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3,700 | Erasmus_Darwin | Erasmus Darwin (12 December 1731–18 April 1802), was an English physician, natural philosopher, physiologist, abolitionist, inventor and poet. He was one of the founder members of the Lunar Society, a discussion group of pioneering industrialists and natural philosophers. He was a member of the Darwin-Wedgwood family, which includes his grandson, Charles Darwin. Life Early life Born at Elston Hall, Nottinghamshire near Newark-on-Trent, England, the youngest of seven children of Robert Darwin of Elston (12 August 1682–20 November 1754), a lawyer, and his wife Elizabeth Hill (1702–1797). His parents' choice of name, Erasmus, is an unusual one; the most significant person of that name is Desiderius Erasmus, the great humanist. His siblings were: Robert Darwin (17 October 1724–4 November 1816) Elizabeth Darwin (15 September 1725–8 April 1800) William Alvey Darwin (3 October 1726–7 October 1783) Anne Darwin (12 November 1727–3 August 1813) Susannah Darwin (10 April 1729–29 September 1789) John Darwin, rector of Elston (28 September 1730–24 May 1805) He was educated at Chesterfield Grammar School, then later at St John's College, Cambridge. He obtained his medical education at Edinburgh Medical School. Whether Darwin ever obtained the formal degree of MD is not known. Darwin settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but met with little success and so moved the following year to Lichfield to try to establish a practice there. A few weeks after his arrival, using a novel course of treatment, he restored the health of a young man whose death seemed inevitable. This ensured his success in the new locale. Darwin was a highly successful physician for more than fifty years in the Midlands. George III invited him to be Royal Physician, but Darwin declined. In Lichfield, Darwin wrote "didactic poetry, developed his system of evolution, and invented amongst other things, an organ able to recite the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments." N Pevsner, The Buildings of England, Nottinghamshire, Harmondsworth/Penguin, 1951, p.67 Marriages and children Darwin married twice and had 14 children, including two illegitimate daughters by an employee, and, possibly, at least one further illegitimate daughter. In 1757, he married Mary (Polly) Howard (1740–1770). They had four sons and one daughter, two of whom (a son and a daughter) died in infancy: Charles Darwin (1758-1778) Erasmus Darwin II (1759–1799) Elizabeth Darwin (1763, survived 4 months) Robert Waring Darwin (1766–1848), father of the naturalist Charles Darwin William Alvey Darwin (1767, survived 19 days) The first Mrs. Darwin died in 1770. A governess, Mary Parker, was hired to look after Robert. By late 1771, employer and employee had become intimately involved and together they had two illegitimate daughters: Susanna Parker (1772–1856) Mary Parker Jr (1774–1859) Susanna and Mary Jr later established a boarding school for girls. In 1782, Mary Sr married Joseph Day (1745–1811), a Birmingham merchant, and moved away. Darwin may have fathered another child, this time with a married woman. A Lucy Swift gave birth in 1771 to a baby, also named Lucy, who was christened a daughter of her mother and William Swift, but there is reason to believe the father was really Darwin. Error 404 . Lucy Jr. married John Hardcastle in Derby in 1792 and their daughter, Mary, married Francis Boott, the physician. In 1775, Darwin met Elizabeth Pole, daughter of Charles Colyear, 2nd Earl of Portmore, and wife of Colonel Edward Pole (1718–1780); but as she was married, Darwin could only make his feelings known for her through poetry. Edward Pole died in 1780. So, in 1781, Darwin married Elizabeth Pole and moved to her home, Radbourne Hall, four miles (6 km) west of Derby. (The hall and village are these days known as Radbourne.) In 1782, they moved to Full Street, Derby. They had four sons, one of whom died in infancy, and three daughters: Edward Darwin (1782–1829) Frances Ann Violetta Darwin (1783–1874), married Samuel Tertius Galton, was the mother of Francis Galton Emma Georgina Elizabeth Darwin (1784–1818) Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin (1786–1859) John Darwin (1787–1818) Henry Darwin (1789–1790), died in infancy. Harriet Darwin (1790–1825), married Admiral Thomas James Malling Death Darwin died suddenly on the 18 April 1802, weeks after having moved to Breadsall Priory, just north of Derby. He is buried in All Saints Church, Breadsall. Erasmus Darwin is commemorated on one of the Moonstones; a series of monuments in Birmingham. Writings Botanical works Darwin formed the Lichfield Botanical Society in order to translate the works of the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus from Latin into English. This took seven years. The result was two publications: A System of Vegetables between 1783 and 1785, and The Families of Plants in 1787. In these volumes, Darwin coined many of the English names of plants that we use today. Darwin then wrote The Loves of the Plants, a long poem, which was a popular rendering of Linnaeus' works. Darwin also wrote Economy of Vegetation, and together the two were published as The Botanic Garden. Zoönomia Darwin's most important scientific work is Zoönomia (1794–1796), which contains a system of pathology, and a treatise on "generation", in which he anticipated the views of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and Lamarckism, which foreshadowed the modern theory of evolution and the modern evolutionary synthesis. Darwin based his theories on David Hartley's psychological theory of associationism. Allen, Richard C. 1999. David Hartley on human nature. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-4233-0 The essence of his views is contained in the following passage, which he follows up with the conclusion that one and the same kind of living filament is and has been the cause of all organic life: Would it be too bold to imagine that, in the great length of time since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind would it be too bold to imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which the great First Cause endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions and associations, and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down these improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end! Erasmus Darwin was familiar with the earlier evolutionary thinking of James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, and cited him in his 1803 work Temple of Nature. Another of his grandsons was Francis Galton (see family tree below). Poem on evolution Erasmus Darwin offered the first glimpse of his theory of evolution, obliquely, in a question at the end of a long footnote to his popular poem "The Loves of the Plants,"(1789), which was republished throughout the 1790s in several editions as The Botanic Garden. His poetic concept was to anthropomorphize the stamen (male) and pistil (female) sexual organs, as bride and groom. In this stanza on the flower Curcuma (also Flax and Tumeric) the "youths" are infertile, and he devotes the footnote to other examples of neutered organs in flowers, insect castes, and finally associates this more broadly with many popular and well-known cases of vestigal organs (male nipples, the third and fourth wings of flies, etc.) 65 Woo'd with long care, CURCUMA cold and shy Meets her fond husband with averted eye: Four beardless youths the obdurate beauty move With soft attentions of Platonic love. Curcuma_. l. 65. Turmeric. One male and one female inhabit this flower; but there are besides four imperfect males, or filaments without anthers upon them, called by Linneus eunuchs. The flax of our country has ten filaments, and but five of them are terminated with anthers; the Portugal flax has ten perfect males, or stamens; the Verbena of our country has four males; that of Sweden has but two; the genus Albuca, the Bignonia Catalpa, Gratiola, and hemlock-leaved Geranium have only half their filaments crowned with anthers. In like manner the florets, which form the rays of the flowers of the order frustraneous polygamy of the class syngenesia, or confederate males, as the sun-flower, are furnished with a style only, and no stigma: and are thence barren. There is also a style without a stigma in the whole order dioecia gynandria; the male flowers of which are thence barren. The Opulus is another plant, which contains some unprolific flowers. In like manner some tribes of insects have males, females, and neuters among them: as bees, wasps, ants. There is a curious circumstance belonging to the class of insects which have two wings, or diptera, analogous to the rudiments of stamens above described; viz. two little knobs are found placed each on a stalk or peduncle, generally under a little arched scale; which appear to be rudiments of hinder wings; and are called by Linneus, halteres, or poisers, a term of his introduction. A.T. Bladh. Amaen. Acad. V. 7. Other animals have marks of having in a long process of time undergone changes in some parts of their bodies, which may have been effected to accommodate them to new ways of procuring their food. The existence of teats on the breasts of male animals, and which are generally replete with a thin kind of milk at their nativity, is a wonderful instance of this kind. 'Perhaps all the productions of nature are in their progress to greater perfection? an idea countenanced by the modern discoveries and deductions concerning the progressive formation of the solid parts of the terraqueous globe, and consonant to the dignity of the Creator of all things. Darwin's final long poem, The Temple of Nature, was published posthumously in 1803. The poem was originally titled The Origin of Society. It is considered his best poetic work. It centers on his own newly-conceived theory of evolution. The poem traces the progression of life from microorganisms to civilized society. Darwin largely anticipated most of what his grandson Charles Darwin would later propose, except for the idea of natural selection. His poetry was admired by Coleridge and Wordsworth. It often made reference to his interests in science; for example botany and steam engines. Education of women The last two leaves of Darwin's A plan for the conduct of female education in boarding schools (1797) contain a book list, an apology for the work, and an advert for "Miss Parkers School". The work probably resulted from his liaison with Mary Parker. The school advertised on the last page is the one he set up in Ashbourne, Derbyshire for their two illegitimate children, Susanna and Mary. Darwin regretted that a good education had not been generally available to women in Britain in his time, and drew on the ideas of Locke, Rousseau, and Genlis in organising his thoughts. Addressing the education of middle class girls, Darwin argued that amorous romance novels were inappropriate and that they should seek simplicity in dress. He contends that young women should be educated in schools, rather than privately at home, and learn appropriate subjects. These subjects include physiognomy, physical exercise, botany, chemistry, mineralogy, and experimental philosophy. They should familiarize themselves with arts and manufactures through visits to sites like Coalbrookdale, and Wedgwood's potteries; they should learn how to handle money, and study modern languages. Darwin's educational philosophy took the view that men and women should have different, but complementary capabilities, skills, spheres, and interests. DNB entry for Erasmus Darwin. Oxford. In the context of the times, this program may be read as a modernising influence. Lunar Society The Lunar Society: these dates indicate the year in which Darwin became friends with these people, who, in turn, became members of the Lunar Society. The Lunar Society existed from 1765 to 1813. Before 1765: Matthew Boulton, originally a buckle maker in Birmingham John Whitehurst of Derby, maker of clocks and scientific instruments, pioneer of geology After 1765: Josiah Wedgwood, potter 1765 Dr. William Small, 1765, man of science, formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy at the College of William and Mary, where Thomas Jefferson was an appreciative pupil Richard Lovell Edgeworth, 1766, inventor James Watt, 1767, improver of steam engine James Keir, 1767, pioneer of the chemical industry Thomas Day, 1768, eccentric and author Dr. William Withering, 1775, the death of Dr. Small left an opening for a physician in the group. Joseph Priestly, 1780, experimental chemist and discoverer of many substances. Samuel Galton, 1782, a Quaker gunmaker with a taste for science, took Darwin's place after Darwin moved to Derby. Darwin also established a lifelong friendship with Benjamin Franklin, who shared Darwin's support for the American and French revolutions. The Lunar Society was instrumental as an intellectual driving force behind England's Industrial Revolution. The members of the Lunar Society, and especially Darwin, opposed the slave trade. He attacked it in The Botanic Garden (1789–1791), and in The Loves of Plants (1789) and The Economy of Vegetation (1791). Other activities In addition to the Lunar Society, Erasmus Darwin belonged to the influential Derby Philosophical Society, as did his brother-in-law Samuel Fox (see family tree below). He experimented with the use of air and gases to alleviate infections and cancers in patients. A Pneumatic Institution was established at Clifton in 1799 for clinically testing these ideas. He conducted research into the formation of clouds, on which he published in 1788. He also inspired Robert Weldon's Somerset Coal Canal caisson lock. Darwin's experiments in galvanism were an important source of inspiration for Mary Shelley to write Frankenstein. Cosmological speculation Contemporary literature dates the cosmological theories of the Big Bang and Big Crunch to the 19th and 20th centuries. However Erasmus Darwin had speculated on these sorts of events in The Botanic Garden, A Poem in Two Parts: Part 1, The Economy of Vegetation, 1791:Roll on, ye Stars! exult in youthful prime,Mark with bright curves the printless steps of Time;Near and more near your beamy cars approach,And lessening orbs on lessening orbs encroach; —Flowers of the sky! ye too to age must yield,Frail as your silken sisters of the field!Star after star from Heaven's high arch shall rush,Suns sink on suns, and systems systems crush,Headlong, extinct, to one dark center fall,And Death and Night and Chaos mingle all!— Till o'er the wreck, emerging from the storm,Immortal Nature lifts her changeful form,Mounts from her funeral pyre on wings of flame,And soars and shines, another and the same. Inventions Darwin was the inventor of several devices, though he did not patent any. He believed this would damage his reputation as a doctor, and encouraged his friends to patent their own modifications of his designs. A horizontal windmill, which he designed for Josiah Wedgwood (who would be Charles Darwin's other grandfather, see family tree below). A carriage that would not tip over (1766). A speaking machine (at Clifton in 1799). A canal lift for barges. A minute artificial bird. A copying machine (1778). A variety of weather monitoring machines. An artesian well (1783). Rocket engine In notes dating to 1779, Darwin made a sketch of a simple liquid-fuel rocket engine, with hydrogen and oxygen tanks connected by plumbing and pumps to an elongated combustion chamber and expansion nozzle, a concept not to be seen again until one century later. References Seward, Anna 1804. Memoirs of the life of Dr. Darwin. Krause, Ernst 1879. Erasmus Darwin, with a preliminary notice by Charles Darwin. Murray, London. Pearson, Hesketh. 1930. Doctor Darwin. Dent, London. King-Hele, Desmond. 1963. Doctor Darwin. Scribner's, N.Y. King-Hele, Desmond. 1977. Doctor of Revolution: the life and genius of Erasmus Darwin. Faber, London. King-Hele, Desmond (ed) 1981. The Letters of Erasmus Darwin Cambridge University Press. King-Hele, Desmond. 1999. Erasmus Darwin: a life of unequalled achievement Giles de la Mare Publishers. King-Hele, Desmond (ed) 2002. Charles Darwin's 'The Life of Erasmus Darwin Cambridge University Press. Uglow, Jennifer 2003. Lunar Men: the friends who made the future Faber, London. Major publications Erasmus Darwin, A Botanical Society at Lichfield. A System of Vegetables, according to their classes, orders... translated from the 13th edition of Linnaeus’ Systema Vegetabiliium. 2 vols., 1783, Lichfield, J. Jackson, for Leigh and Sotheby, London. Erasmus Darwin, A Botanical Society at Lichfield. The Families of Plants with their natural characters...Translated from the last edition of Linnaeus’ Genera Plantarum. 1787, Lichfield, J. Jackson, for J. Johnson, London. Erasmus Darwin, The Botanic Garden, Part I, The Economy of Vegetation. 1791 London, J. Johnson. Part II, The Loves of the Plants. 1789, London, J. Johnson. Erasmus Darwin, Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life, 1794, Part I. London, J. Johnson, Part I-III. 1796, London, J. Johnson. Darwin, Erasmus 1797. A plan for the conduct of female education in boarding schools. J. Johnson, Derby. 4to, 128 pages; last two leaves contain a book list, an apology for the work, and an advert for "Miss Parkers School". Erasmus Darwin, Phytologia; or, The Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening. 1800, London, J. Johnson. Erasmus Darwin, The Temple of Nature; or, The Origin of Society. 1806–1807, London, J. Johnson. Family tree Appearance in fiction and music Charles Sheffield, an author noted largely for hard science fiction, wrote a number of stories featuring Darwin in a style quite similar to Sherlock Holmes. These stories were collected in a single book The Amazing Dr. Darwin. Darwin's opposition to slavery in poetry was included by Benjamin Zephaniah in a reading. This inspired the establishment of the Genomic Dub Collective, whose album includes quotations from Erasmus "Ras" Darwin, his grandson Charles Darwin and Haile Selassie. The forgetting of Erasmus' designs of a rocket is a major plot point in Stephan Baxter's tale alternate universes Manifold: Origin. Referred to as an influence on Victor Frankenstein in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. Phrases from Darwin's poem The Botanic Garden are used as chapter headings in The Pornographer of Vienna by Lewis Crofts. See also Evolutionary ideas of the renaissance and enlightenment History of evolutionary thought External links Erasmus Darwin House, Lichfield Revolutionary Players website "Preface and 'a preliminary notice'" by Charles Darwin in Ernst Krause, Erasmus Darwin'' (1879) | Erasmus_Darwin |@lemmatized erasmus:26 darwin:91 december:1 april:4 english:3 physician:6 natural:5 philosopher:2 physiologist:1 abolitionist:1 inventor:3 poet:1 one:13 founder:1 member:4 lunar:9 society:15 discussion:1 group:2 pioneer:3 industrialist:1 wedgwood:4 family:7 include:5 grandson:4 charles:11 life:9 early:2 bear:1 elston:3 hall:3 nottinghamshire:2 near:3 newark:1 trent:1 england:3 young:3 seven:2 child:5 robert:5 august:2 november:3 lawyer:1 wife:2 elizabeth:6 hill:1 parent:1 choice:1 name:4 unusual:1 significant:1 person:1 desiderius:1 great:4 humanist:1 sibling:1 october:3 september:3 william:6 alvey:2 anne:1 susannah:1 john:5 rector:1 may:4 educate:2 chesterfield:1 grammar:1 school:9 later:4 st:1 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3,701 | Film_noir | Two silhouetted figures in The Big Combo (1955). The film's cinematographer was John Alton, the creator of many of film noir's iconic images. Film noir is a cinematic term used primarily to describe stylish Hollywood crime dramas, particularly those that emphasize moral ambiguity and sexual motivation. Hollywood's classic film noir period is generally regarded as stretching from the early 1940s to the late 1950s. Film noir of this era is associated with a low-key black-and-white visual style that has roots in German Expressionist cinematography, while many of the prototypical stories and much of the attitude of classic noir derive from the hardboiled school of crime fiction that emerged in the United States during the Depression. The term film noir (French for "black film"), first applied to Hollywood movies by French critic Nino Frank in 1946, was unknown to most American film industry professionals of the era. Cinema historians and critics defined the canon of film noir in retrospect; many of those involved in the making of the classic noirs later professed to be unaware of having created a distinctive type of film. Problems of definition It was not until February 1973 that the New York Times first used the term, describing how the "moods and tensions" in the British private-eye parody Pulp came "out of the collective depths of the film noir". Greenspun (1973), p. 32. "We'd be oversimplifying things in calling film noir oneiric, strange, erotic, ambivalent, and cruel...." Borde and Chaumeton (2002), p. 2. This is the first of many attempts to define film noir made by the French critics Raymond Borde and Etienne Chaumeton in their 1955 book Panorama du film noir américain 1941–1953 (A Panorama of American Film Noir), the original and seminal extended treatment of the subject. They take pains to point out that not every film noir embodies all five attributes in equal measure—this one is more dreamlike, while this other is particularly brutal. The authors' caveats and repeated efforts at alternative definition have proved telling about noir's reliability as a label: in the five decades since, no definition has achieved anything close to general acceptance. The authors of most substantial considerations of film noir still find it necessary to add on to what are now innumerable attempts at definition. As Borde and Chaumeton suggest, however, the field of noir is very diverse and any generalization about it risks veering into oversimplification. Film noirs embrace a variety of genres, from the gangster film to the police procedural to the so-called social problem picture, and evidence a variety of visual approaches, from meat-and-potatoes Hollywood mainstream to outré. While many critics refer to film noir as a genre itself, others argue that it can be no such thing. Though noir is often associated with an urban setting, for example, many classic noirs take place mainly in small towns, suburbia, rural areas, or on the open road, so setting can not be its genre determinant, as with the Western. Similarly, while the private eye and the femme fatale are character types conventionally identified with noir, the majority of film noirs feature neither, so there is no character basis for genre designation as with the gangster film. Nor does it rely on anything as evident as the monstrous or supernatural elements of the horror film, the speculative leaps of the science fiction film, or the song-and-dance routines of the musical. A more analogous case is that of the screwball comedy, widely accepted by film historians as constituting a "genre"—the screwball is defined not by a fundamental attribute, but by a general disposition and a group of elements, some (but rarely and perhaps never all) of which are found in each of the genre's films. See Dancyger and Rush (2002), p. 68, for a detailed comparison of screwball comedy and film noir. However, because of the diversity of noir (much greater than that of the screwball comedy), certain scholars in the field, such as film historian Thomas Schatz, treat it as not a genre but a "style." Alain Silver, the most widely published American critic specializing in film noir studies, refers to it as a "cycle" and a "phenomenon," even as he argues that it has—like certain genres—a consistent set of visual and thematic codes. Other critics treat film noir as a "mood," a "movement," or a "series," or simply address a chosen set of movies from the "period." There is no consensus on the matter. Precursors Film noir has sources not only in cinema but other artistic media as well. The low-key lighting schemes commonly linked with the classic mode are in the tradition of chiaroscuro and tenebrism, techniques using high contrasts of light and dark developed by 15th- and 16th-century painters associated with Mannerism and the Baroque. Film noir's aesthetics are deeply influenced by German Expressionism, a cinematic movement of the 1910s and 1920s closely related to contemporaneous developments in theater, photography, painting, sculpture, and architecture. The opportunities offered by the booming Hollywood film industry and, later, the threat of growing Nazi power led to the emigration of many important film artists working in Germany who had either been directly involved in the Expressionist movement or studied with its practitioners. Directors such as Fritz Lang, Robert Siodmak, and Michael Curtiz brought dramatic lighting techniques and a psychologically expressive approach to mise-en-scène with them to Hollywood, where they would make some of the most famous of classic noirs. Lang's magnum opus, M—released in 1931, two years before his departure from Germany—is among the first major crime films of the sound era to join a characteristically noirish visual style with a noir-type plot, one in which the protagonist is a criminal (as are his most successful pursuers). M was also the occasion for the first star performance by Peter Lorre, who would go on to act in several formative American noirs of the classic era. The "original" femme fatale, Marlene Dietrich, in a publicity shot for Josef von Sternberg's mordant melodrama Der blaue Engel (The Blue Angel; 1930). By 1931, Curtiz had already been in Hollywood for half a decade, making as many as six films a year. Movies of his such as 20,000 Years in Sing Sing (1932) and Private Detective 62 (1933) are among the early Hollywood sound films arguably classifiable as noir. Giving Expressionist-affiliated moviemakers particularly free stylistic rein were Universal horror pictures such as Dracula (1931), The Mummy (1932)—the former photographed and the latter directed by the Berlin-trained Karl Freund—and The Black Cat (1934), directed by Austrian émigré Edgar G. Ulmer. The Universal horror that comes closest to noir, both in story and sensibility, however, is The Invisible Man (1933), directed by Englishman James Whale and photographed by American Arthur Edeson. The Vienna-born but largely American-raised Josef von Sternberg was directing in Hollywood at the same time. Films of his such as Shanghai Express (1932) and The Devil Is a Woman (1935), with their hothouse eroticism and baroque visual style, specifically anticipate central elements of classic noir. The commercial and critical success of Sternberg's silent Underworld in 1927 was largely responsible for spurring a trend of Hollywood gangster films. Popular movies in the genre such as Little Caesar (1931), The Public Enemy (1931), and Scarface (1932) demonstrated that there was an audience for crime dramas with morally reprehensible protagonists. An important, and possibly influential, cinematic antecedent to classic noir was 1930s French poetic realism, with its romantic, fatalistic attitude and celebration of doomed heroes; an acknowledged influence on certain trends in noir was 1940s Italian neorealism, with its emphasis on quasi-documentary authenticity. (The Warner Bros. drama I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang [1932] presciently combines these sensibilities.) Director Jules Dassin of The Naked City (1948) pointed to the neorealists as inspiring his use of on-location photography with nonprofessional extras; three years earlier, The House on 92nd Street, directed by Henry Hathaway, demonstrated the parallel influence of the cinematic newsreel. A few movies now considered noir strove to depict comparatively ordinary protagonists with unspectacular lives in a manner occasionally evocative of neorealism—the most famous example is The Lost Weekend (1945), directed by Billy Wilder, yet another Vienna-born, Berlin-trained American auteur. (In turn, one of the primary influences on neorealism was the 1930 German film Menschen am Sonntag ("Humans on Sunday"), codirected and cowritten by Siodmak, cowritten by Wilder, and codirected and produced by Ulmer.) Among those movies not themselves considered film noirs, perhaps none had a greater effect on the development of the genre than America's own Citizen Kane (1941), the landmark motion picture directed by Orson Welles. Its Sternbergian visual intricacy and complex, voiceover-driven narrative structure are echoed in dozens of classic film noirs. Literary sources The October 1934 issue of Black Mask featured the first appearance of the detective character whom Raymond Chandler would develop into the famous Philip Marlowe. See Jim Doherty's essay on Carmady at the Thrilling Detective website for a detailed analysis of the private eye character who appears in "The Finger Man." The primary literary influence on film noir was the hardboiled school of American detective and crime fiction, led in its early years by such writers as Dashiell Hammett (whose first novel, Red Harvest, was published in 1929) and James M. Cain (whose The Postman Always Rings Twice appeared five years later), and popularized in pulp magazines such as Black Mask. The classic film noirs The Maltese Falcon (1941) and The Glass Key (1942) were based on novels by Hammett; Cain's novels provided the basis for Double Indemnity (1944), Mildred Pierce (1945), The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946), and Slightly Scarlet (1956; adapted from Love's Lovely Counterfeit). A decade before the classic era, a story of Hammett's was the source for the gangster melodrama City Streets (1931), directed by Rouben Mamoulian and photographed by Lee Garmes, who worked regularly with Sternberg. Wedding a style and story both with many noir characteristics, released the month before Lang's M, City Streets has a claim to being the first major film noir. Raymond Chandler, who debuted as a novelist with The Big Sleep in 1939, soon became the most famous author of the hardboiled school. Not only were Chandler's novels turned into major noirs—Murder, My Sweet (1944; adapted from Farewell, My Lovely), The Big Sleep (1946), and Lady in the Lake (1947)—he was an important screenwriter in the genre as well, producing the scripts for Double Indemnity, The Blue Dahlia (1946), and Strangers on a Train (1951). Where Chandler, like Hammett, centered most of his novels and stories on the character of the private eye, Cain featured less heroic protagonists and focused more on psychological exposition than on crime solving; the Cain approach has come to be identified with a subset of the hardboiled genre dubbed "noir fiction." For much of the 1940s, one of the most prolific and successful authors of this often downbeat brand of suspense tale was Cornell Woolrich (sometimes using the pseudonyms George Hopley or William Irish). No writer's published work provided the basis for more film noirs of the classic period than Woolrich's: thirteen in all, including Black Angel (1946), Deadline at Dawn (1946), and Fear in the Night (1947). A crucial literary source for film noir, now often overlooked, was W. R. Burnett, whose first novel to be published was Little Caesar, in 1929. It would be turned into the hit for Warner Bros. in 1931; the following year, Burnett was hired to write dialogue for Scarface, while Beast of the City was adapted from one of his stories. Some critics regard these latter two movies as film noirs, despite their early date. Burnett's characteristic narrative approach fell somewhere between that of the quintessential hardboiled writers and their noir fiction compatriots—his protagonists were often heroic in their way, a way just happening to be that of the gangster. During the classic era, his work, either as author or screenwriter, was the basis for seven movies now widely regarded as film noirs, including three of the most famous: High Sierra (1941), This Gun for Hire (1942), and The Asphalt Jungle (1950). The classic period The 1940s and 1950s are generally regarded as the "classic period" of American film noir. While City Streets and other pre-WWII crime melodramas such as Fury (1936) and You Only Live Once (1937)—both directed by Fritz Lang—are considered full-fledged noir by some critics, most categorize them as "proto-noir" or in similar terms. The movie now most commonly cited as the first "true" film noir is Stranger on the Third Floor (1940), directed by Latvian-born, Soviet-trained Boris Ingster. See, e.g., Lyons (2000), p. 36 ("RKO is usually cited as having produced the first true film noir, Stranger on the Third Floor"); Server (1998), p. 158 ("Often credited as the 'first' film noir"); Porfirio (1980), p. 269 ("the first true film noir"). Hungarian émigré Peter Lorre, who played secondary roles in bigger-budgeted movies, was top-billed, though here too he did not play the lead. Stranger on the Third Floor was not recognized as the beginning of a trend, let alone a new genre, for many decades. Indeed, even though modestly budgeted—at the high end of the B movie scale—it still lost its studio, RKO, $56,000, almost a third of its total cost. Biesen (2005), p. 33. Variety magazine found Ingster's work "too studied and when original, lacks the flare to hold attention. It's a film too arty for average audiences, and too humdrum for others." Variety (1940). Out of the Past (1947) features many of the genre's hallmarks: a cynical private detective as the protagonist, a femme fatale, multiple flashbacks with voiceover narration, dramatic chiaroscuro photography, and a fatalistic mood leavened with provocative banter. The film stars noir icons Robert Mitchum and Jane Greer. Most of the film noirs of the classic period were similarly low- and modestly budgeted features without major stars—B movies either literally or in spirit. In this production context, writers, directors, cinematographers, and other craftsmen were relatively free from typical big-picture constraints. Enforcement of the Production Code ensured that no movie character could literally get away with murder or be seen sharing a bed with anyone but a spouse; within those bounds, however, many films now identified as noir feature plot elements and dialogue that were—in some cases, still are—risqué. Thematically, film noirs were most exceptional for the relative frequency with which they centered on women of questionable virtue—a focus that had become rare in Hollywood films after the mid-1930s and the end of the pre-Code era. The signal movie in this vein was Double Indemnity (1944), directed by Billy Wilder; setting the mold was Barbara Stanwyck's unforgettable femme fatale, Phyllis Dietrichson—an apparent nod to Marlene Dietrich, who had built her extraordinary career playing such characters for Sternberg. An A-level feature all the way, the movie's commercial success and seven Oscar nominations made it probably the most influential of the early noirs. A slew of now-renowned noir "bad girls" would follow, such as those played by Rita Hayworth in Gilda (1946), Lana Turner in The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946), Ava Gardner in The Killers (1946), and Jane Greer in Out of the Past (1947). The iconic noir counterpart to the femme fatale, the private eye, came to the fore in movies such as The Maltese Falcon (1941), with Humphrey Bogart as Sam Spade, and Murder, My Sweet (1944), with Dick Powell as Philip Marlowe. Other seminal noir sleuths served larger institutions, such as Dana Andrews's police detective in Laura (1944), Edmond O'Brien's insurance investigator in The Killers, and Edward G. Robinson's government agent in The Stranger (1946). Many claim that there is a significant distinction between the noirs of the 1940s and those of the 1950s—other than the relative disappearance of the private eye as a lead character there is no consensus on how that distinction manifests, but it often comes down to a view that the later classic noirs tend to be more "extreme" in one way or another. A prime example is Kiss Me Deadly (1955); based on a novel by Mickey Spillane, the best-selling of all the hardboiled authors, here the protagonist is a private eye, Mike Hammer. As described by Paul Schrader, "Robert Aldrich's teasing direction carries noir to its sleaziest and most perversely erotic. Hammer overturns the underworld in search of the 'great whatsit'...[which] turns out to be—joke of jokes—an exploding atomic bomb." Schrader (1972), p. 61. Orson Welles's baroquely styled Touch of Evil (1958) is frequently cited as the last noir of the classic period. Some scholars believe film noir never really ended, but continued to transform even as the characteristic noir visual style began to seem dated and changing production conditions led Hollywood in different directions—in this view, post-1950s films in the noir tradition are seen as part of a continuity with classic noir. A majority of critics, however, regard comparable movies made outside the classic era to be something other than genuine film noirs. They regard true film noir as belonging to a temporally and geographically limited cycle or period, treating subsequent films that evoke the classics as fundamentally different due to general shifts in moviemaking style and latter-day awareness of noir as a historical source for allusion. During these two decades in which noir is now seen as flourishing, conventional A films, however emotionally tortuous, were ultimately expected to convey positive, reassuring messages; in terms of style, invisible camerawork and editing techniques, flattering soft lighting schemes, and deluxely trimmed sets were the rule. The makers of film noir turned all this on its head, creating sophisticated, sometimes bleak dramas tinged with mistrust, cynicism, and a sense of the absurd, in settings that were frequently either real-life urban or budget-saving minimalist, with often strikingly expressionist lighting and unsettling techniques such as wildly skewed camera angles and convoluted flashbacks. The noir style gradually influenced the mainstream—even beyond Hollywood. Directors and the business of noir A scene from In a Lonely Place (1950), directed by Nicholas Ray based on a novel by noir fiction writer Dorothy B. Hughes. Two of noir's defining actors, Gloria Grahame and Humphrey Bogart, portray star-crossed lovers in the film. While the inceptive noir, Stranger on the Third Floor, was a B picture directed by a virtual unknown, many of the film noirs that have earned enduring fame were A-list productions by name-brand moviemakers. Debuting as a director with The Maltese Falcon (1941), John Huston followed with the major noirs Key Largo (1948) and The Asphalt Jungle (1950). Opinion is divided on the noir status of several of Alfred Hitchcock's thrillers from the era; at least four qualify by consensus: Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Notorious (1946), Strangers on a Train (1951), and The Wrong Man (1956). Otto Preminger's success with Laura (1944) made his name and helped establish 20th Century-Fox's reputation for well-appointed A noirs. Among Hollywood's most celebrated directors of the era, arguably none worked more often in a noir mode than Preminger—his other classic noirs include Fallen Angel (1945), Whirlpool (1949), Where the Sidewalk Ends (1950) (all for Fox) and Angel Face (1952). A half-decade after Double Indemnity and The Lost Weekend, Billy Wilder made Sunset Boulevard (1950) and Ace in the Hole (1951), noirs that weren't so much crime dramas as satires on, respectively, Hollywood and the news media. In a Lonely Place (1950) was Nicholas Ray's breakthrough; his other noirs include his debut, They Live by Night (1948), and On Dangerous Ground (1952). Orson Welles had notorious problems with financing, but his three film noirs were reasonably well budgeted: The Lady from Shanghai (1947) received top-level, "prestige" backing, while both The Stranger—his most conventional film—and Touch of Evil —an unmistakably personal work—were funded at levels lower but still commensurate with headlining releases. Like The Stranger, Fritz Lang's The Woman in the Window (1945) was a production of the independent International Pictures. Lang's follow-up, Scarlet Street (1945), was one of the few classic noirs to be officially censored: filled with erotic innuendo, it was temporarily banned in Milwaukee, Atlanta, and New York State. Bernstein (1995). Scarlet Street was a semi-independent—cosponsored by Universal and Lang's own Diana Productions, of which the movie's costar, Joan Bennett, was the second biggest shareholder. Lang, Bennett, and her husband, Universal veteran and Diana production head Walter Wanger, would make Secret Beyond the Door (1948) in similar fashion. McGilligan (1997), pp. 314–317. Before he was forced abroad for political reasons, director Jules Dassin made two classic noirs that also straddled the major/independent line: Brute Force (1947) and the influential documentary-style Naked City were developed by producer Mark Hellinger, who had an "inside/outside" contract with Universal similar to Wanger's. Schatz (1998), pp. 354–358. Years earlier, working at Warner Bros., Hellinger had produced three films for Raoul Walsh, the proto-noirs They Drive by Night (1940) and Manpower (1941) and the recognized classic High Sierra (1941). Walsh had no great name recognition during his half-century as a working director, but his noirs—White Heat (1949) and The Enforcer (1951) would follow—had A-list stars and are now regarded as important examples of the cycle. See, e.g., entries on individual films in . In addition to the aforementioned, other directors associated with top-of-the-bill Hollywood film noirs include Edward Dmytryk—Murder, My Sweet (1944), Crossfire (1947)— the first important noir director to fall prey to the industry blacklist, as well as Henry Hathaway—The Dark Corner (1946), Kiss of Death (1947)—and John Farrow—The Big Clock (1948), His Kind of Woman (1951). As noted above, however, most of the Hollywood films now considered classic noirs fall into the broad category of the "B movie." See Naremore (1998), pp. 140–155, on "B Pictures versus Intermediates." Some were Bs in the most precise sense, produced to run on the bottom of double bills by a low-budget unit of one of the major studios or by one of the smaller, so-called Poverty Row outfits, from the relatively well-off Monogram to shakier ventures such as Producers Releasing Corporation (PRC). Jacques Tourneur had made over thirty Hollywood Bs (a few now highly regarded, most completely forgotten) before directing the A-level Out of the Past, considered by some critics the pinnacle of classic noir. Movies with budgets a step up the ladder, known as "intermediates" within the industry, might be treated as A or B pictures depending on the circumstance—Monogram created a new unit, Allied Artists, in the late 1940s to focus on this sort of production. Such films have long colloquially been referred to as B movies. Robert Wise (Born to Kill [1947], The Set-Up [1949]) and Anthony Mann (T-Men [1947], Raw Deal [1948]) each made a series of impressive intermediates, many of them noirs, before graduating to steady work on big-budget productions. Mann did some of his finest work with cinematographer John Alton, a specialist in what critic James Naremore describes as "hypnotic moments of light-in-darkness." Naremore (1998), p. 173. He Walked by Night (1948), shot by Alton and, though credited solely to Alfred Werker, directed in large part by Mann, demonstrates their technical mastery and exemplifies the late 1940s trend of "police procedural" crime dramas. Put out, like other Mann–Alton noirs, by the small Eagle-Lion company, it was the direct inspiration for the Dragnet series, which debuted on radio in 1949 and television in 1951. Detour (1945) cost $117,000 to make when the biggest Hollywood studios spent around $600,000 on the average feature. But the accountants at small PRC weren't happy—it was 30% over budget. Erickson (2004), p. 26. Directors such as Samuel Fuller (Pickup on South Street [1953], Underworld U.S.A. [1961]), Joseph H. Lewis (Gun Crazy [1950], The Big Combo [1955]), and Phil Karlson (Kansas City Confidential [1952], The Brothers Rico [1957]) built now well-respected oeuvres largely at the B-movie/intermediate level. (Dalton Trumbo—like Dmytryk, one of the Hollywood Ten—wrote the Gun Crazy screenplay disguised by a front while still blacklisted.) The work of others such as Felix E. Feist (The Devil Thumbs a Ride [1947], Tomorrow Is Another Day [1951]) await critical rediscovery. Edgar G. Ulmer spent almost his entire Hollywood career working at B studios—once in a while on projects that achieved intermediate status; for the most part, on unmistakable Bs. In 1945, while at PRC, he directed one of the all-time noir cult classics, Detour. Ulmer's other noirs include Strange Illusion (1945), also for PRC; Blonde Ice (1948), distributed by tiny Film Classics; and Murder Is My Beat (1955), for Allied Artists. A number of low and modestly budgeted noirs were made by independent, often actor-owned, companies contracting with one of the larger outfits for distribution. Serving as producer, writer, director, and "star," Hugo Haas made several such films, including Pickup (1951) and The Other Woman (1954). It was in this way that accomplished noir actress Ida Lupino became the sole female director in Hollywood during the late 1940s and much of the 1950s—her best-known film is The Hitch-Hiker (1953), developed by her company, The Filmakers, with support and distribution by RKO. It is one of the seven classic film noirs produced largely outside of the major studios that have been chosen to date for the United States National Film Registry. Of the others, one was a small-studio release: Detour. Four were independent productions distributed by United Artists, the "studio without a studio": Gun Crazy; Kiss Me Deadly; D.O.A. (1950), directed by Rudolph Maté; and Sweet Smell of Success (1957), directed by Alexander Mackendrick. One was an independent distributed by MGM, the industry leader: Force of Evil (1948), directed by Abraham Polonsky and starring John Garfield, both of whom would be blacklisted in the 1950s. Independent production usually meant restricted circumstances, but not always—Sweet Smell of Success, for instance, despite the original plans of the production team, was clearly not made on the cheap, though like many other cherished A-budget noirs it might be said to have a B-movie soul. Perhaps no director better displayed that spirit than the German-born Robert Siodmak, who had already made a score of films before his 1940 arrival in Hollywood. Working mostly on A features, he made eight movies now regarded as classic film noirs (a figure matched only by Lang and Mann). In addition to The Killers, Burt Lancaster's debut and a Hellinger/Universal coproduction, Siodmak's other important contributions to the genre include 1944's Phantom Lady (a top-of-the-line B and Woolrich adaptation), the ironically titled Christmas Holiday (1944), and Cry of the City (1948). Criss Cross (1949), with Lancaster again the lead, exemplifies how Siodmak brought the virtues of the B-movie to the A noir. In addition to the relatively looser constraints on character and message at lower budgets, the nature of B production lent itself to the noir style for directly economic reasons: dim lighting not only saved on electrical costs but helped cloak cheap sets (mist and smoke also served the cause); night shooting was often compelled by hurried production schedules; plots with obscure motivations and intriguingly elliptical transitions were sometimes the consequence of scripts written in haste, not every scene of which was there always time or money to shoot. In Criss Cross, Siodmak achieves all these effects with purpose, wrapping them around Yvonne De Carlo, playing the most understandable of femme fatales, Dan Duryea, in one of his deliciously charismatic villain roles, and Lancaster—already an established star—as an ordinary joe turned armed robber, a romantic obsessive on a one-way road to ruin. Clarens (1980), pp. 200–202; Walker (1992), pp. 139–145. <span style="font-size: 14px;">Classic-era film noirs in the National Film Registry1940-49The Maltese Falcon | Shadow of a Doubt | Laura | Double Indemnity | Mildred Pierce | Detour The Big Sleep | The Killers | Notorious | Out of the Past | Force of Evil | The Naked City | White Heat1950-58The Asphalt Jungle | D.O.A. | Gun Crazy | Sunset Boulevard | In a Lonely Place The Hitch-Hiker | Kiss Me Deadly | The Night of the Hunter | Sweet Smell of Success | Touch of Evil Film noir outside the United States Some critics regard classic film noir as a cycle exclusive to the United States; e.g., Alain Silver and Elizabeth Ward: "With the Western, film noir shares the distinction of being an indigenous American form...a wholly American film style." Silver and Ward (1992), p. 1. Others, however, regard noir as an international phenomenon. See Palmer (2004), pp. 267–268, for a representative discussion of film noir as an international phenomenon. Even before the beginning of the generally accepted classic period, there were movies made far from Hollywood that can be seen in retrospect as film noirs, for example, the French productions Pépé le Moko (1937), directed by Jules Duvivier, and Le Jour se lève (1939), directed by Marcel Carné. Jeanne Moreau in Louis Malle's Ascenseur pour l'échafaud (Elevator to the Gallows; 1958). The film features a score composed and performed by jazz musician Miles Davis. During the classic period, there were many films produced outside the United States, particularly in France, that share elements of style, theme, and sensibility with American film noirs and may themselves be included in the genre's canon. In certain cases, the interrelationship with Hollywood noir is obvious: American-born director Jules Dassin moved to France in the early 1950s as a result of the Hollywood blacklist, and made one of the most famous French film noirs, Rififi (1955). Other well-known French films often classified as noir include Quai des Orfèvres (1947), Le Salaire de la peur (released in English-speaking countries as The Wages of Fear) (1953) and Les Diaboliques (1955), all directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot; Casque d'or (1952) and Touchez pas au grisbi (1954), both directed by Jacques Becker; and Ascenseur pour l'échafaud (1958), directed by Louis Malle. French director Jean-Pierre Melville is widely recognized for his tragic, minimalist film noirs—Quand tu liras cette lettre (1953) and Bob le flambeur (1955), from the classic period, were followed by Le Doulos (1962), Le Samouraï (1967), and Le Cercle rouge (1970). A number of thrillers produced in Great Britain during the classic period are also frequently referred to as film noirs, including Contraband (1940) and The Small Back Room (1949), directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger; Brighton Rock (1947), directed by John Boulting; They Made Me a Fugitive (1947), directed by Alberto Cavalcanti; and Cast a Dark Shadow (1955), directed by Lewis Gilbert. Terence Fisher directed several low-budget thrillers in a noir mode for Hammer Film Productions, including The Last Page (aka Man Bait; 1952), Stolen Face (1952), and Murder by Proxy (aka Blackout; 1954). Before leaving for France, Jules Dassin had been obliged by political pressure to shoot his last English-language film of the classic noir period in Great Britain: Night and the City (1950). Though it was conceived in the United States and was not only directed by an American but also stars two American actors—Richard Widmark and Gene Tierney—it is technically a UK production, financed by 20th Century-Fox's British subsidiary. The most famous of classic British noirs is director Carol Reed's The Third Man (1949), like Brighton Rock based on a Graham Greene novel. Set in Vienna immediately after World War II, it stars Joseph Cotten and Orson Welles, both prominent American actors who starred in U.S. film noirs; despite being a completely British production, the movie is sometimes discussed as if it is a classic Hollywood noir. Stray Dog (1949), directed and cowritten by Akira Kurosawa, contains many cinematographic and narrative elements associated with classic American film noir. Elsewhere, Italian director Luchino Visconti adapted Cain's The Postman Always Rings Twice as Ossessione (1943), regarded both as one of the great noirs and a seminal film in the development of neorealism. (This was not even the first screen version of Cain's novel, having been preceded by the French Le Dernier tournant in 1939.) In Japan, the celebrated Akira Kurosawa directed several movies recognizable as film noirs, including Drunken Angel (1948), Stray Dog (1949), The Bad Sleep Well (1960), and High and Low (1963). Among the first major neo-noir films—the term often applied to movies that consciously refer back to the classic noir tradition—was the French Tirez sur le pianiste (1960), directed by François Truffaut from a novel by one of the gloomiest of American noir fiction writers, David Goodis. Noir crime films and melodramas have been produced in many countries in the post-classic area, some of them quintessentially self-aware neo-noirs—for example, Il Conformista (1969; Italy), Der Amerikanische Freund (1977; Germany), The Element of Crime (1984; Denmark), As Tears Go By (1988; Hong Kong)—others simply sharing narrative elements and a version of the hardboiled sensibility associated with classic noir—The Castle of Sand (1974; Japan), Insomnia (1997; Norway), Croupier (1998; UK), Blind Shaft (2003; China). Neo-noir and echoes of the classic mode 1960s and 1970s While it is hard to draw a line between some of the noir films of the early 1960s such as Blast of Silence (1961) and Cape Fear (1962) and the noirs of the late 1950s, new trends emerged in the post-classic era. The Manchurian Candidate (1962), directed by John Frankenheimer, Shock Corridor (1962), directed by Samuel Fuller, and Brainstorm (1965), directed by experienced noir character actor William Conrad, all treat the theme of mental dispossession within stylistic and tonal frameworks derived from classic film noir. In a different vein, filmmakers such as Arthur Penn (Mickey One [1964], clearly drawing inspiration from Truffaut's Tirez sur le pianiste and other French New Wave films), John Boorman (Point Blank [1967], similarly caught up, though in the Nouvelle vague's deeper waters), and Alan J. Pakula (Klute [1971]) directed movies that knowingly related themselves to the original film noirs, inviting audiences in on the game. Conscious acknowledgment of the classic era's conventions, as historical archetypes to be revived, rejected, or reimagined, is what puts the "neo" in neo-noir, according to many critics. Though several late classic noirs, Kiss Me Deadly in particular, were entirely self-knowing and post-traditional in conception, none that were top- or midbudgeted (like Aldrich's masterpiece) tipped its hand in a way noticeable to most audiences of the time. The first broadly popular crime drama of an unmistakable neo-noir nature was not a movie, but the TV series Peter Gunn (1958–61), created by Blake Edwards. Neo-noir/Take 1: As car thief Michel Poiccard, aka Laszlo Kovacs, Jean-Paul Belmondo in À bout de souffle (Breathless; 1960). Poiccard reveres and styles himself after Humphrey Bogart' s screen persona. A manifest affiliation with noir traditions—which, by its nature, allows for different sorts of commentary on them to be inferred—can also provide the basis for explicit critiques of those traditions. The first major film to work this angle (that might be thought of as the most "neo" of "neo") was French director Jean-Luc Godard's À bout de souffle (Breathless; 1960), which pays its literal respects to Bogart and his crime films while brandishing a bold new style for a new day. In 1973, director Robert Altman, who had worked on Peter Gunn, flipped off noir piety with The Long Goodbye. Based on the novel by Raymond Chandler, it features one of Bogart's most famous characters, but in iconoclastic fashion: Philip Marlowe, the prototypical hardboiled detective, is replayed as a hapless misfit, almost laughably out of touch with contemporary mores and morality. Where Altman's subversion of the film noir mythos was so irreverent as to anger many contemporary critics, around the same time Woody Allen was paying affectionate, at points idolatrous homage to the classic mode with Play It Again, Sam (1972). The most acclaimed of the neo-noirs of the era was director Roman Polanski's 1974 Chinatown. Written by Robert Towne, it is set in 1930s Los Angeles, an accustomed noir locale nudged back some few years in a way that makes the pivotal loss of innocence in the story even crueler. Where Polanski and Towne raised noir to a black apogee by turning rearward, director Martin Scorsese and screenwriter Paul Schrader brought the noir attitude crashing into the present day with Taxi Driver (1976), a cackling, bloody-minded gloss on bicentennial America. In 1978, Walter Hill wrote and directed the The Driver, a chase movie as might have been imagined by Jean-Pierre Melville in an especially abstract mood. Hill was already a central figure in 1970s noir of a more straightforward manner, having written the script for director Sam Peckinpah's The Getaway (1972), adapting a novel by pulp master Jim Thompson, as well as for two tough private eye films: an original screenplay for Hickey & Boggs (1972) and an adaptation of a novel by Ross Macdonald, the leading literary descendant of Hammett and Chandler, for The Drowning Pool (1975). Some of the strongest 1970s noirs, in fact, were unwinking remakes of the classics, "neo" mostly be default: Altman's heartbreaking Thieves Like Us (1973), based on the same source as Ray's They Live by Night, and Farewell, My Lovely (1975), the Chandler tale made classically as Murder, My Sweet, remade here with Robert Mitchum in his last notable noir role. Detective series, prevalent on American television during the period, updated the hardboiled tradition in different ways, but the show conjuring the most noir tone was a horror crossover touched with shaggy, Long Goodbye–style humor: Kolchak: The Night Stalker (1974–75), featuring a Chicago newspaper reporter investigating strange, usually supernatural occurrences. 1980s–2000s Neo-noir/Take 2: Sharon Stone as Catherine Tramell, a femme fatale for the 1990s—and the ages—in the smash box-office hit Basic Instinct (1992). She is seen here in the notorious interrogation scene. The turn of the decade brought Scorsese's black-and-white Raging Bull (cowritten by Schrader); an acknowledged masterpiece—often voted the greatest film of the 1980s in critics' polls—it is also a retreat, telling a story of a boxer's moral self-destruction that recalls in both theme and visual ambience noir dramas such as Body and Soul (1947) and Champion (1949). From 1981, the popular Body Heat, written and directed by Lawrence Kasdan, invokes a different set of classic noir elements, this time in a humid, erotically charged Florida setting; its success confirmed the commercial viability of neo-noir, at a time when the major Hollywood studios were becoming increasingly risk averse. The mainstreaming of neo-noir is evident in such films as Black Widow (1987), Shattered (1991), and Final Analysis (1992). Few neo-noirs have made more money or more wittily updated the tradition of the noir double-entendre than Basic Instinct (1992), directed by Paul Verhoeven and written by Joe Eszterhas. Over the past twenty-five years, the big-budget auteur to work most frequently in a neo-noir mode has been Michael Mann, with the films Thief (1981), Heat (1995), and Collateral (2004), and the 1980s TV series Miami Vice and Crime Story. Mann's output exemplifies a primary strain of neo-noir, in which classic themes and tropes are revisited in a contemporary setting with an up-to-date visual style and rock- or hip hop–based musical soundtrack. Like Chinatown, its more complex predecessor, Curtis Hanson's Oscar-winning L.A. Confidential (1997), based on the James Ellroy novel, demonstrates an opposite tendency—the deliberately retro film noir; its tale of corrupt cops and femme fatales is seemingly lifted straight from a movie of 1953, the year in which it is set. Working generally with much smaller budgets, brothers Joel and Ethan Coen have created one of the most substantial film oeuvres influenced by classic noir, with movies such as Blood Simple (1984) and Fargo (1996), considered by some a supreme work in the neo-noir mode. The Coens' most recent nod to the noir tradition is The Man Who Wasn't There (2001); a black-and-white crime melodrama set in 1949, it features a scene apparently staged to mirror the one from Out of the Past pictured above. The Coens cross noir with other generic lines in the gangster drama Miller's Crossing (1990)—loosely based on the Dashiell Hammett novels Red Harvest and The Glass Key—and the comedy The Big Lebowski (1998), a tribute to Chandler and an homage to Altman's version of The Long Goodbye. Perhaps no contemporary films better reflect the classic noir A-movie-with-a-B-movie-soul than those of director-writer Quentin Tarantino; neo-noirs of his such as Reservoir Dogs (1992) and Pulp Fiction (1994) display a relentlessly self-reflexive, sometimes tongue-in-cheek sensibility, similar to the work of the New Wave directors and the Coens. Other movies from the era readily identifiable as neo-noir (some retro, some more au courant) include director John Dahl's Kill Me Again (1989), Red Rock West (1992), and The Last Seduction (1993); four adaptations of novels by Jim Thompson—The Kill-Off (1989), After Dark, My Sweet (1990), The Grifters (1990), and the remake of The Getaway (1994); and many more, including adaptations of the work of other major noir fiction writers: The Hot Spot (1990), from Hell Hath No Fury, by Charles Williams; Miami Blues (1990), from the novel by Charles Willeford; and Out of Sight (1998), from the novel by Elmore Leonard. On television, the series Moonlighting (1985–89) paid homage to classic noir while demonstrating an unusual appreciation of the sense of humor often found in the original cycle. Between 1983 and 1989, Mickey Spillane's hardboiled private eye Mike Hammer was played with wry gusto by Stacy Keach in a series and several stand-alone TV movies (an unsuccessful revival followed in 1997–98). The British miniseries The Singing Detective (1986), written by Dennis Potter, tells the story of a mystery writer named Philip Marlow; widely considered one of the finest neo-noirs in any medium, some critics cite it as the greatest television production of all time. Neo-noir/Take 3: Joseph Gordon-Levitt in Brick (2005). The movie's characters, most of them high-school students, speak in idiosyncratic English reminiscent of noir novelists Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler. Among the leading Hollywood directors of noir during the current decade has been the British-born Christopher Nolan, with the acclaimed Memento (2000), the remake of Insomnia (2002), and his dark-toned superhero films, Batman Begins (2005) and The Dark Knight (2008). Harsh Times (2006) is written and directed by David Ayer, also the screenwriter for Training Day (2001) and, adapting a story by James Ellroy, Dark Blue (2002). The latter two update the classic noir bad-cop tale, typified by Shield for Murder (1954) and Rogue Cop (1954). In 2005, Shane Black directed Kiss Kiss Bang Bang, basing his screenplay in part on a crime novel by Brett Halliday, who published his first stories back in the 1920s. The film plays with an awareness not only of classic noir but also of neo-noir reflexivity itself, making it a model neo²-noir. Director Sean Penn's The Pledge (2001), though adapted from a very self-reflexive novel by Friedrich Dürrenmatt, plays noir comparatively straight, to devastating effect. The most commercially successful of recent neo-noirs is Sin City (2005), directed by Robert Rodriguez in extravagantly stylized black and white with the odd bit of color. The film is based on a series of comic books created by Frank Miller (credited as the movie's codirector), which are in turn openly indebted to the works of Spillane and other pulp mystery authors. Similarly, graphic novels provide the basis for Road to Perdition (2002), directed by Sam Mendes, and A History of Violence (2005), directed by David Cronenberg; the latter, according to many critics, is the neo-noir of the decade. Writer-director Rian Johnson's Brick (2005), featuring present-day high schoolers speaking a version of 1930s hardboiled argot, won the Special Jury Prize for Originality of Vision at the Sundance Film Festival. The television series Veronica Mars (2004–7) also brought a youth-oriented twist to film noir. Psycho-noir Night club chanteuse Dorothy Vallens, played by Isabella Rossellini, sings the title song in David Lynch’s Blue Velvet (1986). The characteristic work of David Lynch combines film noir tropes with scenarios driven by disturbed characters such as the sociopathic criminal played by Dennis Hopper in Blue Velvet (1986). Lost Highway (1996) and Mulholland Drive (2001) feature delusionary protagonists. The Twin Peaks cycle, both TV series (1990–91) and movie, Fire Walk with Me (1992), is built on a succession of bizarro spasms. This Lynchian mode has come to be grouped with other noir-influenced films sharing similarly skewed centers of interest as "psycho-noir." Two of the earliest examples after Blue Velvet are literary adaptations directed by David Cronenberg, Naked Lunch (1991) and Crash (1996). Director David Fincher followed the noir science fiction of Alien³ (1992) and the immensely successful neo-noir Se7en (1995) with a film that earns much greater regard today than it did on original release, the psycho-noir Fight Club (1999). Nolan's Memento, as well as his debut feature, the British Following (1998), may both be classified as psycho-noir. The torments of The Machinist (2004), directed by Brad Anderson, evoke both Fight Club and Memento. In the first decade of the new millennium, Park Chan-wook of South Korea has been the most prominent director to work regularly in a psycho-noir mode—a current of noir that can be traced back through Taxi Driver, through Brainstorm, through White Heat, all the way to Stranger on the Third Floor and further still, to Fritz Lang's original M. Science fiction noir Harrison Ford as detective Rick Deckard in Blade Runner (1982). As with many classic film noirs, the story is set in a rainy version of Los Angeles. In the post-classic era, the most significant trend in noir crossovers has involved science fiction. In Jean-Luc Godard's Alphaville (1965), Lemmy Caution is the name of the old-school private eye in the city of tomorrow. The Groundstar Conspiracy (1972) centers on another implacable investigator and an amnesiac named Welles. Soylent Green (1973), the first major American example, portrays a dystopian, near-future world via a self-evidently noir detection plot; starring Charlton Heston (the lead in Touch of Evil), it also features classic noir standbys Joseph Cotten, Edward G. Robinson, and Whit Bissell. The movie was directed by Richard Fleischer, who two decades before had directed several strong B noirs, including Armored Car Robbery (1950) and The Narrow Margin (1952). The cynical and stylish perspective of classic film noir had a formative effect on the cyberpunk genre of science fiction that emerged in the early 1980s; the movie most directly influential on cyberpunk was Blade Runner (1982), directed by Ridley Scott, which pays clear and evocative homage to the classic noir mode (Scott would subsequently direct the poignant noir crime melodrama Someone to Watch Over Me [1987]). Scholar Jamaluddin Bin Aziz has observed how "the shadow of Philip Marlowe lingers on" in such other "future noir" films as Twelve Monkeys (1995), Dark City (1998), and Minority Report (2002). Aziz (2005), section "Future Noir and Postmodernism : The Irony Begins." The hero is the target of investigation in Gattaca (1997), which fuses film noir motifs with a scenario indebted to Brave New World. The Thirteenth Floor (1999), like Blade Runner, is an explicit homage to classic noir, in this case involving speculations about virtual reality. Science fiction, noir, and animation are brought together in the Japanese films Ghost in the Shell (1995) and Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence (2004), both directed by Mamoru Oshii, and the short A Detective Story (2003), set in the Matrix universe. Film noir parodies Film noir has been parodied many times, in many manners. In 1945, Danny Kaye starred in what appears to be the first intentional film noir parody, Wonder Man. Silver and Ward (1992), p. 332. That same year, Deanna Durbin was the singing lead in the comedic noir Lady on a Train, which makes fun of Woolrich-brand wistful miserablism. Bob Hope inaugurated the private-eye noir parody with My Favorite Brunette (1947), playing a baby photographer who is mistaken for an ironfisted detective. That same year, The Bowery Boys released Hard Boiled Mahoney using the same mistaken-identity plot and spoofed the genre once more in Private Eyes (1953). The Big Steal (1949), directed by Don Siegel, and His Kind of Woman, are both clear examples of the classic film noir parodying itself. The "Girl Hunt" ballet in Vincente Minnelli's The Band Wagon (1953) is a ten-minute distillation of—and play on—noir in dance. The Cheap Detective (1978), starring Peter Falk, is a broad parody of several films, including the Bogart classics The Maltese Falcon and Casablanca. Carl Reiner's "cut and paste" noir farce, the black-and-white Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid (1982), is a well known example of the obviously comedic latter-day parodies. Robert Zemeckis's Who Framed Roger Rabbit? (1988) develops a noir plot set in 1940s L.A. around a host of cartoon characters. "Loneliness has followed me my whole life, everywhere. In bars, in cars, sidewalks, stores, everywhere. There's no escape. I'm God's lonely man." Robert De Niro as neo-noir antihero Travis Bickle in Taxi Driver (1976). Noir parodies come in darker tones as well. Murder by Contract (1958), directed by Irving Lerner, is an eighty-one-minute-long deadpan joke on noir, with a denouement as bleak as any of the movies it kids. Naremore (2008), p. 158 ("One of the earliest and best examples was Irving Lerner's Murder by Contract...which later exerted a strong influence on Martin Scorsese's Taxi Driver. A deadpan black comedy about the American Dream....") An ultra-low-budget Columbia Pictures production, it may qualify as the first intentional example of what is now called a neo-noir film; it certainly seems to have been a source of inspiration for Melville's Le Samouraï and Scorsese's Taxi Driver. One of the quintessential 1970s neo-noirs, See, e.g., , and Taxi Driver caustically deconstructs the "dark" crime film, taking it to an absurd extreme and then offering a conclusion that manages to mock every possible anticipated ending—triumphant, tragic, artfully ambivalent—while being each, all at once. See, e.g., Kolker (2000), pp. 238–241. Flirting with splatter status even more brazenly, the Coens' Blood Simple is both an exacting pastiche and an exaggeration of classic noir. Adapted by director Robinson Devor from a novel by Charles Willeford, The Woman Chaser (1999) sends up not just the noir mode but the entire Hollywood filmmaking process, with seemingly each shot staged as the visual equivalent of a Marlowe wisecrack—funny, but it smarts. In other media, the television series Sledge Hammer! (1986–88) lampoons noir, along with Dirty Harry, capital punishment, and anything else available. Sesame Street (1969–curr.) occasionally casts Kermit the Frog as a private eye; the sketches refer to some of the typical motifs of noir movies, in particular the voiceover. Garrison Keillor's radio program A Prairie Home Companion features the recurring character Guy Noir, a hardboiled detective whose adventures always wander into farce (Guy also appears in the Altman-directed film based on Keillor's show). Firesign Theatre's Nick Danger has trod the same not-so-mean streets, both on radio and in comedy albums. Cartoons such as Garfield's Babes and Bullets (1989) and comic strip characters such as Tracer Bullet of Calvin and Hobbes have parodied both film noir and the kindred hardboiled tradition—one of the sources from which film noir sprang and which it now overshadows. Approaches to defining noir The history of film noir criticism has seen fundamental questions become matters of controversy unusually intense for such a field. Where aesthetic debates tend to concentrate on the quality and meaning of specific artworks and the intentions and influences of their creators, in film noir, the debates are regularly much broader. Four large questions may be identified, two of them addressed at the beginning of this article: Some consider Vertigo (1958) a noir on the basis of plot and tone and various motifs. Others say the combination of color and the specificity of director Alfred Hitchcock's vision exclude it from the category. What defines film noir? What sort of category is it? A third question applies at a more specific level, but is sweeping: Which movies qualify as film noirs? This article refers to movies from the classic period as "film noir" if there is a critical consensus supporting that designation. That consensus is almost never complete and is in many cases provisional: The Lost Weekend and The Night of the Hunter, for instance, are now routinely referred to as film noirs, but they were seldom considered as such a quarter-century ago. The process is ongoing: today, a growing number of critics refer to Suspicion (1941), directed by Hitchcock, and Casablanca (1942), directed by Curtiz, as film noirs. Outside of the classic period, consensus is much rarer—movies are considered as noir herein if a substantial number of critics have discussed them as such. In order to decide which films are noir (and which are not), many critics refer to a set of elements they see as marking examples of the mode. This leads to a fourth major point of controversy in the field, one that overlaps with all those noted above: What are the identifying characteristics of film noirs? For instance, some critics insist that a film noir, to be authentic, must have a bleak conclusion (e.g., Criss Cross or D.O.A.), but many acknowledged classics of the genre have clearly happy endings (e.g., Stranger on the Third Floor, The Big Sleep, Dark Passage, and The Dark Corner), while the tone of many other noir denouements is ambivalent, in a variety of ways. The ambition of this section, then, can be no more than modest: it is an attempt to survey those characteristics most often cited by critics as representative of classic film noirs. As diverse as that set of movies is, the diversity of films from outside the classic period that have been discussed as noir is so great that any similar survey would be impractical; however, those classic noir identifying marks often referenced in neo-noirs—however frequently or seldom they actually appeared in the original films—are noted as are certain signal trends of the latter-day mode. Visual style Shadows of window blinds fall upon private eye Jake Gittes, performed by Jack Nicholson, in Chinatown (1974). Film noirs tended to use low-key lighting schemes producing stark light/dark contrasts and dramatic shadow patterning. The shadows of Venetian blinds or banister rods, cast upon an actor, a wall, or an entire set, are an iconic visual in film noir and had already become a cliché well before the neo-noir era. Characters' faces may be partially or wholly obscured by darkness—a relative rarity in conventional Hollywood moviemaking. While black-and-white cinematography is considered by many to be one of the essential attributes of classic noir, color films such as Leave Her to Heaven (1945), Niagara (1953), Slightly Scarlet, and Vertigo (1958) are regarded as noir by varying numbers of critics. Film noir is also known for its use of Dutch angles, low-angle shots, and wide-angle lenses. Other devices of disorientation relatively common in film noir include shots of people reflected in one or more mirrors, shots through curved or frosted glass or other distorting objects (such as during the strangulation scene in Strangers on a Train), and special effects sequences of a sometimes bizarre nature. Beginning in the late 1940s, location shooting—often involving night-for-night sequences—became increasingly frequent in noir. In an analysis of the visual approach of Kiss Me Deadly, a late and self-consciously stylized example of classic noir, critic Alain Silver describes how cinematographic choices emphasize the story's themes and mood. In one scene, the characters, seen through a "confusion of angular shapes," thus appear "caught in a tangible vortex or enclosed in a trap." Silver makes a case for how "[s]ide light is used...to reflect character ambivalence," while shots of characters in which they are lit from below "conform to a convention of visual expression which associates shadows cast upward of the face with the unnatural and ominous." Silver (1995), pp. 219, 222. Structure and narrational devices Film noirs tend to have unusually convoluted story lines, frequently involving flashbacks, flashforwards, and other techniques that disrupt and sometimes obscure the narrative sequence. Voiceover narration—most characteristically by the protagonist, less frequently by a secondary character or by an unseen, omniscient narrator—is sometimes used as a structuring device. Both flashbacks and voiceover narration are today often used in movies looking to quickly establish their neo-noir bona fides. Bold experiments in cinematic storytelling were sometimes attempted in noir: Lady in the Lake, for example, is shot entirely from the point of view of protagonist Philip Marlowe; the face of star (and director) Robert Montgomery is seen only in mirrors. The Chase (1946) takes oneirism and fatalism as the basis for its fantastical narrative system, redolent of certain horror stories, but with little precedent in the context of a putatively realistic genre. In their different ways, both Sunset Boulevard and D.O.A. are tales told by dead men. Latter-day noir has been in the forefront of structural experimentation in popular cinema, as exemplified by such films as Pulp Fiction and Memento. Plots, characters, and settings Crime, usually murder, is an element of almost all film noirs; in addition to standard-issue greed, jealousy is frequently the criminal motivation. A crime investigation—by a private eye, a police detective (sometimes acting alone), or a concerned amateur—is the most prevalent, but far from dominant, basic plot. In other common plots the protagonists are implicated in heists or con games, or in murderous conspiracies often involving adulterous affairs. False suspicions and accusations of crime are frequent plot elements, as are betrayals and double-crosses. Amnesia is far more common in film noir than in real life, and cigarette smoking can seem virtually mandatory. Pursued (1947): A Western adopting noir style, or a film noir set in the Wild West? Film noirs tend to revolve around heroes who are more flawed and morally questionable than the norm, often fall guys of one sort or another. The characteristic heroes of noir are described by many critics as "alienated"; in the words of Silver and Ward, "filled with existential bitterness." Silver and Ward (1992), p. 6. Certain archetypal characters appear in many film noirs—hardboiled detectives, femmes fatales, corrupt policemen, jealous husbands, intrepid claims adjusters, and down-and-out writers. As can be observed in many movies of an overtly neo-noir nature, the private eye and the femme fatale are the character types with which film noir has come to be most identified, but only a minority of movies now regarded as classic noir feature either. For example, of the nineteen National Film Registry noirs, in only four does the star play a private eye: The Maltese Falcon, The Big Sleep, Out of the Past, and Kiss Me Deadly. Just two others readily qualify as detective stories: Laura and Touch of Evil. Film noir is often associated with an urban setting, and a few cities—Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, and Chicago, in particular—are the location of many of the classic films. In the eyes of many critics, the city is presented in noir as a "labyrinth" or "maze." Bars, lounges, nightclubs, and gambling dens are frequently the scene of action. The climaxes of a substantial number of film noirs take place in visually complex, often industrial settings, such as refineries, factories, trainyards, power plants—most famously the explosive conclusion of White Heat. In the popular (and, frequently enough, critical) imagination, in noir it is always night and it always rains. A substantial trend within latter-day noir—dubbed "film soleil" by critic D. K. Holm—heads in precisely the opposite direction, with tales of deception, seduction, and corruption exploiting bright, sun-baked settings, stereotypically the desert or open water, to caustic effect. Significant predecessors from the classic and early post-classic eras include The Lady from Shanghai; the Robert Ryan vehicle Inferno (1953); the French adaptation of Patricia Highsmith's The Talented Mr. Ripley, Plein soleil (Purple Noon in the U.S., better rendered elsewhere as Blazing Sun or Full Sun; 1960); and director Don Siegel's version of The Killers (1964). The tendency was at its peak during the late 1980s and 1990s, with films such as Dead Calm (1989); After Dark, My Sweet; The Hot Spot; Delusion (1991); and Red Rock West, and TV's Miami Vice, which premiered in 1984 and turned increasingly mordant over its five-year run. Worldview, morality, and tone Film noir is often described as essentially pessimistic. The noir stories that are regarded as most characteristic tell of people trapped in unwanted situations (which, in general, they did not cause but are responsible for exacerbating), striving against random, uncaring fate, and frequently doomed. The movies are seen as depicting a world that is inherently corrupt. Classic film noir has been associated by many critics with the American social landscape of the era—in particular, with a sense of heightened anxiety and alienation that is said to have followed World War II. Nicholas Christopher's opinion is representative: "it is as if the war, and the social eruptions in its aftermath, unleashed demons that had been bottled up in the national psyche." Christopher (1997), p. 37. Film noirs, especially those of the 1950s and the height of the Red Scare, are often said to reflect cultural paranoia; Kiss Me Deadly is the noir most frequently marshaled as evidence for this claim. "You've got a touch of class, but I don't know how far you can go." "A lot depends on who's in the saddle." Bogart and Bacall in The Big Sleep. Rather than focusing on simple "black and white" decisions, film noirs tend to pose moral quandaries that are unusually ambiguous and relative—at least within the context of Hollywood cinema. Characters that do pursue goals based on clear-cut moral standards may be more than willing to let the "ends justify the means." For example, the investigator hero of The Stranger, obsessed with tracking down a Nazi war criminal, places other people in mortal danger in order to capture his target. Whereas the Production Code obliged almost all classic noirs to see that steadfast virtue was ultimately rewarded and vice, in the absence of shame and redemption, severely punished (however dramatically incredible the final rendering of mandatory justice might be), a substantial number of latter-day noirs flout such conventions; in their very different ways, the conclusions of Chinatown and The Hot Spot provide two clear examples. The tone of film noir is generally regarded as downbeat; some critics experience it as darker still—"overwhelmingly black," according to Robert Ottoson. Ottoson (1981), p. 1. Influential critic (and filmmaker) Paul Schrader wrote in a seminal 1972 essay that "film noir is defined by tone," a tone he seems to perceive as "hopeless." Schrader (1972), p. 54. For characterization of definitive tone as "hopeless," see pp. 53 ("the tone more hopeless") and 57 ("a fatalistic, hopeless mood"). In describing the adaptation of Double Indemnity, leading noir analyst Foster Hirsch describes the "requisite hopeless tone" achieved by the filmmakers, which appears to characterize his view of noir as a whole. Hirsch (2001), p. 7. Hirsch subsequently states, "In character types, mood [emphasis added], themes, and visual composition, Double Indemnity offer[s] a lexicon of noir stylistics" (p. 8). On the other hand, definitive film noirs such as The Big Sleep, The Lady from Shanghai, and Double Indemnity itself are famed for their hardboiled repartee, often imbued with sexual innuendo and self-reflexive humor—notes of another tone. Notes Opinion is also divided on the English plural of film noir. In the French from which the term derives, the plural is films noirs. Some English speakers prefer films noir, while film noirs is the most common formulation. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, acknowledges all three styles as acceptable, but gives as the preferred spelling film noirs. See also List of film noir Film gris Neo-noir References Sources Aziz, Jamaluddin Bin (2005). "Future Noir," chap. in "Transgressing Women: Investigating Space and the Body in Contemporary Noir Thrillers." Ph. D. dissertation, Department of English and Creative Writing, Lancaster University (chapter available online). Bernstein, Matthew (1995). “A Tale of Three Cities: The Banning of Scarlet Street,” Cinema Journal 35, no. 1. Biesen, Sheri Chinen (2005). Blackout: World War II and the Origins of Film Noir. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-8217-6 Borde, Raymond, and Etienne Chaumeton (2002 [1955]). A Panorama of American Film Noir, 1941–1953, trans. Paul Hammond. San Francisco: City Lights Books. ISBN 0-87286-412-X Cameron, Ian, ed. (1993). The Book of Film Noir. New York: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-0589-4 Christopher, Nicholas (1997). Somewhere in the Night: Film Noir and the American City. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-82803-0 Clarens, Carlos (1980). Crime Movies: An Illustrated History. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-01262-X Dancyger, Ken, and Jeff Rush (2002). Alternative Scriptwriting: Successfully Breaking the Rules. Boston et al.: Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-80477-5 Erickson, Glenn (2004). "Fate Seeks the Loser: Edgar G. Ulmer's Detour" (collected in Silver and Ursini, Film Noir Reader 4). Gorman, Ed, Lee Server, and Martin H. Greenberg, eds. (1998). The Big Book of Noir. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-0574-4 Greenspun, Roger (1973). "Mike Hodges's 'Pulp' Opens; A Private Eye Parody Is Parody of Itself," New York Times, February 9. Hirsch, Foster (2001). The Dark Side of the Screen: Film Noir. New York: Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-81039-5 Kolker, Robert (2000). A Cinema of Loneliness, 3d ed. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512350-6 Lyons, Arthur (2000). Death on the Cheap: The Lost B Movies of Film Noir. New York: Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-80996-6 McGilligan, Patrick (1997). Fritz Lang: The Nature of the Beast. New York and London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-19375-7 Naremore, James (1998). More Than Night: Film Noir in Its Contexts. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21294-0 Ottoson, Robert (1981). A Reference Guide to the American Film Noir: 1940–1958. Metuchen, N.J., and London: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-1363-7 Palmer, R. Barton (2004). "The Sociological Turn of Adaptation Studies: The Example of Film Noir," in A Companion To Literature And Film, ed. Robert Stam and Alessandra Raengo (pp. 258–277). Maiden, Mass., Oxford, and Carlton, Australia: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23053-X Porfirio, Robert (1980). "Stranger on the Third Floor (1940)" (collected in Silver and Ward, Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference). Schatz, Thomas (1998 [1996]). The Genius of the System: Hollywood Filmmaking in the Studio Era, new ed. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-19596-2 Schrader, Paul (1972). "Notes on Film Noir," Film Comment 8, no. 1 (collected in Silver and Ursini, Film Noir Reader [1]). Server, Lee (1998). "The Black List: Essential Film Noir" (collected in Gorman et al., The Big Book of Noir). Silver, Alain (1995). "Kiss Me Deadly: Evidence of a Style," rev. ver. (collected in Silver and Ursini, Film Noir Reader [1]; available online). Silver, Alain, and James Ursini (and Robert Porfirio—vol. 3), eds. (2004 [1996–2004]). Film Noir Reader, vols. 1–4. Pompton Plains, N.J.: Limelight Editions (introductions to vols. 1 and 2 and selected essays available online). "Variety staff" (anon.) (1940). "Stranger on the Third Floor" [review], Variety, January 1 (excerpted online). Walker, Michael (1992). "Robert Siodmak" (collected in Cameron, The Book of Film Noir). Further reading Chopra-Gant, Mike (2005). Hollywood Genres and Postwar America: Masculinity, Family and Nation in Popular Movies and Film Noir. London: IB Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-838-2 Cochran, David (2000). America Noir: Underground Writers and Filmmakers of the Postwar Era. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-813-4 Copjec, Joan, ed. (1993). Shades of Noir. London and New York: Verso. ISBN 0-86091-625-1 Dimendberg, Edward (2004). Film Noir and the Spaces of Modernity. Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01314-X Durgnat, Raymond (1970). "Paint It Black: The Family Tree of the Film Noir," Cinema 6/7 (collected in Gorman et al., The Big Book of Noir, and Silver and Ursini, Film Noir Reader [1]). Hannsberry, Karen Burroughs (1998). Femme Noir: Bad Girls of Film. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-0429-9 Hannsberry, Karen Burroughs (2003). Bad Boys: The Actors of Film Noir. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-1484-7 Holm, D. K. (2005). Film Soleil. Harpenden, UK: Pocket Essentials. ISBN 1-904048-50-1 Kaplan, E. Ann, ed. (1998). Women in Film Noir, new ed. London: British Film Institute. ISBN 0-85170-666-5 Keaney, Michael F. (2003). Film Noir Guide: 745 Films of the Classic Era, 1940–1959. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-1547-9 Martin, Richard (1999). Mean Streets and Raging Bulls: The Legacy of Film Noir in Contemporary American Cinema. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow. ISBN 0-8108-3642-4 Mason, Fran (2002). American Gangster Cinema: From Little Caesar to Pulp Fiction. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave. ISBN 0-333-67452-9 McArthur, Colin (1972). Underworld U.S.A. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-01953-4 Muller, Eddie (1998). Dark City: The Lost World of Film Noir. New York: St. Martin's. ISBN 0-312-18076-4 Neale, Steve (2000). Genre and Hollywood. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02606-7 Palmer, R. Barton (1994). Hollywood's Dark Cinema: The American Film Noir. New York: Twayne. ISBN 0-8057-9335-6 Palmer, R. Barton, ed. (1996). Perspectives on Film Noir. New York: G.K. Hall. ISBN 0-8161-1601-6 Rabinowitz, Paula (2002). Black & White & Noir: America's Pulp Modernism. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11481-8 Schatz, Thomas (1997). Boom and Bust: American Cinema in the 1940s. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-684-19151-2 Selby, Spencer (1984). Dark City: The Film Noir. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 0-89950-103-6 Shadoian, Jack (2003). Dreams and Dead Ends: The American Gangster Film, 2d ed. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514291-8 Silver, Alain, and James Ursini (1999). The Noir Style. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press. ISBN 0-87951-722-0 Spicer, Andrew (2002). Film Noir. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-43712-1 Telotte, J. P. (1989). Voices in the Dark: The Narrative Patterns of Film Noir. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06056-3 Tuska, Jon (1984). Dark Cinema: American Film Noir in Cultural Perspective. Westport, Conn., and London: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-23045-5 External links The Noir Zone Contains details of over 1000 films noir and classic movies Film-Noir site contains details of classic films, information about directors and actors All-Time 100 Movies Time magazine's noir-heavy list includes a single TV production, The Singing Detective, among its 100 picks Classic Noir Online comprehensive survey of over 700 noir titles, with links to actors and directors Film Noir Q&A-style essay by leading noir critic-historian Eddie Muller; part of the GreenCine website Film Noir: A Bibliography of Materials and Film Videography holdings of the UC Berkeley Library Film Noir: An Introduction essay with links to discussions of ten important noirs; part of Images: A Journal of Film and Popular Culture Film Noir Foundation educational resource addressing the cultural, historical, and artistic significance of film noir Film Noir Studies writings by John Blaser, with film noir glossary, timeline, and noir-related media Le Film Policier Noir extensive discussion (in English) of French noir by Yuri German; part of the Hard-Boiled Mysteries website A Guide to Film Noir Genre ten deadeye bullet points from Roger Ebert An Introduction to Neo-Noir essay by Lee Horsley The Noir Thriller: Introduction excerpt from 2001 book by Lee Horsley Out of the Past: Investigating Film Noir podcast close readings of many classic noirs by Shannon Clute and Richard Edwards | Film_noir |@lemmatized two:14 silhouetted:1 figure:3 big:21 combo:2 film:242 cinematographer:3 john:11 alton:4 creator:2 many:38 noir:284 iconic:3 image:2 cinematic:5 term:7 use:11 primarily:1 describe:8 stylish:2 hollywood:36 crime:22 drama:9 particularly:4 emphasize:2 moral:4 ambiguity:1 sexual:2 motivation:3 classic:86 period:17 generally:5 regard:17 stretch:1 early:11 late:10 era:22 associate:9 low:12 key:6 black:20 white:12 visual:15 style:25 root:1 german:5 expressionist:4 cinematography:2 prototypical:2 story:19 much:9 attitude:3 derive:3 hardboiled:15 school:5 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3,702 | Canada_Day | Canada Day (), formerly Dominion Day (), is Canada's national day, a federal statutory holiday, celebrating the anniversary of the July 1, 1867 enactment of the British North America Act of 1867, which united Canada as a single country of four provinces. Canada Day observances take place throughout Canada as well as internationally. Commemoration Frequently referred to as "Canada's birthday," particularly in the popular press, the occasion marks the joining of the British colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada into a federation of four provinces (the Province of Canada being divided, in the process, into Ontario and Quebec) on July 1, 1867. However, though Canada is regarded as having become a kingdom in its own right on that date, the British Parliament at first kept limited rights of political control over the new country, which were shed by stages over the years until the last vestiges were ended in 1982, when the Constitution Act patriated the Canadian constitution. Canada Day thus differs from Independence Day celebrations in other countries in that it does not commemorate a clear-cut date of complete independence. History Canada Day celebrations on Wellington Street, in front of the Château Laurier, in Ottawa. On June 20, 1868, then Governor General Lord Monck issued a royal proclamation asking for Canadians to "celebrate the anniversary of the confederation." However, the holiday was not established statutorily until 1879, when it was designated as Dominion Day, in reference to the designation of the country as a Dominion in the British North America Act, 1867. The holiday was initially not dominant in the national calendar; up to the early 20th century, Canadians thought themselves to be primarily British, being thus less interested in celebrating distinctly Canadian forms of patriotism. No official celebrations were therefore held until 1917 the golden anniversary of Confederation and then none again for a further decade. This trend declined in the post-World War II era; beginning in 1958, the Canadian government began to orchestrate Dominion Day celebrations, usually consisting of Trooping the Colour ceremonies on Parliament Hill in the afternoon and evening, followed by a mass band concert and fireworks display. Canada's centennial in 1967 is often seen as an important milestone in the history of Canadian patriotism, and in Canada's maturing as a distinct, independent country, after which Dominion Day became more popular with average Canadians. Into the late 1960s, nationally televised, multi-cultural concerts held in Ottawa were added, and the fête became known as Festival Canada; after 1980 the Canadian government began to promote the celebrating of Dominion Day beyond the national capital, giving grants and aid to cities across the country to help fund local activities. With only twelve Members of Parliament present, the private member's bill that proposed to change the name to Canada Day was passed in the House of Commons in five minutes, and without debate. CBC Archives: Canada day no more With the granting of Royal Assent, the name was officially changed to Canada Day on October 27, 1982, a move largely inspired by the adoption of the Canada Act, earlier in the year. Although the proposal caused some controversy, many Canadians had already been informally referring to the holiday as Canada Day for a number of years before the official name change occurred. Numerous references to the term Canada Day may be found in The Globe and Mail in the late 1970s, including the following articles: As the anniversary of Confederation, Dominion Day, and later Canada Day, was the date set for a number of important events, such as the inauguration of the CBC's cross-country television broadcast (1958), the flooding of the Saint Lawrence Seaway (1958), the first colour television transmission in Canada (1966), the inauguration of the Order of Canada (1967), and the establishment of "O Canada" as the country's national anthem (1980). Other events fell on the same day coincidentally, such as the first day of the Battle of the Somme in 1916 shortly after which the province of Newfoundland and Labrador recognized July 1 as Memorial Day to commemorate the Newfoundland Regiment's heavy losses during the battle and the enactment of the Chinese Immigration Act in 1923 leading Chinese-Canadians to refer to July 1 as Humiliation Day and boycott Dominion Day celebrations, until the act was repealed in 1947. Activities Canada Day celebrations in Iqaluit, 1999. Queen Elizabeth II and her Prime Minister at the time, Jean Chrétien, at the official Canada Day celebration, Ottawa, 1997. Most communities across the country will host organized celebrations for Canada Day, usually outdoor public events, such as parades, carnivals, festivals, barbecues, air and maritime shows, fireworks, and free musical concerts, as well as citizenship ceremonies for new citizens. There is no standard mode of celebration for Canada Day; professor of International Relations at the University of Oxford Jennifer Welsh said of this: "Canada Day, like the country, is endlessly decentralized. There doesn't seem to be a central recipe for how to celebrate it chalk it up to the nature of the federation. Ed.; Allemang, John et. all; Globe and Mail: We stand on guard for what?; June 28, 2008 However, the locus of the celebrations is the national capital, Ottawa, Ontario, where large concerts, presided over by the Governor General, are held on Parliament Hill, as well as other parks around the city and in Hull, Quebec. The sovereign may also be in attendance at Canada Day celebrations in Ottawa; Queen Elizabeth II was present in 1990, 1992, and 1997. The Queen also helped celebrate Canada's 100th anniversary on July 1, 1967. Given the federal nature of the holiday, celebrating the event can be a cause of friction in the province of Quebec. For example, the federal government funds events at the Old Port an area run by a federal Crown corporation while the parade is a grassroots effort that has been met with pressure to cease, even from federal officials. The nature of the event has also been met with criticism from English Canadians, such as Ottawa Citizen columnist David Warren, who said in 2007: "The Canada of the government-funded paper flag-waving and painted faces the 'new' Canada that is celebrated each year on what is now called 'Canada Day' has nothing controversially Canadian about it. You could wave a different flag, and choose another face paint, and nothing would be lost." Warren, David; Sea to sea; July 1, 2007; © Ottawa Citizen The July 1 date of Canada Day also coincides with Quebec's traditional Moving Day. Because so many apartment rentals in the province are done on fixed-lease terms extending from July 1 to June 30 of the following year, some residents of Quebec who might otherwise attend Canada Day festivities are instead occupied by moving to new apartments. Suggestions that the move was a deliberate decision by Quebec sovereignists to discourage participation in a patriotic Canadian holiday ignore the fact that the bill changing the province's moving day from May 1 to July 1 was introduced by a federalist MNA, Jérôme Choquette of the Quebec Liberal Party. Montreal Mirror - The Front : News International celebrations Canadian expatriates will organize Canada Day activities in their local area on or near the date of the holiday. For instance, since June 30, 2006, annual Canada Day celebrations have been held at Trafalgar Square the location of Canada House in London, England. Organized by the Canadian community in the United Kingdom and the Canadian High Commission, the event features Canadian performers and a demonstration of street hockey, amongst other activities. Also, since 2000, the Victoria Cross bar in Sydney, Australia, is the location for official Canada Day celebrations, events take place in Lan Kwai Fong, Hong Kong, for Canada D'eh!, and members of the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan mark each Canada Day at their base. Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, have, since the 1950s, celebrated Dominion Day or Canada Day and the United States' Independence Day with the International Freedom Festival. A massive fireworks display over the Detroit River, the strait separating the two cities, is held annually with hundreds of thousands of spectators attending. A similar event occurs at the Friendship Festival, a joint celebration between Fort Erie, Ontario, and neighbouring Buffalo, New York, of Canada Day and Independence Day. Exceptions Under the federal Holidays Act, Canada Day is observed on July 1 unless that date falls on a Sunday, in which case July 2 is the statutory holiday, although celebratory events generally take place on July 1 even though it is not the legal holiday. If it falls on a Saturday, the following Monday is generally also a day off for those businesses ordinarily closed on Saturdays. See also Public holidays in Canada National Flag of Canada Day Footnotes External links Government of Canada site on Canada Day National Capital Commission Holidays Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. H-5 We should be celebrating Dominion Day CBC Digital Archives: Celebrating Canada Day | Canada_Day |@lemmatized canada:50 day:49 formerly:1 dominion:10 national:7 federal:6 statutory:2 holiday:12 celebrate:10 anniversary:5 july:12 enactment:2 british:5 north:2 america:2 act:8 unite:1 single:1 country:10 four:2 province:8 observance:1 take:3 place:3 throughout:1 well:3 internationally:1 commemoration:1 frequently:1 refer:3 birthday:1 particularly:1 popular:2 press:1 occasion:1 mark:2 joining:1 colony:1 nova:1 scotia:1 new:6 brunswick:1 federation:2 divide:1 process:1 ontario:4 quebec:7 however:3 though:2 regard:1 become:3 kingdom:2 right:2 date:6 parliament:4 first:3 kept:1 limited:1 political:1 control:1 shed:1 stage:1 year:5 last:1 vestige:1 end:1 constitution:2 patriated:1 canadian:18 thus:2 differs:1 independence:4 celebration:15 commemorate:2 clear:1 cut:1 complete:1 history:2 wellington:1 street:2 front:2 château:1 laurier:1 ottawa:7 june:4 governor:2 general:2 lord:1 monck:1 issue:1 royal:2 proclamation:1 ask:1 confederation:3 establish:1 statutorily:1 designate:1 reference:2 designation:1 initially:1 dominant:1 calendar:1 early:1 century:1 think:1 primarily:1 less:1 interested:1 distinctly:1 form:1 patriotism:2 official:5 therefore:1 hold:5 golden:1 none:1 decade:1 trend:1 decline:1 post:1 world:1 war:1 ii:3 era:1 begin:3 government:5 orchestrate:1 usually:2 consist:1 troop:1 colour:2 ceremony:2 hill:2 afternoon:1 evening:1 follow:2 mass:1 band:1 concert:4 firework:3 display:2 centennial:1 often:1 see:2 important:2 milestone:1 maturing:1 distinct:1 independent:1 average:1 late:2 nationally:1 televise:1 multi:1 cultural:1 add:1 fête:1 know:1 festival:4 promote:1 celebrating:1 beyond:1 capital:3 give:2 grant:1 aid:1 city:3 across:2 help:2 fund:2 local:2 activity:4 twelve:1 member:3 present:2 private:1 bill:2 propose:1 change:4 name:3 pass:1 house:2 common:1 five:1 minute:1 without:1 debate:1 cbc:3 archive:2 granting:1 assent:1 officially:1 october:1 move:5 largely:1 inspire:1 adoption:1 earlier:1 although:2 proposal:1 cause:2 controversy:1 many:2 already:1 informally:1 number:2 occur:2 numerous:1 term:2 may:3 find:1 globe:2 mail:2 include:1 following:2 article:1 later:1 set:1 event:10 inauguration:2 cross:2 television:2 broadcast:1 flooding:1 saint:1 lawrence:1 seaway:1 transmission:1 order:1 establishment:1 anthem:1 fell:1 coincidentally:1 battle:2 somme:1 shortly:1 newfoundland:2 labrador:1 recognize:1 memorial:1 regiment:1 heavy:1 loss:1 chinese:2 immigration:1 lead:1 humiliation:1 boycott:1 repeal:1 iqaluit:1 queen:3 elizabeth:2 prime:1 minister:1 time:1 jean:1 chrétien:1 community:2 host:1 organized:1 outdoor:1 public:2 parade:2 carnival:1 barbecue:1 air:1 maritime:1 show:1 free:1 musical:1 citizenship:1 citizen:3 standard:1 mode:1 professor:1 international:3 relation:1 university:1 oxford:1 jennifer:1 welsh:1 say:2 like:1 endlessly:1 decentralize:1 seem:1 central:1 recipe:1 chalk:1 nature:3 ed:1 allemang:1 john:1 et:1 stand:1 guard:1 locus:1 large:1 preside:1 park:1 around:1 hull:1 sovereign:1 also:7 attendance:1 friction:1 example:1 old:1 port:1 area:2 run:1 crown:1 corporation:1 grassroots:1 effort:1 meet:2 pressure:1 cease:1 even:2 criticism:1 english:1 columnist:1 david:2 warren:2 funded:1 paper:1 flag:3 waving:1 paint:2 face:2 call:1 nothing:2 controversially:1 could:1 wave:1 different:1 choose:1 another:1 would:1 lose:1 sea:2 coincide:1 traditional:1 apartment:2 rental:1 fix:1 lease:1 extend:1 resident:1 might:1 otherwise:1 attend:2 festivity:1 instead:1 occupy:1 suggestion:1 deliberate:1 decision:1 sovereignists:1 discourage:1 participation:1 patriotic:1 ignore:1 fact:1 introduce:1 federalist:1 mna:1 jérôme:1 choquette:1 liberal:1 party:1 montreal:1 mirror:1 news:1 expatriate:1 organize:2 near:1 instance:1 since:3 annual:1 trafalgar:1 square:1 location:2 london:1 england:1 united:2 high:1 commission:2 feature:1 performer:1 demonstration:1 hockey:1 amongst:1 victoria:1 bar:1 sydney:1 australia:1 lan:1 kwai:1 fong:1 hong:1 kong:1 eh:1 force:1 afghanistan:1 base:1 detroit:2 michigan:1 windsor:1 state:1 freedom:1 massive:1 river:1 strait:1 separate:1 two:1 annually:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 spectator:1 similar:1 friendship:1 joint:1 fort:1 erie:1 neighbour:1 buffalo:1 york:1 exception:1 observe:1 unless:1 fall:2 sunday:1 case:1 celebratory:1 generally:2 legal:1 saturday:2 monday:1 business:1 ordinarily:1 close:1 footnote:1 external:1 links:1 site:1 r:1 c:2 h:1 digital:1 |@bigram statutory_holiday:2 celebrate_anniversary:2 nova_scotia:1 ontario_quebec:1 afternoon_evening:1 firework_display:2 nationally_televise:1 royal_assent:1 lawrence_seaway:1 battle_somme:1 newfoundland_labrador:1 queen_elizabeth:2 prime_minister:1 jean_chrétien:1 trafalgar_square:1 hong_kong:1 windsor_ontario:1 hundred_thousand:1 external_links:1 cbc_digital:1 |
3,703 | Burn_card | In card games, a burn card is a playing card dealt from the top of a deck, and discarded ("burned"), unused by the players. Burn cards are almost always placed face down next to the discard pile without being revealed to the players. Burning is most often performed in casinos to deter a form of cheating known as card marking. In poker, for example, the top card of the deck stub is burned at the beginning of each betting round, so that players who might have been able to read markings on that card during the previous round are less able to take advantage of that information. Knowledge of a burn card might be marginally useful, such as knowing there is one less Ace in the deck, but far less so than having it in play. What is a burn card and why is it dealt?, rec.gambling.poker FAQ Burning can also be used to prevent second dealing. Burning also provides extra cards for use when an irregularity of play occurs. Sometimes a mis-dealt card (such as one of the down cards in poker that has flashed during the deal) will be used as the burn card — in those cases, the card should be immediately placed face up on the deck after the deal is complete. In Texas hold 'em, a card is burned before the flop, before the turn, and before the river. Notes | Burn_card |@lemmatized card:15 game:1 burn:8 play:3 dealt:3 top:2 deck:4 discard:2 unused:1 player:3 almost:1 always:1 place:2 face:2 next:1 pile:1 without:1 reveal:1 burning:3 often:1 perform:1 casino:1 deter:1 form:1 cheat:1 know:2 mark:1 poker:3 example:1 stub:1 beginning:1 bet:1 round:2 might:2 able:2 read:1 marking:1 previous:1 less:3 take:1 advantage:1 information:1 knowledge:1 marginally:1 useful:1 one:2 ace:1 far:1 rec:1 gamble:1 faq:1 also:2 use:3 prevent:1 second:1 dealing:1 provide:1 extra:1 irregularity:1 occurs:1 sometimes:1 mis:1 flash:1 deal:2 case:1 immediately:1 complete:1 texas:1 hold:1 em:1 flop:1 turn:1 river:1 note:1 |@bigram card_dealt:2 |
3,704 | Cookie | A chocolate chip cookie In the United States and Canada, a cookie is a small, flat-baked treat, containing milk, flour, eggs, and sugar, etc. In most English-speaking countries outside North America, the most common word for this is biscuit; in many regions both terms are used, while in others the two words have different meanings—a cookie is a plain bun in Scotland, cookie - Britannica Online Encyclopedia while in the United States a biscuit is a kind of quick bread similar to a scone. Etymology Its name derives from the Dutch word koekje or (informal) koekie which means little cake, and arrived in the English language through the Dutch in North America. Description A cookie cake is a large cookie that can be decorated with icing similar to other cakes. Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, but some kinds of cookies are not baked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on how long it is baked. A general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called "batter" Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition. Merriam-Webster, Inc.: 1999. ) as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles – responsible for a cake's fluffiness – to form better. In the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether they be in the form of butter, egg yolks, vegetable oils or lard are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven. Oils in baked cakes do not behave as soda in the finished result. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gases from what little water there might have been in the eggs, if added, and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it. History Cookie-like hard wafers have existed for as long as baking is documented, in part because they deal with travel very well, but they were usually not sweet enough to be considered cookies, by modern standards. Cookies appear to have their origins in 7th century AD Persia, shortly after the use of sugar became relatively common in the region. They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain. By the 14th century, they were common in all levels of society, throughout Europe, from royal cuisine to street vendors. With global travel becoming widespread at that time, cookies made a natural travel companion, a modernized equivalent of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled especially well and became known on every continent by similar names, was the jumble, a relatively hard cookie made largely from nuts, sweetener, and water. Cookies came to America in the very first century of English settlement (the 1600s), although the name "koekje" arrived slightly later, with the Dutch. This became Anglicized to "cookie". Among the popular early American cookies were the macaroon, gingerbread cookies, and of course jumbles of various types. The most common modern cookie, given its style by the creaming of butter and sugar, was not common until the 18th century. Classification of cookies Ten types of cookies Cookies are broadly classified according to how they are formed, including at least these categories: Drop cookies are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. Chocolate chip cookies (Toll House cookies), oatmeal (or oatmeal raisin) cookies and rock cakes are popular examples of drop cookies. Refrigerator cookies are made from a stiff dough that is refrigerated to become even stiffer. The dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking. Molded cookies are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded cookies. Rolled cookies are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a cookie cutter. Gingerbread men are an example. Pressed cookies are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a cookie press into various decorative shapes before baking. Spritzgebäck are an example of a pressed cookie. Bar cookies consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers), and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking. Brownies are an example of a batter-type bar cookie, while Rice Krispie treats are a bar cookie that doesn't require baking, perhaps similar to a cereal bar. In British English, bar cookies are known as "tray bakes". Sandwich cookies are rolled or pressed cookies that are assembled as a sandwich with a sweet filling. Fillings may be with marshmallow, , or icing. The Oreo cookie, made of two chocolate cookies with a vanilla icing filling is an example. Fried cookies including traditional cookies such as the krusczyki, rosettes and fattigmann as well as a newer American trend of deep-frying ordinary drop cookie dough. Six types of cookies Cookies also may be decorated with an icing, especially chocolate, and closely resemble a type of confectionery. Biscuits (cookies) in the United Kingdom A basic biscuit (cookie) recipe includes flour, shortening (often lard), baking powder or soda, milk (buttermilk or sweet milk) and sugar. Common savory variations involve substituting sugar with an ingredient such as cheese or other dairy products. Shortbread is a popular biscuit in the UK. In the United Kingdom the term cookie often just refers to chocolate chip cookies or a variation (e.g. cookies containing oats, Smarties). See also Berger Cookies, cookies covered in excessive chocolate icing made in Baltimore, Maryland Biscotti, a twice-baked, hard Italian cookie Oreo Chips Ahoy! Chips Deluxe Cookie bouquets Cookie cutter Cookie decorating Cookie exchange Cookie Monster Girl Scout Cookies Fortune cookie Snickerdoodle Springerle Mrs. Fields Chocolate chip cookie Cake Black and white cookie Rainbow cookie Peanut butter cookie Tim Tam American and British English differences Shortbread Walkers Shortbread Vienna Fingers Notes | Cookie |@lemmatized chocolate:8 chip:6 cookie:36 united:4 state:2 canada:1 small:1 flat:1 baked:2 treat:2 contain:2 milk:3 flour:2 egg:4 sugar:6 etc:1 english:5 speaking:1 country:1 outside:1 north:2 america:3 common:6 word:3 biscuit:5 many:1 region:2 term:2 use:4 others:1 two:2 different:1 meaning:1 plain:1 bun:1 scotland:1 britannica:1 online:1 encyclopedia:1 kind:2 quick:1 bread:2 similar:4 scone:1 etymology:1 name:3 derive:1 dutch:3 koekje:2 informal:1 koekie:1 mean:1 little:2 cake:12 arrive:2 language:1 description:1 large:1 decorate:3 ice:4 cooky:41 commonly:1 bake:8 crisp:1 long:3 enough:2 remain:2 soft:3 make:12 wide:1 variety:1 style:2 array:1 ingredient:3 include:4 spice:1 butter:7 peanut:3 nut:2 dry:1 fruit:1 softness:1 may:4 depend:1 general:1 theory:1 formulate:1 way:1 despite:1 descent:1 sweeten:1 almost:1 form:5 abandon:1 water:7 medium:1 cohesion:2 serf:1 base:1 case:1 call:1 batter:3 merriam:2 webster:2 collegiate:1 dictionary:1 tenth:1 edition:1 inc:1 thin:1 possible:1 allow:1 bubble:2 responsible:1 fluffiness:1 good:1 agent:1 become:6 oil:5 whether:1 yolk:1 vegetable:1 lard:2 much:2 viscous:1 evaporate:2 freely:1 high:1 temperature:1 thus:1 instead:1 far:1 denser:1 removal:1 oven:1 behave:1 soda:2 finished:1 result:1 rather:1 thicken:1 mixture:1 saturate:2 escaped:1 gas:1 might:1 add:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 release:1 heat:1 baking:6 powder:2 saturation:1 produce:1 texturally:1 attractive:1 feature:1 indeed:1 fry:1 food:1 crispness:1 moisture:1 namely:1 sink:1 history:2 like:1 hard:3 wafer:1 exist:1 document:1 part:1 deal:1 travel:5 well:3 usually:1 sweet:3 consider:1 modern:2 standard:1 appear:1 origin:1 century:4 ad:1 persia:1 shortly:1 relatively:3 spread:2 europe:2 muslim:1 conquest:1 spain:1 level:1 society:1 throughout:2 royal:1 cuisine:1 street:1 vendor:1 global:1 widespread:1 time:1 natural:1 companion:1 modernized:1 equivalent:1 one:1 popular:4 early:2 especially:2 know:2 every:1 continent:1 jumble:2 largely:1 sweetener:1 come:1 first:1 settlement:1 although:1 slightly:1 later:1 anglicized:1 among:1 american:3 macaroon:1 gingerbread:2 course:1 various:2 type:5 give:1 creaming:1 classification:1 ten:1 broadly:1 classified:1 accord:1 least:1 category:1 drop:4 dough:8 spoonful:1 onto:1 sheet:1 mound:1 flatten:1 toll:1 house:1 oatmeal:2 raisin:1 rock:1 example:6 refrigerator:1 stiff:2 refrigerate:1 even:1 typically:1 shape:4 cylinder:1 slice:1 round:1 mold:2 also:3 stiffer:2 ball:1 hand:1 snickerdoodles:1 molded:1 roll:3 cut:2 cutter:2 men:1 press:4 extrude:1 decorative:1 spritzgebäck:1 pressed:1 bar:5 consist:1 pour:1 pan:1 sometimes:1 multiple:1 layer:1 size:1 piece:1 brownie:1 rice:1 krispie:1 require:1 perhaps:1 cereal:1 british:2 tray:1 bakes:1 sandwich:2 assemble:1 filling:3 marshmallow:1 oreo:2 vanilla:1 fried:1 traditional:1 krusczyki:1 rosette:1 fattigmann:1 new:1 trend:1 deep:1 frying:1 ordinary:1 six:1 icing:1 closely:1 resemble:1 confectionery:1 kingdom:2 basic:1 recipe:1 shorten:1 often:2 buttermilk:1 savory:1 variation:2 involve:1 substitute:1 cheese:1 dairy:1 product:1 shortbread:3 uk:1 refers:1 e:1 g:1 oat:1 smarties:1 see:1 berger:1 cover:1 excessive:1 baltimore:1 maryland:1 biscotti:1 twice:1 italian:1 ahoy:1 deluxe:1 bouquet:1 exchange:1 monster:1 girl:1 scout:1 fortune:1 snickerdoodle:1 springerle:1 mr:1 field:1 black:1 white:1 rainbow:1 tim:1 tam:1 difference:1 walker:1 vienna:1 finger:1 note:1 |@bigram britannica_online:1 peanut_butter:3 merriam_webster:2 webster_collegiate:1 egg_yolk:1 carbon_dioxide:1 deep_frying:1 closely_resemble:1 cheese_dairy:1 dairy_product:1 baltimore_maryland:1 cookie_monster:1 fortune_cookie:1 |
