(see the Epistle to the Hebrews 4:15) He was unlimited as God, but chose to limit himself to the form and weaknesses of a natural, finite man.(see Philippians chapter 2) He would have to mind and obey his parents, pray to and obey his heavenly Father, live through life's temptations, yet remaining perfect, without sin. This was only possible by the power of the Holy Spirit living inside his earthly body. "Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost" Holy Ghost was the common name for the Holy Spirit in English prior to the 20th century. It is the name used in the Book of Common Prayer, the Catholic Douay Rheims Bible and the King James Version (KJV), and is still widely used by English speakers whose religious vocabulary is largely derived from the KJV. The term is still retained in the traditional-language rites of the Anglican Church. The original meaning of the English word ghost closely paralleled the words spirit or soul; only later did the former word come to acquire the specific sense of "disembodied spirit of the dead" and the associated pejorative connotations. Norfolk schools told Holy Ghost 'too spooky' | Schools special reports | EducationGuardian.co.uk In 1901 the American Standard Version of the Bible translated the name as Holy Spirit, as had the English Revised Version of 1881-1885 upon which it was based. Almost all modern English translations have followed suit. Some languages still use a word that overlaps both English words, such as the German Geist. The meaning of Holy Spirit and Holy Ghost are identical. Blasphemy against the Holy Spirit The Gospel of Matthew 12:31-32, states that the one sin that God will not forgive, and will result in eternal condemnation is blasphemy against the holy spirit: "Wherefore I say unto you, All manner of sin and blasphemy shall be forgiven unto men: but the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost shall not be forgiven unto men. And whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him: but whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come." Depiction in art The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus like a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as the Archangel Gabriel's announces Christ's coming to Mary. A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint Gregory the Great - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them. The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the presence of God. The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire. Gender of the Holy Spirit There are some Christian groups who teach that the Holy Spirit is feminine, or has feminine aspects. Most are based on the genders of the verbs in the original Bible languages where the Holy Spirit is the subject. In Hebrew the word for spirit (ruach) is feminine . In Greek the word (pneuma) is neuter, and in Aramaic, the language which is generally considered to have been spoken by Jesus, the word is feminine. This is not thought by most linguists to have significance for the gender of the person given that name. There are biblical cases where the pronoun used for the Holy Spirit is masculine, in contradiction of the gender of the word for spirit (John 16:13). The Syriac language, which was in common use around 300AD, is derived from Aramaic. In documents produced in Syriac by the early Monophysite church (which later became the Syrian Orthodox Church) the feminine gender of the word for spirit gave rise to a theology in which the Holy Spirit was considered feminine http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm . In 1977 a leader of the Branch Davidian church, Lois Roden, began to formally teach that the feminine Holy Spirit is the heavenly pattern of women, citing scholars and researchers from Jewish, Christian, and other sources. There are some other independent Messianic Judaism groups with similar teachings, Joy In the World; The Torah and Testimony Revealed and some scholars associated with more "mainstream" denominations, while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead. “Martin Luther, the originator of the Protestant movement, was not ashamed to think of the Holy Spirit in feminine terms Church Fathers Believed the Holy Spirit was Feminine For example, R.P. Nettlehorst, professor at the Quartz Hill School of Theology (associated with the Southern Baptist Convention) has written on the subject. Evan Randolph, associated with the Episcopal Church, has likewise written on the subject. The Unity Church's co-founder Charles Fillmore considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God considering it to be "the love of Jehovah" and "love is always feminine" Non-Christian views Bahá'í Faith The Bahá'í Faith has the concept of the Most Great Spirit, seen as the bounty of God. It is usually used to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God, which are known as Manifestations of God, and include among others Jesus, Muhammad and Bahá'u'lláh. In Bahá'í belief the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with his messenger, and it has been described variously in different religions such as the burning bush to Moses, the sacred fire to Zoroaster, the dove to Jesus, the angel Gabriel to Muhammad, and the Holy Maiden to Bahá'u'lláh. The Bahá'í view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead, but rather is a pure reflection of God's attributes. Islam Holy Spirit in Islam is an agent of divine action or communication commonly identified with the angel Gabriel (ar: Jibreel) or Ruhul Qudus but also alternatively with the created spirit from God by which he enlivened Adam, made Mary pregnant with Jesus, and inspired the angels and the prophets. The belief in Trinity is explicitly forbidden by the Qur'an and called a grave sin. The same applies to any idea of the duality of God (Allah). Griffith, Sidney H. Holy Spirit, Encyclopaedia of the Quran Patrick Hughes, Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, p. 605 Judaism In Judaism, the idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical . Nonetheless, the term Ruach HaKodesh (Holy Spirit) is found frequently in Talmudic and Midrashic literature. In some cases it signifies prophetic inspiration, while in others it is used as a hypostatization or a metonym for God. Alan Unterman and Rivka Horowitz,Ruah ha-Kodesh, Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition, Jerusalem: Judaica Multimedia/Keter, 1997). The Rabbinic “Holy Spirit,” has a certain degree of personification, but it remains, “a quality belonging to God, one of his attributes” and not, as in Christianity, representative of “any metaphysical divisions in the Godhead.” Joseph Abelson,The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature (London:Macmillan and Co., 1912) See also shekhinah. Mandaeanism Rastafarianism As a movement that developed out of Christianity, Rastafari has its own unique interpretation of both the Holy Trinity and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is Haile Selassie who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, "Hola") Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see 'I and I'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true church is the human body, and that it is this church (or "structure") that contains the Holy Spirit. See also Baptism with the Holy Spirit God in Christianity Pneumatology Slain in the Spirit Pentecostalism Spiritual gifts Fruit of the Spirit Ruach HaKodesh References External links Holy Spirit: Scripture Reference Guide Actualizing the Holy Spirit a Lutheran's view of what the Holy Spirit does Lois Roden's studies on the Feminine aspect of the Godhead How To Live By The Power Of The Holy Spirit (Protestant Christian) Eastons Bible Dictionary:Holy Ghost Jewish Encyclopedia: Holy Spirit Catholic Encyclopedia: Holy Ghost The Holy Spirit: The Feminine Face of God The Holy Spirit: Who is He? | Holy_Spirit |@lemmatized descent:2 holy:123 spirit:151 century:4 illuminate:1 manuscript:1 musée:1 condé:1 chantilly:1 depict:2 dove:10 topmost:1 area:1 painting:2 christianity:7 ghost:15 god:43 mainstream:6 trinitarian:4 christian:28 theology:9 third:3 person:6 trinity:7 part:2 godhead:7 equal:3 father:19 son:17 last:1 piece:1 fully:2 develop:2 also:16 great:5 diversity:1 pneumatology:2 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3,990 | Endosymbiont | An endosymbiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism, i.e. forming an endosymbiosis (Greek: ἔνδον endon "within", σύν syn "together" and βίωσις biosis "living"). Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria (called rhizobia) which live in root nodules on legume roots, single-celled algae inside reef-building corals, and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects. Many instances of endosymbiosis are obligate, that is either the endosymbiont or the host cannot survive without the other, such as the gutless marine worms of the genus Riftia, which get nutrition from their endosymbiotic bacteria. The most common examples of obligate endosymbiosis are mitochondria and chloroplasts. However, not all endosymbioses are obligate. Also, some endosymbioses can be harmful to either of the organisms involved. See symbiosis for further discussion of this issue. It is generally agreed that certain organelles of the eukaryotic cell, especially mitochondria and plastids such as chloroplasts, originated as bacterial endosymbionts. This theory is called the endosymbiotic theory, which was first articulated by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski in 1905 . The endosymbiont theory and mitochondria and chloroplasts The endosymbiont theory attempts to explain the origins of organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells. The theory proposes that chloroplasts and mitochondria evolved from certain types of bacteria that prokaryotic cells engulfed through endophagocytosis. These cells and the bacteria trapped inside them entered a symbiotic relationship, a close association between different types of organisms over an extended time. However, more specifically, the relationship was endosymbiotic, meaning that one of the organisms (the bacteria) lived within the other (the prokaryotic cells). According to this endosymbiont theory, an anaerobic cell probably ingested an aerobic bacterium but failed to digest it. The aerobic bacterium flourished within the cell because the cell's cytoplasm was abundant in half-digested food molecules. The bacterium digested these molecules with oxygen and gained great amounts of energy. Because the bacterium had so much energy, it probably leaked some of it as Adenosine triphosphate into the cell's cytoplasm. This benefited the anaerobic cell because it enabled it to digest food aerobically. Eventually, the aerobic bacterium could no longer live independently from the cell, and it therefore became a mitochondrion. The origin of the chloroplast is very similar to that of the mitochondrion. A cell must have captured a photosynthetic cyanobacterium and failed to digest it. The cyanobacterium thrived in the cell and eventually evolved into the first chloroplast. Other eukaryotic organelles may have also evolved through endosymbiosis. Scientists believe that cilia, flagella, centrioles, and microtubules may have come from a symbiosis between a spirilla-like bacterium and an early eukaryotic cell. There are several examples of evidence that support the endosymbiont theory. Tree of Life Eukaryotes Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own small supply of DNA, which may be remnants of the genome the organelles had when they were independent aerobic bacteria. The single most convincing evidence of the descent of organelles from bacteria is the position of mitochondria and plastid DNA sequences in phylogenetic trees of bacteria. Mitochondria have sequences that clearly indicate origin from a group of bacteria called the alpha-Proteobacteria. Plastids have DNA sequences that indicate origin from the cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). In addition, there are organisms alive today, called living intermediates, that are in a similar endosymbiotic condition to the prokaryotic cells and the aerobic bacteria. Living intermediates show that the evolution proposed by the endosymbiont theory is possible. For example, the giant amoeba Pelomyxa lacks mitochondria but has aerobic bacteria that carry out a similar role. A variety of corals, clams, snails, and one species of Paramecium permanently host algae in their cells. Many of the insect endosymbionts have been shown to have ancient associations with their hosts, involving strictly vertical inheritance. In addition, these insect symbionts have similar patterns of genome evolution to those found in true organelles: genome reduction, rapid rates of gene evolution, and bias in nucleotide base composition favoring adenine and thymine, at the expense of guanine and cytosine. Further evidence of endosymbiosis are the prokaryotic ribosomes found within chloroplasts and mitochondria as well as the double-membrane enclosing them. It used to be widely assumed that the inner membrane is the original membrane of the once independent prokaryote, while the outer one is the food vacuole (phagosomal membrane) it was enclosed in initially. However, this view neglects the fact that i) both modern cyanobacteria and alpha-proteobacteria are Gram negative bacteria, which are surrounded by double membranes; ii) the outer membranes of the endosymbiotic organelles (chloroplasts and mitochondria) are very similar to those of these bacteria in their lipid and protein compositions . Accumulating biochemical data strongly suggest that the double membrane enclosing chloroplasts and mitochondria derived from those of the ancestral bacteria, and the phagosomal membrane disappeared during organelle evolution. Triple or quadruple membranes are found among certain algae, probably resulting from repeated endosymbiosis (although little else was retained of the engulfed cell). These modern organisms with endosymbiotic relationships with aerobic bacteria have verified the endosymbiotic theory, which explains the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts from bacteria. Researchers in molecular and evolutionary biology no longer question this theory, although some of the details, such as the mechanisms for loss of genes from organelles to host nuclear genomes, are still being worked out. Bacterial endosymbionts in marine oligochaetes Some marine oligochaeta (e.g. Olavius or Inanidrillus) have obligate extracellular endosymbionts that fill the entire body of their host. These marine worms are nutritionally dependent on their symbiotic chemoautotrophic bacteria lacking any digestive or excretory system (no gut, mouth or nephridia). Bacterial endosymbionts in other marine invertebrates Extracellular endosymbionts are also represented in all 5 extant classes of Echinodermata (Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, Asteroidea, Echinoidea, and Holothuroidea). Little is known of the nature of the association (mode of infection, transmission, metabolic requirements, etc.) but phylogenetic analysis indicates that these symbionts belong to the alpha group of the class Proteobacteria, relating them to Rhizobium and Thiobacillus. Other studies indicate that these subcuticular bacteria may be both abundant within their hosts and widely distributed among the Echinoderms in general. Symbiodinium dinoflagellate endosymbionts in marine metazoa and protists Dinoflagellate endosymbionts of the genus Symbiodinium, commonly known as zooxanthellae, are found in corals, mollusks (esp. giant clams, the Tridacna), sponges, and foraminifera. These endosymbionts drive the amazing formation of coral reefs by capturing sunlight and providing their hosts with energy for carbonate deposition. Previously thought to be a single species, molecular phylogenetic evidence over the past couple decades has shown there to be great diversity in Symbiodinium. In some cases there is specificity between host and Symbiodinium clade. More often, however, there is an ecological distribution of Symbiodinium, the symbionts switching between hosts with apparent ease. When reefs become environmentally stressed, this distribution of symbionts is related to the observed pattern of coral bleaching and recovery. Thus the distribution of Symbiodinium on coral reefs and its role in coral bleaching presents one of the most complex and interesting current problems in reef ecology. Endosymbionts in protists Mixotricha paradoxa is a protozoan that lacks mitochondria, however, spherical bacteria live inside the cell and serve the function of the mitochondria. Mixotricha also has three other species of symbionts that live on the surface of the cell. Paramecium bursaria, a species of ciliate, has a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with green alga called Zoochlorella. The algae live inside the cell, in the cytoplasm. Bacterial obligate endosymbionts in insects Scientists classify insect endosymbionts in two broad categories, 'Primary' and 'Secondary'. Primary endosymbionts (sometimes referred to as P-endosymbionts) have been associated with their insect hosts for many millions of years (from 10 to several hundred million years in some cases), they form obligate associations (see below), and display cospeciation with their insect hosts. Secondary endosymbionts exhibit a more recently developed association, are sometimes horizontally transferred between hosts, live in the hemolymph of the insects (not specialized bacteriocytes, see below), and are not obligate. Among primary endosymbionts of insects, the best studied are the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) and its endosymbiont Buchnera sp. APS , the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans and its endosymbiont Wigglesworthia glossinidia brevipalpis and the endosymbiotic protists in lower termites. As with endosymbiosis in other insects, the symbiosis is obligate in that neither the bacteria nor the insect is viable without the other. Scientists have been unable to cultivate the bacteria in lab conditions outside of the insect. With special nutritionally-enhanced diets, the insects can survive, but are unhealthy, and at best survive only a few generations. In some insect groups, these endosymbionts live in specialized insect cells called bacteriocytes (also called mycetocytes), and are maternally-transmitted, i.e. the mother transmits her endosymbionts to her offspring. In some cases, the bacteria are transmitted in the egg, as in Buchnera; in others like Wigglesworthia, they are transmitted via milk to the developing insect embryo. In termites, the endosymbionts reside within the hindguts and are transmitted through trophallaxis among colony members. The primary endosymbionts are thought to help the host either by providing nutrients that the host cannot obtain itself, or by metabolizing insect waste products into safer forms. For example, the putative primary role of Buchnera is to synthesize essential amino acids that the aphid cannot acquire from its natural diet of plant sap. Similarly, the primary role of Wigglesworthia is probably to synthesize vitamins that the tsetse fly does not get from the blood that it eats. In lower termites, the endosymbiotic protists play a major role in the digestion of lignocellulosic materials which constitutes a bulk of the termites' diet. Bacteria benefit from the reduced exposure to predators, the ample supply of nutrients and relative environmental stability inside the host. Genome sequencing reveals that obligate bacterial endosymbionts of insects have among the smallest of known bacterial genomes and have lost many genes that are commonly found in closely related bacteria. Several theories have been put forth to explain the loss of genes. Presumably some of these genes are not needed in the environment of the host insect cell. A complementary theory suggests that the relatively small numbers of bacteria inside each insect decrease the efficiency of natural selection in 'purging' deleterious mutations and small mutations from the population, resulting in a loss of genes over many millions of years. Research in which a parallel phylogeny of bacteria and insects was inferred supports the belief that the primary endosymbionts are transferred only vertically (i.e. from the mother), and not horizontally (i.e. by escaping the host and entering a new host). Attacking obligate bacterial endosymbionts may present a way to control their insect hosts, many of which are pests or carriers of human disease. For example aphids are crop pests and the tsetse fly carries the organism Trypanosoma brucei that causes African sleeping sickness. Other motivations for their study is to understand symbiosis, and to understand how bacteria with severely depleted genomes are able to survive, thus improving our knowledge of genetics and molecular biology. Less is known about secondary endosymbionts. The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) is known to contain at least three secondary endosymbionts, Hamiltonella defensa, Regiella insecticola, and Serratia symbiotica. H. defensa aids in defending the insect from parasitoids. Sodalis glossinidius is a secondary endosymbiont tsetse flies that lives inter- and intracellularly in various host tissues, including the midgut and hemolymph. Phylogenetic studies have not indicated a correlation between evolution of Sodalis and tsetse. Aksoy, S., Pourhosseini, A. & Chow, A. 1995. Mycetome endosymbionts of tsetse flies constitute a distinct lineage related to Enterobacteriaceae. Insect Mol Biol. 4, 15-22. Unlike tsetse's P-symbiont Wigglesworthia, though, Sodalis has been cultured in vitro. Welburn, S.C., Maudlin, I. & Ellis, D.S. 1987. In vitro cultivation of rickettsia-like-organisms from Glossina spp. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 81, 331-335. Viral endosymbionts, endogenous retrovirus (ERV) During pregnancy in viviparous mammals, ERVs are activated and produced in high quantities during the implantation of the embryo. On one hand they act as immunodepressors, and protect the embryo from the immune system of the mother and on the other hand viral fusion proteins cause the formation of the placental syncytium in order to limit the exchange of migratory cells between the developing embryo and the body of the mother, an epithelium won't do because certain blood cells are specialized to be able to insert themselves between adjacent epithelial cells. The ERV is a virus similar to HIV (the virus causing AIDS in humans). The immunodepressive action was the initial normal behavior of the virus, similar to HIV. The fusion proteins was a way to spread the infection to other cells by simply merging them with the infected one (similar to HIV). It is believed that the ancestors of modern vivipary mammals evolved after an accidental infection of an ancestor with this virus, that permitted to the fetus to survive the immune system of the mother. The Viruses That Make Us: A Role For Endogenous Retrovirus In The Evolution Of Placental Species (by Luis P. Villarreal) The human genome project found several thousand ERVs, which are organized into 24 families. Notes References and external links Obligate bacterial endosymbiosis in marine oligochaetes Bacterial endosymbionts in echinoderms Symbiodinium dinoflagellate endosymbionts in marine metazoa and protists Excellent review paper covering the role of Symbiodinium in reef ecology and the current state of research: Obligate bacterial endosymbionts in insects A general review of bacterial endosymbionts in insects. P. Baumann, N. A. Moran and L. Baumann, Bacteriocyte-associated endosymbionts of insects in M. Dworkin, ed., The prokaryotes, Springer, New York, 2000. http://link.springer.de/link/service/books/10125/ An excellent review of insect endosymbionts that focuses on genetic issues. A review article on aphids and their bacterial endosymbionts. Describes possible methods to control the human pathogen causing African sleeping sickness, which is transmitted by tsetse flies. Focuses on methods using the primary and secondary endosymbionts of the tsetse fly. Announces and analyzes the full genome sequence of Buchnera sp. APS, the endosymbiont of the pea aphid, and the first endosymbiont to have its genome sequenced. An article that presents for the first time a theory on how obligate endosymbionts may have their genomes degraded, in a freely-available journal. See also Protobiont Endophyte | Endosymbiont |@lemmatized endosymbiont:12 organism:8 live:11 within:7 body:3 cell:27 another:1 e:5 form:3 endosymbiosis:8 greek:1 ἔνδον:1 endon:1 σύν:1 syn:1 together:1 βίωσις:1 biosis:1 living:2 example:6 nitrogen:1 fix:1 bacteria:27 call:7 rhizobium:2 root:2 nodule:1 legume:1 single:3 celled:1 algae:5 inside:6 reef:5 building:1 coral:7 bacterial:13 endosymbionts:37 provide:3 essential:2 nutrient:3 insect:28 many:6 instance:1 obligate:13 either:3 host:20 cannot:3 survive:5 without:2 gutless:1 marine:8 worm:2 genus:2 riftia:1 get:2 nutrition:1 endosymbiotic:9 common:1 mitochondrion:17 chloroplast:11 however:5 endosymbioses:2 also:6 harmful:1 involve:2 see:4 symbiosis:4 discussion:1 issue:2 generally:1 agree:1 certain:4 organelle:9 eukaryotic:4 especially:1 plastid:3 originate:1 theory:13 first:4 articulate:1 russian:1 botanist:1 konstantin:1 mereschkowski:1 chloroplasts:1 attempt:1 explain:3 origin:5 propose:2 evolve:4 type:2 prokaryotic:4 engulf:1 endophagocytosis:1 trap:1 enter:2 symbiotic:3 relationship:4 close:1 association:5 different:1 extended:1 time:2 specifically:1 mean:1 one:6 accord:1 anaerobic:2 probably:4 ingest:1 aerobic:7 bacterium:6 fail:2 digest:5 flourish:1 cytoplasm:3 abundant:2 half:1 food:3 molecule:2 oxygen:1 gain:1 great:2 amount:1 energy:3 much:1 leak:1 adenosine:1 triphosphate:1 benefit:2 enable:1 aerobically:1 eventually:2 could:1 longer:1 independently:1 therefore:1 become:2 similar:8 must:1 capture:2 photosynthetic:1 cyanobacterium:2 thrive:1 may:6 scientist:3 believe:2 cilium:1 flagellum:1 centriole:1 microtubule:1 come:1 spirilla:1 like:3 early:1 several:4 evidence:4 support:2 tree:2 life:1 eukaryote:1 contain:2 small:4 supply:2 dna:3 remnant:1 genome:11 independent:2 convincing:1 descent:1 position:1 sequence:5 phylogenetic:4 clearly:1 indicate:5 group:3 alpha:3 proteobacteria:3 cyanobacteria:2 blue:1 green:2 addition:2 organisms:1 alive:1 today:1 intermediate:2 condition:2 show:3 evolution:6 possible:2 giant:2 amoeba:1 pelomyxa:1 lack:3 carry:2 role:7 variety:1 clam:2 snail:1 specie:5 paramecium:2 permanently:1 ancient:1 strictly:1 vertical:1 inheritance:1 symbionts:5 pattern:2 find:6 true:1 reduction:1 rapid:1 rate:1 gene:6 bias:1 nucleotide:1 base:1 composition:2 favor:1 adenine:1 thymine:1 expense:1 guanine:1 cytosine:1 ribosome:1 well:1 double:3 membrane:9 enclose:3 use:2 widely:2 assume:1 inner:1 original:1 prokaryote:2 outer:1 vacuole:1 