3,705 | Global_warming_controversy | The global warming controversy is a dispute regarding the nature, causes, and consequences of global warming. The disputed issues include the causes of increased global average air temperature, especially since the mid-20th century, whether this warming trend is unprecedented or within normal climatic variations, and whether the increase is wholly or partially an artifact of poor measurements. Additional disputes concern estimates of climate sensitivity, predictions of additional warming, and what the consequences of global warming will be. The debate is vigorous in the popular media and on a policy level, with individuals, corporations, and political organizations all being involved. History Public opinion In the European Union, global warming has been a prominent and sustained issue. All European Union member states ratified the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, and many European countries had already been taking action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions prior to 1990 (for example, Margaret Thatcher advocated action against man-made climate change in 1988 Speech to the Royal Society (September 27, 1988), Public Statement, Speech Archive, Margaret Thatcher Foundation. Retrieved April 9, 2007. and Germany started to take action after the Green Party took seats in Parliament in 1983). Both "global warming" and the more politically neutral "climate change" were listed by the Global Language Monitor as political buzzwords or catch phrases in 2005. In Europe, the notion of human influence on climate gained wide acceptance more rapidly than in many other parts of the world, most notably the United States. There has been a debate among public commentators about how much weight and media coverage should be given to each side of the controversy. Andrew Neil of the BBC stated that "There's a great danger that on some issues we're becoming a one-party state in which we're meant to have only one kind of view. You don't have to be a climate-change denier to recognise that there's a great range of opinion on the subject." McCarthy, Michael, Global Warming: Too Hot to Handle for the BBC, the Independent, September 6 2007 Martin Gardner, on the other hand, sees the media in the United States bending over backwards to give equal time to both sides, when pseudoscience and science are at odds. Gardner M (1957). Fads and fallacies in the name of science. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486203948. The table below shows how public perceptions about the existence and importance of global warming have changed in the U.S. The worldwide consensus is that climate change is a serious problem Statement% agreeYearHuman activity is a significant cause of climate change.792007Climate change is a serious problem.902006Climate change is a serious problem.782003It's necessary to take major steps starting very soon.652007 A June 2007 Ipsos Mori poll conducted in the UK found 56 percent of respondents believed scientists were still questioning climate change. The survey suggested that terrorism, graffiti and crime were all of more concern than climate change. Ipsos Mori's head of environmental research, Phil Downing, said people had been influenced by counter-arguments. BBC News: 'Scepticism' over change. The Canadian science broadcaster and environmental activist, David Suzuki, reports that focus groups organized by the David Suzuki Foundation showed the public has a poor understanding of the science behind global warming. This is despite recent publicity through different means, including the films An Inconvenient Truth and The 11th Hour. An example of the poor understanding is public confusion between global warming and ozone depletion or other environmental problems. A 15-nation poll conducted in 2006 by Pew Global found that there "is a substantial gap in concern over global warming – roughly two-thirds of Japanese (66%) and Indians (65%) say they personally worry a great deal about global warming. Roughly half of the populations of Spain (51%) and France (46%) also express great concern over global warming, based on those who have heard about the issue. But there is no evidence of alarm over global warming in either the United States or China – the two largest producers of greenhouse gases. Just 19% of Americans and 20% of the Chinese who have heard of the issue say they worry a lot about global warming – the lowest percentages in the 15 countries surveyed. Moreover, nearly half of Americans (47%) and somewhat fewer Chinese (37%) express little or no concern about the problem." No Global Warming Alarm in the U.S., China - 15-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey. Released June 13, 2006. A 47-nation poll conducted in 2007 found that "Substantial majorities 25 of 37 countries say global warming is a 'very serious' problem". Rising Environmental Concern in 47-Nation Survey - 47-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey. Released June 27, 2007. Related controversies Many of the critics of the consensus view on global warming have disagreed, in whole or part, with the scientific consensus regarding other issues, particularly those relating to environmental risks, such as ozone depletion and passive smoking. Chris Mooney, author of The Republican War on Science, has argued that the appearance of overlapping groups of skeptical scientists, commentators and think tanks in seemingly unrelated controversies results from an organised attempt to replace scientific analysis with political ideology. Mooney claims that the promotion of doubt regarding issues that are politically, but not scientifically, controversial has become increasingly prevalent under the Bush Administration and constitutes a "Republican war on science". This is also the subject of a recent book by Environmental lawyer Robert F. Kennedy Jr. entitled Crimes Against Nature: How George W. Bush and Corporate Pals are Plundering the Country and Hijacking Our Democracy. Another book on this topic is The Assault on Reason by former U.S. Vice-President Al Gore. Earlier instances of this trend are also covered in the book The Heat Is On by Ross Gelbspan. Some critics of the scientific consensus on global warming have argued that these issues should not be linked and that reference to them constitutes an unjustified ad hominem attack. Political scientist Roger Pielke, Jr., responding to Mooney, has argued that science is inevitably intertwined with politics. Scientific Consensus Environmental groups, many governmental reports, and the non-U.S. media often state that there is virtually unanimous agreement in the scientific community in support of human-caused global warming, although there is less agreement on the specific consequences of this warming. Opponents either maintain that most scientists consider global warming "unproved," dismiss it altogether, or highlight the dangers of focusing on only one viewpoint in the context of unsettled science. climatescienceinternational.org - ICSC New York Global Warming Conference Considers 'Manhattan Declaration' - by Heartland Institute staff - The Heartland Institute Others maintain that either proponents or opponents have been stifled or driven underground. On April 29, 2008, environmental journalist Richard Littlemore revealed that a list of "500 Scientists with Documented Doubts of Man-Made Global Warming Scares" 500 Scientists Whose Research Contradicts Man-Made Global Warming Scares - by Dennis T. Avery - The Heartland Institute distributed by the Heartland Institute included at least 45 scientists who neither knew of their inclusion as "coauthors" of the article, nor agreed with its contents. 500 Scientists with Documented Doubts - about the Heartland Institute?|DeSmogBlog Many of the scientists asked the Heartland Institute to remove their names from the list. In 1997, the "World Scientists Call For Action" petition was presented to world leaders meeting to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol. The declaration asserted, "A broad consensus among the world's climatologists is that there is now ‘a discernible human influence on global climate.’" It urged governments to make "legally binding commitments to reduce industrial nations' emissions of heat-trapping gases", and called global warming "one of the most serious threats to the planet and to future generations." The petition was conceived by the Union of Concerned Scientists as a follow up to their 1992 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity, and was signed by "more than 1,500 of the world's most distinguished senior scientists, including the majority of Nobel laureates in science." ‘’Science Daily’’Oct. 2, 2007 article "World’s Nobel Laureates And Preeminent Scientists Call On Government To Halt Global Warming" List of Selected Prominent Signatories with awards and affiliations. IPCC Concluding in a join statement by 40 scientific societies and academies of science including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries: Many other science academies and scientific organizations support the conclusions of the IPCC. In Naomi Oreskes's talk The American Denial of Global Warming, YouTube - The American Denial of Global Warming Oreskes recounted the following incident: The work of the IPCC has attracted controversy and criticism, including some from experts invited by the IPCC to submit reports or serve on its panels. Richard Lindzen has publicly dissented from IPCC positions. In blog posts, Roger A. Pielke contends that the IPCC distorted the evidence by not including scientific results that questioned anthropogenic global warming. See and links therein. These criticisms have been described as "failed" by William Connolley. See and links therein. Pielke also perceived a conflict of interest in the IPCC assessment process, since the "same individuals who are doing primary research in the role of humans on the climate system are then permitted to lead the assessment! ... Assessment Committees should not be an opportunity for members to highlight their own research." There is no obvious solution to this problem, since scientists with sufficient knowledge of the field to serve on the IPCC and scientists who have written noteworthy papers in the field are essentially the same group. Stephen McIntyre said in his blog that portions of the report were based on in-press data. When he attempted to obtain this data from the authors, the IPCC told him he could not use his reviewer status to obtain in-press data outside the normal journal review process Christopher Landsea, a hurricane researcher, said of "the part of the IPCC to which my expertise is relevant" that "I personally cannot in good faith continue to contribute to a process that I view as both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound", because of comments made at a press conference by Kevin Trenberth of which Landsea disapproved. Trenberth said that "Landsea's comments were not correct"; Prometheus: Final Chapter, Hurricanes and IPCC, Book IV Archives the IPCC replied that "individual scientists can do what they wish in their own rights, as long as they are not saying anything on behalf of the IPCC" and offered to include Landsea in the review phase of the AR4. Roger Pielke, Jr. commented that "Both Landsea and Trenberth can and should feel vindicated... the IPCC accurately reported the state of scientific understandings of tropical cyclones and climate change in its recent summary for policy makers". In 2005, the House of Lords Economics Committee wrote that "We have some concerns about the objectivity of the IPCC process, with some of its emissions scenarios and summary documentation apparently influenced by political considerations." It doubted the high emission scenarios and its "played-down" positive aspects of global warming. The main claims of the House of Lords Economics Committee were rejected in the response made by the United Kingdom government House of Lords - Economic Affairs - Third Report and by the Stern Review. John Christy, an IPCC lead author critical of some extreme predictions of climate change, wrote that contributing authors and reviewers have little influence, so that "to say that 800 contributing authors or 2,000 reviewers reached consensus on anything describes a situation that is not reality." While some critics have argued that the IPCC overstates likely global warming, others have made the opposite criticism. David Biello, writing in the Scientific American, argues that, because of the need to secure consensus among governmental representatives, the IPCC reports give conservative estimates of the likely extent and effects of global warming. Conservative Climate: Scientific American Climate scientist James Hansen argues that the IPCC's conservativeness seriously underestimates the risk of sea-level rise on the order of meters—enough to inundate many low-lying areas, such as the southern third of Florida. Scientific reticence and sea level rise Roger A. Pielke Sr. has also stated that "Humans are significantly altering the global climate, but in a variety of diverse ways beyond the radiative effect of carbon dioxide. The IPCC assessments have been too conservative in recognizing the importance of these human climate forcings as they alter regional and global climate." On December 10, 2008, a report was released by the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Minority members, under the leadership of the Senate's most vocal global warming skeptic Jim Inhofe. The timing of the report coincided with the UN global warming conference in Poznan, Poland. It claims to summarize scientific dissent from the IPCC. Many of the claims about the numbers of individuals listed in the report, whether they are actually scientists, and whether they support the positions attributed to them, have been disputed. Greenhouse gases Attribution of recent climate change discusses how global warming is attributed to anthropogenic GHGs. Correlation of CO2 and temperature is not part of this evidence. Nonetheless, one argument against anthropogenic global warming claims that rising levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) do not correlate with global warming. General circulation models and basic physical considerations predict that in the tropics the temperature of the troposphere should increase more rapidly than the temperature of the surface. Models and observations agree on this amplification for monthly and interannual time scales but not for decadal time scales in most observed data sets. It is uncertain whether the discrepancy is attributable to deficiencies in model formulation, biases in the observations, or both. The present view is that because of large uncertainties in observed tropospheric temperature trends along with other evidence for tropospheric warming (such as the increasing height of the tropopause), the more likely explanation is observational bias. Furthermore, if greenhouse gases were causing the climate warming then scientists would expect the troposphere to be warming faster than the surface, but observations do not bear this out. Satellite temperature measurements show that tropospheric temperatures are increasing with "rates similar to those of the surface temperature," leading the IPCC to conclude that this discrepancy is reconciled. Studies of ice cores show that carbon dioxide levels rise and fall with or after (as much as 1000 years) temperature variations. This argument assumes that current climate change can be expected to be similar to past climate change. While it is generally agreed that variations before the industrial age are mostly timed by astronomical forcing, the current variations, of whatever size, are claimed to be timed by anthropogenic releases of CO2 (thus returning the argument to the importance of human CO2 emissions). Analysis of carbon isotopes in atmospheric CO2 shows that the recent observed CO2 increase cannot have come from the oceans, volcanoes, or the biosphere, and thus is not a response to rising temperatures as would be required if the same processes creating past lags were active now. Between 1940 and 1970, global temperatures went down slightly, even though carbon dioxide levels went up. This has been attributed to the cooling effect of sulphate aerosols. Carbon dioxide accounts for about 383 parts per million by volume (ppm) of the Earth's atmosphere, increasing from 278 ppm in the 1880s to over 380 ppm in 2005. Carbon dioxide causes between 9 and 26% of the natural greenhouse effect. In the Ordovician period of the Paleozoic era, the Earth had an atmospheric CO2 concentration estimated at 4400ppm (or 0.44% of the atmosphere), while also having evidence of some glaciation. Modeling work has shown that it is possible for local areas at elevations greater than 300–500 meters to contain year-round snow cover even with high atmospheric CO2 concentrations. A recent study suggests that the elevated CO2 levels and the glaciation are not synchronous, but rather that weathering associated with the uplift and erosion of the Appalachian Mountains greatly reduced atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations and permitted the observed glaciation. As noted above, climate models are only able to simulate the temperature record of the past century when GHG forcing is included, being consistent with the findings of the IPCC which has stated that: "Greenhouse gas forcing, largely the result of human activities, has very likely caused most of the observed global warming over the last 50 years" The "standard" set of scenarios for future atmospheric greenhouse gases are the IPCC SRES scenarios. The purpose of the range of scenarios is not to predict what exact course the future of emissions will take, but what it may take under a range of possible population, economic and societal trends. Climate models can be run using any of the scenarios as inputs to illustrate the different outcomes for climate change. No one scenario is officially preferred, but in practice the "A1b" scenario roughly corresponding to 1%/year growth in atmospheric CO2 is often used for modelling studies. There is debate about the various scenarios for fossil fuel consumption. Global warming skeptic Fred Singer stated that "some good experts believe" that atmospheric CO2 concentration will not double since economies are becoming less reliant on carbon. However, The Stern report, like many other reports, notes the past correlation between CO2 emissions and economic growth and then extrapolates using a "business as usual" scenario to predict GDP growth and hence CO2 levels, concluding that: According to Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, "the earth would warm by 8 degrees Celsius (14.4 degrees Fahrenheit) if humans use the entire planet’s available fossil fuels by the year 2300." 1 November issue of the American Meteorological Society’s Journal of Climate Solar variation Scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming express varied opinions concerning the cause of global warming. Some say only that it has not yet been ascertained whether humans are the primary cause of global warming (e.g., , , and ). Others attribute global warming to natural variation (e.g., and ), ocean currents (e.g., ), increased solar activity (e.g., and ), cosmic rays (e.g., ), or unknown natural causes (e.g., ). A few studies claim that the present level of solar activity is historically high as determined by sunspot activity and other factors. Solar activity could affect climate either by variation in the Sun's output or, more speculatively, by an indirect effect on the amount of cloud formation. Solanki and co-workers suggest that solar activity for the last 60 to 70 years may be at its highest level in 8,000 years; Muscheler et al. disagree, suggesting that other comparably high levels of activity have occurred several times in the last few thousand years. Both Muscheler et al. and Solanki et al. conclude that "solar activity reconstructions tell us that only a minor fraction of the recent global warming can be explained by the variable Sun." Another point of controversy is the correlation of temperature with solar variation. Solar physicists Mike Lockwood and Claus Fröhlich reject the claim that the warming observed in the global mean surface temperature record since about 1850 is the result of solar variations. Lockwood and Fröhlich conclude that: Svensmark and Friis-Christensen dispute this in a recent reply arguing that tropospheric air temperature records, as opposed to the surface air temperature data used by Lockwood and Fröhlich, do show a significant negative correlation between cosmic-ray flux and air temperatures up to 2006. A linear warming trend of about 0.14 K/decade is however left unaccounted for. As of October 2007, this reply has not yet been published in a peer-reviewed journal. The consensus position (as represented for example by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report) says that solar radiation may have increased by 0.12 W/m² since 1750, compared to 1.6 W/m² for the net anthropogenic forcing. The TAR said, "The combined change in radiative forcing of the two major natural factors (solar variation and volcanic aerosols) is estimated to be negative for the past two, and possibly the past four, decades." The AR4 makes no direct assertions on the recent role of solar forcing, but the previous statement is consistent with the AR4's figure 4. Aerosols forcing The "pause" in warming from the 1940s to 1960's is generally attributed to aerosol forcing, which acts to cool the climate. More recently, this forcing has (relatively) declined, which may have enhanced warming, though the effect is regionally varying. See global dimming. Another example of this is in Ruckstuhl's paper who found a 60% reduction in aerosol concentrations over Europe causing solar brightening. Ruckstuhl et al.(2008) Instrumental temperature record Skeptics have questioned the accuracy of the instrumental temperature record on the basis of the urban heat island effect, the quality of the surface station network and what they view as unwarranted adjustments to the temperature record. Skeptics contend that stations located in more populated areas could show warming due to increased heat generated by cities, rather than a global temperature rise. The IPCC Third Assessment Report acknowledges that the urban heat island is an important local effect, but cites analyses of historical data indicating that the effect of the urban heat island on the global temperature trend is no more than 0.05 °C (0.09 °F) degrees through 1990. More recently, Peterson (2003) found no difference between the warming observed in urban and rural areas. Stephen McIntyre analyzed Peterson's raw data and found "actual cities have a very substantial trend of over 2 °C per century relative to the rural network—and this assumes that there are no problems with rural network—something that is obviously not true since there are undoubtedly microsite and other problems." Trends in Peterson 2003 by Stephen McIntyre McIntyre has not published his results in a peer-reviewed journal. Parker (2006) found that there was no difference in warming between calm and windy nights. Since the urban heat island effect is strongest for calm nights and is weak or absent on windy nights, this was taken as evidence that global temperature trends are not significantly contaminated by urban effects. Pielke and Matsui published a paper disagreeing with Parker's conclusions. http://climatesci.org/publications/pdf/R-302.pdf Pielke Sr., R.A., and T. Matsui, 2005: Should light wind and windy nights have the same temperature trends at individual levels even if the boundary layer averaged heat content change is the same? Geophys. Res. Letts., 32, No. 21, L21813, 10.1029/2005GL024407 More recently, Roger A. Pielke and Stephen McIntyre have criticized the US instrumental temperature record and adjustments to it, and Pielke and others have criticized the poor quality siting of a number of weather stations in the United States. In response, Anthony Watts began a volunteer effort to photographically document the siting quality of these stations. Based on the work of Watts, Stephen McIntyre has completed a reconstruction of U.S. temp history using only those weather stations identified so far as meeting the requirements to be CRN level 1 (excellent) or level 2 (good) stations. The higher quality stations indicate the warmest years in the U.S. were 1934 and 1921, followed by 1998 and 2006. McIntyre has made all of his methods, data and code available for others to reproduce his findings. McIntyre's analysis has not been published in the peer-reviewed literature. Climate sensitivity Equilibrium climate sensitivity refers to the equilibrium change in global mean surface temperature following a doubling of the atmospheric (equivalent) CO2 concentration. This value is estimated by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report as "likely to be in the range 2 to 4.5 °C with a best estimate of about 3 °C." Using a combination of surface temperature history and ocean heat content, Stephen E. Schwartz has proposed an estimate of climate sensitivity of 1.9 ± 1.0 K for doubled CO2. Response to Comments on "Heat capacity, time constant, and sensitivity of Earth's climate system." Accepted for publication in Journal of Geophysical Research , revised upwards from 1.1 ± 0.5 K. Heat Capacity, Time Constant and Sensitivity of Earth's Climate System Journal of Geophysical Research vol. 112, D24S05 (2007). Grant Foster, James Annan, Gavin Schmidt, and Michael E. Mann Comment on ‘Heat Capacity, Time Constant, and Sensitivity of Earth’s Climate System,’ Schwartz et al. Journal of Geophysical Research DRAFT September 2007 Climate Insensitivity RealClimate September 2007 argue that there are errors in both versions of Schwartz's analysis. Astronomer Nir Shaviv also has proposed a low value for climate sensitivity. On climate response to changes in the cosmic ray flux and radiative budget Shaviv, Nir J. Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 110, Issue A8, CiteID A08105 August 2005 On Climate Sensitivity and why it is probably small ScienceBits Petr Chylek and co-authors have also proposed low climate sensitivity to doubled CO2, estimated to be 1.6 K ± 0.4 K. Aerosol Optical Depth, Climate Sensitivity and Global Warming Infrared iris hypothesis Richard Lindzen proposed an Infrared Iris hypothesis of compensating meteorological processes that tend to stabilize climate change. Roy Spencer et al. discovered "a net reduction in radiative input into the ocean-atmosphere system" in tropical intraseasonal oscillations that "may potentially support" the idea of an "Iris" effect, although they point out that their work is concerned with much shorter time scales. If confirmed, this effect might reduce the positive "amplifying" feedback assumed in climate models. Internal radiative forcing Roy Spencer hypothesizes there is an "Internal Radiative Forcing" affecting climate variability, Temperature predictions Conventional predictions of future temperature rises depend on estimates of future GHG emissions (see SRES) and the climate sensitivity. Models referenced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predict that global temperatures are likely to increase by 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) between 1990 and 2100. Others have proposed that temperature increases may be higher than IPCC estimates. One theory is that the climate may reach a "tipping point" where positive feedback effects lead to runaway global warming; such feedbacks include decreased reflection of solar radiation as sea ice melts, exposing darker seawater, and the potential release of large volumes of methane from thawing permafrost. An example of a prediction that has been tested comes from 1959, when Dr. Bert Bolin, in a speech to the National Academy of Sciences, predicted that by the year 2000, there would be a 25% increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere compared to the levels in 1859. This prediction has proved to be an underestimate. The actual increase by 2000 was about 29%. Science News, May 9, 2009 Some scientists, such as David Orrell or Henk Tennekes, say that climate change cannot be accurately predicted. Orrell says that the range of future increase in temperature suggested by the IPCC rather represents a social consensus in the climate community, but adds that "we are having a dangerous effect on the climate". A 2007 study by David Douglass and coworkers concluded that the 22 most commonly used global climate models used by the IPCC were unable to accurately predict accelerated warming in the troposphere when tuned to match actual surface warming, concluding that "projections of future climate based on these models should be viewed with much caution." This result contrasts a similar study of 19 models which found that discrepancies between model predictions and actual temperature were likely due to measurement errors. Forecasts confidence The IPCC states it has increased confidence in forecasts coming from General Circulation Models or GCMs. Chapter 8 of AR4 reads: Certain scientists, skeptics and otherwise, believe this confidence in the models’ ability to predict future climate is not earned. Climate Science: Roger Pielke Sr. Research Group News » Comment On Real Climate’s Post On The Relevance Of The Sensitivity Of Initial Conditions In The IPCC Models A recent peer-reviewed article has assessed the performance of global climate models by comparing their outputs to historical time series on the local level and concludes "At the annual and the climatic (30-year) scales, GCM interpolated series are irrelevant to reality." Models vs empirical forcasts Climate models are systems of differential equations based on the basic laws of physics, fluid motion, and chemistry. To "run" a model, scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid, apply the basic equations, and evaluate the results. The atmospheric component of the model calculates winds, heat transfer, radiation, relative humidity, surface hydrology, and surface fluxes of heat and moisture within each grid and evaluates interactions with neighboring points. The ocean component calculates currents, heat content and salinity. The atmospheric and oceanic components interact, for example with evaporation from the oceans into the atmosphere and with atmospheric winds affecting ocean currents. Different models vary in such basics as grid size and therefore do not give the same results. Kesten Green and J. Scott Armstrong have criticized the validity of model projections of future climate, arguing "Advocates of complex climate models claim that they are based on well-established laws of physics. But there is clearly much more to the models than physical laws, otherwise the models would all produce the same output, which they do not, and there would be no need for confidence estimates for model forecasts, which there certainly is. Climate models are, in effect, mathematical ways for experts to express their opinions." Green and Armstrong contend that the possibility of accurate long-term climate forecasts has never been proven, and argue that simple methods always outperform more complex forecasting methods. The work of Green and Armstrong has been criticized for showing insufficient domain knowledge to evaluate their own criteria and for failing to distinguish between forecasts based on past experience and projections based on physical models. Arctic shrinkage One unsettled question related to temperature rises is if or when the Arctic sea may become ice-free in the summer (winter sea ice remains in all scenarios). Arctic specialist Mark Serreze said, following the record low in 2007, "If you asked me a couple of years ago when the Arctic could lose all of its ice then I would have said 2100, or 2070 maybe. But now I think that 2030 is a reasonable estimate." However, a 2003 paper in Nature claims that computer models predictions poorly represent observed changes in Arctic sea ice: http://www.cpom.org/research/swl-nature.pdf High interannual variability of sea ice thickness in the Arctic region] by Seymour Laxon, Neil Peacock (CPOM) & Doug Smith published by Nature, October 30, 2003 Roger A. Pielke claims melting Arctic sea ice is a result of regional warming and not global warming. Antarctica cooling The Antarctica cooling controversy relates to the question of whether or not current temperature trends in Antarctica contradict or cast doubt on the theory of global warming. Observations unambiguously show the Peninsula to be warming. The trends elsewhere show both warming and cooling but are smaller and dependent on season and the timespan over which the trend is computed. Monthly mean surface temperature data and derived statistics for some Antarctic stations from www.antarctica.ac.uk A Synthesis of Antarctic Temperatures William L. Chapman and John E. Walsh AMS Online November 2006 Climate models predict that future trends in Antarctica are much smaller than in the Arctic. To the extent that a controversy exists it is confined to the popular press and blogs; there is no evidence of a related controversy within the scientific community. Various skeptics, most notably Michael Crichton, have asserted the findings of Doran et al. Doran et al.: Antarctic climate cooling and terrestrial ecosystem response, Nature, January 2002 contradict global warming. Peter Doran, the lead author of the paper, stated that "... our results have been misused as "evidence" against global warming by Crichton in his novel 'State of Fear'..." Cold, Hard Facts Doran, Peter, The New York Times, July 2006 Others, for example RealClimate, agree there is no contradiction. Antarctic cooling, global warming? Real Climate December 2004 Data archiving and sharing Scientific journals and funding agencies generally require authors of peer-reviewed research to archive all of the data necessary to reproduce their research. If another scientist attempts to reproduce the research and needs additional data, authors are expected (with few exceptions) to provide the data, metadata, methods and source code that may be necessary. Dr David Legates has claimed that Mann, Bradley and Hughes 1998, famous for its hockey stick shaped historic temperature reconstruction, serves as an example of climate scientists not abiding by these policies and suggested that legislators might ultimately take action to enforce them. Political In the U.S. global warming is often a partisan political issue. Republicans tend to oppose action against a threat that they regard as unproved, while Democrats tend to support actions that they believe will reduce global warming and its effects through the control of greenhouse gas emissions. Recently, bipartisan measures have been introduced. Kevin E. Trenberth stated: As more evidence has become available over the existence of global warming debate has moved to further controversial issues, including: The social and environmental impacts The appropriate response to climate change Whether decisions require less uncertainty The single largest issue is the importance of a few degrees rise in temperature: The other point that leads to major controversy—because it could have significant economic impacts—is whether action (usually, restrictions on the use of fossil fuels to reduce carbon-dioxide emissions) should be taken now, or in the near future; and whether those restrictions would have any meaningful effect on global temperature. Due to the economic ramifications of such restrictions, there are those, including the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, who feel strongly that the negative economic effects of emission controls outweigh the environmental benefits. They claim that even if global warming is caused solely by the burning of fossil fuels, restricting their use would have more damaging effects on the world economy than the increases in global temperature. Conversely, others feel strongly that early action to reduce emissions would help avoid much greater economic costs later, and would reduce the risk of catastrophic, irreversible change. In his December 2006 book, Hell and High Water, energy technology expert Joseph J. Romm Ultimately, however, a strictly economic argument for or against action on climate change is limited at best, failing to take into consideration other potential impacts of any change. Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto protocol is the most prominent international agreement on climate change, and is also highly controversial. Some argue that it goes too far or not nearly far enough (Niue,The Cook Islands,Nauru consider reductions "inadequate") in restricting emissions of greenhouse gases. Another area of controversy is the fact that China and India, the world's two most populous countries, both ratified the protocol but are not required to reduce or even limit the growth of carbon emissions under the present agreement even though when listed by greenhouse gas emissions per capita, they have rankings of 121st largest per capita emitter at 3.9 Tonnes of CO2e and 162nd largest per capita emitter at 1.8 Tonnes of CO2e respectively, compared with for example the USA at position of the 14th largest per capita CO2e emitter at 22.9 Tonnes of CO2e. Nevertheless, China is the world's second largest producer of greenhouse gas emissions, and India 4th (see: countries by greenhouse emissions). Various predictions see China overtaking the US in total greenhouse emissions between late 2007 and 2010, and according to many other estimates, this already occurred in 2006. China now no. 1 in CO2 emissions; USA in second positionNetherlands Environmental Assessment Agency retrieved 20 June 2007 China overtakes US as world's biggest CO2 emitter|EnergyBulletin.net|Peak Oil News Clearinghouse China overtakes US as world's biggest CO2 emitter|Environment|guardian.co.uk Additionally, high costs of decreasing emissions may cause significant production to move to countries that are not covered under the treaty, such as India and China, claims Fred Singer. As these countries are less energy efficient, this scenario is claimed to cause additional carbon emissions. The only major developed nation which has signed but not ratified the Kyoto protocol is the USA (see signatories). The countries with no official position on Kyoto are mainly African countries with underdeveloped scientific infrastructure or are oil producers . Funding for partisans Both sides of the controversy have alleged that access to funding has played a role in the willingness of credentialed experts to speak out. Several skeptical scientists—Fred Singer, Fred Seitz and Patrick Michaels—have been linked to organizations funded by ExxonMobil and Philip Morris for the purpose of promoting global warming skepticism ExxonSecrets Factsheet: The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition (see section: Risks of passive smoking). Similarly, groups employing global warming skeptics, such as the George C. Marshall Institute, have been criticized for their ties to fossil fuel companies. On February 2, 2007, The Guardian stated that Kenneth Green, a Visiting Scholar with AEI, had sent letters to scientists in the UK and the U.S., offering US$10,000 plus travel expenses and other incidental payments in return for essays with the purpose of "highlight[ing] the strengths and weaknesses of the IPCC process," specifically regarding the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. A furor was raised when it was revealed that the Intermountain Rural Electric Association (an energy cooperative that draws a significant portion of its electricity from coal-burning plants) donated $100,000 to Patrick Michaels and his group, New Hope Environmental Services, and solicited additional private donations from its members. ABC News Reporting Cited As Evidence In Congressional Hearing On Global Warming ABC August 2006 FEATURE-Carbon backlash: coal divides corporations James, Steve Reuters, July 2007 The Union of Concerned Scientists have produced a report titled 'Smoke, Mirrors & Hot Air', that criticizes ExxonMobil for "underwriting the most sophisticated and most successful disinformation campaign since the tobacco industry" and for "funnelling about $16 million between 1998 and 2005 to a network of ideological and advocacy organizations that manufacture uncertainty on the issue." In 2006 Exxon claimed that it was no longer going to fund these groups Exxon cuts ties to global warming skeptics MSNBC January 2007 though that claim has been challenged by Greenpeace. Exxon Still Funding Climate Change Deniers Greenpeace May 2007 The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change, a skeptic group, when confronted about the funding of a video they put together ($250,000 for "The Greening of Planet Earth" from an oil company) stated, "We applaud Western Fuels for their willingness to publicize a side of the story that we believe to be far more correct than what at one time was 'generally accepted.' But does this mean that they fund The Center? Maybe it means that we fund them!" Donald Kennedy, editor-in-chief of Science, has said that skeptics such as Michaels are lobbyists more than researchers, and that "I don't think it's unethical any more than most lobbying is unethical," he said. He said donations to skeptics amounts to "trying to get a political message across." A number of global warming skeptics, such as the following, assert that grant money is given preferentially to supporters of global warming theory. Atmospheric scientist Reid Bryson said in June 2007 that "There is a lot of money to be made in this... If you want to be an eminent scientist you have to have a lot of grad students and a lot of grants. You can't get grants unless you say, 'Oh global warming, yes, yes, carbon dioxide.'" Similar claims have been advanced by climatologist Marcel Leroux, "In the end, global warming is more and more taking on an aspect of manipulation, which really looks like a 'scientific' deception, and of which the first victims are the climatologists who receive funding only when their work goes along with the IPCC." (translated from French) NASA's Roy Spencer, climatologist and IPCC contributor John Christy, University of London biogeographer Philip Stott, and Accuracy in Media. Trulock, Notra, "Science for Sale: the Global Warming Scam," Accuracy in Media, August 26, 2002 Richard Lindzen, the Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at MIT, makes the specific claim that "[in] the winter of 1989 Reginald Newell, a professor of meteorology [at MIT], lost National Science Foundation funding for data analyses that were failing to show net warming over the past century." Lindzen also suggests four other scientists "apparently" lost their funding or positions after questioning the scientific underpinnings of global warming. Lindzen himself, however, has been the recipient of money from energy interests such as OPEC and the Western Fuels Association, including "$2,500 a day for his consulting services", as well as funding from federal sources including the National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, and NASA. Changing positions of skeptics In recent years some skeptics have changed their positions regarding anthropogenic global warming. Ronald Bailey, author of Global Warming and Other Eco-Myths (published by the Competitive Enterprise Institute in 2002), stated in 2005, "Anyone still holding onto the idea that there is no global warming ought to hang it up". By 2007, he wrote "Details like sea level rise will continue to be debated by researchers, but if the debate over whether or not humanity is contributing to global warming wasn't over before, it is now.... as the new IPCC Summary makes clear, climate change Pollyannaism is no longer looking very tenable". Others have shifted from claims that global warming is unproven to advocating adaptation, sometimes also calling for more data, rather than take immediate action on mitigation through consumption/emissions reduction of fossil fuels. "Despite our intuition that we need to do something drastic about global warming, we are in danger of implementing a cure that is more costly than the original affliction: economic analyses clearly show that it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation to the increased temperatures," says Danish academic Bjørn Lomborg. Lomborg has been severely questioned by groups in Denmark. {http://www.lomborg-errors.dk/} Nordhaus and Schellenberger {http://www.thebreakthrough.org/blog/} present similar, more sophisticated, arguments in favor of adaption. "There are alternatives to its [(the climate-change crusade's)] insistence that the only appropriate policy response is steep and immediate emissions reductions.... a greenhouse-gas-emissions cap ultimately would constrain energy production. A sensible climate policy would emphasize building resilience into our capacity to adapt to climate changes.... we should consider strategies of adaptation to a changing climate. A rise in the sea level need not be the end of the world, as the Dutch have taught us." says Steven F. Hayward of American Enterprise Institute, a conservative think-tank. Hayward also advocates the use of "orbiting mirrors to rebalance the amounts of solar radiation different parts of the earth receive"—an example of so-called geoengineering. In 2001 Richard Lindzen in response to the question, "Kyoto aside for a moment, should we be trying to reduce carbon dioxide emissions? Do our concerns about global warming require action?" said "We should prioritize our responses. You can't just say, "No matter what the cost, and no matter how little the benefit, we'll do this." If we truly believe in warming, then we've already decided we're going to adjust...The reason we adjust to things far better than Bangladesh is that we're richer. Wouldn't you think it makes sense to make sure we're as robust and wealthy as possible? And that the poor of the world are also as robust and wealthy as possible?" Others argue that if developing nations reach the wealth level of the United States this could greatly increase CO2 emissions and consumption of fossil fuels. Large developing nations such as India and China are predicted to be major emitters of greenhouse gases in the next few decades as their economies grow. The conservative National Center for Policy Analysis whose "Environmental Task Force" contains a number of climate change skeptics including Sherwood Idso and S. Fred Singer says, "The growing consensus on climate change policies is that adaptation will protect present and future generations from climate-sensitive risks far more than efforts to restrict CO 2 emissions." The adaptation only plan is also endorsed by oil companies like ExxonMobil, "ExxonMobil’s plan appears to be to stay the course and try to adjust when changes occur. The company’s plan is one that involves adaptation, as opposed to leadership," says this Ceres report. The Bush administration has also voiced support for an adaptation only policy. "In a stark shift for the Bush administration, the United States has sent a climate report U.S. Climate Action Report 2002 to the United Nations detailing specific and far-reaching effects it says global warming will inflict on the American environment. In the report, the administration also for the first time places most of the blame for recent global warming on human actions—mainly the burning of fossil fuels that send heat-trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere". The report however "does not propose any major shift in the administration's policy on greenhouse gases. Instead it recommends adapting to inevitable changes instead of making rapid and drastic reductions in greenhouse gases to limit warming." This position apparently precipitated a similar shift in emphasis at the COP 8 climate talks in New Delhi several months later, "The shift satisfies the Bush administration, which has fought to avoid mandatory cuts in emissions for fear it would harm the economy. 'We're welcoming a focus on more of a balance on adaptation versus mitigation,' said a senior American negotiator in New Delhi. 'You don't have enough money to do everything.'" see also. The White House emphasis on adaptation was not well received however: Some find this shift and attitude disingenuous and indicative of an inherent bias against prevention (i.e. reducing emissions/consumption) and for the prolonging of profits to the oil industry at the expense of the environment. "Now that the dismissal of climate change is no longer fashionable, the professional deniers are trying another means of stopping us from taking action. It would be cheaper, they say, to wait for the impacts of climate change and then adapt to them" says UK Journalist George Monbiot in an article addressing the supposed economic hazards of addressing climate change. Others argue that adaptation alone will not be sufficient. See also Copenhagen Consensus. To be sure, though not emphasized to the same degree as mitigation, adaptation to a climate certain to change has been included as a necessary component in the discussion early as 1992, and has been all along. However it was not to the exclusion, advocated by the skeptics, of preventative mitigation efforts, and therein, say carbon cutting proponents, lies the difference. Political pressure on scientists Many climate scientists state that they are put under enormous pressure to distort or hide any scientific results which suggest that human activity is to blame for global warming. A survey of climate scientists which was reported to the US House Oversight and Government Reform Committee noted that "Nearly half of all respondents perceived or personally experienced pressure to eliminate the words 'climate change', 'global warming' or other similar terms from a variety of communications." These scientists were pressured to tailor their reports on global warming to fit the Bush administration's climate change scepticism. In some cases, this occurred at the request of a former oil-industry lobbyist. US climate scientists pressured on climate change, NewScientist, 31 January 2007 In a report by NASA's Office of the Inspector General it has been revealed that NASA officials censored and suppressed scientific data on global warming in order protect the Bush administration from controversy close to the 2004 presidential election. Nasa 'played down' global warming to protect Bush - Scotsman.com News U.S. officials, such as Philip Cooney, have repeatedly edited scientific reports from US government scientists, Campbell, D. (June 20, 2003) "White House cuts global warming from report" Guardian Unlimited many of whom, such as Thomas Knutson, have been ordered to refrain from discussing climate change and related topics. Donaghy, T., et al. (2007) "Atmosphere of Pressure:" a report of the Government Accountability Project (Cambridge, Mass.: UCS Publications) Rule, E. (2005) "Possible media attention" Email to NOAA staff, July 27. Obtained via FOIA request on July 31 2006. and Teet, J. (2005) "DOC Interview Policy" Email to NOAA staff, September 29. Originally published by Alexandrovna, L. (2005) "Commerce Department tells National Weather Service media contacts must be pre-approved" The Raw Story, October 4. Accessed December 22, 2006 Zabarenko, D. (2007) "'Don't discuss polar bears:' memo to scientists" Reuters Attempts to suppress scientific information on global warming and other issues have been described by journalist Chris Mooney in his book The Republican War on Science. Climate scientist James Hansen, director of NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies, claimed in a widely cited New York Times article in 2006 that his superiors at the agency were trying to "censor" information "going out to the public." NASA denied this, saying that it was merely requiring that scientists make a distinction between personal, and official government, views in interviews conducted as part of work done at the agency. Several scientists working at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have made similar complaints; Eilperin, J. (April 6, 2006) "Climate Researchers Feeling Heat From White House" Washington Post once again, government officials said they were enforcing long-standing policies requiring government scientists to clearly identify personal opinions as such when participating in public interviews and forums. The BBC's long-running current affairs series Panorama recently investigated the issue, and was told that "scientific reports about global warming have been systematically changed and suppressed." On the other hand, some American climatologists who have expressed doubts regarding the certainty of human influence in climate change have been criticized by politicians and governmental agencies. Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski publicly clarified that Oregon does not officially appoint a "state climatologist" in response to Oregon State University's George Taylor's use of that title. HinesSight: Facts about George Taylor and the "state climatologist" Local News|kgw.com|News for Oregon and SW Washington As a result of scientific doubts he has expressed regarding global warming, the Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control reportedly attempted to remove David Legates from his office of Delaware State Climatologist. In late 2006, Virginia Governor Tim Kaine (D) reportedly began an investigation of Virginia State Climatologist and global warming skeptic Patrick Michaels. Scientists who agree with the consensus view have sometimes expressed concerns over what they view as sensationalism of global warming by interest groups and the press. For example Mike Hulme, director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Research, wrote how increasing use of pejorative terms like "catastrophic," "chaotic" and "irreversible," had altered the public discourse around climate change: "This discourse is now characterised by phrases such as 'climate change is worse than we thought', that we are approaching 'irreversible tipping in the Earth's climate', and that we are 'at the point of no return'. I have found myself increasingly chastised by climate change campaigners when my public statements and lectures on climate change have not satisfied their thirst for environmental drama and exaggerated rhetoric." According to an Associated Press release on January 30, 2007, Critics writing in the Wall Street Journal editorial page claim that the survey was itself unscientific. Litigation Several lawsuits have been filed over global warming. For example, Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency before the Supreme Court of the United States forces the US government to regulate greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act. A similar approach was taken by California Attorney General Bill Lockyer who filed a lawsuit California v. General Motors Corp. to force car manufacturers to reduce vehicles' emissions of carbon dioxide. This lawsuit was found to lack legal merit and was tossed. A third case, Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, Inc., a class action lawsuit filed by Gerald Maples, a trial attorney in Mississippi, in an effort to force fossil fuel and chemical companies to pay for damages caused by global warming. Described as a nuisance lawsuit, it was dismissed by District Court. The Sierra Club sued the U.S. government over failure to raise automobile fuel efficiency standards, and thereby decrease carbon dioxide emissions. Betting A betting market on climate futures, like other kinds of futures markets, could be used to establish the market consensus on climate change. British climate scientist James Annan proposed bets with global warming skeptics concerning whether future temperatures will increase. Two Russian solar physicists, Galina Mashnich and Vladimir Bashkirtsev, accepted the wager of US$10,000 that the average global temperature during 2012-2017 would be lower than during 1998-2003. Annan first directly challenged Richard Lindzen. Lindzen had been willing to bet that global temperatures would drop over the next 20 years. Annan claimed Lindzen wanted odds of 50-1 against falling temperatures. Lindzen, however, claims that he asked for 2-1 odds against a temperature rise of over 0.4 °C. Reason Magazine - Betting on Climate Change The Guardian columnist George Monbiot challenged Myron Ebell of the Competitive Enterprise Institute to a GB£5,000 bet of global warming versus global cooling. Annan and other proponents of the consensus state they have challenged other skeptics to bets over global warming that were not accepted, including Annan's attempt in 2005 to accept a bet that had been offered by Patrick Michaels in 1998 that temperatures would be cooler after ten years. A different, $6,000-to-$9,000 bet, where both sides expect warming but differ on the amount, with one break-even point at 0.15 °C/decade, was made between software engineer David Evans and Brian Schmidt. Evans explained his reasons as a combination of the following: skepticism in global dimming as an explanation for recent cooling, evidence against causation by CO2 of historical warming, and the existence of a sound alternative hypothesis (warming caused by variations in the solar magnetic field). References | Global_warming_controversy |@lemmatized global:114 warming:82 controversy:13 dispute:4 regard:8 nature:6 cause:16 consequence:3 disputed:1 issue:16 include:17 increased:1 average:3 air:6 temperature:47 especially:1 since:9 mid:1 century:4 whether:12 warm:33 trend:14 unprecedented:1 within:3 normal:2 climatic:2 variation:11 increase:19 wholly:1 partially:1 artifact:1 poor:5 measurement:3 additional:5 concern:12 estimate:13 climate:103 sensitivity:13 prediction:9 debate:6 vigorous:1 popular:2 medium:8 policy:11 level:19 individual:5 corporation:2 political:9 organization:4 involve:2 history:3 public:11 opinion:5 european:3 union:4 prominent:3 sustained:1 member:4 state:29 ratify:3 kyoto:7 protocol:6 many:12 country:11 already:3 take:14 action:16 reduce:12 greenhouse:21 gas:19 emission:31 prior:1 example:12 margaret:2 thatcher:2 advocated:1 man:3 make:18 change:58 speech:3 royal:1 society:3 september:5 statement:5 archive:3 foundation:4 retrieve:2 april:3 germany:1 start:2 green:5 party:2 seat:1 parliament:1 politically:2 neutral:1 list:6 language:1 monitor:1 buzzword:1 catch:1 phrase:2 europe:2 notion:1 human:13 influence:6 gain:1 wide:1 acceptance:1 rapidly:2 part:7 world:14 notably:2 united:9 among:3 commentator:2 much:7 weight:1 coverage:1 give:5 side:5 andrew:1 neil:2 bbc:4 great:6 danger:3 become:5 one:11 meant:1 kind:2 view:9 denier:3 recognise:1 range:5 subject:2 mccarthy:1 michael:8 hot:2 handle:1 independent:1 martin:1 gardner:2 hand:2 see:11 bend:1 backwards:1 equal:1 time:15 pseudoscience:1 science:22 odds:3 fad:1 fallacy:1 name:2 dover:1 publication:4 isbn:1 table:1 show:13 perception:1 existence:3 importance:4 u:25 worldwide:1 consensus:15 serious:5 problem:9 agreeyearhuman:1 activity:10 significant:5 necessary:4 major:7 step:1 soon:1 june:6 ipsos:2 mori:2 poll:3 conduct:4 uk:5 find:11 percent:1 respondent:2 believe:6 scientist:45 still:3 question:8 survey:7 suggest:8 terrorism:1 graffiti:1 crime:2 head:1 environmental:16 research:14 phil:1 downing:1 say:34 people:1 counter:1 argument:6 news:8 scepticism:2 canadian:1 broadcaster:1 activist:1 david:8 suzuki:2 report:29 focus:3 group:11 organize:1 understanding:3 behind:1 despite:2 recent:13 publicity:1 different:5 mean:7 film:1 inconvenient:1 truth:1 hour:1 confusion:1 ozone:2 depletion:2 nation:10 pew:3 substantial:3 gap:1 roughly:3 two:6 third:5 japanese:1 indian:1 personally:3 worry:2 deal:1 half:3 population:2 spain:1 france:1 also:18 express:7 base:8 hear:2 evidence:11 alarm:2 either:4 china:10 large:9 producer:3 american:11 chinese:2 lot:4 low:6 percentage:1 moreover:1 nearly:3 somewhat:1 little:3 attitude:3 release:6 majority:2 rise:13 related:3 critic:4 disagree:3 whole:1 scientific:25 particularly:1 relate:3 risk:5 passive:2 smoking:2 chris:2 mooney:4 author:10 republican:4 war:3 argue:13 appearance:1 overlap:1 skeptical:2 think:7 tank:3 seemingly:1 unrelated:1 result:12 organised:1 attempt:6 replace:1 analysis:8 ideology:1 claim:24 promotion:1 doubt:7 scientifically:2 controversial:3 increasingly:2 prevalent:1 bush:8 administration:9 constitute:2 book:6 lawyer:1 robert:1 f:4 kennedy:2 jr:3 entitle:1 george:6 w:3 corporate:1 pal:1 plunder:1 hijack:1 democracy:1 another:6 topic:2 assault:1 reason:4 former:2 vice:1 president:1 al:10 gore:1 early:3 instance:1 cover:3 heat:17 ross:1 gelbspan:1 link:4 reference:3 unjustified:1 ad:1 hominem:1 attack:1 roger:7 pielke:11 respond:1 inevitably:1 intertwine:1 politics:1 governmental:3 non:1 often:3 virtually:1 unanimous:1 agreement:4 community:3 support:6 although:2 less:4 specific:3 opponent:2 maintain:2 consider:3 unproved:2 dismiss:2 altogether:1 highlight:3 viewpoint:1 context:1 unsettled:2 climatescienceinternational:1 org:4 icsc:1 new:7 york:3 conference:3 considers:1 manhattan:1 declaration:2 heartland:6 institute:12 staff:3 others:11 proponent:3 stifle:1 drive:1 underground:1 journalist:3 richard:6 littlemore:1 reveal:3 documented:2 scare:2 whose:2 contradict:3 dennis:1 avery:1 distribute:1 least:1 neither:1 knew:1 inclusion:1 coauthor:1 article:5 agree:5 content:4 desmogblog:1 ask:3 remove:2 call:5 petition:2 present:6 leader:1 meet:2 negotiate:1 assert:3 broad:1 climatologist:9 discernible:1 urge:1 government:11 legally:1 bind:1 commitment:1 industrial:2 trapping:2 threat:2 planet:4 future:15 generation:2 conceive:2 concerned:2 follow:4 warn:1 humanity:2 sign:2 distinguished:1 senior:2 nobel:2 laureate:2 daily:1 oct:1 preeminent:1 halt:1 select:1 signatory:2 award:1 affiliation:1 ipcc:38 conclude:8 join:1 academy:4 national:8 industrialized:1 conclusion:2 naomi:1 oreskes:2 talk:2 denial:2 youtube:1 recount:1 following:3 incident:1 work:9 attract:1 criticism:3 expert:5 invite:1 submit:1 serve:3 panel:2 lindzen:10 publicly:2 dissent:2 position:9 blog:4 post:3 contend:3 distort:2 anthropogenic:6 therein:3 describe:4 fail:4 william:2 connolley:1 perceive:2 conflict:1 interest:3 assessment:10 process:7 primary:2 role:3 system:6 permit:2 lead:6 committee:5 opportunity:1 obvious:1 solution:1 sufficient:2 knowledge:2 field:3 write:7 noteworthy:1 paper:5 essentially:1 stephen:6 mcintyre:8 portion:2 press:6 data:16 obtain:3 tell:4 could:7 use:16 reviewer:3 status:1 outside:1 journal:10 review:8 christopher:1 landsea:5 hurricane:2 researcher:4 expertise:1 relevant:1 cannot:3 good:4 faith:1 continue:2 contribute:4 motivate:1 pre:2 agenda:1 unsound:1 comment:6 kevin:2 trenberth:4 disapprove:1 correct:2 prometheus:1 final:1 chapter:2 iv:1 reply:3 wish:1 right:1 long:4 anything:2 behalf:1 offer:3 phase:1 feel:4 vindicate:1 accurately:3 tropical:2 cyclone:1 summary:3 maker:1 house:7 lord:3 economics:2 objectivity:1 scenario:12 documentation:1 apparently:3 consideration:3 high:10 play:3 positive:3 aspect:2 main:1 reject:2 response:11 kingdom:1 economic:10 affair:2 stern:2 john:3 christy:2 critical:1 extreme:1 reach:4 situation:1 reality:2 overstate:1 likely:7 opposite:1 biello:1 need:5 secure:1 representative:1 conservative:5 extent:2 effect:21 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network:4 unwarranted:1 adjustment:2 locate:1 populated:1 due:3 generate:1 city:2 acknowledge:1 important:1 cite:3 historical:3 indicate:2 c:8 degrees:1 peterson:3 difference:3 rural:4 analyze:1 raw:2 actual:4 relative:2 something:2 obviously:1 true:1 undoubtedly:1 microsite:1 parker:2 calm:2 windy:3 night:4 strong:1 weak:1 absent:1 contaminate:1 matsui:2 http:4 climatesci:1 pdf:3 r:2 light:1 wind:3 boundary:1 layer:1 geophys:1 letts:1 criticize:7 siting:1 anthony:1 watt:2 begin:2 volunteer:1 effort:4 photographically:1 document:1 sit:1 complete:1 temp:1 identify:2 far:9 requirement:1 crn:1 excellent:1 method:4 code:2 reproduce:3 literature:1 equilibrium:2 refers:1 doubling:1 equivalent:1 value:2 best:2 combination:2 schwartz:3 propose:7 doubled:1 capacity:4 constant:3 accept:5 geophysical:4 revise:1 upwards:1 vol:1 grant:4 foster:1 annan:6 gavin:1 schmidt:2 mann:2 draft:1 insensitivity:1 realclimate:2 error:3 version:1 astronomer:1 nir:2 shaviv:2 budget:1 j:5 citeid:1 august:3 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july:4 contradiction:1 archiving:1 share:1 funding:7 agency:6 exception:1 provide:1 metadata:1 source:2 legates:1 bradley:1 hughes:1 famous:1 hockey:1 stick:1 shape:1 historic:1 abide:1 legislator:1 ultimately:3 enforce:2 partisan:2 democrat:1 control:3 bipartisan:1 measure:1 introduce:1 move:2 impact:4 appropriate:2 decision:1 single:1 usually:1 restriction:3 near:1 meaningful:1 ramification:1 cato:1 libertarian:1 strongly:2 outweigh:1 benefit:2 solely:1 burning:3 restrict:3 damaging:1 conversely:1 help:1 avoid:2 cost:4 later:2 catastrophic:2 irreversible:3 hell:1 water:1 energy:6 technology:1 joseph:1 romm:1 strictly:1 limit:3 international:1 highly:1 niue:1 cook:1 islands:1 nauru:1 inadequate:1 india:4 populous:1 caput:4 ranking:1 emitter:6 tonne:3 respectively:1 usa:4 nevertheless:1 second:2 overtake:2 total:1 late:2 positionnetherlands:1 overtakes:1 big:2 energybulletin:1 peak:1 oil:7 clearinghouse:1 guardian:4 additionally:1 decrease:2 production:2 treaty:1 efficient:1 develop:3 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3,706 | Politics_of_Namibia | Politics of Namibia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Namibia is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Constitution The Constituent Assembly of Namibia produced a constitution which established a multi-party system and a bill of rights. It also limited the executive president to two 5-year terms and provided for the private ownership of property. The three branches of government are subject to checks and balances, and a provision is made for judicial review. The constitution also states that Namibia should have a mixed economy, and foreign investment should be encouraged. While the ethnic-based three-tier South African-imposed governing authorities have been dissolved, the current government pledged for the sake of national reconciliation to retain civil servants employed during the colonial period. The government is still organizing itself both on a national and regional level. The Constituent Assembly converted itself into the National Assembly on February 16, 1990, retaining all the members elected on a straight party ticket. Executive branch Hifikepunye Pohamba, President of Namibia |President |Hifikepunye Pohamba |SWAPO |21 March 2005 |- |Prime Minister |Nahas Angula |SWAPO |21 March 2005 |} The Namibian head of state is the president, elected by popular vote every five years. The government is headed by the prime minister, who, together with his cabinet, is appointed by the president. SWAPO, the primary force behind independence is still currently the country's largest party. Legislative branch Parliament has two chambers. The National Assembly has 78 members, elected for a five year term, 72 members elected by proportional representation and 6 members appointed by the president. The National Council has 26 members, elected for a six year term in double-seat constituencies (regions). The Assembly is the primary legislative body, with the Council playing more of an advisory role. The 1990 constitution is noted for being one of the first to incorporate protection of the environment into its text. Namibia is a democratic but one party dominant state with the South-West Africa People's Organisation in power. Opposition parties are allowed, but are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power. Judicial branch Supreme Court of Namibia building in Windhoek. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court, whose judges are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission. The judicial structure in Namibia parallels that of South Africa. In 1919, Roman-Dutch law was declared the common law of the territory and remains so to the present. Political parties and elections Elections were held in 1992, to elect members of 13 newly established Regional Councils, as well as new municipal officials. Two members from each Regional Council serve simultaneously as members of the National Council, the country's second house of Parliament. Nineteen of its members are from the ruling SWAPO party, and seven are from the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA). In December 1994, elections were held for the President and the National Assembly. Namibia has about 40 political groups, ranging from modern political parties to traditional groups based on tribal authority. Some represent single tribes or ethnic groups while others encompass several. Most participate in political alliances, some of which are multiracial, with frequently shifting membership. SWAPO is the ruling party, and all but one of the new government's first cabinet posts went to SWAPO members. A Marxist oriented movement, SWAPO has become more pragmatic and now espouses the need for a mixed economy and Democracy. SWAPO has been a legal political party since its formation and was cautiously active in Namibia, although before implementation of the UN Plan, it was forbidden to hold meetings of more than 20 people, and its leadership was subject to frequent detention. SWAPO draws its strength principally, but not exclusively, from within the Ovambo tribe. In December 1976, the UN General Assembly recognized SWAPO as "the sole and authentic representative of the Namibian people," a characterization other internal parties did not accept. In 1999 presidential and parliamentary elections, SWAPO continued its history of political dominance, taking 55 of the 72 Assembly seats, and returning President Sam Nujoma to the office for his third term. The principal opposition parties are the Congress of Democrats (CoD) and the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA), with each possessing seven seats in the National Assembly. Administrative divisions Namibia is divided in 13 regions; Caprivi, Erongo, Hardap, Karas, Khomas, Kunene, Ohangwena, Okavango, Omaheke, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, Otjozondjupa International organization participation Namibia is member of ACP, AfDB, C, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMEE, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO | Politics_of_Namibia |@lemmatized politics:1 namibia:12 take:2 place:1 framework:1 presidential:2 representative:2 democratic:4 republic:1 whereby:1 president:10 head:4 state:4 government:8 pluriform:1 multi:2 party:13 system:2 executive:4 power:4 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 two:4 chamber:2 parliament:3 judiciary:1 independent:1 legislature:1 constitution:4 constituent:2 assembly:9 produce:1 establish:2 bill:1 right:1 also:2 limit:1 year:4 term:4 provide:1 private:1 ownership:1 property:1 three:2 branch:4 subject:2 check:1 balance:1 provision:1 make:1 judicial:5 review:1 mixed:2 economy:2 foreign:1 investment:1 encourage:1 ethnic:2 base:2 tier:1 south:3 african:1 impose:1 govern:1 authority:2 dissolve:1 current:1 pledge:1 sake:1 national:8 reconciliation:1 retain:2 civil:1 servant:1 employ:1 colonial:1 period:1 still:2 organize:1 regional:3 level:1 convert:1 february:1 member:11 elect:6 straight:1 ticket:1 hifikepunye:2 pohamba:2 swapo:11 march:2 prime:2 minister:2 nahas:1 angula:1 namibian:2 popular:1 vote:1 every:1 five:2 together:1 cabinet:2 appoint:3 primary:2 force:1 behind:1 independence:1 currently:1 country:2 large:1 proportional:1 representation:1 council:5 six:1 double:1 seat:3 constituency:1 region:2 body:2 play:1 advisory:1 role:1 note:1 one:3 first:2 incorporate:1 protection:1 environment:1 text:1 dominant:1 west:1 africa:2 people:3 organisation:1 opposition:2 allow:1 widely:1 consider:1 real:1 chance:1 gain:1 supreme:2 court:2 building:1 windhoek:1 high:1 whose:1 judge:1 recommendation:1 service:1 commission:1 structure:1 parallel:1 roman:1 dutch:1 law:2 declare:1 common:1 territory:1 remain:1 present:1 political:6 election:4 hold:3 newly:1 well:1 new:2 municipal:1 official:1 serve:1 simultaneously:1 second:1 house:1 nineteen:1 rule:2 seven:2 turnhalle:2 alliance:3 dta:2 december:2 group:3 range:1 modern:1 traditional:1 tribal:1 represent:1 single:1 tribe:2 others:1 encompass:1 several:1 participate:1 multiracial:1 frequently:1 shift:1 membership:1 post:1 go:1 marxist:1 orient:1 movement:1 become:1 pragmatic:1 espouse:1 need:1 democracy:1 legal:1 since:1 formation:1 cautiously:1 active:1 although:1 implementation:1 un:3 plan:1 forbid:1 meeting:1 leadership:1 frequent:1 detention:1 draw:1 strength:1 principally:1 exclusively:1 within:1 ovambo:1 general:1 recognize:1 sole:1 authentic:1 characterization:1 internal:1 accept:1 parliamentary:1 continue:1 history:1 dominance:1 return:1 sam:1 nujoma:1 office:1 third:1 principal:1 congress:1 democrat:1 cod:1 possess:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 caprivi:1 erongo:1 hardap:1 karas:1 khomas:1 kunene:1 ohangwena:1 okavango:1 omaheke:1 omusati:1 oshana:1 oshikoto:1 otjozondjupa:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acp:1 afdb:1 c:1 eca:1 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 observer:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 nam:1 oau:1 opcw:1 sacu:1 sadc:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unhcr:1 unido:1 unmee:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 |@bigram pluriform_multi:1 judiciary_independent:1 constituent_assembly:2 prime_minister:2 legislative_branch:1 proportional_representation:1 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:2 acp_afdb:1 eca_fao:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_observer:1 iso_correspondent:1 correspondent_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_opcw:1 sadc_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unhcr:1 unhcr_unido:1 upu_wcl:1 wcl_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 |
3,707 | Francis_Xavier | Saint Francis Xavier, born Francisco de Jaso y Azpilicueta (Javier, Navarre, 7 April, 1506 – 3 December, 1552 on Shangchuan Island, China) was a Spanish pioneering Roman Catholic missionary of Navarrese origin and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. Early life The castle of the Xavier family was later acquired by the Company of Jesus and reconstructed. Francis Xavier was born in the family castle of Xavier in the Kingdom of Navarre, on 7 April, 1506, according to a family register. He was born to an aristocratic family of Navarre, the youngest son of Juan de Jasso, privy counselor to King John III of Navarre (Jean d'Albret), and Maria de Azpilicueta y Xavier, sole heiress of two noble Navarrese families. Following the Basque surname custom of the time, he was named after his mother; his name is accurately written Francisco de Xavier (Latin Xaverius) rather than Francisco Xavier, as Xavier is originally a place name. Joint Castilian and Aragonese troops commanded by Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 2nd Duke of Alba conquered the Kingdom of Navarre in 1512. After a failed French-Navarrese attempt to reconquer the kingdom in (1516), in which Saint Francis's brothers had taken part, the outer wall, the gates and two towers of the family castle were demolished, the moat was filled, the height of the keep was reduced in half Sagredo Garde, Iñaki. "Navarra. Castillos que defendieron el Reino". Pamiela, 2006. ISBN 84-7681-477-1 , and land was confiscated. Only the family residence inside the castle was left. Francis's father died when he was only 9 in 1515. Francis Xavier went to Venice, Italy and there he was ordained to the priesthood on June 24, 1537. After ordination, he served for a brief period in Rome. Xavier first met Ignatius Loyola while they were both students at the University of Paris. Missionary work Francis Xavier devoted much of his life to missions in foreign countries. As King John III of Portugal desired Jesuit missionaries for the Portuguese East Indies, he was ordered there in 1540. He left Lisbon on April 7, 1541, together with two other Jesuits and the new viceroy Martim de Sousa, on board the Santiago. From August of that year until March 1542, he remained in Mozambique then reached Goa, the capital of the then Portuguese Indian colonies on May 6 1542. His official role there was Apostolic Nuncio and he spent the following three years operating out of Goa. On September 20, 1543, he left for his first missionary activity among the Paravas, pearl-fishers along the east coast of southern India, North of Cape Comorin (or Sup Santaz). He lived in a sea cave in Manapad, intensively catechizing Paravar children for three months in 1544. He then focused on converting the king of Travancore to Christianity and also visited Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Dissatisfied with the results of his activity, he set his sights eastward in 1545 and planned a missionary journey to Macassar on the island of Celebes (today's Indonesia). Although Francis was the first Jesuit in India he made some critical mistakes that did not lead to the most successful missionary trips. Francis had a lack of respect for the Hindu religion. Instead of incorporating Christianity into the Hindu religion and creating a gradual sense of conversion, he wanted the change quickly. Also, he did not use the upper class noblemen as means of conversion. He worked amongst the poor. His successors such as de Nobili, Ricci, and Beschi learned from Francis’s mistakes, and attempted to convert the noblemen first as a means to influence more people. Duignan, Peter. Early Jesuit Missionaries: A Suggestion for Further Study. American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 60, No. 4 (Aug., 1958). pp. 725-732. Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association. Accessed 30 Nov. 2008 . After arriving to Portuguese Malacca in October of that year and waiting three months in vain for a ship to Macassar, he gave up the goal of his voyage and left Malacca on January 1, 1546 for Ambon Island where he stayed until mid-June. He then visited other Maluku Islands including Ternate and More. Shortly after Easter 1546, he returned to Ambon Island and later Malacca. During this time, frustrated by the elites in Goa, St. Francis wrote to King John III of Portugal for an Inquisition to be installed in Goa. This Inquisition resulted in the torture, prohibition and forced conversion of Indian Jews, Early Indian Christians, Muslims and Hindus to Catholicism. However, this Inquisition did not begin until eight years after his death. Voyages of St. Francis Xavier Francis Xavier's work initiated permanent change in eastern Indonesia, and he was known as the Apostle of the Indies where in 1546-1547 he worked in the Maluku Islands among the people of Ambon, Ternate, and Morotai (or Moro), and laid the foundations for a permanent mission. After he left the Maluku Islands, others carried on his work and by the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon. By the 1590s there were 50,000 to 60,000. In December 1547, in Malacca, Francis Xavier met a Japanese nobleman from Kagoshima named Anjiro. Anjiro had heard from Francis in 1545 and had travelled from Kagoshima to Malacca with the purpose of meeting him. Having been charged with murder, Anjiro fled Japan. He poured his heart out to Francis Xavier, telling him about his former life and the customs and culture of his beloved homeland. Anjiro was a samurai and as such provided Xavier with a skilled mediator and translator for the mission to Japan that now seemed much closer to reality. “I asked [Anjiro] whether the Japanese would become Christians if I went with him to this country, and he replied that they would not do so immediately, but would first ask me many questions and see what I knew. Above all, they would want to see whether my life corresponded with my teaching." He returned to India in January 1548. The next 15 months were occupied with various journeys and administrative measures in India. Then due to displeasure at what he considered un-Christian life and manners on the part of the Portuguese which impeded missionary work, he travelled from the South into East Asia. He left Goa on April 15, 1549, stopped at Malacca and visited Canton. He was accompanied by Anjiro, two other Japanese men, the father Cosme de Torrès and Brother João Fernandes. He had taken with him presents for the "King of Japan" since he was intending to introduce himself as the Apostolic Nuncio. Francis Xavier reached Japan on July 27, 1549, but it was not until August 15 that he went ashore at Kagoshima, the principal port of the province of Satsuma on the island of Kyūshū. He was received in a friendly manner and was hosted by Anjiro's family until October 1550. From October to December 1550, he resided in Yamaguchi. Shortly before Christmas, he left for Kyoto but failed to meet with the Emperor. He returned to Yamaguchi in March 1551 where he was permitted to preach by the daimyo of the province. However, lacking fluency in the Japanese language, he had to limit himself to reading aloud the translation of a catechism. Francis had a large impact in Japan. He was the first Jesuit to go to Japan as a missionary. He brought with him paintings of the Madonna and the Madonna and Child. These paintings were used to help teach the Japanese about Christianity. There was a huge language barrier as Japanese was unlike other languages the missionaries had previously encountered. Artwork continued to play a role in Francis’s teachings in Asia. For forty five years the Jesuits were the only missionaries in Asia, but the Franciscans also began proselytizing in Asia as well. Christian missionaries were later forced into exile, along with their assistants. Some were able to stay behind, however Christianity was then kept underground as to not be persecuted. Vlam, Grace A. H. The Portrait of S. Francis Xavier in Kobe. Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, 42 Bd., H. 1, pp. 48-60 Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag GmbH Munchen, 1979. 30 Nov. 2008 jstor The Japanese people were not easily converted; many of the people were already Buddhist. Francis had difficulty convincing them that God had created everything. In their eyes then, God was responsible for evil and sin; they had a difficult time grasping how a kind God would act in such a way. The concept of Hell was also a struggle; the Japanese could not bear to think that their ancestors might be in eternal Hell and there is no way to free them. Despite Francis’s differences in opinion regarding the religions of the Japanese, he felt that they were good people, much like the Europeans and could be converted. Ellis, Robert Richmond. “The Best Thus Far Discovered”: The Japanese in the Letters of St. Francisco Xavier. Hispanic Review, Vol. 71 No. 2 (Spring 2003), pp. 155-169 University of Pennsylvania Press. 30 Nov. 2008 jstor Xavier, Francis. The Letters and Instructions of Francis Xavier. Translated by M. Joseph Costellos, S.J. St Louis: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1992 Xavier was welcomed by the Shingon monks since he used the word Dainichi for the Christian God. As Xavier learned more about the religious nuances of the word, he changed to Deusu from the Latin and Portuguese Deus. The monks also realized that Xavier was preaching a rival religion. The Altar of St. Francis Xavier Parish in Nasugbu, Batangas, Philippines. St. Francis is the principal patron of the town, together with Our Lady of Escalera. With the passage of time, his sojourn in Japan can be considered fruitful as attested by congregations established in Hirado, Yamaguchi and Bungo. Xavier worked for more than two years in Japan and saw his successor-Jesuits established. He then decided to return to India. During his trip, a tempest forced him to stop on an island near Guangzhou, China where he saw the rich merchant Diego Pereira, an old friend from Cochin, who showed him a letter from Portuguese being held prisoners in Guangzhou asking for a Portuguese ambassador to talk to the Chinese Emperor in their favor. Later during the voyage, he stopped at Malacca on December 27, 1551 and was back in Goa by January, 1552. On April 17 he set sail with Diego Pereira, leaving Goa on board the Santa Cruz for China. He introduced himself as Apostolic Nuncio and Pereira as ambassador of the King of Portugal. Shortly thereafter, he realized that he had forgotten his testimonial letters as an Apostolic Nuncio. Back in Malacca, he was confronted by the capitão Álvaro de Ataíde de Gama who now had total control over the harbor. The capitão refused to recognize his title of Nuncio, asked Pereira to resign from his title of ambassador, named a new crew for the ship and demanded the gifts for the Chinese Emperor be left in Malacca. Casket of Saint Francis Xavier in the Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa In early September 1552, the Santa Cruz reached the Chinese island of Shangchuan, 14 km away from the southern coast of mainland China, near Taishan, Guangdong, 200 km south-west of what later became Hong Kong. At this time, he was only accompanied by a Jesuit student, Álvaro Ferreira, a Chinese man called António and a Malabar servant called Christopher. Around mid-November, he sent a letter saying that a man had agreed to take him to the mainland in exchange for a large sum of money. Having sent back Álvaro Ferreira, he remained alone with António. He died at Sancian in the year 1552 on the 3rd of December while he was waiting for a boat that would agree to take him to mainland China. He was first buried on a beach of Shangchuan Island. In 2006, on the 500th anniversary of his birth, the Xavier Tomb Monument and Chapel on the island, in ruins after years of neglect under communist rule in China was restored with the support from the alumni of Wah Yan College, a Jesuit high school in Hong Kong. His incorrupt body was taken from the island in February 1553 and was temporarily buried in St. Paul's church in Malacca on 22 March, 1553. An open grave in the church now marks the place of Xavier's burial. Pereira came back from Goa, removed the corpse shortly after April 15, 1553, and moved it to his house. On 11 December, 1553, Xavier's body was shipped to Goa. The body is now in the Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa, where it was placed in a glass container encased in a silver casket on December 2, 1637. St. Francis Xavier's humerus. St. Joseph's church, Macao The right forearm, which Xavier used to bless and baptize his converts, was detached by Pr. Gen. Claudio Acquaviva in 1614. It has been displayed since in a silver reliquary at the main Jesuit church in Rome, Il Gesù. Cappella di san Francesco Saverio, at the official website of Il Gesù. Another of Xavier's arm bones was brought to Macau where it was kept in a silver reliquary. The relic was destined for Japan but religious persecution there persuaded the church to keep it in Macau's Cathedral of St. Paul. It was subsequently moved to St. Joseph′s and in 1978 to the Chapel of St. Francis Xavier on Coloane Island. More recently the relic was moved to St. Joseph's Seminary and the Sacred Art Museum. Chapel of St. Francis Xavier, at the official website of the Macau Government Tourist Office. Criticism Francis Xavier has been criticized for his responsibility in initiating the Goa Inquisition, and for his iconoclasty. According to Rao, "St. Francis Xavier made it a point not only to convert the people but also destroy the idols and ancient places of worship." In Japan, which like India allowed him the freedom to practice his faith, the uncompromising Xavier took to the streets denouncing, among other things, idolatry and homosexuality. Under his instigation, Kirishitan converts took part in destroying traditional temples and shrines. A Tokugawan law clearly stated that "Christians were bringing disorder to Japanese society and that their followers 'contravene governmental regulations, traduce Shinto, calumniate the True Law, destroy regulations, and corrupt goodness'". In Europe, the Goa Inquisition became notorious for its cruelty and use of torture, and the French philosopher Voltaire wrote "Goa is sadly famous for its inquisition, which is contrary to humanity as much as to commerce. The Portuguese monks deluded us into believing that the Indian populace was worshiping The Devil, while it is they who served him." Voltaire, Lettres sur l'origine des sciences et sur celle des peuples de l'Asie (first published Paris, 1777), letter of 15 December 1775 Legacy "The Vision of St. Francis Xavier", by Giovanni Battista Gaulli. St. Francis Xavier is noteworthy for his missionary work, both as organizer and as pioneer. By his compromises in India with the Christians of St. Thomas, he developed the Jesuit missionary methods along lines that subsequently became a successful blueprint for his order to follow. His efforts left a significant impression upon the missionary history of India and, as one of the first Jesuit missionaries to the East Indies, his work is of fundamental significance to Christians in the propagation of Christianity in China and Japan. Pope Benedict XVI said of both Ignatius of Loyola and Francis Xavier: "not only their history which was interwoven for many years from Paris and Rome, but a unique desire — a unique passion, it could be said — moved and sustained them through different human events: the passion to give to God-Trinity a glory always greater and to work for the proclamation of the Gospel of Christ to the peoples who had been ignored." Address of Benedict XVI to the Jesuits, April 22, 2006. As the foremost saint from Navarre and one of the main Jesuit saints, he is much venerated in Spain and the Hispanic countries where Francisco Javier or Javier are common male given names. The most frequent names, simple and exact for the national total and exact for the province of residence, Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain). Excel spreadsheet format. Javier is the 10th most popular complete name for males, Francisco Javier, the 18th. Javier is the 8th most frequent name for males, either alone or in composition. The alternate spelling Xavier is also popular in Portugal, Brazil, France, Belgium, and southern Italy. In Austria and Bavaria the name is spelled as Xaver (pronounced Ksaber and often used in addition to Francis as Franz-Xaver. In English speaking countries, "Xavier" is one of the few names starting with X, and until recently was likely to follow "Francis"; in the last decade, however, "Xavier" by itself has become more popular than "Francis," and is now one of the 100 most common male baby names in the US. http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/babynames/ Many churches all over the world have been named in honor of Xavier, often founded by Jesuits. One notable church is the Basilica of St. Francis Xavier in Dyersville, Iowa. The Javierada is an annual pilgrimage from Pamplona to Xavier instituted in the 1940s. The Novena of Grace is a popular devotion to Francis Xavier, typically prayed on the 9 days before December 3. Beatification and Canonization Francis Xavier is a Catholic saint. He was beatified by Paul V on October 25, 1619, and was canonized by Gregory XV on March 12, 1622, at the same time as Ignatius Loyola. He is the patron saint of missionaries. His feast day is December 3. Educational Institutions Numerous schools named Xavier, St. Xavier or St. Francis Xavier, most founded by the Jesuits, can be found in many parts of the world. Several are located in places where the saint proselytized. St. Xavier's College, founded in 1963, is located in Mapusa, in the Northern district of the Indian state of Goa where the eponymous saint's relic lies. The Jesuit Xavier University, commonly known as Ateneo de Cagayan, is located in Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines; it is the largest school in Northern Mindanao and it also ranked 12th in the Philippines' Top 20 Schools list. In Manila, Xavier School is a preparatory school for males. The name Xavier University is shared by several colleges in the United States. Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio is Jesuit and has the largest enrollment of 6,500. Xavier University of Louisiana, in New Orleans, has an enrollment of 3,200 in 2009, rising back towards its peak enrollment pre-Hurricane Katrina of 4,121 (2005). It is the only college in the United States that is both Catholic and historically Black; it is also the only college in the United States founded by a saint (St. Katherine Drexel). Saint Xavier University in Chicago, Illinois is one of the oldest higher educational centers in that leading Midwestern metropolis. There is also [Xavier College Preparatory] in Palm Desert, California. Among high schools, Saint Xavier High School in Cincinnati and Xavier High School in Cedar Rapids, Iowa have prominent statues of St. Francis Xavier on their campuses.Xavier High School is a male only Jesuit university-preparatory high school located at 30 West 16th Street, in the Chelsea neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. Elsewhere, St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada is consistently ranked by Maclean's Magazine as the third-best undergraduate school in the nation. http://www.stfx.ca/macleans/ . Xavier College, formerly known as St Francis Xavier College, is a Jesuit school in Melbourne, Australia also named after Francis Xavier, also in Melbourne, Australia there is St. Francis Xavier College, in Beaconsfield. Xavier College Llandilo, founded in 1999, is situated in western Sydney. Manchester, England is the home of Xaverian College which is one of the most renowned and successful colleges in the country. Also in Woolton, Liverpool is Saint Francis Xavier's college a specialist ICT school. See also Goa Inquisition Jesuit China missions Catholicism in China Christianity in China Flying Saints Roman Catholicism in Japan St. Francis Xavier College, Beconsfield Xavier University of Louisiana References This article incorporates material from the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion External links Saint Francis Xavier University Antigonish, Nova Scotia The Life of St. Francis Xavier The life and letters of St. Francis Xavier Francis Xavier, Saint, 1506-1552 Coleridge, Henry James, 1822-1893 London : Burns and Oates, (1872) Xavier's World website of Navarre Department of Education celebrating 500th anniversary of their patron saint's birth A critical view St. Francis Xavier - Pictorial Biography Saint François Xavier St. Francis of the Millennium The Goa Jesuit Province of the Society of Jesus: The Jesuits in Goa The Feast of St Francis Xavier in Goa Picture of Shangchuan island. The chapel marks the location of his death Another picture of the church on Shangchuan island Old map of Shangchuan island The Miracles of St Francis Xavier by John Hardon, SJ St Francis Xavier: History of His Incorrupt Body Brief History of St Francis Xavier Saint Francis Xavier at Patron Saints Index St. Francis Xavier Catholic Church in Parkersburg, WV Yomiuri Shimbun: St. Francis Xavier -- 90% name recognition amongst primary school students in Japan, 2008. | Francis_Xavier |@lemmatized saint:20 francis:61 xavier:87 born:1 francisco:6 de:16 jaso:1 azpilicueta:2 javier:6 navarre:7 april:7 december:10 shangchuan:6 island:17 china:10 spanish:1 pioneering:1 roman:2 catholic:5 missionary:17 navarrese:3 origin:1 co:1 founder:1 society:3 jesus:5 early:4 life:7 castle:4 family:8 later:4 acquire:1 company:1 reconstruct:1 bear:3 kingdom:3 accord:2 register:1 aristocratic:1 young:1 son:1 juan:1 jasso:1 privy:1 counselor:1 king:6 john:4 iii:3 jean:1 albret:1 maria:1 sole:1 heiress:1 two:5 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3,708 | Austria | Austria () (), officially the Republic of Austria () (), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.3 million people in Central Europe. It borders both Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,872 km2 (32,383 square miles), and is influenced by a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,797 metres (12,457 ft). The majority of the population—about 90%—speaks German, which is also the country's official language. The origins of Austria date back to the time of the Roman Empire, where the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was conquered by the Romans in approximately 15 BC, and later became a Roman province in the mid 1st century AD —an area which mostly encloses today's Austria. In 788 AD, the Frankish king Charlemagne conquered the area, and introduced Christianity. In more recent times, the Austrian Empire formed a monarchic union with the Hungarian Empire in 1867—creating Austria–Hungary—which ended in 1918 with the closure of World War I. In 1938, Austria was incorporated into Nazi Germany, creating a unification known as the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Austria was occupied by the Allies. In 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the country would become permanently neutral. The modern name of Austria, Österreich, can be traced back to the name Ostarrîchi, first documented in an official document from 996 AD. Brook-Shepherd 4 Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy, comprised of nine federal states. Lonnie Johnson 17 It is one of six European countries that have declared permanent neutrality, Lonnie Johnson 155–156 and one of the few countries that includes the concept of everlasting neutrality in its constitution. This fact has to be seen in connection with the constitutional changes since 1995, which left the military non-alignment partly intact while indirectly abolishing neutrality. The capital—and with a population exceeding 1.6 million, Austria's largest city—is Vienna. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $50,098. The country has developed a high standard of living, and in 2006 was ranked 14th in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, Jelavich 267 joined the European Union in 1995, and is a founder of the OECD. Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the European currency, the euro, in 1999. Etymology The German name is derived from Old German "Eastern Territory". The name was erroneously Latinised as "" (Latin auster "south wind", metaphorically "south" thus austrālis "southern" and so on. There is no evidence for the region being called "south" anything in any other language). can also mean "empire", and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the Austrian Empire/Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Holy Roman Empire, although not in the context of the modern Republic of . The term probably originates in a vernacular translation of the Medieval Latin name for the region: , which translates as "eastern marches" or "eastern borderland", as it was situated at the eastern edge of the Holy Roman Empire (and of the Duchy of Bavaria, respectively), that was also mirrored in the name Ostmark, for a short period applied after the Anschluss to Germany. However, Friedrich Heer, one the most important Austrian historians in the 20th century, stated in his book Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität (The Struggle Over Austrian Identity), that the Germanic form Ostarrîchi was not a translation of the Latin word, but both resulted from a much older term originating in the Celtic languages of ancient Austria: More than 2,500 years ago, the major part of the actual country was called Norig by the Celtic population (Hallstatt culture); No- or Nor- meant "east" or "eastern", whereas -rig is related to the modern German Reich; meaning "realm" (among other things). Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean Ostarrîchi and Österreich, thus Austria. The Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum, when the Romans conquered and Romanised the country that later became Austria. The name of Noricum was then used to designate the Roman province. The current official designation is the Republic of Austria (). It was earlier (after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) known from 1918 as the State of German Austria (), but the state was forced to change its name by the Treaty of Saint Germain to "Republik Österreich" "Republic of Austria". The name "Deutsch-Österreich" can be found on early 1920 stamps and money. The name was changed again during the Austro-fascist regime (1934–1938), into Federal State of Austria (), but restored after regaining independence and the birth of the "Second Austrian Republic" "Zweite Republik" (1945–present). During the period of monarchy, Austria was known as the Austrian Empire (). After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the empire became known as Austro-Hungarian Monarchy reflecting the dual monarchy character. History Settled in ancient times, the central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes. The Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the area was invaded by Bavarians, Slavs and Avars. The Slavic tribe of the Carantanians migrated into the Alps, and established the realm of Carantania, which covered much of eastern and central Austrian territory. Charlemagne conquered the area in 788 AD, encouraged colonisation, and introduced Christianity. Johnson 19 As part of Eastern Francia, the core areas that now encompass Austria were bequeathed to the house of Babenberg. The area was known as the marchia Orientalis and was given to Leopold of Babenberg in 976. Johnson 20–21 Coats of arms of the Habsburg Emperor in 1605 The first record showing the name Austria is from 996 where it is written as Ostarrîchi, referring to the territory of the Babenberg March. In 1156 the Privilegium Minus elevated Austria to the status of a duchy. In 1192, the Babenbergs also acquired the Duchy of Styria. With the death of Frederick II in 1246, the line of the Babenbergs went extinct. Johnson 21 As a result, Otakar II of Bohemia effectively assumed control of the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia. His reign came to an end with his defeat at Dürnkrut at the hands of Rudolf I of Germany in 1278. Lonnie Johnson 23 Thereafter, until World War I, Austria's history was largely that of its ruling dynasty, the Habsburgs. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria. In 1438, Duke Albert V of Austria was chosen as the successor to his father-in-law, Emperor Sigismund. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year, from then on, every emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was a Habsburg, with only one exception. The Habsburgs began also to accumulate lands far from the Hereditary Lands. In 1477, Archduke Maximilian, only son of Emperor Frederick III, married the heiress Maria of Burgundy, thus acquiring most of the Netherlands for the family. Lonnie Johnson 25 Brook-Shepherd 11 His son Philip the Fair married the heiress of Castile and Aragon, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian, African, and New World appendages for the Habsburgs. In 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, Bohemia and the part of Hungary not occupied by the Ottomans came under Austrian rule. Lonnie Johnson 26 Ottoman expansion into Hungary led to frequent conflicts between the two empires, particularly evident in the so-called Long War of 1593 to 1606. Battle of Vienna in 1683 broke the advance of the Ottoman Empire into Europe During the long reign of Leopold I (1657–1705) and following the successful defense of Vienna in 1683 (under the command of the King of Poland, John III Sobieski), Lonnie Johnson 26–28 a series of campaigns resulted in bringing all of Hungary to Austrian control by the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. Emperor Charles VI relinquished many of the fairly impressive gains the empire made in the previous years, largely due to his apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg. Charles was willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of the Pragmatic Sanction that made his daughter Maria Theresa his heir. With the rise of Prussia the Austrian–Prussian dualism began in Germany. Austria participated, together with Prussia and Russia, in the first and the third of the three Partitions of Poland (in 1772 and 1795). The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819. Austria later became engaged in a war with Revolutionary France—at the beginning highly unsuccessful—with successive defeats at the hands of Napoleon meaning the end of the old Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Two years earlier, Lonnie Johnson 34 in 1804, the Empire of Austria was founded. In 1814 Austria was part of the Allied forces that invaded France and brought to an end the Napoleonic wars. It thus emerged from the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as one of four of the continent's dominant powers and a recognised great power. The same year, the German Confederation, () was founded under the presidency of Austria. Because of unsolved social, political and national conflicts the German lands were shaken by the 1848 revolution aiming to create a unified Germany. Johnson 36 A unified Germany would have been possible either as a Greater Germany, or a Greater Austria or just the German Confederation without Austria at all. As Austria was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to what would become the German Empire of 1848 the crown of the new formed empire was offered to the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In 1864 Austria and Prussia fought together against Denmark, and successfully freed the independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Nevertheless as they could not agree on a solution to the administration of the two duchies, they fought in 1866 the Austro-Prussian War. Defeated by Prussia in the Battle of Königgrätz, Austria had to leave the German Confederation and subsequently no longer took part in German politics. Lonnie Johnson 55 Schulze 233 Archduke Franz Ferdinand (right) with his family The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Ausgleich, provided for a dual sovereignty, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, under Franz Joseph I. Lonnie Johnson 59 The Austrian-Hungarian rule of this diverse empire included various Slav groups such as Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Serbs and Croats, as well as large Italian and Romanian communities. As a result, ruling Austria-Hungary became increasingly difficult in an age of emerging nationalist movements. Yet the government of Austria tried its best to be accommodating in some respects: The Reichsgesetzblatt, publishing the laws and ordinances of Cisleithania, was issued in eight languages, all national groups were entitled to schools in their own language and to the use of their mothertongue at state offices, for example. The government of Hungary to the contrary tried to magyarise other ethnic entities. Thus the wishes of ethnic groups dwelling in both parts of the dual monarchy hardly could be solved. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 by Gavrilo Princip (a member of the Serbian nationalist group the Black Hand) Johnson 52–54 ) was used by leading Austrian and Hungarian politicians and generals to persuade the Emperor to declare war on Serbia, thereby risking and prompting the outbreak of World War I which led to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. On October 21, 1918, the elected German members of the Reichsrat (parliament of Imperial Austria) met in Vienna as the Provisional National Assembly for German Austria (Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich). On October 30 the assembly founded the State of German Austria by appointing a government, called Staatsrat. This new government was invited by the Emperor to take part in the decision on the planned armistice with Italy, but refrained from this business, leaving the responsibility for the end of the war on November 3, 1918 solely to the Emperor and his government. On November 11 the Emperor, counseled by ministers of the old and the new government, declared not to take part in state business any more; on November 12 German Austria, by law, declared to be a democratic republic and part of the new German republic. The constitution, renaming Staatsrat to Bundesregierung (federal government) and Nationalversammlung to Nationalrat (national council) was passed on 10 November 1920. Ethno-linguistic map of Austria-Hungary, 1910 The Treaty of Saint-Germain of 1919 (for Hungary the Treaty of Trianon of 1920) confirmed and consolidated the new order of Central Europe which to a great part had been established in November 1918, creating new states and resizing others. However, over 3 million German Austrians found themselves living outside of the newborn Austrian Republic in the respective states of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Italy. Brook-Shepherd 246 Between 1918 and 1919, Austria was officially known as the State of German Austria (). Not only did the Entente powers forbid German Austria to unite with Germany, they also ignored the name German Austria in the peace treaty to be signed; it was therefore changed to Republic of Austria in late 1919. Brook-Shepherd 245 Map of Austria-Hungary After the war, an enormous inflation started to devaluate the Krone, still Austria's currency. In the autumn of 1922, Austria was granted an international loan supervised by the League of Nations. Brook-Shepherd 257-8 The purpose of the loan was to avert bankruptcy, stabilise the currency, and improve its general economic condition. With the granting of the loan, Austria passed from an independent state to the control exercised by the League of Nations. In 1925, the Schilling, replacing the Krone by 10,000 : 1, was introduced. Later it was called the Alpine dollar due to its stability. From 1925 to 1929, economy enjoyed a short high before nearly crashing after Black Friday. The First Austrian Republic lasted until 1933 when Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, gladly using what he called "Self-switch-off of Parliament" (Selbstausschaltung des Parlaments), established an autocratic regime tending towards Italian fascism. Lonnie Johnson 104 Brook-Shepherd 269-70 The two big parties at this time—the Social Democrats and the Conservatives—had paramilitary armies; Brook-Shepherd 261 the Social Democrats' Schutzbund was now declared illegal but still operative Brook-Shepherd 261 as civil war broke out. Johnson 107 Orthodox Jews in Leopoldstadt. About 10% of the total population of Vienna were Jews In February 1934, several members of the Schutzbund were executed, Brook-Shepherd 283 the Social Democratic party was outlawed and many of its members were imprisoned or emigrated. On 1 May 1934 the Austrofascists imposed a new constitution ("Maiverfassung") which cemented Dollfuss's power but on 25 July he was assassinated in a Nazi coup attempt. Lonnie Johnson 109 Brook-Shepherd 292 His successor Kurt Schuschnigg struggled to keep Austria independent as "the better German state", but on 12 March 1938 German troops occupied the country Lonnie Johnson 112–3 while Austrian Nazis took over government. On 13 March 1938 the Anschluss of Austria was officially declared, and two days later Hitler, a native of Austria, proclaimed the re-unification of his home country with the rest of Germany on Vienna's Heldenplatz. He established a plebiscite confirming union with Germany in April 1938. Austria was incorporated into the Third Reich and ceased to exist as an independent state. The Nazis called Austria "Ostmark" until 1942 when it was again renamed and called "Alpen-Donau-Reichsgaue". Vienna fell on 13 April 1945 during the Soviet Vienna Offensive just before the total collapse of the Third Reich. Karl Renner astutely set up a Provisional Government in Vienna in April with the approval of the victorious Soviet forces, Lonnie Johnson 135–6 and declared Austria's secession from the Third Reich by the Declaration of Independence on 27 April 1945. Much like Germany, Austria, too, was divided into a British, a French, a Soviet and a U.S. Zone and governed by the Allied Commission for Austria. Lonnie Johnson 137 As forecast in the Moscow Declaration in 1943, there was a subtle difference in the treatment of Austria by the Allies. The Austrian Government, consisting of Social Democrats, Conservatives and Communists and residing in Vienna, which was surrounded by the Soviet zone, was recognised by the Western Allies in October 1945 after some doubts that Renner could be Stalin's puppet. Thereby the creation of a separate Western Austrian government and the division of the country could be avoided. Austria, in general, was treated as though it had been originally invaded by Germany and liberated by the Allies. Manfried Rauchensteiner: Der Sonderfall. Die Besatzungszeit in Österreich 1945 bis 1955 (The Special Case. The Time of Occupation in Austria 1945 to 1955), edited by Heeresgeschichtliches Museum / Militärwissenschaftliches Institut (Museum of Army History / Institute for Military Science), Vienna 1985 150x|Innsbruck hosted the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics After talks which lasted for years and were influenced by the Cold War, on 15 May 1955 Austria regained full independence by concluding the Austrian State Treaty with the Four Occupying Powers. On 26 October 1955 Austria declared its "permanent neutrality" by an act of Parliament, which remains to this day but has been indirectly changed by constitutional amendments concerning Austria as member of the European Union. Lonnie Johnson 153 The political system of the Second Republic is based on the constitution of 1920 and 1929, which was reintroduced in 1945. The system came to be characterised by Proporz, meaning that most posts of political importance were split evenly between members of the Social Democrats and the People's Party. Lonnie Johnson 139 Interest group "chambers" with mandatory membership (e.g. for workers, business people, farmers) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so that hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus. Lonnie Johnson 165 Since 1945, a single-party government took place only 1966−1970 (conservatives) and 1970−1983 (social democrats). During all other legislative periods, either a "Grand Coalition" (conservatives and social democrats) or a "Small Coalition" (one of these two and a smaller party) ruled the country. The country became a member of the European Union in 1995. Brook-Shepherd 447,449 The major parties SPÖ and ÖVP have contrary opinions about the future status of Austria's military non-alignment: While the SPÖ in public supports a neutral role, the ÖVP argues for stronger integration into the EU's security policy; even a future NATO membership is not ruled out by some ÖVP politicians. In reality, Austria is taking part in the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy, participates in the so called Petersburg Agenda (including peace keeping and peace creating tasks) and has become member of NATO's "Partnership for Peace"; constitution has been amended accordingly. Since 2008, due to the Schengen Agreement, the only neighbouring country performing border controls towards Austria is Liechtenstein. Politics Political system Austrian Parliament in Vienna The Parliament of Austria is located in Vienna, the country's largest city and capital. Austria became a federal, parliamentarian, democratic republic through the Federal Constitution of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine states of the Federal Republic. Lonnie Johnson 17, 142 The head of state is the Federal President (Bundespräsident), who is directly elected by popular vote. The chairman of the Federal Government is the Federal Chancellor, who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by vote of no confidence in the lower chamber of parliament, the Nationalrat. Voting for the federal president used to be compulsory in Austria, but this was abolished in steps from 1982 to 2004. The Parliament of Austria consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat (183 seats) is determined every five years (or whenever the Nationalrat has been dissolved by the federal president on a motion by the federal chancellor, or by Nationalrat itself) by a general election in which every citizen over 16 years (since 2007) has voting rights. While there is a general threshold of 4 percent for all parties at federal elections (Nationalratswahlen), there remains the possibility to gain a direct seat, or , in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the Bundesrat, has a limited right of veto (the Nationalrat can—in almost all cases—ultimately pass the respective bill by voting a second time. This is referred to as 'Beharrungsbeschluss, lit. "vote of persistence"). A convention, called the was convened in June 30, 2003 to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. With legislative and executive, the courts are the third column of Austrian state powers. Notably the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof) may exert considerable influence on the political system by ruling out laws and ordinances not in compliance with the constitution. Since 1995, the European Court of Justice may overrule Austrian decisions in all matters defined in laws of the European Union. Concerning human rights, Austria also is implementing the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights, since the European Convention on Human Rights is part of the Austrian constitution. Recent developments After general elections held in October 2006, the Social Democrats emerged as the largest party, whereas the People's Party lost about 8% in votes. Political realities prohibited any of the two major parties from forming a coalition with smaller parties. In January 2007 the People's Party and Social Democrats formed a Grand Coalition with the social democrat Alfred Gusenbauer as Chancellor. This coalition broke-up in June 2008. Elections in September 2008 further weakened both major parties (Social Democrats and People's Party) but together they still held more than 50% of the votes with the Social Democrats holding the majority. They formed a coalition with Werner Faymann from the Social Democrats as Chancellor. The positions of the Freedom Party and the deceased Jörg Haider's new party Alliance for the Future of Austria, both right-wing parties, were strengthened during the election. Foreign policy Embassy of Austria in London The 1955 Austrian State Treaty ended the occupation of Austria following World War II and recognised Austria as an independent and sovereign state. On 26 October 1955, the Federal Assembly passed a constitutional article in which "Austria declares of her own free will her perpetual neutrality". The second section of this law stated that "in all future times Austria will not join any military alliances and will not permit the establishment of any foreign military bases on her territory". Since then, Austria has shaped its foreign policy on the basis of neutrality, but rather different from the neutrality of Switzerland. Austria began to reassess its definition of neutrality following the fall of the Soviet Union, granting overflight rights for the UN-sanctioned action against Iraq in 1991, and, since 1995, it has developed participation in the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). Also in 1995, it joined the Partnership for Peace and subsequently participated in peacekeeping missions in Bosnia. Meanwhile, the only part of the Constitutional Law on Neutrality of 1955 still valid fully is not to allow foreign military bases in Austria. Austria attaches great importance to participation in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and other international economic organisations, and it has played an active role in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Energy politics In 1972, the country began construction of a nuclear-powered electricity-generation station at Zwentendorf on the River Danube, following a unanimous vote in parliament. However, in 1978, a referendum voted approximately 50.5% against nuclear power, 49.5% for, Lonnie Johnson 168–9 and parliament subsequently unanimously passed a law forbidding the use of nuclear power to generate electricity. Austria currently produces more than half of its electricity by hydropower. Together with other renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass powerplants, the electricity supply from renewable energy amounts to 62.89% of total use in Austria, with the rest being produced by gas and oil powerplants. Military Austrian Guard Company on parade, July 14th 2007, Champs Elysées, Paris. The manpower of the Austrian Armed Forces () mainly relies on conscription. All males who have reached the age of eighteen and are found fit serve a six months military service, which can be postponed under some circumstances. Conscientious objection is legally acceptable and those who claim this right are obliged to serve an institutionalised nine months civilian service instead. Since 1998, women volunteers have been allowed to become professional soldiers. The main sectors of the Bundesheer are Joint Forces (Streitkräfteführungskommando, SKFüKdo) which consist of Land Forces (Landstreitkräfte), Air Forces (Luftstreitkräfte), International Missions (Internationale Einsätze) and Special Forces (Spezialeinsatzkräfte), next to Mission Support (Kommando Einsatzunterstützung; KdoEU) and Command Support (Kommando Führungsunterstützung; KdoFüU). Being a landlocked country, Austria has no navy. In 2004, Austria's defence expenditures corresponded to approximately 0.9% of its GDP. The Army currently has about 45,000 soldiers, of which about half are conscripts. As head of state, Austrian President (currently Heinz Fischer) is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the Bundesheer. In practical reality, however, command of the Austrian Armed Forces is almost exclusively exercised by the Minister of Defense, currently Norbert Darabos. Austrian Army Leopard 2 main battle tank Since the end of the Cold War, and more importantly the removal of the former heavily guarded "Iron Curtain" separating Austria and Hungary, the Austrian military has been assisting Austrian border guards in trying to prevent border crossings by illegal immigrants. This assistance came to an end when Hungary joined the EU Schengen area in 2008, for all intents and purposes abolishing "internal" border controls between treaty states. Some politicians have called for a prolongation of this mission, but the legality of this is heavily disputed. In accordance with the Austrian constitution, armed forces may only be deployed in a limited number of cases, mainly to defend the country and aid in cases of national emergency, such as in the wake of natural disasters. They may generally not be used as auxiliary police forces. Within its self-declared status of permanent neutrality, Austria has a long and proud tradition of engaging in UN-led peacekeeping and other humanitarian missions. The Austrian Forces Disaster Relief Unit (AFDRU), in particular, an all-volunteer unit with close ties to civilian specialists (e.g. rescue dog handlers) enjoys a reputation as a quick (standard deployment time is 10 hours) and efficient SAR unit. Currently, larger contingents of Austrian forces are deployed in Bosnia, Kosovo and, since 1974, in the Golan Heights. States As a federal republic, Austria is divided into nine states (). These states are then divided into districts () and statutory cities (). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (). Statutory Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions but have some legislative authority distinct from the federal government, e.g. in matters of culture, social care, youth and nature protection, hunting, building, and zoning ordinances. In recent years, it has been discussed whether today it is appropriate for a small country to maintain ten parliaments. Geography Topography of Austria Countryside of Schröcken Sankt Anton am Arlberg Austria is a largely mountainous country due to its location in the Alps. The Central Eastern Alps, Northern Limestone Alps and Southern Limestone Alps are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84 000 km² or 32,000 sq. mi), only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft). The Alps of western Austria give way somewhat into low lands and plains in the eastern part of the country. Austria can be divided into five areas, the biggest being the Austrian Alps, which constitute 62% of nation's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the Alps and the Carpathians account for around 12% and the foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian granite plateau, it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the Vienna basin comprises the remaining 4%. The six highest mountains in Austria are: Name Height (m) Height (ft) Range Großglockner Hohe Tauern</tr> Wildspitze Ötztal Alps</tr> Weißkugel Ötztal Alps</tr> Großvenediger Hohe Tauern</tr> Similaun Ötztal Alps</tr> Großes Wiesbachhorn Hohe Tauern Phytogeographically, Austria belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Austria can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, Alps conifer and mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests. Climate The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate climate zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the Alps, the alpine climate is the predominant one. In the east—in the Pannonian Plain and along the Danube valley—the climate shows continental features with less rain than the alpine areas. Although Austria is cold in the winter, summer temperatures can be relatively warm—reaching 20-35 degrees Celsius. Economy Modern Vienna Austria is one of the 12 richest countries in the world in terms of GDP (Gross domestic product) per capita, has a well-developed social market economy, and a high standard of living. Until the 1980s, many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised; in recent years, however, privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. Next to a highly-developed industry, international tourism is the most important part of the national economy. Germany has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the German economy. However, since Austria became a member state of the European Union it has gained closer ties to other European Union economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to the aspiring economies of the European Union. Growth in GDP accelerated in recent years and reached 3.3% in 2006. Real GDP Growth – Expenditure Side, provided by the Austrian National Bank Currency In 1999, Austria introduced the single European currency, the euro. With 15 other EU member states it forms the Eurozone. In Austria, the euro was introduced as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, and euro coins and banknotes entered circulation on 1 January 2002. As a preparation for this date, the minting of the new euro coins started as early as 1999, however all Austrian euro coins introduced in 2002 have this year on it; unlike other countries of the Eurozone where mint year is minted in the coin. Eight different designs, one per face value, were selected for the Austrian coins. In 2007, in order to adopt the new common map like the rest of the Eurozone countries, Austria changed the common side of its coins. Before adopting the Euro in 2002 Austria had maintained use of the Austrian schilling which was first established in December 1924. The Schilling was abolished in the wake of the Anschluss in 1938 and has been reintroduced after the end of the World War II in November 1945. Austria has one of the richest collection of collectors' coins in the Eurozone, with face value ranging from 10 to 100 euro (although a 100,000 euro coin was exceptionally minted in 2004). These coins are a legacy of an old national practice of minting of silver and gold coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins are not legal tender in all the eurozone. For instance, a €5 Austrian commemorative coin cannot be used in any other country. Education Responsibility for educational oversight in Austria is entrusted partly to the Austrian states (Bundesländer), and partly to the federal government. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between the ages of three and six years. School attendance is compulsory for nine years, i.e. usually to the age of fifteen. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Austria's education as the 18th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/8/39700724.pdf Primary education lasts for four years. Alongside Germany, secondary education includes two main types of schools based on a pupil's ability as determined by grades from the primary school: the Gymnasium for the more gifted children which normally leads to the Matura which is a requirement for access to universities and the Hauptschule which prepares pupils for vocational education but also for further education (HTL = institution of higher technical education; = commercial academy; HBLA = institution of higher education for economic business; etc.), where you also get the Matura. The Austrian university system had been open to any student who passed the Matura examination until recently. A 2006 bill allowed the introduction of entrance exams for studies such as Medicine. Currently all EU students are charged a fee of about €370 per semester for all university studies. A recent OECD report criticised the Austrian education system for the low number of students attending universities and the overall low number of academics compared to other OECD countries. Demographics Linz Austria's population estimate in January 2009 was 8,356,707. The population of the capital, Vienna, exceeds 1.6 million (2.2 million including the suburbs), representing about a quarter of the country's population and is known for its vast cultural offerings and high standard of living. In contrast to the capital, other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants: the second largest city Graz is home to 250,099 inhabitants, followed by Linz (188,968), Salzburg (150,000), and Innsbruck (117,346). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. German-speaking, by far the country's largest group, form roughly 90% of Austria's population. The Austrian federal states of Carinthia and Styria are home to a significant indigenous Slovene speaking minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of up to 50,000). In the east-most state, Burgenland (formerly part of the Hungarian half of Austria-Hungary), about 20,000 Austrian citizens speak Hungarian and 30,000 speak Croatian. Of the remaining number of Austria's people that are of non-Austrian descent, many come from surrounding countries, especially from the former East Bloc nations. So-called guest workers (Gastarbeiter) and their descendants, as well as refugees from the Yugoslav wars and other conflicts, also form an important minority group in Austria. Since 1994 the Roma-Sinti (gypsies) are an officially recognised ethnic minority in Austria. A painting by Canaletto of Vienna during the first half of the eighteenth century According to census information published by Statistik Austria for the year 2001 there were a total of 710,926 foreign nationals living in Austria. Of these, 124,392 speak German as their mother tongue (mainly immigrants from Germany, some from Switzerland and Bolzano-Bozen, Italy) The next largest populations of linguistic and ethnic groups are 240,863 foreign nationals from the former Yugoslavia (Serbian being the largest number of these at 135,376, followed by Croatian at 105,487); 123,417 Turkish nationals; 25,155 whose native tongue is English; 24,446 Albanian; 17,899 Polish; 14,699 Hungarian; 12,216 Romanian; 7,982 Arabs; 6,902 Slovenes (not including the autochthonous minority); 6,891 Slovaks; 6,707 Czech; 5,916 Persian; 5,677 Italian; 5,466 Russian; 5,213 French; 4,938 Chinese; 4,264 Spanish; 3,503 Bulgarian. The populations of the rest fall off sharply below 3,000. Between 200,000 and 300,000 ethnic Turks (including minority of Turkish Kurds) currently live in Austria. They are the largest single immigrant group in Austria. "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Austria : Turks". Minority Rights Group International, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Austria : Turks, 2008. Online. UNHCR Refworld The mother tongue of the population by prevalence, is German (88.6%) followed by Turkish (2.3%), Serbian (2.2%), Croatian (1.6%), Hungarian (0.5%) and Bosnian (0.4%). The official language, German, is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the country, however, belong to Austro-Bavarian groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its western-most Bundesland, Vorarlberg, which belongs to the group of Alemannic dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for Austrian German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany. As of 2006, some of the Austrian states introduced standardised tests for new citizens, to assure their language ability, cultural knowledge and accordingly their ability to integrate into the Austrian society. Requirements to become an Austrian citizen, provided by the Viennese state government For the national rules, see Austrian nationality law – Naturalisation. Politics concerning ethnic groups () An estimated 13,000 to 40,000 Slovenes in the Austrian state of Carinthia (the Carinthian Slovenes) as well as Croats (around 30,000) and Hungarians in Burgenland were recognised as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty () of 1955. Lonnie Johnson 153 The Slovenes in the Austrian state of Styria (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognised as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27, 1955 states otherwise. The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene- and Croat-Austrians live alongside the Germanic population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases show parts of Carinthia as Slovene cultural territory. The recently deceased governor, Jörg Haider, has made this fact a matter of public argument in autumn 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called "Windischen-Theorie" http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windischen-Theorie stating that the Slovenes can be split in two groups: actual Slovenes and Windische (a traditional German name for Slavs), based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenes, who were taught Slovene standard language in school and those Slovenes who spoke their local Slovene dialect but went to German schools. The term Windische was applied to the latter group as a means of distinction. This politically influenced theory, dividing Slovene Austrians into the "loyal Windische" and the "national Slovenes", was never generally accepted and fell out of use some decades ago. Religion Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, also Charles I of Spain, Austrian Habsburg ruler and one of the major figures of the Counter-Reformation At the end of the twentieth century, about 74% of Austria's population were registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% considered themselves Protestants. Austrian Christians are obliged to pay a mandatory membership fee (calculated by income—about 1%) to their church; this payment is called "Kirchensteuer" ("Ecclesiastical/Church tax"). About 12% of the population declare that they have no religion. Of the remaining people, around 340,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities, mainly due to the influx from Turkey, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Albania. About 180,000 are members of Eastern Orthodox Churches, more than 20,000 are active Jehovah's Witnesses Statistics: 2005 Report of Jehovah's Witnesses Worldwide. and about 8,100 are Jewish. The Austrian Jewish Community of 1938—Vienna alone counted more than 200,000—was reduced to solely 4,000 to 5,000 during the Second World War, with approximately 65,000 Jewish Austrians killed in the Holocaust and 130,000 emigrating. Expulsion, Deportation and Murder - History of the Jews in Vienna Vienna Webservice The large majority of the current Jewish population are post-war immigrants, particularly from eastern Europe and central Asia (including Bukharian Jews). Bukharian Jews find homes on Long Island, Bukharian Reviews, September 16, 2004 Buddhism was legally recognised as a religion in Austria in 1983. According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 54% of Austrian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God". 34% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force". 8% answered that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". Alter Dom, Linz While northern and central Germany was the origin of the Reformation, Austria and Bavaria were the heart of the Counter-Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the absolute monarchy of Habsburg imposed a strict regime to restore Catholicism's power and influence among Austrians. Lonnie Johnson 28 Brook-Shepherd 16 The Habsburgs for a long time viewed themselves as the vanguard of Catholicism and all other confessions and religions were repressed. In 1781, in the era of Austrian enlightenment, Emperor Joseph II issued a Patent of Tolerance for Austria that allowed other confessions a limited freedom of worship. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right in Cisleithania after the Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich in 1867 thus paying tribute to the fact that the monarchy was home of numerous religions beside Roman Catholicism such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian Orthodox Christians (Austria neighboured the Ottoman Empire for centuries), Calvinist, Lutheran Protestants and Jews. In 1912, after the annexation of Bosnia Hercegovina in 1908, the Islam was officially recognised in Austria. Austria remained largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918, First Republic Catholic leaders such as Theodor Innitzer and Ignaz Seipel took leading positions within or close to Austria's government and increased their influence during the time of the Austrofascism; Catholicism was treated much like a state religion by Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg. Although Catholic (and Protestant) leaders initially welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the Anschluss of Austria into Germany, Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of Nazism later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the Third Reich. After the end of World War II in 1945, a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria, and religious influence on politics declined. Culture Music Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) Austria's past as a European power and its cultural environment have generated a broad contribution to various forms of art, most notably among them music. Austria has been the birthplace of many famous composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. and Gustav Mahler as well as members of the Second Viennese School such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg. Vienna has long been especially an important centre of musical innovation. Eighteenth and nineteenth century composers were drawn to the city due to the patronage of the Habsburgs, and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music. Vienna's status began its rise as a cultural center in the early 1500s, and was focused around instruments including the lute. Ludwig van Beethoven spent the better part of his life in Vienna. Austria's current national anthem, attributed to Mozart, was chosen after World War II to replace the traditional Austrian anthem by Joseph Haydn. Austria has also produced one notable jazz musician, keyboardist Josef Zawinul who helped pioneer electronic influences in jazz as well as being a notable composer in his own right. Falco was an internationally acclaimed pop and rock musician. The Belvedere Palace, an example of Baroque architecture Art and architecture Among Austrian Artists and architects one can find the painters Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Rudolf von Alt, Hans Makart,Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele, Carl Moll, and Friedensreich Hundertwasser, the photographers Inge Morath and Ernst Haas and architects like Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos, and Hans Hollein. Science, philosophy and economics Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists with international reputation. Among them are Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess and Christian Doppler, prominent scientists in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, contributions by Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger and Wolfgang Pauli to nuclear research and quantum mechanics were key to these areas' development during the 1920s and 1930s. A present-day quantum physicist is Anton Zeilinger, noted as the first scientist to demonstrate quantum teleportation. In addition to physicists, Austria was the birthplace of two of the greatest philosophers of the twentieth century, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper. In addition to them biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel and engineers such as Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Marcus were Austrians. A focus of Austrian science has always been medicine and psychology, starting in medieval times with Paracelsus. Eminent physicians like Theodore Billroth, Clemens von Pirquet, and Anton von Eiselsberg have built upon the achievements of the 19th century Vienna School of Medicine. Austria was home to psychologists Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Paul Watzlawick and Hans Asperger and psychiatrist Viktor Frankl. The Austrian School of Economics, which is prominent as one of the main competitive directions for economic theory, is related to Austrian economists Joseph Schumpeter, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, and Friedrich Hayek. Other noteworthy Austrian-born émigrés include the management thinker Peter Drucker, scientist Sir Gustav Nossal, the 38th Governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger and mathematician/philosopher Georg Kreisel. Literature Complementing its status as a land of artists and scientists, Austria has always been a country of poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Bernhard, Franz Kafka, and Robert Musil, of poets Georg Trakl, Franz Werfel, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Adalbert Stifter, and of writer Karl Kraus. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Nobel prize winner Elfriede Jelinek, Peter Handke and Daniel Kehlmann. Cuisine The Viennoise Austria's cuisine is derived from that of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austrian cuisine is mainly the tradition of Royal-Cuisine ("Hofküche") delivered over centuries. It is famous for its well-balanced variations of beef and pork and countless variations of vegetables. There is also the "Mehlspeisen" Bakery, which created particular delicacies such as Sachertorte, "Krapfen" which are doughnuts usually filled with apricot marmalade or custard, and "Strudel" such as "Apfelstrudel" and "Topfenstrudel" filled with sweetened sour cream. In addition to native regional traditions, the cuisine has been influenced by Hungarian, Bohemia Czech, Jewish, Italian, Balkan and French cuisine, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. The Austrian cuisine is therefore one of the most multicultural and transcultural in Europe. Wiener Schnitzel Typical Austrian dishes include Wiener Schnitzel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. There are also Kärntner Kasnockn, a cooked filled dough-bag with a type of cottage cheese and spearmint, and Eierschwammerl (also called pfifferling) (chanterelle) dishes. The Eierschwammerl are native yellow, tan mushrooms. The candy PEZ was invented in Austria, also "Mannerschnitten". Austria is also famous for its Mozartkugeln and its coffee tradition. Sports Salzburg Stadium, Home of the FC RB Salzburg Due to the mountainous terrain, alpine skiing is a prominent sport in Austria. Similar sports such as snowboarding or ski-jumping are also widely popular. The most popular team sport in Austria is football. However, Austria rarely has international success in this discipline, going out in the first round of the 2008 UEFA European Football Championship which was co-hosted with Switzerland. Besides football, Austria also has professional national leagues for most major team sports including ice hockey and basketball. Bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton are also popular events with a permanent track located in Igls, which hosted bobsleigh and luge competitions for the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics held in Innsbruck. The first Winter Youth Olympics in 2012 will be held in Innsbruck as well. See also Notes References External links Government Federal Chancellery of Austria official government portal AEIOU Austria Albums (in German, English) Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Austria information from the United States Department of State Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress Austria at UCB Libraries GovPubs Travel Austria.info Official homepage of the Austrian National Tourist Office Austria.mu Homepage of the Austrian Museums TourMyCountry.com Website on Austrian culture, cuisine and tourist attractions Other Austria News News from Austria () Austrian Law Information on Austrian Law World Intellectual Property Handbook: Austria History of Austria: Primary Documents from EuroDocs Guide to materials pertaining to Austria, Dwight D. 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3,709 | Eli_Whitney | Eli Whitney (December 8, 1765 – January 8, 1825) was an American inventor best known as the inventor of the cotton gin. This was one of the key inventions of the industrial revolution and shaped the economy of the antebellum South. Whitney's invention made short staple cotton into a profitable crop, which strengthened the economic foundation of slavery. Despite the social and economic impact of his invention, Whitney lost his profits in legal battles over patent infringement, closed his business, and nearly filed bankruptcy. Early life Whitney was born in Westborough, Massachusetts, on December 8, 1765, the eldest child of Eli Whitney Sr., a prosperous farmer and his mother, Elizabeth Fay of Westborough, died when he was eleven. At age fourteen he operated a profitable nail manufacturing operation in his father's workshop during the Revolutionary War. MIT Inventor of the Week archive profile. From a website funded and administered by Lemelson-MIT Program. Accessed 18 March 2008. Because his stepmother opposed his wish to attend college, Whitney worked as a farm laborer and schoolteacher to save money. He prepared for Yale at Leicester Academy (now Becker College) and under the tutelage of Rev.Elizur Goodrich of Durham, Connecticut he entered the Class of 1789. Whitney expected to study law but, finding himself short of funds, accepted an offer to go to South Carolina as a private tutor. Instead of reaching his destination, he was convinced to visit Georgia. In the closing years of the eighteenth century, Georgia was a magnet for New Englanders seeking their fortunes (its Revolutionary era governor had been Lyman Hall, a migrant from Connecticut). When he initially sailed for South Carolina, among his shipmates were the widow and family of Revolutionary hero, General Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island. Mrs. Greene invited Whitney to visit her Georgia plantation, Mulberry Grove. Her plantation manager and husband-to-be was Phineas Miller, another Connecticut migrant and Yale graduate (Class of 1785), who would become Whitney's business partner. Whitney is most famous for two innovations which later divided the United States in the mid-19th century: the cotton gin (1793), and his advocacy of interchangeable parts. In the South, the cotton gin revolutionized the way cotton was harvested and reinvigorated slavery. While in the North, the adoption of interchangeable parts revolutionized the manufacturing industry, and in time contributed greatly to their victory in the Civil War. New Georgia Encyclopedia: Eli Whitney in Georgia Accessed 19 March 2008. Career inventions Interchangeable parts Though Whitney is popularly credited with the invention of a musket that could be manufactured with interchangeable parts, the idea predated him. The idea is credited to Jean Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, a French artillerist, and credits for finally perfecting the "armory system," or American system of manufacturing, is given by historian Merritt Roe Smith to Captain John H. Hall and by historian Diana Muir writing in Reflections in Bullough's Pond to Simeon North. In From the American System to Mass Production, historian David A. Hounshell described how de Gribeauval's idea propagated from France to the colonies via two routes: from Honoré Blanc through his friend Thomas Jefferson, and via Major Louis de Tousard, another French artillerist who was instrumental in establishing West Point, teaching the young officer corps of the Continental Army, and establishing the armories at Springfield and Harpers Ferry. By the late 1790s, Whitney was on the verge of bankruptcy and cotton gin litigation had left him deeply in debt. His New Haven cotton gin factory had burned to the ground, and litigation sapped his remaining resources. The French Revolution had ignited new conflicts between Great Britain, France, and the United States. The new American government, realizing the need to prepare for war, began to rearm. The War Department issued contracts for the manufacture of 10,000 muskets. Whitney, who had never made a gun in his life, obtained a contract in January, 1798 to deliver ten to fifteen thousand muskets in 1800. He had not mentioned interchangeable parts at that time. Ten months later, Treasury Secretary Wolcott sent him a "foreign pamphlet on arms manufacturing techniques," possibly one of Honoré Blanc's reports, after which Whitney first began to talk about interchangeability. After spending most of 1799-1801 in cotton gin litigation, Whitney began promoting the idea of interchangeable parts, and even arranged a public demonstration of the concept in order to gain time. He did not deliver on the contract until 1809, but then spent the rest of his life publicizing the idea of interchangeability. Whitney's defenders have claimed that he invented the American system of manufacturing -- the combination of power machinery, interchangeable parts, and division of labor that would underlie the nation's subsequent industrial revolution. While there is persuasive evidence that he failed to achieve interchangeability, his use of power machinery and specialized division of labor are well documented Woodbury, Robert S. (1960). "The Legend of Eli Whitney and Interchangeable Parts." Technology & Culture 1. . When the government complained that Whitney's price per musket compared unfavorably with those produced in government armories, Whitney was able to calculate an actual price per musket by including fixed costs such as insurance and machinery, which the government had not included. He thus made early contributions to both the concept of cost accounting, and the concept of the efficiency of private industry. Cotton gin The cotton gin is a mechanical device which removes the seeds from cotton, a process which, until the time of its invention, had been extremely labor-intensive. The cotton gin was a wooden drum stuck with hooks, which pulled the cotton fibers through a mesh. The cotton seeds would not fit through the mesh and fell outside. Whitney occasionally told a story where he was pondering an improved method of seeding the cotton and he was inspired by observing a cat attempting to pull a chicken through a fence, and could only pull through some of the feathers. A single cotton gin could generate up to fifty-five pounds of cleaned cotton daily. This contributed to the economic development of the Southern states of the United States, a prime cotton growing area; some historians believe that this invention allowed for the African slavery system in the Southern United States to become more sustainable at a critical point in its development. Cotton Gin Patent. It shows sawtooth gin blades, which were not part of Whitney's original patent. Whitney received a patent (later numbered as X72) for his cotton gin on March 14, 1794; however, it was not validated until 1807. Whitney and his partner Miller did not intend to sell the gins. Rather, like the proprietors of grist and sawmills, they expected to charge farmers for cleaning their cotton - two-fifths of the profits, paid in cotton. Resentment at this scheme, the mechanical simplicity of the device, and the primitive state of patent law, made infringement inevitable. As Whitney and Miller were unable to produce enough gins to meet demand, imitation gins began to spread. Ultimately, patent infringement lawsuits consumed the profits and their cotton gin company went out of business in 1797. MIT Inventor of the Week archive profile. From a website funded and administered by Lemelson-MIT Program. Accessed 18 March 2008. While the cotton gin did not earn Whitney the fortune he had hoped for, it did give him fame and the cotton gin transformed Southern agriculture and the national economy. The Eli Whitney Museum and Workshop A website for The Eli Whitney Museum in Hamden, CT. Southern cotton found ready markets in Europe and in the burgeoning textile mills of New England. Cotton agriculture revived the profitability of slavery and the political power of supporters of the South's "peculiar institution." By the 1820s, the dominant issues in American politics were driven by "King Cotton": maintaining the political balance between slave and free states and tariff protection for American industry. Cotton exports from the South boomed after the cotton gin's appearance (going from 180,000 pounds of total cotton production in 1793 to 93 million tons by 1810) while New England manufacturing companies struggled to compete against imported goods and clamored for tariff protection. The cotton interests led the country into war with Mexico, expecting a vast expansion of cotton agriculture. Cotton was a staple that could be stored for long periods and shipped long distances, unlike most agricultural food production. Paradoxically, the cotton gin, a labor-saving device, helped preserve the weakening arguments for slavery, since cheap (slave) labor was needed to pick cotton. Later, the 20th century invention of the cotton-picker reduced the labor-intensive demands of cotton farming, and brought unemployment to many poor Southerners. Milling machine Machine tool historian Joseph W. Roe credited Eli Whitney with inventing the first milling machine. Subsequent work by other historians (Woodbury, Smith, Muir) suggests that Whitney was among a group of contemporaries all developing milling machines at about the same time (1814 to 1818). Therefore, no one person can properly be described as "the inventor of the milling machine". Later life and legacy South side of Eli Whitney monument in the Grove Street Cemetery, New Haven, Connecticut North side of monument Despite his humble origins, Whitney was keenly aware of the value of social and political connections. In building his arms business, he took full advantage of the access that his status as a Yale alumnus gave him to other well-placed graduates, such as Secretary of War Oliver Wolcott (Class of 1778) and New Haven developer and political leader James Hillhouse. His 1817 marriage to Henrietta Edwards, granddaughter of the famed evangelist Jonathan Edwards, daughter of Pierpont Edwards, head of the Democratic Party in Connecticut, and first cousin of Yale's president, Timothy Dwight, the state's leading Federalist, further tied him to Connecticut's ruling elite. In a business dependent on government contracts, such connections were essential to success. Whitney died at age 59 of prostate cancer on January 8, 1825, in New Haven, CT, leaving a widow and four children. During the course of his illness, he invented and constructed several devices to ease his pain mechanically. These devices, drawings of which are in his collected papers, were effective but were never manufactured for use of others due to his heirs' reluctance to trade in "indelicate" items. At his death, his armory was left in the charge of his talented nephews, Eli Whitney Blake and Philos Blake, notable inventors and manufacturers in their own right (they invented the mortise lock and the stone-crushing machine). Eli Whitney Blake (1820-1894) assumed control of the armory in 1841. Working under contract to inventor Samuel Colt, the younger Whitney manufactured the famous "Whitneyville Walker Colts" for the Texas Rangers. The success of this contract rescued Colt from financial ruin and enabled him to establish his own famous arms company. Whitney's marriage to Sarah Dalliba, daughter of the U.S. Army's chief of ordinance, helped to assure the continuing success of his business. The younger Whitney organized the New Haven Water Company, which began operations in 1862. While this enterprise addressed the city's need for water, it also enabled Whitney to increase the amount of power available for his manufacturing operations at the expense of the water company's stockholders. A new dam made it possible to consolidate his operations—originally located in three sites along the Mill River—in a single plant. This dam still exists. Whitney's grandson, Eli Whitney IV (1847-1924), sold the Whitney Armory to Winchester Repeating Arms, another notable New Haven gun company, in 1888. He served as president of the water company until his death and was a major New Haven business and civic leader. He played an important role in the development of New Haven's Ronan-Edgehill Neighborhood. Following the closure of the armory, the factory site continued to be used for a variety of industrial purposes, including the water company. Many of the original armory buildings remained intact until the 1960s. In the 1970s, as part of the Bicentennial celebration, interested citizens organized the Eli Whitney Museum, which opened to the public in 1984. The site today includes the boarding house and barn that served Eli Whitney's original workers and a stone storage building from the original armory. Museum exhibits and programs are housed in a factory building constructed c. 1910. A water company office building constructed in the 1880s now houses educational programs operated by the South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority (which succeeded the New Haven Water Company). Eli Whitney and his descendants are buried in New Haven's historic Grove Street Cemetery. Yale College's Eli Whitney Students Program, which is one of the four doors into Yale College, is named after Whitney in recognition of his venerable age at the time of his entrance to Yale College in 1789; he was twenty-three years old. References Further reading Battison, Edwin. (1960). "Eli Whitney and the Milling Machine." Smithsonian Journal of History I. Cooper, Carolyn, & Lindsay, Merrill K. (1980). Eli Whitney and the Whitney Armory. Whitneyville, CT: Eli Whitney Museum. Dexter, Franklin B. (1911). "Eli Whitney." Yale Biographies and Annals, 1792-1805. New York, NY: Henry Holt & Company. Hall, Karyl Lee Kibler, & Cooper, Carolyn. (1984). Windows on the Works: Industry on the Eli Whitney Site, 1798-1979. Hamden, CT: Eli Whitney Museum Lakwete, Angela. (2004). Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Smith, Merritt Roe. 1973. "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Antebellum Arms Makers." Technology & Culture 14. Woodbury, Robert S. (1960). "The Legend of Eli Whitney and Interchangeable Parts." Technology & Culture 1. 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3,710 | Standard_works | Quadruple Combination format of the Standard Works The Standard Works of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) consists of several books that constitute its open scriptural canon, and include the following: The Holy Bible (King James version) The LDS Church uses the King James Version (KJV) in English-speaking countries; other versions are used in non-English speaking countries. The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Pearl of Great Price The Standard Works are printed and distributed by the LDS church in a single binding called a Quadruple Combination or a set of two books, with the Bible in one binding, and the other three books in a second binding called a Triple Combination. Current editions of the standard works include a bible dictionary, photographs, maps and gazeteer, topical guide, index, footnotes, cross references, excerpts from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible (JST) and other study aids. Continuing revelation Under the Church's doctrine of continuing revelation (see the Ninth Article of Faith), Latter-day Saints believe literally in the principle of revelation from God to his children. Individual members are entitled to divine revelation for confirmation of truths, gaining knowledge or wisdom, meeting personal challenges, etc. Parents are entitled to revelation for raising their families. Divine revelation for the direction of the entire Church comes from God to the President of the Church, who is viewed by Latter-day Saints as a prophet in the same sense as Noah, Abraham, Moses, Peter, and other biblical leaders. When prophets and General Authorities of the Church speak as "moved upon by the Holy Ghost", ...shall be scripture, shall be the will of the Lord, shall be the mind of the Lord, shall be the word of the Lord, shall be the voice of the Lord, and the power of God unto salvation.(Doctrine & Covenants 68:4). Members are encouraged to ponder these revelations and pray to determine for themselves the truthfulness of doctrine. Adding to the canon of scripture The Doctrine and Covenants teaches that "all things must be done in order, and by common consent in the church."(). This applies to adding new scripture. President of the Church Harold B. Lee taught "The only one authorized to bring forth any new doctrine is the President of the Church, who, when he does, will declare it as revelation from God, and it will be so accepted by the Council of the Twelve and sustained by the body of the Church." Harold B. Lee, The First Area General Conference for Germany, Austria, Holland, Italy, Switzerland, France, Belgium, and Spain of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, held in Munich Germany, August 24–26, 1973, with Reports and Discourses, 69. There are six recorded instances of this happening in the LDS church: April 6, 1830 - When the church was organized, the Bible and Book of Mormon were unanimously accepted as scripture. August 17, 1835 - Select revelations from Joseph Smith were unanimously accepted as scripture. Joseph Smith, B.F. Roberts (ed.) (1902). History of the Church, 2:243–246. These were later printed in the Doctrine and Covenants. October 10, 1880 - The Pearl of Great Price was unanimously accepted as scripture. Introductory Note Also at that time, other revelations in the Doctrine and Covenants which had not been accepted as scripture because they were received after 1835 were unanimously accepted as scripture. "I hold in my hand the Book of Doctrine and Covenants, and also the book, The Pearl of Great Price, which books contain revelations of God. In Kirtland, the Doctrine and Covenants in its original form, as first printed, was submitted to the officers of the Church and the members of the Church to vote upon. As there have been additions made to it by the publishing of revelations which were not contained in the original edition, it has been deemed wise to submit these books with their contents to the conference, to see whether the conference will vote to accept the books and their contents as from God, and binding upon us as a people and as a Church" George Q. Cannon, "Comments," Millennial Star 42/46 (15 November 1880): 724. (10 October 1880, General Conference) October 6, 1890 - Official Declaration—1 was accepted unanimously as scripture. Official Declaration 1 April 3, 1976 - Two visions were accepted as scripture and initially added to The Pearl of Great Price, and later moved to the Doctrine and Covenants as sections 137 and 138. September 30, 1978 - Official Declaration—2 was accepted unanimously as scripture. Official Declaration 2 When a doctrine undergoes this procedure, the LDS Church treats it as the word of God, and it is used as a standard to compare other doctrines. Lee taught "It is not to be thought that every word spoken by the General Authorities is inspired, or that they are moved upon by the Holy Ghost in everything they speak and write. Now you keep that in mind. I don't care what his position is, if he writes something or speaks something that goes beyond anything that you can find in the standard works, unless that one be the prophet, seer, and revelator—please note that one exception—you may immediately say, "Well, that is his own idea!" And if he says something that contradicts what is found in the standard works (I think that is why we call them "standard"—it is the standard measure of all that men teach), you may know by that same token that it is false; regardless of the position of the man who says it." Harold B. Lee, "The Place of the Living Prophet, Seer, and Revelator," Address to Seminary and Institute of Religion Faculty, BYU, 8 July 1964 Quadruple combination opened to the Book of Isaiah - note the cross references between Biblical and Latter-day Saint scripture in the footnotes Continuing Innovation In the late 1960s, a member of the Church (a librarian?) began cross-referencing these standard works. After months of work he demonstrated to a member of the First Presidency a system of note cards (like a card catalog) how any subject could be researched with efficiency. This was met with such enthusiasm that the work of systematizing the cards for publication as a Topical Guide or Index in the back of the books began with earnest and was later adopted, first appearing in the early 1970s. This later work is often credited to Bruce R. McConkie, but in fact required a vast number of brethren and iterations of innovations to mature to today's status. The Bible English-speaking Latter-day Saints typically own and study the King James Version of the Bible, with additional footnotes referencing books in the Standard Works, and select passages from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. LDS Publication of the Bible The church's First Presidency has stated that "[w]hile other Bible versions may be easier to read than the King James Version, in doctrinal matters latter-day revelation supports the King James Version in preference to other English translations." Ezra Taft Benson, Gordon B. Hinckley, and Thomas S. Monson, “First Presidency Statement on the King James Version of the Bible,” Ensign, Aug. 1992, p. 80. Latter-day Saints in non-English speaking areas may use other versions of the Bible. Though the Bible is part of the LDS canon and members believe it to be the word of God, they believe that omissions and mistranslations are present in even the earliest known manuscripts. They claim that the errors in the Bible have led to incorrect interpretations of certain passages. Thus, as church founder Joseph Smith, Jr. explained, the church believes the Bible to be the word of God "as far as it is translated correctly." Joseph Smith, Jr., Articles of Faith No. 8 The church teaches that "[t]he most reliable way to measure the accuracy of any biblical passage is not by comparing different texts, but by comparison with the Book of Mormon and modern-day revelations". Still, most Latter-day Saints believe the vast majority of the Bible to be correct. The Apocrypha Although the Apocrypha was part of the 1611 edition of the KJV, the Church does not currently use the Apocrypha as part of its canon. Joseph Smith taught while the contemporary edition of the Apocrypha was not to be relied on for doctrine, it was potentially useful when read with a spirit of discernment. The Doctrine and Covenants: . Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible Joseph Smith translated selected verses of the Bible, working by subject. Smith did not complete the entire text of the Bible during his lifetime. However, his incomplete work is known as the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, or the Inspired Version. Although this selected translation is not generally quoted by members of the Church, the English Bible issued by the Church and commonly used by Latter-day Saints contains cross references to the Joseph Smith Translation (JST), as well as an appendix containing major excerpts from it. However, with the exceptions of Smith's translation of portions of the book of Book of Genesis (renamed the Selections from the Book of Moses) and the translation of Matthew 23:39-24:51, no portions of the Joseph Smith Translation have been officially canonized by the LDS Church. The Book of Mormon Latter-day Saints consider The Book of Mormon as a volume of holy scripture comparable to the Bible. It contains a record of God’s dealings with the prophets and ancient inhabitants of the Americas. The introduction to the book asserts that it .... contains, as does the Bible, the fullness of the everlasting gospel. The book was written by many ancient prophets by the spirit of prophecy and revelation. Their words, written on gold plates, were quoted and abridged by a prophet-historian named Mormon. Segments of the Book of Mormon provide an account of the culture, religious teachings and civilizations of groups who immigrated to the New World. One came from Jerusalem in 600 B.C., and afterward separated into two nations, identified in the book as the Nephites and the Lamanites. Some years after their arrival, the Nephites met with a similar group, the Mulekites who left the Middle East during the same period. An older group arrived in America much earlier, when the Lord confounded the tongues at the Tower of Babel. This group is known as the Jaredites and their story is condensed in the Book of Ether. The crowning event recorded in the Book of Mormon is the personal ministry of Jesus Christ among Nephites soon after his resurrection. This account presents the doctrines of the gospel, outlines the plan of salvation, and offers men peace in this life and eternal salvation in the life to come. The latter segments of the Book of Mormon details the destruction of these civilizations, as all were destroyed except the Lamanites. The book asserts that the Lamanites are among the ancestors of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. According to his record, Joseph Smith translated the Book of Mormon by gift and power of God through the Urim and Thummim. Eleven witnesses signed testimonies of its authenticity, which are now included in the preface to the Book of Mormon. Three witnesses testified to having seen an angel present the gold plates, and to having heard God bear witness to its truth. Eight others stated that Joseph Smith showed them the plates and that they handled and examined them. The Doctrine and Covenants The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a collection of revelations, policies, letters, and statements given to the modern Church by past Presidents of the Church. This record contains points of Church doctrine and direction on Church government. The book has existed in numerous forms, with varying content, throughout the history of the Church and has also been published in differing formats by the various Latter Day Saint denominations. When the Church chooses to canonize new material, it is typically added to the Doctrine and Covenants; the most recent changes were made in 1981. The Pearl of Great Price The Pearl of Great Price is a selection of material produced by Joseph Smith and deals with many significant aspects of the faith and doctrine of the Church. Many of these materials were initially published in Church periodicals in the early days of church. The Pearl of Great Price contains five sections: Selections from the Book of Moses: portions of the Book of Genesis from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. The Book of Abraham:a translation from papyri acquired by Smith in 1835, dealing with Abraham's journeys in Egypt. The work contains many distinctive Mormon doctrines such as exaltation. Joseph Smith—Matthew: portions of the Gospel of Matthew from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. Joseph Smith—History:a first-person narrative of Joseph Smith's life before the founding of the Church. The material is taken from Documentary History of the Church and is based on a letter written by Joseph Smith in 1838. The Articles of Faith:concise listing of thirteen fundamental doctrines of Mormonism composed by Joseph Smith in 1842. Church instruction In the Church's Sunday School and Church Educational System classes, the Standard Works are studied and taught in a four-year rotation: Year One : Old Testament (also includes some coverage of related issues in the Book of Moses and Book of Abraham from the Pearl of Great Price) Year Two : New Testament Year Three: Book of Mormon Year Four: Doctrine and Covenants and Church History However, in recent times, leaders of the Church have emphasized that Latter-day Saints should not restrict their study of the Standard Works to the particular book being currently studied in Sunday School or other religious courses. Specifically, Church President Ezra Taft Benson taught: At present, the Book of Mormon is studied in our Sunday School and seminary classes every fourth year. This four-year pattern, however, must not be followed by Church members in their personal and family study. We need to read daily from the pages of [that] book .... Ezra Taft Benson, "Flooding the Earth with the Book of Mormon", Ensign, Nov. 1988, 4 Criticisms Scholars have challenged the authenticity of the Book of Mormon's claims on Linguistic, Archaeological, and Historical grounds . Also, the Book of Abraham (one part of the Pearl of Great Price) has also been the source of considerable controversy since portions of the original papyri from which it was purportedly translated were found and bear little resemblance to Joseph Smith's translation. References External links Official Edition of the LDS Standard Works with Cross References and Study Helps Beta Scriptures The Doctrine and Covenants at Wikisource The King James Bible at Wikisource The Book of Mormon at Wikisource feastupontheword.org wiki for LDS commentary and discussion on the Standard Works | Standard_works |@lemmatized quadruple:3 combination:4 format:2 standard:15 work:18 church:49 jesus:6 christ:6 latter:16 day:17 saint:14 lds:10 consist:1 several:1 book:43 constitute:1 open:2 scriptural:1 canon:4 include:4 following:1 holy:4 bible:26 king:7 james:5 version:10 use:6 kjv:2 english:6 speaking:3 country:2 non:2 mormon:17 another:1 testament:3 doctrine:25 covenant:14 pearl:9 great:9 price:9 print:3 distribute:1 single:1 binding:3 call:3 set:1 two:4 one:7 three:3 second:1 triple:1 current:1 edition:5 dictionary:1 photograph:1 map:1 gazeteer:1 topical:2 guide:2 index:2 footnote:3 cross:5 reference:7 excerpt:2 joseph:23 smith:26 translation:14 jst:2 study:8 aid:1 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3,711 | Nihilism | Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing) is the philosophical position that values do not exist but rather are falsely invented. Alan Pratt defines nihilism as "the belief that all values are baseless"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Most commonly, nihilism is presented in the form of existential nihilism which argues that life Alan Pratt defines existential nihilism as "the notion that life has no intrinsic meaning or value, and it is, no doubt, the most commonly used and understood sense of the word today"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy is without meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value. Moral nihilists assert that morality does not exist, and subsequently there are no moral values with which to uphold a rule or to logically prefer one action over another. Nihilism can also take an epistemological, metaphysical, or mereological form. The term nihilism is sometimes used synonymously with anomie to denote the general mood of despair at a perceived pointlessness of existence that one may develop upon realizing there are no necessary norms, rules, or laws. Bazarov, the protagonist in the classic work Fathers and Sons written in the early 1860s by Ivan Turgenev, is quoted as saying nihilism is "just cursing", cited in Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Macmillan, 1967) Vol. 5, "Nihilism", 514 ff. This source states as follows: "On the one hand, the term is widely used to denote the doctrine that moral norms or standards cannot be justified by rational argument. On the other hand, it is widely used to denote a mood of despair over the emptiness or triviality of human existence. This double meaning appears to derive from the fact that the term was often employed in the nineteenth century by the religiously oriented as a club against atheists, atheists being regarded as ipso facto nihilists in both senses. The atheist, it was held [by the religiously oriented], would not feel bound by moral norms; consequently, he would tend to be callous or selfish, even criminal" (at p. 515). Movements such as Futurism and deconstructionism, among others, have been identified by commentators as "nihilistic" at various times in various contexts. Often this means or is meant to imply that the beliefs of the accuser are more substantial or truthful, whereas the beliefs of the accused are nihilistic, and thereby comparatively amount to nothing (or are simply claimed to be destructively amoralistic). Nihilism is also a characteristic that has been ascribed to time periods: for example, Jean Baudrillard and others have called postmodernity a nihilistic epoch, For some examples of the view that postmodernity is a nihilistic epoch see Toynbee, Arnold (1963) A Study of History vols. VIII and IX; Mills, C. Wright (1959) The Sociological Imagination; Bell, Daniel (1976) The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism; and Baudrillard, Jean (1993) "Game with Vestiges" in Baudrillard Live, ed. Mike Gane and (1994) "On Nihilism" in Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glasser. For examples of the view that postmodernism is a nihilistic mode of thought, see Rose, Gillian (1984) Dialectic of Nihilism; Carr, Karen L. (1988) The Banalization of Nihilism; and Pope John-Paul II (1995), Evangelium vitae: Il valore e l’inviolabilita delta vita umana. Milan: Paoline Editoriale Libri.", all cited in Woodward, Ashley: Nihilism and the Postmodern in Vattimo's Nietzsche, ISSN 1393-614X Minerva - An Internet Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 6, 2002, fn 1. and some Christian theologians and figures of religious authority have asserted that postmodernity For example, and many aspects of modernity represent a rejection of theism, and that such a rejection entails some form of nihilism. History Though the term nihilism was first popularized by the novelist Ivan Turgenev, Kornilov, Alexander. Modern Russian History: From the age of Catherine the Great to the end of the nineteenth century. translated by John S. Curtiss. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 1917, 1924, 1943. Vol. II, p.69. it was first introduced into philosophical discourse by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), who used the term to characterize rationalism, and in particular Immanuel Kant's "critical" philosophy in order to carry out a reductio ad absurdum according to which all rationalism (philosophy as criticism) reduces to nihilism, and thus it should be avoided and replaced with a return to some type of faith and revelation. Bret W. Davis writes, for example, "The first philosophical development of the idea of nihilism is generally ascribed to Friedrich Jacobi, who in a famous letter criticized Fichte’s idealism as falling into nihilism. According to Jacobi, Fichte’s absolutization of the ego (the 'absolute I' that posits the 'not-I') is an inflation of subjectivity that denies the absolute transcendence of God." Davis, Bret W. - "Zen After Zarathustra: The Problem of the Will in the Confrontation Between Nietzsche and Buddhism" Journal of Nietzsche Studies Issue 28 (2004):89-138 (here 107) A related concept is fideism. Søren Kierkegaard posited an early form of nihilism which he referred to as levelling. Dreyfus, Hubert. Kierkegaard on the Internet: Anonymity vs. Commitment in the Present Age. Levelling was the process of suppressing individuality to a point where the individual's uniqueness becomes non-existent and nothing meaningful in his existence can be affirmed: Stanley Rosen identifies Nietzsche's equation of nihilism with "the situation which obtains when 'everything is permitted.'" Rosen, Stanley. Nihilism: A Philosophical Essay. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1969. p. xiii. Nietzsche asserts that this nihilism is a result of valuing "higher", "divine" or "meta-physical" things (such as God), that do not in turn value "base", "human" or "earthly" things. But a person who rejects God and the divine may still retain the belief that all "base", "earthly", or "human" ideas are still valueless because they were considered so in the previous belief system (such as a Christian who becomes a communist and believes fully in the party structure and leader). In this interpretation, any form of idealism, after being rejected by the idealist, leads to nihilism. Moreover, this is the source of "inconsistency on the part of the nihilists". The nihilist continues to believe that only "higher" values and truths are worthy of being called such, but rejects the idea that they exist. Because of this rejection, all ideas described as true or valuable are rejected by the nihilist as impossible because they do not meet the previously established standards. In this sense, it is the philosophical equivalent to the Russian political movement: the leap beyond scepticism — the desire to destroy meaning, knowledge, and value. To Nietzsche, it was irrational because the human soul thrives on value. Nihilism, then, was in a sense like suicide and mass murder all at once. He considered faith in the categories of reason, seeking either to overcome or ignore nature, to be the cause of such nihilism. "We have measured the value of the world according to categories that refer to a purely fictitious world". The Will to Power, 12b. He saw this philosophy as present in Christianity (which he described as 'slave morality'), Buddhism, morality, asceticism and any excessively skeptical philosophy. As the first philosopher to study nihilism extensively, however, Nietzsche was also quite influenced by its ideas. Nietzsche's complex relationship with nihilism can be seen in his statement that "I praise, I do not reproach, [nihilism's] arrival. I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity. Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes master of this crisis, is a question of his strength!". Friedrich Nietzsche, Complete Works Vol. 13. While this may appear to imply his allegiance to the nihilist viewpoint, it would be more accurate to say that Nietzsche saw the coming of nihilism as valuable in the long term (as well as ironically acknowledging that nihilism exists in the world so has more gravity compared with categories that refer to a purely fictitious world). According to Nietzsche, it is only once nihilism is overcome that a culture can have a true foundation upon which to thrive. He wished to hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ultimate departure. Nietzsche's philosophy also shares with nihilism a rejection of any perfect source of absolute, universal and transcendent values. Cline, Austin: " Nihilism, Nihilists, and Nihilistic Philosophy," at About.com (2007). Still, he did not consider all values of equal worth. Recognizing the chaos of nihilism, he advocated a philosophy that willfully transcends it. Furthermore, his positive attitude towards truth as a vehicle of faith and belief distinguishes him from the extreme pessimism that nihilism is often associated with. Steven Michels - Nietzsche, Nihilism, and the Virtue of Nature, Dogma,2004, A major cause of Nietzsche's continued association with nihilism is his famous proclamation that "God is dead." This is Nietzsche's way of saying that the idea of God is no longer capable of acting as a source of any moral code or teleology. God is dead, then, in the sense that his existence is now irrelevant to the bulk of humanity. "And we," writes Nietzsche in The Gay Science, "have killed him." Alternately, some have interpreted Nietzsche's comment to be a statement of faith that the world has no rational order. Nietzsche also believed that, even though he thought Christian morality was nihilistic, without God humanity is left with no epistemological or moral base from which we can derive absolute beliefs. Thus, even though nihilism has been a threat in the past, through Christianity, Platonism, and various political movements that aim toward a distant utopian future, and any other philosophy that devalues human life and the world around us (and any philosophy that devalues the world around us by privileging some other or future world necessarily devalues human life), Nietzsche tells us it is also a threat for humanity's future. This warning can also be taken as a polemic against 19th and 20th century scientism. He advocated a remedy for nihilism's destructive effects and a hope for humanity's future in the form of the Übermensch (English: overman or superman), a position especially apparent in his works Thus Spoke Zarathustra and The Antichrist. The Übermensch is an exercise of action and life: one must give value to their existence by behaving as if one's very existence were a work of art. Nietzsche believed that the Übermensch "exercise" would be a necessity for human survival in the post-religious era. Another part of Nietzsche's remedy for nihilism is a revaluation of morals — he hoped that we are able to discard the old morality of equality and servitude and adopt a new code, turning Judeo-Christian morality on its head. Excess, carelessness, callousness, and sin, then, are not the damning acts of a person with no regard for their salvation, nor that which plummets a society toward decadence and decline, but the signifier of a soul already withering and the sign that a society is in decline. The only true sin to Nietzsche is that which is — against a human nature — aimed at the expression and venting of one's power over oneself. Virtue, likewise, is not to act according to what has been commanded, but to contribute to all that betters a human soul. He attempts to reintroduce what he calls a master morality, which values personal excellence over forced compassion and creative acts of will over the herd instinct, a moral outlook he attributes to the ancient Greeks. The Christian moral ideals developed in opposition to this master morality, he says, as the reversal of the value system of the elite social class due to the oppressed class' resentment of their Roman masters. Nietzsche, however, did not believe that humans should adopt master morality as the be-all-end-all code of behavior - he believed that the revaluation of morals would correct the inconsistencies in both master and slave morality - but simply that master morality was preferable to slave morality, although this is debatable. Walter Kaufmann, for one, disagrees that Nietzsche actually preferred master morality to slave morality. He certainly gives slave morality a much harder time, but this is partly because he believes that slave morality is modern society's more imminent danger. The Antichrist had been meant as the first book in a four-book series, "Toward a Re-Evaluation of All Morals", which might have made his views more explicit, but Nietzsche was afflicted by mental collapse that rendered him unable to write the latter three books. Postmodernism Postmodern and poststructuralist thought deny the very grounds on which Western cultures have based their 'truths': absolute knowledge and meaning, a 'decentralization' of authorship, the accumulation of positive knowledge, historical progress, and the ideals of humanism and the Enlightenment. Jacques Derrida, whose deconstruction is perhaps most commonly labeled nihilistic, did not himself make the nihilistic move that others have claimed. Derridean deconstructionists argue that this approach rather frees texts, individuals or organizations from a restrictive truth, and that deconstruction opens up the possibility of other ways of being. Borginho, Jose 1999; Nihilism and Affirmation; Accessed 05-12-07 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, for example, uses deconstruction to create an ethics of opening up Western scholarship to the voice of the subaltern and to philosophies outside of the canon of western texts. Spivak, Chakravorty Gayatri; 1988; Can The Subaltern Speak?; in Nelson, Cary and Grossberg, Lawrence (eds); 1988; Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture; Macmillan Education, Basingstoke. Derrida himself built a philosophy based upon a 'responsibility to the other' Reynolds, Jack; 2001; The Other of Derridean Deconstruction: Levinas, Phenomenology and the Question of Responsibility; Minerva - An Internet Journal of Philosophy 5: 31–62. Accessed 05-12-07. Deconstruction can thus be seen not as a denial of truth, but as a denial of our ability to know truth (it makes an epistemological claim compared to nihilism's ontological claim). Lyotard argues that, rather than relying on an objective truth or method to prove their claims, philosophers legitimize their truths by reference to a story about the world which is inseparable from the age and system the stories belong to, referred to by Lyotard as meta-narratives. He then goes on to define the postmodern condition as one characterized by a rejection both of these meta-narratives and of the process of legitimation by meta-narratives. "In lieu of meta-narratives we have created new language-games in order to legitimize our claims which rely on changing relationships and mutable truths, none of which is privileged over the other to speak to ultimate truth." This concept of the instability of truth and meaning leads in the direction of nihilism, though Lyotard stops short of embracing the latter. Postmodern theorist Jean Baudrillard wrote briefly of nihilism from the postmodern viewpoint in Simulacra and Simulation. He stuck mainly to topics of interpretations of the real world over the simulations of which the real world is composed. The uses of meaning was an important subject in Baudrillard's discussion of nihilism: Forms of nihilism Nihilism has many definitions and is thus used to describe arguably independent philosophical positions. Moral nihilism Moral nihilism, also known as ethical nihilism, is the meta-ethical view that morality does not exist; therefore no action is preferable to any other. For example, a moral nihilist would say that killing someone, for whatever reason, is not inherently right or wrong. Existential nihilism Existential nihilism is the belief that life has no intrinsic meaning or value. It can stem from scientific analysis showing that only the physical laws contributed to our existence. With respect to the universe, a single human or even the entire human species is insignificant, without purpose and can make no real change in the totality of existence. Epistemological nihilism Nihilism of an epistemological form can be seen as an extreme form of skepticism in which all knowledge is denied. Alan Pratt defines nihilism as "the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known or communicated"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysical nihilism Metaphysical nihilism is the philosophical theory that there might have been no objects at all, i.e. that there is a possible world in which there are no objects at all; or at least that there might have been no concrete objects at all, so even if every possible world contains some objects, there is at least one that contains only abstract objects. An extreme form of metaphysical nihilism is commonly defined as the belief that existence itself does not exist. Oxford dictionary defines one form of nihilism as "extreme scepticism, maintaining that nothing has a real existence"Oxford Dictionary Answers dictionary defines one form of nihilism as "an extreme form of skepticism that denies all existence"answers One way of interpreting such a statement would be: It is impossible to distinguish 'existence' from 'non-existence' as there are no objective qualities, and thus a reality, that one state could possess in order to discern between the two. If one cannot discern existence from its negation, then the concept of existence has no meaning; or in other words, does not 'exist' in any meaningful way. 'Meaning' in this sense is used to argue that as existence has no higher state of reality, which is arguably its necessary and defining quality, existence itself means nothing. It could be argued that this belief, once combined with epistemological nihilism, leaves one with an all-encompassing nihilism in which nothing can be said to be real or true as such values do not exist. A similar position can be found in solipsism; however, in this viewpoint the solipsist affirms whereas the nihilist would deny the self. Both these positions are forms of anti-realism. Mereological nihilism Mereological nihilism (also called compositional nihilism) is the position that objects with proper parts do not exist (not only objects in space, but also objects existing in time do not have any temporal parts), and only basic building blocks without parts exist, and thus the world we see and experience full of objects with parts is a product of human misperception (i.e., if we could see clearly, we would not perceive compositive objects). Cultural manifestations In art In art, there have been movements criticized for being nihilistic. Indeed, there are certain movements, like Dada and Situationism, in which certain nihilistic tendencies may be found. Literature and music, at times, deal with nihilism. The Situationist International (1957-1972) could be considered an example of a political, social, and artistic movement rooted in nihilistic views and ideas. The Situationists attempted to abolish the earlier concepts established by Dadaism and Surrealism in deconstructing the notion of "art" as a separate form, subject or entity. Modern art is sometimes said to be nihilistic in its lack of any deeper meaning than aesthetics. The Nazi party's Degenerate art exhibit is a specific instance in history in which modern art has been strongly publicly criticized. Dada The term Dada was first used by Tristan Tzara in 1916 de Micheli, Mario (2006). Las vanguardias artísticas del siglo XX. Alianza Forma. p.135-137 . The movement, which lasted from approximately 1916 to 1922, arose during World War I, an event that influenced the artist Tzara, Tristan (December 2005). Trans/ed. Mary Ann Caws "Approximate Man" & Other Writings. Black Widow Press, p. 3. . The Dada Movement began in Zürich, Switzerland -known as the "Niederdorf" or "Niederdörfli"- in the Café Voltaire de Micheli, Mario (2006). Las vanguardias artísticas del siglo XX. Alianza Forma, p. 137. . The Dadaists claimed that Dada was not an art movement, but an anti-art movement, sometimes using found objects in a manner similar to found poetry. The "anti-art" drive is thought to have stemmed from a post-war emptiness. This tendency toward devaluation of art has led many to claim that Dada was an essentially nihilistic movement. Given that Dada created its own means for interpreting its products, it is difficult to classify alongside most other contemporary art expressions. Hence, due to its ambiguity, it is sometimes classified as a nihilistic modus vivendi. In music A 2007 article in The Guardian noted that "...in the summer of 1977, ...punk's nihilistic swagger was the most thrilling thing in England." Stuart Jeffries. "A right royal knees-up." The Guardian. 20 July 2007. The Sex Pistols' "God Save The Queen", with its chant-like refrain of "no future", became a slogan for unemployed and disaffected youth during the late 1970s. Robb, John (2006). Punk Rock: An Oral History (London: Elbury Press). ISBN 0-09-190511-7. From the foreword by Mike Bracewell. Nihilism is strongly associated with many styles of metal music. Death Metal is specifically defined by its nihilistic subject matter. Nihilism is also expressed in some gangsta rap, as part of a "street code", but it is only one of many viewpoints or perspectives presented in such music. Charis E. Kubrin, "“I SEE DEATH AROUND THE CORNER”: NIHILISM IN RAP MUSIC", Sociological Perspectives, Vol. 48, No. 4, pp. 433–459, Winter (2005). The song Three Nil by heavy metal band Slipknot expresses some view of Nihilism Notes References Kierkegaard, Søren. (1854). The Moment. Kierkegaard, Søren. (1846). Two Ages: A Literary Review. Kierkegaard, Søren. (1850). Works of Love. Nietzsche, Friedrich (1886). Beyond Good and Evil. Project Gutenberg eText. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Gay Science Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spake Zarathustra. Project Gutenberg eText. Kierkegaard on the Internet: Anonymity vs. Commitment in the Present Age, Hubert Dreyfus, 2004. Nietzsche: Nihilism (Volume IV), Martin Heidegger, Harper & Row, San Francisco, CA, 1982. Nihilism, The Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age, Eugene (Fr. Seraphim) Rose, Fr. Seraphim Rose Foundation, Forestville, CA, 1994,1995. Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism, Karl Löwith, Columbia University Press, New York, NY, 1995. Nihilism Before Nietzsche, Michael Allen Gillespie, University Of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1996. Nihilism: A Philosophical Essay, Stanley Rosen, St. Augustine's Press (2nd Edition), South Bend, Indiana, 2000. Shows About Nothing: Nihilism in Popular Culture from The Exorcist to Seinfeld, Thomas S. Hibbs, Spence Publishing Company, Dallas, TX, 2000. Genealogy of Nihilism: Philosophies of Nothing & the Difference of Theology, Conor Cunningham, Routledge, New York, NY, 2002. Laughing at Nothing: Humor as a Response to Nihilism, John Marmysz, SUNY Press, Albany, NY, 2003. I Wish I Could Believe in Meaning: A Response to Nihilism, Peter S. Williams. Nihilism and the Sublime Postmodern: The (Hi)Story of a Difficult Relationship, Will Slocombe, Routledge, New York, NY, 2006. See also Anti-art Absurdism Cosmicism Dysteleology Epistemological nihilism Existentialism Metaphysical nihilism Moral nihilism Nihilist movement Therapeutic nihilism Radical skepticism External links Catholic Encyclopedia: Nihilism Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Nihilism "Fathers and Sons" by Ivan Turgenev "Nihilism" by Vijay Prozak Introduction to nihilism - Nihilism: The CounterOrder, by Freydis Articles "Nihilism, Modernism, and Value" by John Fraser "Modernity and Nihilism"—A religious ethicist's argument that secular history and modernity represent Nihilism "Nihilism and the Postmodern in Vattimo's Nietzsche", Ashley Woodward | Nihilism |@lemmatized nihilism:94 latin:1 nihil:1 nothing:10 philosophical:8 position:6 value:20 exist:11 rather:3 falsely:1 invent:1 alan:3 pratt:3 defines:5 belief:11 baseless:2 internet:8 encyclopedia:6 philosophy:19 commonly:4 present:5 form:15 existential:4 argue:5 life:6 notion:2 intrinsic:3 meaning:9 doubt:1 use:10 understood:1 sense:5 word:2 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3,712 | Chromosome | A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cells. A chromosome is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. The word chromosome comes from the Greek (chroma, color) and (soma, body) due to their property of being very strongly stained by particular dyes. Chromosomes vary widely between different organisms. The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be composed of 10,000 to 1,000,000,000 nucleotides in a long chain. Typically eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei) have large linear chromosomes and prokaryotic cells (cells without defined nuclei) have smaller circular chromosomes, although there are many exceptions to this rule. Furthermore, cells may contain more than one type of chromosome; for example, mitochondria in most eukaryotes and chloroplasts in plants have their own small chromosomes. In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. This allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus. The structure of chromosomes and chromatin varies through the cell cycle. Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular division and must be replicated, divided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their progeny. Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or unduplicated—unduplicated chromosomes are single linear strands, whereas duplicated chromosomes (copied during synthesis phase) contain two copies joined by a centromere. Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis results in the classic four-arm structure (pictured to the right). Chromosomal recombination plays a vital role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe and die, or it may aberrantly evade apoptosis leading to the progression of cancer. However, in practice "chromosome" is a rather loosely defined term. In prokaryotes, a small circular DNA molecule may be called either a plasmid or a small chromosome. These small circular genomes are also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, reflecting their bacterial origins. The simplest chromosomes are found in viruses: these DNA or RNA molecules are short linear or circular chromosomes that often lack any structural proteins. History Nucleus as the seat of heredity The origin of this groundbreaking idea lies in a few sentences tucked away in Ernst Haeckel's Generelle Morphologie of 1866. Haeckel E. 1866. Generelle Morphologie der Organismen: Allgemeine Gründzuge der organischen Formen-Wissenschaft. 2 vols, Reimer, Berlin. The evidence for this insight gradually accumulated until, after twenty or so years, two of the greatest in a line of great German scientists spelled out the concept. August Weismann proposed that the germ line is separate from the soma, and that the cell nucleus is the repository of the hereditary material, which, he proposed, is arranged along the chromosomes in a linear manner. Further, he proposed that at fertilisation a new combination of chromosomes (and their hereditary material) would be formed. This was the explanation for the reduction division of meiosis (first described by van Beneden). Chromosomes as vectors of heredity In a series of experiments, Theodor Boveri gave the definitive demonstration that chromosomes are the vectors of heredity. His two principles were based upon the continuity of chromosomes and the individuality of chromosomes. It is the second of these principles that was so original. Boveri was able to test the proposal put forward by Wilhelm Roux, that each chromosome carries a different genetic load, and showed that Roux was right. Upon the rediscovery of Mendel, Boveri was able to point out the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes. It is interesting to see that Boveri influenced two generations of American cytologists: Edmund Beecher Wilson, Walter Sutton and Theophilus Painter were all influenced by Boveri (Wilson and Painter actually worked with him). In his famous textbook The Cell, Wilson linked Boveri and Sutton together by the Boveri-Sutton theory. Mayr remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists: William Bateson, Wilhelm Johannsen, Richard Goldschmidt and T.H. Morgan, all of a rather dogmatic turn-of-mind. Eventually complete proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan's own lab. Mayr E. 1982. The growth of biological thought. Harvard. p749 Chromosomes in eukaryotes Eukaryotes (cells with nuclei such as plants, yeast, and animals) possess multiple large linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one centromere, with one or two arms projecting from the centromere, although, under most circumstances, these arms are not visible as such. In addition, most eukaryotes have a small circular mitochondrial genome, and some eukaryotes may have additional small circular or linear cytoplasmic chromosomes. In the nuclear chromosomes of eukaryotes, the uncondensed DNA exists in a semi-ordered structure, where it is wrapped around histones (structural proteins), forming a composite material called chromatin. Chromatin Chromatin is the complex of DNA and protein found in the eukaryotic nucleus which packages chromosomes. The structure of chromatin varies significantly between different stages of the cell cycle, according to the requirements of the DNA. Interphase chromatin During interphase (the period of the cell cycle where the cell is not dividing), two types of chromatin can be distinguished: Euchromatin, which consists of DNA that is active, e.g., being expressed as protein. Heterochromatin, which consists of mostly inactive DNA. It seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages. Heterochromatin can be further distinguished into two types: Constitutive heterochromatin, which is never expressed. It is located around the centromere and usually contains repetitive sequences. Facultative heterochromatin, which is sometimes expressed. Individual chromosomes cannot be distinguished at this stage - they appear in the nucleus as a homogeneous tangled mix of DNA and protein. Metaphase chromatin and division In the early stages of mitosis or meiosis (cell division), the chromatin strands become more and more condensed. They cease to function as accessible genetic material (transcription stops) and become a compact transportable form. This compact form makes the individual chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four arm structure, a pair of sister chromatids attached to each other at the centromere. The shorter arms are called p arms (from the French petit, small) and the longer arms are called q arms (q follows p in the Latin alphabet). This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical microscope. During divisions, long microtubules attach to the centromere and the two opposite ends of the cell. The microtubules then pull the chromatids apart, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and can function again as chromatin. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, which enables these giant DNA structures to be contained within a cell nucleus (Fig. 2). The self-assembled microtubules form the spindle, which attaches to chromosomes at specialized structures called kinetochores, one of which is present on each sister chromatid. A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. Chromosomes in prokaryotes The prokaryotes - bacteria and archaea - typically have a single circular chromosome, but many variations do exist. Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome that can range in size from only 160,000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus Carsonella ruddii, to 12,200,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacteria Sorangium cellulosum. Spirochaetes of the genus Borrelia are a notable exception to this arrangement, with bacteria such as Borrelia burgdorferi, the cause of Lyme disease, containing a single linear chromosome. Structure in sequences Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes. Bacteria typically have a single point (the origin of replication) from which replication starts, whereas some archaea contain multiple replication origins. The genes in prokaryotes are often organized in operons, and do not usually contain introns, unlike eukaryotes. DNA packaging Prokaryotes do not possess nuclei. Instead, their DNA is organized into a structure called the nucleoid. The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a defined region of the bacterial cell. This structure is, however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled by the actions of a range of histone-like proteins, which associate with the bacterial chromosome. In archaea, the DNA in chromosomes is even more organized, with the DNA packaged within structures similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes. Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the plasma membrane of the bacteria. In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA). Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic DNA, generally supercoiled. The DNA must first be released into its relaxed state for access for transcription, regulation, and replication. Number of chromosomes in various organisms Eukaryotes These tables give the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes) in a cell nucleus. For example, human cells are diploid and have 22 different types of autosome, each present as two copies, and two sex chromosomes. This gives 46 chromosomes in total. Other organisms have more than two copies of their chromosomes, such as bread wheat, which is hexaploid and has six copies of seven different chromosomes – 42 chromosomes in total. {| style="float:right;"|} | + Chromosome numbers in some plants Plant Species # Arabidopsis thaliana (diploid) 10 Rye (diploid) 14 Maize (diploid) 20 Einkorn wheat (diploid) 14 Durum wheat (tetraploid) 28 Bread wheat (hexaploid) 42 Potato (tetraploid) 48 Cultivated tobacco (diploid) 48 Adder's Tongue Fern (diploid) approx 1,400 | + Chromosome numbers (2n) in some animals Species # Species # Common fruit fly 8 Guinea Pig 64 Dove 78 Garden snail 54 Earthworm Octodrilus complanatus 36 Tibetan fox 36 Domestic cat 38 Domestic pig 38 Laboratory mouse 40 Laboratory rat 42 Rabbit 44 Syrian hamster 44 Hare 46 Human 46 Gorillas, Chimpanzees 48 Domestic sheep 54 Elephants 56 Cow 60 Donkey 62 Horse 64 Dog 78 Kingfisher 132 Goldfish 100-104 Silkworm 56 |- | colspan="2" | + Chromosome numbers in other organisms Species LargeChromosomes IntermediateChromosomes SmallChromosomes Trypanosoma brucei 11 6 ~100 Chicken 8 2 sex chromosomes 60 Normal members of a particular eukaryotic species all have the same number of nuclear chromosomes (see the table). Other eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-like small chromosomes, are much more variable in number, and there may be thousands of copies per cell. Asexually reproducing species have one set of chromosomes, which is the same in all body cells. Sexually reproducing species have somatic cells (body cells), which are diploid [2n] having two sets of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. Gametes, reproductive cells, are haploid [n]: They have one set of chromosomes. Gametes are produced by meiosis of a diploid germ line cell. During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves (crossover), and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge (fertilization), a new diploid organism is formed. Some animal and plant species are polyploid [Xn]: They have more than two sets of homologous chromosomes. Plants important in agriculture such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid, compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some cultivars as well as the wild progenitors. The more-common pasta and bread wheats are polyploid, having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes, compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in the wild wheat. Sakamura, T. (1918), Kurze Mitteilung uber die Chromosomenzahlen und die Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse der Triticum-Arten. Bot. Mag., 32: 151-154. Prokaryotes Prokaryote species generally have one copy of each major chromosome, but most cells can easily survive with multiple copies. Charlebois R.L. (ed) 1999. Organization of the prokaryote genome. ASM Press, Washington DC. For example, Buchnera, a symbiont of aphids has multiple copies of its chromosome, ranging from 10–400 copies per cell. However, in some large bacteria, such as Epulopiscium fishelsoni up to 100,000 copies of the chromosome can be present. Plasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, very variable in copy number. The number of plasmids in the cell is almost entirely determined by the rate of division of the plasmid - fast division causes high copy number, and vice versa. Karyotype In general, the karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics. Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are often highly variable. There may be variation between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization. In some cases, there is significant variation within species. Often there is 1. variation between the two sexes; 2. variation between the germ-line and soma (between gametes and the rest of the body); 3. variation between members of a population, due to balanced genetic polymorphism; 4. geographical variation between races; 5. mosaics or otherwise abnormal individuals. Also, variation in karyotype may occur during development from the fertilised egg. The technique of determining the karyotype is usually called karyotyping. Cells can be locked part-way through division (in metaphase) in vitro (in a reaction vial) with colchicine. These cells are then stained, photographed, and arranged into a karyogram, with the set of chromosomes arranged, autosomes in order of length, and sex chromosomes (here X/Y) at the end: Fig. 3. Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special gonosomes (sex chromosomes, in contrast to autosomes). These are XX in females and XY in males. Historical note Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question. How many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain? In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination mechanism. Painter in 1922 was not certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46. He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on man's having an XX/XY system. New techniques were needed to definitively solve the problem: 1. Using cells in culture 2. Pretreating cells in a hypotonic solution, which swells them and spreads the chromosomes 3. Arresting mitosis in metaphase by a solution of colchicine 4. Squashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane 5. Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputable karyogram. It took until the mid-1950s until it became generally accepted that the human karyotype include only 46 chromosomes. Considering the techniques of Winiwarter and Painter, their results were quite remarkable. Hsu T.C. Human and mammalian cytogenetics: a historical perspective. Springer-Verlag, N.Y. p10: "It's amazing that he [Painter] even came close!" Chimpanzees (the closest living relatives to modern humans) have 48 chromosomes. Chromosomal aberrations Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell, and are a major cause of genetic conditions in humans, such as Down syndrome. Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as translocations, or chromosomal inversions, although they may lead to a higher chance of birthing a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, aneuploidy, may be lethal or give rise to genetic disorders. Genetic counseling is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement. The gain or loss of DNA from chromosomes can lead to a variety of genetic disorders. Human examples include: Cri du chat, which is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. "Cri du chat" means "cry of the cat" in French, and the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, and are moderately to severely mentally retarded and very short. Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by severe growth retardation and severe to profound mental retardation. Down's syndrome, usually is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation. Edwards syndrome, which is the second-most-common trisomy; Down syndrome is the most common. It is a trisomy of chromosome 18. Symptoms include mental and motor retardation and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent die in infancy; however, those that live past their first birthday usually are quite healthy thereafter. They have a characteristic clenched hands and overlapping fingers. Patau Syndrome, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, but they do not have the characteristic hand shape. Idic15, abbreviation for Isodicentric 15 on chromosome 15; also called the following names due to various researches, but they all mean the same; IDIC(15), Inverted dupliction 15, extra Marker, Inv dup 15, partial tetrasomy 15 Jacobsen syndrome, also called the terminal 11q deletion disorder. European Chromosome 11 Network This is a very rare disorder. Those affected have normal intelligence or mild mental retardation, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome. Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile, and tend to have longer arms and legs and to be taller than their peers. Boys with the syndrome are often shy and quiet, and have a higher incidence of speech delay and dyslexia. During puberty, without testosterone treatment, some of them may develop gynecomastia. Turner syndrome (X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. People with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a "caved-in" appearance to the chest. XYY syndrome. XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings. Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are somewhat more likely to have learning difficulties. Triple-X syndrome (XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin. They have a higher incidence of dyslexia. Small supernumerary marker chromosome. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material. Cat-eye syndrome and isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome (or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is Pallister-Killian syndrome. Chromosomal mutations produce changes in whole chromosomes (more than one gene) or in the number of chromosomes present. Deletion - loss of part of a chromosome Duplication - extra copies of a part of a chromosome Inversion - reverse the direction of a part of a chromosome Translocation - part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome Most mutations are neutral - have little or no effect A detailed graphical display of all human chromosomes and the diseases annotated at the correct spot may be found at Exploring Genes & Genetic Disorders . Human chromosomes Human cells have 23 pairs of large linear nuclear chromosomes, giving a total of 46 per cell. In addition to these, human cells have many hundreds of copies of the mitochondrial genome. Sequencing of the human genome has provided a great deal of information about each of the chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the Sanger Institute's human genome information in the Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database. http://vega.sanger.ac.uk/Homo_sapiens/index.html All data in this table was derived from this database, Nov 11, 2008. Number of genes is an estimate as it is in part based on gene predictions. Total chromosome length is an estimate as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced heterochromatin regions. Chromosome Genes Total bases Sequenced bases Sequenced percentages are based on fraction of euchromatin portion, as the Human Genome Project goals called for determination of only the euchromatic portion of the genome. Telomeres, centromeres, and other heterochromatic regions have been left undetermined, as have a small number of unclonable gaps. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/seq/ for more information on the Human Genome Project. 1 4,220 247,199,719 224,999,719 2 1,491 242,751,149 237,712,649 3 1,550 199,446,827 194,704,827 4 446 191,263,063 187,297,063 5 609 180,837,866 177,702,766 6 2,281 170,896,993 167,273,993 7 2,135 158,821,424 154,952,424 8 1,106 146,274,826 142,612,826 9 1,920 140,442,298 120,312,298 10 1,793 135,374,737 131,624,737 11 379 134,452,384 131,130,853 12 1,430 132,289,534 130,303,534 13 924 114,127,980 95,559,980 14 1,347 106,360,585 88,290,585 15 921 100,338,915 81,341,915 16 909 88,822,254 78,884,754 17 1,672 78,654,742 77,800,220 18 519 76,117,153 74,656,155 19 1,555 63,806,651 55,785,651 20 1,008 62,435,965 59,505,254 21 578 46,944,323 34,171,998 22 1,092 49,528,953 34,893,953 X (sex chromosome) 1,846 154,913,754 151,058,754 Y (sex chromosome) 454 57,741,652 25,121,652 Total 32,185 3,079,843,747 2,857,698,560 See also Locus (explains gene location nomenclature) Sex-determination system XY sex-determination system X chromosome X-inactivation Y chromosome Y-chromosomal Adam Y-chromosomal Aaron Genetic genealogy Genealogical DNA test Genetic deletion List of number of chromosomes of various organisms For information about chromosomes in genetic algorithms, see chromosome (genetic algorithm) External links Chromosome Abnormalities at AtlasGeneticsOncology What Can Our Chromosomes Tell Us?, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center Try making a karyotype yourself, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center Kimballs Chromosome pages Chromosome News from Genome News Network Eurochromnet, European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet http://www.ensembl.org Ensembl project, presenting chromosomes, their genes and syntenic loci graphically via the web Genographic Project Home reference on Chromosomes from the U.S. National Library of Medicine References | Chromosome |@lemmatized chromosome:131 organized:2 structure:16 dna:27 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3,713 | Kon_Ichikawa | Kon Ichikawa was a Japanese film director. Early career In the 1930s Ichikawa attended a technical school in Osaka. Upon graduation, in 1933, he found a job with a local rental film studio, J.O. Studio, in their animation department. Decades later, he told the American writer on Japanese film Donald Richie, "I'm still a cartoonist and I think that the greatest influence on my films (besides Chaplin, particularly The Gold Rush) is probably Disney." Richie, Donald. "The Several Sides of Kon Ichikawa". in Quandt (2001). p.53. Eventually he was moved to the feature film department as an assistant director when the company became a complete production company, working under such luminaries as Yutake Abe and Nobuo Aoyagi. In the early 1940s J.O. Studios merged P.C.L. and Toho Film Distribution to form the Toho Film Company. Ichikawa moved to Tokyo. His first film was a puppet play short, A Girl at Dojo Temple (Musume Dojoji 1946), which was confiscated by the interim U.S. Occupation authorities under the pretense that it was too "feudal", though some sources suggest the script had not been approved by the occupying authorities. Thought lost for many years, it is now archived at the Cinémathèque Française. It was at Toho that he met Natto Wada. Wada was a translator for Toho. They agreed to marry sometime after Ichikawa completed his first film as director. Natto Wada's original name was Yumiko Mogi (born 13 September 1920 in Himeji, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan); the couple both had failed marriages behind them. She graduated with a degree in English Literature from Tokyo Women's Christian University. She married Kon Ichikawa on April 10, 1948, and died on February 18, 1983 of breast cancer. James Quandt (ed.), Kon Ichikawa, Cinematheque Ontario, Toronto, 2001, page 35. During the rest of her life she wrote the scripts of many of her husband's films. 1950–1965 It was after Ichikawa's marriage to Wada that the two began collaborating, first on Design of a Human Being (Ningen moyo) and Endless Passion (Hateshinaki jonetsu) in 1949. The period 1950–1965 is often referred to as Ichikawa's Natto Wada period. It's the period that contains the majority of his most highly respected works, and continued through to 1965 with Tokyo Olympiad. She wrote 34 screenplays during that period, most of which were adaptations. Wada had a talent for adapting other sources to the screen and that's where most of their partnership concentrated. He gained western recognition during the 1950s and 1960s with a number of bleak films, two anti-war films with The Burmese Harp and Fires on the Plain, Alone on the Pacific (Taiheiyo hitori-botchi) and the technically formidable period-piece An Actor's Revenge (Yukinojo henge) about a kabuki actor. Of his many literary adaptations, works including Jun'ichirō Tanizaki's The Key (Kagi), Natsume Sōseki's The Heart (Kokoro) and I Am a Cat (Wagahai wa neko de aru), about a mouse turned into a cat viewing the world from its unique perspective, and Yukio Mishima's Conflagration (Enjo), in which a priest burns down his temple to save it from spiritual pollution, were brought to the screen. After 1965 After Tokyo Olympiad Wada retired from screenwriting and it marked a significant change in Ichikawa's films from that point onward. Concerning her retirement, he spoke, "She doesn't like the new film grammar, the method of presentation of the material; she says there's no heart in it anymore, that people no longer take human love seriously." James Quandt (ed.), Kon Ichikawa, Cinematheque Ontario, Toronto, 2001, p40. Of the change Wada's departure marked, it is hard to extricate her from his work. The two worked very closely and shared many ideals. Whereas Ichikawa can be said to be responsible for much of the black wit in his films (that trend certainly continued beyond Wada's departure), she also had a sardonic side, as evidenced in many of her essays. Whereas people will attribute much of the humanity of his earlier films to Wada, humanity is still a major theme in the post-Wada films. About the only thing critics can agree on is that post-Wada Ichikawa films had a definite lesser quality to them (with a few notable exceptions). Ichikawa died of pneumonia on February 13, 2008 in a Tokyo hospital. He was 92 years old. Legacy Ichikawa's films are marked with a certain darkness and bleakness, punctuated with sparks of humanity. It can be said that his main trait is technical expertise, irony, detachment and a drive for realism married with a complete spectrum of genres. Some critics class him with Akira Kurosawa, Kenji Mizoguchi and Yasujiro Ozu as one of the masters of Japanese cinema. Filmography A Girl at Dojo Temple (1946) A Thousand and One Nights with Toho (東宝千一夜 Toho senichi-ya) (1947) The Lovers (1951) Mr. Pu (1953) The Heart (1955 film) (Kokoro) (1955) The Burmese Harp (1956) - black and white film Punishment Room (1956) Bridge of Japan (1956) The Men of Tohoku (1957) The Hole (1957) Enjo (1958) Odd Obsession (1959) Fires on the Plain (1959) A Woman's Testament (1960) Ototo (1960) Ten Dark Women (1961) The Sin (1962) Being Two Isn't Easy (1962) An Actor's Revenge (1963) Alone on the Pacific (1963) Money Talks (1963) Tokyo Olympiad (documentary) (1965) The Tale of Genji (1966) Visions of Eight (documentary) (1973) The Wanderers (1973) I Am a Cat (1975) The Inugamis (1976) Rhyme of Vengeance (1977) Hi no Tori (The Phoenix) (1978) The Devil's Island (1978) The Old Capital (1980) The Makioka Sisters (1983) The Burmese Harp (1985) - color remake Princess from the Moon (1987) 47 Ronin (1994) The 8-Tomb Village (1996) Shinsengumi (2000) Dora-heita (2000) Kah-chan(2001)Yume jûya (2006) Inugamike no ichizoku (2006) References Sources James Quandt (ed.), Kon Ichikawa'', Cinematheque Ontario, Toronto, 2001 (ISBN 0-9682969-3-9). External links Obituary in The Times, 11 March 2008 Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database Strictly Film School: Kon Ichikawa Kon Ichikawa at the Japanese Movie Database | Kon_Ichikawa |@lemmatized kon:8 ichikawa:18 japanese:4 film:22 director:4 early:3 career:1 attend:1 technical:2 school:2 osaka:1 upon:1 graduation:1 find:1 job:1 local:1 rental:1 studio:3 j:2 animation:1 department:2 decade:1 later:1 tell:1 american:1 writer:1 donald:2 richie:2 still:2 cartoonist:1 think:1 great:2 influence:1 besides:1 chaplin:1 particularly:1 gold:1 rush:1 probably:1 disney:1 several:1 side:2 quandt:4 p:2 eventually:1 move:2 feature:1 assistant:1 company:3 become:1 complete:3 production:1 work:5 luminary:1 yutake:1 abe:1 nobuo:1 aoyagi:1 merge:1 c:1 l:1 toho:6 distribution:1 form:1 tokyo:6 first:3 puppet:1 play:1 short:1 girl:2 dojo:2 temple:3 musume:1 dojoji:1 confiscate:1 interim:1 u:1 occupation:1 authority:2 pretense:1 feudal:1 though:1 source:3 suggest:1 script:2 approve:1 occupying:1 thought:1 lose:1 many:5 year:2 archive:1 cinémathèque:1 française:1 meet:1 natto:3 wada:12 translator:1 agree:2 marry:3 sometime:1 original:1 name:1 yumiko:1 mogi:1 born:1 september:1 himeji:1 hyōgo:1 prefecture:1 japan:2 couple:1 fail:1 marriage:2 behind:1 graduate:1 degree:1 english:1 literature:1 woman:3 christian:1 university:1 april:1 die:1 february:2 breast:1 cancer:1 james:3 ed:3 cinematheque:3 ontario:3 toronto:3 page:1 rest:1 life:1 write:2 husband:1 two:4 begin:1 collaborate:1 design:1 human:2 ningen:1 moyo:1 endless:1 passion:1 hateshinaki:1 jonetsu:1 period:5 often:1 refer:1 contain:1 majority:1 highly:1 respect:1 continue:2 olympiad:3 screenplay:1 adaptation:2 talent:1 adapt:1 screen:2 partnership:1 concentrate:1 gain:1 western:1 recognition:1 number:1 bleak:1 anti:1 war:1 burmese:3 harp:3 fire:2 plain:2 alone:2 pacific:2 taiheiyo:1 hitori:1 botchi:1 technically:1 formidable:1 piece:1 actor:3 revenge:2 yukinojo:1 henge:1 kabuki:1 literary:1 include:1 jun:1 ichirō:1 tanizaki:1 key:1 kagi:1 natsume:1 sōseki:1 heart:3 kokoro:2 cat:3 wagahai:1 wa:1 neko:1 de:1 aru:1 mouse:1 turn:1 view:1 world:1 unique:1 perspective:1 yukio:1 mishima:1 conflagration:1 enjo:2 priest:1 burn:1 save:1 spiritual:1 pollution:1 bring:1 retire:1 screenwriting:1 mark:3 significant:1 change:2 point:1 onward:1 concern:1 retirement:1 speak:1 like:1 new:1 grammar:1 method:1 presentation:1 material:1 say:3 anymore:1 people:2 longer:1 take:1 love:1 seriously:1 departure:2 hard:1 extricate:1 closely:1 share:1 ideal:1 whereas:2 responsible:1 much:2 black:2 wit:1 trend:1 certainly:1 beyond:1 also:1 sardonic:1 evidence:1 essay:1 attribute:1 humanity:3 major:1 theme:1 post:2 thing:1 critic:2 definite:1 less:1 quality:1 notable:1 exception:1 died:1 pneumonia:1 hospital:1 old:2 legacy:1 certain:1 darkness:1 bleakness:1 punctuate:1 spark:1 main:1 trait:1 expertise:1 irony:1 detachment:1 drive:1 realism:1 spectrum:1 genre:1 class:1 akira:1 kurosawa:1 kenji:1 mizoguchi:1 yasujiro:1 ozu:1 one:2 master:1 cinema:2 filmography:1 thousand:1 night:1 東宝千一夜:1 senichi:1 ya:1 lover:1 mr:1 pu:1 white:1 punishment:1 room:1 bridge:1 men:1 tohoku:1 hole:1 odd:1 obsession:1 testament:1 ototo:1 ten:1 dark:1 sin:1 easy:1 money:1 talk:1 documentary:2 tale:1 genji:1 vision:1 eight:1 wanderer:1 inugamis:1 rhyme:1 vengeance:1 hi:1 torus:1 phoenix:1 devil:1 island:1 capital:1 makioka:1 sister:1 color:1 remake:1 princess:1 moon:1 ronin:1 tomb:1 village:1 shinsengumi:1 dora:1 heita:1 kah:1 chan:1 yume:1 jûya:1 inugamike:1 ichizoku:1 reference:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 obituary:1 time:1 march:1 sens:1 critical:1 database:2 strictly:1 movie:1 |@bigram kon_ichikawa:8 breast_cancer:1 tokyo_olympiad:3 burmese_harp:3 yukio_mishima:1 akira_kurosawa:1 kenji_mizoguchi:1 yasujiro_ozu:1 tale_genji:1 external_link:1 sens_cinema:1 |
3,714 | Lulach | Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin (Modern Gaelic: Lughlagh mac Gille Chomghain, Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin is the Mediaeval Gaelic form. known in English simply as Lulach, and nicknamed Tairbith, "the Unfortunate" Skene, Chronicles, p. 102. and Fatuus, "the Simple-minded" or "the Foolish" Anderson, Early Sources, vol. i, p. 603. (died 17 March 1058), was King of Scots between 15 August, 1057 and 17 March 1058. He appears to have been a weak king, as his nicknames suggest. He does, however, have the distinction of being the first king of Scotland of whom there are coronation details available. He was crowned in August 1057 at Scone. Lulach was the son of Gruoch of Scotland, from her first marriage to Gille Coemgáin, Mormaer of Moray, and thus the stepson of Macbeth (Mac Bethad mac Findlaích). Following the death in battle of Macbeth in 1057, the king's followers placed Lulach in the throne. Lulach ruled only for a few months before being assassinated and succeeded by Malcolm III (Máel Coluim mac Donnchada). Lulach's son Máel Snechtai was Mormaer of Moray, while Óengus of Moray was the son of Lulach's daughter. He is believed to be buried on Saint Columba's Holy Island of Iona in or around the monastery. The exact position of his grave is unknown. A fictional version of Lulach appeared in the animated television series Gargoyles under the name Luach [sic]. References | Lulach |@lemmatized lulach:9 mac:6 gille:4 coemgáin:3 modern:1 gaelic:2 lughlagh:1 chomghain:1 mediaeval:1 form:1 know:1 english:1 simply:1 nickname:2 tairbith:1 unfortunate:1 skene:1 chronicle:1 p:2 fatuus:1 simple:1 mind:1 foolish:1 anderson:1 early:1 source:1 vol:1 die:1 march:2 king:4 scot:1 august:2 appear:2 weak:1 suggest:1 however:1 distinction:1 first:2 scotland:2 coronation:1 detail:1 available:1 crown:1 scone:1 son:3 gruoch:1 marriage:1 mormaer:2 moray:3 thus:1 stepson:1 macbeth:2 bethad:1 findlaích:1 follow:1 death:1 battle:1 follower:1 place:1 throne:1 rule:1 month:1 assassinate:1 succeed:1 malcolm:1 iii:1 máel:2 coluim:1 donnchada:1 snechtai:1 óengus:1 daughter:1 believe:1 bury:1 saint:1 columba:1 holy:1 island:1 iona:1 around:1 monastery:1 exact:1 position:1 grave:1 unknown:1 fictional:1 version:1 animated:1 television:1 series:1 gargoyle:1 name:1 luach:1 sic:1 reference:1 |@bigram mac_gille:3 gille_coemgáin:3 mediaeval_gaelic:1 skene_chronicle:1 mormaer_moray:2 mac_bethad:1 bethad_mac:1 máel_coluim:1 coluim_mac:1 mac_donnchada:1 máel_snechtai:1 saint_columba:1 |
3,715 | Bagpuss | Bagpuss is a popular 1974 UK children's television series, made by Peter Firmin and Oliver Postgate through their company Smallfilms. The title character is "an old, saggy cloth cat, baggy, and a bit loose at the seams". Although only 13 episodes of the show were ever made, to this day it remains fondly and widely remembered. Format Each programme would begin the same way: through a series of sepia photographs, the viewer is told of a little girl named Emily (played by Emily Firmin, the daughter of illustrator Peter Firmin) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7773124.stm , who owned a shop. However, it did not sell anything; instead, Emily would find lost and broken things and display them in the window of the shop, so their owners could one day come and collect them. She would leave the object in front of her favourite stuffed toy — the large, saggy, pink and white striped cat named Bagpuss. She would then recite a verse: When Emily had left, Bagpuss would wake up. The programme shifted from sepia to colour stop motion film, and various toys in the shop would also come to life: Gabriel the toad and a rag doll called Madeleine. The wooden woodpecker bookend became the drily academic Professor Yaffle (based on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, whom Postgate had once met Channel 4 news, 9 December 2008. ), while the mice carved on the side of the "mouse organ" (a small mechanical pipe organ which played rolls of music) woke up and scurried around, singing in high-pitched voices. Sandra Kerr and John Faulkner provided the voices of Madeleine and Gabriel respectively, and put together and performed all the proper songs. All the other voices (including the narrator and one out-of-tune mouse) were provided by Oliver Postgate, who also wrote the stories. The toys would discuss what the new object was; someone (usually Madeleine) would tell a story related to the object (shown in an animated thought-bubble over Bagpuss's head), often with a song, which would be accompanied by Gabriel on the banjo (which often sounded a lot more like a guitar), and then the mice, singing in high pitched squeaky harmony as they worked, would mend the broken object. The newly mended thing would then be put in the shop window, so that whoever had lost it would see it as they went past, and could come in and claim it. Then Bagpuss would start yawning again, and as he fell asleep the colour faded to sepia and they all became toys again. Episodes The titles of the thirteen episodes each refer in some way to the object Emily found. Episode Title Original airdate Summary1The Ship in a Bottle 12 February 1974"Where would it sail to?"2The Owls of Athens 19 February 1974A dirty rag that reveals a picture once cleaned3The Frog Princess 26 February 1974Assorted jewels, which initially are thought to represent a cat and mouse but which Gabriel decides were the crown jewels of a frog princess4The Ballet Shoe 5 March 1974Put to inventive use by the mice, and the subject of a very silly song about its possible use as a rowing boat5The Hamish 12 March 1974A tartan porcupine pincushion, and a legend of a small, soft creature from Scotland6The Wise Man 19 March 1974A broken figurine of a Chinaman (the Wise Man of Ling-Po, Yaffle explains) and a turtle7The Elephant 26 March 1974An elephant missing its ears8The Mouse Mill 2 April 1974A wooden toy mill demonstrated by the mice to make chocolate biscuits out of butterbeans and breadcrumbs. This turns out to be a mischievous fraud.9The Giant 9 April 1974A statuette, and a lesson about how sizes are relative10Old Man's Beard 16 April 1974A tangly plant (Clematis vitalba seeding)11The Fiddle 23 April 1974A fiddle which plays itself; and a leprechaun12 Flying 30 April 1974A basket which the mice attempt to turn into a flying machine13 Uncle Feedle 7 May 1974A piece of cloth, destined to be a house for a rag doll Production The programmes were made using stop-frame animation. Bagpuss is an actual cloth cat, but was not intended to be such an electric pink. "It should have been a ginger marmalade cat but the company in Folkestone dyeing the material made a mistake and it turned out pink and cream. It was the best thing that ever happened", said Firmin. Bagpuss has now retired to the Rupert Bear Museum in Canterbury, UK (part of the Museum of Canterbury), together with Emily's shop window. Most of the stories and songs used in the series are based on folk songs and fairy tales from around the world. The round sung by the mice (starting with the words "We will fix it...") is to the tune of "Sumer is icumin in", dating from the Middle Ages. Recognition In 1987 the University of Kent at Canterbury awarded an honorary degree to Oliver Postgate. He stated that the degree was really intended for Bagpuss, who was subsequently displayed in academic dress. In 1999 the series came first place in a BBC poll selecting the nation's favourite children's show. It also came fourth in the 2001 Channel 4 poll The 100 Greatest Kids' TV shows. In 2002 and 2005 a stage show of Bagpuss songs toured UK folk festivals and theatres with original singers Sandra Kerr and John Faulkner, along with Kerr's daughter Nancy Kerr and her husband, James Fagan. References External links Bagpuss at bbc.co.uk The Smallfilms Treasury's Bagpuss site Anorak Zone's Bagpuss site British Film Institute Screen Online BBC News reports on the Rupert Bear Museum | Bagpuss |@lemmatized bagpuss:12 popular:1 uk:5 child:2 television:1 series:4 make:5 peter:2 firmin:4 oliver:3 postgate:4 company:2 smallfilms:2 title:3 character:1 old:1 saggy:2 cloth:3 cat:5 baggy:1 bit:1 loose:1 seam:1 although:1 episode:3 show:5 ever:2 day:2 remain:1 fondly:1 widely:1 remember:1 format:1 programme:3 would:14 begin:1 way:2 sepia:3 photograph:1 viewer:1 tell:2 little:1 girl:1 name:2 emily:6 play:3 daughter:2 illustrator:1 http:1 news:3 bbc:4 co:2 hi:1 magazine:1 stm:1 shop:5 however:1 sell:1 anything:1 instead:1 find:2 lost:1 broken:3 thing:3 display:2 window:3 owner:1 could:2 one:2 come:5 collect:1 leave:2 object:5 front:1 favourite:2 stuffed:1 toy:5 large:1 pink:3 white:1 strip:1 recite:1 verse:1 wake:2 shift:1 colour:2 stop:2 motion:1 film:2 various:1 also:3 life:1 gabriel:4 toad:1 rag:3 doll:2 call:1 madeleine:3 wooden:2 woodpecker:1 bookend:1 become:2 drily:1 academic:2 professor:1 yaffle:2 base:2 philosopher:1 bertrand:1 russell:1 meet:1 channel:2 december:1 mouse:10 carve:1 side:1 organ:2 small:2 mechanical:1 pipe:1 roll:1 music:1 scurry:1 around:2 sing:2 high:2 pitched:1 voice:3 sandra:2 kerr:4 john:2 faulkner:2 provide:2 respectively:1 put:2 together:2 perform:1 proper:1 song:6 include:1 narrator:1 tune:2 write:1 story:3 discuss:1 new:1 someone:1 usually:1 relate:1 animated:1 thought:1 bubble:1 head:1 often:2 accompany:1 banjo:1 sound:1 lot:1 like:1 guitar:1 pitch:1 squeaky:1 harmony:1 work:1 mend:2 newly:1 whoever:1 lose:1 see:1 go:1 past:1 claim:1 start:2 yawn:1 fell:1 asleep:1 fade:1 episodes:1 thirteen:1 refer:1 original:2 airdate:1 ship:1 bottle:1 february:3 sail:1 owl:1 athens:1 dirty:1 reveal:1 picture:1 frog:2 princess:1 jewel:2 initially:1 think:1 represent:1 decides:1 crown:1 ballet:1 shoe:1 march:4 inventive:1 use:4 subject:1 silly:1 possible:1 row:1 hamish:1 tartan:1 porcupine:1 pincushion:1 legend:1 soft:1 creature:1 wise:2 man:3 figurine:1 chinaman:1 ling:1 po:1 explain:1 elephant:2 miss:1 mill:2 april:5 demonstrate:1 chocolate:1 biscuit:1 butterbean:1 breadcrumb:1 turn:3 mischievous:1 fraud:1 giant:1 statuette:1 lesson:1 size:1 beard:1 tangly:1 plant:1 clematis:1 vitalba:1 seed:1 fiddle:2 fly:2 basket:1 attempt:1 uncle:1 feedle:1 may:1 piece:1 destine:1 house:1 production:1 frame:1 animation:1 actual:1 intend:2 electric:1 ginger:1 marmalade:1 folkestone:1 dye:1 material:1 mistake:1 cream:1 best:1 happen:1 say:1 retire:1 rupert:2 bear:2 museum:3 canterbury:3 part:1 folk:2 fairy:1 tale:1 world:1 round:1 sung:1 word:1 fix:1 sumer:1 icumin:1 dating:1 middle:1 age:1 recognition:1 university:1 kent:1 award:1 honorary:1 degree:2 state:1 really:1 subsequently:1 dress:1 first:1 place:1 poll:2 select:1 nation:1 fourth:1 great:1 kid:1 tv:1 stage:1 tour:1 festival:1 theatre:1 singer:1 along:1 nancy:1 husband:1 james:1 fagan:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 treasury:1 site:2 anorak:1 zone:1 british:1 institute:1 screen:1 online:1 report:1 |@bigram uk_hi:1 bertrand_russell:1 pipe_organ:1 pitched_voice:1 fell_asleep:1 crown_jewel:1 fairy_tale:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
3,716 | Otto_Jespersen | Jens Otto Harry Jespersen or Otto Jespersen (; July 16, 1860-April 30, 1943) was a Danish linguist who specialized in the grammar of the English language. He was born in Randers in northern Jutland and attended Copenhagen University, earning degrees in English, French, and Latin. He also studied linguistics at Oxford. Jespersen was a professor of English at Copenhagen University from 1893 to 1925. Along with Paul Passy, he was a founder of the International Phonetic Association. He was a vocal supporter and active developer of international auxiliary languages. He was involved in the 1907 delegation that created the auxiliary language Ido, and in 1928, he developed the Novial language, which he considered an improvement over Ido. Jespersen collaborated with Alice Vanderbilt Morris to develop the research program of the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA), which in 1951 presented Interlingua to the general public. Edward Sapir and William Edward Collinson also collaborated with Morris. Falk, Julia S. "Words without grammar: Linguists and the international language movement in the United States, Language and Communication, 15(3): pp. 241-259. Pergamon, 1995. He advanced the theories of Rank and Nexus in Danish in two papers: Sprogets logik (1913) and De to hovedarter af grammatiske forbindelser (1921). Jespersen in this theory of ranks removes the parts of speech from the syntax, and differentiates between primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries; e.g. in "well honed phrase," "phrase" is a primary, this being defined by a secondary, "honed", which again is defined by a tertiary "well". The term Nexus is applied to sentences, structures similar to sentences and sentences in formation, in which two concepts are expressed in one unit; e.g., it rained, he ran indoors. This term is qualified by a further concept called a junction which represents one idea, expressed by means of two or more elements, whereas a nexus combines two ideas. Junction and nexus proved valuable in bringing the concept of context to the forefront of the attention of the world of linguistics. He was most widely recognized for some of his books. Modern English Grammar (1909), concentrated on morphology and syntax, and Growth and Structure of the English Language (1905) is a comprehensive view of English by someone with another native language, and still in print, over 60 years after his death and nearly 100 years after publication. Late in his life he published Analytic Syntax (1937), in which he presents his views on syntactic structure using an idiosyncratic shorthand notation. More than once Otto Jespersen was invited to the U.S. as a guest lecturer, and he took occasion to study the country's educational system. His autobiography (see below) was published in English translation as recently as 1995. Jespersen was a proponent of phonosemanticism and wrote: “Is there really much more logic in the opposite extreme which denies any kind of sound symbolism (apart from the small class of evident echoisms and ‘onomatopoeia’) and sees in our words only a collection of accidental and irrational associations of sound and meaning? ...There is no denying that there are words which we feel instinctively to be adequate to express the ideas they stand for.” Essays and articles What is the use of phonetics?, in: Educational Review (February 1910) Nature and Art in Language, in: American Speech 5 (1929), pp. 89ff (Part 1, Part 2) Adversative Conjunctions, in: Linguistics (1933) Bibliography 1889: The articulations of speech sounds represented by means of analphabetic symbols. Marburg: Elwert. 1894: Progress in Language. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. 1905: Growth and Structure of the English Language (ISBN 0-226-39877-3) 1909ff: A Modern English Grammar (in seven volumes; the title should be understood as 'A grammar of Modern English') (ISBN 0-06-493318-0) 1922: Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin (ISBN 0-04-400007-3) 1924: The Philosophy of Grammar (ISBN 0-226-39881-1) 1928: An International Language (the introduction of the Novial language) 1930: Novial Lexike Novial to English, French and German dictionary. 1937: Analytic Syntax (ISBN 0-226-39880-3) 1938: En sprogmands levned, Copenhagen, Jespersen's autobiography 1993. A literary miscellany: proceedings of the Otto Jespersen Symposium April 29-30, edited by Jørgen Erik Nielsen and Arne Zettersten 1994 1995: A Linguist's Life: an English translation of Otto Jespersen's autobiography, edited by Arne Juul, Hans Frede Nielsen and Jørgen Erik Nielsen, Odense (ISBN 87-7838-132-0) References External links "Otto Jespersen", by Niels Haislund, in: Englische Studien 75 (1943), pp. 273–282 (reprinted in: Thomas A. Sebeok, Portraits of Linguists, vol. 2, Bloomington & London: Indiana U.P. 1966 [ISBN 1-84371-006-4], pp. 148–57). Otto Jespersen Online Bibliography | Otto_Jespersen |@lemmatized jens:1 otto:7 harry:1 jespersen:12 july:1 april:2 danish:2 linguist:4 specialize:1 grammar:6 english:12 language:15 bear:1 randers:1 northern:1 jutland:1 attend:1 copenhagen:3 university:2 earn:1 degree:1 french:2 latin:1 also:2 study:2 linguistics:3 oxford:1 professor:1 along:1 paul:1 passy:1 founder:1 international:5 phonetic:1 association:3 vocal:1 supporter:1 active:1 developer:1 auxiliary:3 involve:1 delegation:1 create:1 ido:2 develop:2 novial:4 consider:1 improvement:1 collaborate:2 alice:1 vanderbilt:1 morris:2 research:1 program:1 iala:1 present:2 interlingua:1 general:1 public:1 edward:2 sapir:1 william:1 collinson:1 falk:1 julia:1 word:3 without:1 movement:1 united:1 state:1 communication:1 pp:4 pergamon:1 advance:1 theory:2 rank:2 nexus:4 two:4 paper:1 sprogets:1 logik:1 de:1 hovedarter:1 af:1 grammatiske:1 forbindelser:1 remove:1 part:3 speech:3 syntax:4 differentiate:1 primary:2 secondary:2 tertiary:2 e:2 g:2 well:2 hone:2 phrase:2 define:2 term:2 apply:1 sentence:3 structure:4 similar:1 formation:1 concept:3 express:3 one:2 unit:1 rain:1 run:1 indoors:1 qualify:1 call:1 junction:2 represent:2 idea:3 mean:2 element:1 whereas:1 combine:1 prove:1 valuable:1 bring:1 context:1 forefront:1 attention:1 world:1 widely:1 recognize:1 book:1 modern:3 concentrate:1 morphology:1 growth:2 comprehensive:1 view:2 someone:1 another:1 native:1 still:1 print:1 year:2 death:1 nearly:1 publication:1 late:1 life:2 publish:2 analytic:2 syntactic:1 use:2 idiosyncratic:1 shorthand:1 notation:1 invite:1 u:2 guest:1 lecturer:1 take:1 occasion:1 country:1 educational:2 system:1 autobiography:3 see:2 translation:2 recently:1 proponent:1 phonosemanticism:1 write:1 really:1 much:1 logic:1 opposite:1 extreme:1 deny:2 kind:1 sound:3 symbolism:1 apart:1 small:1 class:1 evident:1 echoisms:1 onomatopoeia:1 collection:1 accidental:1 irrational:1 meaning:1 feel:1 instinctively:1 adequate:1 stand:1 essay:1 article:1 phonetics:1 review:1 february:1 nature:2 art:1 american:1 adversative:1 conjunction:1 bibliography:2 articulation:1 analphabetic:1 symbol:1 marburg:1 elwert:1 progress:1 london:2 swan:1 sonnenschein:1 co:1 isbn:7 seven:1 volume:1 title:1 understood:1 development:1 origin:1 philosophy:1 introduction:1 lexike:1 german:1 dictionary:1 en:1 sprogmands:1 levned:1 literary:1 miscellany:1 proceeding:1 symposium:1 edit:2 jørgen:2 erik:2 nielsen:3 arne:2 zettersten:1 juul:1 han:1 frede:1 odense:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 niels:1 haislund:1 englische:1 studien:1 reprint:1 thomas:1 sebeok:1 portrait:1 vol:1 bloomington:1 indiana:1 p:1 online:1 |@bigram otto_jespersen:6 edward_sapir:1 secondary_tertiary:1 morphology_syntax:1 guest_lecturer:1 external_link:1 |
3,717 | Mortimer_J._Adler | Mortimer Jerome Adler (December 28, 1902 – June 28, 2001) was an American educator, philosopher, and popular author. As a philosopher he worked with Aristotelian and Thomistic thought. He lived for the longest stretches in New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, and San Mateo. He worked for Columbia University, the University of Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, and Adler's own Institute for Philosophical Research. Adler was married twice and had four children. William Grimes, "Mortimer Adler, 98, Dies; Helped Create Study of Classics," New York Times, June 29, 2001 Ralph McInerny, "In Memoriam Mortimer J. Adler," Crisis magazine, 2001 Biography New York City Adler was born in New York City on December 28, 1902, to immigrants. He dropped out of school at age 14 to become a copy boy for the New York Sun, with the ultimate aspiration to become a journalist. Adler soon returned to school to take writing classes at night where he discovered the works of men he would come to call heroes: Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, John Locke, John Stuart Mill and others. He went on to study at Columbia University and contributed to the student literary magazine, The Morningside, (a poem "Choice" in 1922 when Charles A. Wagner was editor-in-chief and Whittaker Chambers an associate editor). Though he failed to pass the required swimming test for a bachelor's degree (a matter that was rectified when Columbia gave him an honorary degree in 1983), he stayed at the university and eventually received an instructorship and finally a doctorate in psychology. "Remarkable Columbians" Columbia U. website on Adler While at Columbia University, Adler wrote his first book: Dialectic, published in 1927. Mortimer Adler Chicago In 1930 Robert Hutchins, the newly appointed president of the University of Chicago, whom Adler had befriended some years earlier, arranged for Chicago’s law school to hire him as a professor of the philosophy of law; the philosophers at Chicago (who included James H. Tufts, E.A. Burtt, and George H. Mead) had "entertained grave doubts as to Mr. Adler's competence in the field [of philosophy]" and resisted Adler's appointment to the University's Department of Philosophy. Charles Van Doren,"Mortimer J. Adler (1902-2001)", Columbia Forum online, November 2002; Peter Temes, "Death of a Great Reader and Philosopher", Chicago Sun-Times, 3 July 2001; "grave doubts": "A Statement from the Department of Philosophy" at Chicago, quoted on p. 186 in Gary Cook, George Herbert Mead: The Making of a Social Pragmatist, U. of Illinois Press 1993. Adler was the first "non-lawyer" to join the law school faculty. Centennial Facts of the Day, U Chicago Law School website Adler also taught philosophy to business executives at the Aspen Institute. Great Books and Beyond Adler and Hutchins went on to found the Great Books of the Western World program and the Great Books Foundation. Adler founded and served as director of the Institute for Philosophical Research in 1952. He also served on the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and succeeded Hutchins as its chairman from 1974. As the director of editorial planning for the fifteenth edition of Britannica from 1965, he was instrumental in the major reorganization of knowledge embodied in that edition. Mortimer J. Adler, A Guidebook to Learning: For the Lifelong Pursuit of Wisdom. MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, 1986. p.88 He introduced the Paideia Proposal which resulted in his founding the Paideia Program, a grade-school curriculum centered around guided reading and discussion of difficult works (as judged for each grade). With Max Weismann, he founded The Center for the Study of The Great Ideas. Popular Appeal Adler long strove to bring philosophy to the masses, and some of his works (such as How to Read a Book) became popular bestsellers. He was also an advocate of economic democracy and wrote an influential preface to Louis Kelso's The Capitalist Manifesto. Adler was often aided in his thinking and writing by Arthur Rubin, an old friend from his Columbia undergraduate days. In his own words: Unlike many of my contemporaries, I never write books for my fellow professors to read. I have no interest in the academic audience at all. I'm interested in Joe Doakes. A general audience can read any book I write—and they do. Religion and theology Adler took a long time in his own life to make up his mind about theological issues. He considered himself a pagan when he wrote How to Think About God in 1980. In volume 51 of the Mars Hill Audio Journal (2001), Ken Myers includes his 1980 interview with Adler, conducted after How to Think About God was published. Myers reminisces, "During that interview, I asked him why he had never embraced the Christian faith himself. He explained that while he had been profoundly influenced by a number of Christian thinkers during his life, ... there were moral—not intellectual—obstacles to his conversion. He didn't explain any further." Myers notes that Adler finally "surrendered to the Hound of Heaven" and "made a confession of faith and was baptized" only a few years after that interview. Offering insight into Adler's conversion, Myers quotes Adler from a subsequent 1990 article in Christianity magazine: "My chief reason for choosing Christianity was because the mysteries were incomprehensible. What's the point of revelation if we could figure it out ourselves? If it were wholly comprehensible, then it would just be another philosophy." In 2000, Adler became a Catholic. Mars Hill Audio Journal, vol 51 Controversy Adler was a controversial figure in some circles who saw Adler's Great Books of the Western World project as Eurocentric and racially exclusive. Asked in a 1990 interview why his Great Books of the Western World list did not include any black authors, he said simply, "They didn't write any good books." Elizabeth Venant, "A Curmudgeon Stands His Ground", The Los Angeles Times, 3 December 1990, pp. E1-E2. Philosophy Moral Philosophy Adler referred to Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics as the "ethics of common sense" and also as "the only moral philosophy that is sound, practical, and undogmatic". In other words, it is (according to Adler) the only ethical doctrine that answers all the questions that moral philosophy "should" and "can" attempt to answer, neither more nor less, and that has answers that are true by the standard of truth that is appropriate and applicable to normative judgments. In contrast, Adler believed that other theories or doctrines try to answer more questions than they can or fewer than they should, and their answers are mixtures of truth and error, particularly the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant. Adler believed we are as enlightened by Aristotle’s Ethics today as were those who listened to Aristotle's lectures when they were first delivered because the ethical problems that human beings confront in their lives have not changed over the centuries. Moral virtue and the blessings of good fortune are today, as they have always been in the past, the keys to living well, unaffected by all the technological changes in the environment, as well as those in our social, political, and economic institutions. Adler believed that the moral problems to be solved by the individual are the same in every century, though they appear to us in different guises. According to Adler, six indispensable conditions must be met in the effort to develop a sound moral philosophy that corrects all the errors made in modern times. First and foremost is the definition of prescriptive truth, which sharply distinguishes it from the definition of descriptive truth. Descriptive truth consists in the agreement or conformity of the mind with reality. When we think that that which is, is, and that which is not, is not, we think truly. To be true, what we think must conform to the way things are. In sharp contrast, prescriptive truth consists in the conformity of our appetites with right desire. The practical or prescriptive judgments we make are true if they conform to right desire; or, in other words, if they prescribe what we ought to desire. It is clear that prescriptive truth cannot be the same as descriptive truth; and if the only truth that human beings can know is descriptive truth--the truth of propositions concerning what is and is not--then there can be no truth in ethics. Propositions containing the word "ought" cannot conform to reality. As a result, we have the twentieth-century mistake of dismissing all ethical or value judgments as noncognitive. These must be regarded only as wishes or demands we make on others. They are personal opinions and subjective prejudices, not objective knowledge. In short, the very phrase "noncognitive ethics" declares that ethics is not a body of knowledge. Second, in order to avoid the naturalistic fallacy, we must formulate at least one self-evident prescriptive truth, so that, with it as a premise, we can reason to the truth of other prescriptives. Hume said that if we had perfect or complete descriptive knowledge of reality, we could not, by reasoning, derive a single valid ought. Third, the distinction between real and apparent goods must be understood, as well as the fact that only real goods are the objects of right desire. In the realm of appetite or desire, some desires are natural and some are acquired. Those that are natural are the same for all human beings as individual members of the human species. They are as much a part of our natural endowment as our sensitive faculties and our skeletal structure. Other desires we acquire in the course of experience, under the influence of our upbringing or nurturing, or of environmental factors that differ from individual to individual. Individuals differ in their acquired desires, as they do not in their natural desires. This is essentially the difference between "needs" and "wants." What is really good for us is not really good because we desire it, but the very opposite. We desire it because it is really good. By contrast, that which only appears good to us (and may or may not be really good for us) appears good to us simply because we want it at the moment. Its appearing good is the result of our wanting it, and as our wants change, as they do from day to day, so do the things that appear good to us. In light of the definition of prescriptive truth as conformity with right desire, we can see that prescriptions are true only when they enjoin us to want what we need, since every need is for something that is really good for us. If right desire is desiring what we ought to desire, and if we ought to desire only that which is really good for us and nothing else, then we have found the one controlling self evident principle of all ethical reasoning--the one indispensable categorical imperative. That self-evident principle can be stated as follows: we ought to desire everything that is really good for us.The principle is self evident because its opposite is unthinkable. It is unthinkable that we ought to desire anything that is really bad for us; and it is equally unthinkable that we ought not to desire everything that is really good for us. The meanings of the crucial words "ought" and "really good" co-implicate each other, as do the words "part" and "whole" when we say that the whole is greater than any of its parts is a self-evident truth. Given this self-evident prescriptive principle, and given the facts of human nature that tell us what we naturally need, we can reason our way to a whole series of prescriptive truths, all categorical. Fourth, in all practical matters or matters of conduct, the end precedes the means in our thinking about them, while in action we move from means to ends. But we cannot think about our ends until, among them, we have discovered our final or ultimate end--the end that leaves nothing else to be rightly desired. The only word that names such a final or ultimate end is "happiness." No one can ever say why he or she wants happiness because happiness is not an end that is also a means to something beyond itself. This truth cannot be understood without comprehending the distinction between terminal and normative ends. A terminal end, as in travel, is one that a person can reach at some moment and come to rest in. Terminal ends, such as psychological contentment, can be reached and then rested in on some days, but not others. Happiness, not conceived as psychologically experienced contentment, but rather as a whole life well lived, is not a terminal end because it is never attained at any time in the course of one's whole life. If all ends were terminal ends, there could not be any one of them that is the final or ultimate end in the course of living from moment to moment. Only a normative end can be final and ultimate. Happiness functions as the end that ought to control all the right choices we make in the course of living. Though we never have happiness ethically understood at any moment of our lives, we are always on the way to happiness if we freely make the choices that we ought to make in order to achieve our ultimate normative end of having lived well. But we suffer many accidents in the course of our lives, things beyond our control--outrageous misfortunes or the blessings of good fortunes. Moral virtue alone--or the habits of choosing as we ought--is a necessary, but not sufficient condition of living well. The other necessary, but also not sufficient condition is good fortune. The fifth condition is that there is not a plurality of moral virtues (which are named in so many ethical treatises), but only one integral moral virtue. There may be a plurality of aspects to moral virtue, but moral virtue is like a cube with many faces. The unity of moral virtue is understood when it is realized that the many faces it has may be analytically but not existentially distinct. In other words, considering the four so-called cardinal virtues--temperance, courage, justice, and prudence--the unity of virtue declares that no one can have any one of these four without also having the other three. Since justice names an aspect of virtue that is other regarding, while temperance and courage name aspects of virtue that are self-regarding, and both the self- and other regarding aspects of virtue involve prudence in the making of moral choices, no one can be selfish in his right desires without also being altruistic, and conversely. This explains why a morally virtuous person ought to be just even though his or her being just may appear only to serve the good of others. According to the unity of virtue, the individual cannot have the self-regarding aspects of virtue-- temperance and courage--without also having the other regarding aspect of virtue, which is justice. The sixth and final condition in Adler’s teleological ethics is acknowledging the primacy of the good and deriving the right therefrom. Those who assert the primacy of the right make the mistake of thinking that they can know what is right, what is morally obligatory in our treatment of others, without first knowing what is really good for ourselves in the course of trying to live a morally good life. Only when we know what is really good for ourselves can we know what are our duties or moral obligations toward others. The primacy of the good with respect to the right corrects the mistake of thinking that we are acting morally if we do nothing that injures others. Our first moral obligation is to ourselves--to seek all the things that are really good for us, the things all of us need, and only those apparent goods that are innocuous rather than noxious. The Intellect Adler was a self proclaimed “moderate dualist”, and viewed the positions of both psychophysical dualism and materialistic monism to be opposite sides of two extremes. Regarding dualism, he dismissed the extreme form of dualism that stemmed from such philosophers as Plato (body and soul) and Descartes (mind and matter): Adler also disagreed with the theory of extreme monism. He believed that while mind and brain may be existentially inseparable, and so regarded as one and the same thing, the mental and the physical may still be analytically distinct aspects of it. He put this theory to the test in the following manner: Adler was also a harsh critic of the Mind-Brain Identity Theory: After eliminating the extremes, Adler subscribed to a more moderate form of dualism. He believed that that the brain is only a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for conceptual thought; that an immaterial intellect is also requisite as a condition; and that the difference between human and animal behavior is a radical difference in kind. His reason for this is that their cognitive sensory powers do not and cannot apprehend universals. Their cognitive reach does not go beyond particulars. Hence, we would not be able to apprehend universals if we did not have another and quite distinct cognitive power -- the power of intellect. Our concepts are universal in their signification of objects that are kinds or classes of things rather than individuals that are particular instances of these classes or kinds. Since they have universality, they cannot exist physically or be embodied in matter. But concepts do exist in our minds. They are there as acts of our intellectual power. Hence that power must be an immaterial power, not one embodied in a material organ such as the brain. Adler argued that if such an immaterial power did not exist in human beings, our use of common nouns would not be possible. Particular instances are designated by proper names or definite descriptions. When we use the word "dog," we are referring to any dog, regardless of breed, size, shape, or color. To refer to a particular instance, we would use a canine name, such as "Fido," or a definite description, such as "that white poodle over there lying in front of the fire." Our concepts of dog and poodle not only enable us to think about two classes of animals, they also enable us to understand what it is like to be a dog or a poodle. According to Adler, The action of the brain, therefore, cannot be the sufficient condition of conceptual thought, though it may still be a necessary condition thereof, insofar as the exercise of our power of conceptual thought depends on the exercise of our powers of perception, memory, and imagination, which are corporeal powers embodied in our sense-organs and brain. Only if the brain is not the sufficient condition for intellectual activity and conceptual thought (only if the intellect that is part of the human mind and is not found in other animals is the immaterial factor that must be added to the brain in order to provide conditions both necessary and sufficient) are we justified in concluding that the manifest difference in kind between human and animal minds, and between human and animal behavior, is radical, not superficial. It cannot be explained away by any difference in the physical constitution of human beings and other animals that is a difference in degree. Adler defended this position against many challenges to dualistic theories. For example, David Hume believed that man is equipped with sensitive faculties only, and has no intellect. As a nominalist, Hume then faced the problem of how to explain the meaning of the general words in our everyday language; for example, the common nouns that signify classes or kinds. Hume attempted to solve this problem by arguing that when we use words that appear to have general significance, we are applying them to a number of perceived individuals indifferently; that is, without any difference in the meaning of the word thus applied. Adler found this explanation to be a complete contradiction. To say that we can apply words to a number of individuals indifferently amounts to saying that there is a certain sameness in the individual thing that the speaker or writer recognizes. Adler argued that if human beings enjoy the powers of conceptual, as opposed to perceptual thought, there would be no difficulty in explaining how words signify universals or generalities. They would derive their significance from concepts that give us our understanding of classes or kinds. As for the challenge that man’s understanding is derived only from sense, and to the denial of “abstract” or “general ideas, Adler cites the following quote: Adler responded to this challenge in his book "Ten Philosophical Mistakes": God In his 1981 book “How to Think About God”, Adler attempts to demonstrate God as the exnihilator of the cosmos. The steps taken to demonstrate this are as follows: 1. The existence of an effect requiring the concurrent existence and action of an efficient cause implies the existence and action of that cause 2. The cosmos as a whole exists 3. The existence of the cosmos as a whole is radically contingent (meaning that it needs an efficient cause of its continuing existence to preserve it in being, and prevent it from being annihilated, or reduced to nothing) 4. If the cosmos needs an efficient cause of its continuing existence, then that cause must be a supernatural being, supernatural in its action, and one the existence of which is uncaused, in other words, the Supreme Being, or God Two of the four premises, the first and the last, appear to be true with certitude. The second is true beyond a reasonable doubt. If the one remaining premise, the third, is also true beyond a reasonable doubt, then we can conclude beyond a reasonable doubt that God exists and acts to sustain the cosmos in existence. The reason we can conceive the cosmos as being radically rather than superficially contingent is due to the fact that the cosmos which now exists is only one of many possible universes that might have in fact existed in the past, and might still exist in the future. This is not to say that any cosmos other than this one ever did exist in the past, or ever will exist in the future. It is not necessary to go that far in order to say that other universes might have existed in the past and might exist in the future. If other universes are possible, than this one also is merely possible, not necessary. In other words, the universe as we know it today is not the only universe that can ever exist in time. How do we know that the present cosmos is only a possible universe (one of many possibilities that might exist), and not a necessary universe (the only one that can ever exist)? We can infer it from the fact that the arrangement and disarray, the order and disorder, of the present cosmos might have been otherwise. That it might have been different from what it is. There is no compelling reason to think that the natural laws which govern the present cosmos are the only possible natural laws. The cosmos as we know it manifests chance and random happenings, as well as lawful behavior. Even the electrons and protons, which are thought to be imperishable once they exist as the building blocks of the present cosmos, might not be the building blocks for a different cosmos. The next step in the argument is the crucial one. It consists in saying that whatever might have been otherwise in shape or structure is something that also might not exist at all. That which cannot be otherwise also cannot not exist; and conversely, what necessarily exists can not be otherwise than it is. Therefore, a cosmos which can be otherwise is one that also cannot be; and conversely, a cosmos that is capable of not existing at all is one that can be otherwise than it now is. Applying this insight to the fact that the existing cosmos is merely one of a plurality of possible universes, we come to the conclusion that the cosmos, radically contingent in existence, would not exist at all were its existence not caused. A merely possible cosmos cannot be an uncaused cosmos. A cosmos that is radically contingent in existence, and needs a cause of that existence, needs a supernatural cause, one that exists and acts to exnihilate this merely possible cosmos, thus preventing the realization of what is always possible for merely a possible cosmos, namely, its absolute non-existence or reduction to nothingness. Adler finishes by pointing out that the conclusion reached conforms to Ockham’s rule (the rule which states that we are justified in positing or asserting the real existence of unobserved or unobservable entities if-and only-if their real existence is indispensable for the explanation of observable phenomena) because we have found it necessary to posit the existence of God, the Supreme Being, in order to explain what needs to be explained-the actual existence here and now of a merely possible cosmos. The argument also appeals to the principle of sufficient reason. Adler stressed that even with this conclusion, God's existence cannot be proven or demonstrated, but only established as true beyond a reasonable doubt. However, in a recent re-review of the argument, John Cramer concluded that recent developments in cosmology appear to converge with and support Adler's argument, and that in light of such theories as the multiverse, the argument is no worse for the wear and may, indeed, now be judged somewhat more probable than it was originally. John Cramer. "Adler's Cosmological Argument for the Existence of God". Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith, March 1995, pp. 32-42. Religion in Modern Times Adler believed that, if theology and religion are living things, there is nothing intrinsically wrong about efforts to modernize them. They must be open to change and growth like everything else. Further, there is no reason to be surprised when discussions such as those about the "death of God" -- a concept drawn from Nietzsche -- stir popular excitement as they did in the recent past, and could do so again today. According to Adler, of all the great ideas, the idea of God has always been and continues to be the one that evokes the greatest concern among the widest group of men and women. However, Adler was opposed to the idea of converting atheism into a new form of religion or theology, and cited many “new theologians” such as Clarence Hamilton, Paul Van Buren, Thomas Altizer and Gabriel Vahanian, who promoted this error: Adler saw such movements as obvious and disingenuous attempts to convert atheism and secularism into new forms of religion, rather than calling them by their right names: With regard to the apparent increase of secularism or irreligion in our Western society, Adler responded: {{quote|I suggest that the men and women who have given up religion because of the impact on their minds of modern science and philosophy were never truly religious in the first place, but only superstitious. The prevalence and predominance of science in our culture has cured a great many of the superstitious beliefs that constituted their false religiosity. The increase of secularism and irreligion in our society does not reflect a decrease in the number of persons who are truly religious, but a decrease in the number of those who are falsely religious; that is, merely superstitious. There is no question but that science is the cure for superstition, and, if given half the chance with education, it will reduce the amount that exists. The truths of religion must be compatible with the truths of science and the truths of philosophy. As scientific knowledge advances, and as philosophical analysis improves, religion is progressively purified of the superstitions that accidentally attach themselves to it as parasites. That being so, it is easier in fact to be more truly religious today than ever before, precisely because of the advances that have been made in science and philosophy. That is to say, it is easier for those who will make the effort to think clearly in and about religion, not for those whose addiction to religion is nothing more than a slavish adherence to inherited superstition. Throughout the whole of the past, only a small number of men were ever truly religious. The vast majority who gave their epochs and their societies the appearance of being religious were primarily and essentially superstitious.”' }} Books by AdlerDialectic (1927)The Nature of Judicial Proof: An Inquiry into the Logical, Legal, and Empirical Aspects of the Law of Evidence (1931, with Jerome Michael)Diagrammatics (1932, with Maude Phelps Hutchins)Crime, Law and Social Science (1933, with Jerome Michael)Art and Prudence: A Study in Practical Philosophy (1937)What Man Has Made of Man: A Study of the Consequences of Platonism and Positivism in Psychology (1937)St. Thomas and the Gentiles (1938)The Philosophy and Science of Man: A Collection of Texts as a Foundation for Ethics and Politics (1940)How to Read a Book: The Art of Getting a Liberal Education (1940), 1966 edition subtitled A Guide to Reading the Great Books, 1972 revised edition with Charles Van Doren, The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading: ISBN 0-671-21209-5 A Dialectic of Morals: Towards the Foundations of Political Philosophy (1941)How to Think About War and Peace (1944)The Revolution in Education (1944, with Milton Mayer)The Capitalist Manifesto (1958, with Louis O. Kelso) ISBN 0-8371-8210-7The Idea of Freedom: A Dialectical Examination of the Conceptions of Freedom (1958)The New Capitalists: A Proposal to Free Economic Growth from the Slavery of Savings (1961, with Louis O. Kelso)The Idea of Freedom: A Dialectical Examination of the Controversies about Freedom (1961)Great Ideas from the Great Books (1961)The Conditions of Philosophy: Its Checkered Past, Its Present Disorder, and Its Future Promise (1965)The Difference of Man and the Difference It Makes (1967)The Time of Our Lives: The Ethics of Common Sense (1970)The Common Sense of Politics (1971)The American Testament (1975, with William Gorman)Some Questions About Language: A Theory of Human Discourse and Its Objects (1976)Philosopher at Large: An Intellectual Autobiography (1977)Reforming Education: The Schooling of a People and Their Education Beyond Schooling (1977, edited by Geraldine Van Doren)Aristotle for Everybody: Difficult Thought Made Easy (1978) ISBN 0-684-83823-0How to Think About God: A Guide for the 20th-Century Pagan (1980) ISBN 0-02-016022-4Six Great Ideas: Truth-Goodness-Beauty-Liberty-Equality-Justice (1981) ISBN 0-02-072020-3The Angels and Us (1982)The Paideia Proposal: An Educational Manifesto (1982)How to Speak / How to Listen (1983) ISBN 0-02-500570-7Paideia Problems and Possibilities: A Consideration of Questions Raised by The Paideia Proposal (1983)A Vision of the Future: Twelve Ideas for a Better Life and a Better Society (1984) ISBN 0-02-500280-5The Paideia Program: An Educational Syllabus (1984, with Members of the Paideia Group)Ten Philosophical Mistakes (1985) ISBN 0-02-500330-5A Guidebook to Learning: For a Lifelong Pursuit of Wisdom (1986)We Hold These Truths: Understanding the Ideas and Ideals of the Constitution (1987)Reforming Education: The Opening of the American Mind (1988, edited by Geraldine Van Doren)Intellect: Mind Over Matter (1990)Truth in Religion: The Plurality of Religions and the Unity of Truth (1990) ISBN 0-02-064140-0Haves Without Have-Nots: Essays for the 21st Century on Democracy and Socialism (1991) ISBN 0-02-500561-8Desires, Right & Wrong: The Ethics of Enough (1991)A Second Look in the Rearview Mirror: Further Autobiographical Reflections of a Philosopher At Large (1992)The Great Ideas: A Lexicon of Western Thought (1992)Natural Theology, Chance, and God (The Great Ideas Today, 1992)The Four Dimensions of Philosophy: Metaphysical-Moral-Objective-Categorical (1993)Art, the Arts, and the Great Ideas (1994)Adler's Philosophical Dictionary: 125 Key Terms for the Philosopher's Lexicon (1995) Collections Edited by AdlerScholasticism and Politics (1940)Great Books of the Western World (1952, 52 volumes), 2nd edition 1990, 60 volumesA Syntopicon: An Index to The Great Ideas (1952, 2 volumes), 2nd edition 1990The Great Ideas Today (1961-1977, 17 volumes), with Robert Hutchins, 1978-1999, 20 volumesThe Negro in American History (1969, 3 volumes), with Charles Van Doren Gateway to the Great Books (1963, 10 volumes), with Robert Hutchins The Annals of America (1968, 21 volumes) Propædia: Outline of Knowledge and Guide to The New Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition (1974, 30 volumes) Great Treasury of Western Thought (1977, with Charles Van Doren) References Further Reading Harry Ashmore, Unseasonable Truths: The Life of Robert Maynard Hutchins (New York: Little Brown, 1989). Alex Beam, A Great Idea at the Time: The Rise, Fall, and Curious Afterlife of the Great Books (New York: Public Affairs, 2008). Mary Ann Dzuback, Robert M. Hutchins: Portrait of an Educator (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1991). Amy Apfel Kass, "Radical Conservatives for a Liberal Education" (Ph.D. diss., 1973). Tim Lacy, "Making a Democratic Culture: The Great Books Idea, Mortimer J. Adler, and Twentieth-Century America" (Ph.D. diss., Loyola University Chicago, 2006). William McNeill, Hutchins' University: A Memoir of the University of Chicago 1929-50 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Hugh Moorhead, "The Great Books Movement" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1964). Joan Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992). See also Educational perennialism Liberal Arts, Inc. Liberal education Great Books Western canon Shimer College St. John's College External links Center for the Study of The Great Ideas Mortimer J. 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3,718 | Hard_disk_drive | A hard disk drive Other terms use to describe hard disk drives include disk drive, disk file, DASD (Direct Access Storage Device), fixed disk, CKD disk and Winchester Disk Drive (after the IBM 3340). (often shortened as "hard disk" http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/h/hard_disk.html or "hard drive" http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid5_gci213993,00.html ), is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, "drive" refers to a device distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy disk. Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically a sealed unit (except for a filtered vent hole to equalize air pressure) with fixed media. How Hard Disks Work, howstuffworks.com History HDDs (introduced in 1956 as data storage for an IBM accounting computer IBM 350 disk storage unit ) were originally developed for use with general purpose computers. During the 1990s, the need for large-scale, reliable storage, independent of a particular device, led to the introduction of embedded systems such as RAID arrays, network attached storage (NAS) systems and storage area network (SAN) systems that provide efficient and reliable access to large volumes of data. In the 21st century, HDD usage expanded into consumer applications such as camcorders, cellphones (e.g. the Nokia N91), digital audio players, digital video players (e.g. the iPod Classic), digital video recorders, personal digital assistants and video game consoles. Technology HDDs record data by magnetizing ferromagnetic material directionally, to represent either a 0 or a 1 binary digit. They read the data back by detecting the magnetization of the material. A typical HDD design consists of a spindle which holds one or more flat circular disks called platters, onto which the data are recorded. The platters are made from a non-magnetic material, usually aluminum alloy or glass, and are coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. Older disks used iron(III) oxide as the magnetic material, but current disks use a cobalt-based alloy. A cross section of the magnetic surface in action. In this case the binary data is encoded using frequency modulation. The platters are spun at very high speeds. Information is written to a platter as it rotates past devices called read-and-write heads that operate very close (tens of nanometers in new drives) over the magnetic surface. The read-and-write head is used to detect and modify the magnetization of the material immediately under it. There is one head for each magnetic platter surface on the spindle, mounted on a common arm. An actuator arm (or access arm) moves the heads on an arc (roughly radially) across the platters as they spin, allowing each head to access almost the entire surface of the platter as it spins. The arm is moved using a voice coil actuator or in some older designs a stepper motor. The magnetic recording media are CoCrPt-based magnetic thin films of about 10-20 nm in thickness. The thin films are normally deposited on glass/ceramic/metal substrate and covered by thin carbon layer for protection. The Co-based alloy thin films are polycrystalline and the size of grains has an order of 10 nm. Because the sizes of each grain are tiny, they are typical single domain magnets. The media are magnetically hard (coercivity is about 0.3T) so that a stable remnant magnetization can be achieved. The grain boundaries turn out to be very important. The reason is that, the grains are very small and close to each other, so the coupling between each grains are very strong. When one grain is magnetized, the adjacent grains tend to be aligned parallel to it or demagnetized. Then both the stability of the data and signal-to-noise ratio will be sabotaged. A clear grain boundary can weaken the coupling of the grains and subsequently increase the signal-to-noise ratio. During writing process, ideally one grain can store one bit (1/0). However, current technology can not reach that far yet. In practice, a group of grains (about 100) are magnetized as one bit. So, in order to increase the data density, smaller grains are required. From microstructure point of view, longitudinal and perpendicular recording are the same. Also, similar Co-based thin films are used in both longitudinal and perpendicular recording. However, the fabrication processes are different to gain different crystal structure and magnetic properties. In longitudinal recording, the single-domain grains have uniaxial anisotropy with easy axes lying in the film plane. The consequence of this arrangement is that adjacent magnets repel each other. Therefore the magnetostatic energy is so large that it is difficult to increase areal density. Perpendicular recording media, on the other hand, has the easy axis of the grains oriented perpendicular to the disk plane. Adjacent magnets attract to each other and magnetostatic energy are much lower. So, much higher areal density can be achieved in perpendicular recording. Another unique feature in perpendicular recording is that a soft magnetic underlayer are incorporated into the recording disk.This underlayer is used to conduct writing magnetic flux so that the writing is more efficient. This will be discussed in writing process. Therefore, a higher anisotropy medium film, such as L10-FePt and rare-earth magnets, can be used. Older drives read the data on the platter by sensing the rate of change of the magnetism in the head; these heads had small coils, and worked (in principle) much like magnetic-tape playback heads, although not in contact with the recording surface. As data density increased, read heads using magnetoresistance (MR) came into use; the electrical resistance of the head changed according to the strength of the magnetism from the platter. Later development made use of spintronics; in these heads, the magnetoresistive effect was much greater than in earlier types, and was dubbed "giant" magnetoresistance (GMR). This refers to the degree of effect, not the physical size, of the head — the heads themselves are extremely tiny, and are too small to be seen without a microscope. GMR read heads are now commonplace. HD heads are kept from contacting the platter surface by the air that is extremely close to the platter; that air moves at, or close to, the platter speed. The record and playback head are mounted on a block called a slider, and the surface next to the platter is shaped to keep it just barely out of contact. It's a type of air bearing. The magnetic surface of each platter is conceptually divided into many small sub-micrometre-sized magnetic regions, each of which is used to encode a single binary unit of information. In today's HDDs, each of these magnetic regions is composed of a few hundred magnetic grains. Each magnetic region forms a magnetic dipole which generates a highly localized magnetic field nearby. The write head magnetizes a region by generating a strong local magnetic field. Early HDDs used an electromagnet both to generate this field and to read the data by using electromagnetic induction. Later versions of inductive heads included metal in Gap (MIG) heads and thin film heads. In today's heads, the read and write elements are separate, but in close proximity, on the head portion of an actuator arm. The read element is typically magneto-resistive while the write element is typically thin-film inductive. In modern drives, the small size of the magnetic regions creates the danger that their magnetic state might be lost because of thermal effects. To counter this, the platters are coated with two parallel magnetic layers, separated by a 3-atom-thick layer of the non-magnetic element ruthenium, and the two layers are magnetized in opposite orientation, thus reinforcing each other. Brian Hayes, Terabyte Territory, American Scientist, Vol 90 No 3 (May-June 2002) p. 212 Another technology used to overcome thermal effects to allow greater recording densities is perpendicular recording, first shipped in 2005, as of 2007 the technology was used in many HDDs. Modern drives also make extensive use of Error Correcting Codes (ECCs), particularly Reed–Solomon error correction. These techniques store extra bits for each block of data that are determined by mathematical formulas. The extra bits allow many errors to be fixed. While these extra bits take up space on the hard drive, they allow higher recording densities to be employed, resulting in much larger storage capacity for user data. Storage Review - Error Correcting Code Architecture A hard disk drive with the platters and spindle motor hub removed showing the copper colored stator coils surrounding a bearing at the center of the spindle motor. The orange stripe along the side of the arm is a thin printed-circuit cable. The spindle bearing is in the center. A typical hard drive has two electric motors, one to spin the disks and one to position the read/write head assembly. The disk motor has an external rotor attached to the platters; the stator windings are fixed in place. The actuator has a read-write head under the tip of its very end (near center); a thin printed-circuit cable connects the read-write head to the hub of the actuator. A flexible, somewhat 'U'-shaped, ribbon cable, seen edge-on below and to the left of the actuator arm in the first image and more clearly in the second, continues the connection from the head to the controller board on the opposite side. The head support arm is very light, but also rigid; in modern drives, acceleration at the head reaches 250 Gs. Opened hard drive with top magnet removed, showing copper head actuator coil (top right). The silver-colored structure at the upper left of the first image is the top plate of the permanent-magnet and moving coil motor that swings the heads to the desired position (it is shown removed in the second image). The plate supports a thin neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) high-flux magnet. Beneath this plate is the moving coil, often referred to as the voice coil by analogy to the coil in loudspeakers, which is attached to the actuator hub, and beneath that is a second NIB magnet, mounted on the bottom plate of the motor (some drives only have one magnet). The voice coil, itself, is shaped rather like an arrowhead, and made of doubly-coated copper magnet wire. The inner layer is insulation, and the outer is thermoplastic, which bonds the coil together after it's wound on a form, making it self-supporting. The portions of the coil along the two sides of the arrowhead (which point to the actuator bearing center) interact with the magnetic field, developing a tangential force that rotates the actuator. Current flowing radially outward along one side of the arrowhead, and radially inward on the other produces the tangential force. (See magnetic field#Force on a charged particle.) If the magnetic field were uniform, each side would generate opposing forces that would cancel each other out. Therefore the surface of the magnet is half N pole, half S pole, with the radial dividing line in the middle, causing the two sides of the coil to see opposite magnetic fields and produce forces that add instead of canceling. Currents along the top and bottom of the coil produce radial forces that do not rotate the head. Capacity and access speed PC hard disk drive capacity (in GB). The vertical axis is logarithmic, so the fit line corresponds to exponential growth. Using rigid disks and sealing the unit allows much tighter tolerances than in a floppy disk drive. Consequently, hard disk drives can store much more data than floppy disk drives and can access and transmit it faster. , the highest capacity HDDs are 2 TB. A typical "desktop HDD" might store between 120 GB and 2 TB although rarely above 500GB of data (based on US market data PC Magazine comparison of 136 desktops shows 60 in this HDD capacity range with 50 larger and 26 smaller capacities ) rotate at 5,400 to 10,000 rpm and have a media transfer rate of 1 Gbit/s or higher. Some newer have 3Gbit/s. (1 GB = 109 B; 1 Gbit/s = 109 bit/s) The fastest “enterprise” HDDs spin at 10,000 or 15,000 rpm, and can achieve sequential media transfer speeds above 1.6 Gbit/s. Seagate Cheetah 15K.5 and a sustained transfer rate up to 125 MBytes/second. Drives running at 10,000 or 15,000 rpm use smaller platters to mitigate increased power requirements (due to air drag) and therefore generally have lower capacity than the highest capacity desktop drives. "Mobile HDDs", i.e., laptop HDDs, which are physically smaller than their desktop and enterprise counterparts, tend to be slower and have lower capacity. A typical mobile HDD spins at 5,400 rpm, with 7,200 rpm models available for a slight price premium. Because of the smaller disks, mobile HDDs generally have lower capacity than the highest capacity desktop drives. The exponential increases in disk space and data access speeds of HDDs have enabled the commercial viability of consumer products that require large storage capacities, such as digital video recorders and digital audio players. In addition, the availability of vast amounts of cheap storage has made viable a variety of web-based services with extraordinary capacity requirements, such as free-of-charge web search, web archiving and video sharing (Google, Internet Archive, YouTube, etc.). The main way to decrease access time is to increase rotational speed, thus reducing rotational delay, while the main way to increase throughput and storage capacity is to increase areal density. Based on historic trends, analysts predict a future growth in HDD bit density (and therefore capacity) of about 40% per year. Access times have not kept up with throughput increases, which themselves have not kept up with growth in storage capacity. The first 3.5″ HDD marketed as able to store 1 TB was the Hitachi Deskstar 7K1000. It contains five platters at approximately 200 GB each, providing 935.5 GiB of usable space; note the discrepancy between its capacity in decimal units (1 TB = 1012 bytes) and binary units (1 TiB = 1024 GiB = 240 bytes). Hitachi has since been joined by Samsung (Samsung SpinPoint F1, which has 3 × 334 GB platters), Seagate and Western Digital in the 1 TB drive market. As of December 2008 a single 3.5" platter is able to hold 500GB worth of data. Form factor Width Largest capacity Platters (Max) 5.25″ FH 146 mm 47 GB Seagate Elite 47, shipped 12/97 per 1998 Disk/Trend Report - Rigid Disk Drives (1998) 14 5.25″ HH 146 mm 19.3 GB Quantum Bigfoot TS, shipped 10/98 per 1999 Disk/Trend Report - Rigid Disk Drives (1998) 4 The Quantum Bigfoot TS used a maximum of 3 platters, other earlier and lower capacity product used up to 4 platters in a 5.25″ HH form factor, e.g. Microscience HH1090 circa 1989. 