phagosomal:2 initially:1 view:1 neglect:1 fact:1 modern:3 gram:1 negative:1 surround:1 ii:1 lipid:1 protein:2 accumulate:1 biochemical:1 data:1 strongly:1 suggest:2 derive:1 ancestral:1 disappear:1 triple:1 quadruple:1 among:5 result:2 repeat:1 although:2 little:2 else:1 retain:1 engulfed:1 verify:1 researcher:1 molecular:3 evolutionary:1 biology:2 long:1 question:1 detail:1 mechanism:1 loss:3 nuclear:1 still:1 work:1 oligochaetes:1 oligochaeta:1 g:1 olavius:1 inanidrillus:1 extracellular:2 fill:1 entire:1 nutritionally:2 dependent:1 chemoautotrophic:1 digestive:1 excretory:1 system:3 gut:1 mouth:1 nephridia:1 invertebrate:1 represent:1 extant:1 class:2 echinodermata:1 crinoidea:1 ophiuroidea:1 asteroidea:1 echinoidea:1 holothuroidea:1 know:5 nature:1 mode:1 infection:3 transmission:1 metabolic:1 requirement:1 etc:1 analysis:1 belong:1 relate:3 thiobacillus:1 study:4 subcuticular:1 distribute:1 echinoderm:2 general:2 symbiodinium:8 dinoflagellate:3 metazoa:2 protist:5 commonly:2 zooxanthellae:1 mollusk:1 esp:1 tridacna:1 sponge:1 foraminifera:1 drive:1 amazing:1 formation:2 sunlight:1 carbonate:1 deposition:1 previously:1 think:2 past:1 couple:1 decade:1 diversity:1 case:3 specificity:1 clade:1 often:1 ecological:1 distribution:3 switch:1 apparent:1 ease:1 reefs:1 environmentally:1 stressed:1 observed:1 bleaching:2 recovery:1 thus:2 present:3 complex:1 interesting:1 current:2 problem:1 ecology:2 mixotricha:2 paradoxa:1 protozoan:1 spherical:1 serve:1 function:1 three:2 surface:1 bursaria:1 ciliate:1 mutualistic:1 alga:1 zoochlorella:1 classify:1 two:1 broad:1 category:1 primary:8 secondary:6 sometimes:2 refer:1 p:4 associate:1 million:3 year:3 hundred:1 display:1 cospeciation:1 exhibit:1 recently:1 develop:3 horizontally:2 transfer:2 hemolymph:2 specialize:2 bacteriocytes:2 best:2 pea:3 aphid:6 acyrthosiphon:2 pisum:2 buchnera:4 sp:2 aps:2 tsetse:9 fly:7 glossina:2 morsitans:2 wigglesworthia:4 glossinidia:1 brevipalpis:1 low:2 termite:4 neither:1 viable:1 unable:1 cultivate:1 lab:1 outside:1 special:1 enhanced:1 diet:3 unhealthy:1 generation:1 specialized:1 mycetocytes:1 maternally:1 transmit:6 mother:5 offspring:1 egg:1 others:1 via:1 milk:1 embryo:4 reside:1 hindgut:1 trophallaxis:1 colony:1 member:1 help:1 obtain:1 metabolize:1 waste:1 product:1 safer:1 putative:1 synthesize:2 amino:1 acid:1 acquire:1 natural:2 plant:1 sap:1 similarly:1 vitamin:1 blood:2 eat:1 play:1 major:1 digestion:1 lignocellulosic:1 material:1 constitute:2 bulk:1 reduced:1 exposure:1 predator:1 ample:1 relative:1 environmental:1 stability:1 sequencing:1 reveals:1 lose:1 closely:1 related:1 put:1 forth:1 presumably:1 need:1 environment:1 complementary:1 relatively:1 number:1 decrease:1 efficiency:1 selection:1 purge:1 deleterious:1 mutation:2 population:1 research:2 parallel:1 phylogeny:1 infer:1 belief:1 vertically:1 escape:1 new:2 attack:1 way:2 control:2 pest:2 carrier:1 human:4 disease:1 crop:1 trypanosoma:1 brucei:1 cause:4 african:2 sleep:1 sickness:2 motivation:1 understand:2 severely:1 deplete:1 able:2 improve:1 knowledge:1 genetics:1 le:1 least:1 hamiltonella:1 defensa:2 regiella:1 insecticola:1 serratia:1 symbiotica:1 h:1 aid:2 defend:1 parasitoids:1 sodalis:3 glossinidius:1 inter:1 intracellularly:1 various:1 tissue:1 include:1 midgut:1 correlation:1 aksoy:1 pourhosseini:1 chow:1 mycetome:1 distinct:1 lineage:1 enterobacteriaceae:1 mol:1 biol:1 unlike:1 symbiont:1 though:1 culture:1 vitro:2 welburn:1 c:1 maudlin:1 elli:1 cultivation:1 rickettsia:1 spp:1 ann:1 trop:1 med:1 parasitol:1 viral:2 endogenous:2 retrovirus:2 erv:2 pregnancy:1 viviparous:1 mammal:2 ervs:2 activate:1 produce:1 high:1 quantity:1 implantation:1 hand:2 act:1 immunodepressors:1 protect:1 immune:2 fusion:2 placental:2 syncytium:1 order:1 limit:1 exchange:1 migratory:1 epithelium:1 win:1 insert:1 adjacent:1 epithelial:1 virus:5 hiv:3 immunodepressive:1 action:1 initial:1 normal:1 behavior:1 proteins:1 spread:1 simply:1 merge:1 infected:1 ancestor:2 vivipary:1 accidental:1 permit:1 fetus:1 make:1 u:1 luis:1 villarreal:1 project:1 thousand:1 organize:1 family:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:3 oligochaete:1 excellent:2 review:4 paper:1 cover:1 state:1 baumann:2 n:1 moran:1 l:1 bacteriocyte:1 associated:1 dworkin:1 ed:1 springer:2 york:1 http:1 de:1 service:1 book:1 focus:2 genetic:1 article:2 describes:1 method:2 pathogen:1 sleeping:1 announces:1 analyze:1 full:1 degrade:1 freely:1 available:1 journal:1 protobiont:1 endophyte:1 |@bigram root_nodule:1 single_celled:1 bacterial_endosymbionts:10 mitochondrion_chloroplast:4 eukaryotic_cell:3 organelle_mitochondrion:1 chloroplast_mitochondrion:4 prokaryotic_cell:3 symbiotic_relationship:2 adenosine_triphosphate:1 eukaryotic_organelle:1 cilium_flagellum:1 aerobic_bacteria:4 phylogenetic_tree:1 green_algae:1 gram_negative:1 triple_quadruple:1 evolutionary_biology:1 marine_invertebrate:1 coral_reef:2 molecular_phylogenetic:1 endosymbionts_insect:6 secondary_endosymbionts:4 tsetse_fly:7 amino_acid:1 bacterial_genome:1 closely_related:1 deleterious_mutation:1 sleep_sickness:1 molecular_biology:1 mol_biol:1 epithelial_cell:1 external_link:1 |
3,991 | List_of_Latin_place_names_in_Continental_Europe,_Ireland_and_Scandinavia | This list includes continental European countries and regions that were part of the Roman Empire, or that were given Latin place names in historical references. As a large portion of the latter were only created during the Middle Ages, often based on scholarly etiology, this is not to be confused with a list of the actual names modern regions and settlements bore during Antiquity. Background Until the Modern Era, Latin was the common language for scholarship and mapmaking. During the 19th and 20th centuries, German scholars in particular have made significant contributions to the study of historical place names, or Ortsnamenkunde. These studies have, in turn, contributed to the study of genealogy. For genealogists and historians of pre-Modern Europe, knowing alternate names of places is vital to extracting information from both public and private records. Even specialists in this field point out, however, that the information can be easily taken out of context, since there is a great deal of repetition of place names throughout Europe; reliance purely on apparent connections should therefore be tempered with valid historical methodology. Caveats and notes Latin place names are not always exclusive to one place — for example, there were several Roman cities whose names began with Colonia and then a more descriptive term. During the Middle Ages, these were often shortened to just Colonia. One of these, Colonia Agrippinensis, retains the name today in the form of Cologne. Early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and spellings of the Latin names. The modern canonical name is listed first. Sources are listed chronologically. In general, only the earliest source is shown for each name, although many of the names are recorded in more than one of the sources. Where the source differs in spelling, or has other alternatives, these are listed following the source. As an aid to searching, variants are spelled completely, and listed in most likely chronology. Superscripts indicate: Latinized form of the Greek-derived name. Latinized form of the Asian-derived name via Greek. Altered Latinized form of the Greek-derived name. Cities and towns in Austria Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Brigantium, Brigantia Bregenz Carnuntum Deutsch-Altenburg - Petronell Iuenna Jaunstein - Podjuna Iuvavum Salzburg Lentia Linz Noreia Neumarkt in der Steiermark Oenipons Innsbruck Ovilava Wels Salisburgium, Iuvavia Salzburg Veldidena Wilten Vindóbona, Vienna (Austriae) Vienna (Wien) Virunum Maria Saal - Maria in Solio, (Gospa Sveta) Cities and towns in Belgium Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Aldenarda Oudenaarde (nl), Audenarde (fr) Alostum Aalst (nl), Alost (fr) Anderlacum Anderlecht Antverpia Antwerp (en), Antwerpen (nl), Anvers (fr) Atuatuca Tungrorum Tongeren (nl) Brugae Bruges (fr), Brugge (nl) Bruxella, Bruxellae Brussels (en), Brussel (nl), Bruxelles (fr) Cortracum Kortrijk (nl), Courtrai (fr) Damma, Dammum Damme (nl) Furna Veurne (nl) Gandavum Ghent, Gent (nl), Gand (fr) Leodium Liège (fr), Luik (nl), Lüttich (de) Rothnacum Ronse (nl), Renaix (fr) Tamasiacum, Tamisiacum, Temsica Temse (nl), Tamise (fr) Teneramonda Dendermonde (nl) Tornacum Tournai (fr), Doornik (nl) Cities and towns in the Czech Republic Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Beneschovium Benešov Broda Bohemica Český Brod Brunna Brno Budovisium České Budějovice Carnovia Krnov Eburum, Olomutium, Olomucium Olomouc Oppavia Opava Ostravia Ostrava Pilsenum, Pilsna Plzeň Praga Prague (Praha) Racona Rakovník Vallis Gaudiorum Bruntál Verona Beroun Znoimium Znojmo Cities and towns in Denmark Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Aros Århus Hafnia Copenhagen (København) Fredericia Fredericia Wibergis Viborg Cities and towns in Estonia Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Pernavia Pärnu Revalia Tallinn Tharbata Tartu Cities and towns in Finland Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Aboa Turku (Åbo) Arctopolis Pori (Björneborg) Arx Savonum Savonlinna (Nyslott) Arx Tavastiae, Tavasteburgum Hämeenlinna (Tavastehus) Borgoa Porvoo (Borgå) Brahestadium Raahe (Brahestad) Cajaneburgum Kajaani (Kajana) Carolina Vetus Kokkola (Karleby) Christinea Kristiinankaupunki (Kristinestad) Espo Espoo (Esbo) Fredericia Hamina (Fredrikshamn) Granivicus Jyväskylä Helsinkium, Helsingia Helsinki (Helsingfors) Michaelia Mikkeli (St. Michel) Neo-Carolina Uusikaarlepyy (Nykarleby) Neostadium Uusikaupunki (Nystad) Ostia Carelorum Joensuu Portus Mariae Maarianhamina (Mariehamn) Raumoa Rauma (Raumo) Sala Salo Tammerforsia Tampere (Tammerfors) Tornea Tornio (Torneå) Uloa Oulu (Uleåborg) Vallis Gratiae Naantali (Nådendal) Vantania Vantaa (Vanda) Vasa Vaasa (Vasa) Cities and towns in France Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Adiacium Ajaccio Alberti campus Champaubert Aquae Sextiae Aix-en-Provence Arelate Arles Argentoratum Strasbourg Arpajonum, Arpajoni castrum, Arpacona Arpajon, Paris Atrebatum Arras, Pas-de-Calais Augusta Argentorate Strasbourg Augustodurum, Bajocae, Bajocassium civitas Bayeux Aurelianum Orléans Autricum, civitas Carnutum, Carnutes Chartres Avenio Avignon Belna Beaune Brestum, Brestia, Brivates Portis Brest Briva Isara Pontoise Burdigala Bordeaux Catalaunum, Catelaunorum Chalons-sur-Marne Crisenaria Cressy Damovilla Damville Dinia, Diniensium civitas Digne-les-Bains, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Divio Dijon Divodurum Metz Flavia (GOL: Flaviacum) Saint-Germer-de-Fly, Oise Flaviniacum (GOL: Flaviacum) Flavigny-sur-Ozerain, Côte-d'Or Gesoriacum, Bononia Boulogne-sur-Mer Glanum Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, Bouches-du-Rhône Lemonum, civitas Pictonum, Pictones Poitiers Lugdunum Lyon Lugdunum Convenarum Saint Bertrand de Comminges Lutetia Paris Massilia Marseille Medicinum Mézin, Lot-et-Garonne Mediolanum Aulercorum Evreux Mediolanum Santonum Saintes Narbo Martius Narbonne, Aude Nemausus Nîmes Nicaea, Nicia Nice Noviodunum Soissons Noviomagus Lexoviorum (GOL: Lexovium) Lisieux, Calvados Noviomagus Veromanduorum (GOL: Noviomium, Noviomense palatium, Noviomum, Novionum) Noyon, Oise Novio Rito (GOL: Niortum, Novirogus, Nyrax) Niort, Deux-Sèvres Ramboletium Rambouillet Rotomagus Rouen Samarobriva Amiens Sancti Audoeni fanum, villa aut domus Saint-Ouen, Paris Spinetum, Spinogelum, Spinoilum, Espinolum Épinay-sur-Orge, Paris Tolosa Toulouse Caesarodunum, Augusta Turonum, Metropolis civitas Turonum, Turonica civitas, Turones, T(h)oronus Tours Vesontio Besançon Vienna Allobrogium Vienne, Isére Viennavicus Vienne-en-Val, Loiret Vierium Vihiers, Maine-et-Loire Cities and towns in Germany Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) (Colonia Claudia) Ara Agrippinensium Cologne (Köln), North Rhine-Westphalia Aqua Villae Badenweiler Aquisgrana, Aquis Granum, Aquae Grani, Aquensis urbs, Granis aquae Aachen (French Aix-la-Chapelle), North Rhine-Westphalia Antunnacum Andernach, Rhineland-Palatinate Arae Flaviae Rottweil Asopus Aspe Assindia Essen, North Rhine-Westphalia Augusta Vindelicorum Augsburg Aurelia Aquensi Baden-Baden Badena civitas Baden Batavis, Castra Batavorum, Castra Batava Passau Berolinum Berlin Bonna Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia Borbetomagus, Wormatia Worms Brema Bremen Brunsvicum Brunswick (Braunschweig) Cambodunum Kempten, North Rhine-Westphalia Castra Regina, Ratisbona Regensburg Castrum Novaesium Neuss, North Rhine-Westphalia Chemnitium, Chemnicium Chemnitz Cignavia, Cignea, Cygnea, Cynavia Zwickau Clivia Kleve, North Rhine-Westphalia Colonia Agrippina, Colonia Agrippinensis Cologne (Köln), North Rhine-Westphalia Colonia Ulpia Traiana, Vetera Xanten, North Rhine-Westphalia (Castellum apud) Confluentes Koblenz Constantia Konstanz - Constance Cruciniacum Bad Kreuznach, Rhineland-Palatinate Dispargum Duisburg Dresda Dresden Emetha, Amuthon, Embda, Emda, Embden Emden, East Frisia Erfordia, Erphesfurt Erfurt, Thuringia Esilinga, Ezelinga, Ezzilinga Eßlingen Francofortum ad Moenum Frankfurt am Main Friburgum Brisgoviae Freiburg im Breisgau Goettinga Göttingen Gorlicium Görlitz, Saxony Goslaria Goslar, Lower Saxony Hale Suevice Schwäbisch Hall - Hall in Schwaben, Baden-Württemberg Hamburgum, Hamburgium, Hammonia Hamburg Hannovera Hanover (Hannover) Herbipolis Würzburg Hildanus Hilden Iuliacum Jülich, North Rhine-Westphalia Lauriacum Lorch Lindaugia, Lindavia Lindau Lipsia Leipzig Locoritum Lohr, Bavaria Lubica (GOL: Lubicana, Lubeca, Lubecum, Lubacovia, Lybichi) Lübeck - Lubeke, Schleswig-Holstein Magdeburgum Magdeburg Misnia (GOL: Misnensis marchia) Meissen, Saxony Moguncia, Moguntia, Moguntiacum, Mogontiacum Mainz Monachium, Monacum Munich (München) Monasterium in Eifel Bad Münstereifel Monasterium Westphaliae Münster Norimberga Nuremberg (Nürnberg) Northusia Nordhausen Novaesium, Novensium Neuss, North Rhine-Westphalia Noviomagus Nemetum (GOL: Augusta Nemetum, Nemetis, Nemodona, Spira, Spiratia, Sphira, Spyrea) Speyer - Spires, Rhineland-Palatinate Noviomagus Trevirorum (NLU; GOL: Augusta Trevirorum, Treviris, Treberis) Trier - Treves Patavia, Castra Batava Passau Ratisbona, Radaspona Regensburg - Ratisbon, Bavaria Rigomagus Remagen, North Rhine-Westphalia Rostochium (Rhodopolis) Rostock Sumelocenna Rottenburg am Neckar Stutgardia, Stuogardia Stuttgart Tremonia Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia Tubinga Tübingen Tulpiacum, Tolbiacum Zülpich - Tolbiac, North Rhine-Westphalia Vetera, Colonia Ulpia Traiana Xanten Cities and towns in Hungary Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Ad Flexum Mosonmagyaróvár Agria (Medieval Latin) Eger Alba Regia Székesfehérvár Alisca Szekszárd Altinum Kölked Annamatia Baracs Aquincum Budapest (Óbuda) Arrabona Győr Brigetio Komárom - Szőny Budapestum, Budapestinum, Buda Vetus (Medieval Latin) Budapest Caesariana Baláca Campona Budapest (Nagytétény) Cirpi Dunabogdány Civitas Archiepiscopalis Víziváros (Today, a part of Esztergom) Contra-Aquincum Budapest (Pest) Contra Constantiam Dunakeszi Gorsium, Herculia Tác Intercisa Dunaújváros Lussonium Dunakömlőd Matrica Százhalombatta Mursella Mórichida Partiscum Szeged Quadrata Lébény Sala Zalalövő Savaria Szombathely Scarbantia Sopron Solva Esztergom Strigonium (Medieval Latin) Esztergom Sopianae Pécs Tricciana Ságvár Valcum Fenékpuszta Vetus Salina Adony Ulcisia Castra Szentendre Cities and towns in Latvia Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Rugensis civitas Riga Cities and towns in Monaco Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Monaecum (GOL: Monoecum, Portus Herculis Monoeci) Monaco Cities and towns in Netherlands Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Ad Duodecimum unknown location Albaniana Alphen aan den Rijn Amivadum Amersfoort Amstelodamum Amsterdam Arenacum Arnhem Blariacum Blerick Carvium Herwen-De Bijland Carvo Kesteren Caspingio unknown location Castra Herculis Arnhem-Meinerswijk Ceuclum Cuijk Coriovallum Heerlen Daventria Deventer Eindovia Eindhoven Elenio Naaldwijk Fectio Vechten Flevum Velsen Forum Hadriani Voorburg Ganuenta Colijnsplaat Grinnes Rossum Horgana Hargen Laurium, Laurum Woerden Lefevanum Wijk bij Duurstede Lugdunum, Lugdunum Batavorum Katwijk, Brittenburg Matilo Leiden-Roomburg Mariaucum Maurik Mosae Traiectum Maastricht Municipium Aelium Cananefatum Voorburg (MAC) Nigrum Pullum Zwammerdam Praetorium Agrippina Valkenburg (South Holland) (Zuid-Holland) Ruraemunde Roermond Sablones Venlo Silva Ducis Den Bosch ('s-Hertogenbosch) Tablis unknown location Traiectum Utrecht Traiectum ad Mosam Maastricht Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum (HLU; GOL: Batavodurum, Niumagum, Niwimagum, Neumaia) Nijmegen - Neumagen - Nimwegan, Gelderland Venlonum Venlo Vienna (Nederlandia), Vigenna Vianen Vadae Wageningen Cities and towns in Norway Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Osloensis Oslo Bergensis Bergen Hamarensis Hamar Cities and towns in Poland Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Bethania, Bithomia Bytom Bilici-Biala, Bielici-Biala Bielsko-Biała Bydgostia Bydgoszcz Calisia Kalisz Cervimontium, Mons Cervi (adj. cervimontanus, hirschbergensis) Jelenia Góra Cracovia Kraków Culmen Chełmno Elbinga, Elbingus, Elbinca, Elbangum, Elbingense castrum Elbląg Gedania, Gedanum, Dantiscum Gdańsk Glivitium Gliwice Ostrovia Ostrów, Ostrów Wielkopolski Posnania, Poznania Poznań Resovia Rzeszów Sandomir Sandomierz Siradia Sieradz Stargardia Stargard Szczeciński Thorunium Toruń Varsovia, Varsavia Warsaw (Warszawa) Vratislavia, Wratislavia Wrocław Cities and towns in Russia Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Archangelopolis (GOL: S. Michaeli Archangeli fanum, Michaelopolis) Archangelsk Asovia (GOL: Assovium; HLU: Tanais) Azov Astrachan (HLU: Astrachanum) Astrachan Casan, Cazan (GOL: Casanum, Kazanum) Kazan Catharinaburgum Pareus, Daniel: Historia Bavarico-Palatina. - Frankfurt [Main], 1717. Ekaterinburg Iaroslavia (GOL: Jereslavia) Yaroslavl Iuliania Ulianovsk Moscua, Mosqua, Moscovia (HLU: Moscha) Moscow Novogardia Inferior Nizhny Novgorod Novogardia Magna Veliky Novgorod Orientburgum Orenburg Permia Perm Petropolis, Petroburgum (GOL: St. Petri fanum) Saint Petersburg Pscovia Pskov Regiomontium (GOL: Regiomontum, Regalis, Regius) Kaliningrad, Königsberg Resan, Rezan (GOL: Rhezania; HLU: Rezana) Ryazan Rostovia Rostov Smolenscum (GOL: Smolska) Smolensk Stauropolis Stavropol Tueria (GOL: Tuera, Twera) Tver Volodimiria Vladimir Viatcia Kirov, Vyatka Viburga, Viburgum Careliorum (GOL: Viburgus) Vyborg Cities and towns in Slovakia Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Cassovia Košice Castrum Novum Nové Zámky Bartfa Bardejov Forum Dominarum Bátovce Semnichia Banská Štiavnica Celemantia Iža Comaromium Komárno Kismarkinum, Forum Caseorum Kežmarok Crempnichia Kremnica Leuchovia Levoča Prividia Prievidza Iglovia, Nova Villa Spišská Nová Ves Suburbium, Villa Sub Castro Spišské Vlachy Lublovia Stará Ľubovňa Divinium Devín Villa Theutonicalis Poprad Eperiessinum, Fragopolis Prešov Gerulata Rusovce, Bratislava Laugaricio Trenčín Tyrnavia Trnava Neosolium Banská Bystrica Posonium, Wratisslaburgium Bratislava Veterosolium, Vetusolium, Solium Zvolen Cities and towns in Sweden Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Amalia Åmål Arosia Västerås Boërosia Borås Calmaria Kalmar Caroli Corona Karlskrona Carolina Vetus Gamla Karleby Christinae portus Kristinehamn Christiania Kristianstad Cimbrorum portus Simrishamn Copinga Köping Coronia Landskrona Dalecarlius Dalälven Delisboa Delsbo Eckesioea, Ecksium Eksjö Encopia Enköping Falcopia Falköping Gevalia Gävle Gothia Gothenburg (Göteborg) Halmostadium Halmstad Hiovia Hjo Holmia, Stockholmia Stockholm Hudvicovaldum Hudiksvall Iuncopia Jönköping Lagaholmia Laholm Lidcopia Lidköping Lincopia Linköping Lindesberga, Linda Lindesberg Lula Luleå Lunda Lund Malmogia Malmö Medicorum villa Medevibrunn Nicopia Nyköping Norcopia Norrköping Orebrogia Örebro Oresundae Öresund Pax Mariae Mariefred Pitovia Piteå Schedina Skövde Stenbrovium Stenbro Stocholmia, Holmia Stockholm Sudercopia Söderköping Telga Tälje Upsala Uppsala Uraniburgum Uranienborg Urbs Mariae Mariestad Vadstenium Vadstena Vemmaria, Wemmaria Vimmerby Vexionia Växjö Visingsburgum, Wisingsburgum Visingsborg Ystadium, Istadium, Ustadium Ystad Cities and towns in Switzerland Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Acaunum, Agaunum Saint Maurice, Valais Ad Fines Pfyn, Thurgau Aquae Helveticae Baden, Aargau Arbor Felix Arbon, Thurgau Augusta Raurica Kaiseraugst (Augst) Aventicum Avenches, Vaud Basilia, Basilea Basel Berna Bern Brienzola Brienz, Bern Brunntrudum, Bruntraut Pruntrut Curia Chur, Graubünden Eburodunum Yverdon-les-Bains, Vaud Esquinia Écône Ezelinga, Esselinga Esseling, Zürich Genava Geneva Lousonna Lausanne, Vaud Morgiis Morges Noviodunum (Colonia Iulia Equestris) Nyon, Vaud Octodurum Martigny, Valais Solodurum/Salodurum Solothurn Suitia Schwyz Tugium Zug Turicum Zürich Urba Orbe, Vaud Vibiscum Vevey, Vaud Vindonissa Windisch, Aargau Vitudurum Winterthur, Canton of Zürich Cities and towns in Ukraine Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Chiovia, Kiovia Kiev Chersonesus Taurica Kherson Chersonesus Nordica Korsun-Shevchenkivskyi Leopolis Lviv Novogradia Severiae Novhorod-Siverskyi Pereaslavia Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi Sebastopolis Sevastopol Sympheropolis, Neapolis Scyphica Simferopol Marinopolis Mariyampil Melitopolis Melitopol Theodosia Feodosia Eupatoria Eupatoria Theophania Feofaniya Ternopolis Ternopil References In order of likely publication: PNH: Pliny (Gaius Plinius Secundus), Naturalis Historia; book "PNH" chapter (that is, "37PNH81" instead of the usual "N.H.xxxvii.81"). PG: Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), Geographia; book "PG" chapter (that is, "2PG3" instead of the usual "II.3"). Ptolemy wrote in Greek, so names are transliterated back into Latin to reveal the original form. HLU: Hofmann, Johann Jacob (1635-1706): Lexicon Universale GOL: The standard reference to Latin placenames, with their modern equivalents, is Dr. J. G. Th. Graesse, Orbis Latinus : Lexikon lateinischer geographischer Namen des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (1909), an exhaustive work of meticulous German scholarship that is available on-line. To use it, one must understand German names of countries, as they were in 1909. The original was re-edited and expanded in a multi-volume edition in 1972. See also List of Latin place names in Iberia List of Latin place names in the Balkans References External links Graesse, Orbis Latinus Hofmann: Lexicon Universale Place Names of Europe Pliny the Elder: the Natural History Ptolemy: the Geography | List_of_Latin_place_names_in_Continental_Europe,_Ireland_and_Scandinavia |@lemmatized list:8 include:1 continental:1 european:1 country:2 region:2 part:2 roman:3 empire:1 give:1 latin:30 place:9 name:78 historical:3 reference:4 large:1 portion:1 latter:1 create:1 middle:2 age:2 often:2 base:1 scholarly:1 etiology:1 confuse:1 actual:1 modern:5 settlement:1 bore:1 antiquity:1 background:1 era:1 common:1 language:39 scholarship:2 mapmaking:1 century:1 german:3 scholar:1 particular:1 make:1 significant:1 contribution:1 study:3 ortsnamenkunde:1 turn:1 contribute:1 genealogy:1 genealogist:1 historian:1 pre:1 europe:3 know:1 alternate:1 vital:1 extract:1 information:2 public:1 private:1 record:2 even:1 specialist:1 field:1 point:1 however:1 easily:1 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massilia:1 marseille:1 medicinum:1 mézin:1 lot:1 et:2 garonne:1 mediolanum:2 aulercorum:1 evreux:1 santonum:1 narbo:1 martius:1 narbonne:1 aude:1 nemausus:1 nîmes:1 nicaea:1 nicia:1 nice:1 noviodunum:2 soissons:1 noviomagus:5 lexoviorum:1 lexovium:1 lisieux:1 calvados:1 veromanduorum:1 noviomium:1 noviomense:1 palatium:1 noviomum:1 novionum:1 noyon:1 novio:1 rito:1 niortum:1 novirogus:1 nyrax:1 niort:1 deux:1 sèvres:1 ramboletium:1 rambouillet:1 rotomagus:1 rouen:1 samarobriva:1 amiens:1 sancti:1 audoeni:1 fanum:3 villa:5 aut:1 domus:1 ouen:1 spinetum:1 spinogelum:1 spinoilum:1 espinolum:1 épinay:1 orge:1 tolosa:1 toulouse:1 caesarodunum:1 turonum:2 metropolis:1 turonica:1 turones:1 h:2 oronus:1 tour:1 vesontio:1 besançon:1 allobrogium:1 vienne:2 isére:1 viennavicus:1 val:1 loiret:1 vierium:1 vihiers:1 maine:1 loire:1 germany:1 claudia:1 ara:1 agrippinensium:1 köln:2 north:14 rhine:14 westphalia:14 villae:1 badenweiler:1 aquisgrana:1 aquis:1 granum:1 aquae:1 grani:1 aquensis:1 urbs:2 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3,992 | Hashish | "Blonde" hashish Hashish (pronounced as hasheesh) (from Arabic: , lit. "grass", from hashsha "to become dry"; also Hash) is a preparation of cannabis composed of the compressed stalked resin glands called trichomes, collected from the cannabis plant. It contains the same active ingredients but in higher concentrations than other parts of the plant such as the buds or the leaves. Psychoactive effects are the same as those of other cannabis preparations such as marijuana. It is sometimes believed that the effects are different, but those differences usually stem from variations between regionally different Cannabis specimens, that are more traditionally processed into hashish. Hashish is often a solid or paste-like substance of varying hardness and pliability, and will soften under heat. Its color can vary from green, black, reddish brown, or most commonly light to dark brown. It is consumed in much the same way as cannabis buds, used by itself in a miniature smoking pipe, hookah, bong or bubbler, vaporized, hot knifed, or smoked in joints mixed with tobacco, cannabis buds, or other herbs. It can also be eaten alone as well as used as an ingredient in food. History Hashish It is believed that hash first originated from Middle East, liably, it may have originated in Northern India which also has a very long social tradition in the production of Hashish which is locally known as Charas. Cannabis sativa subsp. indica grows wild almost everywhere in the Indian sub-continent and special strains have been particularly cultivated for production of 'ganja' and 'hashish' particularly in Kerala, Rajasthan and the Himalayas. The earliest hashish was created without the use of sieves. The ancients would gently rub their palms and fingers on cannabis buds for hours while resin accumulated on their hands and then scrape that resin off. This sort of primitive harvesting is undertaken even today in the Cannabis growing farms of Manali, Naggar and Upper Himachal Pradesh. Assassins The word 'assassin' may have been derived from the Arabic word حشّاشين (haššāšīn), or "Hashshāshīn". The Hashashin were allegedly inspired to commit murder under the influence of hashish. The legend of hashish-eating assassins began with a vague mention by Marco Polo, and was embellished by 19th century French and American writers, fascinated by orientalism and eager to present hashish as a menace. The legend gained great popularity especially through Charles Baudelaire's Artificial Paradises of 1857, just as the marketing of pre-rolled tobacco cigarettes was getting underway after the Crimean War (1853). Others argue that the term could have been created due to political reasons, in order to discredit the sect. It has also been suggested that if hashish were in fact consumed, it had been adulterated with stronger materials, the effects of hashish being well-known and easily recognizable at that time and place. No reports of a statistical linkage between hashish and violent crime have been published in known scientific literature, instead it has been found to generally inhibit aggressive impulses. Shafer, Raymond P. et al. Marihuana: A Signal of Misunderstanding, Ch III. Washington DC: National Committee on Marijuana and Drug Abuse. http://drugwarfacts.org/cms/?q=node/53 Consumption of hashish saw an increase in the 20th century, in Europe and America, associated with the hippie scene which promoted pacifism and introspection. Hashish use declined significantly in the United States starting in the 1980s for several reasons, including U.S. political pressures against Afghanistan and the ensuing Soviet invasion, the Reagan-escalated War on Drugs, a huge jump in price, and the success of marijuana cultivators in North America with new growing methods for increasing THC production, such as growing marijuana indoors. Manufacturing processes Stalked trichomes of the Cannabis plant. Hashish is made from cannabinoid-rich glandular hairs known as trichomes, as well as varying amounts of cannabis flower and leaf fragments. The flowers of a mature female plant contain the most trichomes, though trichomes are found on other parts of the plant. Certain strains of cannabis are cultivated specifically for their ability to produce large amounts of trichomes. The resin reservoirs of the trichomes, sometimes erroneously called pollen, are separated from the plant through various methods. The resulting powder is compressed into blocks of hashish aided by heat, which can be easily stored and transported. Alternatively, the powder consisting of uncompressed, dry trichomes is often referred to as 'kief' instead of 'hashish'. Mechanical separation methods use physical action to remove the trichomes from the plant. Sieving through a fine screen is a vital part of most methods. The plants may be sifted by hand or in motorized tumblers. Hash made in this way is sometimes called 'dry sift'. 