3.5″ 102 mm 2 TB (2009) 5 2.5″ 69.9 mm 500 GB 080103 http://www.macworld.com (2008) 3 1.8″ (CE-ATA/ZIF) 54 mm 250 GB (2008) 3 1.3″ 43 mm 40 GB (2007) 1 1″ (CFII/ZIF/IDE-Flex) 42 mm 20 GB (2006) 1 0.85″ 24 mm 8 GB (2004) 1 Capacity measurements A disassembled and labeled 1997 hard drive. All major components were placed on a mirror, which created the symmetrical reflections. Capacity of a hard disk drive is usually quoted in gigabytes and terabytes. Older HDDs quoted their smaller capacities in megabytes, some of the first drives for PCs being just 5 or 10 MB. The capacity of an HDD can be calculated by multiplying the number of cylinders by the number of heads by the number of sectors by the number of bytes/sector (most commonly 512). Drives with the ATA interface and a capacity of eight gigabytes or more behave as if they were structured into 16383 cylinders, 16 heads, and 63 sectors, for compatibility with older operating systems. Unlike in the 1980s, the cylinder, head, sector (C/H/S) counts reported to the CPU by a modern ATA drive are no longer actual physical parameters since the reported numbers are constrained by historic operating-system interfaces and with zone bit recording the actual number of sectors varies by zone. Disks with SCSI interface address each sector with a unique integer number; the operating system remains ignorant of their head or cylinder count. The old C/H/S scheme has been replaced by logical block addressing. In some cases, to try to "force-fit" the C/H/S scheme to large-capacity drives, the number of heads was given as 64, although no modern drive has anywhere near 32 platters. Hard disk drive manufacturers specify disk capacity using the SI prefixes mega-, giga- and tera-, and their abbreviations M, G and T. Byte is typically abbreviated B. Most operating-system tools report capacity using the same abbreviations but actually use binary prefixes. For instance, the prefix mega-, which normally means 106 (1,000,000), in the context of data storage can mean 220 (1,048,576), which is nearly 5% more. Similar usage has been applied to prefixes of greater magnitude. This results in a discrepancy between the disk manufacturer's stated capacity and the apparent capacity of the drive when examined through most operating-system tools. The difference becomes even more noticeable for a gigabyte (7%), and again for a terabyte (9%). For a petabyte there is a 11% difference between the SI (10005) and binary (10245) definitions. For example, Microsoft Windows reports disk capacity both in a decimal integer to 12 or more digits and with binary-based units to three significant digits. Thus a disk specified by a disk manufacturer as a 30 GB disk might have its capacity reported by Windows 2000 both as "30,065,098,568 bytes" and "28.0 GB". The disk manufacturer used the definition of "giga", 109 to arrive at 30 GB; however, because Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and some Linux distributions use "gigabyte" for 1,073,741,824 bytes (230 bytes), the operating system reports capacity of the disk drive as (only) 28.0 GB. Form factors 5¼″ full height 110 MB HDD,2½″ (8.5 mm) 6495 MB HDD,US/UK pennies for comparison. Six hard drives with 8″, 5.25″, 3.5″, 2.5″, 1.8″, and 1″ disks, partially disassembled to show platters and read-write heads, with a ruler showing inches. Before the era of PCs and small computers, hard disks were of widely varying dimensions, typically in free standing cabinets the size of washing machines (e.g. DEC RP06 Disk Drive) or designed so that dimensions enabled placement in a 19" rack (e.g. Diablo Model 31). With increasing sales of small computers having built in floppy-disk drives (FDDs), HDDs that would fit to the FDD mountings became desirable, and this led to the evolution of the market towards drives with certain Form factors, initially derived from the sizes of 8", 5.25" and 3.5" floppy disk drives. Smaller sizes than 3.5" have emerged as popular in the marketplace and/or been decided by various industry groups. 8 inch: 9.5 in × 4.624 in × 14.25 in (241.3 mm × 117.5 mm × 362 mm)In 1979, Shugart Associates' SA1000 was the first form factor compatible HDD, having the same dimensions and a compatible interface to the 8″ FDD. 5.25 inch: 5.75 in × 1.63 in × 8 in (146.1 mm × 41.4 mm × 203 mm)This smaller form factor, first used in an HDD by Seagate in 1980, was the same size as full height 5¼-inch diameter FDD, i.e., 3.25 inches high. This is twice as high as "half height" commonly used today; i.e., 1.63 in (41.4 mm). Most desktop models of drives for optical 120 mm disks (DVD, CD) use the half height 5¼″ dimension, but it fell out of fashion for HDDs. The Quantum Bigfoot HDD was the last to use it in the late 1990s, with “low-profile” (≈25 mm) and “ultra-low-profile” (≈20 mm) high versions. 3.5 inch: 4 in × 1 in × 5.75 in (101.6 mm × 25.4 mm × 146 mm) = 376.77344 cm³ This smaller form factor, first used in an HDD by Rodime in 1984, was the same size as the "half height" 3½″ FDD, i.e., 1.63 inches high. Today has been largely superseded by 1-inch high “slimline” or “low-profile” versions of this form factor which is used by most desktop HDDs. 2.5 inch: 2.75 in × 0.374–0.59 in × 3.945 in (69.85 mm × 9.5–15 mm × 100 mm) = 66.3575 cm³-104.775 cm³This smaller form factor was introduced by PrairieTek in 1988; there is no corresponding FDD. It is widely used today for hard-disk drives in mobile devices (laptops, music players, etc.) and as of 2008 replacing 3.5 inch enterprise-class drives. It is also used by Sony's videogame console PLAYSTATION 3. Today, the dominant height of this form factor is 9.5 mm for laptop drives, but high capacity drives used to have a height of 12.5 mm. Enterprise-class drives can have a height up to 15 mm. 1.8 inch: 54 mm × 8 mm × 71 mm = 30.672 cm³This form factor, originally introduced by Integral Peripherals in 1993, has evolved into the ATA-7 LIF with dimensions as stated. It is increasingly used in digital audio players and subnotebooks. An original variant exists for 2–5 GB sized HDDs that fit directly into a PC card expansion slot. These became popular for their use in iPods and other HDD based MP3 players. 1 inch: 42.8 mm × 5 mm × 36.4 mmThis form factor was introduced in 1999 as IBM's Microdrive to fit inside a CF Type II slot. Samsung calls the same form factor "1.3 inch" drive in its product literature. 1.3″ HDD Product Specification, Samsung, 2008 0.85 inch: 24 mm × 5 mm × 32 mmToshiba announced this form factor in January 2004 Toshiba's 0.85-inch HDD is set to bring multi-gigabyte capacities to small, powerful digital products, Toshiba press release, January 8, 2004 for use in mobile phones and similar applications, including SD/MMC slot compatible HDDs optimized for video storage on 4G handsets. Toshiba currently sells a 4 GB (MK4001MTD) and 8 GB (MK8003MTD) version and holds the Guinness World Record for the smallest hard disk drive. Toshiba enters Guinness World Records Book with the world's smallest hard disk drive, Toshiba press release, March 16, 2004 As of 2008, 3.5" and 2.5" hard disks dominate. By 2009 all manufacturers had discontinued the development of new products for the 1.3-inch, 1-inch and 0.85-inch form factors due to falling prices of flash memory, Flash price fall shakes HDD market, EETimes Asia, August 1, 2007. In 2008 Samsung introduced the 1.3-inch SpinPoint A1 HDD but by March 2009 the family was listed as End Of Life Products and new new 1.3-inch models were not available in this size. The inch-based nickname of all these form factors usually do not indicate any actual product dimension (which are specified in millimeters for more recent form factors), but just roughly indicate a size relative to disk diameters, in the interest of historic continuity. Other characteristics Data transfer rate: As of 2008, a typical 7200rpm desktop hard drive has a sustained "disk-to-buffer" data transfer rate of about 70 megabytes per second. http://wdc.com/en/library/sata/2879-701277.pdf This rate depends on the track location, so it will be highest for data on the outer tracks (where there are more data sectors) and lower toward the inner tracks (where there are fewer data sectors); and is generally somewhat higher for 10,000rpm drives. A current widely-used standard for the "buffer-to-computer" interface is 3.0 Gbit/s SATA, which can send about 300 megabyte/s. from the buffer to the computer, and thus is still comfortably ahead of today's disk-to-buffer transfer rates. Data transfer rate (read/write) can be measured by writing a large file to disk using special file generator tools, then reading back the file. Transfer rate can be influenced by the fragmentation of the drive and the layout of the files. For example, a single file of 10GB will be read significantly faster than 1000 files of 10MB. Seek time currently ranges from just under 2 for high-end server drives, to 15 ms for miniature drives, with the most common desktop type typically being around 9 ms. There has not been any significant improvement in this speed for some years. Some early PC drives used a stepper motor to move the heads, and as a result had access times as slow as 80–120 ms, but this was quickly improved by voice-coil type actuation in the late 1980s, reducing access times to around 20 ms. Power consumption has become increasingly important, not just in mobile devices such as laptops but also in server and desktop markets. Increasing data center machine density has led to problems delivering sufficient power to devices, and getting rid of the waste heat subsequently produced, as well as environmental and electrical cost concerns (see green computing). Similar issues exist for large companies with thousands of desktop PCs. Smaller form factor drives often use less power than larger drives. One interesting development in this area is actively controlling the seek speed so that the head arrives at its destination only just in time to read the sector, rather than arriving as quickly as possible and then having to wait for the sector to come around (i.e. the rotational latency). Audible noise (measured in dBA) is significant for certain applications, such as PVRs, digital audio recording and quiet computers. Low noise disks typically use fluid bearings, slower rotational speeds (usually 5,400 rpm) and reduce the seek speed under load (AAM) to reduce audible clicks and crunching sounds. Drives in smaller form factors (e.g. 2.5 inch) are often quieter than larger drives. Shock resistance is especially important for mobile devices. Some laptops now include a motion sensor that parks the disk heads if the machine is dropped, hopefully before impact, to offer the greatest possible chance of survival in such an event. Maximum shock tolerance to date is 350 Gs for operating and 900 Gs for non-operating. Access and interfaces Hard disk drives are accessed over one of a number of bus types, including parallel ATA (P-ATA, also called IDE or EIDE), Serial ATA (SATA), SCSI, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), and Fibre Channel. Bridge circuitry is sometimes used to connect hard disk drives to buses that they cannot communicate with natively, such as IEEE 1394, USB and SCSI. Back in the days of the ST-506 interface, the data encoding scheme was also important. The first ST-506 disks used Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM) encoding, and transferred data at a rate of 5 megabits per second. Later on, controllers using 2,7 RLL (or just "RLL") encoding increased the transfer rate by 50%, to 7.5 megabits per second; this also increased disk capacity by fifty percent. Many ST-506 interface disk drives were only specified by the manufacturer to run at the lower MFM data rate, while other models (usually more expensive versions of the same basic disk drive) were specified to run at the higher RLL data rate. In some cases, a disk drive had sufficient margin to allow the MFM specified model to run at the faster RLL data rate; however, this was often unreliable and was not recommended. (An RLL-certified disk drive could run on a MFM controller, but with 1/3 less data capacity and speed.) Enhanced Small Disk Interface (ESDI) also supported multiple data rates (ESDI disks always used 2,7 RLL, but at 10, 15 or 20 megabits per second), but this was usually negotiated automatically by the disk drive and controller; most of the time, however, 15 or 20 megabit ESDI disk drives weren't downward compatible (i.e. a 15 or 20 megabit disk drive wouldn't run on a 10 megabit controller). ESDI disk drives typically also had jumpers to set the number of sectors per track and (in some cases) sector size. Modern hard drives present a consistent interface to the rest of the computer, no matter what data encoding scheme is used internally. Typically a DSP in the electronics inside the hard drive takes the raw analog voltages from the read head and uses PRML and Reed–Solomon error correction "Reed Solomon Codes - Introduction" to decode the sector boundaries and sector data, then sends that data out the standard interface. That DSP also watches the error rate detected by error detection and correction, and performs bad sector remapping, data collection for Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology, and other internal tasks. SCSI originally had just one signaling frequency of 5 MHz for a maximum data rate of 5 megabytes/second over 8 parallel conductors, but later this was increased dramatically. The SCSI bus speed had no bearing on the disk's internal speed because of buffering between the SCSI bus and the disk drive's internal data bus; however, many early disk drives had very small buffers, and thus had to be reformatted to a different interleave (just like ST-506 disks) when used on slow computers, such as early Commodore Amiga, IBM PC compatibles and Apple Macintoshes. ATA disks have typically had no problems with interleave or data rate, due to their controller design, but many early models were incompatible with each other and couldn't run with two devices on the same physical cable in a master/slave setup. This was mostly remedied by the mid-1990s, when ATA's specification was standardised and the details began to be cleaned up, but still causes problems occasionally (especially with CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks, and when mixing Ultra DMA and non-UDMA devices). Serial ATA does away with master/slave setups entirely, placing each disk on its own channel (with its own set of I/O ports) instead. FireWire/IEEE 1394 and USB(1.0/2.0) HDDs are external units containing generally ATA or SCSI disks with ports on the back allowing very simple and effective expansion and mobility. Most FireWire/IEEE 1394 models are able to daisy-chain in order to continue adding peripherals without requiring additional ports on the computer itself. USB however, is a point to point network and doesn't allow for daisy-chaining. USB hubs are used to increase the number of available ports and are used for devices that don't require charging since the current supplied by hubs is typically lower than what's available from the built-in USB ports. Disk interface families used in personal computers Notable families of disk interfaces include: Historical bit serial interfaces — connected to a hard disk drive controller with three cables, one for data, one for control and one for power. The HDD controller provided significant functions such as serial to parallel conversion, data separation and track formatting, and required matching to the drive in order to assure reliability. ST506 used MFM (Modified Frequency Modulation) for the data encoding method. ST412 was available in either MFM or RLL (Run Length Limited) variants. Enhanced Small Disk Interface (ESDI) was an interface developed by Maxtor to allow faster communication between the PC and the disk than MFM or RLL. Modern bit serial interfaces — connect to a host bus adapter (today typically integrated into the "south bridge") with two cables, one for data/control and one for power. Fibre Channel (FC), is a successor to parallel SCSI interface on enterprise market. It is a serial protocol. In disk drives usually the Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL) connection topology is used. FC has much broader usage than mere disk interfaces, it is the cornerstone of storage area networks (SANs). Recently other protocols for this field, like iSCSI and ATA over Ethernet have been developed as well. Confusingly, drives usually use copper twisted-pair cables for Fibre Channel, not fibre optics. The latter are traditionally reserved for larger devices, such as servers or disk array controllers. Serial ATA (SATA). The SATA data cable has one data pair for differential transmission of data to the device, and one pair for differential receiving from the device, just like EIA-422. That requires that data be transmitted serially. Similar differential signaling system is used in RS485, LocalTalk, USB, Firewire, and differential SCSI. Serial Attached SCSI (SAS). The SAS is a new generation serial communication protocol for devices designed to allow for much higher speed data transfers and is compatible with SATA. SAS uses a mechanically identical data and power connector to standard 3.5" SATA1/SATA2 HDDs, and many server-oriented SAS RAID controllers are also capable of addressing SATA hard drives. SAS uses serial communication instead of the parallel method found in traditional SCSI devices but still uses SCSI commands. Word serial interfaces — connect to a host bus adapter (today typically integrated into the "south bridge") with two cables, one for data/control and one for power. The earliest versions of these interfaces typically had a 16 bit parallel data transfer to/from the drive and there are 8 and 32 bit variants. Modern versions have serial data transfer. The word nature of data transfer makes the design of a host bus adapter significantly simpler than that of the precursor HDD controller. Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE), later renamed to ATA, and then later to P-ATA ("parallel ATA", to distinguish it from the new Serial ATA). The original name reflected the innovative integration of HDD controller with HDD itself, which was not found in earlier disks. Moving the HDD controller from the interface card to the disk drive helped to standardize interfaces, and to reduce the cost and complexity. The 40 pin IDE/ATA connection of PATA transfers 16 bits of data at a time on the data cable. The data cable was originally 40 conductor, but later higher speed requirements for data transfer to and from the hard drive led to an "ultra DMA" mode, known as UDMA. Progressively faster versions of this standard ultimately added the requirement for an 80 conductor variant of the same cable; where half of the conductors provides grounding necessary for enhanced high-speed signal quality by reducing cross talk. The interface for 80 conductor only has 39 pins, the missing pin acting as a key to prevent incorrect insertion of the connector to an incompatible socket, a common cause of disk and controller damage. EIDE was an unofficial update (by Western Digital) to the original IDE standard, with the key improvement being the use of direct memory access (DMA) to transfer data between the disk and the computer without the involvement of the CPU, an improvement later adopted by the official ATA standards. By directly transferring data between memory and disk, DMA eliminates the need for the CPU and operating system to copy byte per byte. And can therefore process other tasks while the data transfer occurs. Small Computer System Interface (SCSI), originally named SASI for Shugart Associates System Interface, was an early competitor of ESDI. SCSI disks were standard on servers, workstations, Commodore Amiga and Apple Macintosh computers through the mid-90s, by which time most models had been transitioned to IDE (and later, SATA) family disks. Only in 2005 did the capacity of SCSI disks fall behind IDE disk technology, though the highest-performance disks are still available in SCSI and Fibre Channel only. The length limitations of the data cable allows for external SCSI devices. Originally SCSI data cables used single ended data transmission, but server class SCSI could use differential transmission, either low voltage differential (LVD) or high voltage differential (HVD). Acronym or abbreviation Meaning Description SASI Shugart Associates System Interface Historical predecessor to SCSI. SCSISmall Computer System Interface Bus oriented that handles concurrent operations. SAS Serial Attached SCSIImprovement of SCSI, uses serial communication instead of parallel. ST-506 Seagate Technology Historical Seagate interface. ST-412 Seagate Technology Historical Seagate interface (minor improvement over ST-506). ESDI Enhanced Small Disk Interface Historical; backwards compatible with ST-412/506, but faster and more integrated. ATA Advanced Technology Attachment Successor to ST-412/506/ESDI by integrating the disk controller completely onto the device. Incapable of concurrent operations. SATA Serial ATA Modification of ATA, uses serial communication instead of parallel. Integrity An IBM HDD head resting on a disk platter. Since the drive is not in operation, the head is simply pressed against the disk by the suspension. Close-up of a hard disk head resting on a disk platter, and its suspension. A reflection of the head and suspension are visible beneath on the mirror-like disk. Due to the extremely close spacing between the heads and the disk surface, any contamination of the read-write heads or platters can lead to a head crash — a failure of the disk in which the head scrapes across the platter surface, often grinding away the thin magnetic film and causing data loss. Head crashes can be caused by electronic failure, a sudden power failure, physical shock, wear and tear, corrosion, or poorly manufactured platters and heads. The HDD's spindle system relies on air pressure inside the enclosure to support the heads at their proper flying height while the disk rotates. Hard disk drives require a certain range of air pressures in order to operate properly. The connection to the external environment and pressure occurs through a small hole in the enclosure (about 0.5 mm in diameter), usually with a carbon filter on the inside (the breather filter). If the air pressure is too low, then there is not enough lift for the flying head, so the head gets too close to the disk, and there is a risk of head crashes and data loss. Specially manufactured sealed and pressurized disks are needed for reliable high-altitude operation, above about 3,000 m (10,000 feet). Note that modern commercial aircraft have a pressurized cabin, whose pressure altitude does not normally exceed 2,600 m(8,500 feet) - thus, ordinary hard drives can safely be used in flight. Modern disks include temperature sensors and adjust their operation to the operating environment. Breather holes can be seen on all disk drives — they usually have a sticker next to them, warning the user not to cover the holes. The air inside the operating drive is constantly moving too, being swept in motion by friction with the spinning platters. This air passes through an internal recirculation (or "recirc") filter to remove any leftover contaminants from manufacture, any particles or chemicals that may have somehow entered the enclosure, and any particles or outgassing generated internally in normal operation. Very high humidity for extended periods can corrode the heads and platters. For giant magnetoresistive (GMR) heads in particular, a minor head crash from contamination (that does not remove the magnetic surface of the disk) still results in the head temporarily overheating, due to friction with the disk surface, and can render the data unreadable for a short period until the head temperature stabilizes (so called "thermal asperity", a problem which can partially be dealt with by proper electronic filtering of the read signal). Actuation of moving arm The hard drive's electronics control the movement of the actuator and the rotation of the disk, and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk controller. Feedback of the drive electronics is accomplished by means of special segments of the disk dedicated to servo feedback. These are either complete concentric circles (in the case of dedicated servo technology), or segments interspersed with real data (in the case of embedded servo technology). The servo feedback optimizes the signal to noise ratio of the GMR sensors by adjusting the voice-coil of the actuated arm. The spinning of the disk also uses a servo motor. Modern disk firmware is capable of scheduling reads and writes efficiently on the platter surfaces and remapping sectors of the media which have failed. Landing zones and load/unload technology Microphotograph of an older generation hard disk head and slider (1990s). The size of the front face (which is the "trailing face" of the slider) is about 0.3 mm × 1.0 mm. It is the location of the actual 'head' (magnetic sensors). The not visible bottom face of the slider is about 1.0 mm × 1.25 mm (so called "nano" size) and faces the platter. It contains the lithographically micro-machined air bearing surface (ABS) that allows the slider to fly in a highly controlled fashion. One functional part of the head is the round, orange structure visible in the middle - the lithographically defined copper coil of the write transducer. Also note the electric connections by wires bonded to gold-plated pads. Modern HDDs prevent power interruptions or other malfunctions from landing its heads in the data zone by parking the heads either in a landing zone or by unloading (i.e., load/unload) the heads. Some early PC HDDs did not park the heads and they could land on data. A landing zone is an area of the platter usually near its inner diameter (ID), where no data is stored. This area is called the Contact Start/Stop (CSS) zone. Disks are designed such that either a spring or, more recently, rotational inertia in the platters is used to park the heads in the case of unexpected power loss. In this case, the spindle motor temporarily acts as a generator, providing power to the actuator. Spring tension from the head mounting constantly pushes the heads towards the platter. While the disk is spinning, the heads are supported by an air bearing and experience no physical contact or wear. In CSS drives the sliders carrying the head sensors (often also just called heads) are designed to survive a number of landings and takeoffs from the media surface, though wear and tear on these microscopic components eventually takes its toll. Most manufacturers design the sliders to survive 50,000 contact cycles before the chance of damage on startup rises above 50%. However, the decay rate is not linear: when a disk is younger and has had fewer start-stop cycles, it has a better chance of surviving the next startup than an older, higher-mileage disk (as the head literally drags along the disk's surface until the air bearing is established). For example, the Seagate Barracuda 7200.10 series of desktop hard disks are rated to 50,000 start-stop cycles, in other words no failures attributed to the head-platter interface were seen before at least 50,000 start-stop cycles during testing. Barracuda 7200.10 Serial ATA Product Manual Around 1995 IBM pioneered a technology where a landing zone on the disk is made by a precision laser process (Laser Zone Texture = LZT) producing an array of smooth nanometer-scale "bumps" in a landing zone, IEEE Trans. Magn. thus vastly improving stiction and wear performance. This technology is still largely in use today (2008), predominantly in desktop and enterprise (3.5 inch) drives. In general, CSS technology can be prone to increased stiction (the tendency for the heads to stick to the platter surface), e.g. as a consequence of increased humidity. Excessive stiction can cause physical damage to the platter and slider or spindle motor. Load/Unload technology relies on the heads being lifted off the platters into a safe location, thus eliminating the risks of wear and stiction altogether. The first HDD RAMAC and most early disk drives used complex mechanisms to load and unload the heads. Modern HDDs use ramp loading, first introduced by Memorex in 1967, Pugh et al.; "IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems"; MIT Press, 1991, pp.270 to load/unload onto plastic "ramps" near the outer disk edge. All HDDs today still use one of these two technologies listed above. Each has a list of advantages and drawbacks in terms of loss of storage area on the disk, relative difficulty of mechanical tolerance control, non-operating shock robustness, cost of implementation, etc. Addressing shock robustness, IBM also created a technology for their ThinkPad line of laptop computers called the Active Protection System. When a sudden, sharp movement is detected by the built-in accelerometer in the Thinkpad, internal hard disk heads automatically unload themselves to reduce the risk of any potential data loss or scratch defects. Apple later also utilized this technology in their PowerBook, iBook, MacBook Pro, and MacBook line, known as the Sudden Motion Sensor. Sony, HP with their HP 3D DriveGuard and Toshiba Toshiba HDD Protection measures. have released similar technology in their notebook computers. This accelerometer based shock sensor has also been used for building cheap earthquake sensor networks. 090128 qcn.stanford.edu Disk failures and their metrics Most major hard disk and motherboard vendors now support S.M.A.R.T. (Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology), which measures drive characteristics such as temperature, spin-up time, data error rates, etc. Certain trends and sudden changes in these parameters are thought to be associated with increased likelihood of drive failure and data loss. However, not all failures are predictable. Normal use eventually can lead to a breakdown in the inherently fragile device, which makes it essential for the user to periodically back up the data onto a separate storage device. Failure to do so will lead to the loss of data. While it may sometimes be possible to recover lost information, it is normally an extremely costly procedure, and it is not possible to guarantee success. A 2007 study published by Google suggested very little correlation between failure rates and either high temperature or activity level; however, the correlation between manufacturer/model and failure rate was relatively strong. Statistics in this matter is kept highly secret by most entities. Google did not publish the manufacturer's names along with their respective failure rates, though they have since revealed that they use Hitachi Deskstar drives in some of their servers. http://news.cnet.com/8301-1001_3-10209580-92.html While several S.M.A.R.T. parameters have an impact on failure probability, a large fraction of failed drives do not produce predictive S.M.A.R.T. parameters. S.M.A.R.T. parameters alone may not be useful for predicting individual drive failures. A common misconception is that a colder hard drive will last longer than a hotter hard drive. The Google study seems to imply the reverse -- "lower temperatures are associated with higher failure rates". Hard drives with S.M.A.R.T.-reported average temperatures below 27 °C had failure rates worse than hard drives with the highest reported average temperature of 50 °C, failure rates at least twice as high as the optimum S.M.A.R.T.-reported temperature range of 36 °C to 47 °C. SCSI, SAS and FC drives are typically more expensive and are traditionally used in servers and disk arrays, whereas inexpensive ATA and SATA drives evolved in the home computer market and were perceived to be less reliable. This distinction is now becoming blurred. The mean time between failures (MTBF) of SATA drives is usually about 600,000 hours (some drives such as Western Digital Raptor have rated 1.2 million hours MTBF), while SCSI drives are rated for upwards of 1.5 million hours. However, independent research indicates that MTBF is not a reliable estimate of a drive's longevity. MTBF is conducted in laboratory environments in test chambers and is an important metric to determine the quality of a disk drive before it enters high volume production. Once the drive product is in production, the more valid metric is annualized failure rate (AFR). AFR is the percentage of real-world drive failures after shipping. SAS drives are comparable to SCSI drives, with high MTBF and high reliability. Enterprise S-ATA drives designed and produced for enterprise markets, unlike standard S-ATA drives, have reliability comparable to other enterprise class drives. Intel Whitepaper on Enterprise-class versus Desktop-class Hard Drives Typically enterprise drives (all enterprise drives, including SCSI, SAS, enterprise SATA and FC) experience between 0.70%-0.78% annual failure rates from the total installed drives. Eventually all mechanical hard disc drives fail. And thus the strategy to mitigate loss of data is to have redundancy in some form, like RAID and backup. RAID should never be relied on as backup, as RAID controllers also break down, making the disks inaccessible. Following a backup strategy, like daily differential and weekly full backups, is the only sure way to prevent data loss. Manufacturers A Western Digital 3.5 inch 250 GB SATA HDD. This specific model features both SATA and Molex power inputs. Seagate's hard disk drives being manufactured in a factory in Wuxi, China See also List of defunct hard disk manufacturers The technological resources and know-how required for modern drive development and production mean that as of 2009, virtually all of the world's HDDs are manufactured by just six large companies: Seagate, Western Digital, Samsung, Hitachi (which owns the former disk manufacturing division of IBM), Samsung, and Toshiba. Dozens of former HDD manufacturers have gone out of business, merged, or closed their HDD divisions; as capacities and demand for products increased, profits became hard to find, and the market underwent significant consolidation in the late 1980s and late 1990s. The first notable casualty of the business in the PC era was Computer Memories Inc. or CMI; after an incident with faulty 20 MB AT disks in 1985, Apparently the CMI disks suffered from a higher soft error rate than IBM's other suppliers (Seagate and MiniScribe) but the bugs in Microsoft's DOS Operating system may have turned these recoverable errors into hard failures. At some point, possibly MS-DOS 3.0, soft errors were reported as disk hard errors and a subsequent Microsoft patch turned soft errors into corrupted memory with unpredictable results ("crashes"). MS-DOS 3.3 apparently resolved this series of problems but by that time it was too late for CMI. See also, "IBM and CMI in Joint Effort to Rehab AT Hard-Disk Rejects", PC Week, v.2 n.11, p.1, March 19, 1985 CMI's reputation never recovered, and they exited the HDD business in 1987. Another notable failure was MiniScribe, who went bankrupt in 1990 after it was found that they had engaged in accounting fraud and inflated sales numbers for several years. Many other smaller companies (like Kalok, Microscience, LaPine, Areal, Priam and PrairieTek) also did not survive the shakeout, and had disappeared by 1993; Micropolis was able to hold on until 1997, and JTS, a relative latecomer to the scene, lasted only a few years and was gone by 1999, after attempting to manufacture HDDs in India. Their claim to fame was creating a new 3″ form factor drive for use in laptops. Quantum and Integral also invested in the 3″ form factor; but eventually ceased support as this form factor failed to catch on. Rodime was also an important manufacturer during the 1980s, but stopped making disks in the early 1990s amid the shakeout and now concentrates on technology licensing; they hold a number of patents related to 3.5-inch form factor HDDs. 1988: Tandon Corporation sold its disk manufacturing division to Western Digital (WDC), which was then a well-known controller designer. 1989: Seagate Technology bought Control Data's high-end disk business, as part of CDC's exit from hardware manufacturing. 1990: Maxtor buys MiniScribe out of bankruptcy, making it the core of its low-end disk division. 1994: Quantum bought DEC's storage division, giving it a high-end disk range to go with its more consumer-oriented ProDrive range, as well as the DLT tape drive range. 1995: Conner Peripherals, which was founded by one of Seagate Technology's co-founders along with personnel from MiniScribe, announces a merger with Seagate, which was completed in early 1996. 1996: JTS merges with Atari, allowing JTS to bring its disk range into production. Atari was sold to Hasbro in 1998, while JTS itself went bankrupt in 1999. 2000: Quantum sells its disk division to Maxtor to concentrate on tape drives and backup equipment. 2003: Following the controversy over mass failures of its Deskstar 75GXP range, HDD pioneer IBM sold the majority of its disk division to Hitachi, who renamed it Hitachi Global Storage Technologies (HGST). 2003: Western Digital purchased Read-Rite Corp, which makes recording heads used on disk drive platters, for $95.4 million in cash. December 21, 2005: Seagate and Maxtor announced an agreement under which Seagate would acquire Maxtor in an all stock transaction valued at $1.9 billion. The acquisition was approved by the appropriate regulatory bodies, and closed on May 19, 2006. 2007 July: Western Digital (WDC) acquires Komag U.S.A, a thin-film media manufacturer, for USD 1 Billion. 2009: Excelstor no longer offering HDDs 2009: Toshiba acquires Fujitsu disk division Sales In the year 2007 516.2 million hard disks were sold . Hard drive industry shrugs off economic concerns, posts double digit growth rates, accessed at 11 january 2009 See also Automatic Acoustic Management Click of death Data erasure Disk formatting du (Unix disk usage program) Drive mapping External hard disk drive History of hard disk drives Hybrid drive IBM 305 RAMAC Solid-state drive Spintronics References External links Homepage of the Computer History Museum's HDD Working Group 15 Years Of Hard Drive History: Capacities Outran Performance at Tom's Hardware Guide. Describing a c.1975 HDD Failure Trends in a Large Disk Drive Population : Disk Failures report by Google Labs Hard disk interfaces pinouts Hard Disk Myths TecHarp / Photo Myth Snopes Urban Legend Archive. Magnetic image of 120 MB hard drive / Image And Sound Forensics(TM) TechEncyclopedia about Hard Disks The Hard Disk That Changed The World, Newsweek, August 7, 2006 War of the Disks: Hard Disk Drives vs. Flash Solid State Disks Despatches from the magneto / flash wars Understanding Hard Drive Performance A SATA HDD (Left) and an IDE HDD (Right). Both are 3.5-inch in form factor. A SATA HDD and an IDE HDD. 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3,719 | Bjørn_Lomborg | Bjørn Lomborg (born January 6, 1965) is a Danish author, academic, and environmental writer. He is an adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School, director of the Copenhagen Consensus Centre and a former director of the Environmental Assessment Institute in Copenhagen. He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book The Skeptical Environmentalist. In 2002, Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus, which seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of welfare economics. Lomborg campaigns for an unconventional position on climate change: he opposes the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term, and argues that we should instead adapt to short-term temperature rises as they are inevitable, and spend money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions, and on other important world problems such as AIDS, malaria and malnutrition. Academic career Lomborg spent a year as an undergraduate at the University of Georgia, earned a master's degree in political science at the University of Aarhus in 1991, and a Ph.D. in political science at the University of Copenhagen in 1994. He has no training in climatology, meteorology, or the physical sciences, but is trained in the use of mathematics and statistics in the social sciences. He lectured in statistics in the Department of Political Science at the University of Aarhus as an assistant professor (1994–1996) and associate professor (1997–2005). He left the university in February 2005 and in May of that year became an Adjunct Professor at Copenhagen Business School. In 1996, Lomborg's paper, "Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma", was published in the academic journal, American Sociological Review. This was followed by his most famous book, The Skeptical Environmentalist, whose English translation was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001. He later edited Global Crises, Global Solutions, which presented the first conclusions of the Copenhagen Consensus, published in 2004 by the Cambridge University Press. In 2007, he authored a book entitled Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming. His professional areas of interest include: the simulation of strategies in collective action dilemmas, simulation of party behavior in proportional voting systems, use of surveys in public administration, and use of statistics in the environmental arena. The Skeptical Environmentalist Main article: The Skeptical Environmentalist In 1998, Lomborg published four articles about the state of the environment in the leading Danish newspaper Politiken, which according to him "resulted in a firestorm debate spanning over 400 articles in major metropolitan newspapers." Bjørn Lomborg Biography, www.lomborg.com. Retrieved 26 February 2006. In 2001, he attained significant attention by publishing The Skeptical Environmentalist, a controversial book whose main thesis is that many of the most-publicized claims and predictions on environmental issues are wrong. Accusations of scientific dishonesty After the publication of The Skeptical Environmentalist, Lomborg was accused of scientific dishonesty. Several environmental scientists brought a total of three complaints against Lomborg to the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DCSD), a body under Denmark's Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. The charges claimed that The Skeptical Environmentalist contained deliberately misleading data and flawed conclusions. Due to the similarity of the complaints, the DCSD decided to proceed on the three cases under one investigation. DCSD investigation On January 6, 2003 the DCSD reached a decision on the complaints. The ruling was a mixed message, deciding the book to be scientifically dishonest, but Lomborg himself not guilty because of lack of expertise in the fields in question: The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty: 2003 Annual Report. Retrieved 13-Feb-2008. Objectively speaking, the publication of the work under consideration is deemed to fall within the concept of scientific dishonesty. ...In view of the subjective requirements made in terms of intent or gross negligence, however, Bjørn Lomborg's publication cannot fall within the bounds of this characterization. Conversely, the publication is deemed clearly contrary to the standards of good scientific practice. The DCSD cited The Skeptical Environmentalist for: Fabrication of data; Selective discarding of unwanted results (selective citation); Deliberately misleading use of statistical methods; Distorted interpretation of conclusions; Plagiarism; Deliberate misinterpretation of others' results. MSTI review On February 13, 2003, Lomborg filed a complaint against the DCSD's decision, with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MSTI), which has oversight over the DCSD. On December 17, 2003, the Ministry annulled the decision made by DCSD. In doing so, MSTI cited several procedural errors, including: The DCSD did not use a precise standard for deciding "good scientific practice" in the social sciences; The DCSD's definition of "objective scientific dishonesty" was not clear about whether "distortion of statistical data" had to be deliberate or not; The DCSD had not properly documented that The Skeptical Environmentalist was a scientific publication on which they had the right to intervene in the first place; The DCSD did not provide specific statements on actual errors. On this point the MSTI stated "the DCSD has not documented where [Dr Lomborg] has allegedly been biased in his choice of data and in his argumentation, and ... the ruling is completely void of argumentation for why the DCSD find that the complainants are right in their criticisms of [his] working methods. It is not sufficient that the criticisms of a researcher's working methods exist; the DCSD must consider the criticisms and take a position on whether or not the criticisms are justified, and why." The Ministry remitted the case to the DCSD. In doing so the Ministry indicated that it regarded the DCSD's previous findings of scientific dishonesty in regard to the book as invalid. The Ministry also instructed the DCSD to decide whether to reinvestigate. DCSD response On March 122004, the Committee formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that renewed scrutiny would, in all likelihood, result in the same conclusion. Response of the scientific community The original DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a petition "Underskriftsindsamling i protest mod afgørelsen om Bjørn Lomborg fra - Udvalgene Vedrørende Videnskabelig Uredelighed". Retrieved 26 February 2006. among Danish academics. 308 scientists, many of them from the social sciences, criticised the DCSD's methods in the case and called for the DCSD to be disbanded. The Danish Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation then asked the Danish Research Agency to form an independent working group to review DCSD practices. The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty: 2002 Annual Report. Retrieved 13-Feb-2008. In response to this, another group of Danish scientists collected over 600 signatures (primarily from the medical and natural sciences community) in support of the DCSD and presented their petition to the Danish Research Agency. Continued debate and criticism The rulings of the Danish authorities in 2003-2004 left Lomborg's critics frustrated. Lomborg was jubilant, claiming vindication as a result of MSTI's decision to set aside the original finding of DCSD. A Dutch think tank, HAN, Heidelberg Appeal the Netherlands, published a report in which they claimed 25 out of 27 accusations against Lomborg to be unsubstantiated or not to the point. Rörsch, Arthur, et al. "A Critical Consideration of the Verdict of the Danish Committee on Scientific Dishonesty on the Book by Bjorn Lomborg 'The Skeptical Environmentalist'". Heidelberg Appeal the Netherlands, 4-April-2003. Retrieved 26 February 2006. A group of scientists with relation to this think tank also published an article in 2005 in the Journal of Information Ethics, Rörsch, A. et al. (2005): On the opposition against the book The Skeptical Environmentalist by B. Lomborg. Journal of Information Ethics 14(1): 16-28 in which they concluded that most criticism against Lomborg was unjustified, and that the scientific community misused their authority to suppress Lomborg. Kåre Fog The claim that the accusations against Lomborg were unjustified was challenged in the next issue of Journal of Information Ethics Fog, K. (2005): The real nature of the opposition against B. Lomborg. Journal of Information Ethics 14(2): 66-76 by Kåre Fog, one of the original plaintiffs. Fog reasserted his contention that, despite the ministry's decision, most of the accusations against Lomborg were valid. He also rejected what he called "the Galileo hypothesis", which he describes as the conception that Lomborg is just a brave young man confronting old-fashioned opposition. Kåre Fog has established a catalogue of criticisms against Lomborg on the Lomborg-errors website. Fog maintains the catalogue, which includes a section for each page in each chapter in The Skeptical Environmentalist. In each section, Fog lists and details what he believes to be flaws and errors in Lomborg's work. Fog explicitly indicates if there are any details which he believes support the interpretation that the particular error may have been made deliberately by Lomborg, in order to mislead. Lomborg has on numerous occasions commented and defended himself against Kåre Fog's critique. Most exceedingly in the web-book "Godhedens Pris" (English summary version: see: http://lomborg.com/publications/the_skeptical_enviromentalist/critique/) where the critique is taken one-by-one on 159 pages. Further career Government work In March 2002, the newly elected center-right prime minister, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, appointed Lomborg to run Denmark's new Environmental Assessment Institute (EAI). On June 22 2004, Lomborg announced his decision to resign from this post to go back to the University of Aarhus, saying his work at the Institute was done and that he could better serve the public debate from the academic sector. In 2002, Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus, which seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of welfare economics. A panel of prominent economists was assembled to evaluate and rank a series of problems every four years. The project was funded largely by the Danish government, and co-sponsored by The Economist. A book summarizing the conclusions of the economists' first assessment, Global Crises, Global Solutions, edited by Lomborg, was published in October 2004 by Cambridge University Press. Further books Solutions for the World's Biggest Problems, published in 2007, offers an "...overview of twenty-three of the world's biggest problems relating to the environment, governance, economics, and health and population. Leading economists provide a short survey of the state-of-the-art analysis and sketch out some policy solutions for which they provide cost-benefit ratios." http://www.amazon.com/Solutions-Worlds-Biggest-Problems-Benefits/dp/0521715970 Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming, also published in 2007, argues against taking immediate and "drastic" action to curb greenhouse gases while simultaneously stating that "Global warming is happening. It's a serious and important problem...". He argues that "...the cost and benefits of the proposed measures against global warming. ... is the worst way to spend our money. Climate change is a 100-year problem - we should not try to fix it in 10 years." http://www.amazon.co.uk/Cool-Skeptical-Environmentalists-Global-Warming/dp/0462099121 Personal life Lomborg is gay and a vegetarian. As a public figure he has been a participant in information campaigns in Denmark about homosexuality, and states that "Being a public gay is to my view a civic responsibility. It's important to show that the width of the gay world cannot be described by a tired stereotype, but goes from leather gays on parade-wagons to suit-and-tie yuppies on the direction floor, as well as everything in between" - translated. Recognitions and awards In November 2001, Lomborg was selected "Global Leader for Tomorrow" by the World Economic Forum. In June 2002, BusinessWeek named Lomborg one of the "50 Stars of Europe" (June 17), in the category of Agenda Setters. The magazine noted, "No matter what they think of his views, nobody denies that Bjorn Lomborg has shaken the environmental movement to its core." The Stars of Europe - Agenda Setters - Bjorn Lomborg. BusinessWeek Online, 17-Jun-2002. Retrieved 26 February 2006. Lomborg was selected as one of TIME magazine's 100 most influential people of 2004. In 2007 Lomborg was named one of the "50 people who could save the planet" by the UK newspaper The Guardian. In 2008 he was named "one of the top 100 public intellectuals" by Foreign Policy & Prospect Magazine; "one of the 50 people who could save the planet" by The Guardian; and "one of the world's 75 most influential people of the 21st century" by the American Esquire magazine. Discussions in the media After the release of The Skeptical Environmentalist in 2001, Lomborg was subjected to intense scrutiny and criticism in the media, where his scientific qualifications and integrity were both attacked and defended. The verdict of the Danish Committees for Scientific Dishonesty fueled this debate and brought it into the spotlight of international mass media. By the end of 2003 Lomborg had become an international celebrity, with frequent appearances on radio, TV and print media around the world. Scientific American published strong criticism of Lomborg's book. Lomborg responded on his own website, quoting the article at such length that Scientific American threatened to sue for copyright infringement. Lomborg eventually removed the rebuttal from his website; it was later published in PDF format on Scientific American'''s site. "Bjørn Lomborg’s comments to the 11-page critique in January 2002 Scientific American (SA)". Scientific American; rebuttal last upated 16-Feb-2002. Retrieved 26 February 2006. The magazine also printed a response to the rebuttal. Rennie, John. "A Response to Lomborg's Rebuttal". Scientific American, 15-April-2002. Retrieved 26 February 2006. The Economist defended Lomborg, claiming the panel of experts that had criticised Lomborg in Scientific American was both biased and did not actually counter Lomborg's book. The Economist argued that the panel's opinion had come under no scrutiny at all, and that Lomborg's responses had not been reported. Lomborg, Bjorn. "Thought control". The Economist, 9-Jan-2003. Retrieved 26 February 2006. Penn & Teller: Bullshit! - the US Showtime program featured an episode entitled "Environmental Hysteria" in which Lomborg criticised what he claimed was environmentalists' refusal to accept a cost-benefit analysis of environmental questions, and stressed the need to prioritise some issues above others. Bullshit, "Environmental Hysteria". Showtime. Rolling Stone stated, "Lomborg pulls off the remarkable feat of welding the techno-optimism of the Internet age with a lefty's concern for the fate of the planet." "Early Praise for The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 26 February 2006. The Union of Concerned Scientists strongly criticised The Skeptical Environmentalist, claiming it to be "seriously flawed and failing to meet basic standards of credible scientific analysis", accusing Lomborg of presenting data in a fraudulent way, using flawed logic and selectively citing non-peer-reviewed literature. "UCS examines The Skeptical Environmentalist by Bjørn Lomborg". Retrieved 26 February 2006. The review was conducted by Peter Gleick, Jerry D. Mahlman, Edward O. Wilson, Thomas Lovejoy, Norman Myers, Jeffrey Harvey and Stuart Pimm. Lomborg countered that some of the scientists involved in this report were also named and criticised in The Skeptical Environmentalist, and thus had a vested interest in discrediting it and its author. Publications Bjørn Lomborg, "Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma", American Sociological Review, 1996. Bjørn Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist, Cambridge University Press, 2001. Bjørn Lomborg (editor), Global Crises, Global Solutions, Copenhagen Consensus, Cambridge University Press, 2004 Bjørn Lomborg, "Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming", 2007 See also The Skeptical EnvironmentalistCool ItList of gay, lesbian or bisexual people Environmentalism Environmental skepticism Global warming Systemic bias Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty Project Syndicate References Bjørn Lomborg: The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World. Cambridge University Press 2001 (ISBN 0521010683). Nichola Wade: "From an Unlikely Quarter, Eco-Optimism". The New York Times, 7 August 2001. Stephen Schneider, John P. Holdren, John Bongaarts, Thomas Lovejoy: "Misleading Math about the Earth". Scientific American, January 2002. External links Lomborg's personal website, with own articles, links to related broadcasts on radio and TV, and Lomborg's opinion on the issues with the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty. Bjorn Lomborg's monthly op/ed commentary series "Global Warning" for Project Syndicate Kåre Fog's "Lomborg errors" website contains a catalogue of claims of errors in Lomborg's The Skeptical Environmentalist, Fog's opinion on Lomborg and his career. Wired magazine interviews Lomborg, June 2004, regarding the Copenhagen Consensus. Article on Bjørn Lomborg in the online edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The article was written by Michael Allaby, author of many (although not peer-reviewed) books on climate, who had previously expressed ideas similar to Lomborg. If you cannot access the full text, click the first link in this Google search. Grist magazine article Rebuttals from scientists working in the various fields his book makes claims about. HAN investigation of complaints made by Lomborg critics, by a number of Dutch scientists of the complaints made by Lomborg critics. Correcting myths from Bjørn Lomborg, extensive collection of criticisms of Lomborg, with replies. Skeptical About The Skeptical Environmentalist, Richard M. Fisher's review of The Skeptical Environmentalist, in "The Skeptical Inquirer". Letter in Support of Lomborg in Scientific American, a defense of Lomborg's work, from the eminent geneticist Matt Ridley, former scientific correspondent of The Economist''. Vanishing Point: On Lomborg and Extinction, a criticism of Lomborg, from Edward O. Wilson. TED Talks: Bjorn Lomborg sets global priorities at TED in 2005 ZenSci Lomborg portrait Interview on climate and science politcs. 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3,720 | Limbo | In Roman Catholic theology, Limbo (Latin limbus, edge or boundary, referring to the "edge" of Hell) is an idea about the afterlife condition of those who die in original sin without being assigned to the Hell of the damned. Limbo is not an official doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church or any other. Medieval theologians described the underworld ("hell", "hades", "infernum") as divided into four distinct parts: hell of the damned (which some call gehenna), purgatory, limbo of the fathers, and limbo of infants. The Limbo of the Patriarchs or Limbo of the Fathers (Latin Limbus Patrum), also the Bosom of Abraham or Paradise, is seen as the temporary state of those who, in spite of the personal sins they may have committed, died in the friendship of God, but could not enter Heaven until redemption by Jesus Christ made it possible. The term "Limbo of the Fathers" was a medieval name for the part of the underworld (Hades) where the patriarchs of the Old Testament were believed to be kept until Christ's soul descended into it by his death "Christ's soul descended only into that part of hell wherein the just were detained." Thomas Aquinas, through crucifixion and freed them (see Harrowing of hell). The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes Christ's descent into "hell" as meaning primarily that "the crucified one sojourned in the realm of the dead prior to his resurrection. This was the first meaning given in the apostolic preaching to Christ's descent into hell: that Jesus, like all men, experienced death and in his soul joined the others in the realm of the dead." It adds: "But he descended there as Saviour, proclaiming the Good News to the spirits imprisoned there." It does not use the word "Limbo". Catechism of the Catholic Church, 633 The Limbo of Infants is a hypothesis about the permanent status of the unbaptized who die in infancy, too young to have committed personal sins, but not having been freed from original sin. Since at least the time of Augustine, theologians, considering baptism to be necessary for the salvation of those to whom it can be administered have debated the fate of unbaptized innocents, and the theory of the Limbo of Infants is one of the hypotheses that have been formulated as a proposed solution. Some who hold this theory regard the Limbo of Infants as a state of maximum natural happiness, others as one of "mildest punishment" consisting at least of privation of the beatific vision and of any hope of obtaining it. This theory, in any of its forms, has never been dogmatically defined by the Church, but it is permissible to hold it. Recent Catholic theological speculation tends to stress the hope that these infants may attain heaven instead of the supposed state of Limbo; however, the directly opposed theological opinion also exists, namely that there is no afterlife state intermediate between salvation and damnation, and that all the unbaptized are damned. Unbaptized Infants Suffer Fire and Limbo is a Heretical Pelagian Fable Limbo of the Patriarchs "Jesus in Limbo" by Domenico Beccafumi. The Limbo of the Fathers (limbus patrum) was the abode of people who, before Jesus' Resurrection, had died in the friendship of God, but had to wait for Christ to open heaven's gates. This concept of Limbo affirms that one can get into heaven only through Jesus Christ but does not portray Moses, etc., as being punished eternally in Hell. Like other religious terms such as "Trinity", the term "Limbo" does not appear in the Bible. And like other religious concepts, that of the Limbo of the Patriarchs is not spelt out in Scripture, but is seen by some as implicit in various references. speaks of the "bosom of Abraham", which both the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, following early Christian writers, understand as a temporary state of souls awaiting entrance into Heaven. The end of that state is set either at the resurrection of the dead, the most common interpretation in the East, or at the Harrowing of Hell, the most common interpretation in the West, but adopted also by some in the East. See Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev: Christ the Conqueror of Hell Jesus told the Good Thief that the two of them would be together "this day" in "Paradise" (; see also ); but between his Resurrection and Ascension, Jesus told his followers that he had "not yet ascended to the Father" (). A possible resolution of this apparent contradiction lies in the view that Jesus' statement to the thief can be understood in two ways, depending on where you place a comma (which was not present in the original manuscripts): either "Truly I say to you, today you shall be with Me in Paradise" or "Truly I say to you today, you shall be with Me in Paradise" (Luke 23:43, NASB). The latter interpretation would be consistent with Jesus' subsequent statement to his followers. By this reading, the good thief waited in Limbo until the Resurrection made it possible for him to enter heaven. Eastern depiction of Christ in his resurrection raising also Adam and Eve. Jesus is also described as preaching to "the spirits in prison" (1 Pet 3:19). Medieval drama sometimes portrayed Christ leading a dramatic assault — The Harrowing of Hell — during the three days between the Crucifixion and the resurrection. In this assault, Jesus freed the souls of the just and escorted them triumphantly into heaven. This imagery is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church's Holy Saturday liturgy (between Good Friday and Pascha) and in Eastern Orthodox icons of the Resurrection of Jesus. The doctrine expressed by the term "Limbo of the Fathers" was taught, for instance, by Clement of Alexandria, who maintained: "It is not right that these should be condemned without trial, and that those alone who lived after the coming (of Christ) should have the advantage of the divine righteousness." Stromata, book VI, chapter VI Limbo of Infants While the Roman Catholic Church has a defined doctrine on original sin, it has none on the eternal fate of unbaptized infants, leaving theologians free to propose different theories, which Catholics are free to accept or reject. Study by International Theological Commission, 19 January 2007, 32-40; Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1261 The fundamental importance, in Roman Catholic theology, of the sacrament of water baptism gives rise to the argument that, because original sin excludes from the beatific vision enjoyed by the souls in heaven, those who have not been freed from it either by the sacrament or by baptism of desire or baptism of blood are not eligible for entry into heaven. Latin Fathers Saint Augustine of Hippo held that because of original sin, "such infants as quit the body without being baptized will be involved in the mildest condemnation of all. That person, therefore, greatly deceives both himself and others, who teaches that they will not be involved in condemnation; whereas the apostle says: 'Judgment from one offence to condemnation' (), and again a little after: 'By the offence of one upon all persons to condemnation' ()." On Merit and the Forgiveness of Sins, and the Baptism of Infants, ; cf. Study by International Theological Commission, 19 January 2007, 15-18 The Council of North African bishops, which included Augustine of Hippo, held at Carthage in 418 did not explicitly endorse all aspects of Augustine's stern view about the destiny of infants who die without baptism, but the Latin Fathers of the fifth and sixth centuries did adopt his position, and it became a point of reference for Latin theologians in the Middle Ages. Study by International Theological Commission, 19 January 2007, 19-21 Medieval theologians In the later medieval period, some theologians continued to hold Augustine's view. In the 1100s, Peter Abelard (1079 - 1142) said that these infants suffered no material torment or positive punishment, just the pain of loss at being denied the beatific vision. Others held that unbaptized infants suffered no pain at all: unaware of being deprived of the beatific vision, they enjoyed a state of natural, not supernatural happiness. This theory was associated with but independent of the term "Limbo of Infants", which was forged about the year 1300. Study by International Theological Commission, 19 January 2007, 22-25 If heaven is a state of supernatural happiness and union with God, and hell is understood as a state of torture and separation from God then, in this view, the Limbo of Infants, although technically part of hell (the outermost part, "limbo" meaning "outer edge" or "hem") is seen as a sort of intermediate state. Saint Thomas Aquinas described the Limbo of Infants as an eternal state of natural joy, untempered by any sense of loss at how much greater their joy might have been had they been baptized. He argued that this was a reward of natural happiness for natural virtue; a reward of supernatural happiness for merely natural virtue would be inappropriate since, due to original sin, unbaptized children lack the necessary supernatural grace. In regards to baptism of desire, St Thomas Aquinas stated that only adults were capable of this, Summa Theologica Question 68, Article 3 "I answer that, In this matter we must make a distinction and see whether those who are to be baptized are children or adults. For if they be children, Baptism should not be deferred. First, because in them we do not look for better instruction or fuller conversion. Secondly, because of the danger of death, for no other remedy is available for them besides the sacrament of Baptism. On the other hand, adults have a remedy in the mere desire for Baptism, as stated above (A[2])." and this view seemed to be accepted by the Council of Florence, which quotes St Thomas Aquinas in its Eleventh Session concerning baptism of infants. Modern era The teaching of the Roman Catholic Church expressed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church is that "Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament" and that, since "God has bound salvation to the sacrament of Baptism, but he himself is not bound by his sacraments," "Baptism of blood" (as in the case of the martyrs, who are understood to include the Holy Innocents) and, for catechumens at least, the explicit desire for Baptism, "together with repentance for their sins, and charity," ("Baptism of Desire") ensure salvation for those unable to receive Baptism by water. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1257-1261 The Ecumenical Council of Florence (1442) spoke of baptism as necessary even for children and required that they be baptised soon after birth. Council of Florence Session 11 (Bull Cantate Domino): "With regard to children, since the danger of death is often present and the only remedy available to them is the sacrament of baptism by which they are snatched away from the dominion of the devil and adopted as children of God, it admonishes that sacred baptism is not to be deferred for forty or eighty days or any other period of time..." This had earlier been affirmed at the local Council of Carthage in 417. The Council of Florence also stated that those who die in original sin alone go to hell. Council of Florence Session 6 "..the souls of those who depart this life in actual mortal sin, or in original sin alone, go down straightaway to hell to be punished, but with unequal pains." John Wycliffe's attack on the necessity of infant baptism was condemned by another general council, the Council of Constance. Session 15, 6 July 1415 The Council of Trent in 1547 explicitly stated that baptism (or desire for baptism) was the means by which one is transferred "from that state wherein man is born a child of the first Adam, to the state of grace, and of the adoption of the sons of God, through the second Adam, Jesus Christ, our Saviour. Council of Trent, Session 6 If adults could effectively be baptised through a desire for the sacrament when prevented from actually receiving it, some speculated that perhaps sacramentally unbaptised infants too might be saved by some waterless equivalent of ordinary baptism when prevented. Cajetan, a major 16th-century theologian, suggested that infants dying in the womb before birth, and so before ordinary sacramental baptism could be administered, might be saved through their mother's wish for their baptism. Thus, there was no clear consensus that the Council of Florence had excluded salvation of infants by such extra-sacramental equivalents of baptism. Through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries individual theologians (Bianchi in 1768, H. Klee in 1835, Caron in 1855, H. Schell in 1893) continued to formulate theories of how children who died unbaptised might still be saved. By 1952 a theologian such as Ludwig Ott could, in a widely used and well-regarded manual, openly teach the possibility that children who die unbaptised might be saved for heaven "Other emergency means of baptism for children dying without sacramental baptism, such as prayer and the desire of the parents or the Church (vicarious baptism of desire - Cajetan), or the attainment of the use of reason in the moment of death, so that the dying child can decide for or against God (baptism of desire - H. Klee), or suffering and death of the child as quasi-Sacrament (baptism of suffering - H. Schell), are indeed possible, but their actuality cannot be proved from Revelation. Cf. Denzinger 712." Ludwig Ott, Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Book 2, Section 2, § 25 (p. 114 of the 1963 edition) — though he still represented their going to limbo as the commonly taught opinion. In its 1980 instruction on children's baptism the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith reaffirmed that "with regard to children who die without having received baptism, the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God, as indeed she does in the funeral rite established for them." Pastoralis Actio, 13 And in 1984, when Joseph Ratzinger, then Cardinal Prefect of that Congregation, stated that, as a private theologian, he rejected the claim that children who die unbaptised cannot attain salvation, he was speaking for many academic theologians of his background and training. Thus in 1992, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, while affirming that "the Church does not know of any means other than Baptism that assures entry into eternal beatitude", but also stating that "God has bound salvation to the sacrament of Baptism, but he himself is not bound by his sacraments", Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1257 stated: "As regards children who have died without Baptism, the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God, as she does in her funeral rites for them. Indeed, the great mercy of God who desires that all men should be saved, and Jesus' tenderness toward children which caused him to say: 'Let the children come to me, do not hinder them,' ; cf. allow us to hope that there is a way of salvation for children who have died without Baptism. All the more urgent is the Church's call not to prevent little children coming to Christ through the gift of holy Baptism." Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1261 On April 22, 2007, the advisory body known as the International Theological Commission released a document, originally commissioned by Pope John Paul II, entitled "The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die without Being Baptized." The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die without Being Baptized, ITC, April 22, 2007. After tracing the history of the various opinions that have been and are held on the eternal fate of unbaptized infants, including that connected with the theory of the Limbo of Infants, and after examining the theological arguments, the document stated its conclusion as follows: Our conclusion is that the many factors that we have considered above give serious theological and liturgical grounds for hope that unbaptized infants who die will be saved and enjoy the beatific vision. We emphasize that these are reasons for prayerful hope, rather than grounds for sure knowledge. There is much that simply has not been revealed to us. cf. We live by faith and hope in the God of mercy and love who has been revealed to us in Christ, and the Spirit moves us to pray in constant thankfulness and joy. cf. What has been revealed to us is that the ordinary way of salvation is by the sacrament of baptism. None of the above considerations should be taken as qualifying the necessity of baptism or justifying delay in administering the sacrament. Rather, as we want to reaffirm in conclusion, they provide strong grounds for hope that God will save infants when we have not been able to do for them what we would have wished to do, namely, to baptize them into the faith and life of the Church. Pope Benedict XVI authorized publication of this document, indicating that it is considered consonant with the Church's teaching, though it is not an official expression of that teaching. Catholic News Service (April 20, 2007). "Vatican commission: Limbo reflects 'restrictive view of salvation'". Retrieved 2007-04-20. Media reports that by the document "the Pope closed Limbo" New York Times (April 21, 2007) "Vatican City: Pope Closes Limbo" are thus without foundation. In fact, the document explicitly states that "the theory of limbo, understood as a state which includes the souls of infants who die subject to original sin and without baptism, and who, therefore, neither merit the beatific vision, nor yet are subjected to any punishment, because they are not guilty of any personal sin. This theory, elaborated by theologians beginning in the Middle Ages, never entered into the dogmatic definitions of the Magisterium, even if that same Magisterium did at times mention the theory in its ordinary teaching up until the Second Vatican Council. It remains therefore a possible theological hypothesis" (second preliminary paragraph); and in paragraph 41 it repeats that the theory of Limbo "remains a possible theological opinion". The document thus allows the hypothesis of a limbo of infants to be held as one of the existing theories about the fate of children who die without being baptised, a question on which there is "no explicit answer" from Scripture or tradition. These theories are not official teaching of the Catholic Church, but are only opinions that the Church does not condemn, permitting them to be held by its members. Limbo in other denominations and religions The Old Testament righteous follow Christ from Hades to Heaven (Russian icon) Neither the Eastern Orthodox Church nor Protestantism accept the concept of a limbo of infants; Limbo: Recent statements by the Catholic church, and Protestant views at Religioustolerance.org but, while not using the expression "Limbo of the Patriarchs", the Eastern Orthodox Church lays much stress on the resurrected Christ's action of liberating Adam and Eve and other righteous figures of the Old Testament, such as Abraham and David, from Hades (see Harrowing of Hell). Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, and others have taught that the dead are unconscious (or even nonexistent), awaiting their destiny on Judgment Day. The Zoroastrian concept of hamistagan is similar to limbo. Hamistagan is a neutral state in which a soul that was neither good nor evil awaits Judgment Day. In Islam the concept of Limbo exists as Barzakh, the state which exists after death prior to the day of resurrection. During this period sinners are punished and the faithful rest in comfort. The concept of underage children is that they go exempt of sin and that they are classed as Muslims and after death they go to heaven where they are cared for by Abraham and Hagar. Limbo in literature In the Divine Comedy, Dante depicts Limbo as the first circle of Hell, located beyond the river Acheron but before the judgment seat of Minos. The virtuous pagans of classical history and mythology inhabit a brightly lit and beautiful — but somber — castle which is seemingly a medieval version of Elysium. In the same work, a semi-infernal region, above Limbo on the other side of Acheron, but inside the Gate of Hell, also exists — it is the "vestibule" of Hell and houses so-called "neutralists" or "opportunists," who devoted their lives neither to good nor to evil; its residents include those angels who did not fight at all in the war that resulted in the expulsion of Lucifer from Heaven, and also either Pope Celestine V or Pontius Pilate, the text is ambiguous. One of Nobel Prize winning poet Seamus Heaney's best known works is titled Limbo. Rich with allusions to Christian teaching, the poem describes a mother drowning her illegitimate infant and its being netted by fishermen. Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony, contains demons who escape from Limbo and interfere with other time periods. Limbo as a colloquialism Differing slightly from the original meaning, in colloquial speech, "limbo" is any status where a person or project is held up, and nothing can be done until another action happens. For example, a construction project might be described as "in limbo" if political considerations delay its permit. A "legal limbo" may occur when varying laws or court rulings leave a person without recourse. For example, a person may earn "too much" to receive public assistance from the government, but not enough to actually pay for basic necessities. Likewise, various parties in a dispute may be pointing blame at each other, rather than fixing the problem, and leaving the person or group suffering from the problem to continue to suffer in limbo. The Amstrad PCW's bundled word processing software, LocoScript, used the term "in limbo" to refer to files which had been deleted but which could still be restored, a concept similar to that later implemented by the Trash in the Apple Macintosh and the Recycle Bin in Microsoft Windows 95. On the PCW, the files "in limbo" were marked as belonging to CP/M Plus users 8 to 15. These files were deleted automatically when the space they occupied was needed. It could therefore be dangerous to access a disk containing files created with CP/M Plus using LocoScript, since LocoScript could decide to delete anything in users 8 to 15. In the licensing of houses in multiple occupation (HMOs), properties registered under a previous scheme, but would not be licensable under mandatory arrangements, would go into a state of limbo when they expire, until the status of any potential additional licensing scheme is fully resolved. See also Purgatory Heaven Hell in Christian beliefs Spirit world (Latter Day Saints) Spirit prison Intermediate state Sheol Hades in Christianity The Phantom Zone Notes External links (Limbo) The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die Without Being Baptized (document of the International Theological Commission) Unbaptized Infants Suffer Fire and Limbo is a Heretical Pelagian Fable (a Traditionalist Catholic perspective) | Limbo |@lemmatized roman:6 catholic:21 theology:2 limbo:55 latin:5 limbus:3 edge:3 boundary:1 refer:2 hell:21 idea:1 afterlife:2 condition:1 die:21 original:11 sin:16 without:15 assign:1 damn:3 official:3 doctrine:4 church:27 medieval:6 theologian:12 describe:6 underworld:2 hades:5 infernum:1 divide:1 four:1 distinct:1 part:5 call:3 gehenna:1 purgatory:2 father:8 infant:33 patriarch:5 patrum:2 also:11 bosom:2 abraham:4 paradise:4 see:9 temporary:2 state:27 spite:1 personal:3 may:5 commit:2 friendship:2 god:14 could:7 enter:3 heaven:15 redemption:1 jesus:14 christ:16 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3,721 | Blue_Velvet | Blue Velvet may refer to: Blue Velvet (film), a 1986 film by David Lynch Blue Velvet (film soundtrack), a soundtrack by Angelo Badalamenti for the 1986 film "Blue Velvet" (song), a popular song recorded by several artists "Blue Velvet" (Shizuka Kudō song), a 1997 song by Shizuka Kudō Blue Velvet, a Japanese musical duo feauturing Ayana and Shūichi Aoki See also Creedence Clearwater Revival, originally known as The Blue Velvets Paraglyphidodon oxyodon, commonly known as the Blue Velvet Damselfish Terana caerulea, commonly known as the Velvet Blue Spread Velvet Blue Music | Blue_Velvet |@lemmatized blue:10 velvet:10 may:1 refer:1 film:4 david:1 lynch:1 soundtrack:2 angelo:1 badalamenti:1 song:4 popular:1 record:1 several:1 artist:1 shizuka:2 kudō:2 japanese:1 musical:1 duo:1 feauturing:1 ayana:1 shūichi:1 aoki:1 see:1 also:1 creedence:1 clearwater:1 revival:1 originally:1 know:3 paraglyphidodon:1 oxyodon:1 commonly:2 damselfish:1 terana:1 caerulea:1 spread:1 music:1 |@bigram blue_velvet:8 soundtrack_soundtrack:1 angelo_badalamenti:1 creedence_clearwater:1 clearwater_revival:1 |
3,722 | Modern_paganism | Neopaganism or Neo-Paganism is an umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements, particularly those influenced by pre-Christian pagan beliefs of Europe. Lewis, James R. The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements (Oxford University Press, 2004). p. 13. ISBN 0195149866. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought (Brill Academic Publishers, 1996). p. 84. ISBN 9004106960. Neo-Pagan religious movements are extremely diverse, with beliefs that range widely from polytheism to animism, to pantheism and other paradigms. Many Neopagans practise a spirituality that is entirely modern in origin, while others attempt to accurately reconstruct or revive indigenous, ethnic religions as found in historical and folkloric sources. (see also List of Neopagan movements) Neopaganism is a postmodern development in the industrialized countries, found in particular strength in the United States and Britain, but also in Continental Europe (German-speaking Europe, Scandinavia, Slavic Europe, Latin Europe and elsewhere). The largest Neopagan movement is Wicca, though other significantly sized Neopagan faiths include Neo-druidism, Germanic Neopaganism, and Slavic Neopaganism. Terminology and definition The word "pagan" comes from the Latin paganus, originally meaning "rustic" or "from the country", and later also used for "civilian". The pejorative meaning, "uneducated non-Christian", emerges in Vulgar Latin from the 4th century. Augustine, Divers. Quaest. 83. Since Christianity first spread to the cities, the rural Europeans were the last to convert to Christianty. The term neo-pagan was coined in the 19th century in reference to Renaissance and Romanticist Hellenophile classical revivalism. The very persons who would most writhe and wail at their surroundings if transported back into early Greece, would, I think, be the neo-pagans and Hellas worshipers of today. (W. James, letter of 5 April 1868, cited after OED); The neopagan impulse of the classical revival. (J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy 1877, iv. 193); Pre-Raphaelitism [...] has got mixed up with æstheticism, neo-paganism, and other such fantasies. (J. McCarthy A history of our own times, 1880, iv. 542) "Pagan" and "Neopagan", when capitalized, refer to religions, or members of a Pagan or Neopagan religion, "in the same way as one would describe a 'Christian' or a 'Jew'." This usage has been common since the Neopagan revival in the 1970s, and is now used by academics and adherents alike to identify new religious movements that emphasize pantheism or nature-worship, OED, s.v. "pagan" or that revive or reconstruct aspects of historical polytheism. The term "Neopagan" provides a means of distinguishing between historical Pagans of ancient cultures and the adherents of modern religious movements. The category of religions known as "Neopagan" includes syncretic or eclectic approaches like Wicca, Neo-druidism, and Neoshamanism at one end of the spectrum, as well as culturally specific traditions, such as the many varieties of polytheistic reconstructionism, at the other. Some Reconstructionists reject the term "Neopagan" because they wish to set their historically oriented approach apart from generic "Neopagan" eclecticism. Adler (2006) pp.243-299 Bonewits (2006) pp.128-140 A ceremony at the annual Prometheia festival of the Greek polytheistic group Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes, June 2006. "Pagan" as a self-designation of Neopagans appeared in 1964 and 1965, in the publications of the Witchcraft Research Association; at that time, the term was in use by "revivalist Witches" in the United States and the United Kingdom, but unconnected to the broader, counter-culture Neopagan movement. Adler (1996) p.295 The modern popularization of the terms "Pagan" and "Neopagan", as they are currently understood, is largely traced to Oberon Zell-Ravenheart, co-founder of "the 1st Neo-Pagan Church of All Worlds" who, beginning in 1967 with the early issues of Green Egg, used both terms for the growing movement. Increasingly, however, scholarly writers prefer the term "contemporary Paganism" to cover all new polytheistic religious movements, a usage favored by The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies, the leading peer-reviewed journal in the field. "Heathen", "Heathenism" or "Heathenry" as a self-designation of adherents of Germanic neopaganism (Theodism in particular) appeared in the late 1990s. Eric Wodening, We Are Our Deeds: The Elder Heathenry, Its Ethic and Thew (1998), ISBN 1929340001 History Origins The roots of Neopaganism begin with the Renaissance, and the reintroduction of Classicism and the resurgence of interest in Graeco-Roman polytheism in the wake of works like the Theologia mythologica of 1532. The Romantic movement of the 18th century led to the re-discovery of Old Gaelic and Old Norse literature and poetry. Neo-druidism can be taken to have its origins as early as 1717 with the foundation of The Druid Order. The 19th century saw a surge of interest in Germanic paganism with the Viking revival in the British Isles and Scandinavia. In Germany the Völkisch movement was in full swing. These Neopagan currents coincided with Romanticist interest in folklore and occultism, the widespread emergence of pagan themes in popular literature, and the rise of nationalism. p.22 Occultic Revival During this resurgence in the United Kingdom, Neo-druidism and various Western occult groups emerged, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Ordo Templi Orientis, who attempted to syncretize "exotic" elements like Egyptian cosmology and Kabbalah into their belief systems, although not necessarily for purely religious purposes. Influenced by the anthropologist Sir James George Frazer's The Golden Bough, several prominent writers and artists were involved in these organizations, including William Butler Yeats, Maud Gonne, Arthur Edward Waite, and Aleister Crowley. Along with these early occult organizations, there were other social phenomena such as the interest in mediumship, magic, and other supernatural beliefs which was at an all time high in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Another important influence during this period was the Romantic aesthetic movement, which venerated the natural world and frequently made reference to the deities of antiquity. The Romantic poets, essayists, artists and authors who employed these themes in their work were later associated with socially progressive attitudes towards sexuality, feminism, pacifism and similar issues. Witchcraft Revival In the 1920s Margaret Murray theorized that a Witchcraft religion existed underground and in secret, and had survived through the witchcraft prosecutions that had been enacted by the ecclesiastical and secular courts. Most historians now reject Murray's theory, as she based it partially upon the similarities of the accounts given by those accused of witchcraft; such similarity is now thought to actually derive from there having been a standard set of questions laid out in the witch-hunting manuals used by interrogators. Hutton, Triumph of the Moon pp.194-201 Murray's ideas nevertheless exerted great influence on certain Neopagan currents; in the 1940s, Englishman Gerald Gardner claimed to have been initiated into a New Forest coven. Gardnerian Wicca is used to refer to the traditions of Neopaganism that adhere closely to Gardner's teachings, differentiating it from similar traditions, such as Alexandrian Wicca or more recent Wiccan offshoots. Germanic Mysticism In the meantime, Germanic mysticism in Germany and Switzerland had developed into baroque forms such as Guido von List's "Armanism", from the 1900s merging into antisemitic and national mysticist (völkisch) currents, notably with Lanz von Liebenfels' Guido von List Society and Ostara magazine, which with the rise of Nazism were partially absorbed into Nazi occultism. Other Germanic mysticist groups, such as the Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft of Ludwig Fahrenkrog were disendorsed by the Nazi regime. Such distortions of Germanic mythology were denounced by J. R. R. Tolkien, e.g. in a 1941 letter where he speaks of Hitler's corruption of "...that noble northern spirit, a supreme contribution to Europe, which I have ever loved and tried to present in its true light." Tolkien, JRR, Letters, pp.55-56 Because of such connections with Nazism, interest in Neopaganism was virtually eclipsed for about two decades following World War II. Neopagan emergence The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in Neodruidism as well as the rise of Germanic Neopaganism and Ásatrú in the United States and in Iceland. In the 1970s, Wicca was notably influenced by feminism, leading to the creation of an eclectic, Goddess-worshipping movement known as Dianic Wicca. Adler (2006) pp.178-239: "Women, Feminism and the Craft" The 1979 publication of Margot Adler's Drawing Down the Moon and Starhawk's The Spiral Dance opened a new chapter in public awareness of Neopaganism. Adler (2006) p.ix With the growth and spread of large, Neopagan gatherings and festivals in the 1980s, public varieties of Neo-Wicca continued to further diversify into additional, eclectic sub-denominations, often heavily influenced by the New Age and counter-culture movements. These open, loosely-structured or unstructured traditions contrast with British Traditional Wicca, which emphasizes secrecy and initiatory lineage. Adler (2006) p.429-456: "Pagan Festivals - The Search for a Culture" The 1980s and 1990s also saw an increasing interest in serious academic research and Reconstructionist Pagan traditions. The establishment and growth of the Internet in the 1990s brought rapid growth to these, and other Neopagan movements. Historicity Many Neopagans and Neopagan traditions attempt to incorporate elements of historical religions, cultures and mythologies into their beliefs and practices, often emphasizing the hoary age of their sources. Thus, Wicca in particular is sometimes referred to by its proponents as "The Old Religion", a term popularized by Margaret Murray in the 1920s, while Germanic Neopaganism is referred to in some of its varieties as (Forn Sed) ("Old Custom"). Such emphasis on the antiquity of religious tradition is not exclusive to Neopaganism, and is found in many other religions. For example the terms Purana, Sanatana Dharma, and the emphasis on the antiquity of the Ancient Egyptian sources of the Hellenistic Mystery religions. Some claims of continuity between Neopaganism and older forms of Paganism have been shown to be spurious, or outright false, as in the case of Iolo Morganwg's Druid's Prayer. Wiccan beliefs of an ancient monotheistic Goddess were inspired by Marija Gimbutas's description of Neolithic Europe. The factual historical validity of her theories has been disputed by many scholars, including historian Ronald Hutton. While most Neopagans draw from old religious traditions, they also adapt them. The mythologies of the ancient traditions are not generally considered to be literally factual by Neopagans, in the sense that the Bible and other Abrahamic texts are often thought of by their followers. Eclectic Neopagans in particular are resistant to the concept of scripture or excessive structure, considering personal freedom to be one of the primary goals of their spirituality. Adler (1986) p.23 In contrast, some Reconstructionist movements, like those who practise Theodism, take a stricter religious approach, and only recognize certain historical texts and sources as being relevant to their belief system, intentionally focusing on one culture to the exclusion of others, and having a general disdain for the eclectic mentality. The mythological sources of the various Neopagan traditions are similarly varied, including Celtic, Norse, Greek, Roman, Sumerian, Egyptian and others. Some groups focus solely on one cultural tradition, while others draw from several. For example, Doreen Valiente's text The Charge of the Goddess used materials from The Gospel of Aradia by Charles G. Leland (1899), as well as material from Aleister Crowley's writings. Some Neopagans also draw inspiration from modern traditions, including Christianity, Buddhism and others, creating syncretisms like "Christian Witchcraft" Telesco, Patricia (ed) (2005) Which Witch is Which? Franklin Lakes, NJ, New Page Books. ISBN 1-56414-754-1 pp.94-8 or "Buddheo-Paganism". Since many Neopagan beliefs do not require exclusivity, some Neopagans practise other faiths in parallel. Since eclectic Neopagans take a rather undogmatic religious stance, and sometimes see no one as having authority to deem a source "apocryphal", Neopaganism has been notably prone to fakelore, especially in recent years, as information and misinformation alike have been spread on the Internet and in print media. A number of Wiccan, Neopagan and even some "Traditionalist" or "Tribalist" groups have a history of spurious "Grandmother Stories" – usually involving initiation by a Grandmother, Grandfather, or other elderly relative who is said to have instructed them in the secret, millennia-old traditions of their ancestors. As this "secret wisdom" has almost always been traced to recent sources, or been quite obviously concocted even more recently, most proponents of these stories have eventually admitted they made them up. Author quotes Alex Sanders claim of initiation by grandmother as a child in 1933, yet the Alexandrian rituals, "so resemble the Gardnerian rituals [written in the 1940s] that Alex's story of their origin is often questioned." Victor Anderson of the Feri tradition tells similar story, but his rituals also seem largely based on Gardner's writings. Author adds: "Gardner, for whatever reasons, preferred to maintain the fiction that he was simply carrying on an older tradition. This fiction, wrote Aidan [Kelly], has put modern Craft leaders 'into the uncomfortable position of having to maintain that stance also, despite the fact that doing so goes, I suspect, against both their common sense and better judgement.'" Quoting Ed Fitch, "I think all of us have matured somewhat. After a while you realize that if you've heard one story about an old grandmother, you've heard six or seven just like it." Quoting Gwydion Pendderwen, "Yes, I wrote a fantasy. It was a desire. It was something I wished would happen. Perhaps that's why there are so many of these fantasies running around in the Craft today, and people trying to convince other people that they're true. It is certainly so much more pleasant and 'magical' to say 'It happened this way,' instead of 'I researched this. I wrote these rituals. I came up with this idea myself.'" Concepts of the divine Most Neopagan traditions are polytheistic, but interpretations of the nature of a deity may vary widely. In principle, there is the distinction of hard vs. soft (also, "strong" vs. "weak" or "radical" vs. "moderate") polytheism. Hard polytheism is the notion of the existence of gods and goddesses independent from the human mind and from one another, or as distinct entities but however part of a greater unity, such as The One of Neoplatonism and Panentheism. The mythology of antiquity reflects this kind of understanding of the gods' natures. Soft polytheism considers the plurality of gods as "aspects" of other notions of the divine, including Monism, Pantheism, Panentheism or Deism, Psychologism (Jungianism). Historically polytheistic religious traditions in the west were not solely concerned with religious belief in gods, but focussed on ritual, tradition (ethos) and notions of virtue (arete, pietas). As Christianity became a rising force, Pagan thinkers such as Celsus and the Roman Emperor Julian wrote arguments against Christian ideas and in defense of the traditional religions, which give us insight into their contrasting beliefs. Hutton states that the historical Pagans did not see "All Goddesses as one Goddess; all Gods as one God", but some types of modern Neopagans believe that there is but a single divinity or life force of the universe, which is immanent in the world. The various manifestations and archetypes of this divinity are not viewed as wholly separate, but as different aspects of the divine which are ineffable. In Wicca, (especially Dianic Wicca) the concept of an Earth or Mother Goddess similar to the Greek Gaia is emphasized. Male counterparts are usually also evoked, such as the Green Man and the Horned God (who is loosely based on the Celtic Cernunnos.) These Duotheistic philosophies tend to emphasize the God and Goddess' (or Lord and Lady's) genders as being analogous to a concept similar to that of yin and yang in ancient Chinese philosophy; ie, two complementary opposites. Many Oriental philosophies equate weakness with femininity and strength with masculinity; this is not the prevailing attitude in Neopaganism and Wicca. York, Michael. Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion. New York: NYU Press, 2003. Pg 22-23. ISBN 0814797083. Among many Neopagans, there is a strong desire to incorporate the female aspects of the divine in their worship and within their lives, which can partially explain the attitude which sometimes manifests as the veneration of women. Clifton, Chas. "A Goddess Arrives." Gnosis Fall 1988: 20-29. Other Neopagans reject the concept of binary gender roles. Worship and ritual Many Neopagan traditions include occult or "magical" elements in their beliefs and practices. Wicca in particular emphasises the role of witchcraft and ritual. Other Neopagan traditions may include a belief in the supernatural, but place much less emphasis on the working of magic. Most Neopagan religions celebrate the cycles and seasons of nature through a festival calendar that honours these changes. The timing of festivals, and the rites celebrated, may vary from climate to climate, and will also vary (sometimes widely) depending upon which particular Neopagan religion the adherent subscribes to. Main currents and denominations The term "Neopaganism" encompasses a very broad range of groups and beliefs. Syncretic or eclectic approaches are often inspired by historical traditions, but not bound by any strict identification with a historical religion or culture. These are contrasted by a focus on historicity (reconstructionism), on folklore, or on occultist or national mysticist claims of continuity from racial memory. Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca, British Traditional Wicca, and variations such as Dianic Wicca are examples of eclectic traditions, as are Neo-druid groups like Ár nDraíocht Féin. Wicca Wicca is the largest Neopagan religion in the United States. It was first publicized in 1954 by Gerald Gardner. Gardner claimed that the religion was a modern survival of an old witch cult, originating in the pre-Christian Paganism of Europe and existing in secret for centuries. Various forms of Wicca have since evolved or been adapted from Gardner's British Traditional Wicca or Gardnerian Wicca such as Alexandrian Wicca. Other forms loosely based on Gardner's teachings are Faery Wicca, Kemetic Wicca, Judeo-Paganism or "jewitchery", Dianic Wicca or "Feminist Wicca" - which emphasizes the divine feminine, often creating women-only or lesbian-only groups. Telesco (2005) p.114 The common denominator amongst all the variants of Wicca are a reverence for nature and active ecology, venerations of a Goddess with or without a consort, such as the Horned God, elements of a variety of ancient mythologies, a belief in and practice of magic and sometimes the belief in reincarnation and karma. Neo-Druidism Neo-Druidism forms the largest neopagan sub-denomination after Wicca, and like Wicca in turn shows significant heterogeneity. It draws several beliefs and inspirations from the Druids, the priest caste of the ancient Pagan Celts. With the first Druid Order founded as early as 1717, the history of Neo-Druidism reaches back to the earliest origins of Neopaganism. The Ancient Order of Druids founded in 1781 had many aspects of freemasonry, and practised rituals at Stonehenge since 1905. The Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids was established in 1964 and the British Druid Order in 1979. Neo-Druidism reached the United States together with Wicca, in the 1960s. The Reformed Druids of North America was established in 1963 and Ár nDraíocht Féin in 1983 by Isaac Bonewits. New Age syncretism and nature worship Neopaganism emerged as part of the counter-culture, New Age and Hippie movements in the 1960s to 1970s. Reconstructionism rose to prominence in the 1980s and 1990s. The majority of Neopagans are not committed to a single defined tradition, but understand Paganism as encompassing a wide range of non-institutionalized spirituality, as promoted by the Church of All Worlds, the Feri Tradition and other movements. Notably, Wicca in the United States since the 1970s has largely moved away from its Gardnerian roots and diversified into eclectic variants. Neopaganism generally emphasizes the sanctity of the Earth and Nature. Neopagans often feel a duty to protect the Earth through activism, and support causes such as rainforest protection, organic farming, permaculture, animal rights and so on. Some Neopagans are influenced by Animist traditions of the indigenous Native Americans and Africans and other indigenous or shamanic traditions. Eco-Paganism and Eco-magic, which are off-shoots of direct action environmental groups, have a strong emphasis on fairy imagery and a belief in the possibility of intercession by the fae (fairies, pixies, gnomes, elves, and other spirits of nature and the Otherworlds). Letcher, Andy, " The Scouring of the Shire: Fairies, Trolls and Pixies in Eco-Protest Culture", in Folklore (Oct, 2001) Some Unitarian Universalists are eclectic Pagans. Unitarian Universalists look for spiritual inspiration in a wide variety of religious beliefs. The Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans, or CUUPs, encourages their member chapters to "use practices familiar to members who attend for worship services but not to follow only one tradition of Paganism." Official Website of CUUPS Occultism and ethnic mysticism Historically the earliest self-identified revivalist pagans were inspired by Renaissance occultism. Notably in early 20th century Germany with Germanic mysticism, which branched into Ariosophy and related currents of Nazi occultism. Outside Germany, occultist Neopaganism was inspired by Crowleyan Thelema and Left-Hand Paths, a recent example being the "Dark Paganism" of John J. Coughlin. In the United States, ethnic mysticist approaches are advocated in the form of anti-racist Asatru Folk Assembly founder Stephen McNallen's "metagenetics" and by David Lane's openly white supremacist Wotanism. Occultist currents persist in neo-fascist and national mysticist Neopaganism, since the 1990s revived in the European Nouvelle Droite in the context of the "Integral Traditionalism" of Julius Evola and others (Alain de Benoist, Werkgroep Traditie; see Neopaganism and the New Right). Reconstructionism In contrast to the eclectic traditions, Reconstructionists are very culturally oriented and attempt to reconstruct historical forms of Paganism, in a modern context. Thus, Hellenic, Roman, Kemetic, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic Reconstructionists aim for the revival of historical practices and beliefs of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Ancient Egypt, the Celts, the Germanic peoples, the Balts and the Slavs, respectively. Folklorism In the early 2000s, a "Traditionalist" or "Folklorist" current of Neopaganism emerged in Scandinavian Neopaganism, advocated by Jon Julius Filipusson (of Foreningen Forn Sed, Norway), Paul Jenssen (Denmark) and Keeron Ögren (Samfälligheten för Nordisk Sed, Sweden), which rejects Reconstructionism and syncretism alike, advocating a strict focus on regional folklore and folk religion. Demographics Adherents.com estimates that there are roughly one million Neopagans worldwide (as of 2000), including "Wicca, Magick, Druidism, Asatru, neo-Native American religion and others". Adherents.com High estimates by Neopagan authors may reach several times that number. Curott, Phyllis (1998) The Book of Shadows: A Modern Woman's Journey Into the Wisdom of Witchcraft and the Magic of the Goddess, estimates there are 3 to 5 million Wiccans in the U.S. alone. A precise number is impossible to establish, because of the largely uninstitutionalised nature of the religion and the secrecy observed by some traditions, Edwards, Catherine. "Wicca Casts Spell on Teen-Age Girls " in Insight online magazine, Vol. 15, No. 39 -- October 25, 1999: "There is much to-do about secrecy, and groups do not release membership rolls." - sometimes explained by fear of religious discrimination. North America In the United States, the ARIS 2001 study, based on a poll conducted by The Graduate Center at The City University of New York found that an estimated 140,000 people self-identified as Pagans; 134,000 self-identified as Wiccans; and 33,000 self-identified as Druids. ARIS 2001 study This would bring the total of groups largely accepted under the modern popular western definition of Neopagan to 307,000. Britain Wiccans gather for a handfasting ceremony at Avebury in England A study by Ronald Hutton compared a number of different sources (including membership lists of major UK organizations, attendance at major events, subscriptions to magazines, etc.) and used standard models for extrapolating likely numbers. This estimate accounted for multiple membership overlaps as well as the number of adherents represented by each attendee of a Neopagan gathering. Hutton estimated that there are 250,000 Neopagan adherents in the United Kingdom, roughly equivalent to the national Hindu community. Hutton (2001) A smaller number is suggested by the results of the 2001 Census, in which a question about religious affiliation was asked for the first time. Respondents were able to write in an affiliation not covered by the checklist of common religions, and a total of 42,262 people from England, Scotland and Wales declared themselves to be Pagans by this method. These figures were not released as a matter of course by the Office of National Statistics, but were released after an application by the Pagan Federation of Scotland. Pagans and the Scottish Census of 2001 Accessed 18 October 2007 From a British population of 59 million this gives a rough proportion of 7 pagans per 100,000 population. This is more than many well known traditions such as Rastafarian, Bahá'í and Zoroastrian groups, but fewer than the 'Big Six' of Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism and Buddhism. It is also fewer than the adherents Jediism, whose campaign made them the fourth largest religion after Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. National Statistics Office (2001): '390,000 Jedi There Are'. Accessed 18 October 2007 The UK Census figures do not allow an accurate breakdown of traditions within the Pagan heading, as a campaign by the Pagan Federation before the census encouraged Wiccans, Heathens, Druids and others all to use the same write-in term 'Pagan' in order to maximise the numbers reported. Scandinavia Neopaganism in Scandinavia is dominated by Ásatrú (Forn Sed, Folketro). The Swedish AsatruSociety formed in 1994, and in Norway the Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost formed in 1996 and Foreningen Forn Sed formed in 1999. They have been recognized by the Norwegian government as a religious society, allowing them to perform "legally binding civil ceremonies" (i. e. marriages). In Denmark Forn Siðr also formed in 1999, recognized in 2003 Forklaring til Forn Siðr´s ansøgning om godkendelse som trossamfund. and in Sweden Nätverket Gimle formed in 2001, as an informal community for individual heathens. Nätverket Forn Sed formed in 2004, and has a network consisting of local groups (blotlag) from all over the Sweden. Continental Europe In German-speaking Europe, Germanic and Celtic neopaganism co-exist with Wicca and Neoshamanism. Neopaganism in Latin Europe (France, Italy, Spain) focusses on Neo-Druidism and Esotericism based on megalith culture besides some Germanic neopagan groups in areas historically affected by Germanic migrations (Lombardy). Neopaganism in Eastern Europe and parts of Northern Europe is dominated by Baltic and Slavic movements, rising to visibility after the fall of the Soviet Union. Since the 1990s, there have been organized Hellenic groups practising in Greece. See also Paganism Polytheism Hermeticism Animism Pantheism List of new religious movements Romanticism New Age Spiritualism References Further reading Bonewits, Isaac (2006) Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, Kensington Publishing Group ISBN 0-8065-2710-2. Clifton, Chas and Harvey, Graham (2004), The Paganism Reader, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415303521. Douglas E. Cowan (2004), Cyberhenge: Modern Pagans on the Internet, Routledge , ISBN 0415969115. Rabinovitch, Shelley and Lewis, James (2004), The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, Kensington Publishing Corporation, ISBN 9780806524078. External links CUUPS - Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans The Kith of Yggdrasil - UK-based Heathen website Mything Links - A meta page about myths and mythology around the world Neopagan.net - Neopagan author Isaac Bonewits's thoughts on the development of Neopaganism, modern druidry and public perceptions Pagan Federation A UK-based organization promoting awareness and acceptance of Paganism in Europe and the world. Pagan Association UK Promoting paganism in the Community. 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3,723 | Holy_Grail | How at the Castle of Corbin a Maiden Bare in the Sangreal and Foretold the Achievements of Galahad: illustration by Arthur Rackham, 1917 According to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish, plate, or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess miraculous powers. The connection of Joseph of Arimathea with the Grail legend dates from Robert de Boron's Joseph d'Arimathie (late 12th century) in which Joseph receives the Grail from an apparition of Jesus and sends it with his followers to Great Britain; building upon this theme, later writers recounted how Joseph used the Grail to catch Christ's blood while interring him and that in Britain he founded a line of guardians to keep it safe. The quest for the Holy Grail makes up an important segment of the Arthurian cycle, appearing first in works by Chrétien de Troyes. Loomis, Roger Sherman (1991). The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-02075-2 The legend may combine Christian lore with a Celtic myth of a cauldron endowed with special powers. The development of the Grail legend has been traced in detail by cultural historians: It is a legend which first came together in the form of written romances, deriving perhaps from some pre-Christian folklore hints, in the later 12th and early 13th centuries. The early Grail romances centered on Percival and were woven into the more general Arthurian fabric. Some of the Grail legend is interwoven with legends of the Holy Chalice. Origins Grail The Grail plays a different role everywhere it appears, but in most versions of the legend the hero must prove himself worthy to be in its presence. In the early tales, Percival's immaturity prevents him from fulfilling his destiny when he first encounters the Grail, and he must grow spiritually and mentally before he can locate it again. In later tellings the Grail is a symbol of God's grace, available to all but only fully realized by those who prepare themselves spiritually, like the saintly Galahad. Early forms There are two veins of thought concerning the Grail's origin. The first, championed by Roger Sherman Loomis, Alfred Nutt, and Jessie Weston, holds that it derived from early Celtic myth and folklore. Loomis traced a number of parallels between Medieval Welsh literature and Irish material and the Grail romances, including similarities between the Mabinogion'''s Bran the Blessed and the Arthurian Fisher King, and between Bran's life-restoring cauldron and the Grail. Other legends featured magical platters or dishes that symbolize otherworldly power or test the hero's worth. Sometimes the items generate a never-ending supply of food, sometimes they can raise the dead. Sometimes they decide who the next king should be, as only the true sovereign could hold them. On the other hand, some scholars believe the Grail began as a purely Christian symbol. For example, Joseph Goering of the University of Toronto has identified sources for Grail imagery in 12th century wall paintings from churches in the Catalan Pyrenees (now mostly removed to the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona), which present unique iconic images of the Virgin Mary holding a bowl that radiates tongues of fire, images that predate the first literary account by Chrétien de Troyes. Goering argues that they were the original inspiration for the Grail legend. Goering, Joseph (2005). The Virgin and the Grail: Origins of a Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10661-0. Rynor, Micah (October 20, 2005). "Holy Grail legend may be tied to paintings". www.news.utoronto.ca. Another recent theory holds that the earliest stories that cast the Grail in a Christian light were meant to promote the Roman Catholic sacrament of the Holy Communion. Although the practice of Holy Communion was first alluded to in the Christian Bible and defined by theologians in the first centuries AD, it was around the time of the appearance of the first Christianized Grail literature that the Roman church was beginning to add more ceremony and mysticism around this particular sacrament. Thus, the first Grail stories may have been celebrations of a renewal in this traditional sacrament. Barber, Richard (2004). The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01390-5. This theory has some basis in the fact that the Grail legends are a phenomenon of the Western church (see below). Most scholars today accept that both Christian and Celtic traditions contributed to the legend's development, though many of the early Celtic-based arguments are largely discredited (Loomis himself came to reject much of Weston and Nutt's work). The general view is that the central theme of the Grail is Christian, even when not explicitly religious, but that much of the setting and imagery of the early romances is drawn from Celtic material. The Holy Grail is also thought to have been a created through the wrong translation of another term. The original meaning was thought to have been the meal at the The Last Supper. The meal itself was pheasant and was mentioned in the New Testament as the Holy Pheasant or Quail. Thus the term "the Holy Quail" was initiated. In later years and translations of the Bible, the term was mis-translated as the "Holy Grail". Etymology The word grial, as it is earliest spelled, appears to be an Old French adaptation of the Latin gradalis, meaning a dish brought to the table in different stages of a meal. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, after the cycle of Grail romances was well established, late medieval writers came up with a false etymology for sangréal, an alternative name for "Holy Grail." In Old French, san graal or san gréal means "Holy Grail" and sang réal means "royal blood"; later writers played on this pun. Since then, "Sangreal" is sometimes employed to lend a medievalizing air in referring to the Holy Grail. This connection with royal blood bore fruit in a modern bestseller linking many historical conspiracy theories (see below). Beginnings in literature Chrétien de Troyes The Grail is first featured in Perceval, le Conte du Graal (The Story of the Grail) by Chrétien de Troyes, who claims he was working from a source book given to him by his patron, Count Philip of Flanders. In this incomplete poem, dated sometime between 1180 and 1191, the object has not yet acquired the implications of holiness it would have in later works. While dining in the magical abode of the Fisher King, Perceval witnesses a wondrous procession in which youths carry magnificent objects from one chamber to another, passing before him at each course of the meal. First comes a young man carrying a bleeding lance, then two boys carrying candelabras. Finally, a beautiful young girl emerges bearing an elaborately decorated graal, or "grail." Chrétien refers to his object not as "The Grail" but as un graal, showing the word was used, in its earliest literary context, as a common noun. For Chrétien the grail was a wide, somewhat deep dish or bowl, interesting because it contained not a pike, salmon or lamprey, as the audience may have expected for such a container, but a single Mass wafer which provided sustenance for the Fisher King’s crippled father. Perceval, who had been warned against talking too much, remains silent through all of this, and wakes up the next morning alone. He later learns that if he had asked the appropriate questions about what he saw, he would have healed his maimed host, much to his honor. The story of the Wounded King's mystical fasting is not unique; several saints were said to have lived without food besides communion, for instance Saint Catherine of Genoa. This may imply that Chrétien intended the Mass wafer to be the significant part of the ritual, and the Grail to be a mere prop. Robert de Boron Though Chrétien’s account is the earliest and most influential of all Grail texts, it was in the work of Robert de Boron that the Grail truly became the "Holy Grail" and assumed the form most familiar to modern readers. In his verse romance Joseph d’Arimathie, composed between 1191 and 1202, Robert tells the story of Joseph of Arimathea acquiring the chalice of the Last Supper to collect Christ’s blood upon His removal from the cross. Joseph is thrown in prison where Christ visits him and explains the mysteries of the blessed cup. Upon his release Joseph gathers his in-laws and other followers and travels to the west, and founds a dynasty of Grail keepers that eventually includes Perceval. Other early literature Parsifal before the Castle of the Grail - inspired by Richard Wagner's opera Parsifal - painted in Weimar Germany 1928 by Hans Werner Schmidt (1859-1950) After this point, Grail literature divides into two classes. The first concerns King Arthur’s knights visiting the Grail castle or questing after the object; the second concerns the Grail’s history in the time of Joseph of Arimathea. The nine most important works from the first group are: The Perceval of Chrétien de Troyes. Four continuations of Chrétien’s poem, by authors of differing vision and talent, designed to bring the story to a close. The German Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach, which adapted at least the holiness of Robert’s Grail into the framework of Chrétien’s story. The Didot Perceval, named after the manuscript’s former owner, and purportedly a prosification of Robert de Boron’s sequel to Joseph d’Arimathie. The Welsh romance Peredur, generally included in the Mabinogion, likely at least indirectly founded on Chrétien's poem but including very striking differences from it, preserving as it does elements of pre-Christian traditions such as the Celtic cult of the head. Perlesvaus, called the "least canonical" Grail romance because of its very different character. The German Diu Crône (The Crown), in which Gawain, rather than Perceval, achieves the Grail. The Lancelot section of the vast Vulgate Cycle, which introduces the new Grail hero, Galahad. The Queste del Saint Graal, another part of the Vulgate Cycle, concerning the adventures of Galahad and his achievement of the Grail. Of the second class there are: Robert de Boron’s Joseph d’Arimathie, The Estoire del Saint Graal, the first part of the Vulgate Cycle (but written after Lancelot and the Queste), based on Robert’s tale but expanding it greatly with many new details. Though all these works have their roots in Chrétien, several contain pieces of tradition not found in Chrétien which are possibly derived from earlier sources. Conceptions of the Grail Galahad, Bors, and Percival achieve the Grail The Grail was considered a bowl or dish when first described by Chrétien de Troyes. Other authors had their own ideas; Robert de Boron portrayed it as the vessel of the Last Supper, and Peredur had no Grail per se, presenting the hero instead with a platter containing his kinsman's bloody, severed head. In Parzival, Wolfram von Eschenbach, citing the authority of a certain (probably fictional) Kyot the Provençal, claimed the Grail was a stone that fell from Heaven (called lapsit exillis), and had been the sanctuary of the Neutral Angels who took neither side during Lucifer's rebellion. The authors of the Vulgate Cycle used the Grail as a symbol of divine grace. Galahad, illegitimate son of Lancelot and Elaine, the world's greatest knight and the Grail Bearer at the castle of Corbenic, is destined to achieve the Grail, his spiritual purity making him a greater warrior than even his illustrious father. Galahad and the interpretation of the Grail involving him were picked up in the 15th century by Sir Thomas Malory in Le Morte d'Arthur, and remain popular today. Various notions of the Holy Grail are currently widespread in Western society (especially British, French and American), popularized through numerous medieval and modern works (see below) and linked with the predominantly Anglo-French (but also with some German influence) cycle of stories about King Arthur and his knights. Because of this wide distribution, Americans and West Europeans sometimes assume that the Grail idea is universally well known. The stories of the Grail are totally absent from the folklore of those countries that were and are Eastern Orthodox (whether Arabs, Slavs, Romanians, or Greeks). This is true of all Arthurian myths, which were not well known east of Germany until the present-day Hollywood retellings. Nor has the Grail been as popular a subject in some predominantly Catholic areas, such as Spain and Latin America, as it has been elsewhere. The notions of the Grail, its importance, and prominence, are a set of ideas that are essentially local and particular, being linked with Catholic or formerly Catholic locales, Celtic mythology and Anglo-French medieval storytelling. The contemporary wide distribution of these ideas is due to the huge influence of the pop culture of countries where the Grail Myth was prominent in the Middle Ages. Later legend One of the supposed Holy Grails in Valencia, Spain Belief in the Grail and interest in its potential whereabouts has never ceased. Ownership has been attributed to various groups (including the Knights Templar, probably because they were at the peak of their influence around the time that Grail stories started circulating in the 12th and 13th centuries). There are cups claimed to be the Grail in several churches, for instance the Saint Mary of Valencia Cathedral, which contains an artifact, the Holy Chalice, supposedly taken by Saint Peter to Rome in the first century, and then to Huesca in Spain by Saint Lawrence in the 3rd century. According to legend the monastery of San Juan de la Peña, located at the south-west of Jaca, in the province of Huesca, Spain, protected the chalice of the Last Supper from the Islamic invaders of the Iberian Peninsula. Archaeologists say the artifact is a 1st century Middle Eastern stone vessel, possibly from Antioch, Syria (now Turkey); its history can be traced to the 11th century, and it presently rests atop an ornate stem and base, made in the Medieval era of alabaster, gold, and gemstones. It was the official papal chalice for many popes, and has been used by many others, most recently by Pope Benedict XVI, on July 9, 2006. Glatz, Carol (July 10, 2006). "At Mass in Valencia, pope uses what tradition says is Holy Grail". Catholic News. The emerald chalice at Genoa, which was obtained during the Crusades at Caesarea Maritima at great cost, has been less championed as the Holy Grail since an accident on the road, while it was being returned from Paris after the fall of Napoleon, revealed that the emerald was green glass. In Wolfram von Eschenbach's telling, the Grail was kept safe at the castle of Munsalvaesche (mons salvationis), entrusted to Titurel, the first Grail King. Some, not least the monks of Montserrat, have identified the castle with the real sanctuary of Montserrat in Catalonia, Spain. Other stories claim that the Grail is buried beneath Rosslyn Chapel or lies deep in the spring at Glastonbury Tor. Still other stories claim that a secret line of hereditary protectors keep the Grail, or that it was hidden by the Templars in Oak Island, Nova Scotia's famous "Money Pit", while local folklore in Accokeek, Maryland says that it was brought to the town by a closeted priest aboard Captain John Smith's ship. Turn of the century accounts state that Irish partisans of the Clan Dhuir (O'Dwyer, Dwyer) transported the Grail to the United States during the 19th Century and the Grail was kept by their descendents in secrecy in a small abbey in the upper-Northwest (now believed to be Southern Minnesota). Wagner, Wilhelm, Romance and Epics of Our Northern Ancestors, Norse, Celt and Teuton, Norroena Society Publisher, New York, 1906. Modern interpretations Modern retellings The Damsel of the Sanct Grael by Dante Gabriel Rossetti The story of the Grail and of the quest to find it became increasingly popular in the nineteenth century, referred to in literature such as Alfred Tennyson's Arthurian cycle the Idylls of the King. The combination of hushed reverence, chromatic harmonies and sexualized imagery in Richard Wagner's late opera Parsifal gave new significance to the grail theme, for the first time associating the grail – now periodically producing blood – directly with female fertility. Donington, Robert (1963). Wagner's "Ring" and its Symbols: the Music and the Myth. Faber The high seriousness of the subject was also epitomized in Dante Gabriel Rossetti's painting (illustrated), in which a woman modelled by Jane Morris holds the Grail with one hand, while adopting a gesture of blessing with the other. Other artists, including George Frederic Watts and William Dyce also portrayed grail subjects. The Grail later turned up in movies; it debuted in a silent Parsifal. In The Light of Faith (1922), Lon Chaney attempted to steal it, for the finest of reasons. The Silver Chalice, a novel about the Grail by Thomas B. Costain was made into a 1954 movie (in which Paul Newman debuted), that is considered notably bad by several critics, including Newman himself. Lancelot du Lac (1974) is Robert Bresson's gritty retelling. In vivid contrast, Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) (adapted in 2004 as the stage production Spamalot) deflated all pseudo-Arthurian posturings. Excalibur attempted to restore a more traditional heroic representation of an Arthurian tale, in which the Grail is revealed as a mystical means to revitalise Arthur himself, and of the barren land to which his depressive sickness is connected. Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and The Fisher King place the quest in modern settings, one a modern-day treasure hunt, the other robustly self-parodying. The Grail has been used as a theme in fantasy, historical fiction and science fiction; a quest for the Grail appears in Bernard Cornwell's series of books The Grail Quest, set during The Hundred Years War. Michael Moorcock's fantasy novel The War Hound and the World's Pain depicts a supernatural Grail quest set in the era of the Thirty Years' War, and science fiction has taken the Quest into interstellar space, figuratively in Samuel R. Delany's 1968 novel Nova, and literally on the television shows Babylon 5 and Stargate SG-1 (as the "Sangreal"). Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon has the grail as one of four objects symbolizing the four Elements: the Grail itself (water), the sword Excalibur (fire), a dish (earth), and a spear or wand (air). The grail features heavily in the novels of Peter David's Knight trilogy, which depict King Arthur reappearing in modern-day New York City, in particular the second and third novels, One Knight Only and Fall of Knight. The grail is central in many modern Arthurian works, including Charles Williams collections of poems about Taliessin, Taliessin Through Logres and Region of the Summer Stars, and in feminist author Rosalind Miles' Child of the Holy Grail. The Grail also features heavily in Umberto Eco's 2000 novel Baudolino. In King and Emperor, the final volume of Harry Harrison's 1990s trilogy The Hammer and the Cross, the name "grail" is explained to be a corruption of "graduale", Latin for ladder, and the Holy Grail is discovered, being the ladder which was used to remove Jesus' body from the cross and on which the body was carried away. The story further "reveals" that Jesus survived the crucification, and went on to live a life and father children, as well as writing a repressed Gospel. Non-fiction The Grail has also been treated in works of non-fiction, generally of dubious historical value, which frequently connect it to conspiracy theories and esoteric traditions. According to the notorious Italian traditionalist philosopher Julius Evola (1898-1974), the Holy Grail mythos is interwoven with an initiatory "Hyperborean mystery" of the knightly or warrior-Kshatriya class and represents "a symbolic expression of hope and of the will of specific ruling classes in the Middle Ages (namely, Ghibellines), who wanted to reorganize and reunite the entire Western world as it was at that time into a Holy Empire, that is, one based on a transcendental, spiritual basis." Hansen, H. T. The Mystery of the Grail, p. vii. In The Sign and the Seal, Graham Hancock asserts that the Grail story is a coded description of the stone tablets stored in the Ark of the Covenant. For the authors of Holy Blood, Holy Grail, who assert that their research ultimately reveals that Jesus may not have died on the cross, but lived to wed Mary Magdalene and father children whose Merovingian lineage continues today, the Grail is a mere sideshow: they say it is a reference to Mary Magdalene as the receptacle of Jesus' bloodline. Baigent, Michael; Leigh, Richard; Lincoln, Henry (1983). Holy Blood, Holy Grail. New York: Dell. ISBN 0-440-13648-2 Juliette Wood, Folklore, Vol. 111, No. 2. (Oct., 2000), pp. 169-190. "The Holy Grail: From Romance Motif to Modern Genre" Such works have been the inspiration for a number of popular modern fiction novels. The best known is Dan Brown's bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code, which, like Holy Blood, Holy Grail, is based on the idea that the real Grail is not a cup but the womb and later the earthly remains of Mary Magdalene (again cast as Jesus' wife), plus a set of ancient documents telling the "true" story of Jesus, his teachings and descendants. In Brown's novel, it is hinted that Jesus was merely a mortal man with strong ideals, and that the Grail was long buried beneath Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland, but that in recent decades its guardians had it relocated to a secret chamber embedded in the floor beneath the Inverted Pyramid near the Louvre Museum. The latter location, like Rosslyn Chapel, has never been mentioned in real Grail lore. Yet such was the public interest in this fictionalized Grail that for a while, the museum roped off the exact location mentioned by Brown, lest visitors inflict any damage in a more-or-less serious attempt to access the supposed hidden chamber. See also Cornucopia, sampo and the Cup of Jamshid are other mythical vessels with magical powers. Relics attributed to Jesus References External links The Holy Grail at the Camelot Project The Holy Grail at the Catholic Encyclopedia'' The Holy Grail today in Valencia Cathedral The Holy Grail, an episode of In Our Time (BBC Radio 4), a 45 minute discussion is available for listening at the page. XVth century Old French Estoire del saint Graal manuscript BNF fr. 113 Bibliothèque Nationale de France, selection of illuminated folios, Modern French Translation, Commentaries. | Holy_Grail |@lemmatized castle:6 corbin:1 maiden:1 bare:1 sangreal:3 foretell:1 achievement:2 galahad:7 illustration:1 arthur:6 rackham:1 accord:4 christian:10 mythology:2 holy:36 grail:117 dish:6 plate:1 cup:5 use:8 jesus:10 last:6 supper:5 say:6 possess:1 miraculous:1 power:4 connection:2 joseph:13 arimathea:3 legend:15 date:2 robert:11 de:15 boron:6 arimathie:4 late:7 century:14 receive:1 apparition:1 send:1 follower:2 great:4 britain:2 build:1 upon:3 theme:4 writer:3 recount:1 catch:1 christ:3 blood:8 inter:1 found:3 line:2 guardian:2 keep:4 safe:2 quest:7 make:4 important:2 segment:1 arthurian:8 cycle:8 appear:4 first:18 work:11 chrétien:15 troyes:6 loomis:4 roger:2 sherman:2 celtic:8 myth:6 symbol:5 princeton:1 isbn:4 may:6 combine:1 lore:2 cauldron:2 endow:1 special:1 development:2 trace:3 detail:2 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3,724 | Anatolia | Composite satellite image of Anatolia. Anatolia (, , 'Asia Minor') or Asia Minor is a region of Western Asia, comprising most of the modern Republic of Turkey. It is a geographic region bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Caucasus to the northeast, the Iranian plateau to the southeast, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. Name The name Anatolia comes from the Greek (), the "East" (lit. 'sunrise'). The precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring only to the Ionian colonies on the Asia Minor coast. In the later Roman (Byzantine) Empire, Anatolicon was a theme covering the central Anatolian plateau. "On the First Thema, Called Anatolikon. This theme is called Anatolikon, not because it is above and in the direction of the east where the sun rises, but because it lies East of Byzantium and Europe." Constantine VII Porphyogenitus, De Thematibus, ed. A. Pertusi. Vatican: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1952, pp. 59–61. Physical geography Relief map of Turkey The Anatolian peninsula is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean Sea (itself an arm of the Mediterranean) to the west, and the bulk of the Asian mainland to the east. Anatolia's terrain is structurally complex. A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the Kızıl River, the coastal plains of Çukurova, and the valley floors of the Gediz River and the Büyük Menderes River, and some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around Tuz Gölü (Salt Lake) and Konya Ovası (Konya Basin). Black Sea region A village in the mountains of Giresun province, northern Anatolia The Black Sea region has a steep, rocky coast with rivers that cascade through the gorges of the coastal ranges. The North Anatolian mountains are an interrupted chain of folded highlands that generally parallel the Black Sea coast. A few larger rivers, those cutting back through the Pontic Mountains (), have tributaries that flow in broad, elevated basins. Rivers flow from the mountains toward the Black Sea trough in lengthy valleys. Access inland from the coast is limited to a few narrow valleys because mountain ridges, with elevations of 1,525 to 1,800 meters (5,000 to 5,900 ft) in the west and 3,000 to 4,000 meters (10,000 to 13,000 ft) in the east in Kaçkar Mountains, form an almost unbroken wall separating the coast from the interior. The higher slopes facing southwest tend to be densely wet. Because of these natural conditions, the Black Sea coast historically has been isolated from Anatolia. The southern slopes—facing the Anatolian Plateau—are mostly unwooded, but the northern slopes contain dense growths of both deciduous and evergreen trees. Eastern Anatolia Aras river in the vicinity of Julfa-Iran, eastern Anatolia Eastern Anatolia, where the Pontus and Taurus mountain ranges converge, is rugged country with higher elevations, a more severe climate, and greater precipitation than are found on the Anatolian Plateau. The region is known as the Anti-Taurus, and the average elevation of its peaks exceeds 3,000 m. Mount Ararat, at 5,137 meters (16,854 ft) the highest point in Turkey, is located in the Anti-Taurus. Lake Van is situated in the mountains at an elevation of 1,546 meters (5,072 ft). The headwaters of three major rivers arise in the Anti-Taurus: the east-flowing Aras River, which empties into the Caspian Sea; the south-flowing Euphrates and Tigris join in Iraq before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Several small streams that empty into the Black Sea or landlocked Lake Van also originate in these mountains. Southeast Anatolia lies south of the Anti-Taurus Mountains. It is a region of rolling hills and a broad plateau surface that extends into Syria. Elevations decrease gradually, from about 800 meters (2,600 ft) in the north to about 500 meters (1,600 ft) in the south. Traditionally, wheat and barley were the main crops of the region, but the inauguration of major new irrigation projects in the 1980s has led to greater agricultural diversity and development. Mediterranean region Scene from southern Anatolia The narrow coastal plains of the Mediterranean region, separated from the Anatolian plateau by the Taurus Mountains, which reach elevations of 2,000 to 2,750 meters (6,600 to 9,000 ft), are cultivated intensively. Fertile soils and a warm climate make the Mediterranean coast ideal for growing citrus fruits, grapes, figs, bananas, various vegetables, barley, wheat, and, in irrigated areas, rice and cotton. The Çukurova in the east is a plain that is the most developed agricultural area of the Mediterranean region. Anatolian plateau Scene from Central Anatolia near Ankara Stretching inland from the Aegean coastal plain, Central Anatolia occupies the area between the two zones of the folded mountains, extending east to the point where the two ranges converge. The plateau-like, semiarid highlands of Anatolia are considered the heartland of the country. The region varies in elevation from 600 to 1,200 meters (2,000 to 4,000 ft) from west to east. The two largest basins on the plateau are the Konya Ovası and the basin occupied by the large salt lake, Tuz Gölü. Both basins are characterized by inland drainage. Wooded areas are confined to the northwest and northeast of the plateau. The Taurus Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the interior of Turkey a continental climate with distinct seasons. The Anatolian Plateau is much more subject to extremes than are the coastal areas. Winters on the plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of -30 °C to -40 °C (-22 °F to -40 °F) can occur in the mountainous areas in the east, and snow may lie on the ground 120 days of the year. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1 °C (34 °F). Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F). Annual precipitation averages about 400 mm (15.7 inches), with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya Ovası and the Malatya Ovası, where annual rainfall frequently is less than 300 mm (11.8 inches). May is generally the driest month and July and August are the wettest. Climate Anatolia has a varied range of climates. This is partly due to the reason that Anatolia covers such a vast expanse of land. In fact, it goes all the way into southwestern Russia, where it is covered by temperate forests. Ecoregions Anatolia's diverse topography and climate has fostered a similar diversity of plant and animal communities. The mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia, with its humid and mild climate, is home to temperate broadleaf, mixed, and coniferous forests. The central and eastern plateau, with its drier continental climate, is home to deciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southern Anatolia, which have a Mediterranean climate, are home to Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions. Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests: These temperate broadleaf and mixed forests extend across northern Anatolia, lying between the mountains of northern Anatolia and the Black Sea. They include the enclaves of temperate rainforest lying along the southeastern coast of the Black Sea in eastern Turkey and Georgia. "Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests" WWF scientific report. Accessed May 25 2008. Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests: These forests occupy the mountains of northern Anatolia, running east and west between the coastal Euxine-Colchic forests and the drier, continental climate forests of central and eastern Anatolia. "Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests" WWF scientific report. Accessed May 25 2008. Central Anatolian deciduous forests: These forests of deciduous oaks and evergreen pines cover the plateau of central Anatolia. "Central Anatolian deciduous forests" National Geographic ecoregion profile. Accessed May 25, 2008 Central Anatolian steppe: These dry grasslands cover the drier valleys and surround the saline lakes of central Anatolia, and include halophytic (salt tolerant) plant communities. "Central Anatolian steppe" WWF scientific Report. Accessed May 25 2008 Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests: This ecoregion occupies the plateau of eastern Anatolia. The drier and more continental climate is home to steppe-forests dominated by deciduous oaks, with areas of shrubland, montane forest, and valley forest. "Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests" WWF scientific report. Accessed May 25 2008. Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests: These forests occupy the western, Mediterranean-climate portion of the Anatolian plateau. Pine forests and mixed pine and oak woodlands and shrublands are predominant. "Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests" WWF scientific report. Accessed May 25 2008 Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests: These Mediterranean-climate forests occupy the coastal lowlands and valleys of western Anatolia bordering the Aegean Sea. The ecoregion is home to forests of Turkish Pine (Pinus brutia), oak forests and woodlands, and maquis shrubland of Turkish Pine and evergreen sclerophyllous trees and shrubs, including Olive (Olea europaea), Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo), Arbutus andrachne, Kermes Oak (Quercus coccifera), and Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis). Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests" WWF scientific report. Accessed May 25 2008 Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests: These mountain forests occupy the Mediterranean-climate Taurus Mountains of southern Anatolia. Conifer forests are predominant, chiefly Anatolian black pine (Pinus nigra), Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani), Taurus fir (Abies cilicica), and juniper (Juniperus foetidissima and J. excelsa). Broadleaf trees include oaks, hornbeam, and maples. "Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests" WWF scientific report. Accessed May 25 2008 Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests: This ecoregion occupies the coastal strip of southern Anatolia, between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. Plant communities include broadleaf sclerophyllous maquis shrublands, forests of Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis) and Turkish Pine (Pinus brutia), and dry oak (Quercus spp.) woodlands and steppes. "SEastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests" WWF scientific report. Accessed May 25, 2008 History Eastern Anatolia contains the oldest monumental structures in the world. For example, the monumental structures at Göbekli Tepe were built by hunters and gatherers, a thousand years before the development of agriculture. Eastern Anatolia is also a hearth region for the Neolithic revolution, one of the earliest areas in which humans domesticated plants and animals. Neolithic sites such as Çatalhöyük, Çayönü, Nevali Cori, and Hacilar represent the world's oldest known agricultural villages. The earliest historical records of Anatolia are from the Akkadian Empire under Sargon in the 24th century BC. The region was famous for exporting various raw materials. The Assyrian Empire claimed the resources, notably silver. One of the numerous Assyrian cuneiform records found in Anatolia at Kanesh uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. Unlike the Akkadians and the Assyrians, whose Anatolian possessions were peripheral to their core lands in Mesopotamia, the Hittites were centered at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, known as the "language of Nesa" at the time, as they expanded from Nesa originally, and conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over a Hurrian speaking population. During the Late Bronze Age, they built an empire, the Hittite New Kingdom, which reached its height in the 14th century BC. The empire included a large part of Anatolia, north-western Syria, and upper Mesopotamia. After 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek city states were established in Anatolia, mainly on or close to the coast. In the 6th century BC most of Anatolia was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. In the 4th century BC Alexander the Great conquered the peninsula. Two hundred years later western and central Anatolia came under Roman control, but it continued to be strongly influenced by Hellenistic culture. In the first century BC the Armenians established the Armenian kingdom under Tigran who reigned throughout much of the region situated between the Caspian, Black and Mediterranean seas. Asia Minor is known as the birthplace of coinage as a medium of exchange (some time in the 7th century BC), which flourished during the Greek and Roman eras. Asia Minor Coins - an index of Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia) After the division of the Roman Empire much of western and central Anatolia remained under the control of the Christian Byzantine Empire. Byzantine control was challenged by the Arabs in the seventh century, marking the beginning of Anatolia's slow transition to a Muslim majority population. The Turkish language was introduced gradually with the conquest of Anatolia by Turkic peoples from the 11th century AD. By the 15th century almost the whole peninsula was controlled by the Ottoman Empire, which was challenged by various dynasties based in Persia in the eastern part of Anatolia. Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century (see Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). During World War I, the Armenian genocide and the Assyrian genocide almost eliminated the Armenian and Assyrian population in Anatolia. The entire Greek population was also eliminated in the post-WW1 period: some fled with the defeated Greek army (see Turkish War of Independence), but most were forced out during the 1922 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. As the Ottoman Empire fragmented during the Balkan Wars much of the non-Christian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims, flocked to Anatolia and were settled in various locations. Justin McCarthy,"Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922",1996,ISBN 0878500944 Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, most of Anatolia has been part of Turkey, its inhabitants mainly Turks (a generic and very general term) and Kurds, among other minorities (see demographics of Turkey and history of Turkey). See also Anadolu University Anatolianism Anatolian Turkish Beyliks 1268 Cilicia earthquake Anatolian Bulgarians Ancient Greece Assyria Urartu Assyrian diaspora Byzantine Empire Caria Çatalhöyük Cilicia Empire of Trebizond Etruscans History of Anatolia Hittites Istanbul Lazs Lycia Lydia Ottoman Empire Pamphylia Phrygia Pontus Saint Anatolia, Roman Catholic Saint Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm Troy Turkey Turkish Riviera Zaza people References | Anatolia |@lemmatized composite:1 satellite:1 image:1 anatolia:50 asia:7 minor:6 region:15 western:9 comprise:1 modern:1 republic:2 turkey:13 geographic:2 bound:2 black:13 sea:20 north:6 caucasus:1 northeast:2 iranian:1 plateau:17 southeast:2 mediterranean:18 south:5 aegean:6 west:6 name:2 come:2 greek:6 east:12 lit:1 sunrise:1 precise:1 reference:2 term:2 vary:1 time:3 perhaps:1 originally:2 refer:1 ionian:1 colony:1 coast:11 late:3 roman:6 byzantine:4 empire:15 anatolicon:1 theme:2 cover:6 central:15 anatolian:25 first:2 thema:1 call:2 anatolikon:2 direction:1 sun:1 rise:2 lie:5 byzantium:1 europe:1 constantine:1 vii:1 porphyogenitus:1 de:1 thematibus:1 ed:1 pertusi:1 vatican:1 biblioteca:1 apostolica:1 vaticana:1 pp:1 physical:1 geography:1 relief:1 map:1 peninsula:3 arm:1 bulk:1 asian:1 mainland:1 terrain:2 structurally:1 complex:1 massif:1 compose:1 uplifted:1 block:1 downfolded:1 trough:2 recent:1 deposit:1 give:2 appearance:1 rough:1 wedge:1 two:5 fold:1 mountain:19 range:5 converge:3 true:1 lowland:2 confine:3 narrow:3 coastal:10 strip:2 along:2 flat:1 gently:1 sloping:1 land:3 rare:1 largely:1 delta:1 kızıl:1 river:9 plain:6 çukurova:2 valley:6 floor:1 gediz:1 büyük:1 menderes:1 interior:3 high:4 mainly:4 around:1 tuz:2 gölü:2 salt:3 lake:5 konya:4 ovası:4 basin:5 village:2 giresun:1 province:1 northern:8 steep:1 rocky:1 cascade:1 gorge:1 interrupted:1 chain:1 folded:2 highland:2 generally:2 parallel:1 large:4 cut:1 back:1 pontic:1 tributary:1 flow:4 broad:2 elevated:1 toward:1 lengthy:1 access:10 inland:4 limit:1 ridge:1 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location:1 justin:1 mccarthy:1 death:1 exile:1 cleansing:1 isbn:1 since:1 foundation:1 inhabitant:1 turk:1 generic:1 general:1 kurd:1 among:1 minority:1 demographic:1 anadolu:1 university:1 anatolianism:1 beyliks:1 cilicia:2 earthquake:1 bulgarians:1 assyria:1 urartu:1 diaspora:1 caria:1 trebizond:1 etruscan:1 istanbul:1 lazs:1 lycia:1 lydia:1 pamphylia:1 phrygia:1 saint:2 catholic:1 seljuk:1 sultanate:1 rûm:1 troy:1 riviera:1 zaza:1 |@bigram iranian_plateau:1 aegean_sea:3 anatolian_plateau:7 rough_terrain:1 coastal_plain:4 steep_rocky:1 elevation_meter:4 meter_ft:8 caspian_sea:1 persian_gulf:1 wheat_barley:1 fertile_soil:1 citrus_fruit:1 barley_wheat:1 inland_drainage:1 annual_precipitation:1 annual_rainfall:1 vast_expanse:1 temperate_broadleaf:2 broadleaf_mixed:2 coniferous_forest:1 deciduous_forest:11 forest_woodland:2 woodland_scrub:1 forest_wwf:7 conifer_deciduous:6 forest_ecoregion:2 montane_forest:1 pine_oak:1 coastal_lowland:1 pine_pinus:4 tree_shrub:1 olea_europaea:1 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3,725 | Folklore_of_the_United_States | The folklore of the United States, or American folklore, is one of the folk traditions which has evolved on the North American continent since Europeans arrived in the 16th century. While it contains much in the way of Native American tradition, it should not be confused with the tribal beliefs of any community of native people. American folklore covers the same broad categories as the folklore of other nations. It encompasses myths, jokes, riddles, legends, cautionary tales, and many other forms of storytelling. Founding myths The founding of the United States is often surrounded by legends and tall tales. Many stories have developed since the founding long ago to become a part of America's folklore and cultural awareness, and non-native American folklore especially includes any narrative which has contributed to the shaping of American values and belief systems. These narratives may be true and may be false; the veracity of the stories is not a determining factor. Three so-called "founding myths" (or national myths) include: Christopher Columbus, the Pilgrims, and George Washington. Christopher Columbus Though Christopher Columbus did not participate in the founding of the American government, he has been interpreted as a "founder" of the American nation, in that it is descended from the European immigrants who would not have moved to the New World if Columbus had not found where it was. Indeed, one particularly pervasive story is that Columbus discovered America, as it is far easier to elevate a man to heroic status than to reflect the reality among complex series of waves of immigrants from multiple conditions and walks of life. According to some stories, Columbus began his journey across the Atlantic Ocean on Friday, August 3, 1492, in order to prove that the world was round, because he expected to reach the Far East by sailing west. Like most legendary "founders" Columbus' mission is then rendered entirely noble, intellectual and rational. He helped dispel the inaccurate beliefs of his time, and, so, it is concluded, the nation he founded must be a nation of intellect and logic. Washington Irving is the first citation for this belief. The 20th century, however, saw a decrease in the prestige of Columbus' legend as skepticism about Europeans' activities in the New World and elsewhere has become more prevalent. Pilgrims The holiday of Thanksgiving is said to have begun with the Pilgrims in 1621. They had come to America to escape religious persecution, but then nearly starved to death due to the unfamiliar land. Some friendly Native Americans (including Squanto) helped the Pilgrims survive through the first winter. The perseverance of the Pilgrims is celebrated during the annual Thanksgiving festival. As a legend, this story relates to the founding of the culture. The Pilgrims' dedication to their cause in spite of the hardships renders the foundation of the country, and therefore the country itself, seem stronger and more resilient. It is also a fertility festival, similar in some ways to other harvest-time celebrations in other cultures, celebrating the nourishment that comes from the earth. It was also said that the Pilgrims were the first colony in the New World, but before that, there were some French and Spanish colonies, as well as other English colonies. Some English colonies in America that predated Plymouth Rock include the famous "Lost Colony" or Roanoke settlement and the Jamestown Settlement, which was successful and predated the Pilgrims' settlement by 20 years. George Washington George Washington, the country's first president, is often said to be the founder of the United States. Since his death, Washington has been "mythologized", with many anecdotes and stories about his life told, in general, to present the founder of the modern American nation as a just and wise cultural hero. For example, it is said that Washington, as a young child, chopped down his father's cherry tree. His angry father confronted the young Washington, who proclaimed "I can not tell a lie" and admitted to the transgression, thus illuminating his honesty. Parson Mason Locke Weems is the first citation of the legend, in his 1850 book, The Life of George Washington: With Curious Anecdotes, Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young Countrymen. Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) is also known to have spread the story while lecturing, personalizing it by adding "I have a higher and greater standard of principle. Washington could not lie. I can lie but I won't." Stories of national value often have similar themes – that the founder of the nation, Deucalion, George Washington, Abraham – was a wise, virtuous and brave man. American tall folk and their tall tales Apocryphal people Paul Bunyan Casey Jones Iron John John the Conqueror John Henry Roy Hobbs Johnny Kaw Joe Magarac Molly Pitcher Pecos Bill Stagger Lee Henry "Ole Pete" Peterson Historical men Benjamin Franklin Cowboy Morgan Evans Patrick Henry John Hancock Paul Revere "Johnny Appleseed" Chapman Simon Kenton The Leatherman Lewis & Clark Davy Crockett Daniel Boone Edgar Allan Poe Abraham Lincoln Charles Goodnight Wyatt Earp Doc Holliday James Butler "Wild Bill" Hickok William Frederick "Buffalo Bill" Cody Kit Carson Joaquin Murrieta Robert E. Lee Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson Sitting Bull Jesse James Billy the Kid Pancho Villa Casey Jones Mark Twain Emperor Norton I Chuck Norris Mike Fink Babe Ruth Robert Johnson Joe Hill Jonathan Moulton John Dillinger Pretty Boy Floyd Baby Face Nelson Woody Guthrie Jackie Robinson James Dean The Rat Pack Elvis Presley Johnny Cash John F. Kennedy Ranald MacDonald Muhammad Ali Martin Luther King, Jr. Evel Knievel Michael Jordan Jefferson Davis Paul Bear Bryant Historical women Boxcar Betty Calamity Jane Harriet Tubman La Llorona Lizzie Borden Mary Mallon ("Typhoid Mary") Marie Laveau Maria Monk Mary Harris "Mother" Jones Annie Oakley Bonnie Parker Betsy Ross Rosa Parks Marilyn Monroe Emma Goldman Native Americans Hiawatha Tecumseh Pocahontas Squanto Geronimo Sacagawea Sitting Bull Crazy Horse Legendary and folkloric creatures Bigfoot Hodag Chupacabra La Llorona Skunk Ape Mothman Fur-bearing trout Greys Rabbit's foot Jackalope Squonk Babe the Blue Ox Nain Rouge Jersey Devil Locations and Landmarks Plymouth Rock Independence Hall Liberty Bell White House Mississippi River Old West Ellis Island Statue of Liberty Route 66 Pearl Harbor Disneyland Graceland Area 51 Vietnam War Memorial World Trade Center Grand Canyon Tombstone, Arizona Deadwood, South Dakota Nome, Alaska San Diego, California San Francisco, California New York City, New York Spindletop Hollywood Cultural archetypes and icons Columbia Cowboys Entrepreneurs & Robber barons Gangsters and gangs Hackers Hippies Hillbillies Juvenile delinquents Motorcycle gangs like the Hells Angels Pioneers Prospectors Quarterbacks Rednecks Uncle Sam Amish Literature and the arts Horatio Alger, Jr. Little House on the Prairie Stephen Vincent Benét Washington Irving Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Robert Johnson Edgar Allan Poe Norman Rockwell Mark Twain Parson Weems Uncle Remus James Fenimore Cooper Nathaniel Hawthorne Beat Generation Stephen King Ernest Hemingway H. P. Lovecraft Jack London History Scalping California Gold Rush Cowboys and Indians Ellis Island Hatfields and McCoys Indian captivity narratives Noble savage Norumbega Pony Express Salem witch trials Wagon train Contemporary folklore Conspiracy theory Faxlore "Legend tripping" List of character-based movie franchises Urban legend Skull and Bones Superhero Tall Tales Songs and games jump rope rhymes stickball or sandlot ball counting-out game "Oh My Darling, Clementine" References Further reading —the evolution of the Elephant Riddle that entered U.S. folklore in California in 1963 See also American Dream John C. Campbell Folk School offers courses in U.S. folklore. The Frontier External links American Folklore Society AmericanFolklore.net | Folklore_of_the_United_States |@lemmatized folklore:10 united:3 state:3 american:14 one:2 folk:3 tradition:2 evolve:1 north:1 continent:1 since:3 european:3 arrive:1 century:2 contain:1 much:1 way:2 native:5 confuse:1 tribal:1 belief:4 community:1 people:2 cover:1 broad:1 category:1 nation:6 encompass:1 myth:4 joke:1 riddle:2 legend:7 cautionary:1 tale:4 many:3 form:1 storytelling:1 found:3 founding:4 often:3 surround:1 tall:4 story:8 develop:1 long:1 ago:1 become:2 part:1 america:4 cultural:3 awareness:1 non:1 especially:1 include:4 narrative:3 contribute:1 shaping:1 value:2 system:1 may:2 true:1 false:1 veracity:1 determine:1 factor:1 three:1 call:1 national:2 christopher:3 columbus:8 pilgrim:7 george:5 washington:11 though:1 participate:1 government:1 interpret:1 founder:5 descend:1 immigrant:2 would:1 move:1 new:5 world:5 find:1 indeed:1 particularly:1 pervasive:1 discover:1 far:3 easy:1 elevate:1 man:2 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3,726 | History_of_London | London, the capital of the United Kingdom, has a recorded history that goes back over 2,000 years. During this time, it has grown to become one of the most significant financial and cultural capitals of the world. It has experienced plague, devastating fire, civil war, aerial bombardment and terrorist attacks. See City of London for details on the historic core of London. Etymology The etymology of London is uncertain. There have been many theories advanced over the centuries for the origin of the name: most can be dismissed as fanciful on linguistic or historical grounds, while a few have some measure of academic plausibility. None have any direct evidence. Legendary foundations and prehistoric London According to the legendary Historia Regum Britanniae, of Geoffrey of Monmouth, London was founded by Brutus of Troy after he defeated the incumbent giants Gog and Magog and was known as , (Latin for New Troy), which, according to a pseudo-etymology, was corrupted to Trinovantum. Trinovantes were the Iron Age tribe who inhabited the area prior to the Romans. Geoffrey provides prehistoric London with a rich array of legendary kings, such as King Lud who, he claims, renamed the town CaerLudein, from which London was derived, and was buried at Ludgate. However, despite intensive excavations, archaeologists have found no evidence of a prehistoric major settlement in the area. There have been scattered prehistoric finds, evidence of farming, burial and traces of habitation, but nothing more substantial. It is now considered unlikely that a pre-Roman city existed, but as some of the Roman city remains unexcavated, it is still just possible that some settlement may have yet to be discovered. During prehistoric times, London was most likely a rural area with scattered settlement. Rich finds such as the Battersea Shield, found in the Thames near Chelsea, suggest the area was important; there may have been important settlements at Egham and Brentford, and there was a hillfort at Uppall, but no city in the area of the Roman London, the present day City of London. Numerous finds Channel4.com Bronze-Age Thames have been made of spear heads and weaponry from the Bronze and Iron ages near the banks of the Thames in the London area, many of which had clearly been used in battle. This suggests that the Thames was an important tribal boundary. In 2002 a dig for the Channel 4 series Time Team unearthed a series of timbers driven vertically into the ground on the south bank of the Thames next to the SIS Building in Vauxhall which suggests the presence of a bridge or jetty 3,000 years ago Channel4 Time Team . Roman London Carausius coin from Londinium mint. Londinium was established as a civilian town by the Romans about seven years after the invasion of AD 43. Early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, roughly equivalent to the size of Hyde Park. In around AD 60, it was destroyed by the Iceni led by their queen Boudica. However, the city was quickly rebuilt as a planned Roman town and recovered after perhaps 10 years, the city growing rapidly over the following decades. During the 2nd century Londinium was at its height and replaced Colchester as the capital of Roman Britain (Britannia). Its population was around 60,000 inhabitants. It boasted major public buildings, including the largest basilica north of the Alps, temples, bath houses, amphitheatre and a large fort for the city garrison. Political instability and recession from the 3rd century onwards, however, led to a slow decline. At some time between 190 and 225 AD the Romans built the defensive London Wall - around the landward side of the city. The wall was about 3 kilometres (2 miles) long, 6 metres (20 ft) high, and 2.5 metres (8 ft) thick. In the late 3rd century, Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates. This led, from around 255 onwards, to the construction of an additional riverside wall. The wall would survive for another 1,600 years and define London's perimeters for centuries to come. Six of the traditional seven city gates of London are of Roman origin, namely: Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate (Moorgate is the exception, being of medieval origin). By the 5th century the Roman Empire was in rapid decline, and in 410 AD the Roman occupation of Britain came to an end. Following this, the Roman city also went into rapid decline and by the end of the century was practically abandoned. Anglo-Saxon London Following the virtual abandonment of the Roman city, the area's strategic location on the River Thames meant that the site was not deserted for long. From the 6th century, Anglo-Saxons began to inhabit the area. Although early Anglo-Saxon settlement avoided the area immediately around Londinium, there was occupation on a small scale of much of the hinterland on both sides of the river. There is no contemporary literary evidence, but the area must for some time have been an active frontier between Saxons and Britons. From the mid-6th century, the London area was incorporated into the East Saxons kingdom, which extended as far west as St Albans and included all of later Middlesex, and probably Surrey, too, for a time. In 604 Saeberht of the East Saxons converted to Christianity and London received Mellitus, its first post-Roman bishop. At this time Essex owed allegiance to the Bretwalda Æthelberht of Kent, and it was under Æthelberht that Mellitus founded the first St. Paul's Cathedral, traditionally said to be on the site of an old Roman Temple of Diana (although Christopher Wren found no evidence of this). This would have only been a modest church at first and may well have been destroyed after he was expelled from the city by Saeberht's pagan successors. Later in the 7th century a Saxon village and trading centre named Lundenwic ("London settlement") "Lundenwic", extract from London: A Concise History, Geoffrey Trease was established approximately one mile to the west of Londinium. The new town came under direct Mercian control in c.730 as the East Saxon kingdom of which it had once been part was gradually reduced in size and status. Mercian lordship was replaced by that of Wessex after 825. Alfred the Great Viking attacks dominated most of the 9th century, and such attacks became increasingly common from around 830 onwards. There were attacks on London in 842 and 851. In 865 the Viking "Great Heathen Army" launched a large scale invasion of East Anglia, and by 871 they had reached London, and are believed to have camped within the old Roman walls during the winter of that year. Although it is unclear what happened during this time, London may have come under Viking control for a period. In 878 however, English forces led by King Alfred the Great defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Ethandun and forced the Viking leader Guthrum to sue for peace. English rule in London was restored and within ten years settlement within the old Roman walls was re-established to improve defences, but known as Lundenburgh. The Roman walls were repaired and the defensive ditch re-cut. As the focus of the city was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older settlement of Lundenwic gained the name of ealdwic or "old settlement". The name survives today as Aldwych. Alfred appointed his son-in-law Æthelred, who was the heir to the destroyed Kingdom of Mercia, as Governor of London and established two defended Boroughs to defend the bridge which was probably rebuilt at this time. The southern end of the Bridge was established as the Borough of Southwark or Suthringa Geworc (defensive work of the men of Surrey) as it was originally known. From this point, the City of London began to develop its own unique local government. After Aethelred's death, London came under the direct control of English kings. By the early 10th century London had become an important commercial centre. Although the capital of the Kingdom of England was in Winchester, London became increasingly important as a political centre. King Aethelstan held many Royal Councils in London and issued laws from there. King Aethelred the Unready favoured London as his capital and issued the Laws of London there in 978. It was during the reign of Aethelred that Viking raids began again, led by King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark. London was unsuccessfully attacked in 994, but numerous raids followed. By 1013 London was being besieged and Aethered fled abroad. King Sven died but his son Canute continued the attacks and eventually overran the city. Runestone Dr 337 was raised in memory of two Vikings who died in London. A Norse saga tells of a battle during the Viking occupation where Aethelred returned to attack Viking-occupied London. According to the sage, the Danes lined London Bridge and showered the attackers with spears. Undaunted, the attackers pulled the roofs off nearby houses and held them over their heads in the boats. Thus protected, they were able to get close enough to the bridge to attach ropes to the piers and pull the bridge down, thus ending the Viking occupation of London. There is some speculation that the nursery rhyme "London Bridge is falling down" stems from this incident. The Vikings however returned and Aethelred's son Edmund Ironside initially managed to hold back the invaders. However, he was eventually forced to share power with Canute. When Edmund died Canute became the sole King of England. After two short lived Danish kings, the Anglo-Saxon line was restored when Canute's stepson Edward the Confessor took up the throne in 1042. Following Edward's death, no clear heir was apparent, and his cousin, Duke William of Normandy, claimed the throne. The Royal Council, however, met in the city and elected the dead King's brother-in-law, Harold Godwinson as King. He was crowned in Westminster Abbey. William, outraged by this, then sent an army to invade England. Norman and Medieval London London in 1300. The Norman invasion of Britain in 1066 is usually considered to be the beginning of the Medieval period. William, Duke of Normandy, killed English king Harold Godwinson in the Battle of Hastings. Although he burnt down Southwark, south of the bridge, he avoided London, instead waiting to the north-west at Berkhamsted until the city officials in London recognised him as King. They quickly did so, and William responded by granting the city a formal charter Under William (now known as William the Conqueror) several royal forts were constructed along the riverfront of London (the Tower of London, Baynard's Castle and Montfichet's Castle) to defend against seaborne attacks by Vikings and prevent rebellions. William the Conqueror also granted a charter in 1067 upholding previous Saxon rights, privileges and laws. Its growing self-government became firm with election rights granted by King John in 1199 and 1215. In 1097 William Rufus, the son of William the Conqueror began the construction of 'Westminster Hall'. The hall was to become the basis of the Palace of Westminster which, throughout the Medieval period, was the prime royal residence. The Tower of London. In 1176 construction began of the most famous incarnation of London Bridge (completed in 1209) which was built on the site of several earlier wooden bridges. This bridge would last for 600 years, and remained the only bridge across the River Thames until 1739. May 1216 saw the last time that London was truly occupied by a continental armed force, during the First Barons' War. This was when the young Louis VIII of France marched through the streets to St Paul's Cathedral. Throughout the city and in the cathedral he was celebrated as the new ruler. It was expected that this would free the English from the tyranny of King John. This was only temporarily true. The barons supporting the 29-year old French prince decided to throw their support back to an English king when John died. Over the next several hundred years, London would shake off the heavy French cultural and linguistic influence which had been there since the times of the Norman conquest. The city, like Dover, would figure heavily into the development of Early Modern English. During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 led by Wat Tyler, London was invaded. A group of peasants stormed the Tower of London and executed the Lord Chancellor, Archbishop Simon Sudbury, and the Lord Treasurer. The peasants looted the city and set fire to numerous buildings. Tyler was stabbed to death by the Lord Mayor William Walworth in a confrontation at Smithfield, thus ending the revolt. During the medieval period London grew up in two different parts. The nearby up-river town of Westminster became the Royal capital and centre of government, whereas the City of London became the centre of commerce and trade. The area between them became entirely urbanised by 1600. Trade and commerce grew steadily during the Middle Ages, and London grew rapidly as a result. In 1100 London's population was little more than 15,000. By 1300 it had grown to roughly 80,000. Trade in London was organised into various guilds, which effectively controlled the city, and elected the Lord Mayor of the City of London. Medieval London was made up of narrow and twisting streets, and most of the buildings were made from combustible materials such as wood and straw, which made fire a constant threat. Sanitation in London was poor. London lost at least half of its population during the Black Death in the mid-14th century. Between 1348 and the Great Plague of 1665 there were sixteen outbreaks of plague in the city. Tudor London (1485-1603) John Norden's map of London in 1593. There is only one bridge across the Thames, but parts of Southwark on the south bank of the river have been developed. The Tudor period from 1485 until 1603 was a dramatic period of English history. Three of the monarchs of the Tudor dynasty (Henry VII, Henry VIII and Elizabeth I) played important roles in transforming England from a comparatively weak European backwater into a powerful state that in the coming centuries would dominate much of the world. The period saw the end of the Wars of the Roses the English Reformation and the Elizabethan era. The Reformation produced little bloodshed in London, with most of the higher classes co-operating to bring about a gradual shift to Protestantism. Before the Reformation, more than half of the area of London was occupied by monasteries, nunneries and other religious houses, and about a third of the inhabitants were monks, nuns and friars. Thus Henry VIII's "Dissolution of the Monasteries" had a profound effect on the city as nearly all of this property changed hands. The process started in the mid 1530s, and by 1538 most of the larger houses had been abolished. Holy Trinity Aldgate went to Lord Audley, and the Marquess of Winchester built himself a house in part of its precincts. The Charterhouse went to Lord North, Blackfriars to Lord Cobham, the leper hospital of St Giles to Lord Dudley, while the king took for himself the leper hospital of St James, which was rebuilt as St James's Palace. Nikolaus Pevsner, London I: The Cities of London and Westminster rev. edition,1962, Introduction p 48. The period saw London was rapidly rising in importance amongst Europe's commercial centres, its many small industries were booming, especially weaving. Trade expanded beyond Western Europe to Russia, the Levant, and the Americas. This was the period of mercantilism and monopoly trading companies such as the Russia Company (1555) and the British East India Company (1600) were established in London by Royal Charter. The latter, which ultimately came to rule much of India, was one of the key institutions in London, and in Britain as a whole, for two and a half centuries. In 1572 the Spanish destroyed the great commercial city of Antwerp, giving London first place among the North Sea ports. Immigrants arrived in London not just from all over England and Wales, but from abroad as well, for example Huguenots from France; the population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605. The growth of the population and wealth of London was fuelled by a vast expansion in the use of coastal shipping to import coal from Newcastle. The late 16th century, when William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived and worked in London, was one of the most lustrous periods in the city's cultural history. There was considerable hostility to the development of the theatre however. Public entertainments produced crowds, and crowds were feared by the authorities because they might become mobs, and by many ordinary citizens who dreaded that large gatherings might contribute to the spread of plague. Theatre itself was discountenanced by the increasingly influential Puritan strand in the nation. However, Queen Elizabeth loved plays, which were performed for her privately at Court, and approved of public performances. During the mostly calm later years of Elizabeth's reign, some of her courtiers and some of the wealthier citizens of London built themselves country residences in Middlesex, Essex and Surrey. This was an early stirring of the villa movement, the taste for residences which were neither of the city nor on an agricultural estate, but when the last of the Tudors died in 1603, London was still very compact. Stuart London (1603–1714) London's expansion beyond the boundaries of the City was decisively established in the 17th century. In the opening years of that century the immediate environs of the City, with the principal exception of the aristocratic residences in the direction of Westminster, were still considered not conducive to health. Immediately to the north was Moorfields, which had recently been drained and laid out in walks, but it was frequented by beggars and travellers, who crossed it in order to get into London, tried not to linger. Adjoining Moorfields were Finsbury Fields, a favourite practising ground for the archers. Mile End, then a common on the Great Eastern Road, was famous as a rendezvous for the troops. The preparations for the coronation of King James I were interrupted by a severe plague epidemic, which may have killed over thirty thousand people. The Lord Mayor's Show, which had been discontinued for some years, was revived by order of the king in 1609. The dissolved monastery of the Charterhouse, which had been bought and sold by the courtiers several times, was purchased by Thomas Button for £13,000. The new hospital, chapel, and schoolhouse were begun in 1611. Charterhouse School was to be one of the principal public schools in London until it moved to Surrey in Victorian times, and the site is still used as a medical school. The general meeting-place of Londoners in the day-time was the nave of Old St. Paul's Cathedral. Merchants conducted business in the aisles, and used the font as a counter upon which to make their payments; lawyers received clients at their particular pillars; and the unemployed looked for work. St Paul's Churchyard was the centre of the book trade and Fleet Street was a centre of public entertainment. Under James I the theatre, which established itself so firmly in the latter years of Elizabeth, grew further in popularity. The performances at the public theatres were complemented by elaborate masques at the royal court and at the inns of court. Charles I acceded to the throne in 1625. During his reign, aristocrats began to inhabit the West End in large numbers. In addition to those who had specific business at court, increasing numbers of country landowners and their families lived in London for part of the year simply for the social life. This was the beginning of the "London season". Lincoln's Inn Fields was built about 1629. The piazza of Covent Garden, designed by England's first classically trained architect Inigo Jones followed in about 1632. The neighbouring streets were built shortly afterwards, and the names of Henrietta, Charles, James, King and York Streets were given after members of the royal family. Chronicler of Stuart London, Samuel Pepys In January 1642 five members of parliament whom the King wished to arrest were granted refuge in the City. In August of the same year the King raised his banner at Nottingham, and during the English Civil War London took the side of the parliament. Initially the king had the upper hand in military terms and in November he won the Battle of Brentford a few miles to the west of London. The City organised a new makeshift army and Charles hesitated and retreated. Subsequently an extensive system of fortifications was built to protect London from a renewed attack by the Royalists. This comprised a strong earthen rampart, enhanced with bastions and redoubts. It was well beyond the City walls and encompassed the whole urban area, including Westminster and Southwark. London was not seriously threatened by the royalists again, and the financial resources of the City made an important contribution to the parliamentarians victory in the war. The unsanitary and overcrowded City of London has suffered from the numerous outbreaks of the plague many times over the centuries, but in Britain it is the last major outbreak which is remembered as the "Great Plague" It occurred in 1665 and 1666 and killed around 60,000 people, which was one fifth of the population. Samuel Pepys chronicled the epidemic in his diary. On 4 September 1665 he wrote "I have stayed in the city till above 7400 died in one week, and of them about 6000 of the plague, and little noise heard day or night but tolling of bells." The Great Plague was immediately followed by another catastrophe, albeit one which helped to put an end to the plague. On the Sunday, 2 September 1666 the Great Fire of London broke out at one o'clock in the morning at a house in Pudding Lane in the southern part of the City. Fanned by an eastern wind the fire spread, and efforts to arrest it by pulling down houses to make firebreaks were disorganised to begin with. On Tuesday night the wind fell somewhat, and on Wednesday the fire slackened. On Thursday it was extinguished, but on the evening of that day the flames again burst forth at the Temple. Some houses were at once blown up by gunpowder, and thus the fire was finally mastered. The Monument was built to commemorate the fire: for over a century and a half it bore an inscription attributing the conflagration to a "popish frenzy". John Evelyn's plan for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire. The fire destroyed about 60% of the City, including Old St Paul's Cathedral, 87 parish churches, 44 livery company halls and the Royal Exchange. However the number of lives lost was surprisingly small; it is believed to have been 16 at most. Within a few days of the fire, three plans were presented to the king for the rebuilding of the city, by Christopher Wren, John Evelyn and Robert Hooke. Wren proposed to build main thoroughfares north and south, and east and west, to insulate all the churches in conspicuous positions, to form the most public places into large piazzas, to unite the halls of the 12 chief livery companies into one regular square annexed to the Guildhall, and to make a fine quay on the bank of the river from Blackfriars to the Tower of London. Wren wished to build the new streets straight and in three standard widths of thirty, sixty and ninety feet. Evelyn's plan differed from Wren's chiefly in proposing a street from the church of St Dunstan's in the East to the St Paul's, and in having no quay or terrace along the river. These plans were not implemented, and the rebuilt city generally followed the streetplan of the old one, and most of it has survived into the 21st century. Richard Blome's map of London (1673). The development of the West End had recently begun to accelerate. Nonetheless, the new City was different from the old one. Many aristocratic residents never returned, preferring to take new houses in the West End, where fashionable new districts such as St. James's were built close to the main royal residence, which was Whitehall Palace until it was destroyed by fire in the 1690s, and thereafter St. James's Palace. The rural lane of Piccadilly sprouted courtiers mansions such as Burlington House. Thus the separation between the middle class mercantile City of London, and the aristocratic world of the court in Westminster became complete. In the City itself there was a move from wooden buildings to stone and brick construction to reduce the risk of fire. Parliament's Rebuilding of London Act 1666 stated "building with brick [is] not only more comely and durable, but also more safe against future perils of fire". From then on only doorcases, window-frames and shop fronts were allowed to be made of wood. Christopher Wren's plan for a new model London came to nothing, but he was appointed to rebuild the ruined parish churches and to replace St Paul's Cathedral. His domed baroque cathedral was the primary symbol of London for at least a century and a half. As city surveyor, Robert Hooke oversaw the reconstruction of the City's houses. The East End, that is the area immediately to the east of the city walls, also became heavily populated in the decades after the Great Fire. London's docks began to extend downstream, attracting many working people who worked on the docks themselves and in the processing and distributive trades. These people lived in Whitechapel, Wapping, Stepney and Limehouse, generally in slum conditions. In the winter of 1683–4 a frost fair was held on the Thames. The frost, which began about seven weeks before Christmas and continued for six weeks after, was the greatest on record. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 led to a large migration on Huguenots to London. They established a silk industry at Spitalfields. At this time the City of London was becoming the world's leading financial centre, superseding Amsterdam in primacy. The Bank of England was founded in 1694, and the British East India Company was expanding its influence. Lloyd's of London also began to operate in the late 17th century. In 1700 London handled 80% of England's imports, 69% of its exports and 86% of its re-exports. Many of the goods were luxuries from the Americas and Asia such as silk, sugar, tea and tobacco. The last figure emphasises London's role as an entrepot: while it had many craftsmen in the 17th century, and would later acquire some large factories, its economic prominence was never based primarily on industry. Instead it was a great trading and redistribution centre. Goods were brought to London by England's increasingly dominant merchant navy, not only to satisfy domestic demand, but also for re-export throughout Europe and beyond. William III cared little for London, the smoke of which gave him asthma, and after the first fire at Whitehall Palace (1691) he purchased Nottingham House and transformed it into Kensington Palace. Kensington was then an insignificant village, but the arrival of the court soon caused it to grow in importance. The palace was rarely favoured by future monarchs, but its construction was another step in the expansion of the bounds of London. During the same reign Greenwich Hospital, then well outside the boundary of London, but now comfortably inside it, was begun; it was the naval complement to the Chelsea Hospital for former soldiers, which has been founded in 1681. During the reign of Queen Anne an act was passed authorising the building of 50 new churches to serve the greatly increased population living outside the boundaries of the City of London. 18th century London A view of London from the east in 1751 The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire. In 1707 an Act of Union was passed merging the Scottish and the English Parliaments, thus establishing The Kingdom of Great Britain. A year later, in 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral was completed on his birthday. However, the first service had been held on 2 December 1697; more than 10 years earlier. This Cathedral replaced the original St. Paul's which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London. This building is considered one of the finest in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture. The Clock Tower of Wren's St. Paul's Cathedral Many tradesmen from different countries came to London to trade goods and merchandise. Also, more immigrants moved to London making the population greater. More people also moved to London for work and for business making London an altogether bigger and busier city. During the Georgian period London spread beyond its traditional limits at an accelerating pace. New districts such as Mayfair were built for the rich in the West End, new bridges over the Thames encouraged an acceleration of development in South London and in the East End, the Port of London expanded downstream from the City. During this period was also the uprising of the American colonies. In 1780, the Tower of London held its only American prisoner, former President of the Continental Congress, Henry Laurens. In 1779 he was the Congress's representative of Holland, and got the country's support for the Revolution. On his return voyage back to America, the Royal Navy captured him and charged him with treason after finding evidence of a reason of war between Great Britain and the Netherlands. He was released from the Tower on 21 December 1781 in exchange for General Lord Cornwallis. In 1762 George III acquired Buckingham Palace (then known as "house") from the Duke of Buckingham. It was enlarged over the next 75 years by architects such as John Nash. It would not be until the 19th century, however, that the palace would become the principal London royal residence. Buckingham Palace as it appeared in the 17th century A century later, enlarged by John Nash. A phenomenon of 18th century London was the coffee house, which became a popular place to debate ideas. Growing literacy and the development of the printing press meant that news became widely available. Fleet Street became the centre of the embryonic British press during the century. 18th century London was dogged by crime, the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force. Penalties for crime were harsh, with the death penalty being applied for fairly minor crimes. Public hangings were common in London, and were popular public events. In 1780 London was rocked by the Gordon Riots, an uprising by Protestants against Roman Catholic emancipation led by Lord George Gordon. Severe damage was caused to Catholic churches and homes, and 285 rioters were killed. In the year 1787, freed slaves from London, America, and many of Britain's colonies founded Freetown in modern-day Sierra Leone. Up until 1750, London Bridge was the only crossing over the Thames, but in that year Westminster Bridge was opened and, for the first time in history, London Bridge, in a sense, had a rival. The 18th century saw the breakaway of the American colonies and many other unfortunate events in London, but also great change and Enlightenment. This all led into the beginning of modern times, the 19th century. 19th century London London as engraved by J. & C. Walker in 1845 from a map by R Creighton. Many districts in the West End were fully developed, and the East End also extended well beyond the eastern fringe of the City of London. There were now several bridges over the Thames, allowing the rapid development of South London. During the 19th century, London was transformed into the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population expanded from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. During this period, London became a global political, financial, and trading capital. In this position, it was largely unrivaled until the latter part of the century, when Paris and New York began to threaten its dominance. While the city grew wealthy as Britain's holdings expanded, 19th century London was also a city of poverty, where millions lived in overcrowded and unsanitary slums. Life for the poor was immortalised by Charles Dickens in such novels as Oliver Twist. In 1829 the prime minister Robert Peel established the Metropolitan Police as a police force covering the entire urban area. The force gained the nickname of "bobbies" or "peelers" named after Robert Peel. 19th century London was transformed by the coming of the railways. A new network of metropolitan railways allowed for the development of suburbs in neighboring counties from which middle-class and wealthy people could commute to the centre. While this spurred the massive outward growth of the city, the growth of greater London also exacerbated the class divide, as the wealthier classes emigrated to the suburbs, leaving the poor to inhabit the inner city areas. The first railway to be built in London was a line from London Bridge to Greenwich, which opened in 1836. This was soon followed by the opening of great rail termini which linked London to every corner of Britain. These included Euston station (1837), Paddington station (1838), Fenchurch Street station (1841), Waterloo station (1848), King's Cross station (1850), and St Pancras station (1863). From 1863, the first lines of the London Underground were constructed. The urbanised area continued to grow rapidly, spreading into Islington, Paddington, Belgravia, Holborn, Finsbury, Shoreditch, Southwark and Lambeth. Towards the middle of the century, London's antiquated local government system, consisting of ancient parishes and vestries, struggled to cope with the rapid growth in population. In 1855 the Metropolitan Board of Works (MBW) was created to provide London with adequate infrastructure to cope with its growth. The Crystal Palace in 1851. One of its first tasks was addressing London's sanitation problems. At the time, raw sewage was pumped straight into the River Thames. This culminated in The Great Stink of 1858. The polluted drinking water (sourced from the Thames) also brought disease and epidemics to London's populace. Parliament finally gave consent for the MBW to construct a massive system of sewers. The engineer put in charge of building the new system was Joseph Bazalgette. In what was one of the largest civil engineering projects of the 19th century, he oversaw construction of over 2100 km of tunnels and pipes under London to take away sewage and provide clean drinking water. When the London sewerage system was completed, the death toll in London dropped dramatically, and epidemics of cholera and other diseases were curtailed. Bazalgette's system is still in use today. One of the most famous events of 19th-century London was the Great Exhibition of 1851. Held at The Crystal Palace, the fair attracted visitors from across the world and displayed Britain at the height of its Imperial dominance. The Houses of Parliament from Westminster Bridge in the early 1890s As the capital of a massive empire, London became a magnet for immigrants from the colonies and poorer parts of Europe. A large Irish population settled in the city during the Victorian period, with many of the newcomers refugees from the Great Famine (1845-1849). At one point, Irish immigrants made up about 20% of London's population. London also became home to a sizable Jewish community, and small communities of Chinese and South Asians settled in the city. In 1888, the new County of London was established, administered by the London County Council. This was the first elected London-wide administrative body, replacing the earlier Metropolitan Board of Works, which had been made up of appointees. The County of London covered broadly what was then the full extent of the London conurbation, although the conurbation later outgrew the boundaries of the county. In 1900, the county was sub-divided into 28 metropolitan boroughs, which formed a more local tier of administration than the county council. Many famous buildings and landmarks of London were constructed during the 19th century including: Trafalgar Square Big Ben and the Houses of Parliament The Royal Albert Hall The Victoria and Albert Museum Tower Bridge 20th century London London from 1900 to World War II London entered the 20th century at the height of its influence as the capital of the largest empire in history, but the new century was to bring many challenges. London's population continued to grow rapidly in the early decades of the century, and public transport was greatly expanded. A large tram network was constructed by the London County Council, through the LCC Tramways. And the first motorbus service began in the 1900s. Improvements to London's overground and underground rail network, including large scale electrification were progressively carried out. During World War I, London experienced its first bombing raids carried out by German zeppelin airships; these killed around 700 people and caused great terror, but were merely a foretaste of what was to come. The city of London would experience many more terrors as a result of both World Wars. The largest explosion in London occurred during World War I: the Silvertown explosion, when a munitions factory containing 50 tons of TNT exploded, killing 73 and injuring 400. The period between the two World Wars saw London's geographical extent growing more quickly than ever before or since. A preference for lower density suburban housing, typically semi-detached, by Londoners seeking a more "rural" lifestyle, superseded Londoners' old predilection for terraced houses. This was facilitated not only by a continuing expansion of the rail network, including trams and the Underground, but also by slowly widening car ownership. London's suburbs expanded outside the boundaries of the County of London, into the neighbouring counties of Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, Middlesex and Surrey. Like the rest of the country, London suffered severe unemployment during the Great Depression of the 1930s. In the East End during the 1930s, politically extreme parties of both right and left flourished. The Communist Party of Great Britain won a seat in the House of Commons, and the far-right British Union of Fascists received extensive support. Clashes between right and left culminated in the Battle of Cable Street in 1936. The population of London reached an all time peak of 8.6 million in 1939. Large numbers of Jewish immigrants fleeing from Nazi Germany, settled in London during the 1930s, who settled mostly in the West End. London in World War II Firefighters putting out flames at a bomb site during the blitz During World War II, London, as many other British cities, suffered severe damage, being bombed extensively by the Luftwaffe as a part of The Blitz. Prior to the bombing, hundreds of thousands of children in London were evacuated to the countryside to avoid the bombing. Civilians took shelter from the air raids in underground stations. The heaviest bombing took place between 7 September 1940 and 10 May 1941. During this period, London was subjected to 71 separate raids receiving over 18,000 tonnes of high explosive. A photograph showing St Paul's Cathedral shrouded in smoke become a famous image of the times. Less intensive bombing followed over the following few years as Hitler concentrated on the Eastern front. Towards the end of the war, during 1944/45 London came under heavy attack again by pilotless V-1 and V-2 rockets, which were fired from Nazi occupied Europe. London suffered severe damage and heavy casualties, the worst hit part being the Docklands area. By the war's end, just under 30,000 Londoners had been killed by the bombing, and over 50,000 seriously injured, Air Raid Precautions homefront website tens of thousands of buildings were destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless. London 1945–2000 Immediately after the war, the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, at a time when the city had barely recovered from the war. London's rebuilding was slow to begin. However, in 1951 the Festival of Britain was held, which marked an increasing mood of optimism and forward looking. In the immediate postwar years housing was a major issue in London, due to the large amount of housing which had been destroyed in the war. The authorities decided upon high-rise blocks of flats as the answer to housing shortages. During the 1950s and 1960s the skyline of London altered dramatically as tower blocks were erected, although these later proved unpopular. In a bid to reduce the number of people living in overcrowded housing, a policy was introduced of encouraging people to move into newly built new towns surrounding London. Through the 19th and in the early half of the 20th century, Londoners used coal for heating their homes, which produced large amounts of smoke. In combination with climatic conditions this often caused a characteristic smog, and London became known for its typical "London Fog", also known as "Pea Soupers". London was sometimes referred to as "The Smoke" because of this. In 1952 this culminated in the disastrous Great Smog of 1952 which lasted for five days and killed over 4,000 people. In response to this, the Clean Air Act 1956 was passed, mandating the creating of "smokeless zones" where the use of "smokeless" fuels was required (this was at a time when most households still used open fires); the Act was effective, though the nickname is still used sarcastically. Starting in the mid-1960s, and partly as a result of the success of such UK musicians as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London subculture which made Carnaby Street a household name of youth fashion around the world. London's role as a trendsetter for youth fashion was revived strongly in the 1980s during the New Wave and Punk eras. In the mid-1990s this was revived to some extent with the emergence of the Britpop era. From the 1950s onwards London became home to a large number of immigrants, largely from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh Pakistan, which dramatically changed the face of London, turning it into one of the most diverse cities in Europe. However, the integration of the new immigrants was not always easy. Racial tensions emerged in events such as the Brixton Riots in the early 1980s. From the beginning of "The Troubles" in Northern Ireland in the early 1970s until the mid-1990s, London was subjected to repeated terrorist attacks by the Provisional IRA. The outward expansion of London was slowed by the war, and the Green Belt established soon afterwards. Due to this outward expansion, in 1965 the old County of London (which by now only covered part of the London conurbation) and the London County Council were abolished, and the much larger area of Greater London was established with a new Greater London Council (GLC) to administer it, along with 32 new London boroughs. Greater London's population declined steadily in the decades after World War II, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. However it then began to increase again in the late 1980s, encouraged by strong economic performance and an increasingly positive image. London's traditional status as a major port declined dramatically in the post-war decades as the old Docklands could not accommodate large modern container ships. The principal ports for London moved to the downstream to the ports of Felixstowe and Tilbury. The docklands area had become largely derelict by the 1980s, but was redeveloped into flats and offices from the mid-1980s onwards. The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea. In the early 1980s political disputes between the GLC run by Ken Livingstone and the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher led to the GLC's abolition in 1986, with most of its powers relegated to the London boroughs. This left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration. In 2000, London-wide government was restored, with the creation of the Greater London Authority (GLA) by Tony Blair's government, covering the same area of Greater London. The new authority had similar powers to the old GLC, but was made up of a directly elected Mayor and a London Assembly. London was also recognised as one of the nine regions of England. 21st century London An icon of 21st century London: the London Eye. At the turn of the 21st century, London hosted the much derided Millennium Dome at Greenwich, to mark the new century. Other Millennium projects were more successful. One was the largest observation wheel in the world, the "Millennium Wheel", or the London Eye, which was erected as a temporary structure, but soon became a fixture, and draws four million visitors a year. The National Lottery also released a flood of funds for major enhancements to existing attractions, for example the roofing of the Great Court at the British Museum. The London Plan, published by the Mayor of London in 2004, estimated that the population would reach 8.1 million by 2016, and continue to rise thereafter. This was reflected in a move towards denser, more urban styles of building, including a greatly increased number of tall buildings, and proposals for major enhancements to the public transport network. However, funding for projects such as Crossrail remained a struggle. On 6 July 2005 London won the bid to host the 2012 Olympics. However, celebrations were cut short the following day when, on 7 July 2005, London was rocked by a series of terrorist attacks. More than 50 were killed and 750 injured in three bombings on London Underground and another aboard a double decker bus near Russell Square in King's Cross. Population 1AD — a few farmsteaders 50 — 50–100 140 — 45–60,000 300 — 10–20,000 1000 — 5–10,000 1100 — 10–20,000 1300 — 50–100,000 1350 — 25–50,000 1500 — 50–75,000 1600 — 200,000 1650 — 350,000 1700 — 550,000 1750 — 700,000 1801 — 959,300 1831 — 1,655,000 1851 — 2,363,000 1891 — 5,572,012 1901 — 6,506,954 1911 — 7,160,525 1921 — 7,386,848 1931 — 8,110,480 1939 — 8,615,245 1951 — 8,196,978 1961 — 7,992,616 1971 — 7,452,520 1981 — 6,805,000 1991 — 6,829,300 2001 — 7,322,400 2006 — 7,657,300 Historical places of note in London London in flames after a German bombardment (1941) London Bridge Tower of London Houses of Parliament Buckingham Palace The City St. Paul's Cathedral Westminster Abbey Alexandra Palace Battersea Power Station Croydon Airport The Royal Greenwich Observatory Hyde Park, London The Monument Parliament Hill Royal Society Royal Institution Thames Barrier Tyburn Waterloo International Vauxhall Cross Vauxhall Station See also Fortifications of London Economy of London Geography of London Geology of London History of local government in London Port of London References Billings, Malcolm (1994), London: a companion to its history and archaeology, ISBN 1 85626 153 0 Inwood, Stephen. A History of London (1998) ISBN 0333671538 A Chronicle of London from 1089 to 1483 written in the Fifteenth Century External links London History - From Britannia.com. More London History - From Britainexpress.com. Motco.com map database - very detailed historical maps Roman London - "In their own words" (PDF) A literary companion to the prehistory and archæology of London by Kevin Flude London: The Biography First chapter of the book online by Peter Ackroyd London - Article in the 1908 Catholic Encyclopædia untoldLondon - searches for multicultural history in London Exploring 20th century London - Explore London's history, culture and religions during the 20th century Moral Regulation and Civic Identity in London 1400-1530, by Stephanie Tarbin COLLAGE — images from the City of London Corporation's visual database The Growth of London 1666 - 1799 Decision Most Deadly - Historical Novel set in London during 1641, the build up to the English Civil War. "Engrossing plot and rich history." 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3,727 | Home_computer | Children playing Paperboy on an Amstrad CPC 464 in the 1980s Most home computers, such as this Tandy Color Computer 3, featured a version of the BASIC programming language. The sometimes-sprawling nature of the well-outfitted home computer system is very much in evidence. A home computer was a class of personal computer entering the market in 1977 and becoming common during the 1980s. Home of the home computer website They were marketed to consumers as accessible personal computers, more capable than video game consoles. These computers typically cost much less than business, scientific or engineering-oriented desktop personal computers of the time, and were generally less powerful in terms of memory and expandability. However, a home computer often had better graphics and sound than contemporary business personal computers. Usually they were purchased for education, game play, and personal productivity use such as word processing. Advertisements for early home computers were rife with possibilities for their use in the home, from cataloging recipes to personal finance to home automation, Video of old TV Ad for Atari Home computers from YouTube Home computer ads More home computer TV ads but these were seldom realized in practice. Often the home computer user was required to learn computer programming if no packaged software was available for a particular application; a significant time commitment many weren't willing to make. Still, for many the home computer offered the first opportunity to learn to program. CNN.com readers recall the life-changing Commodore 64 from CNN The line between a 'business' and 'home' computer market segments has blurred, since the computers typically use the same operating systems, processor architectures, applications and peripherals. On the other hand, programming one's own software has almost vanished from home computer use. A RadioShack TRS-80 released in 1977. The Commodore PET released in 1977. This model featured a built in Datassette drive. Background Computers became affordable for the general public due to the mass production of the microprocessor. Early microcomputers had front-mounted switches and blinkenlights to control and indicate internal system status, and were often sold in kit form. These kits would contain an empty printed circuit board which the purchaser would fill with the integrated circuits, other individual electronic components, wires and connectors, and then hand-solder all the connections. The Altair 8800 used binary LEDs and switches, and came as a kit In contrast, home computers were designed to be used by the average consumer, not necessarily an electronics hobbyist. While two early home computers (Sinclair ZX80, and Acorn Atom) could be purchased in kit form (or assembled), otherwise home computers were only sold pre-assembled. They were enclosed in molded plastic cases, which were more attractive to consumers and lower cost than the metal card-cage enclosures used by the Altair and similar computers. A keyboard was usually built into the case. Ports for plug-in peripheral devices such as a video display, cassette tape recorders, joysticks, and (later) disk drives either were provided or available as add-on cards. Usually the manufacturer would provide all the peripheral devices practical to add to any system as extra cost accessories. Often peripherals were not interchangeable between brands of home computer (or sometimes even between successive models of the same brand). To save the cost of a dedicated monitor, the home computer often would have connected either directly or through an RF modulator to the family TV set as video display and sound system. at the start the TI99/4 could not offer a FCC certified RF-modulator, and had to use an expensive modified TV instead Almost universally, home computers had a version of a BASIC interpreter. A form of the BASIC programming language combined with a Text editor in read-only permanent memory with which you could type in BASIC programs and execute them immediately. The BASIC interpreter was also used as the Operating system, and given tasks such as the loading, saving and managing and running of files. Most home computers would have BASIC built in in permanent ROM One exception was the Jupiter Ace, which had the Forth language built in. A programming language was seen as a requirement for any computer of the era due to the dearth of commercially-available productivity software. After the success of systems like the RadioShack TRS-80, the Commodore PET and the Apple II in 1977, large numbers of new machines of all types began to appear during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some home computers sold many units over several years, such as the BBC Micro, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Atari 800XL and Commodore 64, and attracted third-party software development. By 1982, an estimated 621,000 home computers were in use in the United States, at an average sales price of $530. Gregory S. Blundell, Personal computers in the Eighties, BYTE January 1983, pp. 166-182 Low-end home computers competed with video game consoles. The markets weren't entirely distinct, as both could be used for games. A common marketing tactic was to show a computer system and console playing games side by side, then emphasising the computer's greater ability by showing it running user-created programs, educational software, word processing, spreadsheet and other applications while the game console showed a blank screen or continued playing the same repetitive game. Books were available for most models of computer with titles along the lines of "64 Amazing BASIC Games for the Commodore 64" and were a popular means of both learning to program and software distribution. Some video game consoles offered "programming packs", consisting of a version of BASIC in a ROM cartridge. For the ColecoVision console Coleco even announced an expansion module which should convert it into a full-fledged computer system, but this never materialised, and instead the Coleco Adam was announced. About the Expansion Module #3 for the colecovision During the peak years of the home computer market, scores of models were produced, usually with little or no thought given to compatibility between different manufacturers or even within product lines of one manufacturer. 1982 was arguably the peak year of the home computer market The concept of a computer platform did not exist, except for the Japanese MSX standard. about the history of the MSX standard The introduction of the IBM Personal Computer in August 1981 would eventually lead to standardization in personal computers, largely due to the system's open architecture, which encouraged production of third-party clones of the unit. While the Apple II would be quickly displaced by the IBM PC for office use, Apple Computer's 1984 release of the Apple Macintosh created a new model for the home computer which IBM-compatible computers would eventually imitate. The declining cost of IBM-compatible "personal computers" on the one hand, and the greatly increased graphics, sound, and storage capabilities of dedicated video game consoles on the other, caused the market segment for home computers to vanish by the early 1990s in the US. In Europe, the home computer remained a distinct presence for a few years more, with the Amiga and Atari ST lines being the dominant players, but today a computer purchased for home use anywhere will be very similar to those used in offices - made by the same manufacturers, with compatible peripherals, operating systems, and application software. Technology A Commodore 64c system, showing the basic layout of a typical home computer system of the era. Pictured are the CPU/keyboard unit, floppy disk drive, and dedicated color monitor. Many systems also had a dot matrix printer for producing paper output. Eastern Bloc computers were often significantly different in appearance from western computers. Pictured is a KC 85/3 with its keyboard placed on top, by VEB Mikroelektronik Mühlhausen released in 1986 and based on an East German Zilog Z80 clone. The Soviet Elektronika BK0010-01 home computer was based on the К1801ВМ1 (Soviet LSI-11-compatible CPU) and shared architectural similarities with PDP-11. Many home computers were superficially similar. Most had a keyboard integrated into the case; sometimes a cheap-to-manufacture chiclet keyboard in the early days, although full-travel keyboards quickly became universal due to overwhelming consumer preference. Most systems could use an RF modulator to display 20–40 column text output on a home television. The use of a television set as a display almost defines the pre-PC home computer. Although dedicated computer monitors were available for this market segment, it was often a later purchase only made after users had bought a floppy disk drive, printer, modem, and the other pieces of a full system. This "peripherals sold separately" approach is another defining characteristic of home computers. Many first time computer buyers brought a base C-64 system home to find they needed to purchase a disk drive or Datassette before they could make use of it as anything but a game machine. In the early part of the 1980s, home computers were mostly based on 8-bit microprocessor technology, typically the MOS Technology 6502 or the Zilog Z80. A notable exception was the TI-99 series, announced in 1979 with a 16-bit TMS9900 CPU. The TI99/4 was unique in using a 16 bit processor from Retrogaming Times, Issue 42, February 20th, 2001 Processor clock rates were typically 1–2 MHz for 6502 based CPU's and 2–4 MHz for Z80 based systems (yielding roughly equal performance), but this aspect of performance was not emphasized by users or manufacturers, as dealing with the systems' limited RAM capacity, graphics capabilities and storage options took priority. Clock speed was considered a technical detail of interest only to users needing accurate timing. To economize on component cost, often the same crystal used to produce color television compatible signals was also divided down and used for the processor clock. This meant processors rarely operated at their full rated speed, and had the side-effect that European and North American versions of the same home computer operated at slightly different speeds and different video resolution due to different television standards. Many home computers initially used the then-ubiquitous compact audio cassettes as a storage mechanism. Most cassette implementations were notoriously slow and unreliable, but floppy disk drives as found on more costly business-oriented microcomputers were expensive and used disks eight inches wide at the beginning of the home computer era. Costs declined toward the end of the 1980s as sales of microcomputers increased and mass production of 5.25" drive mechanisms enabled economy of scale. The 5.25" floppy disk drives would become standard, with 3.5" drives being made available for most systems toward the latter part of the decade. Most software for home computers remained sold on 5.25" disks, however; 3.5" drives were used for data storage. Standardization of disk formats was not common; sometimes even different models from the same manufacturer used different disk formats. Various copy protection schemes were developed for floppy disks but most were broken in short order, and many users would only tolerate them for games as wear and tear on disks was a significant issue in an entirely floppy-based system, and having a backup disk of vital application software was seen as important. Copy programs that advertised their ability to copy or even remove common protection schemes were a common category of utility software in this pre-DMCA era. In contrast to modern computers, home computers most often had their OS stored in ROM chips. This made startup times very fast - no more than a few seconds - but made upgrades difficult or impossible without buying a new unit. Usually only the most severe bugs were fixed by issuing new ROMs to replace the old ones at the user's cost. The user interface was usually only a BASIC interpreter coupled to a character-based screen or line editor, with applications performing all other OS duties themselves. As multitasking was not common on home computers until late in the '80s, this lack of API support wasn't much of a liability. Application programs usually accessed hardware directly to perform a specific task, often "switching out" the ROM based OS anyway to free the address space it occupied and maximize RAM capacity. In an enduring reflection of their early cassette-oriented nature, most home computers loaded their Disk Operating System (DOS) separately from the main OS. The DOS was only used to send commands to the floppy disk drive and needn't be loaded to perform other computing functions. One notable exception was Commodore, whose disk drives actually contained a 6502 processor and Commodore DOS in ROM. Many home computers also had a cartridge interface which accepted ROM-based software. This was occasionally used for expansion or upgrades such as fast loaders, and application software on cartridge did exist, but the vast majority of cartridges were games. List of TI99/4 cartridges, mostly games from OldComputers.net From about 1985, the high end of the home computer market began to be dominated by "next generation" home computers using the 16-bit Motorola 68000 chip, which helped to enable the greatly increased abilities of the Amiga and Atari ST series. Clock rates on these systems were approximately 8 MHz with RAM capacities of 256 kB (for the base Amiga 1000 system) up to 1024 kB (1 megabyte, a milestone, first seen on the Atari 1040 ST). The Amiga and ST both had GUIs inspired by the Apple Macintosh, but at a list price of $2495 (over $5000 in 2007 dollars), the Macintosh itself was too expensive for most households. Radio frequency interference After the first wave of computers landed in American homes, the US Federal Communications Commission began receiving complaints of electromagnetic interference to television reception. By 1979 the FCC demanded that home computer manufacturers submit samples for radio frequency interference testing. It was found that "first generation" home computers, which often included their own screens, emitted too much radio frequency noise for household use. Some manufacturers appealed to the FCC to waive the requirements for home computers, while other manufacturers (with compliant designs) objected to the waiver. Many manufacturers had to supply an external RF modulator to allow their units to connect to a home television receiver. Eventually techniques to suppress interference became standardized. TRS-80 the "Trash-80" from PC-History.org The Home Computer "Revolution" In the late 1970s and early 1980s, from about 1977 to 1983, it was widely predicted The Computer Revolution from eNotes.com that computers would soon revolutionize many aspects of home and family life as they had business practices in the previous decades. The computer revolution from The Eighties Club Mothers would keep their recipe catalog in "kitchen computer" databases and turn to a medical database for help with child care, fathers would use the family's computer to manage family finances and track automobile maintenance. Children would use disk-based encyclopedias for school work and would be avid video gamers. Home automation would bring about the intelligent home of the '80s. Using some sort of computer technology, television would be interactive. Morning coffee would be brewed automatically under computer control. The same computer would control the house lighting and temperature. Robots would take the garbage out, and be programmable to perform new tasks by the home computer. Electronics were expensive, so it was generally thought that each home would have one computer for the entire family to use, with interfaces to the various devices it was expected to control. All this was predicted to be commonplace sometime before the end of the decade, but virtually every aspect of the predicted revolution would prove not to be or be delayed. The computers available to consumers of the time period just weren't powerful enough to perform any single task required to realize this vision, much less do them all simultaneously. The home computers of the early 1980s could not multitask. Even if they could, memory capacities were too small to hold entire databases or financial records, floppy disk-based storage was inadequate in both capacity and speed for multimedia work, and the graphics of the systems could only display blocky, unrealistic images and blurry, jagged text. Before long, a backlash set in—computer users were "geeks", "nerds" or worse, "hackers". The North American video game crash of 1983 soured many on home computer technology. The computers that were purchased for use in the family room were either forgotten in closets or relegated to basements and children's bedrooms to be used exclusively for games and the occasional book report. It took another 10 years for technology to mature, for the graphical user interface to make the computer approachable for non-technical users, and for the internet to provide a compelling reason for most people to want a computer in their homes. Predicted aspects of the revolution were left by the wayside or modified in the face of an emerging reality. The cost of electronics dropped precipitously and today many families have a computer for each family member, or a laptop for mom's active lifestyle, a desktop for dad with the kids sharing a computer. Encyclopedias, recipe catalogs and medical databases are kept online and accessed over the world wide web not stored locally on floppy disks or CD-ROM. TV has yet to gain substantial interactivity; instead, the web has evolved alongside television, but may one day replace it. Our coffee may be brewed automatically, but the computer is embedded in the coffee maker, not under external control. As of 2008, robots are just beginning to make an impact in the home, with Roomba and Aibo leading the charge. This delay wasn't out of keeping with other technologies newly introduced to an unprepared public. Early motorists were widely derided with the cry of "Get a horse!" Horseless Classrooms from the Hawaii Education & Research Network until the automobile was accepted. Television languished in research labs for decades before regular public broadcasts began. In an example of changing applications for technology, before the invention of radio, the telephone was used to distribute opera and news reports, whose subscribers were denounced as "illiterate, blind, bedridden and incurably lazy people". Clement Ader from Beb's Old Phones Likewise, the acceptance of computers into daily life today is a product of continuing refinement of both technology and perception. Use today As many older computers have become obsolete and in some cases nonfunctional, it has become popular amongst enthusiasts Reviving Old Computer Games from xtrazone.com to virtually "recreate" these machines, their environments and popular software titles Traffic Details for gametap.com from Alexa with emulation software. One of the more well-known emulators is the Multiple Emulator Super System which can emulate most of the better known home computers. One system for which many emulators exist is the MSX. A more or less complete list of home computer emulators can be found here. Games for many 8 and 16 bit platforms are becoming available for the Wii Virtual Console. As of 2008, game consoles are beginning to incorporate most of the most common uses for PCs in the home - all of the current console generation feature music playing capability in addition to gaming and the Wii and PlayStation 3 can be used to browse the web. The Xbox 360 also features instant messaging. Through the web browser component, word processing, email and photo editing is available. Future home computer users may opt for the all-in-one simplicity of a console or set top box over a standard PC, leading to a new era of home computers as distinct from business computers. Laptops are becoming popular for use in the home, which may redefine the term personal computer itself as a truly personal accessory, similar to an MP3 player or cell phone. Retrocomputing is gaining in popularity, with many enthusiasts using real Commodore 64 hardware to perform modern tasks such as surfing the web and email. The 64 has also been repackaged as the C-One and C64 Direct-to-TV, both designed by Jeri Ellsworth with modern enhancements. Retro-Computing with FPGAs article from Slashdot Collecting Many enthusiasts have started to collect home computers, with older and rarer systems being much sought after. Sometimes the collections turn into a "museum", often the collections are presented on web sites. www.homecomputer.de is one homecomputer collection that turned into a museum, with strong bonds to other similar collectors Notable home computers The 1977 Apple II with 2 Disk II disk drives and an Apple monitor The list below shows many of the most popular or significant home computers of the late 1970s and of the 1980s. The most popular home computers in the USA up to 1985 were: the TRS-80 (1977), various models of the Apple II family (first introduced in 1977), the Atari 400/800 (1979) along with its follow up models the 800XL and 130XE, and the Commodore VIC-20 (1980) and the Commodore 64 (1982). The VIC was the first computer of any type to sell over one million units, and the 64 is still the highest-selling single model of personal computer ever, with over 17 million produced before production stopped in 1994 – a 12-year run with only minor changes. number of C64s sold In Europe the situation was slightly different, as many of the British made systems like Sinclair's ZX81 and Spectrum, and later the Amstrad/Schneider CPC were generally much cheaper in Europe than US systems (such as the Atari and Apple models). The reverse was also true, as popular British systems like the Spectrum never became popular in the US, like the ill-fated Timex Sinclair 2068. The result was that these British systems were much more popular in Europe than in the USA, the only notable exception being the Commodore 64 (C64), which competed favorably price-wise with the British systems, and was the most popular system in Europe as in the USA. 25th Anniversary of the Sinclair ZX Spectrum from Slashdot Format Wars: The Tech that should have Won from ArmchairArcade.com Until the introduction of the IBM PC in 1981, computers such as the Apple II and TRS 80 also found considerable use in office work. Tandy TRS-80 catalog listing many business uses (PDF) (For a comprehensive overview of home computers, i.e. not just the most notable ones given below, see the List of home computers.) 1970s Three microcomputers were the prototypes for what would later become the home computer market segment; but when introduced they sold as much to hobbyists and small businesses as to the home. June 1977: Apple II (North America) (color graphics, eight expansion slots; one of the first computers to use a typewriter-like plastic case design.) August 1977: Tandy Radio Shack TRS-80 (N. Am.) (first home computer for less than US$600) (used a dedicated monitor for FCC rules compliance). December 1977: Commodore PET (N. Am.) (first all-in-one computer: keyboard/screen/tape storage) The following computers were also typical of the home computer segment: 1979: Atari 400/800 (N. Am.) (first computer with custom chip set and programmable video chip and built-in audio output) 1979: TI-99/4 (first home computer with a 16-bit processor) 1980s No computer has sold more units than the Commodore 64. Grandiose Price for a Modest PC from Wired The East German Robotron KC 85/1 was virtually not available for sale due to huge demand by industrial, educational as well as military institutions. 1980: Commodore VIC-20 (N. Am.) (under US$300; first computer in the world to pass the one million sold mark) 1980: TRS-80 Color Computer (N. Am.) (Motorola 6809, optional OS-9 multi-user multi-tasking) June 1981: Texas Instruments TI-99/4A (based on the less-successful TI-99/4, first to add sprite graphics) 1981: Sinclair ZX81 (Europe) (£49.95 in kit form; £69.95 pre-built) (released as Timex Sinclair 1000 in US in 1982) 1981: BBC Micro (Europe) (premier educational computer in the UK for a decade; advanced BASIC with integrated 6502 machine code assembler; designed with a myriad of I/O ports) April 1982: Sinclair ZX Spectrum (Europe) (best-selling British home computer; "made" the UK software industry, widely cloned by the Soviet Union) August 1982: Dragon 32(UK) became, for a short time, the best-selling home micro in the United Kingdom. August 1982: Commodore 64 (N. Am.) (custom graphic & synthesizer chipset, best-selling computer model of all time: ~ 30 million sold) Jan. 1983: Apple IIe (Apple II enhanced. Reduced component count and manufacturing costs enabled high-volume production. The IIe would not be discontinued until 1993.) Apr. 1984: Apple IIc (Apple II compact. No expansion slots, and built-in mouse port for pseudo-plug and play ease of use. The Apple II most geared to home use, to complement the Apple IIe's dominant education market share.) 1983: Coleco Adam (one of the few home computers to be sold as a complete system with storage device and printer; cousin to the ColecoVision game console; one of the first systems to be "orphaned" by its manufacturer, a casualty of the North American video game crash of 1983.) 1983: MSX (Japan) (a computer 'reference design' by ASCII and Microsoft, manufactured by several companies: ~ 5 million sold) 1983: VTech Laser 200 (entry level computer aimed at being the cheapest on market). 1984: Amstrad/Schneider CPC & PCW ranges (Europe) (British std. prior to IBM PC; German sales next to C64) 1985: Elektronika BK-0010 (one of the first 16-bit home computers, and the only "official" home computer in USSR) 1985: Robotron KC 85/1 (Europe) (one of the few home computers manufactured by the East German VEB Robotron-Meßelektronik "Otto Schön" Dresden) 1985: Atari ST (N. Am.) (first with built-in MIDI interface; also 1MB RAM for less than US$1000; Motorola 68000 processor.) 1985: Commodore 128 (N. Am.) Final, most advanced 8-bit Commodore, retained full C64 compatibility in a complex multi-mode architecture July 1985: Commodore Amiga (N. Am.) (custom chip set for graphics and digital audio; preemptive multitasking OS with both GUI and CLI interfaces; Motorola 68000 processor.) 1987: Acorn Archimedes (Europe) (based on the powerful Acorn-developed 32-bit ARM microprocessor; most powerful home computer in its class on its debut) 1989: SAM Coupé (Europe) (based on 6 MHz Z80 microprocessor; marketed as a logical upgrade from the Sinclair ZX Spectrum) References See also Computer magazines History of computing hardware (1960s-present) Honeywell 316 a "home computer" from 1969 List of home computers List of home computers by category List of home computers by video hardware List of video game consoles The influence of the IBM-PC on the PC market Microprocessor development board and List of early microcomputers, first microprocessor based systems used by hobbyists Personal computer Pirates of Silicon Valley - docu-fiction focused on Apple and Microsoft evolution Triumph of the Nerds Video Display Controller, chips that were used to create the video graphics of many early home computers External links Rune's PC Museum Collection of old analog and digital computers at Old Computer Museum Computer History Museum – An online museum of home computing and gaming HCM - Home Computer Museum "Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures" – From Ars Technica article on computing in the 1980s | Home_computer |@lemmatized child:4 play:4 paperboy:1 amstrad:3 cpc:3 home:97 computer:148 tandy:3 color:5 feature:4 version:4 basic:11 programming:4 language:4 sometimes:5 sprawling:1 nature:2 well:3 outfit:1 system:37 much:9 evidence:1 class:2 personal:15 enter:1 market:15 become:12 common:7 website:1 consumer:5 accessible:1 capable:1 video:16 game:23 console:13 typically:4 cost:10 less:7 business:8 scientific:1 engineering:1 orient:2 desktop:2 time:8 generally:3 powerful:4 term:2 memory:3 expandability:1 however:2 often:12 good:2 graphic:9 sound:3 contemporary:1 usually:7 purchase:6 education:3 productivity:2 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3,728 | Genetic_disorder | A genetic disorder is an illness caused by abnormalities in genes or chromosomes. While some diseases, such as cancer, are due in part to a genetic disorders, they can also be caused by environmental factors. Most disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or millions. Some types of recessive gene disorder confer an advantage in the heterozygous state in certain environments. WGBH Educational Foundation A haploid cell has only one set of chromosomes. A diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes. In human, the somatic cells are diploid, and the gametes are haploid. Genetic diseases are typically diagnosed and treated by geneticists. Genetic counselors assist the physicians and directly counsel patients. Single gene disorder +Prevalence of some single gene disorders Table 7-1 in: 8th edition. Disorder Prevalence Autosomal dominant Familial hypercholesterolemia 1 in 500 Polycystic kidney disease 1 in 1250 Huntington disease 1 in 2,500 Hereditary spherocytosis 1 in 5,000 Marfan syndrome 1 in 20,000 Autosomal recessive Sickle cell anemia 1 in 625 (African Americans) Cystic fibrosis 1 in 2,000 (Caucasians) Tay-Sachs disease 1 in 3,000 (American Jews) Phenylketonuria 1 in 12,000 Mucopolysaccharidoses 1 in 25,000 Glycogen storage diseases 1 in 50,000 Galactosemia 1 in 57,000 X-linked Duchenne muscular dystrophy 1 in 7,000 Hemophilia 1 in 10,000 <font size=1> Values are for liveborn infants A single gene disorder is the result of a single mutated gene. There are estimated to be over 4000 human diseases caused by single gene defects. Single gene disorders can be passed on to subsequent generations in several ways. Genomic imprinting and uniparental disomy, however, may affect inheritance patterns. The divisions between recessive and dominant types are not "hard and fast" although the divisions between autosomal and X-linked types are (since the latter types are distinguished purely based on the chromosomal location of the gene). For example, achondroplasia is typically considered a dominant disorder, but children with two genes for achondroplasia have a severe skeletal disorder that achondroplasics could be viewed as carriers of. Sickle-cell anemia is also considered a recessive condition, but heterozygous carriers have increased immunity to malaria in early childhood, which could be described as a related dominant condition. Autosomal dominant Only one mutated copy of the gene will be necessary for a person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder. Each affected person usually has one affected parent. There is a 50% chance that a child will inherit the mutated gene. Conditions that are autosomal dominant often have low penetrance, which means that although only one mutated copy is needed, a relatively small proportion of those who inherit that mutation go on to develop the disease. Examples of this type of disorder are Huntington's disease, Neurofibromatosis 1, Marfan Syndrome, Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer, and Hereditary multiple exostoses, which is a highly penetrant autosomal dominant disorder. Birth defects are also called congenital anomalies. Autosomal recessive Two copies of the gene must be mutated for a person to be affected by an autosomal recessive disorder. An affected person usually has unaffected parents who each carry a single copy of the mutated gene (and are referred to as carriers). Two unaffected people who each carry one copy of the mutated gene have a 25% chance with each pregnancy of having a child affected by the disorder. Examples of this type of disorder are Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cell anemia (Also Partial Sickle Cell Anemia), Tay-Sachs disease, Niemann Pick disease, Spinal muscular atrophy, and Dry (otherwise known as "rice-brand") earwax X-linked dominant X-linked dominant disorders are caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. Only a few disorders have this inheritance pattern, with a prime example being X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets. Males and females are both affected in these disorders, with males typically being more severely affected than females. Some X-linked dominant conditions such as Rett syndrome, Incontinentia Pigmenti type 2 and Aicardi Syndrome are usually fatal in males either in utero or shortly after birth, and are therefore predominantly seen in females. Exceptions to this finding are extremely rare cases in which boys with Klinefelter Syndrome (47,XXY) also inherit an X-linked dominant condition and exhibit symptoms more similar to those of a female in terms of disease severity. The chance of passing on an X-linked dominant disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked dominant disorder will all be unaffected (since they receive their father's Y chromosome), and his daughters will all inherit the condition. A woman with an X-linked dominant disorder has a 50% chance of having an affected fetus with each pregnancy, although it should be noted that in cases such as Incontinentia Pigmenti only female offspring are generally viable. In addition, although these conditions do not alter fertility per se, individuals with Rett syndrome or Aicardi syndrome rarely reproduce. X-linked recessive X-linked recessive disorders are also caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. Males are more frequently affected than females, and the chance of passing on the disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked recessive disorder will not be affected, and his daughters will carry one copy of the mutated gene. A woman who is a carrier of an X-linked recessive disorder (XRXr) has a 50% chance of having sons who are affected and a 50% chance of having daughters who carry one copy of the mutated gene and are therefore carriers. Examples of this type of disorder are Hemophilia A, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, red-green color blindness, Muscular dystrophy and Androgenetic alopecia. Y-linked Y-linked disorders are caused by mutations on the Y chromosome. Because males inherit a Y chromosome from their fathers, every son of an affected father will be affected. Because females inherit an X chromosome from their fathers, female offspring of affected fathers are never affected. Since the Y chromosome is relatively small and contains very few genes, there are relatively few Y-linked disorders. Often the symptoms include infertility, which may be circumvented with the help of some fertility treatments. Examples are Male Infertility and hypertrichosis pinnae. Mitochondrial This type of inheritance, also known as maternal inheritance, applies to genes in mitochondrial DNA. Because only egg cells contribute mitochondria to the developing embryo, only females can pass on mitochondrial conditions to their children. Examples of this type of disorder are Human mitochondrial genetics, and Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy. Multifactorial and polygenic (complex) disorders Genetic disorders may also be complex, multifactorial or polygenic, this means that they are likely associated with the effects of multiple genes in combination with lifestyle and environmental factors. Multifactoral disorders include heart disease and diabetes. Although complex disorders often cluster in families, they do not have a clear-cut pattern of inheritance. This makes it difficult to determine a person’s risk of inheriting or passing on these disorders. Complex disorders are also difficult to study and treat because the specific factors that cause most of these disorders have not yet been identified. On a pedigree, polygenic diseases do tend to “run in families”, but the inheritance does not fit simple patterns as with Mendelian diseases. But this does not mean that the genes cannot eventually be located and studied. There is also a strong environmental component to many of them (e.g., blood pressure). asthma autism autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis cancers cleft palate diabetes heart disease hypertension inflammatory bowel disease mental retardation obesity See also Genetic epidemiology Inborn errors of metabolism List of genetic disorders Medical genetics References External links OMIM - Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, a catalog of human genes and genetic disorders Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) Office of Rare Diseases (ORD), National Institutes of Health (NIH) CDC’s National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities Genes and Disease from the Wellcome Trust HOPES - A layperson's guide to Huntington's Disease Genetic Disease Information from the Human Genome Project [http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_body/health_basics/genes_genetic_disorders.html Testing and more] Genetic Alliance | Genetic_disorder |@lemmatized genetic:11 disorder:40 illness:1 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3,729 | John_Keats | John Keats (; 31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821) was an English poet who became one of the key poets of the English Romantic movement during the early nineteenth century. During his very short life, his work received constant critical attacks from periodicals of the day, but his posthumous influence on poets such as Alfred Tennyson and Wilfred Owen has been immense. Elaborate word choice and sensual imagery characterize Keats' poetry, including a series of odes that were his masterpieces and which remain among the most popular poems in English literature. Keats's letters, which expound on his aesthetic theory of "negative capability", The Complete Poetical Works of John Keats edited by Horace Elisha Scudder, Boston: Riverside Press, 1899. p. 277 are among the most celebrated by any writer. Life John Keats was born in 1795 at 85 Moorgate in London, England, where his father, Thomas Keats, was a hostler. The pub is now called 'Keats at the Globe', only a few yards from Moorgate station. Keats was baptized at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate and lived happily for the first seven years of his life. The beginnings of his troubles occurred in 1804, when his father died of a fractured skull after falling from his horse. A year later, in 1805, Keats' grandfather died. His mother, Frances Jennings Keats, remarried soon afterwards, but quickly left the new husband and moved herself and her four children (a son had died in infancy) to live with Keats' grandmother, Alice Jennings. There, Keats attended a school that first instilled a love of literature in him. Keats' grave in Rome In 1810 his mother died of tuberculosis, leaving him and his siblings in the custody of their grandmother who appointed two guardians to take care of her new "charges". They removed Keats from his old school to become a surgeon's apprentice at Thomas Hammond's apothecary shop in Edmonton Church Street, Edmonton, London Retrieved 2 April 2008 (now part of the London Borough of Enfield). This continued until 1814, when, after a fight with his master, he left his apprenticeship and became a student at Guy's Hospital (now part of King's College London, University of London). During that year, he devoted more and more of his time to the study of literature. Keats traveled to the Isle of Wight in the spring of 1819, where he spent a week. Later that year he stayed in Winchester. It was here that Keats wrote Isabella, St. Agnes' Eve and Lamia. Parts of Hyperion and the five-act poetic tragedy Otho The Great were also written in Winchester. Following the death of his grandmother, he soon found his brother, Tom Keats, entrusted to his care. Tom was suffering, as his mother had, from tuberculosis. Finishing his epic poem Endymion, Keats left to walk in Scotland and Ireland with his friend Charles Armitage Brown. However, he too began to show signs of tuberculosis infection on that trip, and returned prematurely. When he did, he found that Tom's condition had deteriorated, and that Endymion had, as had Poems before it, been the target of much abuse from the critics. ON Febuary 23,1821, Tom Keats died of his disease, and John Keats moved again, to live in Brown's house in Hampstead, next to Hampstead Heath. There he lived next door to Fanny Brawne, who had been staying there with her mother. He then quickly fell in love with Fanny. However, it was overall an unhappy affair for the poet; Keats's ardour for her seemed to bring him more vexation than comfort. The later (posthumous) publication of their correspondence was to scandalise Victorian society. In the diary of Fanny Brawne was found only one sentence regarding the separation: "Mr. Keats has left Hampstead." Fanny's letters to Keats were, as the poet had requested, destroyed upon his death. However, in 1937, a collection of 31 letters, written by Fanny Brawne to Keats's sister, Frances, were published by Oxford University Press. While these letters revealed the depth of Brawne's feelings toward Keats and in many ways attempted to redeem her rather promiscuous reputation, it is arguable whether or not they succeeded. Life and Death masks in Rome This relationship was cut short when, by 1820, Keats began showing serious signs of tuberculosis, the disease that had plagued his family. On the suggestion of his doctors, he left the cold airs of London behind and moved to Italy with his friend Joseph Severn. Keats moved into a house, which is now a museum that is dedicated to his life and work, The Keats-Shelley House, on the Spanish Steps, in Rome, where, despite attentive care from Severn and Dr. John Clark, the poet's health rapidly deteriorated. The Spanish Steps, Rome, Italy, seen from Piazza di Spagna. John Keats died in the house in the right foreground, which is now a museum. He died in 1821 and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome. His last request was to be buried under a tombstone reading, "Here lies One Whose Name was writ in Water." His name was not to appear on the stone. Despite these requests, however, Severn and Brown also added the epitaph: "This Grave contains all that was mortal, of a YOUNG ENGLISH POET, who on his Death Bed, in the Bitterness of his heart, at the Malicious Power of his enemies, desired these words to be Engraven on his Tomb Stone" along with the image of a lyre with broken strings. Shelley blamed Keats' death on an article published shortly before in the Quarterly Review, with a scathing attack on Keats' Endymion. The offending article was long believed to have been written by William Gifford, though later shown to be the work of John Wilson Croker. Keats's death inspired Shelley to write the poem Adonais. Byron later composed a short poem on this theme using the phrase "snuffed out by an article." However Byron, far less admiring of Keats's poetry than Shelley and generally more cynical in nature, was here probably just as much poking fun at Shelley's interpretation as he was having a dig at his old fencing partners the critics. (see below, Byron's other less than serious poem on the same subject). The largest collection of Keats's letters, manuscripts, and other papers is in the Houghton Library at Harvard University. Other collections of such material can be found at the British Library; Keats House, Hampstead; The Keats-Shelley House, Rome; and the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York. Bibliography Additional works The Complete Poetical Works and Letters of John Keats, ed. Horace Elisha Scudder, Boston: Riverside Press (1899) full text available through Google Books The Complete Poetical Works of John Keats , ed. H. Buxton Forman. Oxford University Press (1907) full text available through Google Books The Letters of John Keats, 1814-1821, Volumes 1 and 2, ed. Hyder Edward Rollins, Harvard University Press (1958) The Poems of John Keats, ed. Jack Stillinger, Harvard University Press (1978) Complete Poems, ed. Jack Stillinger, Harvard University Press (1982) John Keats: Poetry Manuscripts at Harvard, a Facsimile Edition, ed. Jack Stillinger, Harvard University Press (1990) Selected Letters of John Keats, ed. Grant F. Scott, Harvard University Press (2002) Popular references to the works of John Keats. In written works Portrait, Keats' grave in Rome In Rudyard Kipling's story "Wireless", from his book Traffics and Discoveries (1904), a chemist (or "pharmacist", in American English) with tuberculosis, while dozing under the influence of drugs, reproduces almost perfectly about a dozen lines of Keats' poem "The Eve of St. Agnes", although he has never read Keats. The narrator believes that this remarkable near-perfect reproduction happens because of the combination of the chemist's drug-trance and his having the same illness and profession as Keats, causing him to "pick up" the same "universal spiritual vibrations" that Keats once did. The story at the same time makes fun of the infant science of radio-telegraphy: in the next room a "wireless telegraph" hobbyist is attempting to communicate with a friend, with little success. F. Scott Fitzgerald refers to a line in "Ode to a Nightingale" in the title of his novel Tender Is The Night. Arthur Ransome uses two references from "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" in his children's books, the Swallows and Amazons series. A.N.Wilson's review in The Daily Telegraph 15 August 2005 P.G. Wodehouse in his review of the first Flashman novel that came to his attention used a phrase from "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer": "Now I understand what that ‘when a new planet swims into his ken’ excitement is all about." Quoted on current UK imprint of Flashman novels as cover blurb. In the novella Seymour: An Introduction, J. D. Salinger incorporates a poem attributed an eight-year-old iteration of one of his most complex characters, Seymour Glass. The poem reads: "John Keats/ John Keats/ John/ Please put your scarf on", in reference to his fatal tuberculosis; a condition aggravated by cold weather. In allusion to Keat's complaint to Sir Isaac Newton for destroying the beauty of the rainbow, Richard Dawkins names his book Unweaving the Rainbow Dan Simmons's science-fiction novels of the Hyperion Cantos feature two characters with the cloned body of John Keats, as well as his personality (reconstructed and programmed into an AI). Some of the main themes of these novels, as well as their names, draw upon "Hyperion" and "Endymion". A quote from Keats appears in Phillip Pullman's novel The Subtle Knife, "...capable of being in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason -" (from a 21 December 1817 letter by Keats on his theory of negative capability). The popular teen series Gossip Girl mention Keats throughout the novels as the male protagonist Daniel Humphrey's poetic hero and is referenced numerous times by the character. Robert Frost, in his poem Choose Something Like a Star, alludes to John Keats' poem Bright Star. The eighteenth line reads as follows: "And steadfast as Keats' Eremite." In 1977 author Anthony Burgess (A Clockwork Orange, Napoleon Symphony) recreated Keats' last days in Rome in a book entitled ABBA ABBA. Ann Brashares named one of her chapters in The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on," from Ode to a Grecian Urn In the introduction to Literary Theory, Terry Eagleton writes, "If you approach me at a bus stop and murmur 'Thou still unravished bride of quietness,' then I am instantly aware that I am in the presence of the literary." What is murmured by the hypothetical bus rider is the first line of Keats' "Ode to a Grecian Urn". In The Bear by William Faulkner, McCaslin Edmonds reads some lines of Ode on a Grecian Urn to Isaac McCaslin :" She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss/ Forever will thou love and she be fair!" In performed works Keats was mentioned in The Smiths' song "Cemetry Gates": "Keats and Yeats are on your side \ while Wilde is on mine". In pop singer Natasha Bedingfield's 2005 single "These Words", Keats is mentioned along with Byron and Shelley. Keats in Hampstead, a play written and directed by James Veitch and based on the poet's time at Wentworth Place, premiered in the garden of Keats House in July 2007. A radio play The Mask Of Death on the final days of John Keats in Rome written by the Indian English poet Gopi Kottoor captures the last days of the young poet as revealed through his circle of friends (Severn), his poetry and letters. Hammersmith rock band Tellison adapt J.D. Salinger's haiku in their song "Architects", with the lyric "John Keats, John Keats, John Keats, John, John Keats, John, Please put a scarf on". On their 2005 album The Runners Four, the band Deerhoof included a song titled "Spirit Ditties Of No Tone," referencing a line in Keats' poem, "Ode on a Grecian Urn". Films about Keats include: A period drama about Keats's romance with Fanny Brawne entitled Bright Star,directed by Jane Campion, was released in May 2009. It stars Ben Whishaw and Abbie Cornish in the lead roles and in May 2009 it was tipped, though failed, to win the Palme D'Or at Cannes . A mockumentary 'grunge' musical based on Keats's letters and set in Seattle at the beginning of the 1990s, titled Negative Capability, directed by Daniel Gildark. Dawson Leery from Dawson's Creek quotes Keats's poem "Ode on A Grecian Urn"- "beauty is truth, truth beauty" in Season 2, Episode "The All-Nighter". The same Ode is quoted by Pacey in another episode of the same season, "To Be or Not to Be...". Keats's line from Book 1 of Endymion is referenced in the film White Men Can't Jump (1992) when a character admires a shot and says "A thing of beauty is a joy forever. My man John Keats said that". When I have fears that I may cease to be is mentioned in the film Brief Encounter (1945). To Autumn is mentioned in the films The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1969) and Bridget Jones’s Diary (2001). The title of Ziggy Marley’s album Love Is My Religion (2006) is a quotation from Keats’s letter to Fanny Brawne of 13 October 1819. On their 2008 album Trivmvirate, the band The Monolith Deathcult included a few lines from Keats's La Belle Dame sans Merci in a song titled Wrath of the Ba'ath. The Love Letters written by Keats to his beloved, Fanny Brawne, are mentioned as part of the love letters that Mr. Big writes to Carrie in "Sex and the City - The Movie" (2008). See also Physician writer Keats House Notes References . . Biographies Monckton Milnes, Richard, ed. (Lord Houghton) (1848). Life, Letters and Literary Remains of John Keats. 2 vols. London: Edward Moxon. Rossetti, William Michael (1887). The Life and Writings of John Keats. London: Walter Scott. Colvin, Sidney (1917). John Keats: His Life and Poetry, His Friends Critics and After-Fame. London: Macmillan. Lowell, Amy (1925). John Keats. 2 vols. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Brown, Charles Armitage (1937). The Life of John Keats, ed. with an introduction and notes by Dorothy Hyde Bodurtha and Willard Bissell Pope. London: Oxford University Press. Gittings, Robert (1954). John Keats: The Living Year. 21 September 1818 to 21 September 1819. London: Heinemann. Parson, Donald (1954). Portraits of Keats. Cleveland: World Publishing Co. Richardson, Joanna (1963). The Everlasting Spell. A Study of Keats and His Friends. London: Cape. Ward, Aileen (1963). John Keats: The Making of a Poet. London: Secker & Warburg. Bate, Walter Jackson (1964). John Keats. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Gittings, Robert (1964). The Keats Inheritance. London: Heinemann. Gittings, Robert (1968). John Keats. London: Heinemann. Hewlett, Dorothy (3rd rev. ed. 1970). A life of John Keats. London: Hutchinson. Colvin, Sidney (1970). John Keats: His Life and Poetry, His Friends, Critics, and After-Fame. New York: Octagon Books. Richardson, Joanna (1980). Keats and His Circle. An Album of Portraits. London: Cassell. Coote, Stephen (1995). John Keats. A Life. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Motion, Andrew (1997). Keats. London: Faber. Walsh, John Evangelist (1999). Darkling I Listen: The Last Days and Death of John Keats. New York: St. Martin's Press Kirkland, John (2008). Love Letters of Great Men, Vol. 1. CreateSpace Publishing. External links Sources Works by or about John Keats at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) (plain text and HTML) Complete Poetical Works Complete Poetical Works, in an RSS feed Electronic Concordance to the standard edition of Keats's poetry Keats's Poetry and commentary at Oldpoetry.com Portals John-Keats.com Keatsian.com Scholarship Romantic Circles -- Excellent Editions & Articles on Keats and other Authors of the Romantic period The Life of John Keats: a memoir by his friend Charles Armitage Brown The Life and Work of John Keats Keats’s Lamia – Dream Lost by Vladimir Voronsky Misc John Keats at the British Library Keats's grave Keats House The Keats-Shelley House in Rome "'Once More the Poet': Keats, Severn and the Grecian Lyre". Article by John Curtis Franklin about Severn's role in the design of Keats' tombstone, Protestant Cemetery, Rome John Keats at the National Portrait Gallery (London) "Second only to Byron": an essay on "Barry Cornwall" and Keats from TLS, 3 September 2008. 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3,730 | Dynamical_system | |The Lorenz attractor is an example of a non-linear dynamical system. Studying this system helped give rise to Chaos theory. The dynamical system concept is a mathematical formalization for any fixed "rule" which describes the time dependence of a point's position in its ambient space. Examples include the mathematical models that describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, and the number of fish each spring in a lake. At any given time a dynamical system has a state given by a set of real numbers (a vector) which can be represented by a point in an appropriate state space (a geometrical manifold). Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The evolution rule of the dynamical system is a fixed rule that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is deterministic: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state. Overview The concept of a dynamical system has its origins in Newtonian mechanics. There, as in other natural sciences and engineering disciplines, the evolution rule of dynamical systems is given implicitly by a relation that gives the state of the system only a short time into the future. (The relation is either a differential equation, difference equation or other time scale.) To determine the state for all future times requires iterating the relation many times—each advancing time a small step. The iteration procedure is referred to as solving the system or integrating the system. Once the system can be solved, given an initial point it is possible to determine all its future points, a collection known as a trajectory or orbit. Before the advent of fast computing machines, solving a dynamical system required sophisticated mathematical techniques and could only be accomplished for a small class of dynamical systems. Numerical methods executed on computers have simplified the task of determining the orbits of a dynamical system. For simple dynamical systems, knowing the trajectory is often sufficient, but most dynamical systems are too complicated to be understood in terms of individual trajectories. The difficulties arise because: The systems studied may only be known approximately—the parameters of the system may not be known precisely or terms may be missing from the equations. The approximations used bring into question the validity or relevance of numerical solutions. To address these questions several notions of stability have been introduced in the study of dynamical systems, such as Lyapunov stability or structural stability. The stability of the dynamical system implies that there is a class of models or initial conditions for which the trajectories would be equivalent. The operation for comparing orbits to establish their equivalence changes with the different notions of stability. The type of trajectory may be more important than one particular trajectory. Some trajectories may be periodic, whereas others may wander through many different states of the system. Applications often require enumerating these classes or maintaining the system within one class. Classifying all possible trajectories has led to the qualitative study of dynamical systems, that is, properties that do not change under coordinate changes. Linear dynamical systems and systems that have two numbers describing a state are examples of dynamical systems where the possible classes of orbits are understood. The behavior of trajectories as a function of a parameter may be what is needed for an application. As a parameter is varied, the dynamical systems may have bifurcation points where the qualitative behavior of the dynamical system changes. For example, it may go from having only periodic motions to apparently erratic behavior, as in the transition to turbulence of a fluid. The trajectories of the system may appear erratic, as if random. In these cases it may be necessary to compute averages using one very long trajectory or many different trajectories. The averages are well defined for ergodic systems and a more detailed understanding has been worked out for hyperbolic systems. Understanding the probabilistic aspects of dynamical systems has helped establish the foundations of statistical mechanics and of chaos. It was in the work of Poincaré that these dynamical systems themes developed. Basic definitions A dynamical system is a manifold M called the phase (or state) space and a smooth evolution function Φ t that for any element of t ∈ T, the time, maps a point of the phase space back into the phase space. The notion of smoothness changes with applications and the type of manifold. There are several choices for the set T. When T is taken to be the reals, the dynamical system is called a flow; and if T is restricted to the non-negative reals, then the dynamical system is a semi-flow. When T is taken to be the integers, it is a cascade or a map; and the restriction to the non-negative integers is a semi-cascade. Examples The evolution function Φ t is often the solution of a differential equation of motion The equation gives the time derivative, represented by the dot, of a trajectory x(t) on the phase space starting at some point x0. The vector field v(x) is a smooth function that at every point of the phase space M provides the velocity vector of the dynamical system at that point. (These vectors are not vectors in the phase space M, but in the tangent space TMx of the point x.) Given a smooth Φ t, an autonomous vector field can be derived from it. There is no need for higher order derivatives in the equation, nor for time dependence in v(x) because these can be eliminated by considering systems of higher dimensions. Other types of differential equations can be used to define the evolution rule: is an example of an equation that arises from the modeling of mechanical systems with complicated constraints. The differential equations determining the evolution function Φ t are often ordinary differential equations: in this case the phase space M is a finite dimensional manifold. Many of the concepts in dynamical systems can be extended to infinite-dimensional manifolds—those that are locally Banach spaces—in which case the differential equations are partial differential equations. In the late 20th century the dynamical system perspective to partial differential equations started gaining popularity. Further examples Logistic map Double pendulum Arnold's cat map Horseshoe map Baker's map is an example of a chaotic piecewise linear map Billiards and outer billiards Hénon map Lorenz system Circle map Rössler map List of chaotic maps Swinging Atwood's machine Quadratic map simulation system Bouncing ball simulation system Linear dynamical systems Linear dynamical systems can be solved in terms of simple functions and the behavior of all orbits classified. In a linear system the phase space is the N-dimensional Euclidean space, so any point in phase space can be represented by a vector with N numbers. The analysis of linear systems is possible because they satisfy a superposition principle: if u(t) and w(t) satisfy the differential equation for the vector field (but not necessarily the initial condition), then so will u(t) + w(t). Flows For a flow, the vector field Φ(x) is a linear function of the position in the phase space, that is, with A a matrix, b a vector of numbers and x the position vector. The solution to this system can be found by using the superposition principle (linearity). The case b ≠ 0 with A = 0 is just a straight line in the direction of b: When b is zero and A ≠ 0 the origin is an equilibrium (or singular) point of the flow, that is, if x0 = 0, then the orbit remains there. For other initial conditions, the equation of motion is given by the exponential of a matrix: for an initial point x0, When b = 0, the eigenvalues of A determine the structure of the phase space. From the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of A it is possible to determine if an initial point will converge or diverge to the equilibrium point at the origin. The distance between two different initial conditions in the case A ≠ 0 will change exponentially in most cases, either converging exponentially fast towards a point, or diverging exponentially fast. Linear systems display sensitive dependence on initial conditions in the case of divergence. For nonlinear systems this is one of the (necessary but not sufficient) conditions for chaotic behavior. Linear vector fields and a few trajectories. Maps A discrete-time, affine dynamical system has the form with A a matrix and b a vector. As in the continuous case, the change of coordinates x → x + (1 - A) –1b removes the term b from the equation. In the new coordinate system, the origin is a fixed point of the map and the solutions are of the linear system A nx0. The solutions for the map are no longer curves, but points that hop in the phase space. The orbits are organized in curves, or fibers, which are collections of points that map into themselves under the action of the map. As in the continuous case, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A determine the structure of phase space. For example, if u1 is an eigenvector of A, with a real eigenvalue smaller than one, then the straight lines given by the points along α u1, with α ∈ R, is an invariant curve of the map. Points in this straight line run into the fixed point. There are also many other discrete dynamical systems. Local dynamics The qualitative properties of dynamical systems do not change under a smooth change of coordinates (this is sometimes taken as a definition of qualitative): a singular point of the vector field (a point where v(x) = 0) will remain a singular point under smooth transformations; a periodic orbit is a loop in phase space and smooth deformations of the phase space cannot alter it being a loop. It is in the neighborhood of singular points and periodic orbits that the structure of a phase space of a dynamical system can be well understood. In the qualitative study of dynamical systems, the approach is to show that there is a change of coordinates (usually unspecified, but computable) that makes the dynamical system as simple as possible. Rectification A flow in most small patches of the phase space can be made very simple. If y is a point where the vector field v(y) ≠ 0, then there is a change of coordinates for a region around y where the vector field becomes a series of parallel vectors of the same magnitude. This is known as the rectification theorem. The rectification theorem says that away from singular points the dynamics of a point in a small patch is a straight line. The patch can sometimes be enlarged by stitching several patches together, and when this works out in the whole phase space M the dynamical system is integrable. In most cases the patch cannot be extended to the entire phase space. There may be singular points in the vector field (where v(x) = 0); or the patches may become smaller and smaller as some point is approached. The more subtle reason is a global constraint, where the trajectory starts out in a patch, and after visiting a series of other patches comes back to the original one. If the next time the orbit loops around phase space in a different way, then it is impossible to rectify the vector field in the whole series of patches. Near periodic orbits In general, in the neighborhood of a periodic orbit the rectification theorem cannot be used. Poincaré developed an approach that transforms the analysis near a periodic orbit to the analysis of a map. Pick a point x0 in the orbit γ and consider the points in phase space in that neighborhood that are perpendicular to v(x0). These points are a Poincaré section S(γ, x0), of the orbit. The flow now defines a map, the Poincaré map F : S → S, for points starting in S and returning to S. Not all these points will take the same amount of time to come back, but the times will be close to the time it takes x0. The intersection of the periodic orbit with the Poincaré section is a fixed point of the Poincaré map F. By a translation, the point can be assumed to be at x = 0. The Taylor series of the map is F(x) = J · x + O(x²), so a change of coordinates h can only be expected to simplify F to its linear part This is known as the conjugation equation. Finding conditions for this equation to hold has been one of the major tasks of research in dynamical systems. Poincaré first approached it assuming all functions to be analytic and in the process discovered the non-resonant condition. If λ1,…,λν are the eigenvalues of J they will be resonant if one eigenvalue is an integer linear combination of two or more of the others. As terms of the form λi – ∑ (multiples of other eigenvalues) occurs in the denominator of the terms for the function h, the non-resonant condition is also known as the small divisor problem. Conjugation results The results on the existence of a solution to the conjugation equation depend on the eigenvalues of J and the degree of smoothness required from h. As J does not need to have any special symmetries, its eigenvalues will typically be complex numbers. When the eigenvalues of J are not in the unit circle, the dynamics near the fixed point x0 of F is called hyperbolic and when the eigenvalues are on the unit circle and complex, the dynamics is called elliptic. In the hyperbolic case the Hartman-Grobman theorem gives the conditions for the existence of a continuous function that maps the neighborhood of the fixed point of the map to the linear map J · x. The hyperbolic case is also structurally stable. Small changes in the vector field will only produce small changes in the Poincaré map and these small changes will reflect in small changes in the position of the eigenvalues of J in the complex plane, implying that the map is still hyperbolic. The Kolmogorov-Arnold-Moser (KAM) theorem gives the behavior near an elliptic point. Bifurcation theory When the evolution map Φt (or the vector field it is derived from) depends on a parameter μ, the structure of the phase space will also depend on this parameter. Small changes may produce no qualitative changes in the phase space until a special value μ0 is reached. At this point the phase space changes qualitatively and the dynamical system is said to have gone through a bifurcation. Bifurcation theory considers a structure in phase space (typically a fixed point, a periodic orbit, or an invariant torus) and studies its behavior as a function of the parameter μ. At the bifurcation point the structure may change its stability, split into new structures, or merge with other structures. By using Taylor series approximations of the maps and an understanding of the differences that may be eliminated by a change of coordinates, it is possible to catalog the bifurcations of dynamical systems. The bifurcations of a hyperbolic fixed point x0 of a system family Fμ can be characterized by the eigenvalues of the first derivative of the system DFμ(x0) computed at the bifurcation point. For a map, the bifurcation will occur when there are eigenvalues of DFμ on the unit circle. For a flow, it will occur when there are eigenvalues on the imaginary axis. For more information, see the main article on Bifurcation theory. Some bifurcations can lead to very complicated structures in phase space. For example, the Ruelle-Takens scenario describes how a periodic orbit bifurcates into a torus and the torus into a strange attractor. In another example, Feigenbaum period-doubling describes how a stable periodic orbit goes through a series of period-doubling bifurcations. Ergodic systems In many dynamical systems it is possible to choose the coordinates of the system so that the volume (really a ν-dimensional volume) in phase space is invariant. This happens for mechanical systems derived from Newton's laws as long as the coordinates are the position and the momentum and the volume is measured in units of (position) × (momentum). The flow takes points of a subset A into the points Φ<sup> t</sub>(A) and invariance of the phase space means that In the Hamiltonian formalism, given a coordinate it is possible to derive the appropriate (generalized) momentum such that the associated volume is preserved by the flow. The volume is said to be computed by the Liouville measure. In a Hamiltonian system not all possible configurations of position and momentum can be reached from an initial condition. Because of energy conservation, only the states with the same energy as the initial condition are accessible. The states with the same energy form an energy shell Ω, a sub-manifold of the phase space. The volume of the energy shell, computed using the Liouville measure, is preserved under evolution. For systems where the volume is preserved by the flow, Poincaré discovered the recurrence theorem: Assume the phase space has a finite Liouville volume and let F be a phase space volume-preserving map and A a subset of the phase space. Then almost every point of A returns to A infinitely often. The Poincaré recurrence theorem was used by Zermelo to object to Boltzmann's derivation of the increase in entropy in a dynamical system of colliding atoms. One of the questions raised by Boltzmann's work was the possible equality between time averages and space averages, what he called the ergodic hypothesis. The hypothesis states that the length of time a typical trajectory spends in a region A is vol(A)/vol(Ω). The ergodic hypothesis turned out not to be the essential property needed for the development of statistical mechanics and a series of other ergodic-like properties were introduced to capture the relevant aspects of physical systems. Koopman approached the study of ergodic systems by the use of functional analysis. An observable a is a function that to each point of the phase space associates a number (say instantaneous pressure, or average height). The value of an observable can be computed at another time by using the evolution function φ t. This introduces an operator U t, the transfer operator, By studying the spectral properties of the linear operator U it becomes possible to classify the ergodic properties of Φ t. In using the Koopman approach of considering the action of the flow on an observable function, the finite-dimensional nonlinear problem involving Φ t gets mapped into an infinite-dimensional linear problem involving U. The Liouville measure restricted to the energy surface Ω is the basis for the averages computed in equilibrium statistical mechanics. An average in time along a trajectory is equivalent to an average in space computed with the Boltzmann factor exp(−βH). This idea has been generalized by Sinai, Bowen, and Ruelle (SRB) to a larger class of dynamical systems that includes dissipative systems. SRB measures replace the Boltzmann factor and they are defined on attractors of chaotic systems. Chaos theory Simple nonlinear dynamical systems and even piecewise linear systems can exhibit a completely unpredictable behavior, which might seem to be random. (Remember that we are speaking of completely deterministic systems!). This seemingly unpredictable behavior has been called chaos. Hyperbolic systems are precisely defined dynamical systems that exhibit the properties ascribed to chaotic systems. In hyperbolic systems the tangent space perpendicular to a trajectory can be well separated into two parts: one with the points that converge towards the orbit (the stable manifold) and another of the points that diverge from the orbit (the unstable manifold). This branch of mathematics deals with the long-term qualitative behavior of dynamical systems. Here, the focus is not on finding precise solutions to the equations defining the dynamical system (which is often hopeless), but rather to answer questions like "Will the system settle down to a steady state in the long term, and if so, what are the possible attractors?" or "Does the long-term behavior of the system depend on its initial condition?" Note that the chaotic behavior of complicated systems is not the issue. Meteorology has been known for years to involve complicated—even chaotic—behavior. Chaos theory has been so surprising because chaos can be found within almost trivial systems. The logistic map is only a second-degree polynomial; the horseshoe map is piecewise linear. Geometrical definition A dynamical system is the tuple , with a manifold (locally a Banach space or Euclidean space), the domain for time (non-negative reals, the integers, ...) and an evolution rule t→f t (with ) such that f t is a diffeomorphism of the manifold to itself. So, f is a mapping of the time-domain into the space of diffeomorphisms of the manifold to itself. In other terms, f(t) is a diffeomorphism, for every time t in the domain . Measure theoretical definition See main article measure-preserving dynamical system. A dynamical system may be defined formally, as a measure-preserving transformation of a sigma-algebra, the quadruplet . Here, X is a set, and Σ is a sigma-algebra on X, so that the pair is a measurable space. μ is a finite measure on the sigma-algebra, so that the triplet is a probability space. A map is said to be Σ-measurable if and only if, for every , one has . A map τ is said to preserve the measure if and only if, for every , one has . Combining the above, a map τ is said to be a measure-preserving transformation of X , if it is a map from X to itself, it is Σ-measurable, and is measure-preserving. The quadruple , for such a τ, is then defined to be a dynamical system. The map τ embodies the time evolution of the dynamical system. Thus, for discrete dynamical systems the iterates for integer n are studied. For continuous dynamical systems, the map τ is understood to be finite time evolution map and the construction is more complicated. Examples of dynamical systems Wikipedia links Arnold's cat map Baker's map is an example of a chaotic piecewise linear map Circle map Double pendulum Billiards and Outer Billiards Henon map Horseshoe map Irrational rotation List of chaotic maps Logistic map Lorenz system Rossler map External links Bouncing Ball Mechanical Strings Journal of Advanced Research in Dynamical and Control Systems Swinging Atwood's Machine (SAM) Interactive applet for the Standard and Henon Maps by A. Luhn See also Behavioral modeling Dynamical systems theory List of dynamical system topics Oscillation People in systems and control Sarkovskii's theorem System dynamics Systems theory References Further reading Works providing a broad coverage: (available as a reprint: ISBN 0-201-40840-6) Encyclopaedia of Mathematical Sciences (ISSN 0938-0396) has a sub-series on dynamical systems with reviews of current research. Introductory texts with a unique perspective: Textbooks Popularizations: External links A collection of dynamic and non-linear system models and demo applets (in Monash University's Virtual Lab) Arxiv preprint server has daily submissions of (non-refereed) manuscripts in dynamical systems. DSWeb provides up-to-date information on dynamical systems and its applications. Encyclopedia of dynamical systems A part of Scholarpedia — peer reviewed and written by invited experts. Nonlinear Dynamics. Models of bifurcation and chaos by Elmer G. Wiens Oliver Knill has a series of examples of dynamical systems with explanations and interactive controls. Sci.Nonlinear FAQ 2.0 (Sept 2003) provides definitions, explanations and resources related to nonlinear science Online books or lecture notes: Geometrical theory of dynamical systems. Nils Berglund's lecture notes for a course at ETH at the advanced undergraduate level. Dynamical systems. George D. Birkhoff's 1927 book already takes a modern approach to dynamical systems. Chaos: classical and quantum. An introduction to dynamical systems from the periodic orbit point of view. Modeling Dynamic Systems. An introduction to the development of mathematical models of dynamic systems. Learning Dynamical Systems. Tutorial on learning dynamical systems. Ordinary Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems. Lecture notes by Gerald Teschl Research groups: Dynamical Systems Group Groningen, IWI, University of Groningen. Chaos @ UMD. Concentrates on the applications of dynamical systems. Dynamical Systems, SUNY Stony Brook. Lists of conferences, researchers, and some open problems. Center for Dynamics and Geometry, Penn State. Control and Dynamical Systems, Caltech. Laboratory of Nonlinear Systems, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL). Center for Dynamical Systems, University of Bremen Systems Analysis, Modelling and Prediction Group, University of Oxford Non-Linear Dynamics Group, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon Dynamical Systems, IMPA, Instituto Nacional de Matemática Pura e Aplicada. Nonlinear Dynamics Workgroup, Institute of Computer Science, Czech Academy of Sciences. 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3,731 | Leading_question | In common law systems that rely on testimony by witnesses, a leading question is a question that suggests the answer or contains the information the examiner is looking for. For example, this question is leading: You were at Duffy's bar on the night of July 15, weren't you? It suggests that the witness was at Duffy's bar on the night in question. The same question in a non-leading form would be: Where were you on the night of July 15? This form of question does not suggest to the witness the answer the examiner hopes to elicit. Leading questions may often be answerable with a yes or no (though not all yes-no questions are leading), while non-leading questions are open-ended. Depending on the circumstances leading questions can be objectionable or proper. The propriety of leading questions generally depends on the relationship of the witness to the party conducting the examination. An examiner may generally ask leading questions of a hostile witness or on cross-examination, but not on direct examination. It is important to distinguish between leading questions and questions that are objectionable because they contain implicit assumptions. The classic example is: Have you stopped beating your wife? This question is not leading, as it does not suggest that the examiner expects any particular answer. It is however objectionable because it assumes (among other things) that the witness (1) was married and (2) had in fact beat his wife in the past, facts which (presumably) have not been established. A proper objection would be that this question is argumentative. Propriety of leading questions United States While each state has its own rules of evidence, many states model their rules on the Federal Rules of Evidence, which themselves relate closely to the common-law mode of examination. Rule 611(c) of the Federal Rules of Evidence provides that: Leading questions should not be used on the direct examination of a witness except as may be necessary to develop the witness' testimony. Ordinarily leading questions should be permitted on cross-examination. When a party calls a hostile witness, an adverse party, or a witness identified with an adverse party, interrogation may be by leading questions. Leading questions are the primary mode of examination of witnesses who are hostile to the examining party, and are not objectionable in that context. Examination of hostile witnesses usually takes place on cross-examination. As the rule recognizes, the examination of a "hostile witness, an adverse party, or a witness identified with an adverse party" will sometimes take place on direct examination, and leading questions are permitted. In practice, judges will sometimes permit leading questions on direct examination of friendly witnesses with respect to preliminary matters that are necessary to provide background or context, and which are not in dispute; for example, a witness's employment or education. Leading questions may also be permitted on direct examination where a witness requires special handling, for example a child. However, the court must take care to be sure that the examining attorney is not coaching the witness through leading questions. Some exceptions to the no-leading-questions rule Where the witness is hostile to the examiner, or reluctant or unwilling to testify, in which situation the witness is unlikely to accept being "coached" by the questioner. To bring out preliminary matters (name, occupation, and other pedigree information). Where the memory of the witness has been exhausted and there is still information to be elicited. In a sensitive area, to avoid the witness from testifying to incompetent or prejudicial matter. See also Fallacy of many questions, also known as loaded questions External links Federal Rules of Evidence - Rule 611(c) The Straight Dope Mailbag: "What is a hostile witness?" Trial Advocacy Tips: "How to Ask a Leading Question" Trial Advocacy Tips: "Why You Shouldn't Ask Leading Questions During Direct Examination" | Leading_question |@lemmatized common:2 law:2 system:1 rely:1 testimony:2 witness:23 lead:13 question:30 suggest:4 answer:3 contain:2 information:3 examiner:5 look:1 example:4 duffy:2 bar:2 night:3 july:2 non:2 leading:10 form:2 would:2 hop:1 elicit:2 may:5 often:1 answerable:1 yes:2 though:1 open:1 end:1 depend:2 circumstance:1 objectionable:4 proper:2 propriety:2 generally:2 relationship:1 party:7 conduct:1 examination:14 ask:3 hostile:7 cross:3 direct:6 important:1 distinguish:1 implicit:1 assumption:1 classic:1 stop:1 beat:2 wife:2 expect:1 particular:1 however:2 assume:1 among:1 thing:1 marry:1 fact:2 past:1 presumably:1 establish:1 objection:1 argumentative:1 united:1 state:3 rule:9 evidence:4 many:2 model:1 federal:3 relate:1 closely:1 mode:2 c:2 provide:2 use:1 except:1 necessary:2 develop:1 ordinarily:1 permit:4 call:1 adverse:4 identify:2 interrogation:1 primary:1 examine:2 context:2 usually:1 take:3 place:2 recognize:1 sometimes:2 practice:1 judge:1 friendly:1 respect:1 preliminary:2 matter:3 background:1 dispute:1 employment:1 education:1 also:3 require:1 special:1 handling:1 child:1 court:1 must:1 care:1 sure:1 attorney:1 coach:2 exception:1 reluctant:1 unwilling:1 testify:2 situation:1 unlikely:1 accept:1 questioner:1 bring:1 name:1 occupation:1 pedigree:1 memory:1 exhaust:1 still:1 sensitive:1 area:1 avoid:1 incompetent:1 prejudicial:1 see:1 fallacy:1 know:1 loaded:1 external:1 link:1 straight:1 dope:1 mailbag:1 trial:2 advocacy:2 tip:2 |@bigram implicit_assumption:1 external_link:1 straight_dope:1 |