'Finger hash' is produced by rolling the ripe trichome-covered flowers of the plant between the fingers, rupturing the trichomes, and collecting the freed resin that sticks to the fingers. Ice water separation is a more modern mechanical separation method which submerges the plant in ice and water and stirs the mixture. Trichomes are broken off the plant as the ice moves and the low temperature makes the trichomes so brittle they break off easily. The waste plant matter, detached trichomes, and water are separated by filtering through a series of increasingly fine screens. Kits are commercially available which provide a series of filter screens meant to fit inside standard bucket sizes. Hash made in this way is sometimes called 'ice hash', or 'bubble hash'. Chemical separation methods generally use a solvent such as ethanol or hexane to dissolve the lipophilic desirable resin. The remaining plant material is then filtered out of the solution and sent to the compost. The solvent is then evaporated, leaving behind the desirable resins, called honey oil, 'hash oil', or just 'oil'. Honey oil still contains waxes and essential oils and can be further purified by vacuum distillation to yield 'red oil'. The product of chemical separations is more commonly referred to as 'honey oil'. Quality Hashish The main factors affecting quality are potency and purity. Different cannabis plants will produce resins with unique chemical profiles that vary in potency. Some forms of hashish are described as producing a "body stone" while others are more of a "head high". So far it has not been possible to verify such differences scientifically by correlating effects with different chemical compositions. Tiny pieces of leaf matter or even purposefully added adulterants introduced when the hash is being produced will reduce the purity of the material. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of hashish usually ranges from 15–20%, and that of hash oil from 30–40%. Fresh hashish of good quality is soft and pliable and becomes progressively harder and less potent as its THC content oxidizes to cannabinol and as essential oils evaporate. Hash is generally said to be black, brown or blond. There is also hashish of greenish or reddish hue. A green tinge may indicate that the hashish contains a large amount of leaf material. Hashish color usually reflects the methods of harvesting, manufacturing, and storage. Hashish by region Production Cannabis crop in Afghanistan Hashish is traditionally produced in warm conditions. It is traditionally found in a belt extending from North Africa, Egypt to North India and into Central Asia . The primary hash-producing countries are India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Morocco, Lebanon and Egypt. Charas is the name of hashish that has been hand-rubbed directly from the cannabis plant. It is primarily produced in Afghanistan and Pakistan and to a smaller extent the rest of the subcontinent. Today, the word charas is common word for hash in a majority of the subcontinent, despite the fact that different methods may be used other than the hand-rubbed method. The most popular and sought after form of charas is produced in the tribal areas of Pakistan bordering Afghanistan. Popular destinations include the tribal areas themselves as well as adjacent Pakistani states such as Peshawar. A visitor to the Rif Mountains and the town of Ketama in Morocco in December 1976 described the production of hashish. In unheated huts, each worker placed his hands and arms inside a fertilizer sack. The depths of the bag was filled with leaves of the cannabis plant. In the mouth of the bag was a plastic washing-up bowl, over which was stretched a sheet of "zero-zero" grade muslin. The worker rubbed the leaves of the cannabis plant against the muslin, resulting in a fine powder falling into the bowl. 100 grams of the powder would be wrapped in more of the same fine muslin, put onto a heated metal plate, and rolled down with a bottle. This process produces a slightly sticky solid brown mass in the form of a rectangular slab, quite a bit smaller than a paperback book and 5 mm thick. The block was then wrapped in cellophane. Sellers of this Moroccan hashish pointed to the imprint of the muslin on the surface of the block, and declared it proof that the product was "zero-zero", top quality. In Afghanistan there is a method of making hash that resembles charas. First, cannabis resin is placed on a heated mortar about the size of a box, then the resin is threshed with a heavy object. The result is a very gooey, sticky black hash. This method is mostly used in villages around the Hindu Kush mountain region. Hashish is also produced in the deserts of northern Mexico. Preparation and methods of use Like ordinary cannabis preparations, hashish is usually smoked, though it can also be eaten or vaporised. Hash is sometimes prepared for smoking by heating it with a flame for a couple of seconds, producing some bubbling or sizzling as moisture and essential oils evaporate. It then softens and can be sliced with a sharp knife, crumbled into tiny pieces or formed into shapes to obtain maximum surface area when burning. The resulting lower burning temperature permits more THC to be released in its active form. Vaporization Vaporizer (left) and bong (right) Used with hashish as with any cannabis, tobacco or other herb material, a vaporizer can volatize cannabinoids at low temperatures of 140 °C, protecting against loss of this ingredient which occurs in burning, and eliminating carbon monoxide and other toxic combustion gases. Since hashish is solid, its surface area may be enlarged by cutting slices or breaking into small crumbs to achieve maximum cannabinoid vaporization. Screened single-toke utensil The Midwakh, shown here, is made in the U.A.E. It may be connected to a long draw-tube, such as those used on hookahs, to cool the smoke before it reaches the user's trachea. The lowest burning temperature is achieved with a narrow-diameter mini-pipe http://www.wikihow.com/Make-Smoke-Pipes-From-Everyday-Objects such as the traditional kiseru or midwakh, with a long drawtube added, or hand-made by fitting a 1/4"=6-mm.-inner-diameter socket wrench or hose nipple with a mesh-40 (i.e. having 1/40" or 0.6-mm. windows) pre-shaped screen http://www.wikihow.com/Make-a-1/4%22-diam.-Screen-for-a-Single-Toke-Utensil nested snugly in the crater, permitting the practiced user to draw air slowly through the long draw-tube (an art akin to pranayama yoga), controlling the burning temperature and giving the cannabinoids in any part of the hashish time to vaporize out prior to combustion, being heated by an already burning adjacent part of the hashish. For this purpose a sharp knife may be used to cut very thin slices or sticks, of which about 25 mg worth are then gathered into the crater for a single serving. Semivaporizer technique Pre-burn vaporization is assisted by holding a lighter flame for several seconds near enough to the crater opening to heat the contents inside but delaying as long as possible their catching on fire, while continually sucking slowly through the draw-tube. Auxiliary herbs Of herbs, if any, to use as an aid to this minimal burning technique, hops (Humulus lupulus) flowers, ground to a fine particle size in a mesh-16 screen strainer, are the most delicate and interfere least with perceiving the taste of the hashish. Eucalyptus leaf also has a low combustion point but adds a strong flavor, as does oregano. Mild species include various flowers, basil, catnip (Nepeta cataria), damiana, dandelion, ginseng (leaf), lemon balm (melissa), marjoram, parsley, savory, tarragon, thyme, uva ursi (kinnickinnick). http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Smoking_cessation#Herbal_alternatives Dabous A piece of hash may be ignited by cigarette coals or other means and placed inside a container, such as a plastic bottle. The smoke that collects inside can then be inhaled. 'Dabous' or 'Khabour', but most commonly "shisha" (glass in Arabic) is a North African technique. This technique is commonly referred to as "Bots" or "BTs" ("Bottle-Tokes") or simply "Ts/Tees" in Canada. Cooking As cannabinoids are fat-soluble, they dissolve in oils and fats, including butter. Finely crumbled or dissolved hashish can be used for cooking (see hash cookies and Alice B. Toklas brownies). See also Honey Oil Club des Hashischins - A club in Paris in the 1840s, dedicated to explore the effect of drugs, specifically hashish. Charles Baudelaire - A member of the club mentioned above, who in Les paradis artificiels (1860) described the effects of opium and hashish. Fitz Hugh Ludlow and his autobiographical The Hasheesh Eater (1857). Charas Kief Legality of cannabis Legality of cannabis by country Further history Erowid Cannabis Vault: Hashish History The Hashish Club - Paris 1840s W.W. Willoughby: Indian Hemp (Hashisch), 1925 Further reading Hashish by Robert Connell Clarke, ISBN 0-929349-05-9 Artificial Paradises by Charles Baudelaire; first edition 1860 The Hasheesh Eater by Fitz Hugh Ludlow; first edition 1857 Indoor Marijuana Horticulture, by Jorge Cervantes, ISBN 1-878823-29-9 ; 2001, reprinted 2005 References Marijuana Potency, Michael Starkes, 1977, And/Or Press Berkley California, ISBN 0-91504-27-6 Chapter 6 "Extraction of THC and Preparation of Hash Oil" pages 111-122. External links Analysis of adulterated hashish Neil Montgomery of the University of Edinburgh's findings on adulterated hashish Hashish of the world (types, cultivation and production) Methods for THC extraction (Bubble Hash) Description of the Hashish Experience by R.P. Walton M.D. Ph. D. Bibliography of scholarly histories on cannabis and hashish. 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3,993 | Rise_and_Fall_of_the_City_of_Mahagonny | Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny) is a political-satirical opera composed by Kurt Weill to a German libretto by Bertolt Brecht. It was first performed in Leipzig on March 9, 1930. Production history Following the Leipzig premiere, the opera was presented in Berlin in December 1931 at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm conducted by Alexander von Zemlinsky with Lotte Lenya as Jenny, Trude Hesterberg as Begbick, and Harald Paulsen as Jimmy. Another production was presented in January 1934 in Copenhagen at the Det ny Teater. Other productions within Europe waited until the end of the Second World War, some notable ones being in January 1963 in London at Sadler's Wells Opera conducted by Colin Davis and in Berlin in September 1977 by the Komische Oper. In the U.S., a short-lived April 1970 production at the Phyllis Anderson Theatre off Broadway, starred Barbara Harris as Jenny and Estelle Parsons as Begbick. Finally, in November 1979 it received its New York premiere at the Metropolitan Opera in a John Dexter production and conducted by James Levine. The cast included Teresa Stratas as Jenny, Astrid Varnay as Begbick, Richard Cassilly as Jimmy, Cornell MacNeil as Moses, Ragnar Ulfung as Fatty and Paul Plishka as Joe. The Los Angeles Opera presented the opera in September 1989 under conductor Kent Nagano and with a Jonathan Miller production. That company's February 2007 production directed by John Doyle and conducted by James Conlon included Audra McDonald as Jenny, Patti LuPone as Begbick, and Anthony Dean Griffey as Jimmy. This production was recorded on DVD, and subsequently won the 2009 Grammy Awards for "Best Classical Album" and "Best Opera Recording." Other notable productions in Europe from the 1980s included the March 1986 presentation by the Scottish Opera in Glasgow; a June 1990 production in Firenze by the Maggio musicale fiorentino. In October 1995, the Paris Opéra staged by Graham Vick, under the baton of Jeffrey Tate. The July 1998 Salzburg Festival production featured Catherine Malfitano as Jenny, Gwyneth Jones as Begbick, and Jerry Hadley as Jimmy. Productions within the US in the last ten years have included those in November 1998 by the Lyric Opera of Chicago directed by David Alden. Catherine Malfitano repeated her role as Jenny, while Felicity Palmer sang Begbick, and Kim Begley sang in the role of Jimmy. Roles RoleVoice typePremiere Cast,9 March 1930(Conductor: Gustav Brecher)Leocadia Begbick, a fugitivemezzo-sopranoDreieinigkeitsmoses (Trinity Moses), another fugitivebaritoneFatty der Prokurist (Fatty the Bookkeeper), a third fugitivetenorJimmy Mahoney, an Alaskan lumberjacktenorSparbüchsen Billy (Moneybags Billy), Jimmy's friendbaritoneJacob Schmidt, Jimmy's friendtenorAlaskawolfe Joe, Jimmy's friendbassJenny Smith, a whoresopranoToby HigginstenorAn announcer Synopsis Act 1 Scene 1: A desolate no-man’s land A truck breaks down. Three fugitives from justice get out: Fatty the Bookkeeper, Trinity Moses, and Leocadia Begbick. Because the federal agents pursuing them will not search this far north, and they are in a good location to attract ships coming south from the Alaskan gold fields, Begbick decides that they can profit by staying where they are and founding a pleasure city, where men can have fun, because there is nothing else in the world to rely on. Scene 2 The news of Mahagonny spreads quickly, and sharks from all over flock to the bait, including the whore Jenny Smith, who is seen, with six other girls, singing the "Alabama Song", in which she waves goodbye to her home and sets out in pursuit of whiskey, dollars and pretty boys. Scene 3 In the big cities, where men lead boring, purposeless lives, Fatty and Moses spread the gospel of Mahagonny, city of gold, among the disillusioned. Scene 4 Four Alaskan Lumberjacks who have shared hard times together in the timberlands and made their fortunes set off together for Mahagonny. Jimmy Mahoney and his three friends – Jacob Schmidt, Bank Account Billy, and Alaska Wolf Joe – sing of the pleasures awaiting them in "Off to Mahagonny", they look forward to the peace and pleasure they will find there. Scene 5 The four friends arrive in Mahagonny, only to find other disappointed travelers already leaving. Begbick, well-informed about their personal tastes, marks down her prices, but for the penurious Billy they still seem too high. Jimmy impatiently calls for the girls of Mahagonny to show themselves, so he can make a choice. Begbick suggests Jenny as the right girl for Jack, who finds her rates too high. She pleads with Jack to reconsider ("Havana Song"), which arouses Jim’s interest, and he chooses her. Jenny and the girls sing a tribute to "the Jimmys from Alaska." Scene 6 Jimmy and Jenny get to know one another as she asks him to define the terms of their contact: Does he wish her to wear her hair up or down, to wear fancy underwear or none at all? "What is your wish?" asks Jim, but Jenny evades answering. Scene 7 Begbick, Fatty and Moses meet to discuss the pleasure city’s financial crisis: People are leaving in droves, and the price of whiskey is sinking rapidly. Begbick suggests going back to civilization, but Fatty reminds her that the federal agents have been inquiring for her in nearby Pensacola. Money would solve everything, declares Begbick, and she decides to soak the four new arrivals for all they’ve got. Scene 8 Jimmy, restless, attempts to leave Mahagonny; it’s too peaceful for him. His three friends, in close harmony, try to persuade him to stay. Eventually their threats drive Jim, his anger vented, back to the city. Scene 9 In front of the Rich Man’s Hotel, Jimmy and the others sit lazily as a pianist plays Thekla Badarzewska's "The Maiden’s Prayer". With growing anger, Jimmy sings of how his hard work and suffering in Alaska have led only to this. Drawing a knife, he shouts for Begbick, while his friends try to disarm him and the other men call to have him thrown out. Calm again, he tells Begbick that Mahagonny can never make people happy: it has too much peace and quiet. Scene 10 As if in answer to Jimmy’s complaint, the city is threatened by a typhoon. Everyone sings in horror of the destruction awaiting them. Scene 11 Tensely, people watch for the hurricane’s arrival. The men sing a hymn-like admonition not to be afraid. Jim meditatively compares Nature’s savagery to the far greater destructiveness of Man. Why do we build, he asks, if not for the pleasure of destroying? Since Man can outdo any hurricane, fear makes no sense. For the sake of human satisfaction, nothing should be forbidden: If you want another man’s money, his house or his wife, knock him down and take it; do what you please. As Begbick and the men ponder Jimmy’s philosophy, Fatty and Moses rush in with news: The hurricane has unexpectedly struck Pensacola, destroying Begbick’s enemies, the federal agents. Begbick and her cohorts take it as a sign that Jimmy is right; they join him, Jenny, and his three friends in singing a new, defiant song: If someone walks on, then it’s me, and if someone gets walked on, then it’s you. In the background, the men continue to chant their hymn as the hurricane draws nearer. Act 2 Scene 12 Magically, the hurricane bypasses Mahagonny, and the people sing in awe of their miraculous rescue. This confirms Begbick’s belief in the philosophy of "Do what you want," and she proceeds to put it into effect. Scene 13 At the renovated "Do It" tavern. The men sing of the four pleasures of life: Eating, Lovemaking, Fighting and Drinking. First comes eating: To kitschy cafe music, Jimmy’s friend Jacob gorges until he keels over and dies. The men sing a chorale over his body, saluting "a man without fear". Scene 14: Loving. While Begbick collects money and issues tips on behavior, Moses placates the impatient men waiting in line to make love to Jenny and the other whores. The men sing the "Mandalay Song", warning that love doesn’t last forever, and urging those ahead of them to make it snappy. Scene 15: Fighting. The men flock to see a boxing match between Trinity Moses and Jim’s friend Alaska Wolf Joe. While most of the men, including the ever-cautious Billy, bet on the burly Moses, Jim, out of friendship, bets heavily on Joe. The match is manifestly unfair; Moses not only wins but kills Joe in knocking him out. Scene 16: Drinking. In an effort to shake off the gloom of Joe’s death, Jimmy invites everyone to have a drink on him. The men sing "Life in Mahagonny", describing how one could live in the city for only five dollars a day, but those who wanted to have fun always needed more. Jim, increasingly drunk, dreams of sailing back to Alaska. He takes down a curtain rod for a mast and climbs on the pool table, pretending it is a ship; Jenny and Billy play along. Jimmy is abruptly sobered up when Begbick demands payment for the whiskey as well as for the damage to her property. Totally broke, he turns in a panic to Jenny, who explains her refusal to help him out in the song "Make your own bed" – an adaptation of the ideas he proclaimed at the end of Act One. Jim is led off in chains as the chorus, singing another stanza of "Life in Mahagonny", returns to its pastimes. Trinity Moses assures the crowd that Jimmy will pay for his crimes with his life. Scene 17 At night, Jim alone and chained to a lamppost, sings a plea for the sun not to rise on the day of his impending trial. Act 3 Scene 18: In the courtroom Moses, like a carnival barker, sells tickets to the trials. He serves as prosecutor, Fatty as defense attorney, Begbick as judge. First comes the case of Toby Higgins, accused of premeditated murder for the purpose of testing an old revolver. Fatty invites the injured party to rise, but no one does so, since the dead do not speak. Toby bribes all three, and as a result, Begbick dismisses the case. Next Jimmy’s case is called. Chained, he is led in by Billy, from whom he tries to borrow money; Billy of course refuses, despite Jim’s plea to remember their time together in Alaska. In virtually the same speech he used to attack Higgins, Moses excoriates him for not paying his bills, for seducing Jenny (who presents herself as a plaintiff) to commit a "carnal act" with him for money, and for inciting the crowd with "an illegal joyous song" on the night of the typhoon. Billy, with the chorus’s support, counters that, in committing the latter act, Jimmy discovered the laws by which Mahagonny lives. Moses argues that Jim hastened his friend Joe’s death in a prizefight by betting on him, and Billy counters by asking who actually killed Joe. Moses does not reply. But there is no answer for the main count against him. Jim gets short sentences for his lesser crimes, but for having no money, he is sentenced to death. Begbick, Fatty and Moses, rising to identify themselves as the injured parties, proclaim "in the whole human race / there is no greater criminal / than a man without money". As Jim is led off to await execution, everyone sings the "Benares Song", in which they long for that exotic city "where the sun is shining." But Benares has been destroyed by an earthquake. "Where shall we go?" they ask. Scene 19: At the gallows Jim says a tender goodbye to Jenny, who, dressed in white, declares herself his widow. He surrenders her to Billy, his last remaining companion from Alaska. When he tries to delay the execution by reminding the people of Mahagonny that God exists, they play out for him, under Moses’s direction, the story of "God in Mahagonny", in which the Almighty condemns the town and is overthrown by its citizens, who declare that they can’t be sent to Hell because they are already in Hell. Jim, chastened, asks only for a glass of water, but is refused even this as Moses gives the signal for the trap to be sprung. Scene 20 A caption advises that, after Jim’s death, increasing hostility among the city’s various factions has caused the destruction of Mahagonny. To a potpourri of themes from earlier in the opera, groups of protesters are seen on the march, in conflict with one another, while the city burns in the background. Jenny and the whores carry Jim’s clothing and accessories like sacred relics; Billy and several men carry his coffin. In a new theme, they and the others declare, "Nothing you can do will help a dead man". Begbick, Fatty and Moses appear with placards of their own, joining the entire company in its march and declaring "Nothing will help him or us or you now," as the opera ends in chaos. History The libretto was mainly written in early 1927 and the music was finished in the spring of 1929, although both text and music were to be partly revised by the authors later. An early by-product, however, was the Mahagonny-Songspiel, sometimes known as Das kleine Mahagonny, a concert work for voices and small orchestra commissioned by the Deutsche Kammermusik Festival in Baden-Baden and premiered there on 18 July 1927. The ten numbers, which include the "Alabama Song" and "Benares Song", were duly incorporated into the full opera. The opera had its premiere in Leipzig in March 1930 and played in Berlin in December of the following year. The opera was banned by the Nazis in 1933 and did not have a significant production until the 1960s. It was not presented in the United States until 1970,in a production presented in Greenwich Village with Barbara Harris as Jenny and Estelle Parsons as Begbick. It has played in opera houses around the world. Never achieving the popularity of Weill and Brecht's The Threepenny Opera, Mahagonny is still considered a work of stature with a haunting score. Herbert Lindenberger in his book Opera in History, for example, views Mahagonny alongside Schoenberg's Moses und Aron as indicative of the two poles of modernist opera. Weill's score uses a number of styles, including rag-time, jazz and formal counterpoint, notably in the "Alabama Song" (covered by The Doors and later David Bowie). The lyrics for the "Alabama Song" and another song, the "Benares Song" are in English (albeit specifically idiosyncratic English) and are performed in that language even when the opera is performed in its original (German) language. In the spring of 2007, the opera was staged by John Doyle in the L.A. Opera. This production starred Patti LuPone as Begbick and Audra McDonald as Jenny. It was taped and was broadcast as part of PBS' Great Performances on December 17, 2007, and released on a region-free DVD the day after. It features an interview with conductor James Conlon. Brecht and Weill were evidently under the misapprehension that the Irish surname "Mahoney" is accented on the first syllable, an error which cannot be corrected because the songs are written to fit the mispronunciation. (In fact, in Ireland, the surname "Mahony" is accented on the first syllable, while in the US, the accent falls on the second syllable.) Accordingly, in the L.A. Opera production the character was renamed "Jimmy McIntyre." Miscellaneous facts The 2005 movie Manderlay, directed by Lars Von Trier, contains several references to the plot of Mahagonny. The most notable of these is the threat of a hurricane approaching the city during the first act. Von Trier's earlier movie Dogville, to which Manderlay is a sequel, was for a large part based on a song from Brecht's famous Threepenny Opera ("Pirate Jenny"). In the brothel scene in Act II of Mahagonny, the choir sings a "Song von Mandelay". The play Happy End (1929) by Elisabeth Hauptmann, Brecht and Weill, also contains a song called "Der Song von Mandelay", which uses the same refrain as in the brothel scene of Mahagonny. Brecht's use of the name Mandelay/Mandalay was inspired by Rudyard Kipling's poem "Mandalay". Themes Satire of Opera To an extent, Mahagonny is an opera that satirizes operas. Brecht said that "[i]t attacks the society that needs operas of such a sort" and Weill said that it "pays conscious tribute to the irrationality of the operatic form". Unwin, S. "A Guide to the Plays of Bertolt Brecht" Methuen, London. 2005. pp. 120–122 Both thought operas had become too full of ritual and bereft of substance, and Mahagonny in part sought to deflate the pompous arrogance of traditional opera. With this aim, many traditional operatic themes are subverted and made grotesque; love becomes a commodity, the deus ex machina tells everyone to go to hell, the law is run by criminals, etc. A traditional opera theme is true love, but in Mahagonny the closest such thing is the love between Jimmy and the prostitute Jenny. Furthermore, when given the choice to pay off Jimmy's debt and save his life, she tearfully regrets that while she loves him and will miss him dearly, she cannot part with her money. This commodification of love is brought to a grotesque apex after the hurricane spares Mahagonny; the residents now feel free to do what they want, and naturally they want to love. Consequently, in Act 2 scene 3, the largely male population take turns having sex with the prostitutes. In contrast to the supposed theme of love, the scene portrays a perverse form of love; the prostitutes are carted around like giant slabs of meat and the "love" is regimented by the queue of men each waiting impatiently for their own turn. The "Mandalay Song" also heightens the ongoing tension. At no point is the music entirely tonal, and while the tune is seemingly jazzy and carefree, the tonalities betray an uneasiness about the whole business. In Mahagonny, operatic love is mutated from a grand aspiration to a mere commodity. Another trope of operas is the deus ex machina, in which the protagonist is saved at the last minute by divine intervention. This is a useful technique to quickly wrap up a story and make a happy ending, and has been used in drama many times. In Mahagonny, though there are no supernatural occurrences for most of the opera, there is in fact a deus ex machina; God himself comes to Mahagonny right before Jimmy is executed. The typical opera would have God solving all the problems just in time for the end of the opera, but Mahagonnys god does not. He does not even acknowledge that Jimmy is tied up and ready to be killed, but at least tries to fix the moral problems in Mahagonny. He tries to convince them to give up their degraded way of life, but the residents all refuse the offer. God then tells them literally to go to hell, but the people are not even offended; they proclaim that they already are in hell so that is no punishment. After fixing nothing, God then lets Jimmy have his say. Jimmy realizes that money did not buy him happiness or freedom, and he has learned his lesson. However, God does not spare him even then, and Jimmy is executed off-stage.Mahagonny as CapitalismMahagonny as a city was also intended to be a parable of capitalism stripped of its veneer of bourgeois respectability, as it "arose to meet the needs and desires of the people, and it was these same needs and desires that brought about its destruction". Taylor, R. "Kurt Weill: Composer in a Divided World" Northeastern University Press, Boston. 1991. p. 161 Ultimately, this was also intended as a commentary on the state of Weimar Germany; underneath that facade of prosperity and happiness, lay corruption and savagery. Under Brecht's (and to some extent Weill's) Marxist-influenced view of capitalism, it is created to provide people the goods and services they need, but it does so at the expense of reducing everything to a mere commodity. Furthermore, since obtaining wealth in capitalism is a cutthroat enterprise, the powerful are no better than a gang of bandits, and the law in turn is run by such thugs. The city of Mahagonny embodies many of these characteristics. Mahagonny was originally created to provide people with useful services; the gold prospectors wanted a relaxation spot, and the three criminals needed to stay there. However, this led to the commodification of everything the tourists desired, especially love. In the end, nobody could buy true happiness; Alaska Wolf Joe and Jacob Schmidt died, the city is burning down, and Jimmy declared before his death that "[t]he happiness I bought was no happiness". His death was also ordered by the court of law, which was run by the three criminals. To make matters even more farcical, they let a murderer bribe his way to freedom while Jimmy is sentenced to death for petty crimes. The parallels between the events of Mahagonny and the Marxist view of capitalism are clear. To make the comparison more obvious, the opera is set in a pseudo-Wild West America, with Mahagonny itself placed somewhere far from the rest of civilization. America was the land of unbridled capitalism, the frontier just as much so. The only difference is that bourgeois civility and civilization has yet to occupy the frontier, and thus there is no hiding the nature of capitalism beneath the facade of gentlemanly conduct. In Mahagonny, the characters are prostitutes, lumberjacks, criminals, and the like. Not one of them comes from the moneyed class, and yet the same system of exploitation was set up, but in a more naked manner. Instead of seducing a woman's love with power and influence, the residents of Mahagonny pay for a prostitute. But in Mahagonny, poverty is not just a condition the poor bring upon themselves, but a crime to be punished. Thus, Brecht and Weill tried to display capitalism as the meatgrinder they believed it to be. Musical and Dramatic ElementsGebrauchsmusikThough Kurt Weill was not a vocal proponent of the Gebrauchsmusik movement in Germany, many of his works, including the music for Mahagonny, share many of its characteristics. Loosely defined, Gebrauchsmusik is the idea that music can be more than just pure music. For example, music that accompanies a silent film is perfectly respectable, so long as it is done well. Also, simple music to be performed by amateurs is also acceptable. Weill's musical setting of Mahagonny exemplifies many of these characteristics. In the first place, this is music composed for the stage and not for the concert hall, and Weill intentionally chose that so. He wished to make his music speak out to as many people as possible, so throughout his career his mostly wrote music for the stage, and all the while in Europe he was considered a real composer and not just some hack pandering to the playwright to make a living. For example, in Act 1, scene 2, the scenario is that Jenny and other girls are walking to Mahagonny. The music is surprisingly simple; just a simple solo with a short chorus and sparse orchestration. The music is not some baroque contrapuntal scheme, nor is it a Romantic forest of sound; rather, the music is very easy to listen to. This music setting matches with the idea of making music accessible to the public, and not just for educated artists. The music style also displays influences from popular music. During this time, American jazz was a sensation in Europe; since opera is set in America, it is not surprising that the tune and the beat have a jazz influence. The orchestration, also includes such non-classical instruments as a saxophone, a decidedly jazz instrument. By using a jazz style in the music, Weill immediately associates the action as happening in America. In addition to making a relatively exotic sound, Weill manages to incorporate the jazz style in the song without making it seem incongruous; the American and European music are seamlessly joined under Weill's hands. Elsewhere Weill uses other such non-classical instruments as the accordion, and he uses other popular influences, including those of his native Germany. The most enduring feature of Gebrauchsmusik in Mahagonny, however, are the tunes. This reflects Weill's greatest desire to create simple music that would go straight to the heart of the audience. Many of the songs in Mahagonny are very simple and accessible. The "Alabama Song", for example, can be picked up absentmindedly and hummed. And while it seems carefree, something seems wrong with it, despite or perhaps because of its simplicity.Verfremdungseffekt''' Since Mahagonny was co-produced by Brecht, there is a prominent display of the Verfremdungseffekt, often translated as the "alienation effect". Brecht and Weill wished to replace the old dramatic theater and its emphasis on emotions with epic theater and its emphasis on reason. In the case of Brecht, it was more as a didactic tool for communist philosophy, but for Weill, it was more of a social scheme, a way to get people involved and thinking. The general scheme was to shake up people's preconceived notions and make them think about what is happening on stage, or to emotionally distance the audience from the action thus making logical evaluation of the play's events easier. Brecht and Weill used different methods to achieve this effect. One of the most noticeable methods Brecht uses are the inscriptions at the beginning of most of the scenes. Before the majority of the scenes, there is a short summary of that scene recited to the audience. By being already aware of what will happen, the audience can then better concentrate on what is going on in the scene. Often, Brecht will also have seemingly bizarre events occur, seemingly just to keep the audience unable to guess what will happen next. For example, Jimmy is going crazy at having nothing to do, when all of a sudden a hurricane starts heading towards Mahagonny. The audience is forced to give up concentrating on how Jimmy feels and think about what the meaning of this sudden hurricane is. Weill also contributed greatly to the Verfremdungseffekt by his music. Often the music would intentionally be unsuited for the onstage action, preventing the audience from getting carried away by the onstage emotion. For example, in Act 2, scene 13, the hurricane has spared Mahagonny, and the people feel free to do whatever makes them happy. For Jacob Schmidt, this means eating a lot. He sings of how he has not had his fill yet with such lines as "Not enough by half! / I may eat myself for supper." And yet, the music betrays the seeming unbridled ecstasy of Jacob; he is singing to a discordant melody, and the accordion accompaniment sounds stark and rather macabre. The intention is that the audience realizes that all this is very wrong; Jacob claims to be having a great time, but the music suggests all may not be well, thus the audience needs to pay attention and think about what is really going on. To further this point, Jacob then dies and the chorus sings of how happy he was while dragging out his corpse. This last twist of welcoming death is unexpected and contributes to the alienation. Another example of Verfremdungseffekt in the music is in the "Alabama Song". This time, instead of the music sounding deeply disturbing compared to the stage action, it is the reverse. When the "Alabama Song" first appears, the women are going to Mahagonny. The second time the song appears is near the end of the opera, after Jimmy has been executed. Mahagonny is in decline, and there are street protests. The entire stage is singing about how rotten the world and man are, when all of a sudden Jenny and the prostitutes come walking through singing the "Alabama Song", a total departure from the previous mood. What is more, they are carrying Jimmy's corpse through the stage. The music refuses to set and keep the audience in a particular mood, and the conflict between the lighthearted "Alabama Song" and the imagery of the funeral procession is confusing. This tension serves to distance the audience from the action, even at an exceptionally powerful moment of the opera, giving the audience one last chance to digest all the contradictions and perversions of Mahagonny. RecordingsRise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny. Lotte Lenya/ Wilhelm Brückner-Rüggeberg (Sony 1990; originally recorded 1956)Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny''. Anja Silja/ Jan Latham-Koenig (Capriccio 1988) References | Rise_and_Fall_of_the_City_of_Mahagonny |@lemmatized rise:5 fall:5 city:17 mahagonny:53 aufstieg:1 und:2 der:3 stadt:1 political:1 satirical:1 opera:38 compose:2 kurt:3 weill:21 german:2 libretto:2 bertolt:2 brecht:16 first:8 perform:4 leipzig:3 march:6 production:16 history:3 follow:1 premiere:3 present:6 berlin:3 december:3 theater:3 schiffbauerdamm:1 conduct:5 alexander:1 von:5 zemlinsky:1 lotte:2 lenya:2 jenny:24 trude:1 hesterberg:1 begbick:28 harald:1 paulsen:1 jimmy:38 another:9 january:2 copenhagen:1 det:1 ny:1 teater:1 within:2 europe:4 wait:3 end:8 second:3 world:5 war:1 notable:3 one:9 london:2 sadler:1 well:5 colin:1 davis:1 september:2 komische:1 oper:1 u:4 short:4 live:2 april:1 phyllis:1 anderson:1 theatre:1 broadway:1 star:2 barbara:2 harris:2 estelle:2 parson:2 finally:1 november:2 receive:1 new:4 york:1 metropolitan:1 john:3 dexter:1 james:3 levine:1 cast:2 include:11 teresa:1 stratas:1 astrid:1 varnay:1 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3,994 | Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition | The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803–1806), headed by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, was the first American overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. Earlier exploration to the Pacific coast The Lewis and Clark expedition was only the third recorded transcontinental crossing of North America north of Mexico by a person not of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, having been preceded to the Pacific coast (on July 20, 1793) by a Canadian expedition led by explorer Sir Alexander Mackenzie. Mackenzie had previously crossed North America in 1789 as well, but had turned north at the Continental Divide, also becoming the first European to reach the western Arctic Ocean. In 1536 Cabeza de Vaca and four others of the Narváez expedition reached the Pacific Ocean after crossing the continent through parts of present-day USA. Louisiana Purchase and a western expedition Front of the sculpture showing Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, Sacagawea, and her baby Jean-Baptiste Charbonneau in Kansas City, Missouri. Back of the sculpture commemorating Lewis and Clark's stop on the bluffs in Kansas City, showing York and the Newfoundland dog "Seaman." The famous map of Lewis and Clark's expedition. It changed mapping of northwest America by providing the first accurate depiction of the relationship of the sources of the Columbia and Missouri rivers, and the Rocky Mountains. In 1803, the Louisiana Purchase sparked interest in expansion to the west coast. The United States did not know just what it was buying, and even France was unsure how much land it was selling. A few weeks after the purchase, President Thomas Jefferson, an advocate of western expansion, had Congress appropriate $2,500 for an expedition. In a message to Congress, Jefferson wrote: Thomas Jefferson had long thought about such an expedition, but was concerned about the danger. While in France from 1785–1789, he had heard of numerous plans to better explore the Pacific Northwest. In 1785, Jefferson learned that King Louis XVI of France planned to send a mission there, reportedly as a mere scientific expedition. Jefferson found that doubtful, and evidence provided by John Paul Jones confirmed these doubts. In either event, the mission was destroyed by bad weather after leaving Botany Bay in 1788. In 1786 John Ledyard, who had sailed with Captain James Cook to the Pacific Northwest, told Jefferson that he planned to walk across Siberia, ride a Russian fur-trade vessel to cross the ocean, and then walk all the way to the American capital. Since Ledyard was an American, Jefferson hoped he would succeed. Ledyard had made it as far as Siberia when Empress Catherine the Great had him arrested and deported back to Poland. Ambrose, Stephen. Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the opening of the American west. (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996). p. 69. The American expedition to the Pacific northwest was intended to study the Indian tribes, botany, geology, Western terrain and wildlife in the region, as well as evaluate the potential interference of British and French Canadian hunters and trappers who were already well established in the area. Jefferson selected Captain Meriwether Lewis to lead the expedition, afterwards known as the Corps of Discovery. In a letter dated June 20, 1803, Jefferson wrote to Lewis Lewis selected William Clark as his partner. Because of bureaucratic delays in the U.S. Army, Clark officially only held the rank of Second Lieutenant at the time, but Lewis concealed this from the men and shared the leadership of the expedition, always referring to Clark as "Captain". Journey Route of the expedition Meriwether Lewis and William Clark meeting at the falls of the Ohio River; statue at the Falls of the Ohio State Park in Clarksville, Indiana (across from Louisville) "Left Pittsburgh this day at 11 o'clock with a party of 11 hands 7 of which are soldiers, a pilot and three young men on trial they having proposed to go with me throughout the voyage." Lewis' first journal entry Retrieved on March 24, 2007 With those words, written on August 31, 1803, Meriwether Lewis began his first journal entry on the epic Lewis and Clark Expedition to the Pacific Ocean. Lewis declared the mouth of the river Dubois (on the east side of the Mississippi across from the mouth of the Missouri river) to be the expedition's official point of departure, but the two and one-half months spent descending the Ohio River can be considered its real beginning. Clark made most of the preparations, by way of letters to Jefferson. He bought two large buckets and five smaller buckets of salt, a ton of dried pork, and medicines. Reconstruction of Camp Dubois, Lewis and Clark State Historic Site, Illinois The party of 33 included 29 individuals who were active participants in the Corps' organizational development, recruitment and training at its 1803–1804 winter staging area at Camp Dubois, Illinois Territory. They then departed from Camp Dubois, near present day Hartford, Illinois, and began their historic journey on May 14, 1804. They soon met up with Lewis in Saint Charles, Missouri, and the corps followed the Missouri River westward. Soon they passed La Charrette, the last white settlement on the Missouri River. The expedition followed the Missouri through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska. On August 20, 1804, the Corps of Discovery suffered its only death when Sergeant Charles Floyd died, apparently from acute appendicitis. He was buried at Floyd's Bluff, near what is now Sioux City, Iowa. During the final week of August, Lewis and Clark had reached the edge of the Great Plains, a place abounding with elk, deer, bison, and beavers. They were also entering Sioux territory. The first tribe of Sioux they met, the Yankton Sioux, were more peaceful than their neighbors farther west along the Missouri River, the Teton Sioux, also known as the Lakota. The Yankton Sioux were disappointed by the gifts they received from Lewis and Clark—five medals—and gave the explorers a warning about the upriver Teton Sioux. The Teton Sioux received their gifts with ill-disguised hostility. One chief demanded a boat from Lewis and Clark as the price to be paid for passage through their territory. As the Indians became more dangerous, Lewis and Clark prepared to fight back. At the last moment before fighting began, the two sides fell back. The Americans quickly continued westward (upriver) until winter stopped them at the Mandan tribe's territory. Reconstruction of Fort Mandan, Lewis & Clark Memorial Park, North DakotaIn the winter of 1804–05, the party built Fort Mandan, near present-day Washburn, North Dakota. Over the course of the winter the expedition enjoyed generally good relations with the Mandan Indian tribe who lived alongside the Fort. It was at Fort Mandan that Lewis and Clark came to employ a French-Canadian fur trapper named Toussaint Charbonneau, whose young Shoshone Indian wife, Sacagawea, (pronounced Sa-ka-ga-wea) translated for the expedition among the Shoshone and Nez Perce. In a few instances, Sacagawea also managed to serve as a guide for the expedition. Black-tailed Prairie Dog In April 1805, some members of the expedition were sent back home from Mandan in the 'return party'. Along with them went a report about what Lewis and Clark had discovered, 108 botanical and zoological specimens (including some living animals), 68 mineral specimens, and Clark's map of the United States. Other specimens were sent back to Jefferson periodically, including a prairie dog which Jefferson received alive in a box. The expedition continued to follow the Missouri to its headwaters and over the Continental Divide at Lemhi Pass via horses. In canoes, they descended the mountains by the Clearwater River, the Snake River, and the Columbia River, past Celilo Falls and past what is now Portland, Oregon. At this point, Lewis spotted Mount Hood, a mountain known to be very close to the ocean. On a big pine, Clark carved "William Clark December 3rd 1805. By land from the U.States in 1804 & 1805" Bernard deVoto (1962), The Course of Empire (Boston:Houghton Mifflin); p. 552 Lewis and Clark on the Lower Columbia by C.M. Russell Clark had written in his journal, "Ocean in view! O! The Joy!". One journal entry is captioned "Cape Disappointment at the Entrance of the Columbia River into the Great South Sea or Pacific Ocean". By that time the expedition faced its second bitter winter during the trip, so the group decided to vote on whether to camp on the north or south side of the Columbia River. The party agreed to camp on the south side of the river (modern Astoria, Oregon), building Fort Clatsop as their winter quarters. While wintering at the fort, the men prepared for the trip home by boiling salt from the ocean, hunting elk and other wildlife, and interacting with the native tribes. The 1805–06 winter was very rainy, and the men had a hard time finding suitable meat. They never consumed much Pacific salmon because the fish only return to the rivers to spawn in the summer months. The explorers began their journey home on March 23, 1806. On the way home, Lewis and Clark used four dugout canoes Dugout Canoe description Retrieved on March 24, 2007 they bought from the Native Americans, plus one that they stole in "retaliation" for a previous theft. Less than a month after leaving Fort Clatsop, they abandoned their canoes because portaging around all the falls proved terribly difficult. A reenactor describes the bicentennial commemoration of the expedition. On July 3, after crossing the Continental Divide, the Corps split into two teams so Lewis could explore the Marias River. Lewis' group of four met some Blackfeet Indians. Their meeting was cordial, but during the night, the Blackfeet tried to steal their weapons. In the struggle, two Indians were killed, the only native deaths attributable to the expedition. The group of four: Lewis, Drouillard, and the Field brothers, fled over 100 miles (160 km) in a day before they camped again. Clark, meanwhile, had entered Crow territory. The Crow tribe were known as horse thieves. At night, half of Clark's horses were gone, but not a single Crow was seen. Lewis and Clark stayed separated until they reached the confluence of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers on August 11. Clark's team had floated down the rivers in bull boats. While reuniting, one of Clark's hunters, Pierre Cruzatte, blind in one eye and nearsighted in the other, mistook Lewis for an elk and fired, injuring Lewis in the thigh. Once reunited, the Corps was able to return home quickly via the Missouri River. They reached St. Louis on September 23, 1806. The first written account of the expedition was published by Patrick Gass in 1807. , originally published in 1807 Lewis and Clark's much more extensive official report of the expedition wasn't released until 1814. Even then, all of the report wasn't completely made public until recently: Lewis and Clark Journals The Corps of Discovery returned with important information about the new United States territory and the people who lived in it, as well as its rivers and mountains, plants and animals. The expedition made a major contribution to mapping the North American continent. Achievements Camp Dubois in Illinois opposite the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery as a scientific expedition to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase. The expedition's goal as stated by President Jefferson was "to explore the Missouri River and such principal stream of it as by its course and communication with the waters of the Pacific Ocean, whether the Columbia, Oregon, Colorado or any other river that may offer the most direct and practicable water communication across this continent for the purpose of commerce". In addition, the expedition was to learn more about the Northwest's natural resources, inhabitants, and possibilities for settlement. Although, Lewis and Clark were not the first explorers to travel west and they did not achieve their primary objective of finding a waterway across North America, the significance of the expedition can be measured in various other areas. Geography and mapping One of the most significant contributions of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was a better perception of the geography of the Northwest and the production of the first accurate