3,732 | Carbon_monoxide | Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless and tasteless, yet highly toxic gas. Its molecules consist of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom, connected by a covalent triple bond. It is the simplest oxocarbon, and can be viewed as the anhydride of formic acid (CO2H2). Carbon monoxide is produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing compounds; it forms in preference to the more usual carbon dioxide (CO2) when there is a reduced availability of oxygen, such as when operating a stove or an internal combustion engine in an enclosed space. Carbon monoxide has significant fuel value, burning in air with a characteristic blue flame, producing carbon dioxide. Despite its serious toxicity, it was once widely used (as the main component of coal gas) for domestic lighting, cooking and heating, and in the production of nickel. Carbon monoxide still plays a major role in modern technology, in industrial processes such as iron smelting and as a precursor to myriad products. History Carbon monoxide has been unknowingly used by humans since prehistoric times, for the smelting of iron and other metallic ores. The gas was used for executions by the Greek and Romans in Classical Antiquity, and was described by the Spanish doctor Arnaldus de Villa Nova in the 11th century. In 1776 the French chemist de Lassone produced CO by heating zinc oxide with coke, but mistakenly concluded that the gaseous product was hydrogen as it burned with a blue flame. The gas was identified as a compound containing carbon and oxygen by the English chemist William Cumberland Cruikshank in the year 1800. Its toxic properties on dogs were thoroughly investigated by Claude Bernard around 1846. During World War II, carbon monoxide was used to keep motor vehicles running in parts of the world where gasoline was scarce. External charcoal or wood burners were fitted, and the carbon monoxide produced by gasification was piped to the carburetor. The CO in this case is known as "wood gas". Carbon monoxide was also reportedly used on a small scale during the Holocaust at some Nazi extermination camps (most notably by gas vans in Chelmno), and in the Action T4 "euthanasia" program. Molecular properties The carbon monoxide molecule consists of one atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen, covalently bonded by a triple bond. Its bond length is 0.1128 nm. The effects of atomic formal charge and electronegativity result in a small bond dipole moment with its negative end on the carbon atom . The reason for this, despite oxygen's greater electronegativity, is that the highest occupied molecular orbital has an energy much closer to that of carbon's p orbitals, meaning that greater electron density is found near the carbon. In addition, carbon's lower electronegativity creates a much more diffuse electron cloud, enhancing the polarizability. This is also the reason that almost all chemistry involving carbon monoxide occurs through the carbon atom, and not the oxygen. The bond length of CO is consistent with a partial triple bond, and the molecule can be represented by three resonance structures: In this classical model, the leftmost structure contributes the most. As such, carbon monoxide resembles molecular nitrogen, and in addition, it has nearly the same molecular mass. Indeed, their physical properties (boiling point, melting point, etc.) are very similar. Biological and physiological properties Toxicity Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries. Carbon monoxide is colorless and odorless, but extremely toxic: it combines with haemoglobin in the blood to produce carbonmonoxyhemoglobin (HbCO), which is ineffective for delivering oxygen to the body tissues (a condition known as anoxemia). Concentrations as low as 667 ppm can cause up to 50% of the body's haemoglobin to convert to HbCO. In the United States, OSHA limits long-term workplace exposure levels to 50 ppm. The most common symptoms of CO poisining can resemble the flu, including headache, nausea and vomiting, dizziness, lethargy and a feeling of weakness. Infants may be irritable and feed poorly. Neurological signs include confusion, disorientation, visual disturbance, syncope and seizures.. In his pioneering 1846 study, Claude Bernard observed that that the blood of poisoned dogs was more rutilant ("gleaming" Reverso Dictionary. Accessed April 14, 2009 or "glowing" Webster's Online ) in all the vessels, a fact now known to be due to the formation of HbCO. Some classic descriptions of CO poisoning cite also retinal haemorrhages, bright reddish skin, and an abormal "cherry-red" blood hue; but in most clinical diagnoses these signs are seldom seen. Carbon monoxide is believed to compromise other important molecules such as myoglobin, and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase. Exposures can lead to significant damage to the heart and central nervous system, especially to the globus pallidus, often with long-term sequelae. Carbon monoxide can also have severe effects on the fetus of a pregnant woman. Human Physiology Carbon monoxide is produced naturally in the human body as part of normal metabolism, such as the breakdown of heme (a part of the hemoglobin molecule) by the enzyme heme oxygenase to CO, biliverdin and a Fe3+ cation. The endogenously produced CO may have important physiological roles in the body, such as a neurotransmitter or a blood vessels relaxant. In the neuronal system it has been shown to be involved in learning and memory and odor response, among others. It provides cardiac protection in the circulatory system. It also has roles in the immune, respiratory, reproductive, and gastrointestinal systems, as well as in the kidneys and liver. Because of its expansive role, abnormalities in CO metabolism have been linked to a variety of disease processes, including neurodegenerations, hypertension, heart failure, and inflammation. In addition CO regulates inflammatory reactions in a manner that prevents the development of several diseases such as atherosclerosis or severe malaria. Microbiology CO is a nutrient for methanogenic bacteria, a building block for acetylcoenzyme A. This theme is the subject for the emerging field of bioorganometallic chemistry. In bacteria, CO is produced via the reduction of carbon dioxide via the enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, an Fe-Ni-S-containing protein. A haeme-based CO-sensor protein, CooA, is known. The scope of its biological role is still unclear, it is apparently part of a signaling pathway in bacteria and archaea, but its occurrence in mammals is not established. Occurrence Carbon monoxide commonly occurs in various natural and artificial environments. Here are some typical concentrations: 0.1 ppm - natural background atmosphere level (MOPITT) 0.5 to 5 ppm - average background level in homes 5 to 15 ppm - levels near properly adjusted gas stoves in homes 100-200 ppm - Mexico City central area from autos etc. 5,000 ppm - chimney of a home wood fire 7,000 ppm - undiluted warm car exhaust - without catalytic converter Atmospheric presence MOPITT 2000 global carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide has always been present as a minor constituent of the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of volcanic activity but also from natural and man-made fires (such as forest and bushfires, burning of crop residues, and sugarcane fire-cleaning) and the burning of fossil fuels. It occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high pressures in the earth's mantle. Carbon monoxide contents of volcanic gases vary from less than 0.01% to as much as 2% depending on the volcano. Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas. Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of methane and tropospheric ozone through chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the hydroxyl radical, OH.) that would otherwise destroy them. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide concentrations are both short-lived in the atmosphere and spatially variable. Urban pollution Carbon monoxide is a major atmospheric pollutant in urban areas, chiefly from exhaust of internal combution engines (including vehicles, portable and back-up generators, lawn mowers, power washers, etc.), but also from improper burning of various other fuels (including wood, coal, charcoal, oil, kerosene, propane, natural gas, and trash). Along with aldehydes, it reacts photochemically to produce peroxy radicals. Peroxy radicals react with nitrogen oxide to increase the ratio of NO2 to NO, which reduces the quantity of NO that is available to react with ozone. Indoor pollution In closed environments, the concentration of carbon monoxide can easily rise to lethal levels. On average, about 170 people in the United States die every year from CO produced by non-automotive consumer products. These products include malfunctioning fuel-burning appliances such as furnaces, ranges, water heaters and room heaters; engine-powered equipment such as portable generators; fireplaces; and charcoal that is burned in homes and other enclosed areas. In 2005 alone, CPSC staff is aware of at least 94 generator-related CO poisoning deaths. Forty-seven of these deaths were known to have occurred during power outages due to severe weather, including Hurricane Katrina. Still others die from CO produced by non-consumer products, such as cars left running in attached garages. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that several thousand people go to hospital emergency rooms every year to be treated for CO poisoning. Carbon monoxide is also a constituent of tobacco smoke. Production Carbon monoxide is so fundamentally important that many methods have been developed for its production. Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 200. ISBN 0-12-352651-5. Laboratory preparation Carbon monoxide is conveniently produced in the laboratory by the dehydration of formic acid, for example with sulfuric acid. Another method is heating an intimate mixture of powdered zinc metal and calcium carbonate, which releases CO by the reaction Zn + CaCO3 → ZnO + CaO + CO Industrial production A major industrial source of CO is producer gas, a mixture containing mostly carbon monoxide and nitrogen, formed by combustion of carbon in air at high temperature when there is an excess of carbon. In an oven, air is passed through a bed of coke. The initially produced CO2 equilibrates with the remaining hot carbon to give CO. The reaction of O2 with carbon to give CO is described as the Boudouard equilibrium. Above 800 °C, CO is the predominant product: O2 + 2 C → 2 CO ΔH = -221 kJ/mol Another important source is "water gas", a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide produced via the endothermic reaction of steam and carbon: H2O + C → H2 + CO ΔH = 131 kJ/mol Other similar "synthesis gases" can be obtained from natural gas and other fuels. Carbon monoxide is also is a byproduct of the reduction of metal oxide ores with carbon, shown in a simplified form as follows: MO + C → M + CO ΔH = 131 kJ/mol Since CO is a gas, the reduction process can be driven by heating, exploiting the positive (favorable) entropy of reaction. The Ellingham diagram shows that CO formation is favored over CO2 in high temperatures. Coordination chemistry The HOMO of CO is a σ MO The LUMO of CO is a π* antibonding MO Most metals form coordination complexes containing covalently attached carbon monoxide. Only those in lower oxidation states will complex with carbon monoxide ligands. This is because there must be sufficient electron density to facilitate back donation from the metal dxz-orbital, to the π* molecular orbital from CO. The lone pair on the carbon atom in CO, also donates electron density to the dx²−y² on the metal to form a sigma bond. In nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4 forms by the direct combination of carbon monoxide and nickel metal at room temperature. For this reason, nickel in any tubing or part must not come into prolonged contact with carbon monoxide (corrosion). Nickel carbonyl decomposes readily back to Ni and CO upon contact with hot surfaces, and this method was once used for the industrial purification of nickel in the Mond process. In nickel carbonyl and other carbonyls, the electron pair on the carbon interacts with the metal; the carbon monoxide donates the electron pair to the metal. In these situations, carbon monoxide is called the carbonyl ligand. One of the most important metal carbonyls is iron pentacarbonyl, Fe(CO)5: Structure of iron pentacarbonyl Iron pentacarbonyl Many metal-CO complexes are prepared by decarbonylation of organic solvents, not from CO. For instance, iridium trichloride and triphenylphosphine react in boiling 2-methoxyethanol or DMF) to afford IrCl(CO)(PPh3)2. Organic and main group chemistry In the presence of strong acids and water, carbon monoxide reacts with olefins to form carboxylic acids in a process known as the Koch-Haaf reaction. In the Gattermann-Koch reaction, arenes are converted to benzaldehyde derivatives in the presence of AlCl3 and HCl. Organolithium compounds, e.g. butyl lithium react with CO, but this reaction enjoys little use. Although CO reacts with carbocations and carbanions, it is relatively unreactive toward organic compounds without the intervention of metal catalysts. Chatani, N.; Murai, S. "Carbon Monoxide" in Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis (Ed: L. Paquette) 2004, J. Wiley & Sons, New York. With main group reagents, CO undergoes several noteworthy reactions. Chlorination of CO is the industrial route to the important compound phosgene. With borane CO forms an adduct, H3BCO, which is isoelectronic with the acylium cation [H3CCO]+. CO reacts with sodium to give products resulting from C-C coupling such as Na2C2O2 (sodium acetylenediolate), and potassium to give K2C2O2 (potassium acetylenediolate) and K2C6O6 (potassium rhodizonate). The compounds cyclohexanehexone or triquinoyl (C6O6) and cyclopentanepentone or leuconic acid (C5O5), which so far have been obtained only in trace amounts, can be regarded as polymers of carbon monoxide. At high pressure (over 5 gigapascals), carbon monoxide disproportionates into carbon dioxide CO2 and a solid polymer of carbon and oxygen (in 3:2 atomic ratio). A. I. Katz, D. Schiferl, and R. L. Mills (1984): J. Phys. Chem., 88 (15), 3176–3179 W. J. Evans, M. J. Lipp, C.-S. Yoo, H. Cynn, J. L. Herberg, R. S. Maxwell, and M. F. Nicol (2006). "Pressure-Induced Polymerization of Carbon Monoxide: Disproportionation and Synthesis of an Energetic Lactonic Polymer". Chemistry of Materials, vol. 18, 2520–2531. doi: 10.1021/cm0524446 Uses Chemical industry Carbon monoxide is a major industrial gas that has many applications in bulk chemicals manufacturing. Elschenbroich, C.;Salzer, A. ”Organometallics : A Concise Introduction” (2nd Ed) Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, 2006. ISBN 3-527-28165-7 Large quantities of aldehydes are produced by the hydroformylation reaction of alkenes, CO, and H2. In one of many applications of this technology, hydroformylation is coupled to the Shell Higher Olefin Process to give precursors to detergents. Methanol is produced by the hydrogenation of CO. In a related reaction, the hydrogenation of CO is coupled to C-C bond formation, as in the Fischer-Tropsch process where CO is hydrogenated to liquid hydrocarbon fuels. This technology allows coal or biomass to be converted to diesel. In the Monsanto process, carbon monoxide and methanol react in the presence of a homogeneous rhodium catalyst and hydroiodic acid to give acetic acid. This process is responsible for most of the industrial production of acetic acid. An industrial scale use for pure carbon monoxide is purifying nickel in the Mond process. Meat coloring Carbon monoxide is used in modified atmosphere packaging systems in the US, mainly with fresh meat products such as beef, pork, and fish, to keep them looking red and fresh. The CO combines with myoglobin to form carboxymyoglobin, a bright cherry red pigment. Carboxymyoglobin is more stable than the oxygenated form of myoglobin, oxymyoglobin, which can become oxidized to the brown pigment, metmyoglobin. This stable red colour can persist much longer than in normally packaged meat. Typical levels of CO used are 0.4% to 0.5%. The technology was first given "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) status by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2002 for use as a secondary packaging system, and does not require labeling. In 2004 the FDA approved CO as primary packaging method, declaring that CO does not mask spoilage odour. Despite this ruling, the technology remains controversial in the US for fears that it is deceptive and masks spoilage. In 2007 a bill was introduced to the United States House of Representatives to label modified atmosphere carbon monoxide packaging as a "color additive;" however, the bill died in subcommittee. The practice is banned in many other countries, including Canada, Japan, Singapore and the European Union. Medicine CO is also currently being studied in several research laboratories throughout the world for its anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective properties that can be used therapeutically to prevent the development of a series of pathologic conditions such as ischemia reperfusion injury, transplant rejection, atherosclerosis, sepsis, severe malaria or autoimmunity. However, there are yet no clinical applications of CO in humans. See also Carbon monoxide (data page) Boudouard reaction Carbon monoxide poisoning Criteria air contaminants Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society Hyperbaric Treatment for CO Poisoning Carbon monoxide detector Rubicon Foundation research articles on CO Poisoning Molecular cloud References External links International Chemical Safety Card 0023 National Pollutant Inventory - Carbon Monoxide NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards External MSDS data sheet Carbon Monoxide Detector Placement Carbon Monoxide Kills Awareness Campaign Site Carbon Monoxide Purification Process Carbon Monoxide Hazards with Backpacking Stoves USFDA IMPORT BULLETIN 16B-95, May 1999 FDA Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000083 Carbon Monoxide in Fresh Meat site Carbon Monoxide Network & Support Forum Microscale Gas Chemistry Experiments with Carbon Monoxide Carbon Monoxide Alarm Campaign Research on the therapeutic effects of CO (Gulbenkian Science Institute) Instant insight outlining the physiology of carbon monoxide from the Royal Society of Chemistry Article about Sen. Chris mandating CO detectors in new homes & hotels in Florida as of 2008. Carbon Monoxide Wiki Pictures of CO Poisoning Radiology and Pathology Images from MedPix. | Carbon_monoxide |@lemmatized carbon:85 monoxide:62 chemical:6 formula:1 co:59 colorless:2 odorless:2 tasteless:1 yet:2 highly:1 toxic:3 gas:17 molecule:5 consist:2 one:6 atom:7 oxygen:8 connect:1 covalent:1 triple:3 bond:9 simple:1 oxocarbon:1 view:1 anhydride:1 formic:2 acid:9 produce:16 partial:2 oxidation:2 contain:4 compound:6 form:10 preference:1 usual:1 dioxide:5 reduced:1 availability:1 operate:1 stove:3 internal:2 combustion:2 engine:3 enclosed:2 space:1 significant:2 fuel:6 value:1 burn:3 air:4 characteristic:1 blue:2 flame:2 despite:3 serious:1 toxicity:2 widely:1 use:13 main:3 component:1 coal:3 domestic:1 lighting:1 cooking:1 heating:1 production:5 nickel:8 still:3 play:1 major:4 role:5 modern:1 technology:5 industrial:8 process:12 iron:5 smelting:2 precursor:2 myriad:1 product:9 history:1 unknowingly:1 human:4 since:2 prehistoric:1 time:1 metallic:1 ore:1 execution:1 greek:1 roman:1 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3,733 | Carbine | A carbine (pronounced /ˈk-ɑr-b-'i-n/, alternatively acceptable /ˈk-ɑr-b-'aɪ-n/) Dictionary.Com: Carbine definition is a firearm similar to a rifle or musket. Many carbines, especially modern designs, were developed from rifles, being essentially shortened versions of full rifles firing the same ammunition, although often at a lower velocity. There have also been many cases where the carbine and rifle adopted by a particular nation were not technically related, such as using completely different ammunition or internal operating systems (though the carbine still being weaker, or of smaller size). Either may be more common, depending on the time period. There are also a limited number of pistol-caliber carbines, designed by integrating the action of a handgun such as a revolver or autoloader into a longer weapon with a rifle barrel and stock. They are generally employed as a more accurate alternative to a traditional handgun, and are used by some police teams and by civilian sport shooters. In the 1800s, foot soldiers would have a longer, more powerful firearm, and cavalry a shorter, lighter firearm. The shorter length and lighter weight of carbines makes them easier to handle in close-quarter combat situations (such as urban or jungle warfare), or when deploying from vehicles. Carbines have higher penetration capabilities than submachine guns, while retaining standardized ammunition unlike personal defense weapons that use proprietary cartridges. The disadvantages of carbines, when compared with their longer counterparts, are generally poorer long-range accuracy and shorter effective range, while also generally being larger than submachine guns and thus harder to maneuver in close quarters. History Early history: before the 1900s The carbine was originally a lighter, shortened, rifled weapon developed for the cavalry, for whom a full-length musket or rifle was too heavy and awkward to fire from horseback. Some sources derive the name of the weapon from the name of its first users—cavalry troopers called "carabiniers", hence French "carabine". Carbines were usually less accurate and powerful than the longer rifles of the infantry, due to a shorter sight plane and lower velocity of bullets fired from the shortened barrel. With the advent of fast-burning smokeless powder, the velocity disadvantages of the shorter barrels became less of an issue (see internal ballistics). Eventually, the use of horse-mounted cavalry would decline, but carbines continued to be issued and used by many who preferred a lighter, more compact weapon even at the cost of reduced long-range accuracy and power. During the nineteenth century, carbines were often developed separately from the infantry rifles, and in many cases did not even use the same ammunition, which made for supply difficulties. A notable weapon developed towards the end of the American Civil War by the Union was the Spencer carbine. It had a spring-powered magazine in the stock which held seven rounds. In the late 1800s it became common for a number of nations to make bolt-action rifles in both full-length and carbine versions. One of the most popular and recognizable carbines was the Winchester lever-action carbine, with several versions using revolver cartridges. This made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers, who could carry a revolver and a carbine, both using the same ammunition. Shorter rifles, shorter carbines: World War I and World War II In the decades preceding World War I, the standard battle rifle used by armies around the world had been growing shorter, either by redesign or by the general issue of carbine versions instead of full-length rifles. For example, the Russian Model 1891 rifle with an 800 mm (31.5 inch) barrel was shortened to 730 mm (28.75 in.) in 1930, and to 510 mm (20 in.) in 1938; the German Mauser 98 rifles went from 740 mm (29 in.) in 1898 to 600 mm (23.6 in.) in 1935 as the Karabiner Kurz (K98k or Kar98k), or "short carbine". The barrel lengths in rifles used by the United States did not change between the bolt-action M1903 rifle of World War I and the World War II M1 Garand rifle, but then the 610 mm (24 in.) barrel on the M1903 was short for its day. The US M1 Carbine was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter, with a 457.2 mm (18 in. barrel), than the M1 Garand rifle. The M1 Carbine was not a shorter version of the M1 Garand, but a wholly different design firing a smaller, less-powerful cartridge, as was common in the 1800s. The United Kingdom also developed a "Jungle Carbine" version of their Lee-Enfield service rifle, featuring a shorter barrel, flash hider, and manufacturing modifications designed to decrease the rifle's weight. Officially titled Rifle, No. 5 Mk I, it was introduced in the closing months of WWII, but did not see widespread service until the Korean War, the Mau Mau uprising, and the Malayan Emergency. After World War II A shorter weapon was more convenient when riding in a truck, armored personnel carrier, helicopter or aircraft, and also when engaged in close-range combat. Based on the combat experience of WWII, the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change. Unlike previous wars, which were often fought mainly from fixed lines and trenches, WWII was a highly mobile war, often fought in cities, forests, or other areas where mobility and visibility were restricted. In addition, improvements in artillery made moving infantry in open areas even less practical than it had been. The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than 300 meters (325 yards), and the enemy was exposed to fire for only short periods of time as they moved from cover to cover. Most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant, but instead fired in the enemy's direction to keep them from moving and firing back (see suppressive fire). These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy. A less-powerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat, and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be fired in the short amount of time an enemy was visible. The lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition. With no need of a long barrel to fire full-power ammunition, a shorter barrel could be used. A shorter barrel made the weapon weigh less and was easier to handle in tight spaces, and was easier to shoulder quickly to fire a shot at an unexpected target. Full-automatic fire was also considered a desirable feature, allowing the soldier to fire short bursts of three to five rounds, increasing the probability of a hit on a moving target. The Germans had experimented with selective-fire carbines firing rifle cartridges during the early years of WWII. These were determined to be less than ideal, as the recoil of full-power rifle cartridges caused the weapon to be uncontrollable in full-automatic fire. They then developed an intermediate-power cartridge round, which was accomplished by reducing the power and the length of the standard 7.92x57 Mauser rifle cartridge to create the 7.92x33 Kurz (Short) cartridge. A selective-fire weapon was developed to fire this shorter cartridge, eventually resulting in the Sturmgewehr 44, later translated as "assault rifle". After WWII, the USSR would adopt a similar weapon, the legendary AK-47, which became the standard Soviet infantry weapon. The United States during WWII also had the M2 Carbine, a selective-fire version of the M1 Carbine firing a 7.62x33mm cartridge. However, the semi-automatic M1 carbine was produced in a 10-to-1 ratio to the M2. Although the NATO countries did not adopt an intermediate-power round, they continued the trend toward shorter and lighter magazine-fed battle rifles. NATO adopted the 7.62x51 NATO round (which in reality is only slightly different ballistically to the .308 Winchester and .303 British cartridges), along with several rifles such as the FN FAL and M14. By the 1960s NATO had adopted the 5.56 NATO cartridge. This round was even lighter and smaller than the Soviet AK-47 cartridge, but possessed higher velocity. In U.S. service, the M16 assault rifle replaced the M14 as the standard infantry weapon, although the M14 continued to be used by designated marksmen. Lighter carbines came to be adopted as the standard infantry long rifle. What changed was that only a certain number of soldiers now needed to retain longer range weapons, serving as designated marksmen. Development of lighter assault rifles continued, matched by developments in even lighter carbines. At the same time the infantry switched to 5.56 mm weapons, carbines like the AKS-74U (which fired a Warsaw pact 5.45x39 round) and CAR-15 were being developed. Modern history Contemporary military forces By the 1990s, the US had adopted the M4 Carbine, a derivative of the M16 family which fired the same 5.56mm cartridge but was lighter and shorter (in overall length and barrel length), resulting in marginally reduced range and power. Meanwhile, many armies are experiencing a backlash against carbines and lighter rifles in general, and are equipping selected soldiers, usually called Designated Marksmen, or DM, with higher power rifles. While firing a higher quantity of smaller bullets makes it easier to hit a target (and is therefore good for beginner marksmen), it offers very little to more advanced marksmen. Furthermore, the additional range of the heavier weapons has proven to be necessary in open environments such as deserts. As a result, the focus on more highly trained soldiers equipped with, for example, 7.62 mm NATO firing rifles, such as the U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle variant of the M14, has increased somewhat. A squad of soldiers armed with assault rifles would have a single soldier assigned as DM who would carry a battle rifle for selectively engaging long range targets. The DM differs from the sniper in that the DM moves with his unit, and engages targets at ranges beyond the 500 metre (550 yd) effective range of modern assault rifles, but less than the 600 metre (650 yd) range which is the optimal engagement range for snipers. Special operations forces One bastion of the carbine which is unlikely to be unseated is the special operations forces of the world which need to perform fast, decisive operations. A pistol, though light and quick to operate, is viewed as not having enough power. Consequently, carbines have gained wide acceptance among SOCOM and other communities. Personal defense weapons In both civilian use and among the military's lighter armored soldiers, it is common to use a carbine. However, due to some of the reasons mentioned elsewhere in this article, such as muzzle blast and recoil, these carbines generally chamber lighter rounds than some of their heavier (or shorter) counterparts. Due to the low wounding power of a single round, personal defense weapons depend on high volumes of fire for effectiveness. This may make such carbines successful in military use. However, firing a pistol effectively at any significant range requires good training, since the absence of a buttstock makes precise ranged aim difficult. In addition, due to the development of body armor, support personnel required a compact weapon with more stopping power than the traditional submachine gun, leading to the development of the personal defense weapon, or PDW, which uses rounds that have better ballistics than simple pistol rounds but less power and range than full rifle rounds. Examples include the FN P90 and HK MP7. Whether these ultra-light weapons will be widely adopted has yet to be seen. The cartridge used by the FN P90, the 5.7 x 28 mm, for example, fires a 2.9 g (45 grain) armor piercing bullet at velocities of around 700 m/s (2300 ft/s). The H&K MP7 fires an even smaller 4.6 mm round with ballistics similar to the .22 WMR derived .17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire. The small diameter rounds enable the projectile to travel at the high velocity needed to penetrate Kevlar armor, as a light weapon with sufficient energy to push a large caliber bullet through the armor would have prohibitive recoil. The small bullets are generally designed to tumble after penetration. Some weapons designed for personal defence do still use full-power ammunition, for example the carbine version of the L85A2 issued to British tank crews. Future acceptance and use To what extent armies will adopt even lighter carbines, and to what extent they will be avoided, has yet to be seen entirely. It is likely that harder hitting, or at least higher penetrating, weapons will become more common, due to a rise in use of body armor, making weaker weapons ineffective. Stacked against this is mainly the amount of urban warfare that is required, which favors lighter carbine weapons. The modern usage of the term carbine covers much the same scope as it always had, namely lighter weapons (generally rifles) with barrels less than 457.2 mm (18 inches). These weapons can be considered carbines, while rifles with barrels of 510 mm (20 inches) or more are generally not considered carbines unless specifically named so, and depending on the weapon's power. Modern carbines use ammunition ranging from that used in light pistols up to powerful rifle cartridges, with the usual exception of high velocity magnum cartridges. In the more powerful cartridges, the short barrel of a carbine has significant disadvantages in velocity, and the high residual pressure when the bullet exits the barrel results in substantially greater muzzle blast. Flash suppressors and muzzle brakes are common solutions to this problem, which may ease their acceptance. Usage Pistol-caliber carbines One of the more unusual classes of carbine is the pistol caliber carbine. These first appeared soon after metallic cartridges became common. These were developed as "companions" to the popular revolvers of the day, firing the same cartridge but allowing more velocity and accuracy than the revolver. These were carried by cowboys, lawmen, and others in the Old West. The classic combination would be a Winchester lever action carbine and a Colt revolver in .44-40 or .45 Colt. Another example is the DeLisle carbine that was chambered for .45 ACP. Modern equivalents also exist, such as the discontinued Ruger Police Carbine, which uses the same magazine as the Ruger pistols of the same caliber, as well as the (also discontinued) Marlin Camp Carbine (which, in .45ACP, used 1911 magazines). The Beretta Cx4 Storm shares magazines with many Beretta pistols, and is designed to be complementary to the Beretta Px4 Storm pistol. The Hi-Point 995 carbine is a cheaper alternative to other pistol caliber carbines in the United States and shares magazines with the Hi-Point C-9 pistol, other examples are the Kel-Tec SUB-2000 series which accepts Glock, Beretta and S&W pistol magazines chambered in either 9 mm Luger or .40S&W. The recent introduction of such products may indicate that there is a growing demand for these companion carbines. The primary advantages of a pistol caliber carbine are increased accuracy due to the buttstock and longer barrel (and with it, sight radius), relatively low muzzle blast/flash/recoil, higher muzzle velocity and energy of a longer barrel for increased wounding potential and penetration (depending on the particular load used), and (sometimes, but not always) greater adaptability for easily accepting accessories such as optics, weaponlights, and lasers. Furthermore, PCCs may not be as legally restricted as comparable handguns, depending on the jurisdiction (for example, you need only be 18 in the US to purchase a rifle, but you must be at least 21 to purchase a handgun). One less-noted advantage of PCCs is their lower muzzle report compared to more powerful rifles; because they are less noisy when fired, they are less likely to cause permanent hearing damage when fired indoor without hearing protection - this can be an important consideration during home defense situations. Compared to "regular" carbines/rifles (such as those in .223 and 7.62x39mm), pistol-caliber carbines may suffer from a shorter effective range, more pronounced trajectory, less power, and less effectiveness against body armor. Recently, kits have appeared on the market which consist of a carbine length barrel, bolt (usually blowback operated), and stock that attach to a pistol frame. Attaching the pistol frame provides the feed mechanism (through the pistol's magazine) and trigger mechanism, and produces a completed carbine. Kits of this type are available for Colt M1911 pattern and Glock pistols. Short barrelled rifles Firearms with shoulder stocks and barrels less than 406 mm (16 in) in length are classified as "short barreled rifles" (under the US National Firearms Act or NFA), and are sometimes restricted in the same way that sawed off shotguns and machine guns are. Because of this, rifles with barrels of less than 406 mm (16 in), or pistols with shoulder stocks, are rare. A list of firearms not covered by the NFA due to their antique or Curio and Relic status may be found here ; this list includes a number of carbines with barrels less than the minimum legal length. Firearms classified as machine guns are also not subject to the barrel length restriction. Kits exist which will convert many pistols into carbines by the addition of a shoulder stock; notable examples are the long barrelled Colt Buntline revolver stock, the Mauser C96 "Broomhandle" holster/stock, and various others for models such as the Browning Hi-Power, Luger, Colt M1911, and the Heckler & Koch VP70. Since these stock additions retain the short pistol barrel (as short as 100 mm (4 inches)) they are highly restricted under the NFA; many pistols which had attachments for the stocks, including rare wartime models, were altered to remove the attachment point. Other carbines Another class of carbine is a semi-automatic version of a submachine gun, with an extended barrel, just over 406 mm (16 inches) long, which will escape ban by some "assault weapon" legislation. While functionally identical to other carbines, these are banned in some places as "assault weapons" based on their cosmetic similarity to submachine guns. However, they may not accept certain parts (such as magazines or collapsing stocks) from the submachine guns they resemble. These are a popular compromise for (American) shooters who would like to own a submachine gun but cannot due to local restrictions or the prohibitive cost of buying a civilian legal submachine gun. Many owners may choose to shorten the barrels down to NFA-lengths, and register them as SBRs. Many of the more vocal proponents of personal defense firearms typically recommend a pistol and a higher power firearm, like a carbine or a shotgun. Examples of PCCs that are Title I derivatives of submachine guns include the HK USC (derived from the HK .45ACP UMP submachine gun), the HK94 (derived from the MP5), pistol-caliber AR-15s (such as the Bushmaster Carbon 15 9 mm Carbine), and the FN PS90 (derived from the FN P90 SMG). Unlike the above-mentioned PCCs, these carbines utilize either magazines from their SMG derivatives, or proprietary magazines (as in the case of the USC). In some historical cases the term machine carbine was the official title for sub-machine guns. Examples are the Sten and Owen guns. Equally to confuse the non-automatic version of the Sterling submachine gun was also a "Carbine". Notes See also Carabinier Carabinieri Jungle Carbine M1 carbine M4 Carbine Musketoon SKS Mini-14 Mini-30 Mini-6.8 Mosin-Nagant Beretta Cx4 Storm | Carbine |@lemmatized carbine:74 pronounced:2 ˈk:2 ɑr:2 b:2 n:2 alternatively:1 acceptable:1 aɪ:1 dictionary:1 com:1 definition:1 firearm:9 similar:3 rifle:50 musket:2 many:10 especially:1 modern:6 design:7 develop:8 essentially:1 shorten:5 version:10 full:11 fire:31 ammunition:9 although:3 often:4 low:6 velocity:10 also:13 case:4 adopt:9 particular:2 nation:2 technically:1 relate:1 use:26 completely:1 different:3 internal:2 operating:1 system:1 though:2 still:3 weak:2 small:7 size:1 either:4 may:9 common:7 depend:5 time:4 period:2 limited:1 number:4 pistol:25 caliber:9 integrate:1 action:5 handgun:4 revolver:7 autoloader:1 longer:2 weapon:33 barrel:28 stock:11 generally:7 employ:1 accurate:2 alternative:2 traditional:3 police:2 team:1 civilian:3 sport:1 shooter:2 foot:1 soldier:9 would:11 long:13 powerful:7 cavalry:4 shorter:9 light:17 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3,734 | Knaresborough_Castle | Knaresborough Castle is a ruined fortress overlooking the River Nidd in the town of Knaresborough, North Yorkshire, England. History It was built around 1100 by a Norman baron on a cliff above the River Nidd. In the 1170s Hugh de Moreville and his followers took refuge there after assassinating Thomas Beckett. King John regarded Knaresborough as an important northern fortress and spent ₤1290 on improvements to the castle. The castle was later rebuilt between 1301 and 1307 by Edward I and later completed by Edward II. John of Gaunt acquired the castle in 1372, adding it to the vast holdings of the Duchy of Lancaster. The castle was taken by Parliamentarian troops in 1644 during the Civil War, and largely destroyed in 1648 not as the result of warfare, but because of an order from Parliament to dismantle all Royalist castles. Indeed, many town centre buildings are built of 'castle stone'. The remains are open to the public and there is a charge for entry to the interior remains. The grounds are used as a public leisure space, with a bowling green and putting green open during summer. It is also used as a performing space, with bands playing most afternoons through the summer. It plays host to frequent events, such as FEVA. The property is owned by the monarch as part of the Duchy of Lancaster holdings, but is administered by Harrogate Borough Council. Description The castle, now much ruined, comprised two walled baileys set one behind the other, with the outer bailey on the town side and the inner bailey on the cliff side. The enclosure wall was punctuated by solid towers along its length, and a pair, visible today, formed the main gate. At the junction between the inner and outer baileys, on the north side of the castle stood a tall five-sided keep, the eastern parts of which has been pulled down. The keep had a vaulted basement, at least three upper stories, and served as a residence for the lord of the castle throughout the castle's history. The castle baileys contained residential buildings, and some foundations have survived. References Knaresborough Castle at Knaresborough Online Knaresborough Castle on castlexplorer.co.uk Fry, Plantagenet Somerset, The David & Charles Book of Castles, David & Charles, 1980, p. 249. ISBN 0-7153-7976-3 | Knaresborough_Castle |@lemmatized knaresborough:6 castle:15 ruined:1 fortress:2 overlook:1 river:2 nidd:2 town:3 north:2 yorkshire:1 england:1 history:2 build:2 around:1 norman:1 baron:1 cliff:2 hugh:1 de:1 moreville:1 follower:1 take:2 refuge:1 assassinate:1 thomas:1 beckett:1 king:1 john:2 regard:1 important:1 northern:1 spent:1 improvement:1 later:2 rebuild:1 edward:2 complete:1 ii:1 gaunt:1 acquire:1 add:1 vast:1 holding:2 duchy:2 lancaster:2 parliamentarian:1 troop:1 civil:1 war:1 largely:1 destroy:1 result:1 warfare:1 order:1 parliament:1 dismantle:1 royalist:1 indeed:1 many:1 centre:1 building:2 stone:1 remains:1 open:2 public:2 charge:1 entry:1 interior:1 remain:1 ground:1 use:2 leisure:1 space:2 bowling:1 green:2 put:1 summer:2 also:1 perform:1 band:1 play:2 afternoon:1 host:1 frequent:1 event:1 feva:1 property:1 monarch:1 part:2 administer:1 harrogate:1 borough:1 council:1 description:1 much:1 ruin:1 comprise:1 two:1 walled:1 bailey:5 set:1 one:1 behind:1 outer:2 side:4 inner:2 enclosure:1 wall:1 punctuate:1 solid:1 tower:1 along:1 length:1 pair:1 visible:1 today:1 form:1 main:1 gate:1 junction:1 stand:1 tall:1 five:1 keep:2 eastern:1 pull:1 vaulted:1 basement:1 least:1 three:1 upper:1 story:1 serve:1 residence:1 lord:1 throughout:1 contain:1 residential:1 foundation:1 survive:1 reference:1 online:1 castlexplorer:1 co:1 uk:1 fry:1 plantagenet:1 somerset:1 david:2 charles:2 book:1 p:1 isbn:1 |@bigram duchy_lancaster:2 |
3,735 | Economy_of_Libya | Libya's socialist-oriented and centrally planned economy depends primarily upon revenues from the petroleum sector, which contributes practically all export earnings and over half of GDP. These oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa. Since 2000, Libya has recorded favourable growth rates with an estimated 8.1% growth of GDP in 2006. Macro-economic trend The GDP per capital of Libya soared by 676% in the 1960s and a further 480% in the 1970s. However such fantastic growth rates proved unsustainable in the face of global oil recession and international sanctions. Consequently the GDP per capital shrank by 42% in the 1980s. Successful diversification and integration into the international community helped current GDP per capita to cut further deterioration to just 3.2% in the 1990s. Below is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Libya at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Libyan dinars (LYD). Year GDP USD to LYD Inflation Index(2000 = 100) 1980 10,882 0.29 LYD 25 1985 8,227 0.29 LYD 45 1990 8,185 0.28 LYD 57 1995 10,679 0.34 LYD 89 2000 17,668 0.51 LYD 100 2005 50,693 1.22 LYD 80 Notes: 1. For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 0.77 Libyan Dinars only. Average wages in 2007 hover around $53-65 per day. Oil Sector Libya is an OPEC member and holds the largest proven oil reserves in Africa (followed by Nigeria and Algeria), as of January 2007, up from in 2006. About 80% of Libya’s proven oil reserves are located in the Sirte Basin, which is responsible for 90% of the country’s oil output. Oil and Gas Journal, 2007 The state-owned National Oil Corporation (NOC) dominates Libya's oil industry, along with smaller subsidiaries, which combined account for around 50% of the country's oil output. Among NOC's subsidiaries, the largest oil producer is the Waha Oil Company (WOC), followed by the Agoco, Zueitina Oil Company (ZOC), and Sirte Oil Company (SOC). Oil resources, which account for approximately 95% of export earnings, 75% of government receipts, and over 50% of GDP. Oil revenues constitute the principal foreign exchange source. Much of the country's income has been lost to waste, corruption, conventional armaments purchases, and attempts to develop WMD, as well as large donations to developing countries in attempts to increase Qadhafi's influence in Africa and elsewhere. Despite the country's relatively high per capita GDP, government mismanagement has led to high inflation and increased import prices, resulting in declining living standards. Reflecting the heritage of the command economy, three quarters of employment is in the public sector, and private investment remains small at around 2% of GDP. World Bank 2006 Falling world oil prices in the early 1980s and economic sanctions caused a serious decline in economic activity, eventually leading to a slow private sector rehabilitation. At 2.6% per year on average, real GDP growth was modest and volatile during the 1990s. Libya's GDP grew in 2001 due to high oil prices, the end of a long cyclical drought, and increased foreign direct investment following the suspension of UN sanctions in 1999. Real GDP growth has been boosted by high oil revenues, reaching 4.6% in 2004 and 3.5% in 2005. Despite efforts to diversify the economy and encourage private sector participation, extensive controls of prices, credit, trade, and foreign exchange constrain growth. Although UN sanctions were suspended in 1999, foreign investment in the Libyan gas and oil sectors were severely curtailed due to the U.S. Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA), which caps the amount foreign companies can invest in Libya yearly at $20 million (lowered from $40 million in 2001). As of May 2006, the U.S. has removed Libya from its list of states that sponsor terrorism and has normalised ties and removed sanctions. This clears the road for U.S. oil companies to exploit Libyan oil and is expected to have a positive impact on the Libyan economy. The NOC hopes to raise oil production from 1.80 million bpd in 2006 to 2 million bpd by 2008. FDI into the oil sector is likely, which is attractive due to its low cost of oil recovery, high oil quality, and proximity to European markets. International Crude Oil Market Handbook Most Libyan oil is sold on a term basis, including to the country's Oilinvest marketing network in Europe; to companies like Agip, OMV, Repsol YPF, Tupras, CEPSA, and Total; and small volumes to Asian and South African companies. EIA 2007 Statistic Amount Proven Oil Reserves (2007E) 41.5 b/bbl Oil Production (2006E) 1.8 mmbd (95% crude) Oil Consumption (2006E) Net Oil Exports (2006E) 1,525 Mbpd Crude Oil Distillation Capacity (2006E) 378 mbpd Proven Natural Gas Reserves (2007E) 52.7 tcf Natural Gas Production (2006E) Natural Gas consumption (2005E) Notes: 1. Energy Information Administration (2007) Field Development and Exploration In November 2005, Repsol YPF discovered a significant oil deposit of light, sweet crude in the Murzuq Basin. Industry experts believe the discovery to be one of the biggest made in Libya for several years. Repsol YPF is joined by a consortium of partners including OMV, Total and Norsk Hydro. Also located in Murzuq Basin is Eni’s Elephant field. In October 1997, a consortium led by British company Lasmo, along with Eni and a group of five South Korean companies, announced that it had discovered large recoverable crude reserves south of Tripoli. Lasmo estimated field production would cost around $1 per barrel. Elephant began production in February 2004. WOC's Waha fields currently produce around . In 2005, ConocoPhillips and co-venturers reached an agreement with NOC to return to its operations in Libya and extend the Waha concession 25 years. ConocoPhillips operates the Waha fields with a 16.33% share in the project. NOC has the largest share of the Waha concession, and additional partners include Marathon and Amerada Hess. EIA 2007 p.3 Refining and Downstream Libya has five domestic refineries: Refinery Capacity Operator Zawia Refinery 120,000 ZOC Ras Lanuf Refinery 220,000 Rasco El-Brega Refinery 10,000 SOC Tobruk Refinery 20,000 Agoco Sarir Refinery 10,000 Agoco Notes: 1. Amounts in barrels per day. Diversification Libyan five-dinar bill. In 2007, mining and hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95 per cent of the Libyan economy. Diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remain a long-term issue. Although agriculture is the second-largest sector in the economy, Libya depends on imports in most foods. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit farm output, and domestic food production meets only about 25% of demand. Domestic conditions limit output, while higher incomes and a growing population have caused food consumption to rise. Because of low rainfall levels in Libya, agricultural projects such as the Al Khufrah Oasis rely on underground water sources. Libya's primary agricultural water source remains the Great Manmade River (GMMR), but significant resources are being invested in desalinization research to meet growing demand. Libyan agricultural projects and policies are overseen by a General Inspector; there is no Ministry of Agriculture, per se. Doing Business In LIBYA: A Country Commercial Guide for U.S. Companies, March, 2006 Labor market Libya posted a 3.3% rate of population growth during 1960-2003. In 2003, 86% of the population was urban, compared to 45% in 1970. Although no reliable estimates are available, unemployment is reportedly acute. Over 50% of the population under the age of 20. Moreover, despite the bias of labor market regulations favoring Libyan workers, the mismatch of the educational system with market demand has produced a large pool of expatriate workers, with typically better-suited education and higher productivity. However, because of shortages for manual labor, Libya has also attracted important numbers of less skilled immigrants. Expatriate workers represent an estimated fifth of the labor force. Although, in the absence of a labor force survey, estimates are surrounded by considerable uncertainty Although significant, the proportion of expatriate workers is still bellow oil producing countries in the Persian Gulf. Foreign workers mainly come from the Maghreb, Egypt, Turkey, India, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Poland, Chad, Sudan, and Bosnia and Herzegovina http://www.seenews.com/news/latestnews/bosnia_senergoinvestsees2007profitunchanging_signscontractsinlibya_-151444/ Bosnia's Energoinvest Sees 2007 Profit Flat, Signs Contracts in Libya, Algeria http://www.arabianbusiness.com/506991-bosnian-firm-clinches-52mn-libya-deal?ln=en Bosnian firm clinches $52mn Libya deal . They tend to earn relatively high wages, taking either skilled or hard manual jobs. Census data for 2000 show the share of expatriates earning over LD 300 (US$230),???? per month was 20%, compared to 12% for Libyan nationals. A campaign encouraging conversion of qualified civil servants to entrepreneurs, in the face of public sector over employment and declining productivity, does not seem to be producing the desired results thus far. External trade and finance Libyan exports in 2006 The Government is in the process of preparing a financial sector reform program. Recent legislation setting corporate governance standards for financial institutions makes progress towards better management and greater operational independence of public banks. However, Libyan public banks still lack management structures supported by skills in critical areas like credit, investment, risk management, and information and control systems. The new banking law reinforces the independence of the Central Bank of Libya (CBL) and offers a legal framework for regulating banking activities, even if some provisions call for improvement. Despite progress brought by the new banking Law that specifies and limits its duties and responsibilities, the CBL remains the owner of the public banks, with the associated potential conflict of interest between ownership and regulation. Financial sector reform has also progressed with partial interest rate liberalization. Interest rates have been liberalized on deposits, while a lending rate ceiling has been set above the discount rate. The Libyan Stock Exchange, established in 2007, is the first exchange of its kind in the country. Statistics Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 14.4 billion kWh (2003) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 13.39 billion kWh (2003) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2003) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2003) Agriculture - products: wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans, cattle, corn International rankings Organisation Survey Ranking Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal 2006 Index of Economic Freedom 152 out of 157 The Economist The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005 70 out of 111 Energy Information Administration Greatest Oil Reserves by Country, 2006 9 out of 20 Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index (2007) 155 out of 169 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2007 131 out of 180 United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 200558 out of 177 Notes References Energy Information Administration (2007) Libya: Country Analysis Brief World Bank (2006), Libya: Economic Report, Social & Economic Development Group P. Mobbs (2002) Mineral Industry of Libya T. Ahlbrandt (2001) Sirte Basin Province: Sirte-Zelten Total Petroleum System USGS Central Bank Of Libya Economic Bulletin Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya National Authority for Information and Statistics, Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Pilat D., Innovation and Productivity in Services - State of the Art, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Directorate for Science, Technology, and Industry, Paris. 2000 GSPLA. Agriculture achievements in 20 years. Secretariat of Agriculture Land Reclamation and Animal Wealth. 1989 GSPLA. Agriculture in Libya. Facts and Figure 1970. Mohamed Al Genedal. Agriculture in Libya. Arab Book Publishers 1978. Ali Rahuma. Cost of barley and wheat production in some state managed agricultural projects. J. Agric. Res. 1989 Future of food economics in the Arab State. Vol. 4. Statistics. 1979. Statistical index 1970. Ministry of Economic and Planning. 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3,736 | DKW | Dampf-Kraft-Wagen () or DKW is a historic car and motorcycle marque. In 1916, the Danish engineer Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen founded a factory in Saxony, Germany, to produce steam fittings. In the same year, he attempted to produce a steam-driven car, called the DKW. Although unsuccessful, he made a two-stroke toy engine in 1919, called Des Knaben Wunsch — "the boy's desire". He also put a slightly modified version of this engine into a motorcycle and called it Das Kleine Wunder — "the little marvel". This was the real beginning of the DKW brand: by the 1930s, DKW was the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer. In 1932, DKW merged with Audi, Horch and Wanderer, to form the Auto Union. Auto Union came under Daimler-Benz ownership in 1957, and was finally purchased by the Volkswagen Group in 1964. The last DKW car was the F102 which ceased production in 1966; after this the brand was phased out. Automobiles made before WWII DKW cars were made from 1928 until 1966. They always used two-stroke engines and, from 1931, the company was a pioneer in front-wheel drive and transverse mounting. The most well-known cars made before World War II, bearing model names F1 through F8 (F for Front), had front-wheel drive and a transversely mounted two-cylinder engine. Displacement was 600 or 700 cc, power was 18 to . These models also featured an innovation with a generator that doubled up as a self-starter, which was mounted directly on the crankshaft. This was known as a Dynastart. They also produced a less well-known series of rear-wheel drive cars called Schwebeklasse and Sonderklasse with V4 two-stroke engines. Displacement of this engine was 1000 cc, later 1100 cc. These engines had two extra cylinders for forced induction, so they really appeared like V6es but without sparkplugs on the front cylinder pair. In 1939, they made a prototype with the first three-cylinder engine. The engine had a displacement of 900 cc and produced . With a streamlined body, the car could run at 115 km/h (72 mph). This prototype was to be put into production only after World War II, first as an IFA F9 (later to become Wartburg) in Zwickau, East Germany, and shortly afterwards in DKW-form from Düsseldorf as the 3=6 or F91. DKW engines were used by Saab as a model for the two-stroke engines in their new Saab 92 automobile manufacturing venture, in 1947. Automobiles made after WWII Osmo Kalpala servicing his DKW during the 1956 Rally Finland. As the Auto Union company originally was situated in Saxony in what became the German Democratic Republic, it took some time for it to regroup after the war ended. The company was registered again in West Germany as Auto Union GmbH in 1949, first as a spare-part provider, but soon to take up production of the RT 125 motorcycle and a newly developed delivery van, called a Schnellaster F800. Their first line of production took place in Düsseldorf. This van used the same engine as the last F8 made before the war. Their first passenger car was the F89 using the body from the prototype F9 made before the war and the 2 cylinder two-stroke engine from the last F8. Production went on until it had been replaced by the successful 3 cylinder engine which came with the F91. The F91 was in production from 1953 to 1955, and was replaced by the somewhat larger F93 in 1956. The F91 and F93 models all had 900 cc 3-cylinder two-stroke engines, the first ones delivering , and the last ones . The ignition system of these engines comprised three independent sets of points and coils, one for each cylinder, with the points mounted in a cluster around a single lobed cam at the front end of the crank shaft. The cooling system was of the free convection type assisted by a fan driven from a pulley mounted at the front end of the crank shaft. The F93 was produced until 1959, and was in turn replaced by the AU1000. These models where produced with a 1000 cc two-stroke engine, with a choice between 44 or S versions until 1963. During this transition, production was also moved from Düsseldorf to Ingolstadt where Audi still have their production. From 1957, these cars could be fitted with an optional saxomat, an automatic clutch and, at the time it was the only small car offering this feature. The last versions of the AU1000S also had disk brakes as option, an early development for this technology. A sporting 2+2 seater version was also available as the AU1000 Sp from 1957 to 1964, the first years only as a coupé and from 1962 also as a convertible. In 1956, the very rare DKW Monza was put into small scale production on a private initiative. This was a sporting, two-seater body made of glassfiber mounted on a standard F93 frame. The car was first called Solitude, but got its final name from the several long distance speed records it made on the Monza racing track in Italy in November 1956. Running in FIA class G, it set several new records, among them 48 hours with average speed 140.961 km/h, 10,000 km with average speed 139.453 km/h and 72 hours with average speed 139.459 km/h. The car was first produced by Dannenhauer & Stauss in Stuttgart, then by Massholder in Heidelberg and at last by Robert Schenk in Stuttgart. The total number of produced cars is said to be around 230 and production was rounded up by the end of 1958. DKW Junior (1962) A more successful range of passenger cars was sold from 1959. This was the Junior/F12 series based on a modern concept from the late 1950s. This range consist of Junior (basic model) made from 1959 to 1961, Junior de Luxe (a little enhanced) from 1961 to 1963, F11 (a little larger) and F12 (larger and bigger engine) from 1963 to 1965 and F12 Roadster from 1964 to 1965. The Junior/F12 series became quite popular, and many cars were produced. An Assembly plant was licenced in Ireland between 1952 to c.1964 and roughly 4,000 DKW vehicles were assembled ranging from saloons, vans, motorbikes to Commercial Combine Harvesters. This was the only DKW factory outside of Germany in Europe. All the 3-cylinder two-stroke post-war cars had some sporting potential and formed the basis for many rally victories in the 1950s and beginning of 1960s. This made DKW the most winning car brand in the European rally league for several years during the fifties. In 1960 DKW developed a V6 engine by combining two three cylinder two-stroke engines giving a single V6 engine with a capacity of 1000 cc. Over time the capacity was increased and the final V6 in 1966 had a capacity of 1300 cc. The 1300 cc version developed at 5000 rpm using the standard configuration with two carburettors. A four carburettor version produced and a six carburettor version produced . The engine was very light and weighed only 84 kg. The V6 was planned to be used in the Munga and the F102. About 100 V6 engines were built for testing purposes and 13 DKW F102 as well as some Mungas were fitted with the V6 engine in the 1960s. DKW Specifications The last DKW was the F102 coming into production in 1964 as a replacement for the somewhat old-looking AU1000. This model was the direct forerunner of the first post-war Audi, the F103. The main difference was that the Audi used a conventional four-stroke engine. The transition to four-stroke engines marked the end of the DKW marque for passenger cars. Between 1957 and 1967 Vemag built some models of DKW cars in Brazil. The Vemag factory was added to Volkswagen Group in 1967. Vans and utility vehicles The DKW Munga was built by Auto Union in Ingolstadt. Production began in October 1956 and ended in December 1968. During this time 46,750 cars were built. From 1949 to 1962, DKW produced a van with a trailing-arm rear suspension system which incorporated springs in the cross bar assembly. Spanish subsidiary IMOSA also produced a modern successor, introduced in 1963 and called the DKW F 1000 L. This van started with the three cylinder 1000 cc engine, but later received a Mercedes-Benz Diesel engine and finally was renamed a Mercedes-Benz in 1975. Motorcycles DKW Before World War II, the company had some success with forced induction racing motorcycles, and during the late 1920s and 1930s, DKW was the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer. After the war, the company made the RT 125, 175, 250 and 350 models. The motorcycle branch of the company produced very famous models such as the RT 125 pre- and post World War II. As reparations after the war, the design drawings of the RT125 were given to Harley-Davidson in the US and BSA in the UK. The HD version was known as the Hummer, while BSA used them for the Bantam. IFA and later MZ models continued in production until the 1990s, when economics finally brought production of the two stroke to an end. Other manufacturers also copied the DKW design, officially or otherwise. This can be seen in the similarity of many small two stroke motorcycles from the 1950s, including a product of Yamaha, Voskhod and Polish WSK. Automobile models DKW 3=6 (F93) DKW 3=6 Monza (F93) DKW F1 (1931-1932) DKW F2 (1932-1935) DKW F4 (1934-1935) DKW F5 (1935-1937) DKW F7 (1937-1938) DKW F8 (1939-1942) DKW F9 (1949-1956) DKW F10 (Bauer Body) (1950-1953) DKW F89 DKW F91 DKW F92 DKW F102 (1963–1966) DKW Munga (1956–1968) DKW Junior DKW van (DKW-Schnelllaster) DKW motorcycles and scooters DKW Golem DKW KM 200 DKW KS 200 DKW SB 200 DKW SB 350 DKW SB 500 DKW ZS 500 DKW ZSW 500 (water cooled) DKW SS 600 (water cooled) DKW Sport 250 DKW NZ 250 DKW NZ 350 DKW NZ 500 DKW JS 500 DKW RT 100 DKW RT 125 DKW RT 175 DKW RT 200 DKW RT 250 H DKW RT 350 S DKW Hobby-Roller DKW Hummel See also list of German cars Auto Union References Bibliography External links AUTO UNION Sales Brochures 1939 DKW Owners' Club DKW Motorcycle Club Die Meisterdinger von Nürnberg – DKW webpages DKW & Auto Union History | DKW |@lemmatized dampf:1 kraft:1 wagen:1 dkw:72 historic:1 car:21 motorcycle:11 marque:2 danish:1 engineer:1 jørgen:1 skafte:1 rasmussen:1 found:1 factory:3 saxony:2 germany:4 produce:13 steam:2 fitting:1 year:3 attempt:1 driven:1 call:7 although:1 unsuccessful:1 make:13 two:16 stroke:13 toy:1 engine:28 de:2 knaben:1 wunsch:1 boy:1 desire:1 also:10 put:3 slightly:1 modify:1 version:8 das:1 kleine:1 wunder:1 little:3 marvel:1 real:1 beginning:1 brand:3 world:6 large:5 manufacturer:3 merge:1 audi:4 horch:1 wanderer:1 form:3 auto:8 union:8 come:3 daimler:1 benz:3 ownership:1 finally:3 purchase:1 volkswagen:2 group:2 last:7 cease:1 production:14 phase:1 automobile:4 wwii:2 always:1 use:8 company:6 pioneer:1 front:6 wheel:3 drive:4 transverse:1 mounting:1 well:3 know:4 war:11 ii:4 bear:1 model:12 name:2 f:2 transversely:1 mount:5 cylinder:11 displacement:3 cc:10 power:1 feature:2 innovation:1 generator:1 double:1 self:1 starter:1 directly:1 crankshaft:1 dynastart:1 less:1 series:3 rear:2 schwebeklasse:1 sonderklasse:1 later:4 extra:1 forced:2 induction:2 really:1 appear:1 like:1 without:1 sparkplugs:1 pair:1 prototype:3 first:10 three:4 streamlined:1 body:4 could:2 run:2 km:6 h:5 mph:1 ifa:2 become:3 wartburg:1 zwickau:1 east:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 düsseldorf:3 saab:2 new:2 manufacturing:1 venture:1 osmo:1 kalpala:1 service:1 rally:3 finland:1 originally:1 situate:1 german:2 democratic:1 republic:1 take:3 time:4 regroup:1 end:7 register:1 west:1 gmbh:1 spare:1 part:1 provider:1 soon:1 rt:9 newly:1 develop:3 delivery:1 van:7 schnellaster:1 line:1 place:1 passenger:3 go:1 replace:3 successful:2 somewhat:2 one:3 deliver:1 ignition:1 system:3 comprise:1 independent:1 set:2 point:2 coil:1 cluster:1 around:2 single:2 lobed:1 cam:1 crank:2 shaft:2 cooling:1 free:1 convection:1 type:1 assist:1 fan:1 pulley:1 turn:1 choice:1 transition:2 move:1 ingolstadt:2 still:1 fit:2 optional:1 saxomat:1 automatic:1 clutch:1 small:3 offering:1 disk:1 brake:1 option:1 early:1 development:1 technology:1 sport:3 seater:2 available:1 sp:1 coupé:1 convertible:1 rare:1 monza:3 scale:1 private:1 initiative:1 sporting:1 glassfiber:1 standard:2 frame:1 solitude:1 get:1 final:2 several:3 long:1 distance:1 speed:4 record:2 race:2 track:1 italy:1 november:1 fia:1 class:1 g:1 among:1 hour:2 average:3 dannenhauer:1 stauss:1 stuttgart:2 massholder:1 heidelberg:1 robert:1 schenk:1 total:1 number:1 produced:1 say:1 round:1 junior:6 range:3 sell:1 base:1 modern:2 concept:1 late:2 consist:1 basic:1 luxe:1 enhanced:1 big:1 roadster:1 quite:1 popular:1 many:3 assembly:2 plant:1 licence:1 ireland:1 c:1 roughly:1 vehicle:2 assemble:1 saloon:1 motorbike:1 commercial:1 combine:2 harvester:1 outside:1 europe:1 post:3 potential:1 basis:1 victory:1 begin:2 winning:1 european:1 league:1 fifty:1 give:2 capacity:3 increase:1 rpm:1 configuration:1 carburettor:3 four:3 six:1 light:1 weigh:1 kg:1 plan:1 munga:3 build:4 test:1 purpose:1 mungas:1 specifications:1 replacement:1 old:1 look:1 direct:1 forerunner:1 main:1 difference:1 conventional:1 mark:1 vemag:2 brazil:1 add:1 utility:1 october:1 december:1 trail:1 arm:1 suspension:1 incorporated:1 spring:1 cross:1 bar:1 spanish:1 subsidiary:1 imosa:1 successor:1 introduce:1 l:1 start:1 receive:1 mercedes:2 diesel:1 rename:1 success:1 branch:1 famous:1 pre:1 reparation:1 design:2 drawing:1 harley:1 davidson:1 u:1 bsa:2 uk:1 hd:1 hummer:1 bantam:1 mz:1 continue:1 economics:1 bring:1 copy:1 officially:1 otherwise:1 see:2 similarity:1 include:1 product:1 yamaha:1 voskhod:1 polish:1 wsk:1 bauer:1 schnelllaster:1 scooter:1 golem:1 ks:1 sb:3 z:1 zsw:1 water:2 cool:2 nz:3 js:1 hobby:1 roller:1 hummel:1 list:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 external:1 link:1 sale:1 brochures:1 owner:1 club:2 die:1 meisterdinger:1 von:1 nürnberg:1 webpage:1 history:1 |@bigram daimler_benz:1 rear_wheel:1 h_mph:1 shortly_afterwards:1 combine_harvester:1 cc_cc:1 weigh_kg:1 mercedes_benz:2 diesel_engine:1 harley_davidson:1 dkw_dkw:12 dkw_rt:6 rt_dkw:5 external_link:1 |
3,737 | Cola | The Indonesian version of the characteristically-shaped Coca-Cola bottle Cola is a beverage usually with caramel coloring and containing caffeine. Originally invented by the druggist John Pemberton, it has become popular worldwide. Coca-Cola has become the major international brand, leading to the drink often being seen as a symbol of the United States. Modern colas very rarely contain any kola nut—the origin of the name—as the taste of this nut is strongly bitter. Flavoring Despite the name, the primary flavoring ingredients in a cola drink are sugar, citrus oils (orange, lime, or lemon fruit peel), cinnamon, vanilla, and an acidic flavorant http://sparror.cubecinema.com/cube/cola/chemistry/cola2.htm . Manufacturers of cola drinks add other trace ingredients to the drink in addition to these flavorings in order to create distinctively different tastes for each brand. Trace flavorings may include nutmeg, lavender, and a wide variety of ingredients, but the base flavorings that most people identify with a cola taste remain vanilla and cinnamon. Kola nuts, which have a bitter taste, although giving their name to the product, contribute little or no flavor to most cola recipes. Acidity is often provided by phosphoric acid, sometimes accompanied by citric or other isolated acids. Inexpensive colas may contain only vanilla and cinnamon as flavorings, which provide a simple cola taste . Many cola drink recipes are closely-guarded secrets of their manufacturers, with the recipe used by Coca-Cola being perhaps the most famous in this respect. In addition to high fructose corn syrup, various sweeteners may be added to cola, including sugar, stevia, or an artificial sweetener depending on product and market. "Sugar-free" or "diet" colas contain artificial sweeteners only. Brands A can of generic brand Cola The cola brands with the greatest global volumes are Coca-Cola and Pepsi. Europe Alter Cola is the native cola in Catalonia, (Spain). American Cola and Adria Cola are the local drinks in Romania. Breizh Cola is a local brand from Britanny (France) it offers different and unique flavors like a cloves aroma, bottled in an original cider bottle. Cuba Cola is the native cola of Sweden. In Denmark, the native Jolly Cola was more popular than Coca Cola and Pepsi Cola during the 1960s and 70s. Czech and Slovak Kofola is the third best selling soft-drink in their markets behind Coca-Cola and Pepsi. fritz-kola is a cola soft drink from Hamburg, Germany. It uses the highest possible concentration of caffeine for beverages allowed by German law (25 mg / 100ml) and is available in most of Germany, as well as parts of western and central Europe. German brand Afri-Cola had a higher caffeine content (about 250 mg/L) until the product was relaunched with a new formulation in 1999, and has it again since a second relaunch with the original formulation in April 2006. Virgin Cola was popular in the United Kingdom, South Africa and western European countries in the 1990s but has waned in availability. Barr Cola made by A.G. Barr (the makers of the popular Irn Bru drink) in the United Kingdom. Cockta is a local brand from Croatia originally produced by Dalmacijavino. A couple of years ago it was bought by Droga Kolinska, Slovenia. In Turkey there are two local brands named Cola Turka and Le Cola. Asia and the Middle East Alef Cola is a brand of cola in Israel, marketed specifically to Haredim. The kosher emblem is as large and prominent as the brand insignia. Mecca Cola, an Arab-Israeli activist beverage, is sold in the Middle East and parts of Europe. RC Cola was popular in the Philippines with its franchisee Asiawide Beverages. RC was introduced to Israel in 1995 with the slogan "RC: Just like in America!" Star Cola is a brand from Gaza-Palestine. Super Drink is a popular cola in the Palestinian Territories and the State of Israel. Thums Up is a popular cola brand in India. Campa Cola was India's most popular brand prior to the introduction of Pepsi and Coca-Cola to the Indian market in 1991. Zam Zam Cola, popular in Iran and parts of the Arab world. Parsi Cola, popular in Iran. RedBull Cola,popular in Thailand. myCola, popular in Sri Lanka, is distinctly sold in small plastic bottles (the major other colas most widely available in glass bottles) Americas Inca Kola is another brand that is now marketed in many countries by the Coca Cola group; it is the major cola in some South American countries. This bright yellow carbonated beverage is especially popular in Peru, which was once the heartland of the Inca (or Inka) Empire. Inca Kola was only recently bought by Coca-Cola. Royal Crown (RC Cola) is widely available in the United States, Canada, Mexico and Bangladesh. There is also an open source recipe for a cola drink, OpenCola. tuKola and Tropicola are brands from Cuba (also sold widely in Italy) Jones Soda makes a cola too. This is served on Alaska Airlines as an alternative to other American colas that contain corn syrup. Instead they use real cane sugar. Jolt Cola is sold by Wet Planet Beverages, of Rochester, New York. Originally, the slogan was "All the sugar and twice the caffeine." They dropped the slogan when they switched from cane sugar to high fructose corn syrup. Johnnie Ryan is a regional cola bottled in Niagara Falls, New York. Established in 1935, they make it with 100% cane sugar and also sell 22 other flavors. Schin Cola is a variety of cola produced in Brazil by Primo Schincariol. Chemical reactions The carbonation in this cup of cola is evident from the bubbles. Being carbonated, colas are acidic (carbonic acid is formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in water), and so can react violently with basic chemicals, such as baking soda. Many colas also contain phosphoric acid and/or citric acid, which further increases the acidity. Colas containing phosphoric acid have been linked to chronic kidney disease. Drinking two or more of these colas per day more than doubled the incidence of kidney disease, while colas containing citric acid did not have an effect. The Diet Coke and Mentos eruption is a popular experiment. Mentos candies and crystalline powders such as sugar and salt, when added to cola (usually diet coke), cause fizzing by providing many micronucleation points for the carbon dioxide to leave solution. This, however, is a physical reaction resulting from the release of dissolved CO2 as opposed to a chemical reaction. Another experiment involves adding dry ice. By providing additional carbon dioxide, some of the carbon dioxide present in the drink is forced out of the solution, creating an explosion and destroying the bottle. In either case, mixing these substances with cola (or any other carbonated drink) causes the drink to bubble, creating foam and greatly increasing the pressure in the bottle, resulting in either the bottle or the cap giving way. Etymology The word cola may have been introduced into the mainstream by the major producer Coca-Cola, as they saw their trademark slipping into common use, like other genericized trademarks. They successfully defended the exclusive use of their name and its diminutive form "Coke" by suggesting the alternative of "cola drink" as a generic name for similar types of carbonated soft drinks. The word cola as part of the Coca-Cola trademark may have originated from the kola nuts that were originally used as the source of caffeine, or from when the original recipe contained coca (from which cocaine is derived). See also Brands of Cola (shown below) Cola wars References External links Cola and Mentos mints trick OpenCola recipe (originally published by Cory Doctorow) Straight Dope article about caffeine levels on soft drinks The Soda Pop Mashup! 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3,738 | Anguilla | Anguilla ( ) is a British overseas territory in the Caribbean, one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles. It consists of the main island of Anguilla itself, approximately long by wide at its widest point, together with a number of much smaller islands and cays with no permanent population. The island's capital is The Valley. The total land area of the territory is , with a population of approximately 13,500 (2006 estimate). History Anguilla was first settled by Amerindian tribes who migrated from South America. The earliest Amerindian artifacts found on Anguilla have been dated to around 1300 BC, and remains of settlements date from 600 AD. Caribbean Islands, Sarah Cameron (Footprint Travel Guides), p. 466 (Google Books) The date of European discovery is uncertain: some sources claim that Columbus sighted the island in 1493, while others state that the island was first discovered by the French in 1564 or 1565. Anguilla's History, Government of Anguilla website The name Anguilla derives from the word for "eel" in any of various Romance languages (modern Spanish: ; French: ; Italian: ), probably chosen because of the island's eel-like shape. Anguilla was first colonised by English settlers from Saint Kitts, beginning in 1650. The French temporarily overtook the island in 1666 but under the Treaty of Breda it was returned to English control. Other early arrivals included Europeans from Antigua and Barbados. It is likely that some of these early Europeans brought enslaved Africans with them. Historians confirm that African slaves lived in the region in the early seventeenth century. For example, Africans from Senegal lived in St. Christopher (today St. Kitts) in 1626. By 1672 a slave depot existed on the island of Nevis, serving the Leeward Islands. While the time of African arrival in Anguilla is difficult to place precisely, archive evidence indicates a substantial African presence (at least 100) on the island by 1683. The island was administered by England, and later the United Kingdom, until the early nineteenth century when – against the wishes of the inhabitants – it was incorporated into a single British dependency along with Saint Kitts and Nevis. After two rebellions in 1967 and 1969 and a brief period as a self-declared independent republic headed by Ronald Webster, British rule was fully restored in July, 1971. Anguilla became a separate British dependency (now termed a British overseas territory) in 1980. Geography Map of Anguilla Cap Juluca Anguilla is a flat, low-lying island of coral and limestone in the Caribbean Sea, east of Puerto Rico. The soil is generally thin and poor, supporting only scrub vegetation. Anguilla is noted for its spectacular and ecologically important coral reefs. Apart from the main island of Anguilla itself, the territory includes a number of other smaller islands and cays, mostly tiny and uninhabited. Some of these are: Anguillita Dog Island Prickly Pear Cays Scrub Island Seal Island Sombrero, also known as Hat Island Sandy Island Climate Anguilla has a tropical though rather dry climate, moderated by northeast trade winds. Temperatures vary little throughout the year. Average daily maxima range from about in December to in July. Rainfall is erratic, averaging about per year, the wettest months being September and October, and the driest February and March. Anguilla is vulnerable to hurricanes from June to November, peak season August to mid-October. Economy Overlooking Sandy Ground, Anguilla Anguilla's thin arid soil is largely unsuitable for agriculture, and the island has few land-based natural resources. Its main industries are tourism, offshore incorporation and management, offshore banking, and fishing. Many insurance and financial business are headquartered in Anguilla. The economy of Anguilla is expanding rapidly, especially the tourism sector which is driving major new developments in partnerships with multi-national companies. This boom, beginning gently during 2005-2006, is accelerating through 2007 and is expected to continue for years. In an effort to prevent overheating, there is currently a moratorium on "non-belongers" (foreigners) buying land in Anguilla. Anguilla's currency is the East Caribbean dollar, though the US dollar is also widely accepted. The exchange rate is fixed to the US dollar at US$1 = EC$2.68. Transportation Anguilla is served by Wallblake Airport. Services connect to various other Caribbean islands, but the airport cannot receive large jets and there are no direct flights to or from continental America or Europe. Regular ferries link Anguilla and the neighboring island of Saint Martin, with a journey time of about twenty minutes. Aside from taxis, there is no public transport on the island. Cars drive on the left. Demographics The majority of residents (90.08%) are black, the descendants of slaves transported from Africa. Growing minorities include whites at 3.74% and people of mixed race at 4.65% (figures from 2001 census). 72% of the population is Anguillian while 28% is non-Anguillian (2001 census). Of the non-Anguillian population, many are citizens of the United States, United Kingdom, St Kitts & Nevis, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Nigeria. 2006 and 2007 saw an influx of large numbers of Chinese, Indian, and Mexican workers, brought in as labour for major tourist developments due to the local population not being large enough to support the labour requirements. Culture The Anguilla National Trust (ANT) was established in 1988 and opened its offices in 1993 charged with the responsibility of preserving the heritage of the island, including its cultural heritage. The Trust has programmes encouraging Anguillian writers and the preservation of the island's history. The island's cultural history begins with the Taino Indians. Artefacts have been found around the island, telling of life before European settlers arrived. As throughout the Caribbean, holidays are a cultural fixture. Anguilla's most important holidays are of historic as much as cultural importance – particularly the anniversary of the emancipation (previously August Monday in the Park), celebrated as the Summer Festival. British holidays, such as the Queen's birthday, are also celebrated. Religion According to the 2001 census Christianity is Anguilla's predominant religion, with 29 percent of the population practising Anglicanism. Another 23.9 percent are Methodist. Other churches on the island include Seventh-day Adventist, Baptist, Roman Catholic, and Jehovah's Witnesses (0.7%). Between 1992 and 2001 the number of followers of the Church of God and Pentecostal Churches increased considerably. There are at least fifteen churches on the island, several of architectural interest. Picture-Perfect Anguilla Churches, anguilla-beaches.com Although a minority on the island, it is an important location to followers of Rastafarian religion – Anguilla is the birthplace of Robert Athlyi Rogers, author of The Holy Piby which has had a strong influence on Rastafarian beliefs. Various other religions are practised as well. + Religions in Anguillain percent Religion 1992 2001 Anglican 40.4 29.0 Methodist 33.2 23.9 Seventh-day Adventist 7.0 7.6 Baptist 4.7 7.3 Roman Catholic 3.2 5.7 Episcopalian - 7.6 Pentecostal - 7.7 Jehovah Witnesses - 0.7 Rastafarian - 0.7 Evangelical - 0.5 Brethren - 0.3 Muslim - 0.3 Presbytarian - 0.2 Hindu - 0.4 Jewish - 0.1 None - 4.0 Other 10.7 3.5 Not stated 0.7 0.3 Language Today most people in Anguilla speak a British-influenced variety of "Standard" English. Other languages are also spoken on the island, including varieties of Spanish, Chinese and the languages of other immigrants. However, the most common language other than Standard English is the island's own English-lexifier Creole language (not to be confused with French Creole spoken in islands such as Haiti, Martinique, and Guadeloupe). It is referred to locally by terms such as "dialect" (pronounced "dialec"), or "Anguillian". It has its main roots in early varieties of English and West African languages, and is similar to the dialects spoken in English-speaking islands throughout the Eastern Caribbean. Music Sport A modern square rigger viewed from Long Bay Boat racing has deep roots in Anguillian culture, and is the national sport. There are regular sailing regattas on national holidays, such as Carnival, which are contested by locally built and designed boats. These boats have names and have sponsors that print their logo on their sails. As in many other former British Colonies, cricket is also a popular sport. Anguilla is the home of Omari Banks, who played for the West Indies Cricket Team, while Cardigan Connor played first-class cricket for English county side Hampshire and was 'chef de mission' (team manager) for Anguilla's Commonwealth Games team in 2002. Rugby union is represented in Anguilla by the Anguilla Eels RFC, who were formed in April 2006. Rugby in Anguilla!, Anguilla News The Eels have been finalists in the St. Martin tournament in November 2006 and semi finalists in 2007. See also References External links Government Government of Anguilla official government website News media The Anguillian – Weekly newspaper of Anguilla Anguilla Life News Talk – Online news source in Anguilla General information Anguilla from UCB Libraries GovPubs Portals on the World: Anguilla from the Library of Congress of the United States History Imperial History of Anguilla Travel The Anguilla Experience – Official publication of Anguilla Tourism Board The Anguilla Hotel and Tourism Association – Official site of the Anguilla Hotel and Tourism Association Anguilla Guide – Official publication of the Anguilla Hotel and Tourism Association be-x-old:Ангілья | Anguilla |@lemmatized anguilla:50 british:8 overseas:2 territory:4 caribbean:7 one:1 northerly:1 leeward:2 islands:2 less:1 antilles:1 consist:1 main:4 island:34 approximately:2 long:2 wide:2 point:1 together:1 number:4 much:2 small:2 cay:3 permanent:1 population:6 capital:1 valley:1 total:1 land:3 area:1 estimate:1 history:6 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3,739 | English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations | The use of the English language in most member countries of the Commonwealth of Nations was inherited from British colonisation. English is spoken as a first or second language in most of the Commonwealth. In a few countries, such as Cyprus and Malaysia, it does not have official status, but is widely used as a lingua franca. Mozambique is an exception - although English is widely spoken there, it is a former Portuguese colony which joined the Commonwealth in 1996. Many regions, notably Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Caribbean, have developed their own native varieties of the language. Written English as used in the Commonwealth favours British as opposed to American spelling, with the exception of Canada, which combines elements of both (however Canadian spelling more closely resembles British spelling). Although Hong Kong and the Republic of Ireland are no longer part of the Commonwealth, the English language still has official status in these two countries. The report of the Inter-Governmental Group on Criteria for Commonwealth Membership states that English is a symbol of Commonwealth heritage and unity. Native varieties Southern Hemisphere native varieties of English began to develop during the 19th century, with the colonisation of Australasia and South Africa. Australian English, New Zealand English and South African English are non-rhotic dialects closely related to one another and to the English spoken in southeastern England. The vocabularies of these dialects are also similar to that of English language in England, with some differences and several terms that are peculiar to each country; Australian English features also a number of North American words. Differences in grammar and usage are mostly limited to colloquial speech. Canadian English is a variety of North American English. It shares the same roots as the English of the United States because it is based on the immigration of British Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution in the late eighteenth century. It is also influenced by Scottish, Irish and English immigration after the War of 1812. While the language has continued to change in all of these places, modern Canadian has inherited much vocabulary from the shared political and social institutions of Commonwealth countries. The Caribbean Caribbean English is influenced by the English-based Creole varieties spoken, but they are not one and the same. There is a great deal of variation in the way English is spoken, with a "Standard English" at the top of the social scale and creoles at the bottom. These dialects have roots in 17th-century English and African languages; unlike most native varieties of English, West Indian dialects often tend to be syllable-timed rather than stress-timed. Non-native varieties Second language varieties of English in Africa and Asia have often undergone "indigenisation"; that is, each English-speaking community has developed (or is in the process of developing) its own standards of usage, often under the influence of local languages. These dialects are sometimes referred to as New Englishes (McArthur, p. 36); most of them inherited non-rhoticity from Southern British English. Africa Several dialects of West African English exist, with a lot of regional variation and some influence from indigenous language. West African English tends to be syllable-timed, and its phoneme inventory is much simpler than that of Received Pronunciation; this sometimes affects mutual intelligibility with native varieties of English. A distinctive East African English is spoken in countries such as Kenya or Tanzania. Small communities of native English speakers can be found in Kenya, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia; the dialects spoken are similar to South African English. Asia India has the world's largest English-speaking population, although most speakers of Indian English are not native speakers. Indian English phonology is highly variable; stress, rhythm and intonation are generally different from those of native varieties. There are also several peculiarities at the levels of morphology, syntax and usage, some of which can also be found among educated speakers. Southeast Asian English comprises Singapore English and Malaysian English; it features some influence from Chinese. Hong Kong ceased to be part of the Commonwealth in 1997. Nonetheless, the English language still enjoys the status as an official language, alongside with the Chinese language. References McArthur, Tom (2002). The Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866248-3. Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62181-X. Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, 4th ed. London: Arnold. ISBN 0-340-80834-9. See also Community of Portuguese Language Countries Dutch Union German Union La Francophonie Latin Union List of countries by spoken languages | English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations |@lemmatized use:3 english:44 language:15 member:1 country:8 commonwealth:9 nation:1 inherit:3 british:5 colonisation:2 speak:7 first:1 second:2 cyprus:1 malaysia:1 official:3 status:3 widely:2 lingua:1 franca:1 mozambique:1 exception:2 although:3 former:1 portuguese:2 colony:1 join:1 many:1 region:1 notably:1 canada:2 australia:1 new:3 zealand:2 south:4 africa:4 caribbean:3 develop:4 native:9 variety:11 write:1 favour:1 oppose:1 american:4 spelling:1 combine:1 element:1 however:1 canadian:3 spell:2 closely:2 resemble:1 hong:2 kong:2 republic:1 ireland:1 longer:1 part:2 still:2 two:1 report:1 inter:1 governmental:1 group:1 criterion:1 membership:1 state:2 symbol:1 heritage:1 unity:1 southern:2 hemisphere:1 begin:1 century:3 australasia:1 australian:2 african:6 non:3 rhotic:1 dialect:7 relate:1 one:2 another:1 spoken:2 southeastern:1 england:2 vocabulary:2 also:6 similar:2 difference:2 several:3 term:1 peculiar:1 feature:2 number:1 north:2 word:1 grammar:1 usage:4 mostly:1 limit:1 colloquial:1 speech:1 share:2 root:2 united:1 base:2 immigration:2 loyalist:1 flee:1 revolution:1 late:1 eighteenth:1 influence:5 scottish:1 irish:1 war:1 continue:1 change:1 place:1 modern:1 much:2 political:1 social:2 institution:1 creole:2 great:1 deal:1 variation:2 way:1 standard:3 top:1 scale:1 bottom:1 unlike:1 west:3 indian:3 often:3 tend:1 syllable:2 time:1 rather:1 stress:2 timed:2 asia:2 undergone:1 indigenisation:1 speaking:1 community:3 process:1 local:1 sometimes:2 refer:1 mcarthur:2 p:1 rhoticity:1 exist:1 lot:1 regional:1 indigenous:1 tends:1 phoneme:1 inventory:1 simple:1 received:1 pronunciation:1 affect:1 mutual:1 intelligibility:1 distinctive:1 east:1 kenya:2 tanzania:1 small:1 speaker:4 find:2 zimbabwe:1 botswana:1 namibia:1 india:1 world:2 large:1 population:1 phonology:1 highly:1 variable:1 rhythm:1 intonation:1 generally:1 different:1 peculiarity:1 level:1 morphology:1 syntax:1 among:1 educated:1 southeast:1 asian:1 comprises:1 singapore:1 malaysian:1 chinese:2 cease:1 nonetheless:1 enjoy:1 alongside:1 reference:1 tom:1 oxford:3 guide:3 university:2 press:2 isbn:3 peter:2 pam:1 cambridge:3 x:1 trudgill:1 jean:1 hannah:1 international:1 ed:1 london:1 arnold:1 see:1 dutch:1 union:3 german:1 la:1 francophonie:1 latin:1 list:1 |@bigram lingua_franca:1 closely_resemble:1 hong_kong:2 inter_governmental:1 southern_hemisphere:1 non_rhotic:1 closely_relate:1 phoneme_inventory:1 mutual_intelligibility:1 kenya_tanzania:1 botswana_namibia:1 rhythm_intonation:1 morphology_syntax:1 southeast_asian:1 peter_pam:1 la_francophonie:1 |
3,740 | Adventism | The term Adventist generally refers to someone who believes in the Second Advent of Jesus (popularly known as the Second coming) in the tradition of the Millerites. The Adventist family of churches are regarded today as conservative Protestants. "Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches" section (p. 256–276) in Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill and Craig D. Atwood, Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 12th edn. Nashville: Abingdon Press While they hold much in common, their theology differs on whether the intermediate state is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected, and whether the sanctuary of refers to the one in heaven or on earth. The movement has encouraged the examination of the Old Testament, leading some to observe the Sabbath and others to use the name "Jehovah" for God. History Modern Adventism began as an inter-denominational movement. Its most vocal leader was William Miller. Between 50,000 and 100,000 people in the United States supported Miller's predictions of Christ's return. After the "Great Disappointment" of October 22, 1844 many people in the movement gave up on Adventism, some gave up on Christianity, whereas others gave up on predicting dates for the Advent (second coming of Jesus). Albany Conference The Albany Conference of 1845 was attended by 61 delegates. Following this meeting, the "Millerites" then became known as "Adventists" or "Second Adventists". The delegates couldn't agree on theology, and four groups emerged from the conference: The Evangelical Adventists, The Life and Advent Union, the Advent Christian Church, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. The main body organized as the American Millennial Association, a portion of which was later known as the Evangelical Adventist Church. Unique among the Adventists, they believed in an eternal hell and consciousness in death. Their main publication was The Advent Herald (later called Messiah’s Herald), and another was the Signs of the Times. They declined in numbers, and by 1916 their name did not appear in the United States Census of Religious Bodies. It has diminished to almost non-existence today. The Life and Advent Union was founded by George Storrs in 1863. He had established The Bible Examiner in 1842. It merged with the Adventist Christian Union in 1964. The Advent Christian Church officially formed in 1861, and grew rapidly at first. It declined a little over the 20th century. Small splinter Primitive Advent Christian Church from a few congregations in West Virginia. The Advent Christians publish the four magazines The Advent Christian Witness, Advent Christian News, Advent Christian Missions and Maranatha. They also operate a liberal arts college at Aurora, Illinois; and a Bible College at Lennox, Massachusetts. The Seventh-day Adventist Church officially formed in 1863. It believes in the sanctity of the seventh-day Sabbath as a holy day for worship. It published the Adventist Review and Sabbath Herald. It grew to have a large worldwide membership and a significant network of medical and educational institutions. Miller did not join any of the movements, and spent the last few years of his life working for unity, before dying in 1849. Charles Taze Russell, founder of the Jehovah's Witnesses, attended an Adventist church 1870-4 and was partially impacted by Adventist beliefs. Denominations The Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 12th edn., describes the following churches as "Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches": Advent Christian Church General Conference, founded 1860 with 25,277 members in 302 churches in 2002 in America Branch Davidians, founded in the 20th century, a breakoff of Shepherd's Rod Christadelphians, founded 1844 with an estimated 25,000 members in 170 ecclesias in 2000 in America Church of God General Conference, founded 1921 with roots back to the 1840s, with 7,634 members in 162 churches in 2004 in America Church of God (Seventh Day), founded 1863 with an estimated 11,000 members in 185 churches in 1999 in America Church of God and Saints of Christ, founded 1896 with an estimated 40,000 members in approximately 200 congregations in 1999 in America Jehovah's Witnesses, previously known as International Bible Students before 1931, founded circa 1870, with 1,029,652 members in 11,930 congregations in 2003 in America; as of December 2008 – 7,000,000 witnesses in 235 different lands attending 105,000 kingdom halls. "Russell was deeply influenced by Adventist thought" (p. 268) Seventh-day Adventists, founded 1863, with 15.6 million baptized members worldwide in 2007 Church reports largest membership growth rate since 2002 audit Worldwide Church of God, founded 1933 with an estimated 63,000 members worldwide in 2004 Seventh-day Adventist The Seventh-day Adventist Church is a denomination which, as its name suggests, is best known for its teaching that Saturday, the seventh day of the week, is the Sabbath and is the appropriate day for worship. The denomination grew out of the Millerite movement in the United States during the middle part of the 19th century, and was formally established in May 1863. Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement The Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement is a division from the Seventh-day Adventist Church created by disagreement over military service on the Sabbath day during World War I. Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Association The Davidians (originally named Shepherd's Rod) are made up primarily of disfellowshipped former members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. They were originally known as the Shepherd's Rod and are still referred to as such. The group derives its name from two books on Bible doctrine written by their founder, Victor Houteff, in 1929. In these books (The Shepherd's Rod Book Volumes 1 and 2) Houteff made reference to verse 9 in the sixth chapter of the biblical book of Micah: "The Lord's voice crieth unto the city, and the man of wisdom shall see thy name: Hear ye the rod, and who hath appointed it." Advent Christian Church The Advent Christian Church is a "first-day" body of Adventist Christians founded on the teachings of William Miller. Primitive Advent Christian Church The Primitive Advent Christian Church is a small body of Adventist Christians which separated from the Advent Christian Church. They have a common early history. Adventists who had adopted the "conditional immortality" views of Charles F. Hudson and George Storrs formed the Advent Christian Association in Salem, Massachusetts in 1860. Church of God General Conference Many denominations known as "Church of God" have Adventist origins. The Church of God General Conference is an Adventist Christian body which is also known as the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith and the Church of God General Conference (Morrow, GA). The Church of the Blessed Hope, some of whose congregations use the name Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith are a separate denomination. United Seventh-Day Brethren The United Seventh-Day Brethren is a small Sabbatarian Adventist body. In 1947, several individuals and two independent congregations within the Church of God Adventist movement came together to form the United Seventh-Day Brethren, seeking to increase fellowship and to combine their efforts in evangelism, publications, and other ministries. Church of God (Seventh Day) The Church of God (Seventh-Day) separated from Seventh-day Adventists in the 1860s. The Worldwide Church of God splintered from this. The Church of God (7th Day) split off in 1933. Others True and Free Adventists, a Russian group "Human Rights and the True and Free Adventists" by Ludmilla Alexeyeva. Spectrum 19:2 (November 1988) Gary Land, Historical Dictionary of Seventh-day Adventists, p254 Some charismatic/Pentecostal-type movements have broken off; see: Charismatic Adventism. See also List of religions and religious denominations#Adventist and related churches List of Christian denominations#Millerites and Comparable groups William Miller (preacher) Millerites Great Disappointment Millennialism References External links History of the Millerite Movement from the Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia 10:892–898, 1976. Graphical timeline of major Millerite groups from the Worldwide Church of God official website | Adventism |@lemmatized term:1 adventist:36 generally:1 refer:2 someone:1 believe:3 second:4 advent:19 jesus:2 popularly:1 know:8 come:3 tradition:1 millerite:5 family:1 church:42 regard:1 today:2 conservative:1 protestant:1 sabbatarian:3 hebraic:2 section:1 p:2 frank:1 mead:1 samuel:1 hill:1 craig:1 atwood:1 handbook:2 denomination:9 united:8 state:6 edn:2 nashville:1 abingdon:1 press:1 hold:1 much:1 common:2 theology:2 differs:1 whether:4 intermediate:1 unconscious:1 sleep:1 consciousness:2 ultimate:1 punishment:1 wicked:2 annihilation:1 eternal:2 torment:1 nature:1 immortality:2 resurrect:1 sanctuary:1 refers:1 one:1 heaven:1 earth:1 movement:10 encourage:1 examination:1 old:1 testament:1 lead:1 observe:1 sabbath:5 others:3 use:2 name:7 jehovah:3 god:17 history:3 modern:1 adventism:3 begin:1 inter:1 denominational:1 vocal:1 leader:1 william:3 miller:5 people:2 support:1 prediction:1 christ:2 return:1 great:2 disappointment:2 october:1 many:2 give:3 christianity:1 whereas:1 predict:1 date:1 albany:2 conference:8 attend:3 delegate:2 follow:1 meeting:1 millerites:2 become:1 agree:1 four:2 group:5 emerge:1 evangelical:2 life:3 union:3 christian:19 seventh:21 day:26 main:2 body:6 organize:1 american:1 millennial:1 association:3 portion:1 later:2 unique:1 among:1 hell:1 death:1 publication:2 herald:3 call:1 messiah:1 another:1 sign:1 time:1 decline:2 number:1 appear:1 census:1 religious:2 diminish:1 almost:1 non:1 existence:1 found:10 george:2 storrs:2 establish:2 bible:4 examiner:1 merge:1 officially:2 form:4 grow:3 rapidly:1 first:2 little:1 century:3 small:3 splinter:2 primitive:3 congregation:5 west:1 virginia:1 publish:2 magazine:1 witness:4 news:1 mission:1 maranatha:1 also:3 operate:1 liberal:1 art:1 college:2 aurora:1 illinois:1 lennox:1 massachusetts:2 sanctity:1 holy:1 worship:2 review:1 large:2 worldwide:6 membership:2 significant:1 network:1 medical:1 educational:1 institution:1 join:1 spend:1 last:1 year:1 work:1 unity:1 die:1 charles:2 taze:1 russell:2 founder:2 partially:1 impact:1 belief:1 describe:1 following:1 general:5 member:9 america:6 branch:1 davidians:2 breakoff:1 shepherd:4 rod:5 christadelphians:1 estimated:4 ecclesias:1 root:1 back:1 saint:1 approximately:1 previously:1 international:1 student:1 circa:1 december:1 different:1 land:2 kingdom:1 hall:1 deeply:1 influence:1 think:1 founded:1 million:1 baptized:1 report:1 growth:1 rate:1 since:1 audit:1 suggest:1 best:1 teaching:2 saturday:1 week:1 appropriate:1 middle:1 part:1 formally:1 may:1 reform:2 division:1 create:1 disagreement:1 military:1 service:1 world:1 war:1 davidian:1 originally:2 make:2 primarily:1 disfellowshipped:1 former:1 still:1 derive:1 two:2 book:4 doctrine:1 write:1 victor:1 houteff:2 volumes:1 reference:2 verse:1 sixth:1 chapter:1 biblical:1 micah:1 lord:1 voice:1 crieth:1 unto:1 city:1 man:1 wisdom:1 shall:1 see:3 thy:1 hear:1 ye:1 hath:1 appoint:1 separate:3 early:1 adopt:1 conditional:1 view:1 f:1 hudson:1 salem:1 origin:1 abrahamic:2 faith:2 morrow:1 ga:1 bless:1 hope:1 whose:1 brother:3 several:1 individual:1 independent:1 within:1 together:1 seek:1 increase:1 fellowship:1 combine:1 effort:1 evangelism:1 ministry:1 adventists:1 split:1 true:2 free:2 russian:1 human:1 right:1 ludmilla:1 alexeyeva:1 spectrum:1 november:1 gary:1 historical:1 dictionary:1 charismatic:2 pentecostal:1 type:1 break:1 list:2 religion:1 related:1 comparable:1 preacher:1 millennialism:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 graphical:1 timeline:1 major:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram nashville_abingdon:1 abingdon_press:1 punishment_wicked:1 inter_denominational:1 day_adventist:12 jehovah_witness:2 branch_davidians:1 shepherd_rod:4 davidian_seventh:1 victor_houteff:1 salem_massachusetts:1 abrahamic_faith:2 day_adventists:1 external_link:1 |