maps of the area. During the journey, Lewis and Clark prepared approximately 140 maps. Author Stephen Ambrose states that the expedition "filled in the main outlines of the previously blank map of the northwestern United States". Before the expedition, most Americans were not aware of the size and extent of the Rocky Mountains. They believed that the Rocky Mountains could be crossed in a single day and that the Rockies separated the source of the Missouri River from a great "River of the West" that would empty into the Pacific Ocean. However, the expedition found that the supposed single day of traveling was instead an 11 day ordeal that nearly cost them their lives and that an easy water route across the continent did not exist. Natural resources A second achievement of the expedition was a better understanding of the Northwest's natural resources. During the journey, the expedition documented over 100 species of animals and approximately 176 plants. The expedition even sent a caged prairie dog, which had never been seen before in the East, to President Jefferson as a gift. Over the two year journey, the expedition had made more discoveries of landscapes, rivers, native cultures, zoology, and botany of North America than any scientific expedition. Native American relations Another achievement of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was that it established friendly relations with some of the Native Americans. Without the help of the Native Americans, the expedition would have starved to death or gotten hopelessly lost in the Rocky Mountains. The expedition was especially indebted to a Shoshone woman named Sacagawea, who served as a guide and interpreter. The sight of a woman and her infant son would have been a reassuring sight to Native Americans who might have mistaken the armed explorers as a group on a warlike mission. For the most part, encounters between the three dozen Indian tribes and the expedition were successful. Author James Ronda states "Lewis and Clark matter today because they act as a benchmark by which we can measure change and continuity in everything from the environment to relations between peoples". Lewis and Clark may not have found the elusive Northwest Passage and were not the first to explore the west, but as Robert Archibald states, "they were the first United States citizens to have described the place officially". The fact that they were a scientific expedition was extremely important, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The new knowledge they obtained about the Northwest's geography, natural resources, and native inhabitants sparked American interest in the west, and strengthened the nation's claim to the area. "It was the Missouri River, not the young Indian mother, that served as the Expedition's "principal guide." Sacagawea had seen only a small part of the area explored and not since her childhood....Though she was not the guide for the Expedition, she was important to them as an interpreter and in other ways. Two days into the journey, Sacagawea collected edible roots hidden by small animals in piles of driftwood. The roots were a welcome addition to meat....Captain Lewis ended his report of the mishap with praise of Sacagawea: 'the Indian woman, to whom I ascribe equal fortitude and resolution with any person on board at the time of the accident, caught, and preserved most of the light articles were washed overboard.'" Clark, Ella Elizabeth. Sacagawea of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Berkeley, Calif: University of California P, 1979. See also Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition History of the United States USS Lewis and Clark and USNS Lewis and Clark Jefferson National Expansion Memorial References Further reading History Lewis and Clark Among the Indians, James P. Ronda, 1984 – ISBN 0-8032-3870-3 Undaunted Courage, Stephen Ambrose, 1997 – ISBN 0-684-82697-6 National Geographic Guide to the Lewis & Clark Trail, Thomas Schmidt, 2002 – ISBN 0-7922-6471-1 The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery (abridged), edited by Gary E. Moulton, 2003 – ISBN 0-8032-2950-X The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 13-Volume Set, edited by Gary E. Moulton, 2002 – ISBN 0-8032-2948-8 The complete text of the Lewis and Clark Journals online, University of Nebraska–Lincoln In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific With Lewis and Clark, Robert B. Betts, 2002 – ISBN 0-87081-714-0 Online text of the Expedition's Journal at Project Gutenberg Lewis & Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery, Ken Burns, 1997 – ISBN 0-679-45450-0 Lewis and Clark: across the divide, Carolyn Gilman, 2003. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1588340996 The Way to the Western Sea: Lewis and Clark Across the Continent, David Lavender, 1988. Harpercollins. ISBN 0060159820 "Why Sacagawea Deserves the Day Off and Other Lessons from the Lewis and Clark Trail" by Stephenie Ambrose Tubbs (University of Nebraska Press, 2008) External links Full text of the Lewis and Clark journals online – edited by Gary E. Moulton, University of Nebraska–Lincoln Lewis and Clark: The National Bicentennial Exhibition National Council for the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial Lewis & Clark Bicentennial in Oregon Lewis and Clark, Mapping the West – Smithsonian Institution Lewis and Clark – National Geographic – a variety of resources, including an Interactive Journey Log Lewis and Clark – PBS Trip's Journal Entry – Search Engine Discovering Lewis and Clark Lewis and Clark by Air – A book with a perspective of L&C from the air Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail – United States National Park Service Lewis and Clark Expedition, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail Interpretive Center in Great Falls, Montana C-SPAN American Writers, Lewis & Clark in three parts, RealVideo, 2001 The Lewis & Clark Expedition: Documenting the Uncharted Northwest Name, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan Lewis and Clark in 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3,995 | Omri | Omri (; short for ) was king of Israel and father of Ahab. William F. Albright has dated his reign to 876 – 869 BC, while E. R. Thiele offers the dates of 888 BC to 880 BC for his rivalry with Tibni and 880 – 874 BC for his sole reign. He was "commander of the army" for Elah when Zimri slew Elah and made himself king. The troops at Gibbethon chose instead to elect Omri as king, and he led them to Tirzah where they trapped Zimri in the royal palace, and where Zimri died (1 Kings 16:15-19). Although Zimri was eliminated, "half of the people" supported Tibni in opposition to Omri. It took Omri some years to subdue Tibni and at last proclaim himself undisputed king of Israel in the 31st year of Asa, king of Judah (1 Kings 16:21-23). Because Omri was not a devout follower of Yahweh, the writer of the Book of Kings minimized his accomplishments. While the writer acknowledges Omri built his new capital Samaria on a hill he bought from Shemer (16:24), he omits any mention of the widespread public construction both Omri and his son Ahab commissioned during their reigns. Israel Finkelstein and his student Norma Franklin have identified monumental construction at Samaria, Jezreel, Megiddo and Hazor similar in design and build, including twelve sets of mason marks shared between the archaeological sites. Omri's rule over Israel was secure enough that he could bequeath his kingdom to Ahab, thus beginning a new dynasty (sometimes called the Omrides), and his descendants not only ruled over the kingdom of Israel for the next forty years, but also briefly over Judah. He was significant enough that his name is mentioned on a stele erected by Mesha, king of Moab, who records his victory over a son of Omri -- but omits the son's name. Thomas L. Thompson (The Bible in History), however, interprets the Mesha stele as suggesting that Omri is an eponym, or legendary founder of the kingdom rather than an historical person. Most archaeologists reject this interpretation, seeing Omri as historical. Assyrian kings frequently referred to Omri's successors as belonging to the "House of Omri" (Bit Hu-um-ri-a). James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (3rd ed.; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966) 283. The Omride Dynasty The short-lived dynasty founded by Omri constitutes a new chapter in the history of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. It ended almost fifty years of constant civil war over the throne. There was peace with the Kingdom of Judah to the south, and even cooperation between the two rival states, while relations with neighboring Sidon to the north were bolstered by marriages negotiated between the two royal courts. This state of peace with two powerful neighbors enabled the Kingdom of Israel to expand its influence and even political control in Transjordan, and these factors combined brought economic prosperity to the kingdom. On the other hand, peace with Sidon also resulted in the penetration of Phoenician religious ideas into the kingdom and led to a kulturkampf between traditionalists (as personified by the prophet Elijah and his followers) and the aristocracy (as personified by Omri's son and heir Ahab and his consort Jezebel). In foreign affairs, this period paralleled the rise of the Kingdom of Aram based in Damascus, and Israel soon found itself at war in the northeast. Most threatening, however, was the ascendancy of Assyria, which was beginning to expand westward from Mesopotamia: the Battle of Qarqar (853 BC), which pitted Shalmaneser III of Assyria against a coalition of local kings, including Ahab, was the first clash between Assyria and Israel. It was the first in a series of wars that would eventually lead to the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BC and the reduction of the Kingdom of Judah to an Assyrian tributary state. Omri in archaeological sources In archaeology, Omri appears several times over the next century or so, beginning with the Mesha stele, which recounts one of his acts as king: the annexation of Moab. He is also mentioned in the contemporary Assyrian Black Obelisk which states that Jehu was the "son of Omri." Later, Israel would become identified in sources as the "House of Omri" (Bit-Humria), with the term "Israel" being used less and less as history progressed (the other defining term for "Israel" is "Samaria", beginning in the reign of Joash). Archaeologically speaking, it would appear that Omri is the founder of the Israelite Kingdom, but problems persist since he is not the first king of Israel to appear in sources; Ahab is. However, dating complications (arising from the fact that if he followed Ahab he would be given less than three years to rule, far too short for a king that was as powerful and influential as Omri) make it easier to put Omri first in Israel's internationally recognised line of kings, although this by no means firmly establishes that he was the first king of Israel according to these sources. Attitude in contemporary Israel The Bible displays a negative attitude to King Omri, and it has been followed by later rabbinical tradition. However, Zionism was created mainly by non-religious (sometimes anti-religious) people who re-evaluated many Biblical characters (as well as characters from later Jewish history) according to the criteria of a secular national movement in need of National Heroes. As with many European national movements which served as an example to the founders of Zionism, ancient Jewish warriors in general and warrior kings in particular were often regarded positively. Omri, a successful warrior king and the founder of a strong dynasty, is a conspicuous example. In the present-day Israeli society, "Omri" is quite a common male name, which would have been unthinkable in a traditional Jewish milieu. The same is true for the name "Nimrod", another Biblical character negatively regarded by pre-Zionist Jewish tradition. Omri Sharon, the elder son (and close political associate) of former PM Ariel Sharon seems the most well-known among present bearers of the name. Omri Katz is an Israeli-American actor, born in Los Angeles to Israeli parents. See also History of ancient Israel and Judah Omrides References External links Smith's Bible Dictionary: Omri | Omri |@lemmatized omri:28 short:3 king:19 israel:18 father:1 ahab:7 william:1 f:1 albright:1 date:3 reign:4 bc:6 e:1 r:1 thiele:1 offer:1 rivalry:1 tibni:3 sole:1 commander:1 army:1 elah:2 zimri:4 slew:1 make:2 troop:1 gibbethon:1 chose:1 instead:1 elect:1 lead:3 tirzah:1 trap:1 royal:2 palace:1 die:1 although:2 eliminate:1 half:1 people:2 support:1 opposition:1 take:1 year:5 subdue:1 last:1 proclaim:1 undisputed:1 asa:1 judah:5 devout:1 follower:2 yahweh:1 writer:2 book:1 minimize:1 accomplishment:1 acknowledge:1 build:2 new:3 capital:1 samaria:3 hill:1 buy:1 shemer:1 omit:2 mention:3 widespread:1 public:1 construction:2 son:6 commission:1 finkelstein:1 student:1 norma:1 franklin:1 identify:2 monumental:1 jezreel:1 megiddo:1 hazor:1 similar:1 design:1 include:2 twelve:1 set:1 mason:1 mark:1 share:1 archaeological:2 site:1 rule:3 secure:1 enough:2 could:1 bequeath:1 kingdom:12 thus:1 begin:4 dynasty:4 sometimes:2 call:1 omrides:2 descendant:1 next:2 forty:1 also:4 briefly:1 significant:1 name:5 stele:3 erect:1 mesha:3 moab:2 record:1 victory:1 thomas:1 l:1 thompson:1 bible:3 history:5 however:4 interpret:1 suggest:1 eponym:1 legendary:1 founder:4 rather:1 historical:2 person:1 archaeologist:1 reject:1 interpretation:1 see:2 assyrian:3 frequently:1 refer:1 successor:1 belonging:1 house:2 bit:2 hu:1 um:1 ri:1 james:1 b:1 pritchard:1 ed:2 ancient:3 near:1 eastern:1 text:1 relate:1 old:1 testament:1 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 omride:1 live:1 found:1 constitutes:1 chapter:1 northern:1 end:1 almost:1 fifty:1 constant:1 civil:1 war:3 throne:1 peace:3 south:1 even:2 cooperation:1 two:3 rival:1 state:4 relation:1 neighbor:2 sidon:2 north:1 bolster:1 marriage:1 negotiate:1 court:1 powerful:2 enable:1 expand:2 influence:1 political:2 control:1 transjordan:1 factor:1 combine:1 brought:1 economic:1 prosperity:1 hand:1 result:1 penetration:1 phoenician:1 religious:3 idea:1 kulturkampf:1 traditionalist:1 personify:2 prophet:1 elijah:1 aristocracy:1 heir:1 consort:1 jezebel:1 foreign:1 affair:1 period:1 parallel:1 rise:1 aram:1 base:1 damascus:1 soon:1 find:1 northeast:1 threatening:1 ascendancy:1 assyria:3 westward:1 mesopotamia:1 battle:1 qarqar:1 pit:1 shalmaneser:1 iii:1 coalition:1 local:1 first:5 clash:1 series:1 would:5 eventually:1 destruction:1 reduction:1 tributary:1 source:4 archaeology:1 appear:3 several:1 time:1 century:1 recount:1 one:1 act:1 annexation:1 contemporary:2 black:1 obelisk:1 jehu:1 later:3 become:1 humria:1 term:2 use:1 less:3 progress:1 defining:1 joash:1 archaeologically:1 speak:1 israelite:1 problem:1 persist:1 since:1 complication:1 arise:1 fact:1 follow:2 give:1 three:1 far:1 influential:1 easy:1 put:1 internationally:1 recognised:1 line:1 mean:1 firmly:1 establishes:1 accord:2 attitude:2 display:1 negative:1 rabbinical:1 tradition:2 zionism:2 create:1 mainly:1 non:1 anti:1 evaluate:1 many:2 biblical:2 character:3 well:2 jewish:4 criterion:1 secular:1 national:3 movement:2 need:1 hero:1 european:1 serve:1 example:2 warrior:3 general:1 particular:1 often:1 regard:2 positively:1 successful:1 strong:1 conspicuous:1 present:2 day:1 israeli:3 society:1 quite:1 common:1 male:1 unthinkable:1 traditional:1 milieu:1 true:1 nimrod:1 another:1 negatively:1 pre:1 zionist:1 sharon:2 elder:1 close:1 associate:1 former:1 pm:1 ariel:1 seem:1 know:1 among:1 bearer:1 katz:1 american:1 actor:1 bear:1 los:1 angeles:1 parent:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 smith:1 dictionary:1 |@bigram f_albright:1 r_thiele:1 devout_follower:1 israel_finkelstein:1 mesha_stele:2 princeton_princeton:1 prophet_elijah:1 foreign_affair:1 shalmaneser_iii:1 internationally_recognised:1 ariel_sharon:1 los_angeles:1 external_link:1 |
3,996 | MUMPS | MUMPS (Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System), or alternatively M, is a programming language created in the late 1960s, originally for use in the healthcare industry. It was designed for the production of multi-user database-driven applications. It predates C and most other popular languages in current usage, and has very different syntax and terminology. It was largely adopted during the 1970s and early 1980s in healthcare and financial information systems/databases, and continues to be used by many of the same clients today. It is currently used in electronic health record systems as well as by multiple banking networks and online trading/investment services. History MUMPS was developed by Neil Pappalardo and colleagues in Dr. Octo Barnett's animal lab at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) in Boston during 1966 and 1967. The original MUMPS system was, like Unix a few years later, built on a spare DEC PDP-7. Octo Barnett and Neil Pappalardo were also involved with MGH's planning for a Hospital Information System, obtained a backward compatible PDP-9, and began using MUMPS in the admissions cycle and laboratory test reporting. MUMPS was then an interpreted language and incorporated a hierarchical database file system to standardize interaction with the data. Some aspects of MUMPS can be traced from Rand Corporation's JOSS through BBN's TELCOMP and STRINGCOMP. The MUMPS team deliberately chose to include portability between machines as a design goal. Another feature, not widely supported for machines of the era, in operating systems or in hardware, was multitasking, which was also built into the language itself. The portability was soon useful, as MUMPS was shortly adapted to a DEC PDP-15, where it lived for some time. MUMPS was developed with the support of a government research grant, and so MUMPS was released to the public domain (no longer a requirement for grants), and was soon ported to a number of other systems including the popular DEC PDP-8, the Data General Nova and the DEC PDP-11. Word about MUMPS spread mostly through the medical community, and by the early 1970s was in widespread use, often being locally modified for their own needs. By the early 1970s, there were many and varied implementations of MUMPS on a range of hardware platforms. The most widespread was DEC's MUMPS-11 on the PDP-11, and Meditech's MIIS. In 1972, many MUMPS users attended a conference which standardized the then fractured language, and created the MUMPS Users Group and MUMPS Development Committee (MDC) to do so. These efforts proved successful; a standard was complete by 1974, and was approved, on September 15, 1977, as ANSI standard, X11.1-1977. At about the same time DEC launched DSM-11 (Digital Standard MUMPS) for the PDP-11. This quickly dominated the market, and became the reference implementation of the time. During the early 1980s several vendors brought MUMPS-based platforms that met the ANSI standard to market. The most significant were Digital Equipment Corporation with DSM (Digital Standard MUMPS), and InterSystems with their ISM (InterSystems M) on VMS and UNIX, and M/11+ on the PDP-11 platform. Other companies who developed important MUMPS implementations were: Greystone Technology Corporation with a compiled version called GT.M, DataTree Inc. with an Intel PC based product called DTM, Micronetics Design Corporation with a product line called MSM for UNIX and Intel PC platforms (later ported to IBM's VM operating system), and M-Global with MGM, a Mac OS based product. M-Global MUMPS was the first commercial MUMPS for the PC and the only Mac implementation. DSM-11 was superseded by VAX/DSM for the VAX/VMS platform, and that was ported to the Alpha in two variants: DSM for OpenVMS, and as DSM for Ultrix. This period also saw considerable MDC activity. The second revision of the ANSI standard for MUMPS (X11.1-1984) was approved on November 15, 1984. On November 11, 1990 the third revision of the ANSI standard (X11.1-1990) was approved. In 1992 the same standard was also adopted as ISO standard 11756-1992. Use of M as an alternative name for the language was approved around the same time. On December 8, 1995 the fourth revision of the standard (X11.1-1995) was approved by ANSI, and by ISO in 1999 as ISO 11756-1999. The MDC finalized a further revision to the standard in 1998 but this has not been presented to ANSI for approval. On 6 January 2005, ISO re-affirmed its MUMPS-related standards: ISO/IEC 11756:1999, language standard, ISO/IEC 15851:1999, Open MUMPS Interconnect and ISO/IEC 15852:1999, MUMPS Windowing Application Programmers Interface. By 2000, the middleware vendor InterSystems had become the dominant player in the MUMPS market with the purchase of several other vendors. Initially they acquired DataTree Inc. in the early 1990s. And, on December 30, 1995, Intersystems acquired the DSM product line from DEC. http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.mumps/msg/d4509328a7930487 InterSystems consolidated these products into a single product line, branding them, on several hardware platforms, as OpenM. In 1997, InterSystems essentially completed this consolidation by launching a unified successor named Caché. This was based on their ISM product, but with influences from the other implementations. Micronetics Design Corporation assets were also acquired by InterSystems on June 21, 1998. Intersystems remains today (2007) the dominant MUMPS vendor, selling Caché to MUMPS developers who write applications for a variety of operating systems. Greystone Technology Corporation's GT.M implementation was sold to Sanchez Computer Associates Inc. (now part of Fidelity National Financial Inc.) in the mid 1990s. On November 7, 2000 Sanchez made GT.M for Linux available under the AGPL license Fidelity Information Services: Banking Solutions and on October 28, 2005 GT.M for OpenVMS and Tru64 UNIX were also made available under the AGPL license. GT.M continues to be available on other UNIX platforms under a traditional license. The newest implementation of MUMPS, released in April 2002, is an MSM derivative called M21 from the Real Software Company of Rugby, UK. There are also several open source implementations of MUMPS, including some research projects. The most notable of these is Professor Kevin O'Kane's (and students') project, now at the University of Northern Iowa. One of the original creators of the MUMPS language, Neil Pappalardo, early founded a company called Meditech. They extended and built on the MUMPS language, naming the new language MIIS (and later, MAGIC). Unlike Intersystems, Meditech no longer sells middleware, so MIIS and MAGIC are only used internally at Meditech. Current users of MUMPS applications The US Veteran's Administration was one of the earliest major adopters of the MUMPS language. Their development work (and subsequent contributions to the free MUMPS application codebase) was an influence on many medical users worldwide. In 1995, the Veterans Administration's patient Admission/Tracking/Discharge system, Decentralized Hospital Computer Program (DHCP) was the recipient of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award for best use of Information Technology in Medicine. A decade later (July, 2006), the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) / Veterans Health Administration (VHA) was the recipient of the Innovations in American Government Award presented by the Ash Institute of the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University for its extension of DHCP into the Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture (VistA) in July, 2006. Nearly the entire VA hospital system in the United States and the Indian Health Service, as well as major parts of the Department of Defense CHCS hospital system all run systems using MUMPS databases for clinical data tracking. Large companies currently using MUMPS include AmeriPath (now part of Quest Diagnostics), Care Centric, Team Health, Epic Systems Corporation, EMIS, Partners HealthCare, Meditech, and GE Healthcare (formerly IDX Systems and Centricity). Many reference laboratories, such as Quest Diagnostics Mission-critical Ajax:�Making Test Ordering Easier and Faster at Quest Diagnostics and Dynacare, use MUMPS software written or based on by Antrim Corporation code. Antrim, and its parent Sunquest, was acquired by Misys in 2001. SEC Info: Misys Purchase of Sunquest Coventry Healthcare and Massachusetts Hospital have also been reported to use MUMPS. MUMPS is also widely used in financial applications. MUMPS gained an early following in the financial sector, and MUMPS applications are in use at many banks and credit unions. It is used by Ameritrade, the largest online trading service in the US with over 12 billion transactions per day, as well as by the Bank of England and Barclays Bank, among others. most use of M is either in the form of GT.M or InterSystems Caché. The latter is being aggressively marketed by InterSystems and has had success in penetrating new markets, such as telecommunications, in addition to existing markets. Overview MUMPS is a language intended for and designed to build database applications. Secondary language features were included to help programmers make applications using minimal computing resources. The original implementations were interpreted, though modern implementations may be fully or partially compiled. Database interaction is transparently built into the language. The MUMPS language assumes the presence of a MUMPS hierarchical database, which is implicitly "opened" for every application. All variable names prefixed with the caret character ("^") use permanent (instead of RAM) storage, will maintain their values after the application ends, and will be visible to (and modifiable by) other running applications. Variables using permanent storage are called Globals in MUMPS, though this is not meant in the usual sense of unscoped variables. Globals represent data as persistent sparse arrays, giving the MUMPS database the characteristics of a document-oriented database. Extreme Database programming with MUMPS Globals All variables (both RAM and disk-based) are hierarchical. They can all have child nodes (called subscripts in MUMPS terminology). Thus, the variable 'Car' can have subscripts "Door", "Steering Wheel" and "Engine", each of which can contain a value and have subscripts of their own. Thus, you could say SET ^Car("Door","Color")="BLUE" to modify a nested child node of ^Car. In MUMPS terminology, "Color" is the 2nd subscript of the variable ^Car (both the names of the child-nodes and the child-nodes themselves are called subscripts). Hierarchical variables are similar to objects with properties in Object Oriented languages. Additionally, all subscripts of variables are automatically kept in sorted order. Numeric subscripts (including floating-point numbers) are stored from lowest to highest. All non-numeric subscripts are stored in alphabetical order following the numbers. In MUMPS terminology, this is canonical order. By using only non-negative integer subscripts, the MUMPS programmer can emulate the Arrays data type from other languages. Although MUMPS does not natively offer a full set of DBMS features, several DBMS systems have been built on top of it that provide application developers with flat-file, relational and network database features. As a secondary language feature, you can abbreviate nearly all commands and native functions to a single character to save space; this was a common feature of languages designed in this period (eg, early BASICs). Additionally, there are built-in operators which treat a delimited string (eg, comma-separated values) as an array. Early MUMPS programmers would often store a structure of related information as a delimited string, parsing it after it was read in; this saved disk access time and offered considerable speed advantages on some hardware. MUMPS has no data types. Numbers can be treated as strings of digits, or strings can be treated as numbers by numeric operators (coerced, in MUMPS terminology). Coercion can have some odd side effects, however. For example, when a string is coerced, the parser turns as much of the string (starting from the left) into a number as it can, then discards the rest. Thus the statement IF 20<"30 DUCKS" is evaluated as TRUE in MUMPS. Other features of the language are intended to help MUMPS applications interact with each other in a multi-user environment. Database locks, process identifiers, and atomicity of database update transactions are all required of standard MUMPS implementations. In contrast to languages in the C or Wirth traditions, some space characters between MUMPS statements are significant. A single space separates a command from its argument, and a space, or newline, separates each argument from the next MUMPS token. Commands which take no arguments (eg, ELSE) require two following spaces. The concept is that one space separates the command from the (nonexistent) argument, the next separates the "argument" from the next command. Newlines are also significant; an IF, ELSE or FOR command processes (or skips) everything else til the end-of-line. To make those statements control multiple lines, you must use the DO command to create a code block. "Hello, World!" in MUMPS A simple Hello world program in MUMPS might be: hello() write "Hello, World!",! quit and would be run from the MUMPS command line with the command 'do ^hello()'. Since MUMPS allows commands to be strung together on the same line, and since commands can be abbreviated to a single letter, this routine could be made more compact: hello() w "Hello, World!",! q The ',!' after the text generates a newline. The 'quit' is not strictly necessary at the end of a function like this, but is good programming practice in case other functions are added below 'hello()' later. Summary of key language features The following summary seeks to give programmers familiar with other languages a feeling for what MUMPS is like. This is not a formal language specification, and many features and qualifiers have been omitted for brevity. ANSI X11.1-1995 gives a complete, formal description of the language; an annotated version of this standard is available online. The Annotated MUMPS Standards - Ed De Moel, Jacquard Systems Research Data types: There is one universal datatype, automatically interpreted/converted to string, integer, or floating-point number as context requires. Booleans: In IF statements and other conditional statements, any numeric, nonzero value is treated as True. a<b yields 1 if a is less than b, 0 otherwise. Declarations: None. All variables are dynamically created on first reference. Lines: are important syntactic entities, unlike their status in languages patterned on C or Pascal. Multiple statements per line are allowed and are common. The scope of IF and FOR is "the remainder of current line." Case sensitivity: Commands and intrinsic functions are case-insensitive. In contrast, variable names and labels are case-sensitive. There is no special meaning for upper vs. lower-case and few widely followed conventions. The percent sign (%) is legal as first character of variables and labels. Postconditionals: SET:N<10 A="FOO" sets A to "FOO" if N is less than 10; DO:N>100 PRINTERR, performs PRINTERR if N is greater than 100. This construct provides a conditional whose scope is less than a full line. Abbreviation: You can abbreviate nearly all commands and native functions to one or two characters. Reserved words: None. Since MUMPS interprets source code by context, there is no need for reserved words. You may use the names of language commands as variables. There has been no obfuscated MUMPS contest as in C, despite the potential of examples such as the following, perfectly legal, MUMPS code: GREPTHIS() NEW SET,NEW,THEN,IF,KILL,QUIT SET IF="KILL",SET="11",KILL="l1",QUIT="RETURN",THEN="KILL" IF IF=THEN DO THEN QUIT:$QUIT QUIT QUIT ; (quit) THEN IF IF,SET&KILL SET SET=SET+KILL QUIT Arrays: are created dynamically, stored as B-trees, use almost no space for missing nodes, can use any number of subscripts, and subscripts can be strings or numeric (including floating point). Arrays are always automatically stored in sorted order, so there is never any occasion to sort, pack, reorder, or otherwise reorganize the database. $ORDER, $ZPREVIOUS, and $QUERY functions provide efficient traversal of the fundamental array structure, on disk or in memory. for i=10000:1:12345 set sqtable(i)=i*i set address("Smith","Daniel")="dpbsmith@world.std.com" Local arrays: variable names not beginning with caret are stored in memory by process, are private to the creating process, expire when the creating process terminates. The available storage depends on partition size, but is typically small (32K). Global arrays: ^abc, ^def. These are stored on disk, are available to all processes, and are persistent when the creating process terminates. Very large globals (eg, hundreds of megabytes) are practical and efficient in most implementations. This is MUMPS' main "database" mechanism. It is used instead of calling on the operating system to create, write, and read files. Indirection: in many contexts, @VBL can be used, and effectively substitutes the contents of VBL into another MUMPS statement. SET XYZ="ABC" SET @XYZ=123 sets the variable ABC to 123. SET SUBROU="REPORT" DO @SUBROU performs the subroutine named REPORT. This is effectively the operational equivalent of "pointers" in other languages. Piece function: This breaks variables into pieces guided by a user specified separator character. Those who know awk will find this familiar. $PIECE(STRINGVAR,"^",3) means the "third caret-separated piece of STRINGVAR." It can appear as an assignment target. After SET X="dpbsmith@world.std.com" $PIECE("world.std.com",".",2) yields "std" SET $P(X,"@",1)="office" causes X to become "office@world.std.com" (note that $P is equivalent to $PIECE and could be written as such). Order function Set stuff(6)="xyz",stuff(10)=26,stuff(15)="" $Order(stuff("")) yields 6, $Order(stuff(6)) yields 10, $Order(stuff(8)) yields 10, $Order(stuff(10)) yields 15, $Order(stuff(15)) yields "". Set i="" For Set i=$O(stuff(i)) Quit:i="" Write !,i,10,stuff(i) Here, the argument-less For repeats until stopped by a terminating Quit. This line prints a table of i and stuff(i) where i is successively 6, 10, and 15. Multi-User/Multi-Tasking/Multi-Processor: MUMPS supports multiple simultaneous users and processes even when the underlying operating system does not (Eg. MS-DOS). Additionally, by specifying a machine name in a variable (as in SET ^|"DENVER"|A(1000)="Foo"), you can access data on remote machines. For a thorough listing of the rest of the MUMPS commands, operators, functions and special variables, see these online resources: MUMPS by Example, or the (out of print) book of the same name by Ed de Moel. Much of the language syntax is detailed there, with examples of usage. The Annotated MUMPS Language Standard, showing the evolution of the language and differences between versions of the ANSI standard. "MUMPS" vs. "M" naming debate While of little interest to those outside the MUMPS/M community, this topic has been contentious there. All of the following positions can, and have been, supported by knowledgeable people at various times: The language's name became M in 1993 when the M Technology Association adopted it. The name became M on December 8 1995 with the approval of ANSI X11.1-1995 Both M and MUMPS are officially accepted names. M is only an "alternate name" or "nickname" for the language, and MUMPS is still the official name. Some of the contention arose in response to strong M advocacy on the part of one commercial interest, InterSystems, whose chief executive disliked the name MUMPS and felt that it represented a serious marketing obstacle. Thus, favoring M to some extent became identified as alignment with InterSystems. The dispute also reflected rivalry between organizations (the M Technology Association, the MUMPS Development Committee, the ANSI and ISO Standards Committees) as to who determines the "official" name of the language. Some writers have attempted to defuse the issue by referring to the language as M[UMPS], square brackets being the customary notation for optional syntax elements. A leading authority, and the author of an open source MUMPS implementation, Professor Kevin O'Kane, uses only 'MUMPS'. The most recent standard (ISO/IEC 11756:1999, re-affirmed on 6 January 2005), still mentions both M and MUMPS as officially accepted names. The MUMPS epoch In MUMPS, the current date and time is contained in a special system variable, $H (short for "HOROLOG"). The format is a pair of integers separated by a comma, e.g. "54321,12345" The first number is the number of days since December 31, 1840, i.e. day number 1 is January 1, 1841; the second is the number of seconds since midnight. James M. Poitras has written that he chose this epoch for the date and time routines in a package developed by his group at MGH in 1969: (More colorful versions have circulated in the folklore, suggesting, for example, that December 31 1840 was the exact date of the first entry in the MGH records, but these seem to be urban legends.) Sample programs An example of "traditional" M coding style, from the Fileman system written for the US Government Veterans' Administration. This fragment uses statement abbreviations and cryptic routine and variable names, extensively. In an era in which disks were small, memory smaller, and I/O often limited to 300 baud, this made some sense. Modern MUMPS code typically uses helpful variable names and would avoid statement abbreviations if possible. There is still a line length limit in most MUMPS implementations, however. %DTC %DTC ; SF/XAK - DATE/TIME OPERATIONS ;1/16/92 11:36 AM ;;19.0;VA FileMan;;Jul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xamples of Valid Dates:" D % S A1=" JAN 20 1957 or 20 JAN 57 or 1/20/57"_$S(%DT'["N":" or 012057",1:"") D % S A1=" T (for TODAY), T+1 (for TOMORROW), T+2, T+7, etc." D % S A1=" T-1 (for YESTERDAY), T-3W (for 3 WEEKS AGO), etc." D % S A1="If the year is omitted, the computer "_$S(%DT["P":"assumes a date in the PAST.",1:"uses the CURRENT YEAR.") D % I %DT'["X" S A1="You may omit the precise day, as: JAN, 1957" D % I %DT'["T",%DT'["R" G 0 S A1="If the date is omitted, the current date is assumed." D % S A1="Follow the date with a time, such as JAN 20@10, T@10AM, 10:30, etc." D % S A1="You may enter a time, such as NOON, MIDNIGHT or NOW." D % I %DT["S" S A1="Seconds may be entered as 10:30:30 or 103030AM." D % I %DT["R" S A1="Time is REQUIRED in this response." D % 0 Q:'$D(%DT(0)) S A1=" " D % S A1="Enter a date which is "_$S(%DT(0)["-":"less",1:"greater")_" than or equal to " D % S Y=$S(%DT(0)["-":$P(%DT(0),"-",2),1:%DT(0)) D DD^%DT:Y'["NOW" I '$D(DDS) W Y,"." K A1 Q S DDH(DDH,"T")=DDH(DDH,"T")_Y_"." K A1 Q ; % I '$D(DDS) W !," ",A1 Q S DDH=DDH+1,DDH(DDH,"T")=" "_A1 Q The following code is a complete implementation of ROT13, a trivially breakable cipher used for various purposes on the Net, not high security. It illustrates the compact nature of MUMPS code and is rather less cryptic than the sample above. ST ; ROT13 ; Gunter Rensch ; 2000-01-03 ; Encrypt/Decrypt ROT13 Q ; no direct execution ; ; call from your program with ; S A="String" ; S A=$$ROT^ROT13(.A) ; ROT(R) ; S S1="ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ" S S2="NOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLM" S s1="abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz" S s2="nopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklm" S R=$TR(R,S1_s1,S2_s2) Q R A second implementation is below, which illustrates the possibilities of concision in MUMPS. s A="String" F i=1:1:$L(A) W $c($S($A($E(A,i))<91:$A($E(A,i))-52#26+65,1:$A($E(A,i))-84#26+97)) Finally, one of the shortest programs ever written in a high language, demonstrating the extreme concision of which MUMPS is capable. s x="x x" x x The same algorithm using expanded variable and command names Set X="Xecute X" Xecute X This program sets a value of "x x" to a variable named x, and then launches an infinite recursive execution of x, resulting in stack overflow. At 13 characters, including spaces and an end-of-line mark, the first variant demonstrates that it can be as compact and obscure as such languages as Perl. See also PSL an extension to MUMPS Caché ObjectScript an object oriented extension to MUMPS from a prominent MUMPS vendor EsiObjects an Open Source Object Oriented extension to MUMPS References Further reading Walters, Richard (1989). "ABCs of MUMPS. 1989: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 1-55558-017-3. Walters, Richard (1997). M Programming: A Comprehensive Guide. Digital Press. ISBN 1-55558-167-6. Lewkowicz, John. The Complete MUMPS : An Introduction and Reference Manual for the MUMPS Programming Language. ISBN 0-13-162125-4 Kirsten, Wolfgang, et al. (2003) Object-Oriented Application Development Using the Caché Postrelational Database ISBN 3-540-00960-4 Martínez de Carvajal Hedrich, Ernesto (1993). "El Lenguaje MUMPS". Completa obra en castellano sobre el lenguaje Mumps. ISBN 84-477-0125-5. Distribuido exclusivamente por su autor (ecarvajal@hedrich.es) O'Kane, K.C.; A language for implementing information retrieval software, Online Review, Vol 16, No 3, pp 127–137 (1992). O'Kane, K.C.; and McColligan, E. E., A case study of a Mumps intranet patient record, Journal of the Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society, Vol 11, No 3, pp 81–95 (1997). O'Kane, K.C.; and McColligan, E.E., A Web Based Mumps Virtual Machine, Proceedings of the American Medical Informatics Association 1997 External links M Technology and MUMPS Language FAQ (1999) General source; also specific source for the Poitras quote re the origin of the 1840 epoch. Open Source (GPL/LGPL), Kevin O'Kane Univ Northern Iowa Information Retrieval in Mumps (book) MDH Database Toolkit C++ class library to access O'Kane's Open Source Mumps MDC - MUMPS Development Committee The Annotated M{UMPS} Standards Caché & MUMPS Technology Association of UK & Ireland GT.M Open Source MUMPS System - Fidelity/Sanchez/Greystone MUMPS Systems - Source Forge index Globals: a primer for Relational Programmers The M Technology Resource Center M Links at Hardhats.org A case of MUMPS A MUMPS story at The Daily WTF M21 - An ANSI M(UMPS) Implementation EsiObjects An Object Oriented extension of MUMPS InterSystems Caché InterSystems M Technologies DSM, MSM and OpenM M/DB An Open Source MUMPS-based API-compatible alternative to SimpleDB | MUMPS |@lemmatized mumps:116 massachusetts:3 general:4 hospital:7 utility:1 multi:6 programming:3 system:26 alternatively:1 language:40 create:9 late:1 originally:1 use:33 healthcare:6 industry:1 design:6 production:1 user:9 database:17 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3,997 | Printer_(computing) | In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a hard copy (permanent human-readable text and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Many printers are primarily used as local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in most newer printers, a USB cable to a computer which serves as a document source. Some printers, commonly known as network printers, have built-in network interfaces (typically wireless or Ethernet), and can serve as a hardcopy device for any user on the network. Individual printers are often designed to support both local and network connected users at the same time. In addition, a few modern printers can directly interface to electronic media such as memory sticks or memory cards, or to image capture devices such as digital cameras, scanners; some printers are combined with a scanners and/or fax machines in a single unit, and can function as photocopiers. Printers that include non-printing features are sometimes called Multifunction Printers (MFP), Multi-Function Devices (MFD), or All-In-One (AIO) printers. Most MFPs include printing, scanning, and copying among their features. A Virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resemble that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer. Printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs; requiring virtually no setup time to achieve a hard copy of a given document. However, printers are generally slow devices (30 pages per minute is considered fast; and many inexpensive consumer printers are far slower than that), and the cost per page is actually relatively high. The printing press remains the machine of choice for high-volume, professional publishing. However, as printers have improved in quality and performance, many jobs which used to be done by professional print shops are now done by users on local printers; see desktop publishing. The world's first computer printer was a 19th century mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his Difference Engine. Babbage printer finally runs BBC News, 13 April, 2000 Printing technology Printers are routinely classified by the underlying print technology they employ; numerous such technologies have been developed over the years. The choice of print engine has a substantial effect on what jobs a printer is suitable for, as different technologies are capable of different levels of image/text quality, print speed, low cost, noise; in addition, some technologies are inappropriate for certain types of physical media (such as carbon paper or transparencies). Another aspect of printer technology that is often forgotten is resistance to alteration: liquid ink such as from an inkjet head or fabric ribbon becomes absorbed by the paper fibers, so documents printed with a liquid ink sublimation printer are more difficult to alter than documents printed with toner or solid inks, which do not penetrate below the paper surface. Checks should either be printed with liquid ink or on special "check paper with toner anchorage". For similar reasons carbon film ribbons for IBM Selectric typewriters bore labels warning against using them to type negotiable instruments such as checks. The machine-readable lower portion of a check, however, must be printed using MICR toner or ink. Banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly. Modern print technology The following printing technologies are routinely found in modern printers: Toner-based printers Toner-based printers work using the Xerographic principle that is used in most photocopiers: by adhering toner to a light-sensitive print drum, then using static electricity to transfer the toner to the printing medium to which it is fused with heat and pressure. The most common type of toner-based printer is the laser printer, which uses precision lasers to cause toner adherence. Laser printers are known for high quality prints, good print speed, and a low (Black and White) cost-per-copy. They are the most common printer for many general-purpose office applications, but are much less common as consumer printers due to their high initial cost - although this cost is dropping. Laser printers are available in both color and monochrome varieties. Another toner based printer is the LED printer which uses an array of LEDs instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion to the print drum. Recent research has also indicated that Laser printers emit potentially dangerous ultrafine particles, possibly causing health problems associated with respiration and cause pollution equivalent to cigarettes. Printers pose health risks: study – Technology – theage.com.au The degree of particle emissions varies with age, model and design of each printer but is generally proportional to the amount of toner required. Furthermore, a well ventilated workspace would allow such ultrafine particles to disperse thus reducing the health side effects. Liquid inkjet printers Inkjet printers operate by propelling variably-sized droplets of liquid or molten material (ink) onto almost any sized page. They are the most common type of computer printer for the general consumer due to their low cost, high quality of output, capability of printing in vivid color, and ease of use. Solid ink printers Solid Ink printers, also known as phase-change printers, are a type of thermal transfer printer. They use solid sticks of CMYK colored ink (similar in consistency to candle wax), which are melted and fed into a piezo crystal operated print-head. The printhead sprays the ink on a rotating, oil coated drum. The paper then passes over the print drum, at which time the image is transferred, or transfixed, to the page. Solid ink printers are most commonly used as color office printers, and are excellent at printing on transparencies and other non-porous media. Solid ink printers can produce excellent results. Acquisition and operating costs are similar to laser printers. Drawbacks of the technology include high power consumption and long warm-up times from a cold state. Also, some users complain that the resulting prints are difficult to write on (the wax tends to repel inks from pens), and are difficult to feed through Automatic Document Feeders, but these traits have been significantly reduced in later models. In addition, this type of printer is only available from one manufacturer, Xerox, manufactured as part of their Xerox Phaser office printer line. Previously, solid ink printers were manufactured by Tektronix, but Tek sold the printing business to Xerox in 2001 Dye-sublimation printers A dye-sublimation printer (or dye-sub printer) is a printer which employs a printing process that uses heat to transfer dye to a medium such as a plastic card, paper or canvas. The process is usually to lay one color at a time using a ribbon that has color panels. Dye-sub printers are intended primarily for high-quality color applications, including color photography; and are less well-suited for text. While once the province of high-end print shops, dye-sublimation printers are now increasingly used as dedicated consumer photo printers. Inkless printers Thermal printers Thermal printers work by selectively heating regions of special heat-sensitive paper. Monochrome thermal printers are used in cash registers, ATMs, gasoline dispensers and some older inexpensive fax machines. Colors can be achieved with special papers and different temperatures and heating rates for different colors. One example is the ZINK technology.by shiloh1 UV printers Xerox is working on an inkless printer which will use a special reusable paper coated with a few micrometres of UV light sensitive chemicals. The printer will use a special UV light bar which will be able to write and erase the paper. As of early 2007 this technology is still in development and the text on the printed pages can only last between 16-24 hours before fading. Xerox Inkless Printer - TFOT Obsolete and special-purpose printing technologies The following technologies are either obsolete, or limited to special applications though most were, at one time, in widespread use. Impact printers rely on a forcible impact to transfer ink to the media, similar to the action of a typewriter. All but the dot matrix printer rely on the use of formed characters, letterforms that represent each of the characters that the printer was capable of printing. In addition, most of these printers were limited to monochrome printing in a single typeface at one time, although bolding and underlining of text could be done by overstriking, that is, printing two or more impressions in the same character position. Impact printers varieties include, Typewriter-derived printers, Teletypewriter-derived printers, Daisy wheel printers, Dot matrix printers and Line printers. Dot matrix printers remain in common use in businesses where multi-part forms are printed, such as car rental service counters. An overview of impact printing contains a detailed description of many of the technologies used. Pen-based plotters were an alternate printing technology once common in engineering and architectural firms. Pen-based plotters rely on contact with the paper (but not impact, per se), and special purpose pens that are mechanically run over the paper to create text and images. Typewriter-derived printers Several different computer printers were simply computer-controllable versions of existing electric typewriters. The Friden Flexowriter and IBM Selectric typewriter were the most-common examples. The Flexowriter printed with a conventional typebar mechanism while the Selectric used IBM's well-known "golf ball" printing mechanism. In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon which was pressed against the paper, printing one character at a time. The maximum speed of the Selectric printer (the faster of the two) was 15.5 characters per second. Teletypewriter-derived printers The common teleprinter could easily be interfaced to the computer and became very popular except for those computers manufactured by IBM. Some models used a "typebox" that was positioned (in the X- and Y-axes) by a mechanism and the selected letter from was struck by a hammer. Others used a type cylinder in a similar way as the Selectric typewriters used their type ball. In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon to print the letterform. Most teleprinters operated at ten characters per second although a few achieved 15 CPS. Daisy wheel printers Daisy-wheel printers operate in much the same fashion as a typewriter. A hammer strikes a wheel with petals (the daisy wheel), each petal containing a letter form at its tip. The letter form strikes a ribbon of ink, depositing the ink on the page and thus printing a character. By rotating the daisy wheel, different characters are selected for printing. These printers were also referred to as letter-quality