3,741 | AppleTalk | AppleTalk is a proprietary suite of protocols developed by Apple Inc for networking computers. It was included in the original Macintosh (1984) and is now deprecated by Apple in favor of TCP/IP networking. AppleTalk's Datagram Delivery Protocol corresponds closely to the Network layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model. Design The AppleTalk design rigorously followed the OSI model of protocol layering. Unlike most of the early LAN systems, AppleTalk was not built using the archetypal Xerox XNS system. The intended target was not Ethernet, and it did not have 48-bit addresses to route. Nevertheless, many portions of the AppleTalk system have direct analogs in XNS. One key differentiation for AppleTalk was it contained three protocols aimed at making the system completely self-configuring. The AppleTalk address resolution protocol (AARP) allowed AppleTalk hosts to automatically generate their own network addresses, and the Name Binding Protocol (NBP) was a dynamic Domain Name System (DNS) system, mapping network addresses to user-readable names. Although systems similar to AARP existed in other systems, Banyan VINES for instance, nothing like NBP has existed until recently. Both AARP and NBP had defined ways to allow "controller" devices to override the default mechanisms. The concept was to allow routers to provide the information or "hardwire" the system to known addresses and names. On larger networks where AARP could cause problems as new nodes searched for free addresses, the addition of a router could reduce "chattiness." Together AARP and NBP made AppleTalk an easy-to-use networking system. New machines were added to the network by plugging them and optionally giving them a name. The NBP lists were examined and displayed by a program known as the Chooser which would display a list of machines on the local network, divided into classes such as file-servers and printers. One problem for AppleTalk is it was intended to be part of a project known as Macintosh Office, which would consist of a host machine providing routing, printer sharing and file sharing. However this project was canceled in 1986. Despite this, the LaserWriter included built-in AppleTalk. Apple released a file and print server known as the AppleShare File and Print Servers. Today AppleTalk support is provided for backward compatibility in many products, but the default networking on the Mac is TCP/IP. Starting with Mac OS X v10.2, Bonjour (originally named Rendezvous) provides similar discovery and configuration services for TCP/IP-based networks. Bonjour is Apple's implementation of ZeroConf, which was written specifically to bring NBP's ease-of-use to the TCP/IP world. Addressing An AppleTalk address was a 4-byte quantity. This consisted of a two-byte network number, a one-byte node number, and a one-byte socket number. Of these, only the network number required any configuration, being obtained from a router. Each node dynamically chose its own node number, according to a protocol which handled contention between different nodes accidentally choosing the same number. For socket numbers, a few well-known numbers were reserved for special purposes specific to the AppleTalk protocol itself. Apart from these, all application-level protocols were expected to use dynamically-assigned socket numbers at both the client and server end. Because of this dynamism, users could not be expected to access services by specifying their address. Instead, all services had names which, being chosen by humans, could be expected to be meaningful to users, and also could be sufficiently long enough to minimize the chance of conflicts. Note that, because a name translated to an address, which included a socket number as well as a node number, a name in AppleTalk mapped directly to a service being provided by a machine, which was entirely separate from the name of the machine itself. Thus, services could be moved to a different machine and, so long as they kept the same service name, there was no need for users to do anything different to continue accessing the service. And the same machine could host any number of instances of services of the same type, without any network connection conflicts. Contrast this with A records in the DNS, where a name translates only to a machine address, not including the port number that might be providing a service. Thus, if people are accustomed to using a particular machine name to access a particular service, their access will break when the service is moved to a different machine. This can be mitigated somewhat by insistence on using CNAME records indicating service rather than actual machine names to refer to the service, but there is no way of guaranteeing that users will follow such a convention. (Some newer protocols, such as Kerberos and Active Directory use DNS SRV records to identify services by name, which is much closer to the AppleTalk model.) Protocols AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol AARP resolves AppleTalk addresses to physical layer, usually MAC, addresses. It is functionally equivalent to ARP. AARP is a fairly simple system. When powered on, an AppleTalk machine broadcasts an AARP probe packet asking for a network address, intending to hear back from controllers such as routers. If no address is provided, one is picked at random from the "base subnet", 0. It then broadcasts another packet saying "I am selecting this address", and then waits to see if anyone else on the network complains. If another machine has that address, it will pick another address, and keep trying until it finds a free one. On a network with many machines it may take several tries before a free address is found, so for performance purposes the successful address is "written down" in NVRAM and used as the default address in the future. This means that in most real-world setups where machines are added a few at a time, only one or two tries are needed before the address effectively become constant. AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol This was a comparatively late addition to the AppleTalk protocol suite, done when it became clear that a TCP-style reliable connection-oriented transport was needed. Significant differences from TCP were: a connection attempt could be rejected there were no "half-open" connections; once one end initiated a tear-down of the connection, the whole connection would be closed (i.e., ADSP is full-duplex, not dual simplex). Apple Filing Protocol The Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), formerly AppleTalk Filing Protocol, is the protocol for communicating with AppleShare file servers. Built on top of AppleTalk Session Protocol, it provides services for authenticating users (extensible to different authentication methods including two-way random-number exchange) and for performing operations specific to the Macintosh HFS filesystem. AFP is still in use in Mac OS X, even though most other AppleTalk protocols have been deprecated. AppleTalk Session Protocol ASP was an intermediate protocol, built on top of ATP, which in turn was the foundation of AFP. It provided basic services for requesting responses to arbitrary commands and performing out-of-band status queries. It also allowed the server to send asynchronous attention messages to the client. AppleTalk Transaction Protocol ATP was the original reliable transport-level protocol for AppleTalk, built on top of DDP. At the time it was being developed, a full, reliable connection-oriented protocol like TCP was considered to be too expensive to implement for most of the intended uses of AppleTalk. Thus, ATP was a simple request/response exchange, with no need to set up or tear down connections. An ATP request packet could be answered by up to eight response packets. The requestor then sent an acknowledgement packet containing a bit mask indicating which of the response packets it received, so the responder could retransmit the remainder. ATP could operate in either "at-least-once" mode or "exactly-once" mode. Exactly-once mode was essential for operations which were not idempotent; in this mode, the responder kept a copy of the response buffers in memory until successful receipt of a release packet from the requestor, or until a timeout elapsed. This way, it could respond to duplicate requests with the same transaction ID by resending the same response data, without performing the actual operation again.** Datagram Delivery Protocol DDP was the lowest-level data-link-independent transport protocol. It provided a datagram service with no guarantees of delivery. All application-level protocols, including the infrastructure protocols NBP, RTMP and ZIP, were built on top of DDP. Name Binding Protocol NBP was a dynamic, distributed system for managing AppleTalk names. When a service started up on a machine, it registered a name for itself on that machine, as chosen by a human administrator. At this point, NBP provided a system for checking that no other machine had already registered the same name. Then later, when a client wanted to access that service, it used NBP to query machines to find that service. NBP provided browseability ("what are the names of all the services available?") as well as the ability to find a service with a particular name. As would be expected from Apple, names were truly human readable, containing spaces, upper and lower case letters, and including support for searching. Printer Access Protocol PAP was the standard way of communicating with PostScript printers. It was built on top of ATP. When a PAP connection was opened, each end sent the other an ATP request which basically meant "send me more data". The client's response to the server was to send a block of PostScript code, while the server could respond with any diagnostic messages that might be generated as a result, after which another "send-more-data" request was sent. This use of ATP provided automatic flow control; each end could only send data to the other end if there was an outstanding ATP request to respond to. PAP also provided for out-of-band status queries, handled by separate ATP transactions. Even while it was busy servicing a print job from one client, a PAP server could continue to respond to status requests from any number of other clients. This allowed other Macintoshes on the LAN that were waiting to print to display status messages indicating that the printer was busy, and what the job was that it was busy with. Routing Table Maintenance Protocol RTMP was the protocol by which routers kept each other informed about the topology of the network. This was the only part of AppleTalk that required periodic unsolicited broadcasts: every 10 seconds, each router had to send out a list of all the network numbers it knew about and how far away it thought they were. Zone Information Protocol ZIP was the protocol by which AppleTalk network numbers were associated with zone names. A zone was a subdivision of the network that made sense to humans (for example, "Accounting Department"); but while a network number had to be assigned to a topologically-contiguous section of the network, a zone could include several different discontiguous portions of the network. Physical implementation The initial default hardware implementation for AppleTalk was a high-speed serial protocol known as LocalTalk that used the Macintosh's built-in RS-422 ports at 230.4 kbit/s. LocalTalk used a splitter box in the RS-422 port to provide an upstream and downstream cable from a single port. The topology was point-to-point: cables were daisy-chained from each connected machine to the next, up to the maximum of 32 permitted on any LocalTalk segment. The system was slow by today's standards, but at the time the additional cost and complexity of networking on PC machines was such that it was common that Macs were the only networked personal computers in an office. Other larger computers, such as UNIX or VAX workstations, would commonly be networked via Ethernet. Other physical implementations were also available. One common replacement for LocalTalk was PhoneNet, a 3rd party solution (from a company called Farallon, now call Netopia) that also used the RS-422 port and was indistinguishable from LocalTalk as far as Apple's LocalTalk port drivers were concerned, but ran over two unused wires in existing phone cabling. PhoneNet was considerably less expensive to install and maintain. Ethernet and Token Ring was also supported, known as EtherTalk and TokenTalk respectively. EtherTalk in particular gradually became the dominant implementation method for AppleTalk as Ethernet became generally popular in the PC industry throughout the 1990s. An Ethernet network could also run AppleTalk and TCP/IP, together with other protocols such as DecNET, NetBEUI, and IPX, simultaneously. Networking model OSI ModelCorresponding AppleTalk layersApplicationApple Filing Protocol (AFP)PresentationApple Filing Protocol (AFP)SessionZone Information Protocol (ZIP)AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP)TransportAppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP)AppleTalk Echo Protocol (AEP)Name Binding Protocol (NBP)Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP)NetworkDatagram Delivery Protocol (DDP)Data linkEtherTalk Link Access Protocol (ELAP)LocalTalk Link Access Protocol (LLAP) TokenTalk Link Access Protocol (TLAP) Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)PhysicalLocalTalk driverEthernet driverToken Ring driverFDDI driver Versions AppleTalk versionApple Filing ProtocolCorresponds to Mac OSNotes567.057.0.47.158.1.17.1.258.1.37.53.0X 10.0.33.1X 10.33.2X 10.4 Cross platform solutions When Appletalk was first introduced the dominant office computing platform was the PC compatible running MS-DOS. The "TOPS Teleconnector" TOPS Teleconnector MS-DOS networking system over Appletalk system enabled MS-DOS PCs to communicate over Appletalk network hardware; it comprised an Appletalk interface card for the PC and a suite of networking software allowing such functions as file, drive and printer sharing. As well as allowing the construction of a PC-only Appletalk network, it allowed communication between PCs and Macs with TOPS software installed. (Macs without TOPS installed could use the same network but only to communicate with other Apple machines.) The Mac TOPS software did not match the quality of Apple's own either in ease of use or in robustness and freedom from crashes, but the DOS software was relatively simple to use in DOS terms, and was robust. The BSD and Linux operating systems support AppleTalk through an open source project called Netatalk, which implements the complete protocol suite and allows them to both act as native file or print servers for Macintosh computers, and print to LocalTalk printers over the network. In addition, Columbia University released the Columbia AppleTalk Package (CAP) which implemented the protocol suite for various Unix flavors including Ultrix, SunOS, *BSD and IRIX. This package is no longer actively maintained. See also Network File System Remote File System Samba Server Message Block References External links AppleTalk - Directory & Informational Resource System 7.x.x: AppleTalk and ADSP Versions | AppleTalk |@lemmatized appletalk:48 proprietary:1 suite:5 protocol:50 develop:2 apple:10 inc:1 network:32 computer:4 include:9 original:2 macintosh:6 deprecate:2 favor:1 tcp:8 ip:5 networking:3 datagram:3 delivery:4 correspond:1 closely:1 layer:2 open:4 system:21 interconnection:1 osi:3 communication:2 model:4 design:2 rigorously:1 follow:2 layering:1 unlike:1 early:1 lan:2 build:7 use:17 archetypal:1 xerox:1 xns:2 intended:2 target:1 ethernet:5 bit:2 address:23 route:1 nevertheless:1 many:3 portion:2 direct:1 analog:1 one:10 key:1 differentiation:1 contain:3 three:1 aim:1 make:3 completely:1 self:1 configuring:1 resolution:2 aarp:8 allow:9 host:3 automatically:1 generate:2 name:24 bind:3 nbp:12 dynamic:2 domain:1 dns:3 map:2 user:6 readable:2 although:1 similar:2 exist:3 banyan:1 vine:1 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3,742 | Hoosier | Hoosier () is the official demonym for a resident of the U.S. State of Indiana. Although residents of most U.S. states typically adopt a derivative of the state name, e.g., Indianan or Indianian, natives of Indiana prefer to avoid these demonyms. The State of Indiana adopted the nickname "Hoosier State" more than 150 years ago. Indiana State Emblems Indiana State Library "Hoosiers" is also the mascot for the Indiana University athletic teams and the title of an award-winning 1986 movie Hoosiers starring Gene Hackman, based on the story of the Milan High School basketball team and its road to winning the state championship. The word Hoosier is sometimes used in the names of Indiana-based businesses. In the Indiana High School Athletic Association, seven active athletic conferences and one disbanded conference have the word Hoosier in their names, the conferences names are Hoosier Athletic, Hoosier Crossroads, Hoosier Heartland, Hoosier Heritage, Hoosier Hills, Mid-Hoosier, and Northeast Hoosier with Northwest Hoosier being the disbanded conference. In other parts of the country, the word has been adapted for other uses (see Other uses). “Hoosier” also refers to the cotton-stowers, both black and white, who moved cotton bales from docks to the holds of ships, forcing the bales in tightly by means of jackscrews. A low-status job, it nevertheless is referred to in various sea shanty lyrics. For example, Shanties from the Seven Seas Shanties from the Seven Seas, 1994. Collected by Stan Hugill. Mystic, Connecticut: Mystic Seaport Museum. includes lyrics that reference hoosiers. There are several other references to hoosiers throughout the book. Some people think the name Hoosier comes from the question "Who's here?" but there are other interpretations of the word that may be more valid. Origin According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the etymology of the word is unknown, but it has been in use since at least 1826. According to Bill Bryson, there are many suggestions for the derivation of the word "Hoosier," but none are universally accepted. Historian Jacob Piatt Dunn theorized that the word has roots in the Anglo-Saxon "hoo," which refers to high ground. "Hoozers" might refer to hill people, and would evolve into a term for less cultured people of the American frontier. Haller, 6 One of the earliest written references to an Indiana "Hoosier" is from a personal letter by Sandford Cox dated 14 July 1827. Haller, 7 The term came into general usage in the 1830s. John Finley of Richmond, Indiana wrote a poem, The Hoosier's Nest, The Hoosier's Nest which was published in 1833 Haller, 5 and was used as the "Carrier's Address" of the Indianapolis Journal, January 1, 1833. It was generally accepted as a term for Indiana residents by the 1840s, and as it came into common usage, the debates about the term's origin began. Indiana Historical Society . In 1900, author Meredith Nicholson wrote The Hoosiers, an early attempt to study the origins of the word as applied to Indiana residents. Jacob Piatt Dunn published The Word Hoosier in 1907, a serious study into the origin of the term "Hoosier" as a term used to describe the citizens of Indiana. Indiana Historical Society Nicholson and Dunn both chronicled some of the popular, satirical origins of the word (see below). Nicholson, however, had also defended against an explanation that the word "Hoosier" was applied to Indiana because it referred to uncouth country folk. Dunn, by contrast, concluded that Indiana settlers adopted the word as a humorous nickname, and that the negative connotation had already faded when John Finley wrote his poem. Some folkloric etymologies Frontier banter This idea suggests the term was a greeting. When approaching a man's home in those early frontier days, you shouted from afar, "Hello, the cabin!" to avoid being shot. The inhabitants would then shout back "Who'sh 'ere?" (who's here). As it became slurred together over time, the country folk came to be called Hoosiers. A variant of this story combines "Who's" and "your", such as in "Who'sh yer 'pa?". Additionally, the poet James Whitcomb Riley facetiously suggested that the fierce brawling that took place in Indiana involved enough ear biting that the expression "Whose ear?" was common enough to be notable. Pugilistic boatmen Indiana rivermen were so spectacularly successful in trouncing or "hushing" their adversaries in the brawling that was then common that they became known as "hushers." Mr. Hoosier's men One possible origin of the term "Hoosier" comes from the construction of the Louisville and Portland Canal A contractor reportedly named Samuel Hoosier preferred to hire workers from Indiana during the construction of the Louisville and Portland Canal (1826-1831) in Louisville. His employees became known as "Hoosier's men" and finally just "Hoosiers". This story is reported by Dunn (1907:16-17) as being told in 1901 by a man who heard this story from a Hoosier family member while traveling in southern Tennessee. However, Dunn’s research could find no-one in southern Tennessee who had heard the story, nor could he find any family of that name in any directory in the region. In spite of Dunn's skepticism, this version has been accepted by Evan Bayh, who has served as Indiana governor and senator, and by Senator Vance Hartke, who introduced this story into the Congressional Record (1975), according to Graf. A similar story involves the National Road, which began in Cumberland, Maryland, and slowly extended westward, reaching Indiana in 1829-1834. As plans were made to extend the highway to Richmond, Indiana, the call went out for laborers. Knowing that the federal government would pay "top dollar", the employees of a contractor in the Indiana Territory reportedly named Robert Hoosier asked their boss if they could go work for this higher wage in the neighboring state of Ohio. Mr. Hoosier gave his consent, asking them to return to work for him when this section of the road was done. Just as in the Sam Hoosier story, the crew of Indiana workers proved to be industrious, conscientious, and efficient. The federal foreman referred to the group as "Hoosiers" meaning they were workers that Robert Hoosier had allowed to join the national work crew. It wasn't long before people along the National Road used the term to describe the folks living in the territory to the west. This story is not mentioned in Dunn’s or Mencken’s research, but if there were such a contractor and such events, they would have taken place after the term "Hoosier" was already well established in Appalachia and was becoming attached to Indiana. Hussars In this story, a veteran of the Napoleonic wars, Col. John Jacob Lehmanowsky, settled in Indiana later in life and gave lectures on the “Wars of Europe” in which he extolled the virtues of the hussars, which his audience heard as “hoosiers.” Young men wishing to identify with these virtues called themselves Hoosiers, enough of them that eventually all people of Indiana were called Hoosiers. Weaknesses of this story include the unlikely mispronunciation of hussar as Hoosier and the fact that Lehmanowsky did not come to Indiana until 1833, by which time the term was already well established. Other uses A Hoosier cabinet, often shortened to "hoosier", is a type of free-standing kitchen cabinet popular in the early decades of the twentieth century. Almost all of these cabinets were produced by companies located in Indiana. The name is derived from the largest of them, the Hoosier Manufacturing Co. of New Castle, Indiana. Other Indiana businesses use Hoosier in the name of their companies: 1) Hoosier Racing Tire, manufacturer of racing tires; and 2) Hoosier Bat Company, manufacturer of wood baseball bats. As the mascot of Indiana University, the Hoosier is the subject of debate, primarily concerning the term's meaning and origin. As there is no physical embodiment of a Hoosier, IU is represented through their letters and colors alone. The RCA Dome, former home of the Indianapolis Colts, was once known as the Hoosier Dome before 1994, when RCA paid for the naming rights. The RCA Dome was replaced by Lucas Oil Stadium in 2008. Hoosier In Missouri In St. Louis, Missouri, the word is used in a derogatory fashion in similar context to "hick". J. Graf The Word Hoosier Indiana University Libraries, Bloomington Thomas E. Murray carefully analyzed the use of "hoosier" in St. Louis, Missouri, where it is the favorite epithet of abuse. "When asked what a Hoosier is," Murray writes, "St. Louisans readily list a number of defining characteristics, among which are 'lazy,' 'slow-moving,' 'derelict,' and 'irresponsible.'" He continues, "Few epithets in St. Louis carry the pejorative connotations or the potential for eliciting negative responses that hoosier does." He conducted tests and interviews across lines of age and race and tabulated the results. He found the term ecumenically applied. He also noted the word was often used with a modifier, almost redundantly, as in "some damn Hoosier." In a separate section Murray speaks of the history of the word and cites Baker and Carmony (1975) and speculates on why Hoosier (in Indiana a "neutral or, more often, positive" term) should remain "alive and well in St. Louis, occupying as it does the honored position of being the city's number one term of derogation." A radio broadcast took up where Murray left off. During the program, "Fresh Air," Jeffrey Lunberg, a language commentator, answered questions about regional nicknames. He cited Elaine Viets, a Post-Dispatch columnist (also quoted by Paul Dickson), as saying that in St. Louis a "Hoosier is a low-life redneck, somebody you can recognize because they have a car on concrete blocks in their front yard and are likely to have just shot their wife who may also be their sister." But just how did the term "hoosier" come to St. Louis? One need only look to the St. Louis suburb of Fenton, which, in the mid-1950s, was at the then-rural southwest rim of the county. At the time, Chrysler Corporation built a large automobile assembly plant in the city of Fenton and closed a plant it had been operating in Indiana. Many former employees of the closed Indiana plant moved to Fenton for employment; so many, in fact, that entire subdivisions of new homes (with streets named after Chrysler models such as "Fury" and "Belvidere") sprang up south of the plant, near what was then US Route 66. It became something of a local joke to refer to the new arrivals from Indiana as "hoosiers", and before long, anyone from the rural edges of St. Louis County was considered such. Famous references The fellowship felt among Hoosiers was referred to in Kurt Vonnegut's book, Cat's Cradle, where it is said that this fellowship is an example of a granfalloon. Vonnegut was himself a Hoosier and a graduate of Shortridge High School in Indianapolis. Serial killer Carl Panzram's last words were reportedly, "Hurry it up, you Hoosier bastard! I could hang 10 men while you're fooling around!" The word hoosier is also mentioned in the song "College Girls Are Easy", where the Mc said "he knocked it like a Hoosier" The word hoosier is also mentioned in the song "Bad Side"(Lil Wayne & Juelz Santana), where Lil Wayne says "around here we wear red, like a Hoosier bitch" References External links Indiana Historical Bureau article entitled What is a Hoosier? Article on the name "Hoosier" from the Indiana University Alumni Association Hoosier National Forest "What is a 'Hoosier'" Web page Article: ''Explanation of "Hoosiers" by Dave Barry | Hoosier |@lemmatized hoosier:74 official:1 demonym:1 resident:4 u:3 state:9 indiana:40 although:1 typically:1 adopt:3 derivative:1 name:12 e:2 g:1 indianan:1 indianian:1 native:1 prefer:2 avoid:2 demonyms:1 nickname:3 year:1 ago:1 emblem:1 library:2 also:8 mascot:2 university:4 athletic:4 team:2 title:1 award:1 winning:1 movie:1 star:1 gene:1 hackman:1 base:2 story:11 milan:1 high:5 school:3 basketball:1 road:4 win:1 championship:1 word:19 sometimes:1 use:10 business:2 association:2 seven:3 active:1 conference:4 one:6 disband:2 crossroad:1 heartland:1 heritage:1 hill:2 mid:2 northeast:1 northwest:1 part:1 country:3 adapt:1 us:2 see:2 refer:8 cotton:2 stowers:1 black:1 white:1 move:3 bale:2 dock:1 hold:1 ship:1 force:1 tightly:1 mean:2 jackscrew:1 low:2 status:1 job:1 nevertheless:1 various:1 sea:3 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3,743 | Charcotâ%80%93Marieâ%80%93Tooth_disease | Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT), known also as Hereditary Motor and Sensory Neuropathy (HMSN), Hereditary Sensorimotor Neuropathy (HSMN), or Peroneal Muscular Atrophy, is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of nerves (neuropathy) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs but also in the hands and arms in the advanced stages of disease. Presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited neurological disorders, with 37 in 100,000 affected. Description The disorder is caused by the absence of proteins that are essential for normal function of the nerves due to errors in the gene coding molecules. The absence of these chemical substances gives rise to dysfunction either in the axon or the myelin sheath of the nerve cell. Most of the mutations identified result in disrupted myelin production, however a small proportion of mutations occur in gene MFN2, which doesn't seem to have anything to do with myelin. Instead MFN2 controls behaviour of mitochondria. Recent research showed that the mutated MFN2 causes mitochondria to form large clusters. In nerve cells these large clusters of mitochondria failed to travel down the axon towards the synapses. It is suggested these mitochondria clots make the synapses fail, resulting in CMT disease. The different classes of this disorder have been divided into the primary demyelinating neuropathies (CMT1, CMT3, and CMT4) and the primary axonal neuropathies (CMT2). Recent studies, however, show that the pathologies of these two classes are frequently intermingled, due to the dependence and close cellular interaction of Schwann cells and neurons. Schwann cells are responsible for myelin formation, enwrapping neural axons with their plasma membranes in a process called “myelination”. The molecular structure of the nerve depends upon the interactions between neurons, Schwann cells, and fibroblasts. Schwann cells and neurons, in particular, exchange signals that regulate survival and differentiation during development. These signals are important to CMT disease because a disturbed communication between Schwann cells and neurons, resulting from a genetic defect, is observed in this disorder. It is clear that interaction with demyelinating Schwann cells causes the expression of abnormal axonal structure and function, but we still do not know how these abnormalities result in CMT. One possibility is that the weakness and sensory loss experienced by patients with CMT is a result of axonal degradation. Another possibility is that axonal dysfunction occurs, not degeneration, and that this dysfunction is induced by demyelinating Schwann cells. Most patients experience demyelinating neuropathies, and this is characterized by a reduction in nerve conduction velocity (NCV), due to a partial or complete loss of the myelin sheath. Axonopathies, on the other hand, are characterized by a reduced compound muscle action potential (CMAP), while NCV is normal or only slightly reduced. The disease is named for those who classically described it: Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) and his pupil Pierre Marie (1853-1940) ("Sur une forme particulière d'atrophie musculaire progressive, souvent familiale débutant par les pieds et les jambes et atteignant plus tard les mains", Revue médicale, Paris, 1886; 6: 97-138.), and Howard Henry Tooth (1856-1925) ("The peroneal type of progressive muscular atrophy", dissertation, London, 1886.) Symptoms Symptoms usually begin in late childhood or early adulthood. Usually, the initial symptom is foot drop early in the course of the disease. This can also cause hammer toe, where the toes are always curled. Wasting of muscle tissue of the lower parts of the legs may give rise to "stork leg" or "inverted bottle" appearance. Weakness in the hands and forearms occurs in many people later in life as the disease progresses. Symptoms and progression of the disease can vary. Breathing can be affected in some; so can hearing, vision, and the neck and shoulder muscles. Scoliosis is common. Hip sockets can be malformed. Gastrointestinal problems can be part of CMT, as can chewing, swallowing, and speaking (as vocal cords atrophy). A tremor can develop as muscles waste. Pregnancy has been known to exacerbate CMT, as well as extreme emotional stress. Diagnosis A definitive diagnosis for a specific type of CMT is established via genetic testing for most types. However, some genetic markers have not yet been identified, and a diagnosis can also be established via an electromyography examination (which shows that the velocity of nerve impulse conduction is decreased and the time required to charge the nerve is increased) and nerve biopsy. Types of the disease The condition can be broken down into a few major categories, which in turn can be classified further based upon the associated genes. Name Inheritance Frequency Notes CMT Type 1 (CMT1) Autosomal dominant Type 1 affects approximately 80% of CMT patients and is the most common type of CMT. The subtypes share clinical symptoms. Causes demyelination, which can be detected by measuring nerve conduction velocities. CMT Type 2 (CMT2) Autosomal dominant(except CMT2B1) Type 2 affects approximately 20-40% of CMT patients. Main effect is on the axon. The average nerve conduction velocity is slightly below normal, but generally above 38m/s CMT Type 3 (CMT3) Autosomal recessive Type 3 affects very few CMT patients. CMT Type 4 (CMT4) Autosomal recessive Type 4 affects very few CMT patients. CMT X-Linked (CMTX) X-linked dominant CMTX affects approximately 10-20% of CMT patients. Approx 10% of X-linked CMT patients have some other form than CMTX. However a study published in 1997 indicates that a connexin 32 gene mutation is associated with this form which may be more common than previously thought. More details on the types are provided in the table below: Type OMIM Gene Locus Description CMT1A PMP22 17p11.2 The most common form of the disease, 70-80% of Type 1 patients. Average NCV: 20-25m/s when associated with essential tremor and ataxia, called Roussy-Levy Syndrome CMT1B MPZ 1q22 Caused by mutations in the gene producing protein zero (P0). 5-10% of Type 1 patients. Average NCV: <15m/s CMT1C LITAF 16p13.1-p12.3 Causes severe demyelination, which can be detected by measuring nerve conduction velocities. Usually shows up in infancy. Average NCV: 26-42m/s. Identical symptoms to CMT-1A. CMT1D EGR2 10q21.1-q22.1 Average NCV: 15-20m/s CMT1E PMP22 17p11.2 Demyelinating, deafness CMT2A MFN2 or KIF1B 1p36 The cause is likely located on chromosome 1 for the mitofusion 2 protein. Some research has also linked this form of CMT to the protein kinesin 1B. Does not show up on nerve conduction velocity tests, because it is caused by axonopathy. CMT2B RAB7 (RAB7A, RAB7B) 3q21. CMT2B1 LMNA 1q22 axonal CMT, (laminopathy) CMT2C 12q23-q24 May cause vocal cord, diaphragm, and distal weaknesses. CMT2D GARS 7p15 Patients with mutations in the GARS gene tend to have more severe symptoms in the upper extremities (hands), which is atypical for CMT in general. CMT2E NEFL 8p21 CMT2F HSPB1 7q11-q21 CMT2G 12q12-13 CMT2H GDAP1 8q13-q21.1 CMT2J 1q22 CMT2K 8q13-q21.1 CMT2L 12q24 CMT3 varies varies Sometimes called Dejerine-Sottas disease. Rarely found. Average NCV: Normal (50-60m/s). This is an old classification. Currently this is referred to as CMT4F. CMT4A GDAP1 8q13-q21.1 CMT4B1 MTMR2 11q22 CMT4B2 CMT4B2 (SBF2) 11p15 May be called "SBF2/MTMR13". CMT4C KIAA1985 (SH3TC2) 5q32 May lead to respiratory compromise. CMT4D NDRG1 8q24.3 Demyelinating, deafness CMT4E EGR2 10q21.1-10q22.1 "CMT4E" is a tentative name CMT4F PRX 19q13.1-19q13.2 "CMT4F" is a tentative name CMT4H FGD4 12p11.21 CMT4J KIAA0274 (FIG4) 6q21 CMTX1 GJB1 Xq13.1 Average NCV: 25-40m/s CMTX2 Xq22.2 CMTX3 Unknown, but 11 of 15 eliminated Xq26 Genetic testing Genetic testing is available for many of the different types of Charcot-Marie-Tooth. For a listing of test availabilities, see GeneTests.org Management and Treatment Although there is no current standard treatment, the use of ascorbic acid has been proposed, and has shown some benefit in animal models. A clinical trial to determine the effectiveness of high doses of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in treating humans with CMT type 1A has been conducted. The results of the trial upon children have shown that a high dosage intake of ascorcic acid is safe but the efficacy endpoints expected were not met. People who have CMT are advised to maintain a healthy weight, because extra weight can limit mobility and places additional stress on the joints They are also advised to be moderately physically active, and to pay special attention to the maintenance of their strength and flexibility. Water therapy is particularly beneficial, since the stress put on the joints is minimized. The Charcot-Marie-Tooth Association classifies the chemotherapy drug vincristine as a "definite high risk" and states that "vincristine has been proven hazardous and should be avoided by all CMT patients, including those with no symptoms." CMT Association: Medical Alert There are also several corrective surgical procedures that can be done to improve physical condition. See also Palmoplantar keratoderma and spastic paraplegia References External links Charcot Marie Tooth Association CMT - An Insight into CMT - Sourced info on CMT, by and for people with CMT Charcot Marie Tooth North American Database - patients with CMT who do not live in North America are also encouraged to join Muscular Dystrophy Association - Although CMT is not a form of Muscular Dystrophy, it is one of several non-muscular dystrophy diseases for which the MDA offers support Muscular Dystrophy Canada Hereditary Neuropathy Foundation CMT United Kingdom | Charcotâ%80%93Marieâ%80%93Tooth_disease |@lemmatized charcot:6 marie:6 tooth:6 disease:13 cmt:35 know:3 also:9 hereditary:3 motor:1 sensory:2 neuropathy:7 hmsn:1 sensorimotor:1 hsmn:1 peroneal:2 muscular:6 atrophy:3 heterogeneous:1 inherited:2 disorder:5 nerve:13 characterize:3 loss:3 muscle:5 tissue:2 touch:1 sensation:1 predominantly:1 foot:2 leg:3 hand:4 arm:1 advanced:1 stage:1 presently:1 incurable:1 one:3 common:5 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3,744 | Brackish_water | Brackish water is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. The word comes from the Middle Dutch root "brak," meaning "salten" or "salty". Certain human activities can produce brackish water, in particular certain civil engineering projects such as dikes and the flooding of coastal marshland to produce brackish water pools for freshwater prawn farming. Brackish water is also the primary waste product of the salinity gradient power process. Because brackish water is hostile to the growth of most terrestrial plant species, without appropriate management it is damaging to the environment (see article on shrimp farms). Technically, brackish water contains between 0.5 to 30 grams of salt per litre—more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt or ‰). Thus, brackish covers a range of salinity regimes and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time. Water salinity based on dissolved salts in parts per thousand (ppt) Fresh water Brackish water Saline water Brine < 0.5 0.5 – 30 30 – 50 > 50 Brackish water habitats Estuaries A brackish water fish: Monodactylus argenteus Brackish is a mixture of sea water and fresh water, and an estuary is a body of water where fresh and salt water mix. The most extensive brackish water habitats worldwide are estuaries, where a river meets the sea. The River Thames flowing through London is a classic river estuary. The town of Teddington a few miles west of London marks the limit of the tidal part of the Thames, although it is still a freshwater river about as far east as Battersea insofar as the average salinity is very low and the fish fauna consists predominantly of freshwater species such as roach, dace, carp, perch, and pike. The Thames Estuary becomes truly brackish between Battersea and Gravesend, and the diversity of freshwater fish species present is smaller, primarily roach and dace, euryhaline marine species such as flounder, European seabass, mullet, and smelt become much more common. Further east, the salinity increases and the freshwater fish species are completely replaced by euryhaline marine ones, until the river reaches Gravesend, at which point conditions become fully marine and the fish fauna resembles that of the adjacent North Sea and includes both euryhaline and stenohaline marine species. A similar pattern of replacement can be observed with the aquatic plants and invertebrates living in the river. The River Thames - its geology, geography and vital statistics from source to sea, The-River-Thames.co.uk The River Thames - its natural history The-River-Thames.co.uk This type of ecological succession from a freshwater to marine ecosystem is typical of river estuaries. River estuaries form important staging points during the migration of anadromous and catadromus fish species, such as salmon and eels, giving them time to form social groups and to adjust to the changes in salinity. Salmon are anadromous, meaning they live in the sea but ascend rivers to spawn; eels are catadromous, living in rivers and streams, but returning to the sea to breed. Besides the species that migrate through estuaries, there are many other fish that use them as "nursery grounds" for spawning or as places young fish can feed and grow before moving elsewhere. Herring and plaice are two commercially important species that use the Thames Estuary for this purpose. Estuaries are also commonly used as fishing grounds, and as places for fish farming or ranching. For example, Atlantic salmon farms are often located in estuaries, although this has caused controversy, because in doing so, fish farmers expose migrating wild fish to large numbers of external parasites such as sea lice that escape from the pens the farmed fish are kept in. Save our Seatrout Mangroves Another important brackish water habitat is the mangrove swamp or mangal. Many, though not all, mangrove swamps fringe estuaries and lagoons where the salinity changes with each tide. Among the most specialised residents of mangrove forests are mudskippers, fish that forage for food on land, and archer fish, perch-like fish that "spit" at insects and other small animals living in the trees, knocking them into the water where they can be eaten. Like estuaries, mangrove swamps are extremely important breeding grounds for many fish, with species such as snappers, halfbeaks, and tarpon spawning or maturing among them. Besides fish, numerous other animals use mangroves, including such specialists as the Saltwater crocodile,American crocodile, proboscis monkey, diamondback terrapin, and the Crab-eating Frog, Fejervarya cancrivora formerly Rana cancrivora. Although often plagued with mosquitoes and other insects that make them unpleasant places to visit, mangrove swamps are very important buffer zones between land and sea, and are a natural defense against hurricane and tsunami damage in particular. Mangrove forests 'can reduce impact of tsunamis', Science and Development Network, December 30, 2004 Brackish seas and lakes Some seas and lakes are brackish. The Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea. Originally the confluence of two major river systems prior to the Pleistocene, since that it has been flooded by the North Sea but still receives so much freshwater from the adjacent lands that the water is brackish. Because the salt water coming in from the sea is denser than freshwater, the water in the Baltic is stratified, with salt water at the bottom and freshwater at the top. Limited mixing occurs because of the lack of tides and storms, with the result that the fish fauna at the surface is freshwater in composition while that lower down is more marine. Cod are an example of a species only found in deep water in the Baltic, while pike are confined to the less saline surface waters. The Caspian Sea is the world's largest lake and contains brackish water with a salinity about one-third that of normal seawater. The Caspian is famous for its peculiar animal fauna, including one of the few non-marine seals (the Caspian seal) and the great sturgeons, a major source of caviar. In the Black Sea the surface water is brackish with an average salinity of about 17-18 parts per thousand compared to 30 to 40 for the oceans. Lüning, K., Yarish, C. & Kirkman, H. Seaweeds: their environment, biogeography, and ecophysiology. Wiley-IEEE, 1990. p. 121. ISBN 978-0471624349 The deep, anoxic water of the Black Sea originates from warm, salty water of the Mediterranean. Notable brackish bodies of water (by type, in alphabetical order) Brackish seas Baltic Sea (the world’s largest pool of brackish water) Black Sea Caspian Sea (world’s largest lake) Brackish water lakes Map of lake Chilka, India's largest lake, classified as a brackish water body Lake Charles in Lake Charles, Louisiana, U.S. Chilka Lake, in Orissa state, India Laguna de Oviedo, in the Dominican Republic Lake Maracaibo, in Zulia state, Venezuela Lake Monroe in Florida, U.S. Pangong Tso in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir state, India Lake Van Lochs (Scottish) Loch Long Loch of Stenness Loch Bee Loch Obisary Loch an Duin Loch Scavaig Coastal lagoons, marshes, and deltas The Burgas Lakes near the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast The Fleet lagoon, Dorset, England Kaliveli Lake, near Pondichery, India Kerala Backwaters, Series of lagoons and lakes in Kerala Lagos Lagoon in Lagos, Nigeria Lake Pontchartrain, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S. Pulicat Lake, north of Chennai, India The Rann of Kutch, on the border of India and Pakistan Parts of the Rhône Delta, France: An area known as the Camargue Widewater, and land-locked lagoon near Lancing, England Estuaries Amazon River, empties so much freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean that it reduces the salinity of the sea for hundreds of miles Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland, U.S. Delaware Bay, an extension of the Delaware River in New Jersey and Delaware, USA Hampton Roads, Virginia, USA Lower Hudson River, in New York and New Jersey, U.S. East River, New York, USA Lingding Yang, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China Port Royal Sound part of Beaufort County, South Carolina, USA Saint Lawrence and Saguenay Rivers, the part downstream from Québec and Saguenay respectively San Francisco Bay and San Pablo Bay adjacent to San Francisco in California, U.S. The Thames Estuary in South East England References Further reading Moustakas, A. & I. Karakassis. How diverse is aquatic biodiversity research?, Aquatic Ecology, 39, 367-375 See also Biosalinity Brackish water aquarium Desalination Permian Sea Slough | Brackish_water |@lemmatized brackish:28 water:38 salinity:12 fresh:5 much:4 seawater:3 may:2 result:2 mixing:2 estuary:14 occur:2 fossil:1 aquifer:1 word:1 come:2 middle:1 dutch:1 root:1 brak:1 meaning:1 salten:1 salty:2 certain:2 human:1 activity:1 produce:2 particular:2 civil:1 engineering:1 project:1 dike:1 flooding:1 coastal:2 marshland:1 pool:2 freshwater:11 prawn:1 farming:2 also:3 primary:1 waste:1 product:1 gradient:1 power:1 process:1 hostile:1 growth:1 terrestrial:1 plant:2 specie:11 without:1 appropriate:1 management:1 damage:2 environment:2 see:2 article:1 shrimp:1 farm:2 technically:1 contains:1 gram:1 salt:5 per:4 litre:1 often:3 express:1 part:7 thousand:3 ppt:2 thus:1 cover:1 range:1 regime:1 consider:1 precisely:1 defined:1 condition:2 characteristic:1 many:4 surface:4 vary:1 considerably:1 space:1 time:2 base:1 dissolved:1 saline:2 brine:1 habitat:3 estuaries:2 fish:18 monodactylus:1 argenteus:1 mixture:1 sea:25 body:3 mix:1 extensive:1 worldwide:1 river:20 meet:1 thames:9 flow:1 london:2 classic:1 town:1 teddington:1 mile:2 west:1 mark:1 limit:1 tidal:1 although:3 still:2 far:2 east:4 battersea:2 insofar:1 average:2 low:3 fauna:4 consist:1 predominantly:1 roach:2 dace:2 carp:1 perch:2 pike:2 becomes:1 truly:1 gravesend:2 diversity:1 present:1 small:2 primarily:1 euryhaline:3 marine:7 flounder:1 european:1 seabass:1 mullet:1 smelt:1 become:2 common:1 increase:1 completely:1 replace:1 one:3 reach:1 point:2 fully:1 resemble:1 adjacent:3 north:4 include:3 stenohaline:1 similar:1 pattern:1 replacement:1 observe:1 aquatic:3 invertebrate:1 live:4 geology:1 geography:1 vital:1 statistic:1 source:2 co:2 uk:2 natural:2 history:1 type:2 ecological:1 succession:1 ecosystem:1 typical:1 form:2 important:5 staging:1 migration:1 anadromous:2 catadromus:1 salmon:3 eel:2 give:1 social:1 group:1 adjust:1 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impact:1 science:1 development:1 network:1 december:1 lakes:2 lake:16 baltic:4 adjoin:1 originally:1 confluence:1 major:2 system:1 prior:1 pleistocene:1 since:1 flood:1 receive:1 dense:1 stratify:1 bottom:1 top:1 limited:1 lack:1 storm:1 composition:1 cod:1 find:1 deep:2 confine:1 less:1 caspian:4 world:3 contain:1 third:1 normal:1 famous:1 peculiar:1 non:1 seal:2 great:1 sturgeon:1 caviar:1 black:4 compare:1 ocean:2 lüning:1 k:1 yarish:1 c:1 kirkman:1 h:1 seaweed:1 biogeography:1 ecophysiology:1 wiley:1 ieee:1 p:1 isbn:1 anoxic:1 originates:1 warm:1 mediterranean:1 notable:1 alphabetical:1 order:1 map:1 chilka:2 india:6 classify:1 charles:2 louisiana:2 u:6 orissa:1 state:3 laguna:1 de:1 oviedo:1 dominican:1 republic:2 maracaibo:1 zulia:1 venezuela:1 monroe:1 florida:1 pangong:1 tso:1 ladakh:1 jammu:1 kashmir:1 van:1 loch:7 scottish:1 long:1 stenness:1 bee:1 obisary:1 duin:1 scavaig:1 marsh:1 deltas:1 burgas:1 near:3 bulgarian:1 coast:1 fleet:1 dorset:1 england:3 kaliveli:1 pondichery:1 kerala:2 backwater:1 series:1 lagos:2 nigeria:1 pontchartrain:1 new:5 orleans:1 pulicat:1 chennai:1 rann:1 kutch:1 border:1 pakistan:1 rhône:1 delta:1 france:1 area:1 know:1 camargue:1 widewater:1 lock:1 lancing:1 amazon:1 empty:1 hundred:1 chesapeake:1 bay:4 maryland:1 delaware:3 extension:1 jersey:2 usa:4 hampton:1 road:1 virginia:1 hudson:1 york:2 lingding:1 yang:1 guangdong:1 people:1 china:1 port:1 royal:1 sound:1 beaufort:1 county:1 south:2 carolina:1 saint:1 lawrence:1 saguenay:2 downstream:1 québec:1 respectively:1 san:3 francisco:2 pablo:1 california:1 reference:1 read:1 moustakas:1 karakassis:1 diverse:1 biodiversity:1 research:1 ecology:1 biosalinity:1 aquarium:1 desalination:1 permian:1 slough:1 |@bigram brackish_water:16 freshwater_prawn:1 thames_estuary:3 freshwater_fish:2 farming_ranching:1 mangrove_swamp:4 mangrove_forest:2 buffer_zone:1 baltic_sea:2 caspian_sea:2 alphabetical_order:1 dominican_republic:1 jammu_kashmir:1 orleans_louisiana:1 chennai_india:1 rann_kutch:1 atlantic_ocean:1 chesapeake_bay:1 san_francisco:2 |
3,745 | Critical_point_(thermodynamics) | critical carbon dioxide|Carbon dioxide creating a fog when cooling from supercritical to critical temperature In physical chemistry, thermodynamics, chemistry and condensed matter physics, a critical point, also called a critical state, specifies the conditions (temperature, pressure and sometimes composition) at which a phase boundary ceases to exist. There are multiple types of critical points such as vapor-liquid critical points and liquid-liquid critical points. Liquid-liquid critical point A plot of typical polymer solution phase behavior including two critical points: an LCST and a UCST. The liquid-liquid critical point of a solution denotes the limit of the two-phase region of the phase diagram. In other words, this is the point at which an infinitesimal change in some thermodynamic variable such as temperature or pressure will lead to separation of the mixture into two distinct liquid phases, as shown in the polymer-solvent phase diagram to the right. Such points may also be denoted a critical solution temperature. Two types of liquid-liquid critical points are the upper critical solution temperature, or UCST, which denotes the warmest point at which cooling will induce phase separation, and the lower critical solution temperature, which denotes the coolest point at which heating will induce phase separation. Mathematical definition From a theory standpoint, as seen in the figure to the right the liquid-liquid critical point represents the temperature-concentration extremum of the spinodal curve. Thus in a two-component system it must satisfy two conditions. First is the condition of the spinodal curve, which is that the second derivative of the free energy with respect to concentration must equal zero. The second condition is the extremum condition that the third derivative of the free energy with respect to concentration must also equal zero, or that the derivative of the spinodal temperature with respect to concentration must equal zero. Vapor-liquid critical point The term "critical point" is sometimes used to specifically denote the vapor-liquid critical point of a material. The vapor-liquid critical point denotes the conditions above which distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist. In a typical phase diagram, the boundary between gas and liquid runs from the triple point to the critical point.|The vapor-liquid critical point in a pressure-temperature phase diagram is at the high-temperature extreme of the liquid-gas phase boundary. The dotted green line should be ignored. As shown in the pure species phase diagram to the right, this is the point at which the phase boundary between liquid and gas terminates. In water, the critical point occurs at around 647 K (374 °C or 705 °F) and 22.064 MPa (3200 PSIA or 218atm). As the critical temperature is approached, the properties of the gas and liquid phases approach one another, at the critical point resulting in only one phase: a homogeneous supercritical fluid. The heat of vaporization is zero at and beyond this critical point, so there is no distinction between the two phases. Above the critical temperature a liquid cannot be formed by an increase in pressure, but with enough pressure a solid may be formed. The critical pressure is the vapor pressure at the critical temperature. On the diagram showing the thermodynamic properties for a given substance, the point at critical temperature and critical pressure is called the critical point of the substance. The critical molar volume is the volume of one mole of material at the critical temperature and pressure. Critical properties vary from material to material, just as is the case for the melting point and boiling point. Critical properties for many pure substances are readily available in the literature. Obtaining critical properties for mixtures is somewhat more problematic. Mathematical definition For pure substances, there is an inflection point in the critical isotherm on a pV diagram. This means that at the critical point: This relation can be used to evaluate two parameters for an equation of state in terms of the critical properties. Sometimes a set of reduced properties are defined in terms of the critical properties, ie.: Principle of corresponding states Critical variables are useful for rewriting a varied equation of state into one that applies to all materials. The effect is similar to a normalizing constant. The principle of corresponding states indicates that substances at equal reduced pressures and temperatures have equal reduced volumes. This relationship is approximately true for many substances, but becomes increasingly inaccurate for large values of pr Table of liquid-vapor critical temperature and pressure for selected substances Substance Critical temperature (°C) Critical pressure (atm) Argon −122.4 48.1 Ammonia 132.4 111.3 Bromine 310.8 102 Chlorine 143.8 76.0 Fluorine −128.85 51.5 Helium −267.96 2.24 Hydrogen −239.95 12.8 Krypton −63.8 54.3 Neon −228.75 27.2 Nitrogen −146.9 33.5 Oxygen −118.6 49.8 CO2 31.04 72.8 H2SO4 654 45.4 Xenon 16.6 57.6 Lithium 2950 65.2 Mercury 1476.9 1.587 Iron 8227 Gold 6977 5000 Aluminium 7577 Tungsten 15.227 Water 373.946 217.7 In renormalization group theory According to renormalization group theory, the defining property of criticality is that the natural length scale characteristic of the structure of the physical system, the so-called correlation length ξ, becomes infinite. There are also lines in phase space along which this happens: these are critical lines. In equilibrium systems the critical point is reached only by tuning a control parameter precisely. However, in some non-equilibrium systems the critical point is an attractor of the dynamics in a manner that is robust with respect to system parameters, a phenomenon referred to as self-organized criticality. The critical point is described by a conformal field theory. See also Critical phenomena Phase transition Scale invariance Conformal field theory Critical exponents Percolation thresholds Self-organized criticality Triple point Supercritical fluid, Supercritical drying, Supercritical water oxidation Rushbrooke inequality Widom scaling Tricritical point Joback method, Klincewicz method, Lydersen method (Estimation of critical temperature, pressure, and volume from molecular structure) Lower critical solution temperature Upper critical solution temperature References External links Hagen Kleinert and Verena Schulte-Frohlinde, Critical Properties of φ4-Theories, World Scientific (Singapur, 2001); Paperback ISBN 981-02-4658-7 (readable online here) | Critical_point_(thermodynamics) |@lemmatized critical:54 carbon:2 dioxide:2 create:1 fog:1 cool:3 supercritical:5 temperature:21 physical:2 chemistry:2 thermodynamics:1 condensed:1 matter:1 physic:1 point:35 also:5 call:3 state:5 specify:1 condition:6 pressure:13 sometimes:3 composition:1 phase:19 boundary:4 cease:1 exist:2 multiple:1 type:2 vapor:7 liquid:23 plot:1 typical:2 polymer:2 solution:7 behavior:1 include:1 two:8 lcst:1 ucst:2 denote:6 limit:1 region:1 diagram:7 word:1 infinitesimal:1 change:1 thermodynamic:2 variable:2 lead:1 separation:3 mixture:2 distinct:2 show:3 solvent:1 right:3 may:2 upper:2 warm:1 induce:2 low:2 heat:2 mathematical:2 definition:2 theory:6 standpoint:1 see:2 figure:1 represent:1 concentration:4 extremum:2 spinodal:3 curve:2 thus:1 component:1 system:5 must:4 satisfy:1 first:1 second:2 derivative:3 free:2 energy:2 respect:4 equal:5 zero:4 third:1 term:3 use:2 specifically:1 material:5 gas:5 run:1 triple:2 high:1 extreme:1 dotted:1 green:1 line:3 ignore:1 pure:3 species:1 terminates:1 water:3 occur:1 around:1 k:1 c:2 f:1 mpa:1 psia:1 approach:2 property:10 one:4 another:1 result:1 homogeneous:1 fluid:2 vaporization:1 beyond:1 distinction:1 cannot:1 form:2 increase:1 enough:1 solid:1 give:1 substance:8 molar:1 volume:4 mole:1 vary:1 case:1 melting:1 boiling:1 many:2 readily:1 available:1 literature:1 obtain:1 somewhat:1 problematic:1 inflection:1 isotherm:1 pv:1 mean:1 relation:1 evaluate:1 parameter:3 equation:2 set:1 reduced:2 define:2 ie:1 principle:2 correspond:2 useful:1 rewrite:1 varied:1 apply:1 effect:1 similar:1 normalizing:1 constant:1 indicate:1 reduce:1 relationship:1 approximately:1 true:1 become:2 increasingly:1 inaccurate:1 large:1 value:1 pr:1 table:1 select:1 atm:1 argon:1 ammonia:1 bromine:1 chlorine:1 fluorine:1 helium:1 hydrogen:1 krypton:1 neon:1 nitrogen:1 oxygen:1 xenon:1 lithium:1 mercury:1 iron:1 gold:1 aluminium:1 tungsten:1 renormalization:2 group:2 accord:1 criticality:3 natural:1 length:2 scale:3 characteristic:1 structure:2 correlation:1 ξ:1 infinite:1 space:1 along:1 happen:1 equilibrium:2 reach:1 tune:1 control:1 precisely:1 however:1 non:1 attractor:1 dynamic:1 manner:1 robust:1 phenomenon:2 refer:1 self:2 organize:2 describe:1 conformal:2 field:2 transition:1 invariance:1 exponent:1 percolation:1 threshold:1 drying:1 oxidation:1 rushbrooke:1 inequality:1 widom:1 tricritical:1 joback:1 method:3 klincewicz:1 lydersen:1 estimation:1 molecular:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 hagen:1 kleinert:1 verena:1 schulte:1 frohlinde:1 world:1 scientific:1 singapur:1 paperback:1 isbn:1 readable:1 online:1 |@bigram carbon_dioxide:2 condensed_matter:1 vapor_liquid:5 supercritical_fluid:2 heat_vaporization:1 vapor_pressure:1 boiling_point:1 external_link:1 |
3,746 | Politics_of_Nicaragua | Politics of Nicaragua takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Nicaragua is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Constitution In 1995, the executive and legislative branches negotiated a reform of the 1987 Sandinista constitution which gave extensive new powers and independence to the National Assembly, including permitting the Assembly to override a presidential veto with a simple majority vote and eliminating the president's ability to pocket veto a bill. Both the president and the members of the unicameral National Assembly are elected to concurrent five-year terms. Executive branch |President |Daniel Ortega |FSLN |10 January 2007 |- |Vice President |Jaime Morales Carazo | |10 January 2007 |} The president and the vice-president are elected for a single non-renewable five-year term. The president appoints the Council of Ministers. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) consists of 90 deputies elected from party lists drawn at the department and national level, plus the outgoing president and the runner-up in the presidential race, for a total of 92. In the 2001 elections, the PLC and its allies won 52 seats, the FSLN won 37 seats, and the Conservative Party 1 seat. In addition, ex-president Arnoldo Alemán assumed a seat, as did runner-up Daniel Ortega. During the 2002 legislative term, Alemán would have served as President of the National Assembly, however, he and other members of his family were charged with corruption in December 2002, and on 7 December 2003 he was sentenced to a 20-year prison term for a string of crimes including money laundering, embezzlement and corruption. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The Supreme Court supervises the functioning of the still largely ineffective and overburdened judicial system. As part of the 1995 constitutional reforms, the independence of the Supreme Court was strengthened by increasing the number of magistrates from 9 to 12. In 2000, the number of Supreme Court Justices was increased to 16. Supreme Court justices are nominated by the political parties and elected to 5-year terms by the National Assembly. Electoral branch Led by a council of seven magistrates, the Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) is the co-equal branch of government responsible for organizing and conducting elections, plebiscites, and referendums. The magistrates and their alternates are elected to 5-year terms by the National Assembly. Constitutional changes in 2000 expanded the number of CSE magistrates from five to seven and gave the PLC and the FSLN a freer hand to name party activists to the council, prompting allegations that both parties were politicizing electoral institutions and processes and excluding smaller political parties. Human rights Freedom of speech is a right guaranteed by the Nicaraguan constitution and vigorously exercised by its people. Diverse viewpoints are freely and openly discussed in the media and in academia. There is no state censorship in Nicaragua. Other constitutional freedoms include peaceful assembly and association, freedom of religion, and freedom of movement within the country, as well as foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation. The government also permits domestic and international human rights monitors to operate freely in Nicaragua. The constitution prohibits discrimination based on birth, nationality, political belief, race, gender, language, religion, opinion, national origin, economic or social condition. However, homosexuality is un-criminalized. All public and private sector workers, except the military and the police, are entitled to form and join unions of their own choosing, and they exercise this right extensively. Nearly half of Nicaragua's work force, including agricultural workers, is unionized. Workers have the right to strike. Collective bargaining is becoming more common in the private sector. Administrative divisions Nicaragua is divided in 15 departments : Boaco, Carazo, Chinandega, Chontales, Estelí, Granada, Jinotega, León, Madriz, Managua, Masaya, Matagalpa, Nueva Segovia, Rivas, Río San Juan, as well as in 2 autonomous regions : Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte and Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur. Foreign relations Nicaragua President Daniel Ortega said March 6 2008 that the nation is breaking relations with Colombia "in solidarity with the Ecuadoran people", following the 2008 Andean diplomatic crisis. Political pressure groups Some political pressure groups are: National Workers Front or FNT is a Sandinista umbrella group of eight labor unions, including Farm Workers Association or ATC Health Workers Federation or FETSALUD Heroes and Martyrs Confederation of Professional Associations or CONAPRO National Association of Educators of Nicaragua or ANDEN National Union of Employees or UNE National Union of Farmers and Ranchers or UNAG Sandinista Workers' Centre or CST Union of Journalists of Nicaragua or UPN Permanent Congress of Workers or CPT is an umbrella group of four non-Sandinista labor unions, including Autonomous Nicaraguan Workers Central or CTN-A Confederation of Labour Unification or CUS Independent General Confederation of Labor or CGT-I Labor Action and Unity Central or CAUS Nicaraguan Workers' Central or CTN is an independent labor union Superior Council of Private Enterprise or COSEP is a confederation of business groups Nicaragua related topics | Politics_of_Nicaragua |@lemmatized politics:1 nicaragua:10 take:1 place:1 framework:1 presidential:3 representative:1 democratic:1 republic:1 whereby:1 president:12 head:2 state:2 government:5 multi:1 party:8 system:2 executive:4 power:3 exercise:3 legislative:4 vest:1 national:13 assembly:9 judiciary:1 independent:3 legislature:1 constitution:4 branch:6 negotiate:1 reform:2 sandinista:4 give:2 extensive:1 new:1 independence:2 include:6 permit:2 override:1 veto:2 simple:1 majority:1 vote:1 eliminate:1 ability:1 pocket:1 bill:1 member:2 unicameral:1 elect:5 concurrent:1 five:3 year:5 term:6 daniel:3 ortega:3 fsln:3 january:2 vice:2 jaime:1 morale:1 carazo:2 single:1 non:2 renewable:1 appoint:1 council:5 minister:1 asamblea:1 nacional:1 consist:1 deputy:1 list:1 draw:1 department:2 level:1 plus:1 outgoing:1 runner:2 race:2 total:1 election:3 plc:2 ally:1 win:2 seat:4 conservative:1 addition:1 ex:1 arnoldo:1 alemán:2 assume:1 would:1 serve:1 however:2 family:1 charge:1 corruption:2 december:2 sentence:1 prison:1 string:1 crime:1 money:1 laundering:1 embezzlement:1 political:6 judicial:2 supreme:5 court:4 supervise:1 functioning:1 still:1 largely:1 ineffective:1 overburden:1 part:1 constitutional:3 strengthen:1 increase:2 number:3 magistrate:4 justice:2 nominate:1 electoral:3 lead:1 seven:2 cse:2 co:1 equal:1 responsible:1 organize:1 conduct:1 plebiscite:1 referendum:1 alternate:1 change:1 expand:1 freer:1 hand:1 name:1 activist:1 prompt:1 allegation:1 politicize:1 institution:1 process:1 exclude:1 small:1 human:2 right:5 freedom:4 speech:1 guarantee:1 nicaraguan:3 vigorously:1 people:2 diverse:1 viewpoint:1 freely:2 openly:1 discuss:1 medium:1 academia:1 censorship:1 peaceful:1 association:4 religion:2 movement:1 within:1 country:1 well:2 foreign:2 travel:1 emigration:1 repatriation:1 also:1 domestic:1 international:1 monitor:1 operate:1 prohibit:1 discrimination:1 base:1 birth:1 nationality:1 belief:1 gender:1 language:1 opinion:1 origin:1 economic:1 social:1 condition:1 homosexuality:1 un:1 criminalize:1 public:1 private:3 sector:2 worker:10 except:1 military:1 police:1 entitle:1 form:1 join:1 union:7 choosing:1 extensively:1 nearly:1 half:1 work:1 force:1 agricultural:1 unionized:1 strike:1 collective:1 bargaining:1 become:1 common:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 boaco:1 chinandega:1 chontales:1 estelí:1 granada:1 jinotega:1 león:1 madriz:1 managua:1 masaya:1 matagalpa:1 nueva:1 segovia:1 rivas:1 río:1 san:1 juan:1 autonomous:2 region:1 región:2 autónoma:2 del:2 atlántico:2 norte:1 sur:1 relation:2 say:1 march:1 nation:1 break:1 colombia:1 solidarity:1 ecuadoran:1 follow:1 andean:1 diplomatic:1 crisis:1 pressure:2 group:5 front:1 fnt:1 umbrella:2 eight:1 labor:5 farm:1 atc:1 health:1 federation:1 fetsalud:1 hero:1 martyrs:1 confederation:4 professional:1 conapro:1 educator:1 anden:1 employee:1 une:1 farmer:1 rancher:1 unag:1 centre:1 cst:1 journalist:1 upn:1 permanent:1 congress:1 cpt:1 four:1 central:3 ctn:2 labour:1 unification:1 cus:1 general:1 cgt:1 action:1 unity:1 caus:1 superior:1 enterprise:1 cosep:1 business:1 relate:1 topic:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 legislative_branch:2 daniel_ortega:3 vice_president:2 money_laundering:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:4 unionized_worker:1 collective_bargaining:1 río_san:1 san_juan:1 |
3,747 | Ogg | Ogg is a free, open standard container format maintained by the Xiph.Org Foundation. The creators of the Ogg format claim that it is unrestricted by software patents and is designed to provide for efficient streaming and manipulation of high quality digital multimedia. The name ‘Ogg’ refers to the file format which can multiplex a number of separate independent free and open source codecs for audio, video, text (such as subtitles), and metadata. In the Ogg multimedia framework, Theora provides a lossy video layer, while the music-oriented Vorbis codec most commonly acts as the audio layer. The human speech compression codec Speex, lossless audio compression codec FLAC, and OggPCM may also act as audio layers. The term ‘Ogg’ is commonly used to refer to audio file format Ogg Vorbis, that is, Vorbis-encoded audio in the Ogg container. Previously, the .ogg file extension was used for any content distributed within Ogg, but as of 2007, the Xiph.Org Foundation requests that .ogg be used only for Vorbis due to backward compatibility concerns. The Xiph.Org Foundation decided to create a new set of file extensions and media types to describe different types of content such as .oga for audio only files, .ogv for video with or without sound (including Theora), and .ogx for applications. The current version of the Xiph.Org Foundation's reference implementation, released on 27 November 2005, is libogg 1.1.3. [Vorbis-dev] libogg 1.1.3 and libvorbis 1.1.2 releases Another version, libogg2, is also available from the Xiph.Org Foundation's SVN repositories. Both software libraries are free software, released under the new BSD license. Because the format is free, and its reference implementation is non-copylefted, Ogg's various codecs have been incorporated into a number of different free and proprietary media players, both commercial and non-commercial, as well as portable media players and GPS receivers from different manufacturers. Naming It is sometimes assumed that the name Ogg comes from the character of Nanny Ogg in Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels. However, it derives from ogging, jargon from the computer game Netrek which came to mean doing something forcefully, possibly without consideration of the drain on future resources. At its inception, the Ogg project was thought to be somewhat ambitious given the power of the PC hardware of the time. File format The Ogg bitstream format, spearheaded by the Xiph.Org Foundation, has been created as the framework of a larger initiative aimed at developing a set of components for the coding and decoding of multimedia content which are available free of charge and are freely re-implementable in software. The format consists of chunks of data each called an Ogg Page. Each page begins with the "OggS" string to identify the file as Ogg format. A serial number and page number in the page header identifies each page as part of a series of pages making up a bitstream. Multiple bitstreams may be multiplexed in the file where pages from each bitstream are ordered by the seek time of the contained data. Bitstreams may also be appended to existing files, a process known as chaining, to cause the bitstreams to be decoded in sequence. A BSD-licensed library, called libogg, is available to encode and decode data from Ogg streams. Independent Ogg implementations are used in several projects such as RealPlayer and a set of DirectShow filters. Page structure The following is the field layout of an Ogg page header: The field layout of an Ogg page header Capture pattern — 32 bits The capture pattern or sync code is a magic number used to ensure synchronisation when parsing Ogg files. Every page starts with the four byte sequence 'OggS'. This assists in resynchronising a parser in cases where data has been lost or is corrupted, and is a sanity check before commencing parsing the page structure. Version — 8 bits This field indicates the version of the Ogg bitstream format, to allow for future expansion. It is currently mandated to be 0. Header type — 8 bits This is an 8 bit field of flags, which indicates the type of page which follows. The rightmost or least significant bit is considered bit 0, with value 0x01, the next least significant digit is bit 1, with value 0x02. The third is bit 2, with value 0x04, and so on. {| class="wikitable" !width="5%"|Bit !width="10%"|Value !width="10%"|Flag !width="75%"|Page type |- |0 |0x01 |Continuation |The first packet on this page is a continuation of the previous packet in the logical bitstream. |- |1 |0x02 |BOS |Beginning Of Stream. This page is the first page in the logical bitstream. The BOS flag must be set on the first page of every logical bitstream, and must not be set on any other page. |- |2 |0x04 |EOS |End Of Stream. This page is the last page in the logical bitstream. The EOS flag must be set on the final page of every logical bitstream, and must not be set on any other page. |} Granule position — 64 bits A granule position is the time marker in Ogg files. It is an abstract value, whose meaning is determined by the codec. It may for example be a count of the number of samples, the number of frames or a more complex scheme. Bitstream serial number — 32 bits This field is a serial number which identifies a page as belonging to a particular logical bitstream. Each logical bitstream in a file has a unique value, and this field allows implementations to deliver the pages to the appropriate decoder. In a typical vorbis+theora file, one stream will be the audio (vorbis), and the other will be the video (theora) Page sequence number — 32 bits This field is a monotonically increasing field for each logical bitstream. The first page is 0, the second 1, etc. This allows implementations to detect when data has been lost. Checksum — 32 bits This field provides a checksum of the data in the entire page, performed with the checksum field set to 0. This allows verification that the data has not been corrupted since it was created. Pages which fail the checksum should be discarded. Page segments — 8 bits This field indicates the number of segments that exist in this page. It also indicates how many bytes are in the segment table which follows this field. There can be a maximum of 255 segments in any one page. Segment table The segment table is an 8 bit vector of values indicating the length of each segment within the page body. The number of segments is determined from the preceding Page Segments field. Each segment is between 0 and 255 bytes in length. The segments provide a way to group segments into packets, which are meaningful units of data for the decoder. When the segments length is indicated to be 255, this indicates that the following segment is to be concatenated to this one and is part of the same packet. When the segments length is 0-254, this indicates that this segment is the final segment in this packet. Where a packets length is a multiple of 255, the final segment will be of length 0. Where the final packet continues on the next page, the final segment value will be 255, and the continuation flag will be set on the following page to indicate that the start of the new page is a continuation of last page. Metadata Currently, there is no official standard for including metadata in Ogg containers. Implementation is still a long way off as of Quarter 3, 2007. The Xiph.Org Foundation are currently welcoming suggestions and feedback. Suggested metadata implementation methods include the following: Dublin core in RDF XML-encoding (options include generic RDF, CMML, and XMP) MusicBrainz XML MetaData Ogg Skeleton is emerging as the way to approach machineable metadata. Metadata must currently be included in the codec. There is fairly good software support for Vorbis metadata—often referred to as comments. But software support for Theora and FLAC comments in Ogg containers is very limited. History The “Play Ogg” web button In May 2003, two Internet RFCs were published relating to the format. The Ogg bitstream was defined in RFC 3533 (which is classified as 'informative') and its Internet content type (application/ogg) in RFC 3534 (which is, , a proposed standard protocol). In 2002 the lack of formal video support in Ogg resulted in the creation of the "OGM" file format, a hack on Ogg which allowed the embedding of video from the Microsoft DirectShow framework into an Ogg-based wrapper. OGM was initially supported only by closed source windows-only tools but the code base was subsequently opened. Later, Video (and subtitle) support were formally specified for Ogg but in a manner incompatible with OGM. Independently, the Matroska container format reached maturity and provided another alternative for people interested in combining Vorbis audio and arbitrary video codecs. As a result OGM is no longer supported or developed and is formally discouraged by Xiph.org Xiph.org does not support OGM . Today video in Ogg is found with the .ogv file extension which is it formally specified and officially supported. Although Ogg hasn't reached anywhere near the ubiquity of the MPEG standards MP3's Loss, Open Source's Gain (e.g.: MP3 / MP4), , it is commonly used to encode free content (such as free music, multimedia on Wikimedia projects and Creative Commons files) and has started to be supported by a significant minority of digital audio players. Also supporting the Ogg format have been many popular video game engines, including Doom 3, Unreal Tournament 2004, Halo: Combat Evolved, Mafia: The City of Lost Heaven, Myst IV: Revelation, Serious Sam: The Second Encounter, Lineage 2, Vendetta Online, Battlefield 2 and the Grand Theft Auto engines. The more popular Vorbis codec has built-in support on many software players, and extensions are available for nearly all the rest. Other codecs are less well supported, although extensions are often available. On May 16, 2007, the Free Software Foundation started a campaign to increase the use of Vorbis “as an ethically, legally and technically superior audio alternative to the proprietary MP3 format.” 'Play Ogg': FSF launches free audio format campaign People are also encouraged to support the campaign by adding a web button to their website or blog. For those who don't want to download and use FSF's suggested Ogg player (VLC), the Xiph.Org Foundation has an official codec Xiph.Org Foundation: Ogg QuickTime Components for iTunes and iMovie (Windows and Mac OS X) for QuickTime-based applications in Windows and Mac OS X, such as iTunes players and iMovie applications; and Windows users can install a Windows Media Player Ogg codec Directshow Filters for Ogg Vorbis, Speex, Theora and FLAC . Ogg codecs Ogg is only a container format. The actual audio or video encoded by a codec will be stored inside an Ogg container. Ogg containers may contain streams encoded with multiple codecs, for example, a video file with sound contains data encoded by both an audio codec and a video codec. Being a Container format, Ogg can embed audio and video in various formats (such as MPEG-4, Dirac, MP3 and others) but Ogg was intended and usually is used with the following free codecs: Audio codecs lossy Speex: handles voice data at low bitrates (~8-32 kbit/s/channel) Vorbis: handles general audio data at mid- to high-level variable bitrates (~16-500 kbit/s/channel) lossless FLAC: handles archival and high fidelity audio data Text codecs Writ: a text codec designed to embed subtitles or captions Continuous Media Markup Language: a text/application codec for timed metadata, captioning, and formatting Video codecs Theora: based upon On2's VP3, it is targeted at competing with MPEG-4 video (for example, encoded with DivX or Xvid), RealVideo, or Windows Media Video. Tarkin: an experimental and now obsolete codec utilizing discrete wavelet transforms in the three dimensions of width, height, and time. It has been put on hold since February 2000, with Theora becoming the main focus for video encoding. Dirac: an experimental codec developed by the BBC as the basis of a new codec for the transmission of video over the Internet. The Schrödinger project aims to provide portable libraries, written in C, that implement the Dirac codec. It also allows to embed Dirac inside the Ogg container format. OggUVS: a draft codec for storing uncompressed video. Subtitle structures Annodex: A free and open source set of standards developed by CSIRO to annotate and index networked media. See also Audio data compression Comparison of container formats Commons:file types References External links The Xiph.Org Foundation official webpage — Ogg RFC 3533 — The Ogg Encapsulation Format Version 0 RFC 3534 — The application/ogg Media Type Using Creative Commons Metadata in Ogg containers Ogg etymology from the Jargon File Xiph.Org's official Ogg QuickTime Components for iTunes and iMovie (Windows and Mac OS X) Windows Media Player codecs for Vorbis, Speex, Theora and FLAC ffmpeg2theora Ogg Theora encoder, commandline application for Linux, Win32 and DOS (use port or HX) | Ogg |@lemmatized ogg:56 free:12 open:5 standard:5 container:12 format:23 maintain:1 xiph:13 org:13 foundation:11 creator:1 claim:1 unrestricted:1 software:8 patent:1 design:2 provide:6 efficient:1 streaming:1 manipulation:1 high:3 quality:1 digital:2 multimedia:4 name:3 refers:1 file:19 multiplex:1 number:12 separate:1 independent:2 source:4 codecs:11 audio:19 video:20 text:4 subtitle:4 metadata:10 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3,748 | Telecommunications_in_Mauritania | Telephones - main lines in use: 31,500 (2002) Telephones - mobile cellular: 300,000 (2003) Telephone system: general assessment: limited system of cable and open-wire lines, minor microwave radio relay links, and radiotelephone communications stations (improvements being made) domestic: mostly cable and open-wire lines; a recently completed domestic satellite telecommunications system links Nouakchott with regional capitals international: country code - 222; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 2 Arabsat Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 14, shortwave 1 (2001) Radios: 410,000 (2001) Television broadcast stations: 1 (2002) Televisions: 98,000 (2001) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 25 (2003) Internet users: 10,000 (2002) Country code (Top level domain): .mr Broadband Internet access Mauritania has three operators, the original monopoly, Mauritel (now owned by Vivendi's Maroc Telecom), Mattel (owned by Tunisie Telecom) and Chinguitel, which will start operations in December 2006. Balancing Act-Africa.com The country only has around 1000 DSL subscribers, and 3000 internet subscribers in total, out of a population of 2.5 million. Monthly DSL charges were high, around US$95.69 per month, but have now dropped to MRO 10000 (around US$40) per month. References | Telecommunications_in_Mauritania |@lemmatized telephone:3 main:1 line:3 use:1 mobile:1 cellular:1 system:3 general:1 assessment:1 limited:1 cable:2 open:2 wire:2 minor:1 microwave:1 radio:3 relay:1 link:2 radiotelephone:1 communication:1 station:4 improvement:1 make:1 domestic:2 mostly:1 recently:1 complete:1 satellite:2 telecommunication:1 nouakchott:1 regional:1 capital:1 international:1 country:3 code:2 earth:1 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 arabsat:1 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:2 internet:4 service:1 provider:1 isps:1 user:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 mr:1 broadband:1 access:1 mauritania:1 three:1 operator:1 original:1 monopoly:1 mauritel:1 vivendi:1 maroc:1 telecom:2 mattel:1 tunisie:1 chinguitel:1 start:1 operation:1 december:1 balance:1 act:1 africa:1 com:1 around:3 dsl:2 subscriber:2 total:1 population:1 million:1 monthly:1 charge:1 high:1 u:2 per:2 month:2 drop:1 mro:1 reference:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:1 radiotelephone_communication:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 broadband_internet:1 maroc_telecom:1 |
3,749 | Filter_(mathematics) | In mathematics, a filter is a special subset of a partially ordered set. A frequently used special case is the situation that the ordered set under consideration is just the power set of some set, ordered by set inclusion. Filters appear in order and lattice theory, but can also be found in topology from where they originate. The dual notion of a filter is an ideal. Filters were introduced by Henri Cartan in 1937 H. Cartan, "Théorie des filtres". CR Acad. Paris, 205, (1937) 595–598. H. Cartan, "Filtres et ultrafiltres" CR Acad. Paris, 205, (1937) 777–779. and subsequently used by Bourbaki in their book Topologie Générale as an alternative to the similar notion of a net developed in 1922 by E. H. Moore and H. L. Smith. General definition A non-empty subset F of a partially ordered set (P,≤) is a filter if the following conditions hold: For every x, y in F, there is some element z in F, such that z ≤ x and z ≤ y. (F is a filter base) For every x in F and y in P, x ≤ y implies that y is in F. (F is an upper set) A filter is proper if it is not equal to the whole set P. This is often taken as part of the definition of a filter. While the above definition is the most general way to define a filter for arbitrary posets, it was originally defined for lattices only. In this case, the above definition can be characterized by the following equivalent statement: A non-empty subset F of a lattice (P,≤) is a filter, if and only if it is an upper set that is closed under finite meets (infima), i.e., for all x, y in F, we find that x ∧ y is also in F. The smallest filter that contains a given element p is a principal filter and p is a principal element in this situation. The principal filter for p is just given by the set {x in P | p ≤ x} and is denoted by prefixing p with an upward arrow: . The dual notion of a filter, i.e. the concept obtained by reversing all ≤ and exchanging ∧ with ∨, is ideal. Because of this duality, the discussion of filters usually boils down to the discussion of ideals. Hence, most additional information on this topic (including the definition of maximal filters and prime filters) is to be found in the article on ideals. There is a separate article on ultrafilters. Filter on a set A special case of a filter is a filter defined on a set. Given a set S, a partial ordering ⊆ can be defined on the powerset P(S) by subset inclusion, turning (P(S),⊆) into a lattice. Define a filter F on S as a subset of P(S) with the following properties: S is in F. (F is non-empty) The empty set is not in F. (F is proper) If A and B are in F, then so is their intersection. (F is closed under finite meets) If A is in F and A is a subset of B, then B is in F, for all subsets B of S. (F is an upper set) The first three properties imply that a filter on a set has the finite intersection property. Note that with this definition, a filter on a set is indeed a filter; in fact, it is a proper filter. Because of this, sometimes this is called a proper filter on a set; however, as long as the set context is clear, the shorter name is sufficient. A filter base (or filter basis) is a subset B of P(S) with the following properties: The intersection of any two sets of B contains a set of B B is non-empty and the empty set is not in B Given a filter base B, one may obtain a (proper) filter by including all sets of P(S) which contain a set of B. The resulting filter is said to be generated by or spanned by filter base B. Every filter is a fortiori a filter base, so the process of passing from filter base to filter may be viewed as a sort of completion. If B and C are two filter bases on S, one says C is finer than B (or that C is a refinement of B) if for each B0 ∈ B, there is a C0 ∈ C such that C0 ⊆ B0. For filter bases B and C, if B is finer than C and C is finer than B, then B and C are said to be equivalent filter bases. Two filter bases are equivalent if and only if the filters they generate are equal. For filter bases A, B, and C, if A is finer than B and B is finer than C then A is finer than C. Thus the refinement relation is a preorder on the set of filter bases, and the passage from filter base to filter is an instance of passing from a preordering to the associated partial ordering. Given a subset T of P(S) we can ask whether there exists a smallest filter F containing T. Such a filter exists if and only if the finite intersection of subsets of T is non-empty. We call T a subbase of F and say F is generated by T. F can be constructed by taking all finite intersections of T which is then filter base for F. Examples Let S be a nonempty set and C be a nonempty subset. Then is a filter base. The filter it generates (i.e., the collection of all subsets containing C) is called the principal filter generated by C. A filter is said to be a free filter if the intersection of all of its members is empty. A principal filter is not free. Since the intersection of any finite number of members of a filter is also a member, no filter on a finite set is free, and indeed is the principal filter generated by the common intersection of all of its members. A nonprincipal filter on an infinite set is not necessarily free. The Fréchet filter on an infinite set S is the set of all subsets of S that have finite complement. The Frechet filter is free, and it is contained in every free filter on S. A uniform structure on a set X is (in particular) a filter on X×X. A filter in a poset can be created using the Rasiowa-Sikorski lemma, often used in forcing. The set is called a filter base of tails of the sequence of natural numbers . A filter base of tails can be made of any net using the construction . Therefore, all nets generate a filter base (and therefore a filter). Since all sequences are nets, this holds for sequences as well. Filters in model theory For any filter F on a set S, the set function defined by is finitely additive — a "measure" if that term is construed rather loosely. Therefore the statement can be considered somewhat analogous to the statement that φ holds "almost everywhere". That interpretation of membership in a filter is used (for motivation, although it is not needed for actual proofs) in the theory of ultraproducts in model theory, a branch of mathematical logic. Filters in topology In topology and analysis, filters are used to define convergence in a manner similar to the role of sequences in a metric space. In topology and related areas of mathematics, a filter is a generalization of a net. Both nets and filters provide very general contexts to unify the various notions of limit to arbitrary topological spaces. A sequence is usually indexed by the natural numbers, which are a totally ordered set. Thus, limits in first-countable spaces can be described by sequences. However, if the space is not first-countable, nets or filters must be used. Nets generalize the notion of a sequence by requiring the index set simply be a directed set. Filters can be thought of as sets built from multiple nets. Therefore, both the limit of a filter and the limit of a net is conceptually the same as the limit of a sequence. Neighbourhood bases Let X be a topological space and x a point of X. Take Nx to be the neighbourhood filter at point x for X. This means that Nx is the set of all topological neighbourhoods of the point x. It can be verified that Nx is a filter. A neighbourhood system is another name for a neighbourhood filter. To say that N is a neighbourhood base at x for X means that for all V0 ∈ Nx, there exists a N0 ∈ N such that N0 ⊆ V0. Note that every neighbourhood base is a filter base. Convergent filter bases Let X be a topological space and x a point of X. To say that filter base B converges to x, denoted B → x, means that for every neighbourhood U of x, there is a B0 ∈ B such that B0 ⊆ U. In this case, x is called a limit of B and B is called a convergent filter base. For every neighbourhood base N of x, N → x. If N is a neighbourhood base at x and C is a filter base on X, then C → x if and only if C is finer than N. For Y ⊆ X, to say that p is a limit point of Y in X means that for each neighborhood U of p in X, U∩(Y − {p})≠∅. For Y ⊆ X, p is a limit point of Y in X if and only if there exists a filter base B on Y − {p} such that B → p. For Y ⊆ X, the following are equivalent: (i) There exists a filter base F whose elements are all contained in Y such that F → x. (ii) There exists a filter F such that Y is an element of F and F → x. (iii) The point x lies in the closure of Y. Indeed: (i) implies (ii): if F is a filter base satisfying the properties of (i), then the filter associated to F satisfies the properties of (ii). (ii) implies (iii): if U is any open neighborhood of x then by the definition of convergence U is an element of F; since also Y is an element of F, U and Y have nonempty intersection. (iii) implies (i): Define . Then F is a filter base satisfying the properties of (i). Clustering Let X be a topological space and x a point of X. To say that x is a cluster point for a filter base B on X means that for each B0 ∈ B and for each neighbourhood U of x in X, B0∩U≠∅. In this case, B is said to cluster at point x. For filter bases B and C such that C is finer than B and C clusters at point x, B clusters at x, too. For filter base B such that B → x, the limit x is a cluster point. For filter base B with cluster point x, it is not the case that x is necessarily a limit. For a filter base B that clusters at point x, there is a filter base C that is finer than filter base B that converges to x. For a filter base B, the set ∩{cl(B0) : B0∈B} is the set of all cluster points of B (note: cl(B0) is the closure of B0). Assume that T is a partially ordered set. The limit inferior of B is the infimum of the set of all cluster points of B. The limit superior of B is the supremum of the set of all cluster points of B. B is a convergent filter base if and only if its limit inferior and limit superior agree; in this case, the value on which they agree is the limit of the filter base. Properties of a topological space Let X be a topological space. X is a Hausdorff space if and only if every filter base on X has at most one limit. X is compact if and only if every filter base on X clusters. X is compact if and only if every filter base on X is a subset of a convergent filter base. X is compact if and only if every ultrafilter on X converges. Functions on topological spaces Let E, X, Y be topological spaces with . Let B be a filter base on E and be a function. The image of B under f is f[B] is the set . The image f[B] forms a filter base on Y. f is continuous at x if and only if implies . Cauchy filters Let be a metric space. To say that a filter base B on X is Cauchy means that for each real number ε>0, there is a B0 ∈ B such that the metric diameter of B0 is less than ε. Take (xn) to be a sequence in metric space X. (xn) is a Cauchy sequence if and only if the filter base {{xN,x<sub>N+1</sub>,...} : N ∈ {1,2,3,...} } is Cauchy. More generally, given a uniform space X, a filter F on X is called Cauchy filter if for every entourage U there is an A ∈ F with (x,y) ∈ U for all x,y ∈ A. In a metric space this agrees with the previous definition. X is said to be complete if every Cauchy filter converges. Conversely, on a uniform space every convergent filter is a Cauchy filter. Moreover, every cluster point of a Cauchy filter is a limit point. A compact uniform space is complete: on a compact space each filter has a cluster point, and if the filter is Cauchy, such a cluster point is a limit point. Further, a uniformity is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded. Most generally, a Cauchy space is a set equipped with a class of filters declared to be Cauchy. These are required to have the following properties: for each x in X, the ultrafilter at x, U(x), is Cauchy. if F is a Cauchy filter, and F is a subset of a filter G, then G is Cauchy. if F and G are Cauchy filters and each member of F intersects each member of G, then F ∩ G is Cauchy. The Cauchy filters on a uniform space have these properties, so every uniform space (hence every metric space) defines a Cauchy space. See also Filtration (abstract algebra) Net (mathematics) Notes References Nicolas Bourbaki, General Topology (Topologie Générale), ISBN 0-387-19374-X (Ch. 1-4): Provides a good reference for filters in general topology (Chapter I) and for Cauchy filters in uniform spaces (Chapter II) Stephen Willard, General Topology, (1970) Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading Massachusetts. (Provides an introductory review of filters in topology.) David MacIver, Filters in Analysis and Topology (2004) (Provides an introductory review of filters in topology and in metric spaces.) Burris, Stanley N., and H.P. Sankappanavar, H. P., 1981. A Course in Universal Algebra. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-90578-2. | Filter_(mathematics) |@lemmatized mathematics:3 filter:128 special:3 subset:15 partially:3 order:5 set:46 frequently:1 use:8 case:7 situation:2 ordered:2 consideration:1 power:1 inclusion:2 appear:1 lattice:4 theory:4 also:5 find:3 topology:10 originate:1 dual:2 notion:5 ideal:4 introduce:1 henri:1 cartan:3 h:6 théorie:1 de:1 filtres:2 cr:2 acad:2 paris:2 et:1 ultrafiltres:1 subsequently:1 bourbaki:2 book:1 topologie:2 générale:2 alternative:1 similar:2 net:11 developed:1 e:6 moore:1 l:1 smith:1 general:6 definition:8 non:5 empty:8 f:47 p:24 following:3 condition:1 hold:3 every:17 x:81 element:7 z:3 base:50 implies:5 upper:3 proper:5 equal:2 whole:1 often:2 take:4 part:1 way:1 define:9 arbitrary:2 posets:1 originally:1 characterize:1 equivalent:4 statement:3 close:2 finite:8 meet:2 infima:1 small:2 contain:7 give:6 principal:6 denote:2 prefix:1 upward:1 arrow:1 concept:1 obtain:2 reverse:1 exchange:1 duality:1 discussion:2 usually:2 boil:1 hence:2 additional:1 information:1 topic:1 include:2 maximal:1 prime:1 article:2 separate:1 ultrafilters:1 partial:2 ordering:2 powerset:1 turn:1 follow:3 property:10 b:55 intersection:9 first:3 three:1 imply:1 note:4 indeed:3 fact:1 sometimes:1 call:7 however:2 long:1 context:2 clear:1 shorter:1 name:2 sufficient:1 basis:1 two:3 one:3 may:2 resulting:1 say:12 generate:7 span:1 fortiori:1 process:1 pass:2 view:1 sort:1 completion:1 c:21 fine:9 refinement:2 thus:2 relation:1 preorder:1 passage:1 instance:1 preordering:1 associate:2 ask:1 whether:1 exist:6 subbase:1 construct:1 example:1 let:8 nonempty:3 collection:1 free:6 member:6 since:3 number:4 common:1 nonprincipal:1 infinite:2 necessarily:2 fréchet:1 complement:1 frechet:1 uniform:7 structure:1 particular:1 poset:1 create:1 rasiowa:1 sikorski:1 lemma:1 force:1 tail:2 sequence:10 natural:2 make:1 construction:1 therefore:4 well:1 model:2 function:3 finitely:1 additive:1 measure:1 term:1 construe:1 rather:1 loosely:1 consider:1 somewhat:1 analogous:1 φ:1 almost:1 everywhere:1 interpretation:1 membership:1 motivation:1 although:1 need:1 actual:1 proof:1 ultraproducts:1 branch:1 mathematical:1 logic:1 analysis:2 convergence:2 manner:1 role:1 metric:7 space:26 related:1 area:1 generalization:1 provide:4 unify:1 various:1 limit:18 topological:9 index:2 totally:2 countable:2 describe:1 must:1 generalize:1 require:2 simply:1 directed:1 think:1 build:1 multiple:1 conceptually:1 neighbourhood:11 point:22 nx:4 mean:6 verify:1 system:1 another:1 n:9 convergent:5 converges:3 u:12 neighborhood:2 whose:1 ii:5 iii:3 lie:1 closure:2 satisfy:2 satisfies:1 open:1 cluster:15 converge:1 cl:2 assume:1 inferior:2 infimum:1 superior:2 supremum:1 agree:3 value:1 hausdorff:1 compact:6 ultrafilter:2 image:2 form:1 continuous:1 cauchy:19 real:1 ε:2 diameter:1 less:1 xn:3 sub:2 generally:2 entourage:1 previous:1 complete:3 conversely:1 moreover:1 far:1 uniformity:1 bound:1 equip:1 class:1 declare:1 g:5 intersects:1 see:1 filtration:1 abstract:1 algebra:2 reference:2 nicolas:1 isbn:2 ch:1 good:1 chapter:2 stephen:1 willard:1 addison:1 wesley:1 publishing:1 company:1 read:1 massachusetts:1 introductory:2 review:2 david:1 maciver:1 burris:1 stanley:1 sankappanavar:1 course:1 universal:1 springer:1 verlag:1 |@bigram théorie_de:1 topological_space:8 totally_ordered:1 convergent_filter:5 cauchy_filter:9 cauchy_sequence:1 abstract_algebra:1 nicolas_bourbaki:1 addison_wesley:1 springer_verlag:1 |
3,750 | Ally_McBeal | Ally McBeal is an American television series which ran on the FOX network from 1997 to 2002. The series was created by David E. Kelley, who also served as the executive producer, along with Bill D'Elia. The series starred Calista Flockhart in the title role as a young lawyer working in the fictional Boston law firm Cage, Fish and Associates with other young lawyers whose lives and loves were eccentric, humorous and dramatic. Overview The show focused on the romantic and personal lives of the main characters, often using legal proceedings as plot devices to contrast or reinforce a character's drama. For example, bitter divorce litigation of a client might provide a backdrop for Ally's decision to break up with a boyfriend. Opposing legal arguments were also frequently used to explore multiple sides of various social issues. Cage & Fish (which becomes Cage/Fish & McBeal or Cage, Fish, & Associates towards the end of the series), the fictional law firm where most of the characters work, is depicted as a highly sexualized environment, symbolized by its unisex public restroom. Lawyers and secretaries in the firm routinely date, flirt with, or have a romantic history with each other, and frequently run into former or potential romantic interests in the courtroom or on the street outside. The show had many offbeat and frequently surreal running gags and themes, such as Ally's tendency to immediately fall over whenever she met somebody she found attractive, or Richard Fish's wattle fetish and humorous mottos ("Fishisms"), ran through the series. The show used vivid, dramatic fantasy sequences for Ally's and other characters' wishful thinking; particularly notable is the dancing baby. The show also featured regular visits to a local bar where singer Vonda Shepard regularly performed (though occasionally handing over the microphone to the characters). In the fourth season, Robert Downey Jr. joined the regular cast as Ally's boyfriend Larry Paul but was written out after the end of the season due to Downey's troubles with drug addiction. The show was canceled after a significant ratings drop during its fifth season, which saw many regular characters disappear from the series without explanation (also a problem with David E. Kelley's shows Boston Public, Chicago Hope, and The Practice). Criticism Despite its success, Ally McBeal did receive some negative criticism from TV critics and feminists who found the title character annoying and demeaning to women, and specifically professional women,<ref>Michelle L. Hammers, "Cautionary Tales of Liberation and Female Professionalism: The Case Against Ally McBeal" Western Journal of Communication 69 2, April (2005): 168. "The ease with which ''McBeals depictions of women are reincorporated into dominant masculinist discourses ... is particularly problematic for professional women. The increased danger that co-optation poses for professional women is due to the complex ways in which the discursive sedimentation that surrounds the female body, particularly as it has been traditionally sexualized and linked to emotionality, operates as a barrier to women's full and effective participation in professional spheres. Thus, McBeal operates as a cautionary tale about the dangers presented by the co-optation of postfeminist and third-wave feminist discourses as they relate to current professional discourses surrounding the female body.</ref> because of her perceived flightiness, lack of demonstrated legal knowledge, and extreme emotional instability. Perhaps the most notorious example of the debate sparked by the show was the 25 June 1998 cover story of Time magazine, which juxtaposed McBeal with three pioneering feminists and asked "Is Feminism Dead?". Episode list Ally the sitcom In 1999, at the height of the show's popularity, a half-hour version entitled Ally "Ally" (1999) began being broadcast in parallel to the main program. This version, designed in a sitcom format, used re-edited scenes from the main program, as well as previously unseen footage. The intention was to further develop the plots in the comedy-drama in a sitcom style. It also focused only on Ally's personal life, cutting all the courtroom plots. The repackaged show did not catch on and was canceled partway through its initial run. While 13 episodes of Ally were shot, only 10 were broadcast. US Ratings Season U.S. ratings Network Rank 1 1997-1998 11.4 million FOX #59 2 1998-1999 13.8 million FOX #20 3 1999-2000 12.4 million FOX #35 4 2000-2001 12.0 million FOX #40 5 2001-2002 9.4 million FOX #65 Main cast Calista Flockhart - Ally McBeal Greg Germann - Richard Fish Jane Krakowski - Elaine Vassal Peter MacNicol - John Cage (episode 2–103; recurring otherwise) Lisa Nicole Carson - Renee Raddick (seasons 1–4; one guest appearance in series finale) Portia de Rossi - Nelle Porter (episodes 32–112; recurring previously) Lucy Liu - Ling Woo (episodes 32–96; 103; recurring previously) Gil Bellows - Billy Alan Thomas (episodes 1–62; recurring afterwards) Courtney Thorne-Smith - Georgia Thomas (seasons 1–3; recurring afterwards) Robert Downey Jr. - Larry Paul (season 4; uncredited appearances afterwards) Hayden Panettiere - Maddie Harrington (episodes 102–112) Vonda Shepard - herself (seasons 2–5; recurring previously) James LeGros - Mark Albert (season 4; recurring previously) Regina Hall - Corretta Lipp (season 5; recurring previously) Julianne Nicholson - Jenny Shaw (episodes 91–103) Josh Hopkins - Raymond Millbury (season 5) James Marsden - Glenn Foy (episodes 91–103) Guest stars The singers who would perform at the bar (most often Vonda Shepard) were accompanied by a trio of back-up singers often referred to as the Ikettes. The singers/actresses who portrayed the Ikettes were: Renee Goldsberry Vatrena King Sy Smith Whenever Goldsberry, Smith or King were unavailable, they would be replaced by: Cynthia Calhoun Melanie Taylor The show also featured many guest stars, some of whom would return for an extensive number of episodes. Guest stars included: Jon Bon Jovi – Victor Morrison (Season 5 / 10 Ep.): A plumber who was Ally's boyfriend for a short period of time Dyan Cannon – Judge Jennifer 'Whipper' Cone (Season 1–3 / 17 Ep.): Judge who had a relationship with Richard Fish for a while. She later started her own law firm together with Renee Raddick Gerry Becker - Myron Stone (Season 1-5) : a Boston lawyer who frequently came up against the members of Cage and Fish in court. He was also a friend of Billy Thomas and invited him to join a self-help group which Stone himself appears to run. Taye Diggs – Jackson Duper (Season 4 / 10 Ep.): a lawyer who worked at Cage and Fish for a while and was a love interest for Ling Woo Lisa Edelstein – Cindy McCauliff (Season 4 / 5 Ep.): a transsexual whom Mark Albert dated for a while Josh Groban – Malcolm Wyatt (Season 4–5 / 2 Ep.): A teenager who hires Ally and ends up taking her to his high school prom; gets help from Ally with the loss of his mother. (also sings "You're Still You" and "To Where You Are") Albert Hall – Judge Seymore Walsh: A stern judge with little sense of humor and a general dislike of the Cage and Fish law firm (50 Episodes) Anne Heche – Melanie West (Season 4 / 7 Ep.): A school teacher who had Tourette syndrome. She dated John Cage for a while John Michael Higgins – Steven Milter (Season 4–5 / 13 Ep.): An attorney who was also Ally's therapist for a while Jennifer Holliday – Lisa Knowles (Season 1–4 / 6 Ep.): Lead choir singer at the local church who had a history with the reverend Barry Humphries (credited as Dame Edna Everage) – Claire Otoms (Season 5 / 12 Ep.): A client of Cage & Fish who later started working at the firm as a secretary Gregory Jbara - Reverend Compton (Season 4 / 1 Ep.): Reverend who testifies about his relationship with the nymphomaniac whose husband is seeking an annulment from the very marriage for which the reverend had performed the ceremony in the episode titled "Reach Out and Touch". Phil Leeds – Judge Dennis 'Happy' Boyle (Season 1–2 / 5 Ep.): A very old judge who was obsessed with dental hygiene Jesse L. Martin – Dr. Greg Butters (Season 1–2 / 11 Ep.): A doctor whom Ally dated for quite a while Harrison Page – Reverend Mark Newman (Season 1–4 / 6 Ep.): The reverend at the local church, who had a history with lead choir singer Lisa Knowles Matthew Perry – Attorney Todd Merrick (Season 5 / 2 Ep.) Gina Philips – Sandy Hingle (Season 3 / 13 Ep.): Billy Thomas' secretary whom he briefly dated after his divorce Christina Ricci – Debbie 'Liza' Bump'' (Season 5 / 7 Ep.): a lawyer who worked at Cage and Fish and married Richard Fish in the last episode Tracey Ullman – Dr. Tracey Clark (Season 1–3 / 6 Ep.): Ally's unusual therapist; recommended to her by John Cage Bruce Willis – Dr. Nickle (Season 2 / 1 Ep.): Filling in for Ally's therapist, Dr. Tracey Clark Jonathan Taylor Thomas - Chris 'ThunderThighs' Emerson (Season 3 / 19 Ep.): Ally's online underage lover Apart from these frequently recurring actors the show also saw a lot of cameo appearances by singers (as themselves), along with numerous other one-off celebrity guest stars: Loretta Devine: Appeared in the third season in Ally's hallucinations. Barry White: Appeared for one of John Cage's birthday party and at Richard Fish's wedding Al Green: Ally saw him in her hallucinations Gladys Knight: Appeared in one of Ally's Al Green hallucinations Tina Turner: Ally won a contest to appear as backup singer for her Gloria Gaynor: In Season 3, she stalks Ally singing 'I Will Survive'. Barry Manilow: He appears in one of Ally's hallucinations when Larry goes to Detroit to visit his son. He sings at the bar later that night and Ally tries to punch him thinking him to be her hallucination. Mariah Carey: Appears as Candy Cushnip, a woman in a trial against a company claiming to find the perfect match for everybody. She carries a technician with a spotlight at all times because she believes "...a woman is prettier when she feels good about herself." Macy Gray: Performs in the bar in one episode ("Hope and Glory", episode 20 of season 3) Randy Newman: In Season 3, episode 21, Randy Newman appears as singer/piano player while the protagonists celebrate John's 35th birthday in the bar. Chubby Checker: In Season 4, episode 11, a twist contest is held in the bar where Chubbie Checker appears as himself. Sting: In Season 4, episode 20, Sting sings with Larry on Ally's birthday at the bar. The scene is preceded by a case in which Sting is sued by a jealous husband and hires Larry as his attorney. Anastacia: In Season 4, episode 16 John and Richard make a trip to LA where they visit a club in which Anastacia performs. Elton John plays with his band in the bar in Season 5, episode 5. It is mentioned in the show that the appearance is intended as a rehearsal for Elton John's forthcoming US-Tour. Broadcasters CountryTV network Arab World MBC Australia Seven Network, FX (Now W. Channel) and 111 Hits Austria ORF1 Belarus Belsat Belgium Kanaal Twee, Plug tv (French), La Deux (French) Brazil FOX Life (cable) Bulgaria BTV and FOX Life Canada CTV (English), ARTV (French), TVA (French) Chile Canal 13 , FOX Life (cable) Colombia RCN, Citytv Bogotá, FOX Life (cable) Croatia Nova TV, HRT Czech Republic Česká televize Denmark TV2 Estonia TV3 Finland MTV3 France Téva, M6, Série Club Germany VOX, Comedy Central Hong Kong aTV world Hungary Viasat 3 India STAR World, Zee Cafe Indonesia RCTI Ireland originally screened on RTE Two repeats air on TV3 Israel Channel 2, Channel 3 Italy Canale 5, Italia 1, FOX Life, Mya Japan NHK Kenya Kenya Television Network Lebanon LBCI Lithuania TV3 Malaysia NTV7 Mexico Canal 5, FOX & repeats air on FOX Life Morocco 2M Netherlands RTL 8 New Zealand TV2 Norway TV 2 Pakistan STAR World Philippines RPN-9 (1998-2001), 2nd Avenue (2009) Poland Polsat, TV4, FOX Life Portugal TVI, FOX Life Romania PRO TV, Pro Cinema Russia Ren-TV Serbia RTS, RTV BK Telecom, FOX Life (cable) Slovenia POP TV, Kanal A Singapore MediaCorp TV Channel 5 South Africa SABC 3 South Korea Home CGV Spain Telecinco (former broadcaster), Cuatro, FOX Sweden TV4 Switzerland TSR1 (French area), SF zwei (German area), TSI1 (Italian area) Taiwan Eracom Thailand True Series Turkey CNBC-E and Fox Life United Kingdom Channel 4, Paramount Comedy 1, Paramount Comedy 2, TMF, Zone Romantica United States FX Venezuela Televen DVD releases Due to music rights issues, the first complete season of Ally McBeal has not been made available on DVD in the United States (only 6 random episodes can be found on the R1 edition), though it has been available in Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Japan, Hong Kong, Spain, France, Germany, the UK, Mexico, Taiwan, Australia, Brazil and the Czech Republic. In the UK and Ireland all seasons are available in a complete boxset. DVD NameEp# Region 1 Region 2 The Complete First Season23 N/A February 21, 2005 The Complete Second Season23 N/A February 21, 2005 The Complete Third Season21 N/A February 21, 2005 The Complete Fourth Season23 N/A May 9, 2005 The Complete Fifth Season22 N/A May 9, 2005 Awards and nominations Awards won Emmy Awards: Outstanding Comedy Series (1999) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Peter MacNicol (2001)Golden Globe Awards: Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (1998-1999) Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical Calista Flockhart (1998) Best Supporting Actor in a TV Series Robert Downey Jr. (2001)Screen Actors Guild: Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1999) Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series Robert Downey Jr. (2001) Awards nominated Emmy Awards: Outstanding Comedy Series (1998) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Calista Flockhart (1998–1999, 2001) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Peter MacNicol (1999–2000) Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Robert Downey Jr. (2001) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Lucy Liu (1999) Outstanding Guest Actress In A Comedy Series Bernadette Peters (2001)Golden Globe Awards: Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (2000–2002) Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical Calista Flockhart Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series Jane Krakowski (1999)Screen Actors Guild:''' Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1998, 2000–2001) Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series Calista Flockhart (1998–2001) Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series Lucy Liu (2000) Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series Peter MacNicol (1999–2001) References External links Ally McBeal: Woman of the '90s or Retro Airhead Ally McBeal on Paramount Comedy | Ally_McBeal |@lemmatized ally:32 mcbeal:10 american:1 television:2 series:28 run:6 fox:18 network:5 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3,751 | Apollos | Apollos (Απολλως; contracted from Apollonius) was an early Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament. His special gifts in presenting Christian doctrine made him an important person in the congregation at Corinth, Greece after Paul's first visit there (1 Corinthians 3:6). He was with Paul at a later date in Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:12). In 1 Cor. 1:10-12 we read of four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names, though the "division" can hardly have been due to conflicting doctrines, and there is no indication that Apollos favored or approved an overestimation of his person. Apollos is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches, including the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod, which hold a commemoration for him, Aquila and Priscilla on February 13. Paul considered Apollos to be a valuable helper in carrying on his work in the important Corinthian congregation (1 Cor. 3:6, 4:6, 16:12). In harmony with Paul's notices are the statements in Acts that Apollos was a highly educated Alexandrian Jew, who "spoke and taught accurately enough about Jesus, even though he knew only the baptism of John" (18:24-28). He came to Ephesus (probably in 54), was instructed more accurately in the gospel there by Aquila and Priscilla and afterwards went to Achaia, after Christians in Ephesus first wrote to their counterparts recommending Apollos to them. So the Alexandrian recension; the text in 38 and Codex Bezae indicate that Apollos went to Corinth. Joseph Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles (New York: Doubleday, 1998), p. 639 Jerome states that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth, that he retired to Crete with Zenas, a doctor of the law; and that the schism having been healed by Paul's letter to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea. In the Epistle to Titus, (3:13) Apollos is mentioned with Zenas as bearer of the letter to Crete. Beliefs It is difficult to get a correct idea of his religious standpoint, although it probably was that of the so-called disciples of John the Baptist Paul encountered in Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7). These twelve had never heard of the Holy Spirit (Acts 19:2) which had been poured out on the believers in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4); this was the baptism of holy spirit that Jesus said would follow the water baptism of John (Acts 1:5). Whether this inference is correct, according to Acts Priscilla and Aquila made him an adherent of the Pauline doctrine; the author of the Acts of the Apostles thought this fact of sufficient importance to be included in his history. Apollos may have captivated his hearers by teaching "wisdom," as P. W. Schmiedel suggests, in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently a man of unusual magnetic force. This suggestion has been recently repeated by Jerome Murphy-O'Connor: "It is difficult to imagine that an Alexandrian Jew ... could have escaped the influence of Philo, the great intellectual leader ... particularly since the latter seems to have been especially concerned with education and preaching." Paul: A critical life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), p. 275 Martin Luther proposed Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and many scholars since have shared his view. Notes References Articles in Encyclopaedia Biblica Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie The Jewish Encyclopaedia (Jewish Encyclopedia: Apollos) James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible Karl Heinrich von Weizsäcker, Das apostolische Zeitalter (1886) A. C. McGiffert, History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age. 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3,752 | Louis_Leakey | Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey (L.S.B. Leakey) (August 7, 1903 – October 1, 1972) was a Kenyan archaeologist and naturalist whose work was important in establishing human evolutionary development in Africa. He also played a major role in creating organizations for future research in Africa and for protecting wildlife there. Having been a prime mover in establishing a tradition of palaeoanthropological inquiry, he was able to motivate the next generation to continue it, notably within his own family, many of whom also became prominent. Louis participated in national events of British East Africa and then Kenya in critical if less spectacular ways. In natural philosophy he asserted Charles Darwin's theory of evolution unswervingly and set about to prove Darwin's hypothesis that man arose in Africa. A religious man and a Christian, he said: Map of Kenya. White African "When I think back ... of the serval cat and a baboon that I had as pets in my childhood days−and that eventually I had to house in large cages−it makes me sad. It makes me sadder still, however, and also very angry, when I think of the innumerable adult animals and birds deliberately caught and locked up for the so-called 'pleasure' and 'education' of thoughtless human beings. ... surely there are today so many first-class films ... that the cruelty of keeping wild creatures in zoos should no longer be tolerated." From L.S.B. Leakey, By the Evidence, Chapter 4. Louis' parents, Harry and Mary Bazett Leakey (called May by her friends), were British missionaries of the Christian faith in then British East Africa, now Kenya. Harry: 1868-1940; Mary: ?-1948. Harry later became canon of the station and had a distinguished career. Louis reports in his memoirs, Chapter 6, that the Leakeys were of the Church of England, or Anglican Harry had taken a previously established post of the Church Mission Society among the Kikuyu at Kabete. The station was at that time a hut and two tents in the highlands north of Nairobi. Louis' earliest home had an earthen floor, a leaky thatched roof, rodents and insects, and no heating system except for charcoal braziers. The facilities improved but slowly. The mission, a center of activity, set up a clinic in one of the tents, and later a girl's school for African women. Harry was working on a translation of the Bible into the Kenyan language Kikuyu. Louis had a younger brother, Douglas, and two older sisters, Gladys Leakey Beecher and Julia Leakey Barham. Louis' primary family came to contain also Miss Oakes (a governess) Miss Higgenbotham (another missionary), and Mariamu (a Kikuyu nurse). Inevitably, Louis grew up, played, and learned to hunt with Africans. He also learned to walk with the distinctive gait of the Kikuyu and speak their language fluently, as did his siblings. He was initiated into the Kikuyu ethnic group, an event of which he never spoke, as he was sworn to secrecy. According to Blake Edgar in Louis Leakey's Legacy: Celebrating the Centennial of His Extraordinary Life and Finds in AnthroQuest Online for Fall, 2003, Louis received the Kikuyu name Wakuruigi, "Son of the Sparrow Hawk." Harry also had a name, apparently not an initiation name, but rather descriptive: Giteru, "Big beard." Louis requested and was given permission to build and move into a hut, Kikuyu style, at the end of the garden. It was home to his personal collection of natural objects, such as birds' eggs and skulls. All the children developed a keen interest in and appreciation of the pristine natural surroundings in which they found themselves. They raised baby animals, later turning them over to zoos. Louis read a gift book, Days Before History, by H. R. Hall (1907), a juvenile fictional work illustrating the prehistory of Britain. He began to collect tools and was further encouraged in this activity by a role model, Arthur Loveridge, first curator (1914) of the Natural History Museum in Nairobi, predecessor of the Coryndon Museum. This interest may have predisposed him toward a career in archaeology. Canon Leakey also was a naturalist and must have been a significant model, as Louis wished originally to pattern his life after his father's. Canon Leakey was one of the original founders of the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society, according to Louis' memoirs, Chapter 8 Neither Harry nor May were of strong constitution. From 1904-1906 the entire family lived at May's mother's house in Reading, Berkshire, England, while Harry recovered from neurasthenia, and again in 1911-1913, while May recovered from general frailty and exhaustion. During the latter stay, Harry bought a house in Boscombe. The facts for this section were gathered mainly from Ancestral Passions, Chapter 1, "Kabete", and from the "Publisher's Prologue" of the Harcourt Brace Jovanovich edition of By the Evidence. The formative years His father's example In Britain the Leakey children attended elementary school; in Africa they had a tutor, Miss Laing. They sat out World War I in Africa. When the sea lanes opened again, they returned to Boscombe, where Louis was sent to Weymouth Secondary School, a private boy's school in 1919 at age 16. In three years there he did not do well, and complained of rules he considered an infringement on his freedom and hazing by the other boys. Advised by one teacher to seek employment in a bank, he appealed to his English teacher, Mr. Tunstall, who started him in the application process to Cambridge. His excellent scores on the entrance exams won him a scholarship. Louis matriculated at his father's alma mater, Cambridge University, in 1922, intent on becoming a missionary to British East Africa. For the rest of his life he would dine out on the story of his finals. When he had arrived in Britain he had notified the register of people with a knowledge of rare languages that he was fluent in Swahili. When he came to his finals he asked to be examined in this and after some hesitation the authorities agreed. Then one day he received two letters. One instructed him to report at a certain time and place for a viva-voce examination in Swahili. The other asked if, at the same time and place, he would examine a candidate in Swahili. His son says: Richard E. Leakey, The Making of Mankind, Chapter 1. The rest of the material comes from Morell, Chapter 2, "From Cambridge to Olduvai.". "Louis was in his early twenties when he decided to pursue a fossil-hunting career. Until then, he had intended to follow his father's example and be a Christian missionary in Kenya." He preached Christian zeal to his fellow students and otherwise impressed Cambridge society with behavior that was considered eccentric. For the details of eccentricity, read Bowman-Kruhm, Chapter 2. They include, for example, demonstrating talking drums from the roof of a building at Cambridge. He was also an evolutionist and befriended some future naturalists. Gregory Bateson, E. Barton Worthington In 1923 his usual zeal led him into a severe concussion in a game of Rugby union. He was relieved of his academic duties. Rest and the outdoors were prescribed. Diversion from missionary work In that year a position became available that pushed all thought of rest into the background. In 1922 the British had been awarded German East Africa as part of the settlement of World War I, subsequently applying the name Tanganyika. Within its territory the Germans had discovered a site rich in dinosaur fossils, Tendaguru. Louis was told by C. W. Hobley, a friend of the family, that the British Museum of Natural History was going to send a fossil-hunting expedition to it. Louis applied and was hired to locate the site and manage the administrative details. In 1924 the party under William E. Cutler departed for Africa. They never found a complete dinosaur skeleton. Louis was recalled from the site by Cambridge in 1925, while Cutler contracted blackwater fever and died nine months later. This critical experience changed Louis' career decision. Switching majors to anthropology, he found a new mentor in Alfred Cort Haddon, head of the department. In 1926 he graduated from there with "double firsts", or high honors, in anthropology and archaeology. He had used some of his preexisting qualifications; for example, Kikuyu was offered and accepted as the second modern language in which he was required to be proficient, even though no one there could test him on it. The university accepted an affidavit from a Kikuyu chief signed with a thumbprint. From 1925 on Louis lectured and wrote on African archaeological and palaeontological topics. On graduation he was such a respected figure that Cambridge sent him to East Africa to study prehistoric African humans. He excavated dozens of sites, undertaking for the first time a systematic study of the artifacts. Some of his culture names are still in use; for example, Elmenteitan. This Mesolithic culture is described in The Elmenteitan by Peter Robertshaw in World Archaeology, Vol. 20, No. 1, Archaeology in Africa (Jun., 1988), pp. 57-69, of which the first page is displayed for free. Research fellow St. John's College, Cambridge. In 1927 Louis received a visit at a site called Gamble's Cave, near Lake Elmenteita, by two young ladies on a holiday, one of whom was Henrietta Wilfreda "Frida" Avern. 1902-1993 She had done some course work in archaeology. Louis and she talked the entire night. They continued the relationship on his return to Cambridge and in 1928 they were married and set off together for Elmenteita. At that time he discovered the Acheulean site of Kariandusi, which he excavated in 1928, after collecting a team of interested associates. Douglas Leakey, Donald Macinnes, Tom Powys Cobb, John D. Solomon, Elisabeth Kitson, Cecily Creasy, Penelope Jenkin. For a description and history of the site see Kariandusi Museum at the National Museums of Kenya web site. On the strength of his work there he obtained a research fellowship at St. John's College and returned to Cambridge in 1929 to do post-graduate work and to classify and prepare the finds from Elmenteita. His patron and mentor at Cambridge was now Arthur Keith. While cleaning two skeletons he had found he noticed a similarity to one found in Olduvai Gorge by Professor Hans Reck, a German national, whom Louis had met in 1925 in Germany while on business for Keith. Olduvai Gorge. The geology of Olduvai was known and in 1913 Reck had extricated a skeleton from Bed II in the gorge wall. He argued that it must have the date of the bed, which was believed to 600,000 years, in the mid-Pleistocene. The public was not ready for this news. Man must have evolved or have been created long after then, was the general belief. Reck became involved in a media uproar. He was barred from going back to settle the question by the war and then the terms of the transfer of Tanganyika from Germany to Britain. For an account of the incident refer to Hans Reck and the Discovery of O.H.1 at the "Always Something New" site. In 1929 Louis visited Berlin to talk to the now skeptical Reck. Noting an Acheulean tool in Reck's collection of artifacts from Olduvai, he bet Reck he could find ancient stone tools at Olduvai within 24 hours. The source for this subsection is Morell, Chapter 3, "Laying Claim to the Earliest Man." Meanwhile Frida worked on illustrations for The Stone Age Culture of Kenya Colony. Louis was given the PhD in 1930 at age 27. His first child, a daughter, Priscilla Muthoni Leakey, was born in 1931. His headaches and epilepsy returned in the excitement and he was prescribed Luminal, which he took the rest of his life. Reversals of fortune The Defense of Reck In November, 1931, Louis led an expedition to Olduvai, including Reck, Arthur Tindell Hopwood, Donald MacInnes, Vivian Fuchs, Captain Hewlitt, Frances Kenrick, Frida, Reck, and a number of African assistants. whom he allowed to enter the gorge first. Louis did find Acheulean tools within the first 24 hours, costing Reck ten pounds on the bet. They verified the provenance of the 1913 find, now Olduvai Man. Non-humanoid fossils and tools were extracted from the ground in large numbers. Frida delayed joining him and was less enthusiastic about him on behalf of Priscilla. She did arrive eventually, however, and Louis put her to work. Frida's site became FLK, for Frida Leakey's karongo ("gully"). Back in Cambridge, the skeptics were not impressed. To find supporting evidence of the antiquity of Reck's Olduvai Man, Louis returned to Africa, excavating at Kanam and Kanjera. He easily found more fossils, which he named Homo kanamensis. Read about these events in Recent Research into Oldowan Hominin Activities at Kanjera South, Western Kenya, by L. C. Bishop et al., published in the African Archaeological Review. While he was gone, the opposition worked up some "evidence" of the intrusion of Olduvai Man into an earlier layer, evidence that seemed convincing at the time, but is missing and unverifiable now. On his return Louis' finds were carefully examined by a committee of 26 scientists and were tentatively accepted as valid. Scandal With Frida's dowry money, the Leakeys bought a large brick house in Girton near Cambridge, which they named "the Close." She suffered from morning sickness most of the time and was unable to work on the illustrations for Louis' second book, Adam's Ancestors. At a dinner party given in his honor after a lecture of his at the Royal Anthropological Institute, Gertrude Caton-Thompson introduced him to her own illustrator, the twenty-year-old Mary Nicol. Louis convinced Mary to take on the illustration of his book. A few months later companionship turned to romance. Colin Leakey was born in December, 1933, and in January, 1934, Louis asked Frida for a divorce. She would not sue for divorce until 1936. This account is based on Morell, Chapter 4, "Louis and Mary." A panel at Cambridge investigated his morals. Grants dried up, but his mother raised enough money for another expedition to Olduvai, Kanam and Kanjera, the latter two on the Winam Gulf. The guest list is Peter Bell (zoologist), Sam White (surveyor), Peter Kent (geologist), Heselon Mukiri, Thairu Irumbi, Ndekei. His previous work there was questioned by P. G. H. Boswell, Head of the Department of Geology at the Imperial College of Science, London. whom he invited to verify the sites for himself. Arriving at Kanam and Kanjera in 1935, they found that the iron markers Louis had used to mark the sites had been removed by the Luo tribe for use as harpoons and the sites could not now be located. To make matters worse, all the photos Louis took were ruined by a light leak in the camera. After an irritating and fruitless two-month search, Boswell left for England, promising, as Louis understood it, not to publish a word until Louis returned. Boswell immediately set out to publish as many words as he was able, beginning with an article in Nature dated March 9, 1935, destroying Reck's and Louis' dates of the fossils and questioning Louis' competence. Louis on his return accused Boswell of treachery, but Boswell now had public opinion on his side. Louis was not only forced to retract the accusation but also to recant his support of Reck. This account is based on Morell, Chapter 5, "Disaster at Kanam", supplemented with detail from Louis' account in By the Evidence, Chapter 2. Olduvai Man languished through World War II in a Berlin museum and then partially disappeared, but preservative applied to the bones took away any hope of an accurate C-14 date; however, neither can any evidence of intrusion be located. Kanjera Man is ancient, possibly Homo habilis; Homo kanamensis is an intrusion. Louis was through at Cambridge. Even his mentors turned on him. On the road in Africa Meeting Mary in Africa, he proceeded to Olduvai with a small party. Mary joined him under a stigma but her skill and competence eventually won over the other participants. Louis' parents continued to urge him to return to Frida, and would pay for everyone in the party, but not Mary. Louis and his associates did the groundwork for future excavation at Olduvai, uncovering dozens of sites for a broad sampling, as was his method. They were named after the excavator: SHK (Sam Howard's karongo), BK (Peter Bell's), SWK (Sam White's), MNK (Mary Nicol's). Louis and Mary conducted a temporary clinic for the Maasai, made preliminary investigations of Laetoli, and ended by studying the rock paintings at the Kisese/Cheke region. The initial chapters of By the Evidence and Morell, Chapter 6, "Olduvai's Bounty", describe the explorations on which these few sentences are based. The Village of Nasty Louis and Mary returned to England in 1935 without positions or any place to stay except Mary's mother's apartment. They soon leased Steen Cottage in Great Munden This settlement was in Hertfordshire and had an unusual, more ancient name, which Louis, with his sense of humor noted in his memoirs, Chapter 5, as "the village of Nasty." Nasty is a hamlet in Great Munden; however, Louis' mood reflects that of the population of Hertfordshire, which delights in assigning unusual village names. and lived without heat, electricity, or plumbing, fetching water from a well, huddling before a fireplace and writing by oil lantern. They lived happily in poverty for eighteen months at this low point of their fortunes, visited at first only by Mary's relatives. Louis gardened for subsistence and exercise and improved the house and grounds. He appealed at last to the Royal Society, who relented with a small grant to continue work on his collection. Our Man in British East Africa The Return of the Native Son Finally, Frida released Louis and he and Mary were married on Christmas Eve, 1936, in a civil ceremony at the registry office of Ware. The witness, Peter Koinange, the son of a Kikuyu chief, was in Britain doing postgraduate studies at St. John's. Louis got some royalties and advances on books, and snagged the Munro lectures at Edinburgh University for 1936. This subsection depends on Morell, Chapter 7, "Consequences." Louis had already involved himself in Kikuyu tribal affairs in 1928, taking a stand against female genital cutting. He got into a shouting match in Kikuyu one evening with Jomo Kenyatta, who was lecturing on the topic. R. Copeland at Oxford recommended he apply to the Rhodes Trust for a grant to write a study of the Kikuyu and it was given late in 1936 along with a salary for two years. In January 1937 the Leakeys shook the dust off their feet and travelled to Kenya. Colin would not see his father for 20 years. Louis returned to Kiambaa near Nairobi and persuaded Senior Chief Koinange, who designated a committee of chiefs, to help him describe the Kikuyu the way they had been. Mary excavated at Waterfall Cave. According to Louis' memoirs, Chapter 6, it was the chief who suggested she excavate. He knew artifacts were being washed from the cave. Louis and Mary had moved into a hut in his compound at his invitation. She fell ill with double pneumonia and lay at death's door for two weeks in the hospital in Nairobi, during which time her mother was sent for. Contrary to expectation she recovered and began another excavation at Hyrax Hill and then Ngoro River Cave. Louis got an extension of his grant, which he used partially for fossil-hunting. Leakey discoveries began to appear in the newspapers again. Tensions between the Kikuyu and the settlers increased alarmingly. Louis jumped into the fray as an exponent of the middle ground. In Kenya: Contrasts and Problems, he angered the settlers by proclaiming Kenya could never be a "white man's country." The fossil police The government offered Louis work as a policeman in intelligence, which he could not afford to refuse. He traveled the country as a pedlar, reporting on the talk. When Britain went to war in September, 1939, the Kenyan government drafted Louis into its African intelligence service. Louis describes this authority in Chapter 8 of his Memoirs as "...the CID... Special Branch, Section 6, concerned with civil intelligence." The drafting authority was the "Kenya government" and there is no indication in the Memoirs that the service was more directly British; in fact, he refers to "my counterpart in military intelligence." However, Louis would not be revealing everything he knew. Morell portrays him as having been in police work before being drafted. She had personal access to the surviving Leakeys. Apart from some bumbling around, during which he and some settlers stalked each other as possible saboteurs of the Sagana Railway Bridge, Memoirs Chapter 8 his first task was to supply and arm Ethiopian guerrillas against the Italian invaders of their country. He created a clandestine network using his childhood friends among the Kikuyu. They also hunted fossils on the sly. Louis conducted interrogations, analyzed handwriting, wrote radio broadcasts and took on regular police investigations. He loved a good mystery of any sort. The white leadership of the King's African Rifles used him extensively to clear up many cultural mysteries; for example, he helped an officer remove a curse he had inadvertently put on his men. Memoirs, Chapter 9. Mary continued to find and excavate sites. Jonathan Leakey was born in 1940. She worked in the Coryndon Memorial Museum (later called the National Museums of Kenya) where Louis joined her as an unpaid honorary curator in 1941. Their life was a menage of police work and archaeology. They investigated Rusinga Island and Olorgesailie. At the latter site they were assisted by a team of Italian experts recruited from the prisoners of war and paroled for the purpose. Memoirs Chapter 12 In 1942 the Italian menace ended, but the Japanese began to reconnoiter with a view toward landing in force. Louis found himself in counter-intelligence work, which he performed with zest and imagination. Deborah was born, but died at three months. They lived in a rundown and bug infested Nairobi home, provided by the museum. Jonathan was attacked by army ants in his crib. This section is based on Morell, Chapter 8, "Cloak-and-Dagger." The turn of the tide In 1944 Richard Leakey was born. In 1945 the family's income from police work all but vanished. By now Louis was getting plenty of job offers but he chose to stay on in Kenya as Curator of the Coryndon Museum, with an annual salary and a house, but more importantly, to continue palaeoanthropological research. In January, 1947, Louis conducted the first Pan-African Congress of Prehistory at Nairobi. Sixty scientists from 26 countries attended, delivering papers and visiting the Leakey sites. The conference restored Louis to the scientific fold and made him a major figure in it. With the money that now poured in Louis undertook the famous expeditions of 1948 and beyond at Rusinga Island in Lake Victoria, where Mary discovered the most complete Proconsul fossil up to that time. Charles Boise donated money for a boat to be used for transport on Lake Victoria, "The Miocene Lady." Its famous skipper, Hassan Salimu, was later to deliver Jane Goodall to Gombe. Philip Leakey was born in 1949. In 1950, Louis was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University. Kenyan affairs ""... I sought a personal interview with the governor, hoping to make him appreciate that it was no longer possible to continue along the lines of the old colonial regime. ... Colonial governors and senior civil servants are not easy people to argue with; and, of course, I was not popular, because of my criticism of the colonial service ... Had it been possible to make the government open its eyes to the realities of the situation, I believe that the whole miserable episode of what is frequently spoken of as 'the Mau Mau rebellion' need never have taken place." From L.S.B. Leakey, By the Evidence, Chapter 18. While the Leakeys were at Lake Victoria, the Kikuyu struck at the European settlers of the Kenyan highlands, who seemed to have the upper hand and were insisting on a "white" government of a "white" Africa. Approximately 1 million Kikuyu were being harassed by about 32,000 settlers. In 1949 the Kikuyu formed a secret society, the Mau Mau, which attacked settlers and especially loyalist Kikuyu. Louis had attempted to warn Sir Philip Mitchell, governor of the colony, that nocturnal meetings and forced oaths were not Kikuyu customs and foreboded violence, but was ignored. Now he found himself pulled away from anthropology to investigate the Mau Mau. During this period his life was threatened and a reward placed on his head. The Leakeys began to pack pistols, termed "European National Dress." The government placed him under 24-hour guard. In 1952, after a massacre of loyal chiefs, the government arrested Jomo Kenyatta, president of the Kenya African Union. Louis was summoned to be a court interpreter, but withdrew after an accusation of mistranslation because of prejudice against the defendant. He returned on request to translate documents only. Because of lack of evidence linking Kenyatta to the Mau Mau, although convicted, he did not receive the death penalty, but was sentenced to several years of hard labor and banned from Kenya. The government brought in British troops and formed a home guard of 20,000 Kikuyu. During this time Louis played a difficult and contradictory role. He sided with the settlers, serving as their spokesman and intelligence officer, helping to ferret out bands of guerrillas. On the other hand he continued to advocate for the Kikuyu in his book, Defeating Mau Mau and numerous talks and articles. He recommended a multi-racial government, land reform in the highlands, a wage hike for the Kikuyu, and many other reforms, most of which were eventually adopted. The British realized the rebellion was being directed from urban centers, instituted military law and rounded up the committees. Following Louis' suggestion, thousands of Kikuyu were placed in re-education camps and resettled in new villages. The rebellion continued from bases under Mt. Kenya until 1956, when, deprived of its leadership and supplies, it had to disperse. The state of emergency lasted until 1960. In 1963 Kenya became independent, with Jomo Kenyatta as prime minister. This subsection is based on Morell's chapter 11, "Louis and Kenyatta." Palaeoanthropologist par excellence Vindication at Olduvai "We know from the study of evolution that, again and again, various branches of animal stock have become over-specialized, and that over-specialization has led to their extinction. Present-day Homo sapiens is in many physical respects still very unspecialized− ... But in one thing man, as we know him today, is over-specialized. His brain power is very over-specialized compared to the rest of his physical make-up, and it may well be that this over-specialization will lead, just as surely, to his extinction. ... if we are to control our future, we must first understand the past better." From L.S.B. Leakey, Adam's Ancestors, Fourth Edition, final page. Louis and Mary spent all the time they could at Olduvai, starting in 1951. So far they had discovered only tools. A trial trench in Bed II at BK in 1951 was followed by a more extensive excavation in 1952. They found what Louis termed an Olduwan "slaughter-house", an ancient bog where animals had been trapped and butchered. Louis was so carried away that he worked without his hat and his hair was bleached white from the sun. They stopped in 1953. In 1955 they excavated again with Jean Brown. She related that he preferred to be called Louis, was absent-minded, once had everyone looking for spectacles that were around his neck, wore pants with the buttons off and shoes with holes in them, charged about everywhere and once collapsed unconscious. He was completely happy. This Olduvai period, including Jean's description of Louis, is from Morell, Chapter 12, "Our Man." In 1959 they decided to excavate Bed I. While Louis was sick in camp, Mary discovered Zinjanthropus at FLK, which Mary called "Our Man", and became "Dear Boy" and "Zinj." The question was whether it was a previous genus discovered by Robert Broom, Paranthropus, which Broom had taken not to be in the human line, or a different one, in it. Louis opted for Zinj, a decision opposed by Wilfrid Le Gros Clark, but one which attracted the attention of Melville Bell Grosvenor, president of the National Geographic Society. That contact resulted in an article in National Geographic September, 1960, Finding the World's Earliest Man. and a hefty grant to continue work at Olduvai. Also in 1960 Jack Evernden and Garniss Curtis, young geophysicists, dated Bed I to 1.75 mya. The world was stunned. Zinj was far older than anyone had imagined. Scientists swarmed to Africa. Reck and Louis were completely vindicated, too late for Reck, who had died in 1937. Louis had proved Darwin right. The material on Zinjanthropus and the dating of Bed I is from Morell, Chapter 13, "Fame, Fortune and Zinj." The Leakey circus In 1960, unable to leave the museum except on weekends, Louis appointed Mary director of excavation at Olduvai. She brought in a staff of Kamba tribesmen, instead of Kikuyu, who, she felt, took advantage of Louis. The first, Muteva Musomba, had kept her children's ponies. He recruited Kamoya Kimeu among others. Mary set up Camp 5 under Jonathan's direction. He was 19. From then on she had her own staff and associates. Mary picked and sieved at the site from early morning dressed in old clothes, chain smoking cigarettes, always surrounded by her Dalmatian dogs. She and Louis communicated by radio. On weekends he drove non-stop at high speed the 357 miles between Olduvai and Nairobi. The teen-age boys, Richard and Philip, were on site holidays and vacations. Louis invited them and Irven DeVore to eat a raw rat so that he could compare the result to some Hominid coprolites. He said to DeVore, "My dear boy, let me make you famous." DeVore and the boys demurred. The anecdote about the rat is given in Morell, Chapter 14, Note 8. Their home in Nairobi was a circus, figuratively speaking, when they were there. Dinner guests were frequent. Important guests stayed for weeks if they could stand it. They shared the quarters and the dinner table with the Dalmatians, hyraxes, a monkey, a civet cat, an African eagle owl, tropical fish, rattlesnakes, vipers and a python. The extended families of twenty African staff lived in cinderblock huts in the yard. Mary had switched to cigars and the ashes often fell into the food. Both Louis and Mary cooked. Louis never stopped talking; his stories were endless. This section is based on Morell, Chapter 5, "Mary's Dig." There was another side to the Leakey family, written about by Morell in Chapter 17, "Chimpanzees and Other Loves". Louis was a notorious womanizer. He was faithful neither to Frida nor to Mary. Mary tolerated this behavior well until his relationship with Rosalie Osborn, 1954/55, threatened to break up her marriage. The two fought constantly, upsetting the boys. After Richard nearly died in a fall from a horse, Louis broke with Rosalie for the sake of the boys. In 1960 Louis and Mary were especially close, which lasted until the arrival of Vanne Goodall. He literally ran through the day, making long lists of things to be done, which he never completed. He drove recklessly through the streets of Nairobi, often reading and writing as he drove. Floruit Jonathan achieved some brief fame before he quit palaeoanthropology altogether. He started his own site, "Jonny's site" in the Leakey lingo, FLK-NN. There he discovered two skull fragments without the Australopithecine sagittal crest, which Mary connected with Broom's and Robinson's Telanthropus. The problem with it was its contemporaneity with Zinj. Mailed photographs, Le Gros Clark retorted casually "Shades of Piltdown." Louis cabled him immediately and had some strong words at this suggestion of his incompetence. Clark apologized. Morell, Chapter 14, "Mary's Dig." Not long after in 1960 Louis, his son Philip and Ray Pickering discovered a fossil he termed "Chellean Man", as it was in context with Olduwan tools, the first such find. After reconstruction Louis and Mary called it "Pinhead." It was subsequently included with Homo erectus and was in fact contemporaneous with Paranthropus, which on that account cannot have been in the human line. For many years Louis believed erectus was the user of the tools and Australopithecus was not, (It is now conceded that both Hominids used them). In 1961 Louis got a salary as well as a grant from National Geographic and turned over the acting directorship of Coryndon to a subordinate. He created the Centre for Prehistory and Paleontology on the same grounds, moved his collections to it, and appointed himself director. This was his new operations center. He opened another excavation at Fort Ternan on Lake Victoria. Shortly after, Heselon discovered Kenyapithecus wickeri, the species name from the owner of the property, which Louis promptly celebrated with George Gaylord Simpson, who happened to be present, aboard the Miocene Lady with Leakey Safari Specials, a drink made of condensed milk and cognac. In 1962 Louis was visiting Olduvai when Ndibo Mbuika discovered the first tooth of Homo habilis at MNK. Louis and Mary thought it was female and named her Cinderella, or Cindy. Phillip Tobias identified Jonny's Child with it and Raymond Dart came up with the name Homo habilis at Louis' request, which Tobias translated as "handyman." Morell Chapter 16, "The Human with Ability." Richard Leakey tells a different story about the name. See in the Notes section of Homo habilis. It was seen as intermediary between gracile Australopithecus and Homo. These few paragraphs rely on Morell, Chapter 16, "The Human with Ability." Leakey's Angels One of Louis's greatest legacies stems from his role in fostering field research of primates in their natural habitats, which he understood as key to unraveling the mysteries of human evolution. He personally chose three female researchers, Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, and Birute Galdikas, who were later dubbed 'Leakey's Angels' and each went on to become important scholars in the field of primatology. The last years Kenya became independent at 12:00 p.m. on December 12, 1963, with Jomo Kenyatta as the first prime minister. The settlers were already leaving the country in large numbers. Kenyatta saw that he had to act swiftly to prevent a descent into chaos. He took a conciliatory view. There were a few deportations, but no reprisals. Louis had felt considerable trepidation about the future of palaeoanthropology in Kenya. A meeting was arranged between him and Jomo at the suggestion of the last colonial governor, Malcom MacDonald. He was introduced by his old friend, Peter Koinange. They spoke in Kikuyu. The meeting ended with an embrace and reassurances. Morell, Chaper 19, "A Girl for the Gorillas." During his final years Louis became famous as a lecturer in the United States and United Kingdom. He brought audiences cheering to their feet. He did not personally excavate any longer, as he was crippled with arthritis, for which he had a hip replacement in 1968. He raised funds and directed his family and associates. In Kenya he was an indispensable facilitator for the hundreds of scientists then exploring the East African Rift system for fossils. Without his say-so, permits could not be obtained and access to museum collections was denied. Once he gave permission, his advice was invaluable. In 1963 he helped Ruth De Ette get started at a site in the Calico Hills of the Mojave Desert in California. The date then accepted for the arrival of humans in the Americas was about 12,000 BCE. On the basis of the time required for the evolution and distribution of native American languages, Louis hypothesized that the arrival must have been thousands of years previously. He encouraged Ruth to view the apparent artifacts she was finding as older than 100,000 years. Mary did not share his visionary view. She was increasingly disrespectful, viewing him as incompetent, from 1963 on. The old intimacy was gone. Her professional opposition began over Calico Man. Under the rationale of trying to stop Louis from making a mistake that would tarnish his reputation, she persuaded the National Geographic Society to refrain from publishing Calico and pull funding from the project, but Louis found other means. On March 26, 1968, Alan and Helen O'Brien of Newport Beach, California, and some prominent Californians formed the Leakey Foundation. When Louis stayed with them when he was in California, the O'Briens noticed that he was very much underpaid on the lecture circuit. From then on Louis worked with them in fund-raising. Mary's opposition soon turned into a major schism in the palaeoanthropological village. For example, in 1968 Louis refused an honorary doctorate from the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, primarily because of apartheid in South Africa. Mary accepted one. Now it was Louis' turn to be concerned about her reputation. The two still cared about each other, but were apart and conducted different professional lives. Morell Chapter 23, "Mining Hominids at Olduvai." In the last few years Louis' health began to fail more seriously. He had his first heart attacks and spent six months in the hospital. An empathy over health brought him and Dian Fossey together for a brief romance, which she broke off. Richard began to assume more and more of his father's responsibilities, which Louis resisted, but in the end was forced to accept. Everything bad seemed to happen to him in a run of unfortunate luck: he had more heart problems, he was swarmed by bees and nearly killed, he had a stroke, he was involved in controversy over Calico man, and he had to brook Mary's opposition. One good thing that happened is that he found increasing support and comfort in his friend, Vanne Goodall (mother of Jane Goodall), whose London apartment Louis visited when he could. These details and many more can be found in Morell, Chapters 27-30. Death and legacy Passing On October 1, 1972, Louis was stricken with a heart attack in Vanne Goodall's apartment in London. Vanne sat up all night with him in St. Stephen's Hospital and left at 9:00 a.m. He died at 9:30. He was 69. Mary wanted to cremate Louis and fly the ashes back to Nairobi. Richard intervened. As Louis was a Kikuyu, he ought to be buried in Kikuyuland. He was flown home and interred at Limuru near the graves of his parents. In denial, the family did not face the question of a memorial marker for a year. When Richard went to place a stone on the grave he found one already there, courtesy of Rosalie Osborn. The inscription was signed with the letters, ILYFA, "I'll love you forever always", which Rosalie used to place on her letters to him. Richard left it in place. Morell Chapter 30, "An End and a Beginning." Prominent organizations 1958. Louis founded the Tigoni Primate research Center with Cynthia Booth on her farm north of Nairobi. Later it was the National Primate Research Center, currently the Institute of Primate Research, now in Nairobi. As the Tigoni center, it funded Leakey's Angels. 