printers because, during their heyday, they could produce text which was as clear and crisp as a typewriter (though they were nowhere near the quality of printing presses). The fastest letter-quality printers printed at 30 characters per second. Dot-matrix printers In the general sense many printers rely on a matrix of pixels, or dots, that together form the larger image. However, the term dot matrix printer is specifically used for impact printers that use a matrix of small pins to create precise dots. The advantage of dot-matrix over other impact printers is that they can produce graphical images in addition to text; however the text is generally of poorer quality than impact printers that use letterforms (type). A Tandy 1000 HX with a Tandy DMP-133 dot-matrix printer. Dot-matrix printers can be broadly divided into two major classes: Ballistic wire printers (discussed in the dot matrix printers article) Stored energy printers Dot matrix printers can either be character-based or line-based (that is, a single horizontal series of pixels across the page), referring to the configuration of the print head. At one time, dot matrix printers were one of the more common types of printers used for general use - such as for home and small office use. Such printers would have either 9 or 24 pins on the print head. 24-pin print heads were able to print at a higher quality. Once the price of inkjet printers dropped to the point where they were competitive with dot matrix printers, dot matrix printers began to fall out of favor for general use. Some dot matrix printers, such as the NEC P6300, can be upgraded to print in color. This is achieved through the use of a four-color ribbon mounted on a mechanism (provided in an upgrade kit that replaces the standard black ribbon mechanism after installation) that raises and lowers the ribbons as needed. Color graphics are generally printed in four passes at standard resolution, thus slowing down printing considerably. As a result, color graphics can take up to four times longer to print than standard monochrome graphics, or up to 8-16 times as long at high resolution mode. Dot matrix printers are still commonly used in low-cost, low-quality applications like cash registers, or in demanding, very high volume applications like invoice printing. The fact that they use an impact printing method allows them to be used to print multi-part documents using carbonless copy paper (like sales invoices and credit card receipts), whereas other printing methods are unusable with paper of this type. Dot-matrix printers are now (as of 2005) rapidly being superseded even as receipt printers. Line printers Line printers, as the name implies, print an entire line of text at a time. Three principal designs existed. In drum printers, a drum carries the entire character set of the printer repeated in each column that is to be printed. In chain printers (also known as train printers), the character set is arranged multiple times around a chain that travels horizontally past the print line. In either case, to print a line, precisely timed hammers strike against the back of the paper at the exact moment that the correct character to be printed is passing in front of the paper. The paper presses forward against a ribbon which then presses against the character form and the impression of the character form is printed onto the paper. Comb printers represent the third major design. These printers were a hybrid of dot matrix printing and line printing. In these printers, a comb of hammers printed a portion of a row of pixels at one time (for example, every eighth pixel). By shifting the comb back and forth slightly, the entire pixel row could be printed (continuing the example, in just eight cycles). The paper then advanced and the next pixel row was printed. Because far less motion was involved than in a conventional dot matrix printer, these printers were very fast compared to dot matrix printers and were competitive in speed with formed-character line printers while also being able to print dot-matrix graphics. Line printers were the fastest of all impact printers and were used for bulk printing in large computer centres. They were virtually never used with personal computers and have now been replaced by high-speed laser printers. Line printers, better known as linematrix printers are widely used in the automotive, logistic and banking world for high speed and barcode printing. They are known as robust and durable printers that have the lowest price per page (form). Companies as Printronix Inc. and TallyGenicom are the leading manufactures today. The legacy of line printers lives on in many computer operating systems, which use the abbreviations "lp", "lpr", or "LPT" to refer to printers. Pen-based plotters A plotter is a vector graphics printing device which operates by moving a pen over the surface of paper. Plotters have been (and still are) used in applications such as computer-aided design, though they are being replaced with wide-format conventional printers (which nowadays have sufficient resolution to render high-quality vector graphics using a rasterized print engine). It is commonplace to refer to such wide-format printers as "plotters", even though such usage is technically incorrect. Other printers A number of other sorts of printers are important for historical reasons, or for special purpose uses: Digital minilab (photographic paper) Electrolytic printers Microsphere (special paper) Spark printer barcode printer multiple technologies, including: thermal printing, inkjet printing, and laser printing barcodes Billboard / sign paint spray printers Laser etching (product packaging) industrial printers Printing mode The data received by a printer may be: a string of characters a bitmapped image a vector image Some printers can process all three types of data, others not. Character Printers (such as Daisy wheel printers) can handle only plain text data or rather simple point plots. Pen Plotters typically process vector images. Inkjet based Plotters can adequately reproduce all three. Modern printing technology, such as laser printers and inkjet printers, can adequately reproduce all three. This is especially true of printers equipped with support for PostScript and/or PCL; which includes the vast majority of printers produced today. Today it is common to print everything (even plain text) by sending ready bitmapped images to the printer, because it allows better control over formatting. Many printer drivers do not use the text mode at all, even if the printer is capable of it. Monochrome, color and photo printers A monochrome printer can only produce an image consisting of one color, usually black. A monochrome printer may also be able to produce various tones of that color, such as a grey-scale. A color printer can produce images of multiple colors. A photo printer is a color printer that can produce images that mimic the color range (gamut) and resolution of photographic methods of printing. Many can be used autonomously (without a computer), with a memory card or USB connector. The printer manufacturing business Often the razor and blades business model is applied. That is, a company may sell a printer at cost, and make profits on the ink cartridge, paper, or some other replacement part. This has caused legal disputes regarding the right of companies other than the printer manufacturer to sell compatible ink cartridges. To protect the razor and blades business model several manufacturers invest heavily in developing new cartridge technology and patenting it. Other manufacturers, in reaction to the challenges from using this business model, choose to make more money on printers and less on the ink, promoting the latter through their advertising campaigns. Finally, this generates two clearly different proposals: "cheap printer - expensive ink" or "expensive printer - cheap ink". Ultimately, the consumer decision depends on their reference interest rate or their time preference. From an Economics viewpoint, there is a clear trade-off between cost per copy and cost of the printer Cost per Page versus Printer cost in currently available printers . Printing speed The speed of early printers was measured in units of characters per second. More modern printers are measured in pages per minute. These measures are used primarily as a marketing tool, and are not well standardised. Usually pages per minute refers to sparse monochrome office documents, rather than dense pictures which usually print much more slowly. PPM are most of the time referring to A4 paper in Europe and letter paper in the US, resulting in a 5-10% difference. References See also print (command) Print job Print screen Print server Printable version Printer (publisher) Printer point Printer friendly Printing Printmaking Cardboard engineering | Printer_(computing) |@lemmatized compute:1 printer:172 peripheral:2 produce:9 hard:2 copy:6 permanent:1 human:1 readable:2 text:13 graphic:7 document:8 store:2 electronic:2 form:11 usually:5 physical:3 print:61 medium:7 paper:27 transparency:3 many:9 primarily:3 use:48 local:3 attach:1 cable:2 new:2 usb:2 computer:14 serve:2 source:1 commonly:3 know:7 network:4 build:1 interface:3 typically:2 wireless:1 ethernet:1 hardcopy:1 device:5 user:5 individual:1 often:3 design:6 support:2 connect:2 time:17 addition:5 modern:5 directly:1 memory:3 stick:2 card:4 image:13 capture:1 digital:2 camera:1 scanner:2 combine:1 fax:2 machine:4 single:3 unit:2 function:3 photocopier:2 include:7 non:2 printing:25 feature:2 sometimes:1 call:1 multifunction:1 mfp:1 multi:3 mfd:1 one:11 aio:1 mfps:1 scanning:1 among:1 virtual:1 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3,998 | Arsenal_F.C. | Arsenal Football Club (often simply known as Arsenal or The Arsenal, or by their nickname The Gunners) are an English professional football club based in Holloway, North London. They play in the Premier League and are one of the most successful clubs in English football, having won thirteen First Division and Premier League titles and ten FA Cups, and hold the record for the longest uninterrupted period in the English top flight. Arsenal were founded in 1886 and were the first Southern club to join the Football League, in 1893. They won their first major trophies in the 1930s, with five League Championship titles and two FA Cups. After a lean period in the post-war years they became the second club of the 20th century to win the League and FA Cup Double in 1970–71, and during the past twenty years have recorded a series of successes – in this time Arsenal have won a Cup Double, two further League and FA Cup Doubles, the Premier League title unbeaten, and became the first London club to reach the UEFA Champions League Final. The club's colours have traditionally been red and white, which have evolved through history. Similarly, the club have changed location over time; the team were initially founded in Woolwich, south-east London, and in 1913 they moved north across the city to Arsenal Stadium, Highbury. In 2006 they made a less drastic move to their current home, the Emirates Stadium in nearby Holloway. Arsenal have a large fanbase, who hold a string of long-standing rivalries with several other clubs; the most notable of these is with neighbours Tottenham Hotspur, with whom they regularly contest the North London derby. Arsenal are one of the richest clubs in English football (valued at over £600m as of 2008), and thanks to their stature, have regularly featured in portrayals of football in British culture. Arsenal Ladies are the most successful English club in women's football and are also affiliated with the club. History Arsenal were founded as Dial Square in 1886 by workers at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, and were renamed Royal Arsenal shortly afterwards. They renamed themselves again to Woolwich Arsenal after turning professional in 1891. The club joined the Football League in 1893, starting out in the Second Division, and won promotion to the First Division in 1904. The club's relative geographic isolation resulted in lower attendances than those of other clubs, which led to the club becoming mired in financial problems and effectively bankrupt by 1910, when they were taken over by Henry Norris. Norris sought to move the club elsewhere, and in 1913, soon after relegation back to the Second Division, Arsenal moved to the new Arsenal Stadium in Highbury, North London; they dropped "Woolwich" from their name the following year. Arsenal only finished in fifth place in 1919, but nevertheless were elected to rejoin the First Division at the expense of local rivals Tottenham Hotspur, by reportedly dubious means. It has been alleged that Arsenal's promotion, on historical grounds rather than merit, was thanks to underhand actions by the then Arsenal chairman, Sir Henry Norris; see History of Arsenal F.C. (1886–1966) for more details. These allegations range from political machinations to outright bribery; no firm proof of any wrongdoing has ever been found. A brief account is given in A more detailed account can be found in Arsenal captain Patrick Vieira lifts the 2003–04 Premier League trophy. Arsenal's players and fans celebrate their 2004 League title win with an open-top bus parade. Arsenal players (in yellow shirts, left) line up alongside FC Barcelona for the 2006 Champions League Final. In 1925, Arsenal appointed Herbert Chapman as manager. Chapman had already won the league twice with Huddersfield Town in 1923–24 and 1924–25, and he brought Arsenal their first period of major success. His revolutionary tactics and training, along with the signings of star players such as Alex James and Cliff Bastin, laid the foundations of the club's domination of English football in the 1930s. Under his guidance Arsenal won their first major trophies – an FA Cup in 1929–30 and two League Championships, in 1930–31 and 1932–33. In addition, Chapman was behind the 1932 renaming of the local London Underground station from "Gillespie Road" to "Arsenal", making it the only Tube station to be named specifically after a football club. Chapman died suddenly of pneumonia in early 1934, leaving Joe Shaw and George Allison to carry on his successful work. Under their guidance, Arsenal won three more titles (1933–34, 1934–35 and 1937–38) and an FA Cup (1935–36). As key players retired, by the decade's end, Arsenal had started to fade, and then the intervention of World War II meant competitive professional football in England was suspended. After the war, under Allison's successor Tom Whittaker, Arsenal enjoyed a second period of success, winning the league in 1947–48 and 1952–53, and the FA Cup in 1949–50. After that though, their fortunes waned; unable to attract players of the same calibre as they had in the 1930s, the club spent most of the 1950s and 1960s in trophyless mediocrity. Even former England captain Billy Wright could not bring the club any success as manager, in a stint between 1962 and 1966. Arsenal began winning silverware again with the surprise appointment of club physiotherapist Bertie Mee as manager in 1966. After losing two League Cup finals, they won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, their first European trophy, in 1969–70. This was followed by an even greater triumph: their first League and FA Cup double in 1970–71. This marked a premature high point of the decade; the Double-winning side was soon broken up and the following decade was characterised by a series of near misses. Arsenal finished as First Division runners-up in 1972–73, lost three FA Cup finals (1971–72, 1977–78 and 1979–80) and lost the 1979–80 Cup Winners' Cup final on penalties. The club's only success during this time was an FA Cup win in 1978–79, with a last-minute 3–2 victory over Manchester United that is widely regarded as a classic. A 2005 poll of English football fans rated the 1979 FA Cup Final the 15th greatest game of all time. Reference: The return of former player George Graham as manager in 1986 brought a third period of glory. Arsenal won the League Cup in 1986–87, Graham's first season in charge. This was followed by a League title win in 1988–89, won with a last-minute goal in the final game of the season against fellow title challengers Liverpool. Graham's Arsenal won another title in 1990–91, losing only one match, the FA Cup and League Cup double in 1992–93 and a second European trophy, the Cup Winners' Cup, in 1993–94. Graham's reputation was tarnished when it was revealed that he had taken kickbacks from agent Rune Hauge for signing certain players, Graham was banned for a year by the Football Association for his involvement in the scandal after he admitted he had received an "unsolicited gift" from Hauge. Reference: The case is given a detailed treatment in and he was sacked in 1995. His replacement, Bruce Rioch, lasted for only one season, leaving the club after a dispute with the board of directors. The club's success in the late 1990s and 2000s owes a great deal to the appointment of manager Arsène Wenger in 1996. Wenger brought new tactics, a new training regime and several foreign players who complemented the existing English talent. Arsenal won a second league and cup double in 1997–98 and a third in 2001–02. In addition, the club reached the final of the 1999–00 UEFA Cup (losing on penalties to Galatasaray), were victorious in the 2002–03 and 2004–05 FA Cups, and won the Premier League in 2003–04 without losing a single match, which earned the side the nickname "The Invincibles"; in all, the club went 49 league matches unbeaten, a national record. Arsenal have finished in either first or second place in the league in eight of Wenger's eleven seasons at the club. They are one of only four teams (along with Manchester United, Blackburn Rovers and Chelsea) to have won the Premier League since its formation in 1993, although they have failed to retain the title each time they have been champions. Arsenal had never progressed beyond the Champions League quarter-finals until 2005–06; in that competition they reached the final, the first club from London to do so in the competition's fifty-year history, where they were beaten 2–1 by FC Barcelona. In July 2006, they moved into their current stadium, the Emirates Stadium, after 93 years at Highbury. Crest Arsenal's first crest from 1888. A version of the Arsenal crest used from 1949 to 2002. Royal Arsenal's first crest, unveiled in 1888, featured three cannons viewed from above, pointing northwards, similar to the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich. These can sometimes be mistaken for chimneys, but the presence of a carved lion's head and a cascabel on each are clear indicators that they are cannon. This was dropped after the move to Highbury in 1913, only to be reinstated in 1922, when the club adopted their first single-cannon crest, featuring an eastward-pointing cannon, with the club's nickname, The Gunners, inscribed alongside it; this crest only lasted until 1925, when the cannon was reversed to point westward and its barrel slimmed down. In 1949, the club unveiled a modernised crest featuring the same style of cannon, the club's name set in blackletter above the cannon, the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Islington and a scroll inscribed with the club's newly adopted Latin motto, Victoria Concordia Crescit (meaning "victory comes from harmony"), coined by Harry Homer, the club's programme editor. For the first time, the crest was rendered in colour, which varied slightly over the crest's lifespan, finally becoming red, gold and green. Because of the numerous revisions of the crest, Arsenal were unable to copyright it. Although the club had managed to register the crest as a trademark, and had fought (and eventually won) a long legal battle with a local street trader who sold "unofficial" Arsenal merchandise, Arsenal eventually sought a more comprehensive legal protection. Therefore, in 2002 they introduced a new crest featuring more modern curved lines and a simplified style, which was copyrightable. The cannon once again faces east and the club's name is written in a sans-serif typeface above the cannon. Green was replaced by dark blue. The new crest received a critical response from some supporters; the Arsenal Independent Supporters' Association claimed that the club had ignored much of Arsenal's history and tradition with such a radical modern design, and that fans had not been properly consulted on the issue. Colours For much of Arsenal's history, their home colours have been bright red shirts with white sleeves and white shorts, though this has not always been the case. The choice of red is in recognition of a charitable donation from Nottingham Forest, soon after Arsenal's foundation in 1886. Two of Dial Square's founding members, Fred Beardsley and Morris Bates, were former Forest players who had moved to Woolwich for work. As they put together the first team in the area, no kit could be found, so Beardsley and Bates wrote home for help and received a set of kit and a ball. The shirt was redcurrant, a dark shade of red, and was worn with white shorts and blue socks. In 1933 Herbert Chapman, wanting his players to be more distinctly dressed, updated the kit, adding white sleeves and changing the shade to a brighter pillar box red. The origin of the white sleeves is not conclusively known, with two possible inspirations having been put forward. One story reports that Chapman noticed a supporter in the stands wearing a red sleeveless sweater over a white shirt; another was that he was inspired by a similar outfit worn by the cartoonist Tom Webster, with whom Chapman played golf. Regardless of which story is true, the red and white shirts have come to define Arsenal and the team have worn the combination ever since, aside from two seasons. The first was 1966–67, when Arsenal wore all-red shirts; this proved unpopular and the white sleeves returned the following season. The second was 2005–06, the last season that Arsenal played at Highbury, when the team wore commemorative redcurrant shirts similar to those worn in 1913, their first season in the stadium; the club reverted to their normal colours at the start of the 2006–07 season. Arsenal's home colours have been the inspiration for at least three other clubs. In 1909, Sparta Prague adopted a dark red kit like the one Arsenal wore at the time; in 1938, Hibernian adopted the design of the Arsenal shirt sleeves in their own green and white strip. In the 1930s, Sporting Clube de Braga's coach returned from a game at Highbury and changed his team's green kit into a duplicate of Arsenal's red with white sleeves and shorts, giving rise to the team's nickname of Os Arsenalistas. These teams still wear these designs to this day. Arsenal's away colours are currently the traditional yellow and blue, but there have been exceptions. They wore a green and navy away kit between 1982 and 1984, and since the early 1990s and the advent of the lucrative replica kit market, the away colours have been changed regularly. During this period the designs have been either two-tone blue designs, or variations on the traditional yellow and blue, such as the metallic gold and navy strip used in the 2001–02 season, and the yellow and dark grey used in 2005–06 and 2006–07. Currently, the away kit is changed every season with the outgoing away kit becoming the third choice kit, which is used for games where both the first and second choice colours clash with those of Arsenal's opponents, the following season. Arsenal's current third kit (formerly the away kit for the 2007–08 season) consists of white shirts with redcurrant shorts and hooped white and redcurrant socks. Stadiums The North Bank Stand, Arsenal Stadium, Highbury. The Emirates Stadium filling up on the day of Dennis Bergkamp's testimonial. For the majority of their time in south-east London, Arsenal played at the Manor Ground in Plumstead, a three-year period at the nearby Invicta Ground between 1890 and 1893 excepted. The Manor Ground was initially just a field, until the club installed stands and terracing in time for their first Football League match in September 1893. They played their home games there for the next twenty years (with two exceptions in 1894–95), until the move to north London in 1913. Arsenal Stadium, widely referred to as Highbury, was Arsenal's home from September 1913 until May 2006. The original stadium was designed by the renowned football architect Archibald Leitch, and had a design common to many football grounds in the UK at the time, with a single covered stand and three open-air banks of terracing. In the 1930s, the entire stadium was given a massive overhaul, with new Art Deco West and East stands constructed, opening in 1932 and 1936 respectively; in addition, the North Bank terrace had a roof added, which was later bombed during World War II and not restored until 1954. At its peak, Highbury could hold over 60,000 spectators, and had a capacity of 57,000 until the early 1990s. The Taylor Report and Premier League regulations forced Arsenal to convert Highbury into an all-seater in time for the 1993–94 season, reducing the capacity to 38,419 seated spectators. This capacity had to be reduced further during Champions League matches to accommodate additional advertising hoardings, so much so that for two seasons (1998–99 and 1999–00) Arsenal played Champions League home matches at Wembley, which could house more than 70,000 spectators. Expansion of Highbury was restricted because the East Stand had been designated as a Grade II listed building and the other three stands were close to residential properties. These limitations prevented the club from maximising matchday revenue during the 1990s and early 2000s, leaving them in danger of being left behind in the football boom of that time. After considering various options, in 2000 Arsenal proposed building a new 60,355-capacity stadium at Ashburton Grove, since renamed the Emirates Stadium, about 500 metres south-west of Highbury. The project was initially delayed by red tape and rising costs, and construction was completed in July 2006, in time for the start of the 2006–07 season. The stadium is named after its sponsors, the airline company Emirates, with whom the club signed the largest sponsorship deal in English football history, worth approximately £100 million; alternatively some fans refer to the ground as Ashburton Grove, or the Grove, as they do not agree with corporate sponsorship of stadium names. The stadium will be officially known as Emirates Stadium until at least 2012, and the airline will be the club's shirt sponsor until the end of the 2013–14 season. Arsenal's training centre is in Shenley, Hertfordshire, at a purpose-built facility which opened in 2000. Before that the club shared training facilities with University College London Student Union nearby, having trained at Highbury up until 1961. Arsenal's Academy teams play their home matches at Shenley, while the Reserves play their games at Underhill, home of Barnet FC. Supporters Arsenal fans often refer to themselves as "Gooners", the name being derived from the team's nickname, "The Gunners". Arsenal have a large and generally loyal fanbase, with virtually all home matches selling out; in 2007–08 Arsenal had the second-highest average League attendance for an English club (60,070, which was 99.5% of available capacity), and as of 2006, the fourth-highest all-time average attendance. Please note that some pre-war attendance figures used by this source were estimates and may not be entirely accurate. The club's location, adjoining both wealthy areas such as Canonbury and Barnsbury, mixed areas such as Islington, Holloway and Highbury, and the adjacent London Borough of Camden, and largely working class areas such as Finsbury Park and Stoke Newington has meant that Arsenal's supporters have come from across the usual class divides. In addition, Arsenal have the highest proportion (7.7%) of non-white attending supporters of any club in English football, according to a 2002 report. Like all major English football clubs, Arsenal have a number of domestic supporters' clubs, including the Arsenal Football Supporters Club, which works closely with the club, and the Arsenal Independent Supporters' Association, which maintains a more independent line. There is also the Arsenal Supporters' Trust, which promotes greater participation in ownership of the club by fans. The club's supporters also publish fanzines such as The Gooner, Highbury High, Gunflash and the less cerebral Up The Arse!. In addition to the usual English football chants, Arsenal's supporters sing "One-Nil to the Arsenal" (to the tune of "Go West") and "Boring, Boring Arsenal", which used to be a common taunt from opposition fans but is now sung ironically by Arsenal supporters when the team is playing well. There have always been Arsenal supporters outside of London, and in recent times with the advent of satellite television, a supporter's attachment to a football club has become less dependent on geography. Consequently, Arsenal now have a significant number of fans from beyond London and all over the world; there are 24 UK, 37 Irish and 49 overseas supporters clubs affiliated with Arsenal, as of 2007. A 2005 report by Granada Ventures, which at the time owned a 9.9% stake in the club, estimated Arsenal's global fanbase at 27 million, the third largest in the world. Arsenal's longest-running and deepest rivalry is with their nearest major neighbours, Tottenham Hotspur, with matches between the two being referred to as North London derbies. Other rivalries within London include those with Chelsea, Fulham and West Ham United,. In addition, Arsenal and Manchester United have had a strong on-pitch rivalry since the late 1980s, which has intensified in recent years when both clubs have been competing for the Premier League title – so much so that in a 2003 online poll by the Football Fans Census listed Manchester United as Arsenal's biggest rivals, followed by Tottenham and Chelsea. A 2008 poll lists the Tottenham rivalry as more important. Ownership and finances Arsenal's parent company, Arsenal Holdings plc, operates as a non-quoted public limited company, whose ownership is considerably different from that of other football clubs. Only 62,217 shares in Arsenal have been issued, and they are not traded on a public exchange such as the FTSE or AIM; instead, they are traded relatively infrequently on PLUS, a specialist market. As of March 30, 2009, a single share in Arsenal has a mid price of £7,550, meaning the club's market capitalisation value is approximately £469.8m. The club made a pre-tax operating profit (excluding player transfers) of £36.7m in the year ending 31 May 2008, from a turnover of £223.0m. In April 2008, business magazine Forbes ranked Arsenal as third most valuable football team in the world, after Manchester United and Real Madrid, valuing the club at $1.2bn (£605m), excluding debt. Accountants Deloitte rate Arsenal sixth in the 2009 Deloitte Football Money League, a ranking of the world's football clubs in terms of revenue, with the club earning £209.3m in the 2007–08 season. In total, Arsenal FC's board of directors currently hold 45.2% of the club's shares; as of March 2009 the largest shareholder on the board is American sports tycoon Stan Kroenke, who launched a bid for the club in 2007, and as of May 2009 holds 17,613 shares (28.3%). Other directors with significant holdings are Danny Fiszman, who holds 10,025 shares (16.1%), and club chairman Peter Hill-Wood, who owns 500 (0.8%), with all the other directors holding nominal amounts. Former director Nina Bracewell-Smith (wife of the grandson of former chairman Sir Bracewell Smith) holds 9,893 shares (15.9%). A rival bid to Kroenke's has come from the firm Red & White Securities, which is co-owned by Russian billionaire Alisher Usmanov and London-based financier Farhad Moshiri. Red & White launched their bid in August 2007, buying the stake held by former Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein, and as of February 2009 own 15,555 shares (25.0%) in the club. This has led to press speculation of a bidding war between Kroenke and Usmanov. However, Kroenke has agreed not to purchase more than 29.9% of the club until at least September 2009, while the rest of the board have first option on each others' shares until October 2012. Arsenal in popular culture As one of the most successful teams in the country, Arsenal have often featured when football is depicted in British culture and have appeared in a number of media "firsts". On 22 January 1927, their match at Highbury against Sheffield United was the first English League match to be broadcast live on radio. A decade later, on 16 September 1937, an exhibition match between Arsenal's first team and the reserves was the first ever football match to be televised live. Arsenal also featured in the first edition of the BBC's Match of the Day, which screened highlights of their match against Liverpool at Anfield on 22 August 1964. Arsenal also formed the backdrop to one of the earliest football-related films, The Arsenal Stadium Mystery (1939). The film is centred on a friendly match between Arsenal and an amateur side, one of whose players is poisoned whilst playing. Many Arsenal players appeared as themselves and manager George Allison was given a speaking part. More recently, the book Fever Pitch by Nick Hornby was an autobiographical account of Hornby's life and relationship with football and Arsenal in particular. Published in 1992, it formed part of the revival and rehabilitation of football in British society during the 1990s. The book was later adapted into two films – a British film, which centred on Arsenal's 1988–89 title win, and an American film about a fan of Major League Baseball's Boston Red Sox. Arsenal have often been stereotyped as a defensive and "boring" side, especially during the 1970s and 1980s; many comedians, such as Eric Morecambe, made jokes about this at the team's expense. The theme was repeated in the 1997 film The Full Monty, in a scene where the lead actors move in a line and raise their hands, deliberately mimicking the Arsenal defence's offside trap, in an attempt to co-ordinate their stripping. Another film reference to the club's defence comes in the film Plunkett & Macleane, in which there are two characters named Dixon and Winterburn, named after Arsenal's long serving full backs – the right-sided Lee Dixon and the left-sided Nigel Winterburn. Arsenal Ladies Arsenal Ladies are the women's football club affiliated to Arsenal. Founded in 1987, they turned semi-professional in 2002 and are managed by Vic Akers, who is also kit manager for the men's side. Arsenal Ladies are the most successful team in English women's football; they are the current reigning champions of the FA Women's Premier League and holders of the FA Women's Cup; they are also the only English side to have won the UEFA Women's Cup, having done so in the 2006–07 season as part of a unique quadruple. The men's and women's clubs are formally separate entities but have quite close ties; Arsenal Ladies are entitled to play once a season at the Emirates Stadium, though they usually play their home matches at Boreham Wood. Arsenal in the Community In 1985, Arsenal founded a community scheme, "Arsenal in the Community", which offers sporting, social inclusion, educational and charitable projects. The club support a number of charitable causes directly and in 1992 established The Arsenal Charitable trust, which has raised over £2 million for local causes. There is also an ex-professional and celebrity team to raise money for good causes. Statistics and records David O'Leary holds the record for Arsenal appearances, having played 722 first-team matches between 1975 and 1993. Fellow centre half and former captain Tony Adams comes second, having played 669 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by David Seaman, with 563 appearances. Thierry Henry is the club's top goalscorer with 226 goals in all competitions between 1999 and 2007 having surpassed Ian Wright's total of 185 in October 2005. Wright's record had stood since September 1997, a feat which overtook the longstanding total of 178 goals set by winger Cliff Bastin in 1939. Henry also holds the club record for goals scored in the League – 174 – a record that had been held by Bastin until February 2006. Arsenal's record home attendance is 73,707, for a UEFA Champions League match against RC Lens on 25 November 1998 at Wembley Stadium, where Arsenal formerly played home European matches because of the limits on Highbury's capacity. The record attendance for an Arsenal match at Highbury is 73,295, for a 0–0 draw against Sunderland on 9 March 1935, while that at Emirates Stadium is 60,161, for a 2–2 draw with Manchester United on 3 November 2007. Arsenal have also set records in English football, most notably the most consecutive seasons spent in the top flight (82 as of 2008–09) and the longest run of unbeaten League matches (49 between May 2003 and October 2004). This included all 38 matches of their title-winning 2003–04 season, making Arsenal only the second club ever to finish a top-flight campaign unbeaten, after Preston North End (who played only 22 matches) in 1888–89. Arsenal also set a UEFA Champions League record during the 2005–06 season by going ten matches without conceding a goal, beating the previous best of seven set by A.C. Milan. They went a record total stretch of 995 minutes without letting an opponent score; the streak finally ended in the final against FC Barcelona, when Samuel Eto'o scored Barcelona's equaliser in the 76th minute. Players Current squad As of 3 May 2009. Players out on loan As of 04 May 2009: For recent transfers, see Arsenal F.C. 2008-09 transfers. Reserves and Academy Notable players Current coaching staff As of 7 September 2008. Position Name Nationality Manager Arsène Wenger Assistant manager Pat Rice First team coach Boro Primorac Reserve team coach Neil Banfield Goalkeeping coach Gerry Peyton Fitness coach Tony Colbert Physiotherapist Colin Lewin Club doctor Gary O'Driscoll Kit manager Vic Akers Chief scout Steve Rowley Head of youth development Liam Brady Managers Arsène Wenger, current manager of Arsenal There have been eighteen permanent and five caretaker managers of Arsenal since the appointment of the club's first professional manager, Thomas Mitchell in 1897. The longest-running manager in terms of time is George Allison (1934–1947) while the longest-running in terms of games is current manager Arsène Wenger (1996–). Wenger is also Arsenal's only manager from outside Great Britain or Ireland and is Arsenal's most successful permanent manager in terms of percentage of wins with 57.36% (as of 11 May 2008), while Leslie Knighton is Arsenal's least successful (34.46%). See List of Arsenal F.C. managers for a detailed table. Two Arsenal managers have died in the job – Herbert Chapman and Tom Whittaker. Honours Domestic First Division (before 1992) and FA Premier League (after 1992) Up until 1992, the top division of English football was the Football League First Division; since then, it has been the Premier League. Similarly until 1992, the Second Division was the second tier of league football, which is now known as The Championship. Winners (13): 1930–31, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1937–38, 1947–48, 1952–53, 1970–71, 1988–89, 1990–91, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04 Runners-up (8): 1925–26, 1931–32, 1972–73, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2004–05 Second Division Runners-up (1): 1903–04 FA Cup Winners (10): 1929–30, 1935–36, 1949–50, 1970–71, 1978–79, 1992–93, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2004–05 Runners-up (7): 1926–27, 1931–32, 1951–52, 1971–72, 1977–78, 1979–80, 2000–01 League Cup Winners (2): 1986–87, 1992–93 Runners-up (4): 1967–68, 1968–69, 1987–88, 2006–07 FA Community Shield (or FA Charity Shield before 2002) The trophy was known as the Charity Shield until 2002, and as the Community Shield since then. Winners (12): 1930, 1931, 1933, 1934, 1938, 1948, 1953, 1991 (shared), 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004 Runners-up (7): 1935, 1936, 1979, 1989, 1993, 2003, 2005 European UEFA Champions League Runners-up (1): 2005–06 European Cup Winners' Cup Winners (1): 1993–94 Runners-up (2): 1979–80, 1994–95 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Winners (1): 1969–70 UEFA Cup Runners-up (1): 1999–2000 UEFA Super Cup Runners-up (1): 1994 Arsenal's tally of thirteen League Championships is the third highest in English football, after Liverpool and Manchester United, while the total of ten FA Cups is the second highest, after Manchester United. Arsenal have achieved three League and FA Cup "Doubles" (in 1971, 1998 and 2002), a joint record shared with Manchester United, and were the first side in English football to complete the FA Cup and League Cup double in 1993. They were also the first London club to reach the final of the UEFA Champions League, in 2006. Arsenal have one of the best top-flight records in history, having finished below fourteenth only seven times. Arsenal also have the highest average league finishing position for the period 1900–1999, with an average league placing of 8.5. Archive copy available at: In addition, they are one of only five clubs to have won the FA Cup twice in succession, in 2002 and 2003. Footnotes Further reading External links Official websites Arsenal.com Official club website Arsenal at the Premier League official website Arsenal at the UEFA official website General fan sites Arseweb Arsenal-Mania Arsenal World Arsenal Land News sites Arsenal news from Sky Sports Fanzines Up the Arse! 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3,999 | Hebrides | The Inner and Outer Hebrides. The Hebrides ( "HEB-ri-deez", Gaelic: Innse Gall) comprise a widespread and diverse archipelago off the west coast of Scotland. There are two main groups, the Inner and Outer Hebrides. These islands have a long history of occupation dating back to the Mesolithic and the culture of the residents has been affected by the successive influences of Celtic, Norse and English speaking peoples, which is reflected in the names given to the islands. Haswell-Smith, Hamish. (2004) The Scottish Islands. Edinburgh. Canongate. ISBN 1-84195-454-3 Geology and geography The Hebrides have a diverse geology ranging in age from Precambrian strata that are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe to Tertiary igneous intrusions. Rollinson, Hugh (September 1997) " Britain's oldest rocks" Geology Today. 13 no.5 pp. 185-190. Gillen, Con (2003) Geology and landscapes of Scotland. Harpenden. Terra Publishing. Pages 44 and 142. Rollinson (1997) states that the oldest rocks in Europe have been found "near Gruinard Bay" on the Scottish mainland. Gillen (2003) p. 44 indicates the oldest rocks in Europe are found "in the Northwest Highlands and Outer Hebrides". McKirdy, Alan Gordon, John & Crofts, Roger (2007) Land of Mountain and Flood: The Geology and Landforms of Scotland. Edinburgh. Birlinn. p. 93 state of the Lewisian gneiss bedrock of much of the Outer Hebrides that "these rocks are amongst the oldest to be found anywhere on the planet". Other non-geological sources sometimes claim the rocks of Lewis and Harris are "the oldest in Britain", meaning that they are the oldest deposits of large bedrock. As Rollinson makes clear they are not the location of the oldest small outcrop. They can be divided into two main groups: Inner Hebrides, including Islay, Jura, Skye, Mull, Raasay, Staffa and the Small Isles Outer Hebrides, including Barra, Benbecula, Berneray, Harris, Lewis, North Uist, South Uist, and St Kilda The Hebrides as a whole lie in the Sea of the Hebrides and are sometimes referred to as the "Western Isles", although this term is more accurately applied just to the Outer Hebrides, which were once known as "The Long Island". The Hebrides are probably the best-known group of Scottish islands, but other groups include the islands of the Firth of Clyde, Islands of the Forth and the Northern Isles. The islands in the Clyde, especially Arran, are sometimes mistakenly called "Hebrides" too. Language The Hebrides contain the largest concentration of Scottish Gaelic speakers in Scotland. This is especially true of the Outer Hebrides, where the majority of people speak the language. Mac an Tàilleir, Iain (2004) 1901-2001 Gaelic in the Census (PowerPoint ) Linguae Celticae. Retrieved 1 June 2008. The Scottish Gaelic college, Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, is based on Skye and Islay. Etymology The first reference to a name similar to the modern Hebrides is by Ptolemy, who called the islands Αἱβοῦδαι = Haiboudai in Ancient Greek. Later texts in classical Latin, by writers such as Solinus, use the forms Hebudes and Hæbudes. Louis DEROY & Marianne MULON, 1992, Dictionnaire de noms de lieux, Paris: Le Robert, article "Hébrides" The old Old Norse name, during the Viking occupation, was Suðreyjar, Anderson, Joseph (Ed.) (1893) Orkneyinga Saga. Translated by Jón A. Hjaltalin & Gilbert Goudie. Edinburgh. James Thin and Mercat Press (1990 reprint). ISBN 0-901824-25-9 which means "Southern Isles" (see also Sodor). It was given in contradistinction to Norðreyjar, or the "Northern Isles", i. e. Orkney and Shetland. Ironically, given the status of the Western Isles as the last Gàidhlig speaking stronghold in Scotland, the Gaelic language name for the islands - Innse Gall - means "isles of the foreigners" which has roots in the time when they were under Norse occupation and colonisation, and in reference to the Norse-Gaels, known in Gaelic as the Gall-Ghaidhil (meaning Foreign Gaels). History Prehistory Callanish stone circle The Hebrides were settled during the Mesolithic era around 6500 BC, after the climatic conditions improved enough to sustain human settlement. Occupation at a site on Rùm is dated to 8590+/-95 uncorrected radiocarbon years BP. Edwards, Kevin J., and Mithen, Steven (Feb., 1995) "The Colonization of the Hebridean Islands of Western Scotland: Evidence from the Palynological and Archaeological Records," World Archaeology. 26. No. 3. p. 348. Retrieved 20 April 2008. There are many examples of structures from the Neolithic period, the finest example being the standing stones at Callanish, dating to the 3rd millennium BC. Li, Martin (2005) Adventure Guide to Scotland. Hunter Publishing. p. 509. Cladh Hallan, a Bronze Age settlement on South Uist is the only site in the where prehistoric mummies have been found. "Mummification in Bronze Age Britain" BBC History. Retrieved 11 February 2008. "The Prehistoric Village at Cladh Hallan". University of Sheffield. Retrieved 21 February 2008. Celtic era The earliest written mention of the Outer Hebrides was by Pomponius Mela, a Roman-Spanish geographer of the first century, who refers to a group of seven islands which he gave the name Haemodae. Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia of 77AD gives the name as Hebudes. Scottish Gazetteer from the University of Edinburgh's Department of Geography. Other ancient writers such as the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy mention the Hebrides, attesting to some contact of the peoples there to the Roman world. In 55 BC the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote that there was an island called Hyperborea (which means "far to the north") where a round temple stood from which the moon appeared only a little distance above the earth every 19 years. This may have been a reference to the stone circle at Callanish. See for example Haycock, David Boyd. "Much Greater, Than Commonly Imagined." The Newton Project. Retrieved 14 March 2008. A traveller called Demetrius of Tarsus related to Plutarch the tale of an expedition to the west coast of Scotland in or shortly before AD 83. He stated that it was a gloomy journey amongst uninhabited islands, but that he had visited one which was the retreat of holy men. He mentioned neither the druids nor the name of the island. Moffat, Alistair (2005) Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History. London. Thames & Hudson. pp. 239-40. Little is known of the history of the peoples of the Hebrides before the 6th century. The first detailed records of the islands comes with the arrival of St. Columba on Iona in the 6th century AD. It was this Irish-Scottish saint who first brought Christianity to the islands in the 6th century, founding several churches. Norwegian control The Kingdom of Mann and the Isles about the year 1100. The Hebrides began to come under Norse control and settlement already before the 9th century. Norwegian rule of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 when Edgar of Scotland recognised the claim of Magnus III of Norway. The Scottish acceptance of Magnus as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered the Orkney Islands, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year, directed against the local Norse leaders of the various islands. By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control over land seized by his kinsmen centuries earlier. The Norwegian control of both the Inner and Outer Hebrides would see almost constant warfare until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156. The Outer Hebrides remained under the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles while the Inner Hebrides broke out under Somerled, the Norse-Gael kinsman of both Lulach and the Manx royal house. After his victory of 1156 Somerled went on to seize control over the Isle of Man itself two years later and become the last King of Mann and the Isles to rule over all the islands the kingdom had once included. After Somerled's death in 1164 the rulers of Mann were no longer in control of the Inner Hebrides. Scottish control In 1262 there was a Scottish raid on Skye and this caused Haakon IV, King of Norway, to set sail for Scotland to settle the issue. Late in 1263 Haakon headed for Scotland with a large invasion force consisting of 200 ships and 15,000 men. The storms around the coast of Scotland took their toll on the Norwegian fleet, which at one point meant dragging forty ships overland to Loch Lomond. In the end a minor skirmish took place at the Battle of Largs where the Norwegians and their Manx allies under Magnus III of the Isle of Man failed to achieve anything more than a minor tactical victory against the Scots led by Alexander III, King of Scots. After the battle the bad weather forced the Norwegian-Manx fleet to sail back to Orkney. After arriving in Kirkwall, Haakon decided to winter in Bishop's Palace before resuming his campaign the following summer. This failed to occur as the king was struck by illness and died in his palace in December of the same year. The death of Haakon left the crown to his son Magnus the Lawmaker, who considered peace with the Scots more important than holding on to the Norwegian possessions off western Scotland and in the Irish Sea. The Treaty of Perth of 1266 left the Hebrides and the Isle of Man to Scotland for 4000 marks and an annual payment of 100 marks. The treaty also confirmed Norwegian sovereignty over Shetland and Orkney. Still, Scottish rule over the Isle of Man was confirmed finally only after the Manx and their last Norse king, Godred VI Magnuson were decisively defeated by the Scots in the 1275 Battle of Ronaldsway. The arts Entrance to Fingal's Cave, Staffa The Hebrides, also known as Fingal's Cave, is a famous overture written by Felix Mendelssohn while residing on these islands, while Granville Bantock wrote the Hebridean Symphony. Contemporary musicians associated with the islands include Ian Anderson, Donovan and Runrig. The poet Sorley MacLean was born on Raasay, the setting for his best known poem, Hallaig. Text of the poem in Gaelic, with Sorley Maclean's own translation into English Retrieved 2 June 2007. Iain Crichton Smith was brought up on Lewis and Derick Thomson was born there. The Hebrides are the setting of The Solitary Reaper, by William Wordsworth. The novelist Compton Mackenzie lived on Barra and George Orwell wrote 1984 whilst living on Jura. J.M. Barrie's Marie Rose contains references to Harris inspired by a holiday visit to Amhuinnsuidhe Castle and he wrote a screenplay for the 1924 film adaptation of Peter Pan whilst on Eilean Shona. "Famous Visitors to the Islands - Luchd-tadhail Ainmeil" Culture Hebrides. Retrieved 26 July 2008. Birkin, Andrew, The Lost Boys. Yale University Press. The poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow mentioned the Hebrides in his poem Seaweed. Enya's song "Ebudæ" from Shepherd Moons is named for the Inner Hebrides (Ebudae in Latin). See also Outer Hebrides Inner Hebrides List of islands of Scotland Geology of Scotland Timeline of prehistoric Scotland Fauna of Scotland Somerled Kingdom of Mann and the Isles List of Kings of the Isle of Man and the Isles List of Kings of the Isle of Man References Ross, David (2005) Scotland - History of a Nation Notes External links Hebrides/Western Isles Guide | Hebrides |@lemmatized inner:8 outer:10 hebrides:36 heb:1 ri:1 deez:1 gaelic:7 innse:2 gall:3 comprise:1 widespread:1 diverse:2 archipelago:1 west:2 coast:3 scotland:21 two:3 main:2 group:5 island:25 long:2 history:6 occupation:4 date:3 back:2 mesolithic:2 culture:2 resident:1 affect:1 successive:1 influence:1 celtic:2 norse:8 english:2 speaking:1 people:4 reflect:1 name:8 give:5 haswell:1 smith:2 hamish:1 scottish:11 edinburgh:4 canongate:1 isbn:2 geology:6 geography:2 range:1 age:3 precambrian:1 stratum:1 amongst:3 old:10 rock:6 europe:3 tertiary:1 igneous:1 intrusion:1 rollinson:3 hugh:1 september:1 britain:3 today:1 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