1961. Louis created the Centre for Prehistory and Paleontology on the same grounds as Coryndon Museum, appointing himself director. 1968. Louis assisted with the founding of The Leakey Foundation, to ensure the legacy of his life's work in the study of human origins. The Leakey Foundation exists today as the number one funder of human origins research in the United States. Prominent family members Louis Leakey was married to Mary Leakey, who made the noteworthy discovery of fossil footprints at Laetoli. Found preserved in volcanic ash in Tanzania, they are the earliest record of bipedal gait. He is also the father of paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey and the botanist Colin Leakey. Louis' cousin, Nigel Gray Leakey, was a recipient of the Victoria Cross during World War II. Books by Louis Leakey Louis's books are listed below. Most of them have many publishers in many editions. The gaps between books are filled by too many articles to list. It was Louis who began the Leakey tradition of publishing in Nature. First Publication DateTitleNotes+1931The Stone Age Culture of Kenya ColonyWritten in 1929. Illustrated by Frida Leakey.1934Adam's Ancestors: The Evolution of Man and His CultureMultiple editions with rewrites, the 4th in 1955. Illustrated by Mary Leakey. Book reviews: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294%28193507%2F09%292%3A37%3A3%3C510%3AAAAUOO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1&size=LARGE 1935The Stone Age races of KenyaProposes Homo kanamensis.1936Kenya: Contrasts and ProblemsWritten in 1935.1936Stone Age Africa: an Outline of Prehistory in AfricaTen chapters consisting of the ten Munro Lectures delivered in 1936 by Louis to Edinburgh University and intended by him as a textbook. Illustrated by Mary.1937White African: an Early AutobiographyLouis described it as a "pot-boiler" written in 1936 for Hodder & Stoughton.1951The Miocene Hominoidea of East AfricaWith Wilfrid Le Gros Clark. Volume I of the series Fossil Mammals of Africa published by the British Museum of Natural History.1951Olduvai Gorge: A Report on the Evolution of the Hand-Axe Culture in Beds I-IVStarted in 1935. Names the Olduwan Culture.1952Mau Mau and the KikuyuOnline at Mau Mau and the Kikuyu Quaestia.1953Animals in AfricaPhotographs by Ylla.1954Defeating Mau MauWith Peter Schmidt. Online at Defeating Mau Mau Quaestia.1965Olduvai Gorge: A Preliminary Report on the Geology and Fauna, 1951-61Volume 1. The second volume, Olduvai Gorge: the Cranium and Maxillary Dentition of Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus) boisei, was written by Phillip Tobias. The third volume was written by Mary Leakey. 1969Unveiling Man's OriginsWith Vanne Morris Goodall.1969Animals of East Africa: The Wild realm1970Olduvai Gorge, 1965-19671974By the Evidence: Memoirs, 1932-1951Written in 1972 and published posthumously. Louis finished writing on the day before his death.1977The Southern Kikuyu before 1903Published posthumously. The manuscript remained in Louis' safe for decades for lack of a publisher. It was 3 volumes. He refused to follow editorial advice and shorten it. Notes References Virginia Morell, Ancestral Passions: The Leakey Family and the Quest for Humankind's Beginnings , Copyright 1995. Mary Bowman-Kruhm, The Leakeys: a Biography, Copyright 2005, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-32985-0. Online preview found at http://books.google.com/books?id=6LmiKnyVAxgC&printsec=frontcover&dq in Google Books. See also Calico Early Man Site Leakey family List of fossil sites (with link directory) List of hominina (hominid) fossils (with images) References External links LeakeyFoundation.org - The Leakey Foundation: a non-profit organization committed to increasing scientific knowledge, education, and public understanding of human origins, evolution, behavior and survival. Talk Origins.org - Louis Leakey Louis S. B. Leakey, the leakey.com biography. Louis Leakey, article by Brian M. Fagan in CD Groliers Encyclopedia. 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3,753 | Migraine | Migraine is a neurological syndrome characterized by altered bodily perceptions, headaches, and nausea. Physiologically, the migraine headache is a neurological condition more common to women than to men. The word migraine was borrowed from Old French migraigne (originally as "megrim", but respelled in 1777 on a contemporary French model). The French term derived from a vulgar pronunciation of the Late Latin word hemicrania, itself based on Greek hemikrania, from Greek roots for "half" and "skull". The typical migraine headache is unilateral and pulsating, lasting from 4 to 72 hours; The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 2nd Edition symptoms include nausea, vomiting, photophobia (increased sensitivity to bright light), and hyperacusis (increased sensitivity to noise); approximately one third of people who suffer migraine headache perceive an aura — unusual visual, olfactory, or other sensory experiences that are a sign that the migraine will soon occur. Initial treatment is with analgesics for the head-ache, an anti-emetic for the nausea, and the avoidance of triggering conditions. The cause of migraine headache is unknown; the accepted theory is a disorder of the serotonergic control system, as PET scan has demonstrated the aura coincides with diffusion of cortical depression consequent to increased blood flow (up to 300% greater than baseline). There are migraine headache variants, some originate in the brainstem (featuring intercellular transport dysfunction of calcium and potassium ions) and some are genetically disposed. Studies of twins indicate a 60 to 65 percent genetic influence upon their developing propensity to migraine headache. Moreover, fluctuating hormone levels indicate a migraine relation: 75 percent of adult patients are women, although migraine affects approximately equal numbers of prepubescent boys and girls; propensity to migraine headache is known to disappear during pregnancy.Although in some women migraines may become more frequent during pregnancy. Classification The International Headache Society (IHS) classifies migraine headache. Complete supplement online Defining pain severity The IHS defines the intensity of pain with a verbal, four-point scale: Complete supplement online (see page 150) NumberNameAnnotations0no pain1mild paindoes not interfere with usual activities2moderate paininhibits, but does not wholly prevent usual activities3severe painprevents all activities Migraine without aura The common form of migraine headache; the patient primarily suffers migraine without aura, and might also suffer migraine with aura. The International Classification of Headache Disorders definition is: When these criteria are partially fulfilled, there are alternative diagnoses, i.e. "probable migraine without aura" or "episodic tension-type headache". Migraine with aura The second-most common form of migraine headache: the patient primarily suffers migraine with aura, and might also suffer migraine without aura. The International Classification of Headache Disorders definition is: Basilar type migraine Basilar type migraine (BTM) previously basilar artery migraine [BAM] and basilar migraine [BM]) is an uncommon, complicated migraine with symptoms caused by brainstem dysfunction. Serious episodes of BTM can lead to stroke, coma, and death. Using triptans and other vasoconstrictors as abortive treatments for BTM is contraindicated. Abortive treatments for BTM address vasodilation and restoration of normal blood flow to the vertebrobasilar territory to restore normal brainstem function. Familial hemiplegic migraine Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) is migraine with a possible polygenetic cause. An FHM episode might last 4–72 hours and appear caused by ion channel mutations; FHM is in three types. The patient experiences typical migraine headache either preceded or accompanied with unilateral, reversible limb weakness and sensory and speech difficulties. There also exists the "sporadic hemiplegic migraine" (SHM) a non-familial form. Effecting a differential diagnosis, between basilar migraine and hemiplegic migraine, is difficult; often, the decisive symptom is either motor weakness or unilateral paralysis, that occurs in FHM and SHM; basilar migraine can present tingling and numbness, true motor weakness and paralysis occur only in hemiplegic migraine. Abdominal migraine Abdominal migraine is a recurrent disorder of unknown origin, principally affecting children; episodes feature nausea, vomiting, and moderate-to-severe central, abdominal pain (ca. 1–72 hrs); the child is well between episodes. Formal diagnosis requires at least five (5) episodes (unattributable to another cause) and fulfilment of these criteria: Episodes last 4–72 hours, untreated Pain must feature ALL these characteristics: Location in the mid-abdomen, around the umbilicus; or poorly localised Dull pain; 'just sore' quality Moderate-to-severe intensity An episode must feature at least two of these symptoms: Loss of appetite Nausea Vomiting Pallor Moody Most children suffering abdominal migraine will develop propensity to migraine headache in adult life; the two propensities might co-exist during the child's adolescence. Treating an abdominal migraine can often be difficult; http://headaches.about.com/cs/asktheclinian/f/122203_1f.htm medications used to treat other forms of migraines are usually employed. http://headaches.about.com/od/migrainediseas1/a/what_abdom_mx.htm These include Elavil (75-150 mg), http://www.answers.com/topic/amitriptyline Wellbutrin SR (400 mg), http://www.webmd.com/migraines-headaches/abdominal-migraines-children-adults?page=2 and Topamax (200-400 mg). http://www.medicinenet.com/topiramate/article.htm In some cases, the abdominal migraine is a symptom linked to cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS). http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/cvs/index.htm#migraine There may be a history of migraines in the family of the sufferer. http://dictionary.webmd.com/terms/abdominal-migraine Acephalgic migraine Acephalgic migraine is a neurological syndrome. It is a variant of migraine in which the patient may experience aura symptoms such as scintillating scotoma, nausea, photophobia, hemiparesis and other migraine symptoms but does not experience headache. Acephalgic migraine is also referred to as amigrainous migraine, ocular migraine, or optical migraine. Sufferers of acephalgic migraine are more likely than the general population to develop classical migraine with headache. The prevention and treatment of acephalgic migraine is broadly the same as for classical migraine. However, because of the absence of "headache", diagnosis of acephalgic migraine is apt to be significantly delayed and the risk of misdiagnosis significantly increased. Visual snow might be a form of acephalgic migraine. If symptoms are primarily visual, it may be necessary to consult an ophthalmologist or optometrist to rule out potential eye disease before considering this diagnosis. Menstrual migraine Menstrual migraine is distinct from other migraines. Approximately 21 million women in the US suffer from migraines, and about 60% of them suffer from menstrual migraines. There are two types of menstrual migraine – Menstrually Related Migraine (MRM) and Pure Menstrual Migraine (PMM) MRM is a headache of moderate-to-severe pain intensity that happens around the time of a woman’s period and at other times of the month as well. PMM is similar in every respect but only occurs around the time of a woman’s period. (2004) "The International Classification of Headache Disorders: 2nd edition". Cephalalgia 24 Suppl 1: 9–160. The exact causes of menstrual migraine are uncertain but evidence suggests there may be a link between menstruation and migraine due to the drop in estrogen levels that normally occurs right before the period starts. Menstrual migraine has been reported to be more likely to occur during a five-day window, from two days before to two days after menstruation. When compared with migraines that occur at other times of the month, menstrual migraines have been reported to Last longer—up to 72 hours Be more severe Occur more often with nausea and vomiting Be more difficult to treat—occur more frequently Signs and symptoms The signs and symptoms of migraine vary among patients. Therefore, what a patient experiences before, during and after an attack cannot be defined exactly. The four phases of a migraine attack listed below are common but not necessarily experienced by all migraine sufferers. Additionally, the phases experienced and the symptoms experienced during them can vary from one migraine attack to another in the same migraineur: The prodrome, which occurs hours or days before the headache. The aura, which immediately precedes the headache. The pain phase, also known as headache phase. The postdrome. Prodrome phase Prodromal symptoms occur in 40–60% of migraineurs (migraine sufferers). This phase may consist of altered mood, irritability, depression or euphoria, fatigue, yawning, excessive sleepiness, craving for certain food (e.g. chocolate), stiff muscles (especially in the neck), constipation or diarrhea, increased urination, and other visceral symptoms. These symptoms usually precede the headache phase of the migraine attack by several hours or days, and experience teaches the patient or observant family how to detect that a migraine attack is near. Aura phase For the 20–30% of individuals who suffer migraine with aura, this aura comprises focal neurological phenomena that precede or accompany the attack. They appear gradually over 5 to 20 minutes and generally last fewer than 60 minutes. The headache phase of the migraine attack usually begins within 60 minutes of the end of the aura phase, but it is sometimes delayed up to several hours, and it can be missing entirely. Symptoms of migraine aura can be visual, sensory, or motor in nature. Visual aura is the most common of the neurological events. There is a disturbance of vision consisting usually of unformed flashes of white and/or black or rarely of multicolored lights (photopsia) or formations of dazzling zigzag lines (scintillating scotoma; often arranged like the battlements of a castle, hence the alternative terms "fortification spectra" or "teichopsia"). Some patients complain of blurred or shimmering or cloudy vision, as though they were looking through thick or smoked glass, or, in some cases, tunnel vision and hemianopsia. The somatosensory aura of migraine consists of digitolingual or cheiro-oral paresthesias, a feeling of pins-and-needles experienced in the hand and arm as well as in the nose-mouth area on the same side. Paresthesia migrate up the arm and then extend to involve the face, lips and tongue. Other symptoms of the aura phase can include auditory or olfactory hallucinations, temporary dysphasia, vertigo, tingling or numbness of the face and extremities, and hypersensitivity to touch. Pain phase The typical migraine headache is unilateral, throbbing, moderate to severe and can be aggravated by physical activity. Not all of these features are necessary. The pain may be bilateral at the onset or start on one side and become generalized, and usually alternates sides from one attack to the next. The onset is usually gradual. The pain peaks and then subsides, and usually lasts between 4 and 72 hours in adults and 1 and 48 hours in children. The frequency of attacks is extremely variable, from a few in a lifetime to several times a week, and the average migraineur experiences from one to three headaches a month. The head pain varies greatly in intensity. The pain of migraine is invariably accompanied by other features. Nausea occurs in almost 90 percent of patients, while vomiting occurs in about one third of patients. Many patients experience sensory hyperexcitability manifested by photophobia, phonophobia, osmophobia and seek a dark and quiet room. Blurred vision, nasal stuffiness, diarrhea, polyuria, pallor or sweating may be noted during the headache phase. There may be localized edema of the scalp or face, scalp tenderness, prominence of a vein or artery in the temple, or stiffness and tenderness of the neck. Impairment of concentration and mood are common. Lightheadedness, rather than true vertigo and a feeling of faintness may occur. The extremities tend to be cold and moist. Postdrome phase The patient may feel tired, have head pain, cognitive difficulties, "hungover", gastrointestinal symptoms, mood changes and weakness. Some people feel unusually refreshed or euphoric after an attack, whereas others note depression and malaise. Often, some of the minor headache phase symptoms may continue, such as loss of appetite, photophobia, and lightheadedness. For some patients, a 5 to 6 hour nap may reduce the pain, but slight headaches may still occur when standing or sitting quickly. Normally these symptoms go away after a good night's rest. Diagnosis Migraines are underdiagnosed and misdiagnosed. The diagnosis of migraine without aura, according to the International Headache Society, can be made according to the following criteria, the "5, 4, 3, 2, 1 criteria": 5 or more attacks 4 hours to 3 days in duration 2 or more of - unilateral location, pulsating quality, moderate to severe pain, aggravation by or avoidance of routine physical activity 1 or more accompanying symptoms - nausea and/or vomiting, photophobia, phonophobia For migraine with aura, only two attacks are required to justify the diagnosis. The mnemonic POUNDing (Pulsating, duration of 4–72 hOurs, Unilateral, Nausea, Disabling) can help diagnose migraine. If 4 of the 5 criteria are met, then the positive likelihood ratio for diagnosing migraine is 24. The presence of either disability, nausea or sensitivity, can diagnose migraine with: sensitivity of 81% specificity of 75% Migraine should be differentiated from other causes of headaches such as cluster headaches. These are extremely painful, unilateral headaches of a piercing quality. The duration of the common attack is 15 minutes to three hours. Onset of an attack is rapid, and most often without the preliminary signs that are characteristic of a migraine. Pathophysiology Migraines were once thought to be initiated exclusively by problems with blood vessels. The vascular theory of migraines is now considered secondary to brain dysfunction and claimed to have been discredited by others. Trigger points can be at least part of the cause, and perpetuate most kinds of headaches. Trigger Point Therapy for Headaches & Migraines, DeLaune, Valerie (New Harbinger: 2008) The effects of migraine may persist for some days after the main headache has ended. Many sufferers report a sore feeling in the area where the migraine was, and some report impaired thinking for a few days after the headache has passed. Migraine headaches can be a symptom of hypothyroidism. Depolarization theory A phenomenon known as cortical spreading depression can cause migraines. In cortical spreading depression, neurological activity is depressed over an area of the cortex of the brain. This situation results in the release of inflammatory mediators leading to irritation of cranial nerve roots, most particularly the trigeminal nerve, which conveys the sensory information for the face and much of the head. This view is supported by neuroimaging techniques, which appear to show that migraine is primarily a disorder of the brain (neurological), not of the blood vessels (vascular). A spreading depolarization (electrical change) may begin 24 hours before the attack, with onset of the headache occurring around the time when the largest area of the brain is depolarized. A French study in 2007, using the Positron Emission Tomography (PET) technique identified the hypothalamus as being critically involved in the early stages. Vascular theory Migraines can begin when blood vessels in the brain contract and expand inappropriately. This may start in the occipital lobe, in the back of the brain, as arteries spasm. The reduced flow of blood from the occipital lobe triggers the aura that some individuals who have migraines experience because the visual cortex is in the occipital area. When the constriction stops and the blood vessels dilate, they become too wide. The once solid walls of the blood vessels become permeable and some fluid leaks out. This leakage is recognized by pain receptors in the blood vessels of surrounding tissue. In response, the body supplies the area with chemicals which cause inflammation. With each heart beat, blood passes through this sensitive area causing a throb of pain. The vascular theory of migraines is now seen as secondary to brain dysfunction. Serotonin theory Serotonin is a type of neurotransmitter, or "communication chemical" which passes messages between nerve cells. It helps to control mood, pain sensation, sexual behaviour, sleep, as well as dilation and constriction of the blood vessels among other things. Low serotonin levels in the brain may lead to a process of constriction and dilation of the blood vessels which trigger a migraine. Triptans activate serotonin receptors to stop a migraine attack. Neural theory When certain nerves or an area in the brain stem become irritated, a migraine begins. In response to the irritation, the body releases chemicals which cause inflammation of the blood vessels. These chemicals cause further irritation of the nerves and blood vessels and results in pain. Substance P is one of the substances released with first irritation. Pain then increases because substance P aids in sending pain signals to the brain. Unifying theory Both vascular and neural influences cause migraines. stress triggers changes in the brain these changes cause serotonin to be released blood vessels constrict chemicals including substance P irritate nerves and blood vessels causing pain Epidemiology Age-Gender Incidence Migraine is an extremely common condition which will affect 12–28% of people at some point in their lives. However this figure — the lifetime prevalence — does not provide a very clear picture of how many patients there are with active migraine at any one time. Typically, therefore, the burden of migraine in a population is assessed by looking at the one-year prevalence — a figure that defines the number of patients who have had one or more attacks in the previous year. The third figure, which helps to clarify the picture, is the incidence — this relates to the number of first attacks occurring at any given age and helps understanding of how the disease grows and shrinks over time. Based on the results of a number of studies, one year prevalence of migraine ranges from 6–15% in adult men and from 14–35% in adult women. These figures vary substantially with age: approximately 4–5% of children aged under 12 suffer from migraine, with little apparent difference between boys and girls. There is then a rapid growth in incidence amongst girls occurring after puberty, which continues throughout early adult life. By early middle age, around 25% of women experience a migraine at least once a year, compared with fewer than 10% of men. After menopause, attacks in women tend to decline dramatically, so that in the over 70s there are approximately equal numbers of male and female sufferers, with prevalence returning to around 5%. At all ages, migraine without aura is more common than migraine with aura, with a ratio of between 1.5:1 and 2:1. Incidence figures show that the excess of migraine seen in women of reproductive age is mainly due to migraine without aura. Thus in pre-pubertal and post-menopausal populations, migraine with aura is somewhat more common than amongst 15–50 year olds. There is a strong relationship between age, gender and type of migraine. Geographical differences in migraine prevalence are not marked. Studies in Asia and South America suggest that the rates there are relatively low, but they do not fall outside the range of values seen in European and North American studies. The incidence of migraine is related to the incidence of epilepsy in families, with migraine twice as prevalent in family members of epilepsy sufferers, and more common in epilepsy sufferers themselves. Triggers A migraine trigger is any factor that, on exposure or withdrawal, leads to the development of an acute migraine headache. Triggers may be categorized as behavioral, environmental, infectious, dietary, chemical, or hormonal. In the medical literature, these factors are known as 'precipitants.' The MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, for example, offers the following list of migraine triggers: Sometimes the migraine occurs with no apparent "cause". The trigger theory supposes that exposure to various environmental factors precipitates, or triggers, individual migraine episodes. Migraine patients have long been advised to try to identify personal headache triggers by looking for associations between their headaches and various suspected trigger factors and keeping a "headache diary" recording migraine incidents and diet to look for correlations in order to avoid trigger foods. It must be mentioned, that some trigger factors are quantitative in nature, i.e., a small block of dark chocolate may not cause a migraine, but half a slab of dark chocolate almost definitely will, in a susceptible person. In addition, being exposed to more than one trigger factor simultaneously will more likely cause a migraine, than a single trigger factor in isolation, e.g., drinking and eating various known dietary trigger factors on a hot, humid day, when feeling stressed and having had little sleep will probably result in a migraine in a susceptible person, but consuming a single trigger factor on a cool day, after a good night's rest with minimal environmental stress may mean that the sufferer will not develop a migraine after all. Migraines can be complex to avoid, but keeping an accurate migraine diary and making suitable lifestyle changes can have a very positive effect on the sufferer's quality of life. Some trigger factors are virtually impossible to avoid, e.g. the weather or emotions, but by limiting the avoidable trigger factors, the unavoidable ones may have less of an impact on the sufferer. Food Many migraine sufferers report reduced incidence of migraines due to identifying and avoiding their individual food triggers. However, more studies are needed. Gluten One food elimination that has proven to reduce or eliminate migraines in a percentage of patients is gluten. For those with (often undiagnosed) celiac disease or other forms of gluten sensitivity, migraines may be a symptom of gluten intolerance. One study found that migraine sufferers were ten times more likely than the general population to have celiac disease, and that a gluten-free diet eliminated or reduced migraines in these patients. link titleMigraine Linked to Celiac Disease Another study of 10 patients with a long history of chronic headaches that had recently worsened or were resistant to treatment found that all 10 patients were sensitive to gluten. MRI scans determined that each had inflammation in their central nervous systems caused by gluten-sensitivity. Seven out of nine of these patients that went on a gluten-free diet stopped having headaches completely. Migraine Headaches: Gluten Triggers Severe Headaches in Sensitive Individuals Aspartame Some people may develop migraines from consuming aspartame. In a University of Parkinson's-Florida study, the incidence of migraine doubled for the majority of participants when they took aspartame, and their headaches lasted longer and were marked by increased signs of shakiness and diminished vision. Headaches are the most common side effect cited by those who consume aspartame-containing products. MSG In a large and definitive study monosodium glutamate (MSG) in large doses (2.5 grams) was associated with adverse symptoms including headache more often than was placebo. Tyramine The National Headache Foundation has a specific list of triggers based on the tyramine theory, detailing allowed, with caution and avoid triggers. Other A 2005 literature review found that the available information about dietary trigger factors relies mostly on the subjective assessments of patients. Some suspected dietary trigger factors appear to genuinely promote or precipitate migraine episodes, but many other suspected dietary triggers have never been demonstrated to trigger migraines. The review authors found that alcohol, caffeine withdrawal, and missing meals are the most important dietary migraine precipitants, that dehydration deserved more attention, and that some patients report sensitivity to red wine. Little or no evidence associated notorious suspected triggers like chocolate, cheese, histamine, tyramine, nitrates, or nitrites with migraines. However, the review authors also note that while general dietary restriction has not been demonstrated to be an effective migraine therapy, it is beneficial for the individual to avoid what has been a definite cause of the migraine. Weather Several studies have found some migraines are triggered by changes in weather. One study noted 62% of the subjects thought weather was a factor but only 51% were sensitive to weather changes. Among those whose migraines did occur during a change in weather, the subjects often picked a weather change other than the actual weather data recorded. Most likely to trigger a migraine were, in order: Temperature mixed with humidity. High humidity plus high or low temperature was the biggest cause. Significant changes in weather Changes in barometric pressure Another study examined the effects of warm chinook winds on migraines, with many patients reporting increased incidence of migraines immediately before and/or during the chinook winds. The number of people reporting migrainous episodes during the chinook winds was higher on high-wind chinook days. The probable cause was thought to be an increase in positive ions in the air. Other One study found that for some migraineurs in India, washing hair in a bath was a migraine trigger. The triggering effect also had to do with how the hair was later dried. Treatment Conventional treatment focuses on three areas: trigger avoidance, symptomatic control, and prophylactic pharmocological drugs. Patients who experience migraines often find that the recommended migraine treatments are not 100% effective at preventing migraines, and sometimes may not be effective at all. Pharmological treatments are considered effective if they reduce the frequency or severity of migraine attacks by 50%. Children and adolescents, are often first given drug treatment, but the value of diet modification should not be overlooked. The simple task of starting a diet journal to help modify the intake of trigger foods like hot dogs, chocolate, cheese and ice cream could help alleviate symptoms. For patients who have been diagnosed with recurring migraines, migraine abortive medications can be used to treat the attack, and may be more effective if taken early, losing effectiveness once the attack has begun. Treating the attack at the onset can often abort it before it becomes serious, and can reduce the near-term frequency of subsequent attacks. Paracetamol or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) The first line of treatment is over-the-counter abortive medication. Regarding non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, a randomized controlled trial found that naproxen can abort about one third of migraine attacks, which was 5% less than the benefit of sumatriptan. Paracetamol, at a dose of 1000 mg, benefited over half of patients with mild or moderate migraines in a randomized controlled trial. Simple analgesics combined with caffeine may help. During a migraine attack, emptying of the stomach is slowed, resulting in nausea and a delay in absorbing medication. Caffeine has been shown to partially reverse this effect. Excedrin is an example of an aspirin with caffeine product. Caffeine is recognized by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as an Over The Counter Drug (OTC) treatment for migraine when compounded with aspirin and paracetamol. Patients themselves often start off with paracetamol (known as acetaminophen in North America), aspirin, ibuprofen, or other simple analgesics that are useful for tension headaches. OTC drugs may provide some relief, although they are typically not effective for most sufferers. In all, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved three OTC products specifically for migraine: Excedrin Migraine, Advil Migraine, and Motrin Migraine Pain. Excedrin Migraine, as mentioned above, is a combination of aspirin, acetaminophen, and caffeine. Both Advil Migraine and Motrin Migraine Pain are straight NSAIDs, with ibuprofen as the only active ingredient. Analgesics combined with antiemetics Anti-emetics by mouth may help relieve symtoms of nausea and help prevent vomiting, which can diminish the effectiveness of orally taken analgesia. In addition some antiemetics such as metoclopramide are prokinetics and help gastric emptying which is often impaired during episodes of migraine. In the UK there are three combination antiemetic and analgesic preparations available: MigraMax (aspirin with metoclopramide), Migraleve (paracetamol/codeine for analgesia, with buclizine as the antiemetic) and paracetamol/metoclopramide (Paramax in UK). The earlier these drugs are taken in the attack, the better their effect. Some patients find relief from taking other sedative antihistamines which have anti-nausea properties, such as Benadryl which in the US contains diphenhydramine (but a different non-sedative product in the UK). Serotonin agonists Sumatriptan and related selective serotonin receptor agonists are excellent for severe migraines or those that do not respond to NSAIDs or other over-the-counter drugs. Triptans are a mid-line treatment suitable for many migraineurs with typical migraines. They may not work for atypical or unusually severe migraines, transformed migraines, or status (continuous) migraines. Serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of migraines, but have been found to be effective by clinical consensus. Anti-depressants In addition to SSRIs, anti-depressant drugs such as tricyclics have been long established as highly efficacious prophylactic treatments. Despite not being approved by the FDA for this purpose, these drugs are widely prescribed. Other anti-depressant drugs, such as bupropion and venlafaxine, have also been shown to be clinically efficacious. These drugs, however, may give rise to undesirable side effects, such as insomnia, sedation or sexual dysfunction. They do offer advantages for treating patients with coexistent depression. Ergot alkaloids Until the introduction of sumatriptan in 1991, ergot derivatives (see ergoline) were the primary oral drugs available to abort a migraine once it is established. Ergot drugs can be used either as a preventive or abortive therapy, though their relative expense and cumulative side effects suggest reserving them as an abortive rescue medicine. However, ergotamine tartrate tablets (usually with caffeine), though highly effective, and long lasting (unlike triptans), have fallen out of favour due to the problem of ergotism. Oral ergotamine tablet absorption is reliable unless the patient is nauseated. Anti-nausea administration is available by ergotamine suppository (or Ergostat sublingual tablets made until circa 1992). Ergot drugs themselves can be so nauseating it is advisable for the sufferer to have something at hand to counteract this effect when first using this drug. Ergotamine-caffeine 1/100 mg fixed ratio tablets (like Cafergot, Ercaf, etc.) are much less expensive per headache than triptans, and are commonly available in Asia. They are difficult to obtain in the USA. Ergotamine-caffeine can't be regularly used to abort evening or night onset migraines due to debilitating caffeine interference with sleep. Pure ergotamine tartrate is highly effective for evening-night migraines, but is rarely or never available in the USA. Dihydroergotamine (DHE), which must be injected or inhaled, can be as effective as ergotamine tartrate, but is much more expensive than $2 USD Cafergot tablets. Steroids Based on a recent meta analysis a single dose of IV dexamethasone, when added to standard treatment, is associated with a 26% decrease in headache recurrence. Other agents If over-the-counter medications do not work, or if triptans are unaffordable, the next step for many doctors is to prescribe Fioricet or Fiorinal, which is a combination of butalbital (a barbiturate), paracetamol (in Fioricet) or acetylsalicylic acid (more commonly known as aspirin and present in Fiorinal), and caffeine. While the risk of addiction is low, butalbital can be habit-forming if used daily, and it can also lead to rebound headaches. Barbiturate-containing medications are not available in many European countries. Amidrine, Duradrin, and Midrin is a combination of acetaminophen, dichloralphenazone, and isometheptene often prescribed for migraine headaches. Some studies have recently shown that these drugs may work better than sumatriptan for treating migraines. Freitag, Frederick G., Cady, Roger, DiSerio, Frank, Elkind, Arthur, Gallagher, R. Michael, Goldstein, Jerome, Klapper, Jack A., Rapoport, Alan M., Sadowsky, Carl, Saper, Joel R. & Smith, Timothy R. "Comparative Study of a Combination of Isometheptene Mucate, Dichloralphenazone With Acetaminophen and Sumatriptan Succinate in the Treatment of Migraine." Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain 41 (4), 391-398. Anti-emetics may need to be given by suppository or injection where vomiting dominates the symptoms. Recently it has been found that calcitonin gene related peptides (CGRPs) play a role in the pathogenesis of the pain associated with migraine as triptans also decrease its release and action. CGRP receptor antagonists such as olcegepant and telcagepant are being investigated both in vitro and in clinical studies for the treatment of migraine. Status migrainosus Status migrainosus is characterized by migraine lasting more than 72 hours, with not more than four hours of relief during that period. It is generally understood that status migrainosus has been refractory to usual outpatient management upon presentation. Treatment of status migrainosus consists of managing comorbidities (i. e. correcting fluid and electrolyte abnormalities resulting from anorexia and nausea/vomiting often accompanying status migr.), and usually administering parenteral medication to "break" (abort) the headache. Although the literature is full of many case reports concerning treatment of status migrainosus, first line therapy consists of intravenous fluids, metoclopramide, and triptans or DHE. UpToDate. Herbal treatment The herbal supplement feverfew (more commonly used for migraine prevention, see below) is marketed by the GelStat Corporation as an OTC migraine abortive, administered sublingually (under the tongue) in a mixture with ginger. Migraine News for February 2005, accessed January 4, 2008 An open-label study (funded by GelStat) found some tentative evidence of the treatment's effectiveness, See also summary poster. but no scientifically sound study has been done. Cannabis in addition to prevention, is also known to relieve pain during the onset of a migraine. Russo, Ethan (1998). Cannabis for migraine treatment: the once and future prescription? An historical and scientific review. Pain 76:3-8. Comparative studies Regarding comparative effectiveness of these drugs used to abort migraine attacks, a 2004 placebo-controlled trial reveals that high dose acetylsalicylic acid (1000 mg), sumatriptan 50 mg and ibuprofen 400 mg are equally effective at providing relief from pain, although sumatriptan was superior in terms of the more demanding outcome of rendering patients entirely free of pain and all other migraine-related symptoms. Another randomized controlled trial, funded by the manufacturer of the study drug, found that a combination of sumatriptan 85 mg and naproxen sodium 200 mg was better than either drug alone. Recently the combination of sumatriptan 85 mg and naproxen sodium 500 mg was demonstrated to be effective and well tolerated in an early intervention paradigm for the acute treatment of migraine. Significant pain-free responses in favor of sumatriptan/naproxen were demonstrated as early as 30 minutes, maintained at 1 hour, and sustained from 2 to 24 hours. At 2 and 4 hours, sumatriptan/naproxen provided significantly lower rates of traditional migraine-associated symptoms (nausea, photophobia, and phonophobia) and nontraditional migraine-associated symptoms (neck pain/discomfort and sinus pain/pressure). Preventive treatment Preventive (also called prophylactic) treatment of migraines can be an important component of migraine management. Such treatments can take many forms, including everything from taking certain drugs or nutritional supplements, to lifestyle alterations such as increased exercise and avoidance of migraine triggers. One such book that outlines these preventative measures quite well is "7 Steps To A Healthy Brain" by Dr. Winner. The goals of preventive therapy are to reduce the frequency, painfulness, and/or duration of migraines, and to increase the effectiveness of abortive therapy. Another reason to pursue these goals is to avoid medication overuse headache (MOH), otherwise known as rebound headache, which is a common problem among migraneurs. This is believed to occur in part due to overuse of pain medications, and can result in chronic daily headache. Many of the preventive treatments described below are quite effective: Even with a placebo (sham treatment), one-quarter of patients find that their migraine frequency is reduced by half or more, and actual treatments often far exceed this figure. Trigger avoidance Patients should attempt to identify and avoid factors that promote or precipitate migraine episodes. Moderation in alcohol and caffeine intake, consistency in sleep habits, and regular meals may be helpful. General dietary restriction has not been demonstrated to be an effective approach to treating migraine. However, eliminating particular foods that are known to trigger migraines in an individual can be very effective. Gluten-Free Diet Some individuals have a condition called celiac disease (or "gluten intolerance") that results in the body incorrectly processing gluten. Studies have suggested that many migraine sufferers have celiac disease, and for those who do, decreasing gluten intake may significantly reduce migraine frequency. Migraine Linked to Celiac Disease Celiac disease and gluten sensitivity may be an underlying cause of migraines in some patients, and a gluten-free diet has been demonstrated to reduce, if not completely eliminate, migraines in these individuals. A study of 10 patients with a long history of chronic headaches that had recently worsened or were resistant to treatment found that all 10 patients were sensitive to gluten. MRI scans determined that each had inflammation in their central nervous systems caused by gluten-sensitivity. Seven out of nine of these patients that went on a gluten-free diet stopped having headaches completely. Migraine Headaches: Gluten Triggers Severe Headaches in Sensitive Individuals Another study showed that migraneurs were 10 times more likely than the general population to have celiac disease, and that for migraneurs with celiac disease, a gluten-free diet improved blood-flow to the brain and either eliminated migraines or reduced migraine frequency, duration, and intensity. Migraine Linked to Celiac Disease Prescription drugs A 2006 review article by S. Modi and D. Lowder offers some general guidelines on when a physician should consider prescribing drugs for migraine prevention: Preventive medication has to be taken on a daily basis, usually for a few weeks, before the effectiveness can be determined. Supervision by a neurologist is advisable. A large number of medications with varying modes of action can be used. Selection of a suitable medication for any particular patient is a matter of trial and error, since the effectiveness of individual medications varies widely from one patient to the next. Often preventive medications do not have to be taken indefinitely. Sometimes as little as six months of preventive therapy is enough to "break the headache cycle" and then they can be discontinued. The most effective prescription medications include several drug classes: beta blockers such as propranolol and atenolol. A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration of nine randomized controlled trials or crossover studies, which together included 668 patients, found that propranolol had an "overall relative risk of response to treatment (here called the 'responder ratio')" was 1.94. anticonvulsants such as valproic acid and topiramate. A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration of ten randomized controlled trials or crossover studies, which together included 1341 patients, found anticonvulsants had an "2.4 times more likely to experience a 50% or greater reduction in frequency with anticonvulsants than with placebo" and a number needed to treat of 3.8. However, concerns have been raised about the marketing of gabapentin. antidepressants include tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) such as amitriptyline and the newer selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as fluoxetine. A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration found selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are no more effective than placebo. Another meta-analysis found benefit from SSRIs among patients with migraine or tension headache; however, the effect of SSRIs on only migraines was not separately reported. A randomized controlled trial found that amitriptyline was better than placebo and similar to propranolol. A wide range of pharmacological drugs have been evaluated to determine their efficacy in reducing the frequency or severity of migraine attacks. These drugs include beta-blockers, calcium antagonists, neurostabalizers, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), other antidepressants, and other specialized drug therapies. The US Headache Consortium lists five drugs as having medium to high efficacy: amitriptyline, divalproex, timolol, propranolol and topiramate. Lower efficacy drugs listed include aspirin, atenolol, fenoprofen, flurbiprofen, fluoxetine, gabapentin, ketoprofen, metoprolol, nadolol, naproxen, nimodipine, verapamil and Botulinum A. Additionally, most antidepressants (tricyclic, SSRIs and others such as Bupropion) are listed as "clinically efficacious based on consensus of experience" without scientific support. Many of these drugs may give rise to undesirable side-effects, or may be efficacious in treating comorbid conditions, such as depression. Other drugs: Methysergide was withdrawn from the US market by Novartis, but is available in Canadian pharmacies. Although highly effective, it has rare but serious side effects, including retroperitoneal fibrosis. Memantine, which is used in the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease, is beginning to be used off label for the treatment of migraines. It has not yet been approved by the FDA for the treatment of migraines. Aspirin can be taken daily in low doses such as 80 mg, the blood thinners in ASA have been shown to help some migrainures, especially those who have an aura. Herbal and nutritional supplements Butterbur 50 mg or 75 mg/day of butterbur (Petasites hybridus) rhizome extract was shown in a controlled trial to provide 50% or more reduction in the number of migraines to 68% of participants in the 75 mg dose group, 56% in the 50 mg dose group and 49% in the placebo group after four months. Native butterbur contains some carcinogenic compounds, but a purified version, Petadolex, does not. http://www.webmd.com/content/article/98/105003.htm?z=1728_00000_1000_tn_04 Cannabis Cannabis was a standard treatment for migraines from 1874 to 1942. It has been reported to help people through an attack by relieving the nausea and dulling the head pain, as well as possibly preventing the headache completely when used as soon as possible after the onset of pre-migraine symptoms, such as aura. Coenzyme Q10 Supplementation of coenzyme Q10 has been found to have a beneficial effect on the condition of some sufferers of migraines. In an open-label trial, Young and Silberstein found that 61.3% of patients treated with 100 mg/day had a greater than 50% reduction in number of days with migraine, making it more effective than most prescription prophylactics. Fewer than 1% reported any side effects. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial has also found positive results. Feverfew The plant feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) is a traditional herbal remedy believed to reduce the frequency of migraine attacks. A number of clinical trials have been carried out to test this claim, but a 2004 review article concluded that the results have been contradictory and inconclusive. However, since then, more studies have been carried out. For example: As well as its prophylactic properties, feverfew is also touted as a migraine abortative. Magnesium citrate Magnesium citrate has reduced the frequency of migraine in an experiment in which the magnesium citrate group received 600 mg per day oral of trimagnesium dicitrate. In weeks 9–12, the frequency of attacks was reduced by 41.6% in the magnesium citrate group and by 15.8% in the placebo group. Riboflavin The supplement Riboflavin (also called Vitamin B2) has been shown (in a placebo-controlled trial) to reduce the number of migraines, when taken at the high dose of 400 mg daily for three months. Riboflavin in Prophylactic Treatment of Migraine, EA Balbisi, EM Ambizas, U.S. Pharmacist Vol. 30, No. 05, accessed January 4, 2008. Vitamin B12 There is tentative evidence that Vitamin B12 may be effective in preventing migraines. In particular, in an open-label pilot study, 1 mg of intranasal hydroxocobalamin (a form of Vitamin B12), taken daily for three months, was shown to reduce migraine frequency by 50% or more in 10 of 19 participants. Although the study was not placebo-controlled, this response is larger than the typical placebo effect in migraine prophylaxis. Melatonin Melatonin has been studied in migraine and other headache disorders. In an open label study, migraine patients taking melatonin 3 mg before bedtime with a good headache response and tolerability. Melatonin has multiple mechanisms affecting migraine pathophysiology. Surgical treatments Surgery may be used to treat migraines by severing the corrugator supercilii muscle and zygomaticotemporal nerve. The treatment may reduce or eliminate headaches in some individuals. In 2005, research was published indicating that some people with a patent foramen ovale (PFO), a hole between the upper chambers of the heart, suffer from migraines which may have been caused by the PFO. The migraines reduce in frequency if the hole is patched. Several clinical trials are currently under way in an effort to determine if a causal link between PFO and migraine can be found. Early speculation as to this relationship has centered on the idea that the lungs detoxify blood as it passes through. The PFO allows uncleaned blood to go directly from the right side of the heart to the left without passing through the lungs. Botulin toxin has been used to treat individuals with frequent or chronic migraines. It appears to be effective for chronic migraines but not useful in the treatment of episodic migraine. Spinal cord stimulators are an implanted medical device sometimes used for those who suffer severe migraines several days each month. Noninvasive medical treatments Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): At the 49th Annual meeting of the American Headache Society in June 2006, scientists from Ohio State University Medical Center presented medical research on 47 candidates that demonstrated that TMS — a medically non-invasive technology for treating depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and tinnitus, among other ailments — helped to prevent and even reduce the severity of migraines among its patients. This treatment essentially disrupts the aura phase of migraines before patients develop full-blown migraines. http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,20409-2237003.html In about 74% of the migraine headaches, TMS was found to eliminate or reduce nausea and sensitivity to noise and light. Their research suggests that there is a strong neurological component to migraines. A larger study will be conducted soon to better assess TMS's complete effectiveness. In June 2008, a hand-held apparatus designed to apply TMS as a preemptive therapy to avert a migraine attack at the onset of the aura phase was introduced in California. http://medicalcenter.osu.edu/mediaroom/press/article.cfm?ID=4059 Biofeedback has been used successfully by some to control migraine symptoms through training and practice. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy has been used successfully in treating migraines. This suggests that sufferers might be treated during an attack with a hyperbaric chamber of some sort, such as a Gamow bag (as is done in the treatment of "The Bends" and altitude sickness). Bruxism, clenching or grinding of teeth, especially at night, is a trigger for many migraineurs. A device called a nociceptive trigeminal inhibitor (NTI) takes advantage of a reflex limiting the force of clenching. It can be fitted by dentists and clips over the front teeth at night, preventing contact between the back teeth. It has a success rate similar to butterbur and co-enzyme Q10, although it has not been subjected to the same rigorous testing as the supplements. Massage therapy of the jaw area can also reduce such pain. There is a speculative connection between vision correction (particular with prism eyeglasses) and migraines. Two British studies, one from 1934 Turville, A. E. (1934) "Refraction and migraine". Br. J. Physiol. Opt. 8, 62–89 and another from 1956 Wilmut, E. B. (1956) "Migraine". Br. J. Physiol. Opt. 13, 93–97 claimed that many patients were provided with complete relief from migraine symptoms with proper eyeglass prescriptions, which included prescribed prism. However, both studies are subject to criticism because of sample bias, sample size, and the lack of a control group. A more recent study http://www.essex.ac.uk/psychology/overlays/OPO.2002.22%20130-142.pdf found that precision tinted lenses may be an effective migraine treatment. (Most optometrists avoid prescribing prism because, when incorrectly prescribed, it can cause headaches.) Behavioral treatments Many physicians believe that exercise for 15–20 minutes per day is helpful for reducing the frequency of migraines. (PDF) Specific exercises have been developed that are believed to effectively reduce the severity and frequency of migraines. Sleep is often a good solution if a migraine is not so severe as to prevent it, as when a person awakes the symptoms will have most likely subsided. Diet, visualization, and self-hypnosis are also alternative treatments and prevention approaches. Sexual activity has been reported by a proportion of male and female migraine sufferers to relieve migraine pain significantly in some cases. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/533713 In many cases where a migraine follows a particular cycle, attempting to interrupt the cycle may prolong the symptoms. Letting a headache "run its course" by not using painkillers can sometimes decrease the length of an episode. This is especially true of cases where vomiting is common, as often the headache will subside immediately after vomiting. Curbing the pain may delay vomiting, and prolong the headache. Alternative medicine A number of forms of alternative medicine, particularly bodywork, are used in preventing migraines. Clinical trials have suggested that chiropractic care may be an efficacious treatment for migraine headaches Likewise, Massage therapy, physical therapy, and Bowen Technique http://www.thebowentechnique.com/content/migraine.htm are often very effective forms of treatment to reduce the frequency and intensity of migraines. These initial studies are limited by lack of control subjects, poor control subjects, lack of blind study design, small sample sizes, and other methodological flaws. Chiropractic researchers have argued that the current evidence for chiropractic treatment of migraines indicates that "evidence is steadily increasing to the point where there is now seen to be a moderate level of efficacy for chiropractic SMT in the treatment of headaches or migraines". The effect of chiropractic treatment may be mediated by stress release, and may be more efficacious for tension-type headaches than migraines A review of the literature until 2004 found that "Chiropractic manipulation demonstrated a trend toward benefit in the treatment of TTH, but evidence is weak. ... In the absence of clear evidence regarding their role in treatment, physicians and patients are advised to make cautious and individualized judgments about the utility of physical treatments for headache management; in most cases, the use of these modalities should complement rather than supplant better-validated forms of therapy." Frequent migraines can leave the sufferer with a stiff neck which can cause stress headaches that can then exacerbate the migraines. Claims have been made that Myofascial Release can relieve this tension and in doing so reduce or eliminate the stress headache element. Some migraine sufferers find relief through acupuncture, which is usually used to help prevent headaches from developing. Sometimes acupuncture is used to relieve the pain of an active migraine headache. In one controlled trial of acupuncture with a sham control in migraine, the acupuncture was not more effective than the sham acupuncture but was more effective than delayed acupuncture. Additionally acupressure is used by some for relief. For instance pressure between the thumbs and index finger to help subside headaches if the headache or migraine isn't too severe. Incense and scents are shown to help. The smell and incense of peppermint and lavender have been proven to help with migraines and headaches more so than most other scents. However, some scents can be a trigger factor. History 9,000 year old skulls exist with evidence of trepanation. It is hypothesized that this drastic step was taken in response to headaches, though there is no clear evidence proving this. . Headache with neuralgia was recorded in the medical documents of the ancient Egyptians as early as 1200 BC. In 400 BC Hippocrates described the visual aura that can precede the migraine headache and the relief which can occur through vomiting. Aretaeus of Cappadocia is credited as the "discoverer" of migraines because of his second century description of the symptoms of a unilateral headache associated with vomiting, with headache-free intervals in between attacks. Galenus of Pergamon used the term "hemicrania" (half-head), from which the word "migraine" was derived. He thought there was a connection between the stomach and the brain because of the nausea and vomiting that often accompany an attack. For relief of migraine, Andalusian-born physician Abulcasis, also known as Abu El Qasim, suggested application of a hot iron to the head or insertion of garlic into an incision made in the temple. In the Middle Ages migraine was recognized as a discrete medical disorder with treatment ranging from hot irons to blood letting and even witchcraft. Followers of Galenus explained migraine as caused by aggressive yellow bile. Ebn Sina (Avicenna) described migraine in his textbook "El Qanoon fel teb" as "... small movements, drinking and eating, and sounds provoke the pain... the patient cannot tolerate the sound of speaking and light. He would like to rest in darkness alone." Abu Bakr Mohamed Ibn Zakariya Râzi noted the association of headache with different events in the lives of women, "...And such a headache may be observed after delivery and abortion or during menopause and dysmenorrhea." In Bibliotheca Anatomica, Medic, Chirurgica, published in London in 1712, five major types of headaches are described, including the "Megrim", recognizable as classic migraine. Graham and Wolff (1938) published their paper advocating ergotamine tart for relieving migraine. Later in the 20th century, Harold Wolff (1950) developed the experimental approach to the study of headache and elaborated the vascular theory of migraine, which has come under attack as the pendulum again swings to the neurogenic theory. Economic impact In addition to being a major cause of pain and suffering, chronic migraine attacks are a significant source of both medical costs and lost productivity. Medical costs per migraine sufferer (mostly physician and emergency room visits) averaged $107 USD over six months in one 1988 study, with total costs including lost productivity averaging $313. Annual employer cost of lost productivity due to migraines was estimated at $3,309 per sufferer. Total medical costs associated with migraines in the United States amounted to one billion dollars in 1994, in addition to lost productivity estimated at thirteen to seventeen billion dollars per year. Employers may benefit from educating themselves on the effects of migraines in order to facilitate a better understanding in the workplace. The workplace model of 9–5, 5 days a week may not be viable for a migraine sufferer. With education and understanding an employer could compromise with an employee to create a workable solution for both. Migraine and cardiovascular risks The risk of stroke may be increased two- to threefold in migraine sufferers. Young adult sufferers and women using hormonal contraception appear to be at particular risk. Etminan M, Takkouche B, Isorna FC, et al. Risk of ischaemic stroke in people with migraine: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ. 2005;330:63. PMID 15596418 The mechanism of any association is unclear, but chronic abnormalities of cerebral blood vessel tone may be involved. Women who experience auras have been found to have twice the risk of strokes and heart attacks over non-aura migraine sufferers and women who do not have migraines. Migraine sufferers seem to be at risk for both thrombotic and hemorrhagic stroke as well as transient ischemic attacks. Becker C, Brobert GP, Almqvist PM, Johansson S, Jick SS, Meier CR. Migraine and the risk of stroke, TIA, or death in the UK (CME). Headache. 2007;47(10):1374–84. PMID 18052947 Death from cardiovascular causes was higher in people with migraine with aura in a Women's Health Initiative study, but more research is needed to confirm this. Waters WE, Campbell MJ, Elwood PC. Migraine, headache, and survival in women. BMJ (Clin Res Ed). 1983;287:1442–1443. PMID 6416449 Kurth T, Gaziano JM, Cook NR, et al. Migraine and risk of cardiovascular disease in women. JAMA. 2006;296:283–291. References Migraine triggers Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology [FASEB] [1995]. Analysis of adverse reactions to monosodium glutamate (MSG). Bethesda, MD: Life Sciences Research Office, FASEB. Ravishankar, K (2006). 'Hair wash' or 'Head bath' triggering migraine - observations in 94 Indian patients". Cephalagia 26 (11): 1330–1334. ISSN 0333-1024. Treatment Pearce, J.M.S. (1994). Headache. Neurological Management series. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 57, 134–144. Mayo Clinic Staff. (2005). Migraine Headache. Retrieved August 14, 2005 Cathy Wong, ND. (2005). Migraine Elimination Diet Retrieved August 14, 2005 Treatment Articles (2005). Butterbur, Co-enzyme Q-10, Melatonin, Folic Acid Buchholz, D. (2002) Heal your headache: The 1-2-3 Program, New York: Workman Publishing, ISBN 0-7611-2566-3 Livingstone, I. and Novak, D. (2003) Breaking the Headache Cycle, New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 0-8050-7221-7 Izecksohn L, and Izecksohn C. . Fluids' Hypertension Syndromes, ISBN 978-85-906664-0-0. Triptans Cohen JA, Beall D, Beck A, et al. Sumatriptan treatment for migraine in a health maintenenace organization: economic, humanistic, and clinical outcomes. Clin Ther 1999;21:190–205. Adelman JU, Sharfman M, Johnson R, et al. Impact of oral sumatriptan on workplace productivity, health-related quality of life, healthcare use, and patient satisfaction with medication in nurses with migraine. Am J Manag Care 1996;2:1407–1416. Cohen JA, Beall DG, Miller DW, Beck A, Pait G, Clements BD. Subcutaneous sumatriptan for the treatment of migraine: humanistic, economic, and clinical consequences. Fam Med 1996;28:171–177. Jhingran P, Cady RK, Rubino J, Miller D, Grice RB, Gutterman DL. Improvements in health-related quality of life with sumatriptan treatment for migraine. J Med Econ 1996;42:36–42. Solomon GD, Nielsen K, Miller D. The effects of sumatriptan on migraine: health-related quality of life. Med Interface 1995;June:134–141. Solomon GD, Skobieranda FG, Genzen JR. Quality of life assessment among migraine patients treated with sumatriptan. Headache 1995;35:449–454. Santanello NC, Polis AB, Hartmaier SL, Kramer MS, Block GA, Silberstein SD. Improvement in migrainespecific quality of life in a clinical trial of rizatriptan. Cephalalgia 1997;17:867–872. Caro JJ, Getsios D. Pharmacoeconomic evidence and considerations for triptan treatment of migraine. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2002;3:237–248. Lofland JH, Johnson NE, Batenhorst AS, Nash DB. Changes in resource use and outcomes for patients with migraine treated with sumatriptan: a managed care perspective. Arch Intern Med 1999;159: 857–863. Cady RC, Ryan R, Jhingran P, O’Quinn S, Pait DG. Sumatriptan injection reduces productivity loss during a migraine attack. Arch Intern Med 1998;158: 1013–1018. Litaker DG, Solomon GD, Genzen JR. Impact of sumatriptan on clinic utilization and costs of care in migraineurs. Headache 1996;36:538–541. Greiner DL, Addy SN. Sumatriptan use in a large group-model health maintenance organization. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1996;53:633–638. Lofland JH, Kim SS, Batenhorst AS, et al. Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit of sumatriptan in patients with migraine. Mayo Clin Proc 2001;76:1093–1101. Biddle AK, Shih YC, Kwong WJ. Cost-benefit analysis of sumatriptan tablets versus usual therapy for treatment of migraine. Pharmacotherapy 2000;20: 1356–1364. Caro JJ, Getsios D, Raggio G, Caro G, Black L. Treatment of migraine in Canada with naratriptan: a costeffectiveness analysis. Headache 2001;41:456–464. General Sacks, Oliver (1999) Migraine, Vintage ISBN 0-520-08223-0 Relouzat, Raoul & Thiollet, Jean-Pierre, Vaincre la migraine, Anagramme, 2006 ISBN 2-35035046 Blondin, Betsy, (2008) "Migraine Expressions: A Creative Journey through Life with Migraine, WordMetro Press ISBN 0615201970 Economic impact Edmeads J, Mackell JA. The economic impact of migraine: an analysis of direct and indirect costs. Headache 2002;42:501–509. Gerth WC, Carides GW, Dasbach EJ, Visser WH, Santanello NC. The multinational impact of migraine symptoms on healthcare utilisation and work loss. Pharmacoeconomics 2001;19:197–206. Hu XH, Markson LE, Lipton RB, Stewart WF, Berger ML. Burden of migraine in the United States: disability and economic costs. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:813–818. Osterhaus JT, Gutterman DL, Plachetka JR. Healthcare resource and low labour costs of migraine headaches in the US. Pharmacoeconomics 1992;2:2–11. Clinical picture Blau JN. Classical migraine: symptoms between visual aura and headache onset. Lancet 1992;340:355-6. Silberstein SD: Migraine symptoms: Results of a survey of self-reported migraineurs. Headache 1995;35:387-96. Silberstein SD, Saper JR, Freitag F. Migraine: Diagnosis and treatment. In: Silberstein SD, Lipton RB, Dalessio DJ, eds. Wolff's headache and other head pain. 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001:121–237. Footnotes External links Migraine Information based on personal experience and observation Migraine Headache Information General information Migraine Information from the US National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Organizations World Headache Alliance Headache, a medical journal The City of London Migraine Clinic, medical charity for treatment and research Migraine Action, charity offering support and information to adults and children affected by migraine | Migraine |@lemmatized migraine:343 neurological:10 syndrome:4 characterize:2 altered:2 bodily:1 perception:1 headache:122 nausea:20 physiologically:1 condition:6 common:14 woman:17 men:3 word:3 borrow:1 old:3 french:4 migraigne:1 originally:1 megrim:2 respelled:1 contemporary:1 model:3 term:6 derive:2 vulgar:1 pronunciation:1 late:1 latin:1 hemicrania:2 base:6 greek:2 hemikrania:1 root:2 half:5 skull:2 typical:5 unilateral:8 pulsating:1 last:8 hour:19 international:6 classification:5 disorder:11 edition:2 symptom:36 include:16 vomit:10 photophobia:6 increased:6 sensitivity:10 bright:1 light:4 hyperacusis:1 noise:2 approximately:5 one:25 third:4 people:9 suffer:12 perceive:1 aura:35 unusual:1 visual:8 olfactory:2 sensory:5 experience:19 sign:5 soon:3 occur:21 initial:2 treatment:65 analgesic:5 head:10 ache:1 anti:11 emetic:3 avoidance:5 trigger:45 cause:31 unknown:2 accepted:1 theory:12 serotonergic:1 control:17 system:3 pet:2 scan:3 demonstrate:9 coincides:1 diffusion:1 cortical:3 depression:8 consequent:1 increase:7 blood:22 flow:4 great:3 baseline:1 variant:2 originate:1 brainstem:3 feature:6 intercellular:1 transport:1 dysfunction:5 calcium:2 potassium:1 ion:3 genetically:1 dispose:1 study:41 twin:1 indicate:3 percent:3 genetic:1 influence:2 upon:2 develop:9 propensity:4 moreover:1 fluctuate:1 hormone:1 level:4 relation:1 adult:9 patient:56 although:8 affect:5 equal:2 number:13 prepubescent:1 boy:2 girl:3 know:11 disappear:1 pregnancy:2 may:53 become:6 frequent:3 society:4 ihs:2 classify:1 complete:4 supplement:7 online:2 define:4 pain:42 severity:5 intensity:6 verbal:1 four:4 point:5 scale:1 see:8 page:2 paindoes:1 interfere:1 usual:4 paininhibits:1 wholly:1 prevent:10 painprevents:1 activity:5 without:10 form:11 primarily:4 might:6 also:19 definition:2 criterion:5 partially:2 fulfil:1 alternative:5 diagnosis:9 e:8 probable:2 episodic:2 tension:5 type:9 second:2 basilar:6 btm:4 previously:1 artery:3 bam:1 bm:1 uncommon:1 complicate:1 serious:3 episode:12 lead:5 stroke:7 coma:1 death:3 use:30 triptans:9 vasoconstrictor:1 abortive:8 contraindicate:1 address:1 vasodilation:1 restoration:1 normal:2 vertebrobasilar:1 territory:1 restore:1 function:1 familial:3 hemiplegic:5 fhm:4 possible:2 polygenetic:1 appear:6 channel:1 mutation:1 three:8 either:6 precede:5 accompany:6 reversible:1 limb:1 weakness:4 speech:1 difficulty:2 exist:3 sporadic:1 shm:2 non:6 effect:20 differential:1 difficult:4 often:22 decisive:1 motor:3 paralysis:2 present:3 tingle:2 numbness:2 true:3 abdominal:8 recurrent:1 origin:1 principally:1 child:9 episodes:1 vomiting:6 moderate:7 severe:13 central:3 ca:1 hr:1 well:9 formal:1 require:2 least:4 five:4 unattributable:1 another:9 fulfilment:1 untreated:1 must:4 characteristic:2 location:2 mid:2 abdomen:1 around:6 umbilicus:1 poorly:1 localise:1 dull:2 sore:2 quality:9 two:8 loss:4 appetite:2 pallor:2 moody:1 life:12 co:5 adolescence:1 treat:18 http:13 com:9 c:3 asktheclinian:1 f:2 htm:6 medication:16 usually:11 employ:1 od:1 elavil:1 mg:22 www:7 answer:1 topic:1 amitriptyline:4 wellbutrin:1 sr:1 webmd:3 topamax:1 medicinenet:1 topiramate:3 article:7 case:7 link:8 cyclic:1 cvs:1 digestive:1 niddk:1 nih:1 gov:1 ddiseases:1 pubs:1 cv:1 index:2 history:4 family:4 sufferer:28 dictionary:1 acephalgic:7 scintillate:2 scotoma:2 hemiparesis:1 refer:1 amigrainous:1 ocular:1 optical:1 likely:8 general:8 population:5 classical:3 prevention:5 broadly:1 however:12 absence:2 apt:1 significantly:5 delay:4 risk:11 misdiagnosis:1 snow:1 necessary:2 consult:1 ophthalmologist:1 optometrist:2 rule:1 potential:1 eye:1 disease:14 consider:4 menstrual:8 distinct:1 million:1 u:10 menstrually:1 related:5 mrm:2 pure:2 pmm:2 happen:1 time:11 period:4 month:9 similar:3 every:1 respect:1 cephalalgia:2 suppl:1 exact:1 uncertain:1 evidence:11 suggest:8 menstruation:2 due:7 drop:1 estrogen:1 normally:2 right:2 start:5 report:14 day:18 window:1 compare:2 long:6 frequently:1 symptoms:1 vary:4 among:8 therefore:2 attack:41 cannot:2 exactly:1 phase:17 list:6 necessarily:1 additionally:3 migraineur:2 prodrome:2 immediately:3 postdrome:2 prodromal:1 migraineurs:6 consist:4 mood:4 irritability:1 euphoria:1 fatigue:1 yawning:1 excessive:1 sleepiness:1 crave:1 certain:3 food:10 g:7 chocolate:5 stiff:2 muscle:2 especially:4 neck:4 constipation:1 diarrhea:2 urination:1 visceral:1 several:7 teach:1 observant:1 detect:1 near:2 individual:13 comprise:1 focal:1 phenomenon:2 gradually:1 minute:6 generally:2 begin:6 within:1 end:2 sometimes:7 miss:2 entirely:2 nature:2 event:2 disturbance:1 vision:6 unformed:1 flash:1 white:1 black:2 rarely:2 multicolored:1 photopsia:1 forma:1 tions:1 dazzle:1 zigzag:1 line:4 arrange:1 like:5 battlement:1 castle:1 hence:1 fortification:1 spectra:1 teichopsia:1 complain:1 blur:1 shimmer:1 cloudy:1 though:4 look:4 ing:1 thick:1 smoked:1 glass:1 tunnel:1 hemianopsia:1 somatosensory:1 consists:1 digitolingual:1 cheiro:1 oral:5 paresthesia:2 feeling:3 pin:1 needle:1 hand:3 arm:2 nose:1 mouth:2 area:10 side:10 migrate:1 extend:1 involve:3 face:5 lip:1 tongue:2 auditory:1 hallucination:1 temporary:1 dysphasia:1 vertigo:2 extremity:2 hypersensitivity:1 touch:1 throb:2 aggravate:1 physical:4 bilateral:1 onset:10 generalized:1 alternate:1 next:3 gradual:1 peak:1 subsides:1 frequency:17 extremely:3 variable:1 lifetime:2 week:4 average:3 varies:2 greatly:1 invariably:1 almost:2 occurs:1 many:18 hyperexcitability:1 manifest:1 phonophobia:3 osmophobia:1 seek:1 dark:3 quiet:1 room:2 blurred:1 nasal:1 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hypothyroidism:1 depolarization:2 spread:1 spreading:2 depress:1 cortex:2 situation:1 result:11 release:7 inflammatory:4 mediator:1 irritation:4 cranial:1 nerve:7 particularly:2 trigeminal:2 convey:1 information:7 much:3 view:1 support:3 neuroimaging:1 technique:3 show:11 electrical:1 large:7 depolarize:1 positron:1 emission:1 tomography:1 identify:4 hypothalamus:1 critically:1 early:9 stage:1 contract:1 expand:1 inappropriately:1 occipital:3 lobe:2 back:2 spasm:1 reduced:3 constriction:3 stop:4 dilate:1 wide:2 solid:1 wall:1 permeable:1 fluid:4 leak:1 leakage:1 recognize:3 receptor:4 surround:1 tissue:1 response:7 body:3 supply:1 chemical:6 inflammation:4 heart:4 beat:1 sensitive:6 serotonin:11 neurotransmitter:1 communication:1 message:1 cell:1 sensation:1 sexual:3 behaviour:1 sleep:5 dilation:2 thing:1 low:8 process:2 activate:1 neural:2 stem:1 irritated:1 substance:4 p:5 first:6 aid:1 send:1 signal:1 unifying:1 stress:6 constrict:1 irritate:1 epidemiology:1 age:9 gender:2 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mention:2 quantitative:1 small:3 block:2 slab:1 definitely:1 susceptible:2 person:3 addition:6 expose:1 simultaneously:1 single:3 isolation:1 drinking:2 eat:1 hot:4 humid:1 probably:1 consume:3 cool:1 minimal:1 mean:1 complex:1 accurate:1 suitable:3 lifestyle:2 virtually:1 impossible:1 weather:9 emotion:1 limit:3 avoidable:1 unavoidable:1 less:3 impact:7 need:4 gluten:20 elimination:2 prove:3 eliminate:8 percentage:1 undiagnosed:1 celiac:10 intolerance:2 find:29 ten:2 free:9 titlemigraine:1 chronic:7 recently:5 worsen:2 resistant:2 mri:2 determine:5 nervous:2 seven:2 nine:3 completely:4 aspartame:4 university:3 parkinson:1 florida:1 double:2 majority:1 participant:3 take:15 longer:1 shakiness:1 diminished:1 cite:1 containing:2 product:4 msg:3 definitive:1 monosodium:2 glutamate:2 dos:2 gram:1 associate:8 adverse:2 placebo:12 tyramine:3 national:2 foundation:1 specific:3 detail:1 allow:2 caution:1 review:8 available:8 rely:1 mostly:2 subjective:1 assessment:2 suspect:3 genuinely:1 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reliable:1 unless:1 nauseate:1 suppository:2 ergostat:1 sublingual:1 circa:1 nauseating:1 advisable:2 something:1 counteract:1 fix:1 cafergot:2 ercaf:1 etc:1 expensive:2 per:6 commonly:3 obtain:1 usa:2 regularly:1 evening:1 debilitate:1 interference:1 even:4 dihydroergotamine:1 dhe:2 inject:1 inhale:1 usd:2 steroid:1 recent:2 meta:6 analysis:10 iv:1 dexamethasone:1 add:1 standard:2 decrease:4 recurrence:1 agent:1 unaffordable:1 step:3 doctor:1 fioricet:2 fiorinal:2 butalbital:2 barbiturate:2 acetylsalicylic:2 acid:4 addiction:1 habit:2 forming:1 daily:6 rebound:2 country:1 amidrine:1 duradrin:1 midrin:1 dichloralphenazone:2 isometheptene:2 freitag:2 frederick:1 cady:3 roger:1 diserio:1 frank:1 elkind:1 arthur:1 gallagher:1 r:5 michael:1 goldstein:1 jerome:1 klapper:1 jack:1 rapoport:1 alan:1 sadowsky:1 carl:1 saper:2 joel:1 smith:1 timothy:1 comparative:3 mucate:1 succinate:1 injection:2 dominate:1 calcitonin:1 gene:1 peptide:1 cgrps:1 play:1 role:2 pathogenesis:1 action:3 cgrp:1 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3,754 | Irish_Civil_War | The Irish Civil War Irish: Cogadh Cathartha na hÉireann (28 June 1922 – 24 May 1923) was a conflict that accompanied the establishment of the Irish Free State as an entity independent from the United Kingdom within the British Empire. The conflict was waged between two opposing groups of Irish nationalists: the forces of the new Free State, who supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty under which the state was established, and the Republican opposition, for whom the Treaty represented a betrayal of the Irish Republic. The war was won by the Free State forces. The Civil War may have claimed more lives than the War of Independence against Britain that preceded it, and left Irish society divided and embittered for decades afterwards. To this day, the two main parties in the Republic of Ireland, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, are the direct descendants of the opposing sides in the War The Politics of the Irish Civil War, page 2 . Background The treaty The Anglo-Irish Treaty arose from the Irish War of Independence, fought between Irish separatists (organised as the Irish Republic) and the British government, from 1919-1921. The treaty provided for a self-governing Irish state in 26 of Ireland's 32 counties, having its own army and police. However, rather than creating the independent republic favoured by most nationalists, the Irish Free State would be an autonomous dominion of the British Empire with the British monarch as head of state, in the same manner as Canada and Australia. Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921 The treaty also stipulated that members of the new Irish Oireachtas (parliament) would have to take the following "Oath of Allegiance" "I... do solemnly swear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of the Irish Free State as by law established, and that I will be faithful to His Majesty King George V, his heirs and successors by law in virtue of the common citizenship of Ireland with Great Britain and her adherence to and membership of the group of nations forming the British Commonwealth of nations". This oath was considered highly objectionable by many Irish Republicans. Furthermore under the treaty, the state was not to be called a republic but a "free state" and it would be limited to the 26 southern and western counties of Ireland. The remaining six north-eastern counties, with their Protestant majority, would opt to remain part of the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland. The partition of Ireland had already been decided by the Westminster parliament in the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and was confirmed in the Anglo-Irish treaty. Also, several strategic ports were to remain occupied by the Royal Navy. Nonetheless, Michael Collins, the republican leader who had led the Irish negotiating team, argued that the treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire and develop, but the freedom to achieve freedom". However, anti-treaty militants in 1922 believed that the treaty would never deliver full Irish independence. Split in the Nationalist movement See also: IRA and the Anglo-Irish Treaty The split over the treaty was deeply personal. Many of the leaders on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their lethal disagreement over the treaty all the more bitter. Michael Collins later said that Éamon de Valera had sent him as plenipotentiary to negotiate the treaty because he knew that the British would not concede an independent Irish republic and wanted Collins to take the blame for the compromise settlement. He said he was deeply betrayed when de Valera refused to stand by the agreement that the plenipotentiaries had negotiated with David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. De Valera, for his part, was furious that Collins and Arthur Griffith had signed the treaty without consulting him or the Irish cabinet as instructed. Dáil Éireann (the parliament of the Irish Republic) narrowly passed the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64 votes to 57 on 7 January 1922. Following the Treaty's ratification, a "Provisional Government", headed by Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith, was set up to transfer power from the British administration to the Irish Free State. Upon the treaty's ratification, Éamon de Valera resigned as President of the Republic and failed to be re-elected by an even closer vote of 60-58. He challenged the right of the Dáil to approve the treaty, saying that its members were breaking their oath to the Irish Republic. De Valera continued to promote a compromise whereby the new Irish Free State would be in "external association" with the British Commonwealth rather than be a member of it. In early March he formed the "Cumann na Poblachta" (Republican Association) party while remaining a member of Sinn Féin. On a speaking tour of the more republican province of Munster, starting on 17 March 1922, de Valera made controversial speeches at Carrick on Suir, Lismore, Dungarvan and Waterford, saying that: "If the Treaty were accepted, [by the electorate] the fight for freedom would still go on, and the Irish people, instead of fighting foreign soldiers, will have to fight the Irish soldiers of an Irish government set up by Irishmen." At Thurles, several days later, he repeated this imagery and added that the IRA: "...would have to wade through the blood of the soldiers of the Irish Government, and perhaps through that of some members of the Irish Government to get their freedom." In a letter to the Irish Independent on 23 March de Valera accepted the accuracy of their report of his comment about "wading" through blood, but deplored that the newspaper had published it. J.J. O'Kelly (Sceilg) A Trinity of Martyrs, Irish Book Bureau, Dublin; pp.66-68. "Sceilg" was a supporter of de Valera in 1922. More seriously, the majority of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) officers were also against the treaty and in March 1922, their ad-hoc Army Convention repudiated the authority of the Dáil to accept the treaty. The Anti-Treaty IRA formed their own "Army Executive", which they declared to be the real government of the country, despite the result of the 1921 general election. On 26 April the Minister of Defence, Richard Mulcahy, summarised alleged illegal activities by many IRA men over the previous three months, whom he described as 'seceding volunteers', including hundreds of robberies. Richard Mulcahy's report on 26 April 1922 Yet this fragmenting army was the only police force on the ground following the disintegration of the Irish Republican Police and the disbanding of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) . By putting ten questions to General Mulcahy on 28 April, Seán McEntee argued that the Army Executive had acted continuously on its own to create a republic since 1917, had an unaltered constitution, had never fallen under the control of the Dáil, and that: "the only body competent to dissolve the Volunteer Executive was a duly convened convention of the Irish Republican Army" - not the Dáil. By accepting the treaty in January and abandoning the republic, the Dáil majority had effectively deserted the Army Executive. McEntee's 10 questions of 28 April Then in a debate on defence, McEntee suggested that supporting the Army Executive "... even if it meant the scrapping of the Treaty and terrible and immediate war with England, would be better than the civil war which we are beginning at present apparently." Comment's on Mulcahy's report, 28 April McEntee's supporters added that the many robberies complained of by Mulcahy on 26 April were caused by the lack of payment and provision by the Dáil to the volunteers. Descent into war In the months leading up to the outbreak of civil war, there were a number of armed confrontations between the opposing IRA factions. In March, there was a major stand-off between up to 700 armed pro- and anti-treaty fighters in Limerick over who would occupy the military barracks being vacated by departing British troops. The situation was temporarily resolved in April when, after arbitration, the two sides agreed to occupy two barracks each. Noel C. Harrington, The Kerry Landing, p.13 In April, a pro-treaty general, Adamson, was shot dead by anti-treatyites in Athlone. In early May, there was an even more serious clash in Kilkenny, when anti-treaty forces occupied the centre of the town and 200 pro-treaty troops were sent from Dublin to disperse them. Hopkinson, Green against Green, p. 75 On 3 May, the Dáil was informed 18 men had been killed in the fighting in Kilkenny. Debate of 3 May on the need for a truce In a bid to avoid an all-out civil war, both sides agreed to a truce on 3 May 1922. Delay until the June election Collins established an "army re-unification committee" to re-unite the IRA and organised an election pact with de Valera's anti-treaty political followers to campaign jointly in the Free State's first election in 1922 and form a coalition government afterwards. He also tried to reach a compromise with anti-treaty IRA leaders by agreeing to a republican-type constitution (with no mention of the British monarchy) for the new state. IRA leaders such as Liam Lynch were prepared to accept this compromise. However, the proposal for a republican constitution was vetoed by the British as being contrary to the terms of the treaty and they threatened military intervention in the Free State unless the treaty were fully implemented. Helen Litton, The Irish Civil War, an Illustrated History, p. 63, "Collins was summoned to London... and informed that the draft constitution would have to be altered to acknowledge the authority of the Crown, to include an Oath and to recognise Northern Ireland", Michael Hopkinson, Green against Green, p. 107, "Winston Churchill told a concerned House of Commons... that a Republic could not be tolerated. He warned that, 'in the event of such a Republic, it will be the intention of the Government to hold Dublin as one of the preliminary essential steps to military operations' Collins reluctantly agreed. This completely undermined the electoral pact between the pro- and anti-treaty factions, who went into the Irish general election on 18 June 1922 as hostile parties, both calling themselves Sinn Féin. The Pro-Treaty Sinn Féin party won the election with 239,193 votes to 133,864 for Anti-Treaty Sinn Féin. A further 247,226 people voted for other parties, most of whom supported the Treaty (although Labour's 132,570 votes were ambiguous with regard to the Treaty). The election showed that a majority of the Irish electorate supported the treaty and the foundation of the Irish Free State, and that the Sinn Féin party did not represent the opinions of everyone in the new state, but de Valera, his political followers and most of the IRA continued to oppose the treaty. De Valera is quoted as saying, "the majority have no right to do wrong". M.E. Collins, Ireland 1868-1966, p. 297. Meanwhile, under the leadership of Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith, the pro-treaty Provisional Government set about establishing the Irish Free State, and organised the National Army - to replace the IRA - and a new police force. However, since it was envisaged that the new army would be built around the IRA, Anti-Treaty IRA units were allowed to take over British barracks and take their arms. In practice, this meant that by the summer of 1922, the Provisional Government of the Free State controlled only Dublin and some other areas like Longford where the IRA units supported the treaty. Fighting would ultimately break out when the Provisional Government tried to assert its authority over well-armed and intransigent Anti-Treaty IRA units around the country - particularly a hardline group in Dublin. Course of the war See also Chronology of the Irish Civil War Dublin fighting On 14 April 1922, 200 Anti-Treaty IRA militants, led by Rory O'Connor, occupied the Four Courts and several other buildings in central Dublin, resulting in a tense stand-off. TM Healy wrote of the occupation in late March: "The Freeman published, on 26th March, an account of the secret debate of the mutineers supplied by the Provisional Government, whereupon Rory O'Connor sallied from the Four Courts and smashed its machinery. He had been levying toll on the civil population for weeks." See . Calton Younger, "Ireland's Civil War", Muller, London 1968; pp.258-259. Younger gives the date as 14 April. These anti-treaty Republicans wanted to spark a new armed confrontation with the British, which they hoped would unite the two factions of the IRA against their common enemy. However, for those who were determined to make the Free State into a viable, self-governing Irish state, this was an act of rebellion that would have to be put down by them rather than the British. Arthur Griffith was in favour of using force against these men immediately, but Michael Collins, who wanted at all costs to avoid civil war, left the Four Courts garrison alone until late June 1922. By this point the Pro-Treaty Sinn Féin party had secured a large majority in the general election, along with other parties that supported the Treaty. Collins was also coming under continuing pressure from London to assert his government's authority in his capital. "The British [after the election] drew what appeared to them to be the obvious conclusion that it was time for the Provisional Government to assert its authority" Hopkinson, Green against Green, p.111 The British lost patience as result of an action secretly ordered by Collins. He had Henry Hughes Wilson, a retired British Army field marshal, assassinated in London on 22 June because of his role in Northern Ireland. Michael Hopkinson, Green Against Green, page 112, "Joe Sweeney, the pro-treaty military leader in Donegal, recorded meeting Collins shortly after the assassination. He told Ernie O'Malley, 'Collins told me he had arranged the shooting of Wilson... he looked very pleased'. Frank Thornton one of Collins old Squad recalled that the killing was carried out on the direct orders of GHQ. Mick Murphy of Cork no 1 Brigade, said that when in London he had been asked to take part in the plot explaining, 'they had instructions then from Michael Collins to shoot Wilson' ... statements from Collins' intelligence agents point to fresh instruction being given in June. It is clear also that [Reginald] Dunne [the assassin] and spent some time closeted with him". ME Collins, Ireland 1868-1966, p229, "Evidence has since come to light proving it was Collins, enraged by Wilson's role in the north, who ordered the killing". Niall C Hartigan, The Kerry Landings, p29, "It is probable that the execution of the... field marshal was ordered by Collins". Winston Churchill assumed that the Anti-Treaty IRA were responsible for the killing and warned Collins that he would use British troops to attack the Four Courts unless the Free State took action. [After the assassination of Wilson] "A letter was sent to Collins stating that the Four Courts occupation and the 'ambiguous position' of the IRA could no longer be tolerated" Hopkinson, Green against Green, p 114 In fact the British cabinet actually resolved to attack the Four Courts themselves on 25 June, in an operation that would have involved tanks, howitzers and aeroplanes. However, on the advice of General Nevil Macready, who commanded the British garrison in Dublin, the plan was cancelled at the last minute. Macready's argument was that British involvement would have united Irish Nationalist opinion against the treaty and instead Collins was given a last chance to clear the Four Courts himself. ibid. p115-116 The final straw for the Free State government came on 27 June, when the Four Courts republican garrison kidnapped JJ "Ginger" O'Connell, a general in the new National Army. Collins, after giving the Four Courts garrison a final ultimatum to leave the building, decided to end the stand-off by bombarding the Four Courts garrison into surrender. The government then appointed Collins as Commander-in-Chief of the National Army. This attack was not the opening shots of the war as skirmishes had taken place between pro- and anti-treaty IRA factions throughout the country when the British were handing over the barracks. However, this represented the 'point of no return' when all-out war was ipso facto declared and the Civil War officially began. In clashes between pro and anti treaty fighters prior to 28 June, eight men had been killed and forty nine wounded, Niall C. Harrington, Kerry Landings, p.22 Collins had accepted a British offer of artillery for use by the new army of the Free State (though General Macready gave just 200 shells of the 10,000 he had in store at Kilmainham barracks). The anti-treaty forces in the Four Courts, who possessed only small arms, surrendered after two days of bombardment and the storming of the building by Free State troops (June 28-30 1922). Shortly before the surrender of the Four Courts, a massive explosion destroyed the western wing of the complex including the Irish Public Records Office, injuring many advancing Free State soldiers and destroying the records of several centuries of government in Ireland. It was alleged by government supporters that the building had been deliberately mined TM Healy memoirs (1928), chapter 46. , but a study of the battle found that the explosion occurred when the republican's ammunition store was accidentally ignited by the bombardment Paul V Walsh, The Irish Civil War 1922-23 -A Study of the Conventional Phase Pitched battles continued in Dublin until 5 July, as Anti-Treaty IRA units from the Dublin Brigade, led by Oscar Traynor, occupied O'Connell Street - provoking a week's more street fighting. The fighting cost both sides 65 killed and 280 wounded. Among the dead was Republican leader Cathal Brugha, who made his last stand after exiting the Granville Hotel. In addition, the Free State took over 500 Republican prisoners. The civilian casualties are estimated to have numbered well over 250. When the fighting in Dublin died down, the Free State government was left firmly in control of the Irish capital and the anti-treaty forces dispersed around the country, mainly to the south and west. The opposing forces The outbreak of the Civil War forced pro- and anti-treaty supporters to choose sides. Supporters of the treaty came to be known as "pro-treaty" or "Free State Army", legally the "National Army", and were often called "Staters" by their opponents. The latter called themselves "Republicans" and were also known as "anti-treaty" forces, or "Irregulars", a term preferred by the Free State side. The Anti-Treaty IRA claimed that it was defending the Irish Republic that had been declared in 1916 during the Easter Rising, that had been confirmed by the First Dáil and that had been invalidly set aside by those who accepted the compromise of the Free State. Éamon de Valera stated that he would serve as an ordinary IRA volunteer and left the leadership of the Anti-Treaty Republicans to military leaders such as Liam Lynch, the IRA Chief of Staff. The Civil War split the IRA. When the Civil War broke out, the Anti-Treaty IRA (concentrated in the south and west) outnumbered the pro-Free State forces by roughly 15,000 men to 7,000 or over 2-1. (The paper strength of the IRA in early 1922 was over 72,000 men, but most of them were recruited during the truce with the British and fought in neither the War of Independence nor the Civil War). However, the Anti-Treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure, a clear strategy and sufficient arms. They started the war with only 6,780 rifles and a handful of machine guns. Many of their fighters were armed only with shotguns. They also took a handful of armoured cars from British troops as they were evacuating the country. More important still, they had no artillery of any kind. As a result, they were forced to adopt a defensive stance throughout the war. By contrast, the Free State government managed to expand its forces dramatically after the start of the war. Michael Collins and his commanders were able to build up an army which was able to overwhelm their opponents in the field. British supplies of artillery, aircraft, armoured cars, machine guns, small arms and ammunition were much help to pro-treaty forces. The National Army amounted to 14,000 men by August 1922, was 38,000 strong by the end of 1922 and by the end of the war, it had swollen to 55,000 men and 3,500 officers, far in excess of what the Irish state would need to maintain in peacetime. Collins' most ruthless officers and men were recruited from the Dublin "Active Service Unit" (the elite unit of the IRA's Dublin Brigade), which Collins had commanded in the Irish War of Independence and in particular from his assassination unit, "The Squad". In the new National Army, they were known as the Dublin Guard. Towards the end of the war, they were implicated in some notorious atrocities against anti-treaty guerrillas. Most of the National Army's officers were Pro-Treaty IRA men, as were a substantial number of their soldiers. However, many of the new army's other recruits were unemployed veterans of the First World War, where they had served in the Irish Division of the British Army. Former British Army officers were also recruited for their technical expertise. The Republicans made much use of this fact in their propaganda —- claiming that the Free State was only a proxy force for Britain itself. However, in fact, the majority of the Free State soldiers were raw recruits without military experience in either the First World War or the subsequent Irish War of Independence. The Free State takes major towns With Dublin in pro-treaty hands, conflict spread throughout the country. The war started with the anti-treaty forces holding Cork, Limerick and Waterford as part of a self-styled independent "Munster Republic". However, since the anti-treaty side were not equipped to wage conventional war, Liam Lynch was unable to take advantage of the Republicans' initial advantage in numbers and territory held. He hoped simply to hold the "Munster Republic" long enough to force Britain to re-negotiate the treaty. The large towns in Ireland were all relatively easily taken by the Free State in August 1922. Michael Collins, Richard Mulcahy and Eoin O'Duffy planned a nationwide Free State offensive, dispatching columns overland to take Limerick in the west and Waterford in the south-east and seaborne forces to take counties Cork and Kerry in the south and Mayo in the west. In the south, landings occurred at Union Hall in Co. Cork and Fenit, the port of Tralee, in Co. Kerry. Limerick fell on 20 July, Waterford on the same day and Cork city on 10 August after a Free State force landed by sea at Passage West. Another seaborne expedition to Mayo in the west secured government control over that part of the country. While in some places the Republicans had put up determined resistance, nowhere were they able to defeat regular forces armed with artillery and armour. The only real conventional battle during the Free State offensive, the Battle of Killmallock, was fought when Free State troops advanced south from Limerick. Guerrilla war Government victories in the major towns inaugurated a period of guerrilla warfare. After the fall of Cork, Liam Lynch ordered Anti-Treaty IRA units to disperse and form flying columns as they had when fighting the British. They held out in areas such as the western part of counties Cork and Kerry in the south, county Wexford in the east and counties Sligo and Mayo in the west. Sporadic fighting also took place around Dundalk, where Frank Aiken and the Fourth Northern Division of the Irish Republican Army were based and Dublin, where small scale but regular attacks were mounted on Free State troops. August and September 1922 saw widespread attacks on Free State forces in the territories they had occupied in the July-August offensive, inflicting heavy casualties on them. In this period, the republicans also managed several relatively large-scale attacks on rural towns, involving several hundred fighters. Dundalk, for example was taken by Frank Aiken's Anti-Treaty unit in a raid on August 14, Kenmare in Kerry in a similar operation on September 9 and Clifden in Galway on October 29. There were also unsuccessful assaults on for example Bantry, Cork on August 30 and Killorglin in Kerry on September 30 in which the Republicans took significant casualties Hopkinson, Green Against Green, p223, 225 . However as winter set in the republicans found it increasingly difficult to sustain their campaign and casualty rates among National Army troops dropped rapidly. For instance, in County Sligo, 54 people died in the conflict of whom all but 8 had been killed by the end of September Michael Farry, The Aftermath of Revolution, Sligo 1921-23 . In October 1922, Éamon de Valera and the anti-treaty Teachta Dála (TDs, Members of Parliament) set up their own "Republican government" in opposition to the Free State. However, by then the anti-treaty side held no significant territory and de Valera's "government" had no authority over the population. In any case, the IRA leaders paid no attention to it, seeing the Republican authority as vested in their own military leaders. In the autumn and winter of 1922, Free State forces broke up many of the larger Republican guerrilla units. In late September, for example, a sweep of northern county Sligo by Free State troops under Sean MacEoin successfully cornered the Anti-Treaty column which had been operating in the north of the county. Six of the column were killed and thirty captured, along with an armoured car. A similar sweep in Connemara in county Mayo in late November captured Anti-Treaty column commander Michael Kilroy and many of his fighters. December saw the capture of two separate Republican columns in the Meath/Kildare area http://www.freewebs.com/duleekmonument/meathhistory19221958.htm . Intelligence gathered by Free State forces also led to the capture on August 5 of over 100 Republican fighters in Dublin, who were attempting to destroy bridges leading into the city and on November 4 Ernie O'Malley, commander of Anti-Treaty forces in Dublin was captured when National Army troops discovered his safe house. Elsewhere Anti-Treaty units were forced by lack of supplies and safe-houses to disperse into smaller groups, typically of nine to ten men. An exception to this general rule was the activities of a column of Cork and Tipperary Anti-Treaty IRA fighters led by Tom Barry. In late December 1922, this group of around 100 men took a string of towns, first in Cork, then in Tipperary and finally Carrick on Suir, Thomastown and Mullinavat in county Kilkenny where the Free State troops surrendered and gave up their arms Meda Ryan Tom Barry, IRA Freedom Fighter pp186-187 However, even Barry's force was not capable of holding any of the places it had taken and by January 1923 it had dispersed due to lack of food and supplies. Despite these successes for the National Army, it took eight more months of intermittent warfare before the war was brought to an end. The guerrilla phase of the war was marked by assassinations and executions of leaders formerly allied in the cause of Irish independence. Commander-in-Chief Michael Collins was killed in an ambush by anti-treaty Republicans at Béal na mBláth, near his home in County Cork, in August 1922. In the 1996 film Michael Collins, Éamon de Valera meets the killer of Michael Collins prior to the assassination. However, although de Valera was in the area at the time, he is not thought to have ordered the assassination. Collins' death increased the bitterness of the Free State leadership towards the Republicans and probably contributed to the subsequent descent of the conflict into a cycle of atrocities and reprisals. Arthur Griffith, the Free State president had also died of a brain hemorrhage ten days before, leaving the Free State government in the hands of W. T. Cosgrave and the Free State army under the command of General Richard Mulcahy. By late 1922 and early 1923, the Anti Treaty guerrillas' campaign had been reduced largely to acts of sabotage and destruction of public infrastructure such as roads and railways. In January 1923 the Great Southern and Western Railway Company released a report detailing the damage Anti-Treaty forces had caused to their property over the previous six months; 375 lines damaged, 42 engines derailed, 51 over-bridges and 207 under-bridges destroyed, 83 signal cabins and 13 other buildings destroyed. In the same month, Republicans destroyed the railway stations at Sligo, Ballybunnion and Listowel Hopkinson, Green Against Green, p199 . It was also in this period that the Anti-Treaty IRA began burning the homes of Free State Senators and of many of the Anglo-Irish landed class. Atrocities and executions The final phase of the Civil War degenerated into a series of atrocities that left a lasting legacy of bitterness in Irish politics. The Free State began executing Republican prisoners on 17 November 1922, when five IRA men were shot by firing squad. They were followed on 24 November by the execution of acclaimed author and treaty negotiator Robert Erskine Childers. In all, the Free State sanctioned 77 official executions of anti-treaty prisoners during the Civil War. The Anti-Treaty IRA in reprisal assassinated TD Seán Hales. On 7 December 1922, the day after Hales' killing, four prominent Republicans (one from each province), who had been held since the first week of the war—Rory O'Connor, Liam Mellows, Richard Barrett and Joe McKelvey — were executed in revenge for the killing of Hales. In addition, Free State troops, particularly in County Kerry, where the guerrilla campaign was most bitter, began the summary execution of captured anti-treaty fighters. The most notorious example of this occurred at Ballyseedy, where nine Republican prisoners were tied to a landmine, which was detonated. The survivors were then killed with machine guns. The number of "unauthorised" executions of Republican prisoners during the war has been put as high as 153. Todd Andrews, Dublin Made Me, p269 Among the Republican reprisals were the assassination of Kevin O'Higgins' father and WT Cosgrave's uncle in February 1923 Hopkinson, Green Against Green, p191 . The Anti-Treaty IRA were unable to maintain an effective guerrilla campaign, since the great majority of the Irish population did not support them. This was demonstrated in the elections immediately after the civil war, which Cumann na nGaedhael, the Free State party, won easily. (See Irish general election, 1923 for the results.) The Roman Catholic Church also supported the Free State, deeming it the lawful government of the country, denouncing the Anti-Treaty IRA and refusing to administer the Sacraments to anti-treaty fighters. On 10 October 1922, the Catholic Bishops of Ireland issued a formal statement, describing the anti-treaty campaign as, a system of murder and assassination of the National forces without any legitimate authority... the guerrilla warfare now being carried on [by] the Irregulars is without moral sanction and therefore the killing of National soldiers is murder before God, the seizing of public and private property is robbery, the breaking of roads, bridges and railways is criminal. All who in contravention of this teaching, participate in such crimes are guilty of grievous sins and may not be absolved in Confession nor admitted to the Holy Communion if they persist in such evil courses. Tim Pat Coogan, De Valera, p344) Churchmen were appalled by the ruthlessness and cruelty. The Church's support for the Free State aroused bitter hostility among some republicans. Although the Catholic Church in independent Ireland has often been seen as a triumphalist Church, a recent study has found that it felt deeply insecure after these events. End of the war The lack of public support for the Anti-Treaty IRA, the determination of the government to defeat them and their lack of will all contributed to their defeat. By early 1923, their offensive capability had been seriously eroded and when, in February 1923, Republican leader Liam Deasy was captured by Free State forces, he called on the republicans to end their campaign and reach an accommodation with the Free State. The State's executions of Anti-Treaty prisoners, 34 of whom were shot in January 1923, also took its toll on the Republicans' morale. In addition, the National Army's operations in the field were slowly but steadily breaking up the remaining Republican concentrations. On February 18, Anti-Treaty officer Dinny Lacey was killed and his column rounded up at the Glen of Aherlow in Tipperary. Lacey had been the head of the IRA's 2nd Southern Division and his death crippled the Republican's cause in the Tipperary/Waterford area. A meeting of the Anti-Treaty leadership on February 26 was told by their 1st Southern Division that, "in a short time we would not have a man left owing to the great number of arrests and casualties". The Cork units reported they had suffered 29 killed and an unknown number captured in recent actions and, "if five men are arrested in each area, we are finished" Hopkinson, Green Against Green p235-6 . March and April 1923 saw this progressive dismemberment of the Republican forces continue with the capture and sometimes killing of guerrilla columns. Among the more well known of these incidents was the wiping out of an Anti-Treaty IRA column under Tim Lyons (known as "Aeroplane") in a cave near Kerry Head on April 18. Three anti-treaty IRA men and two National Army soldiers were killed in the siege of the cave and the remaining five Republicans were taken prisoner and later executed Tom Doyle, The Civil War in Kerry p300 . A National Army report of April 11 stated, "Events of the last few days point to the beginning of the end as a far as the irregular campaign is concerned" Hopkinson, Green Against Green, p . As the conflict petered out into a de facto victory for the pro-treaty side, de Valera asked the IRA leadership to call a ceasefire, but they refused. The Anti-Treaty IRA executive met on March 26 in county Tipperary to discuss the war's future. Tom Barry proposed a motion to end the war, but it was defeated by 6 votes to 5. Éamon de Valera was allowed to attend, after some debate, but was given no voting rights Hopkinson, Green Against Green, p237 . Liam Lynch, the intransigent Republican leader, was killed in a skirmish in the Knockmealdown mountains in County Tipperary on 10 April. The National Army had extracted information from Republican prisoners in Dublin that the IRA Executive was in the area and as well as killing Lynch, they also captured senior Anti-Treaty IRA officers Dan Breen, Todd Andrews, Seán Gaynor and Frank Barrett in the operation. It is often suggested that the death of Lynch allowed the more pragmatic Frank Aiken, who took over as IRA Chief of Staff, to call a halt to what seemed a futile struggle. Aiken's accession to IRA leadership was followed on 30 April by the declaration of a ceasefire on behalf of the anti-treaty forces. On 24 May 1923, Aiken followed this with an order to IRA volunteers to dump arms rather than surrender them or continue a fight which they were incapable of winning. Éamon de Valera supported the order, issuing a statement to Anti-Treaty fighters on May 24; . Thousands of Anti-Treaty IRA members (including Éamon de Valera on August 15) were arrested by the Free State forces in the weeks and months after the end of the war, when they had dumped their arms and returned home. The Free State government had started peace negotiations in early May which broke down. Dáil Éireann - Volume 3 - 10 May 1923 Without a formal peace, holding 13,000 prisoners and worried that fighting could break out again at any time, it enacted the Emergency Powers Act on 2 July by a vote of 37 - 13. Dáil Éireann - Volume 3 - 2 July 1923 In October 1923 around 8,000 of the 12,000 Republican prisoners in Free State gaols went on hunger strike. The strike lasted for forty one days and met little success. However, most of the women prisoners were released shortly thereafter and the hunger strike helped concentrate the Republican movement on the prisoners and their associated organisations. In July Frank Aiken had recognised the Republican political interests lay with the prisoners and went so far as to say: Michael Hopkinson, Green against Green (Dublin, 1988) p. 268. Attacks on former Loyalists Although the cause of the Civil War was the treaty, as the war developed the Republicans sought to identify their actions with the traditional Republican cause of the "men of no property" and the result was that large Anglo-Irish landowners and some not very well-off former Protestant Loyalists were attacked. A total of 192 "stately homes" of the old landed class were destroyed by Republicans during the war. (M.E Collins, Ireland 1868-1966, p431) The stated reason for such attacks was that some landowners had become Free State senators. Among the prominent senators whose homes were attacked were: Palmerstown House near Naas which belonged to the Earl of Mayo, Moore Hall in Mayo (the house of Oliver St John Gogarty, who also survived an assassination attempt), Horace Plunkett (who had helped to establish the rural co-operative schemes), and Senator H.S. Guinness of the Guinness family. Freemans Journal, 28 March, 1923 Also burned was Marlfield House in Clonmel, Image of Marlfield House at website of present owners accessed 1 November 2008. the home of Senator John Bagwell with its extensive library of historical documents. Bagwell was kidnapped and held in the Dublin Mountains, but later released when reprisals were threatened. DCU chronology of Events accessed 31 October 2008 p661 Lady Gregorie's Journals by IAP Gregory : 1925 accessed 31 October 2008 Debate in Dáil following threat of reprisals. However, in addition to their allegiance to the Free State, there were also other factors behind Republican animosity towards the old landed class. Many, but not all of these people, had supported the Crown forces during the War of Independence. This support was often largely moral, but sometimes it took the form of actively assisting the British in the conflict. Such attacks should have ended with the Truce of 11 July 1921, but they continued after the truce and escalated during the Civil War. In addition, many of the landlord class were the focus of rural class antagonism that had been simmering since the Land War of the 1880s. Though the Wyndham Act of 1903 allowed tenants to buy land from their landlords, much untenanted land remained and some Republicans followed Michael Davitt's policy that all land should be made available to 'the nation'. This made the former landlords' post-independence situation difficult, and in the anarchy of the Civil War, they became easy targets. Sometimes these attacks had sectarian overtones, although most Anti-Treaty IRA men made no distinction between Catholic and Protestant supporters of the Irish government. Controversy continues to this day about the extent of intimidation of Protestants at this time. Many left Ireland during and after the Civil War, as did a considerable number of their Catholic neighbours. Consequences Casualties The Civil War, though short, was bloody. It cost the lives of many public figures, including Michael Collins, Cathal Brugha and Liam Lynch. Both sides carried out brutal acts: the anti-treaty forces murdered TDs and burned many historic homes, while the government executed anti-treaty prisoners, officially and unofficially. Precise figures for the dead and wounded have yet to be calculated. The pro-treaty forces may have suffered between 540-800 fatalities, and the anti-treaty forces appear to have received considerably heavier losses. There is, as yet, no figure for civilian deaths. A maximum figure of 4,000 deaths has been suggested. Michael Hopkinson, Green against Green, p272-3, "There are no means by which to arrive at even approximate figures for the dead and wounded. Mulcahy stated that around 540 pro-Treaty troops were killed between the Treaty's signing and the war's end; the government referred to 800 army deaths between January 1922 and April 1924. There was no record of overall Republican deaths, which appear to have been very much higher. No figure exists for total civilian deaths." The new police force was not involved in the war, which meant that it was well-placed to develop into an unarmed and politically neutral police service after the war. The Criminal Investigation Department, or CID, a 350 strong, armed, plain-clothed Police Corps that had been established during the conflict for the purposes of counter-insurgency, was disbanded in October 1923, shortly after the conflict's end The State and Civil War, p. 11 [http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-820426-4.pdf ] . Economic costs The economic costs of the war were also high. As their forces abandoned their fixed positions in July-August 1922, the Republicans burned many administrative buildings and businesses they had been occupying. In addition, their subsequent guerrilla campaign caused much destruction and the economy of the Free State suffered a hard blow in the earliest days of its existence as a result. The material damage caused by the war to property came to over £30 million. Particularly damaging to the Free State's economy was the systematic destruction of railway infrastructure and roads by the Republicans. In addition, the cost to the Free State of waging the war came to another £17 million. By September 1923 Deputy Hogan estimated the cost at £50 million. Dáil Éireann - Volume 5 - 19 September 1923 - THE ADJOURNMENT.—POSITION OF ANTI-TREATY DEPUTIES The new State ended 1923 with a budget deficit of over £4 million. (Hopkinson, Green Against Green, page 273) This weakened financial situation meant that the new state could not pay its share of Imperial debt under the treaty, and this adversely affected the boundary negotiations in 1924-25, which left the border with Northern Ireland unchanged. Further, the state undertook to pay for damage caused to property between the truce of July 1921 and the end of the Civil War; W.T. Cosgrave told the Dáil: "Every Deputy in this House is aware of the complaint which has been made that the measure of compensation for post-Truce damage compares unfavourably with the awards for damage suffered pre-Truce." Debates 7 Dec 1925, p.1313 Political results The fact that the Irish Civil War was fought between Irish Nationalist factions meant that the issue of Northern Ireland was ignored and Ireland was spared what could have been a far bloodier civil war based on ethnic and sectarian lines over the future of Ireland's six north-eastern counties. In fact, because of the Irish Civil War, Northern Ireland was able to consolidate its existence and partition of Ireland was confirmed for the foreseeable future. The war confirmed the northern Unionists' existing prejudices against the ethos of all shades of nationalism. Collins, up to the outbreak of the Civil War and possibly until his death, had been planning to launch a clandestine guerrilla campaign against the North and was funnelling arms to the northern units of the IRA to this end. This may have led to open hostilities between North and South had the Irish Civil War not broken out. In the event, it was only well after their defeat in the Civil War that anti-treaty Irish Republicans seriously considered whether to take armed action against British rule in Northern Ireland (the first serious suggestion to do this came in the late 1930s). The northern units of the IRA largely supported the Free State side in the Civil War because of Collins's policies and over 500 of them joined the new Free State's National Army. The cost of the war and the budget deficit it caused was a difficulty for the new Free State and affected the Boundary Commission negotiations of 1925, which were to determine the border with Northern Ireland. The Free State agreed to waive its claim to predominantly Nationalist areas in Northern Ireland and in return its agreed share of the Imperial debt under the 1921 Treaty was not paid. Calton Younger, Ireland's Civil War (Frederick Muller, 1968), p516. Dáil Éireann - Volume 13 - 7 December 1925 In 1926, having failed to persuade the majority of the Anti-Treaty IRA or the anti-treaty party of Sinn Féin to accept the new status quo as a basis for an evolving Republic, a large faction led by de Valera and Aiken left to resume constitutional politics and to found the Fianna Fáil party. Whereas Fianna Fáil was to become the dominant party in Irish politics, Sinn Féin became a small, isolated political party. The IRA, then much more numerous and influential than Sinn Féin, remained associated with Fianna Fáil (though not directly) until banned by de Valera in 1935. In 1927, Fianna Fáil members took the Oath of Allegiance and entered the Dáil, effectively recognising the legitimacy of the Free State. M.E. Collins Ireland 1868-1966, p.333 The Free State was already moving towards independence by this point. In 1931, under the Statute of Westminster, the British Parliament gave up its right to legislate for members of the British Commonwealth. Collins p.338 When elected to power in 1932, Fianna Fáil under de Valera set about dismantling what they considered to be objectionable features of the treaty, abolishing the Oath of Allegiance, removing the power of the Office of Governor General (British representative in Ireland) and abolishing the Senate, which was dominated by former Unionists and pro-treaty Nationalists. John Coakley, Michael Gallagher, Politics in the Republic of Ireland (1999) ISBN 0-415-22194-3 p.73-74 In 1937, they passed a new constitution which made a President the head of state, did not mention any allegiance to the British monarch and which included a territorial claim to Northern Ireland. The following year Britain returned without conditions the seaports it had kept under the terms of the treaty. Coakley, Gallagher, Politics in the Republic of Ireland, p.75 Finally in 1948, a coalition government, containing elements of both sides in the Civil War (pro-treaty Fine Gael and anti-treaty Clann na Poblachta) left the British Commonwealth and re-named the Free State the Republic of Ireland. Collins, Ireland, p.391 Thus, by the 1950s, with the exception of the partition of Ireland, the issues over which the Civil War had been fought were largely settled. Legacy As with most civil wars, the internecine conflict left a bitter legacy, which continues to influence Irish politics to this day. The two largest political parties in the republic are still Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, the descendants respectively of the anti-treaty and pro-treaty forces of 1922. Until the 1970s, almost all of Ireland's prominent politicians were veterans of the Civil War, a fact which poisoned the relationship between Ireland's two biggest parties. Examples of Civil War veterans include: Republicans Éamon de Valera, Frank Aiken, Todd Andrews, and Seán Lemass, Free State supporters W. T. Cosgrave, Richard Mulcahy and Kevin O'Higgins. Sean Lemass' brother Noel, a captain in the Anti-Treaty IRA, was abducted and shot by Free State forces in July 1923, two months after the war had ended. His body was dumped in the Wicklow Mountains, near Glencree, where it was found in October 1923. The spot where his body was found is marked by a memorial. O'Higgins was the Minister for Economic Affairs in the Free State government and was hated by Republicans for having been in favour of executions of prisoners during the Civil War. His elderly father was killed by republicans during the war. O'Higgins himself was assassinated in 1927 by Anti-Treaty IRA members on his way to Mass. His killing precipitated a government clampdown on the IRA and forced Fianna Fáil to take the Oath of Allegiance in order to contest elections, Collins, Ireland, p.333 Moreover, many of these men's sons and daughters also became politicians, meaning that the personal wounds of the civil war were felt over three generations. In the 1930s after Fianna Fáil took power for the first time, it looked possible for a while that the Civil War might break out again between the IRA and the pro-Free State Blueshirts. Fortunately, this crisis was averted and by the 1950s, political violence was no longer prominent in politics in the Republic of Ireland. However, the breakaway IRA continued (and continues in various forms) to exist. It was not until 1948 that the IRA renounced military attacks on the forces of the southern Irish state - now the Republic of Ireland. After this point the organisation dedicated itself primarily to the end of British rule in Northern Ireland. Up until the 1980s the IRA Army Council still claimed to be the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic declared in 1918 and annulled by the Treaty of 1921. Some people, notably Michael McDowell, claim that this attitude, which dates from the Civil War, still underpins the politics of the Provisional Irish Republican Army. Notes Bibliography Calton Younger, Ireland's Civil War : Frederick Muller : London : 1968 A record of some mansions and houses destroyed 1922-23 The Irish Claims Compensation Association : 1924 Ernie O'Malley, The Singing Flame : Dublin : 1978 : : ISBN 9780900068409 M.E. Collins, Ireland 1868-1966 : Dublin : 1993. Michael Hopkinson, Green against Green - the Irish Civil War : 1988 : ISBN 9780717112029 Eoin Neeson, The Civil War, 1922-23 Rev. and updated ed. of: The Civil War in Ireland. c1966. : 1989 : ISBN 9781853710131 Paul V Walsh, The Irish Civil War 1922-23 -A Study of the Conventional Phase : A paper delivered to NYMAS at the CUNY Graduate Center, New York, N.Y. on 11 December 1998 Meda Ryan, The Real Chief: The Story of Liam Lynch : 2005 : ISBN 9780853427643 Tim Pat Coogan, De Valera: Long Fellow, Long Shadow : Dublin : 1993 : ISBN 9780091750305 Anne Dolan, Commemorating the Irish Civil War: History and Memory, 1923-2000: 2006 ISBN 9780521026987 The Treaty Debates December 1921 January 1922 on-line : CELT: The Corpus of Electronic Texts Niall C. Harrington, Kerry Landing : 1992 : ISBN 9780947962708 External links The final siege of Limerick City from 7 July until 21 July 1922, on the Limerick Leader web site. The Dáil Treaty Debates 1921-22. 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3,755 | Josip_Broz_Tito | Josip Broz Tito (Cyrillic script: Јосип Броз Тито, (celebrated birthday on May 25, 7 May 1892 official date on birth certificate – 4 May 1980) was a Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman. Josip Broz Tito. Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman, Encyclopaedia Britannica He was Secretary-General (later President) of the Communist Party (League of Communists) of Yugoslavia (1939–80), and went on to lead the WWII Yugoslav resistance movement, the Yugoslav Partisans (1941–45). Ian Bremmer, The J Curve: A New Way To Understand Why Nations Rise and Fall, Page 175 After the war, he was the Prime Minister (1945–53) and later President (1953–80) of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). From 1943 to his death in 1980 he held the rank of Marshal of Yugoslavia, serving as the supreme commander of the Yugoslav military, the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA). Tito was the chief architect of the "second Yugoslavia", a socialist federation that lasted from World War II until 1991. Despite being one of the founders of Cominform, he was also the first Communist leader in power to defy Soviet hegemony. A backer of independent roads to socialism (sometimes referred to as "national communism"), he was one of the main founders and promoters of the Non-Aligned Movement, and its first Secretary-General. As such, he supported the policy of nonalignment between the two hostile blocs in the Cold War. Early life Pre-World War I Josip Broz was born in Kumrovec, in the small region of Hrvatsko Zagorje in Croatia. Then it was Croatia-Slavonia, a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Unclassified United States NSA report mentions the hypothesis that the person born Josip Broz was not the person who became the Yugoslav leader Tito, based on an analysis of his accent in speaking Serbo-Croatian. http://www.nsa.gov/public/pdf/ He was the seventh child of Franjo and Marija Broz. His father, Franjo Broz, was a Croat, while his mother Marija (born Javeršek) was a Slovene. After spending part of his childhood years with his maternal grandfather in village of Podsreda, in 1900 he entered the primary school (four classes) in Kumrovec, he failed the 2nd grade and graduated in 1905. In 1907, moving out of the rural environment, Broz started working as a machinist's apprentice in Sisak. There, he became aware of the labor movement and celebrated 1 May - Labour Day for the first time. In 1910, he joined the union of metallurgy workers and at the same time the Social-Democratic Party of Croatia and Slavonia. Between 1911 and 1913, Broz worked for shorter periods in Kamnik, Cenkovo, Munich, and Mannheim, where he worked for the Benz automobile factory; he then went to Wiener Neustadt, Austria, and worked as a test driver for Daimler. In the autumn of 1913, he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army. He was sent to a school for non-commissioned officers and became a sergeant, serving in the 25. Croatian Regiment based in Zagreb. A. T. Lane, Biographical dictionary of European labor leaders. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995. (p. 964) In May 1914, Broz won a silver medal at an army fencing competition in Budapest. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, he was sent to Ruma, where he was arrested for anti-war propaganda and imprisoned in the Petrovaradin fortress. In January 1915, he was sent to the Eastern Front in Galicia to fight against Russia. He distinguished himself as a capable soldier and was recommended for military decoration, becoming the youngest Sergeant Major in the Austro-Hungarian Army. On Easter 25 March 1915, while in Bukovina, he was seriously wounded and captured by the Russians. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/597295/Josip-Broz-Tito Prisoner and revolutionary After thirteen months at the hospital, Broz was sent to a work camp in the Ural Mountains where prisoners selected him for their camp leader. In February 1917, revolting workers broke into the prison and freed the prisoners. Broz subsequently joined a Bolshevik group. In April 1917, he was arrested again but managed to escape and participate in the July Days demonstrations in Petrograd (Saint Petersburg) on 16 July-17, 1917. On his way to Finland, Broz was caught and imprisoned in the Petropavlovsk fortress for three weeks. He was again sent to Kungur, but escaped from the train. He hid out with a Russian family in Omsk, Siberia where he met his future wife Pelagija Belousova. After the October Revolution, he joined a Red Guard unit in Omsk. Following a White counteroffensive, he fled to Kirgiziya (now Kyrgyzstan) and subsequently returned to Omsk, where he married Belousova. In the spring of 1918, he joined the South Slav section of the Russian Communist Party. By June of the same year, Broz left Omsk to find work and support his family, and was employed as a mechanic near Omsk for a year. In January 1920 he and his wife made a long and difficult journey home to Yugoslavia where he arrived in September. Upon his return, Broz immediately joined the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. The CPY's influence on the political life of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was growing rapidly. In the 1920 elections the Communists won 59 seats in the parliament and became the third strongest party. Winning numerous local elections, they even gained a stronghold in the second-largest city of Zagreb, electing Svetozar Delić for mayor. The King's regime, however, would not tolerate the CPY and declared it illegal. During 1920 and 1921 all Communist-won mandates were nullified. Broz continued his work underground despite pressure on Communists from the government. As 1921 began he moved to Veliko Trojstvo near Bjelovar and found work as a machinist. In 1925, Broz moved to Kraljevica where he started working at a shipyard. He was elected as a union leader and a year later he led a shipyard strike. He was fired and moved to Belgrade, where he worked in a train coach factory in Smederevska Palanka. He was elected as Workers Commissary but was fired as soon as his CPY membership was revealed. Broz then moved to Zagreb, where he was appointed secretary of Metal Workers Union of Croatia. In 1928, he became the Zagreb Branch Secretary of the CPY. In the same year he was arrested, tried in court for his illegal communist activities, and sent to jail. Neill Barnett. Tito. Haus Publishing, London (2006) ISBN 1-904950-31-0, page 36-9 During his five years at Lepoglava prison he met Moša Pijade who became his ideological mentor. After his release, he lived incognito and assumed a number of noms de guerre, among them "Walter" and "Tito". In 1934 the Zagreb Provincial Committee sent Tito to Vienna where the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia had sought refuge. He was appointed to the Committee and started to appoint allies to him, among them Edvard Kardelj, Milovan Djilas, Aleksander Rankovic, and Boris Kidric. In 1935, Tito traveled to the Soviet Union, working for a year in the Balkan section of Comintern. He was a member of the Soviet Communist Party and the Soviet secret police (NKVD). In 1936, the Comintern sent "Comrade Walter" (i.e. Tito) back to Yugoslavia to purge the Communist Party there. In 1937, Stalin had the Secretary-General of the CPY, Milan Gorkić, murdered in Moscow. Subsequently Tito was appointed Secretary-General of the still-outlawed CPY. World War II leader Yugoslav People's Liberation War On 6 April 1941, German, Italian, and Hungarian forces launched an invasion of Yugoslavia. Nazi Germany initiated a three-pronged drive on the Yugoslavian capital, Belgrade. Meanwhile, the Luftwaffe bombed Belgrade (Operation Punishment) and other major Yugoslavian cities. Attacked from all sides, the armed forces of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia quickly crumbled. Subsequently, on 17 April, after King Peter II and other members of the government fled the country, the remaining representatives of the government and military met with the German officials in Belgrade. They quickly agreed to end military resistance. The terms of the armistice were extremely severe, and the Axis proceeded to dismember Yugoslavia. Germany occupied northern Slovenia, while retaining direct military administration over a rump Serbia and considerable influence over its newly created puppet state, Independent State of Croatia, or NDH (historical nation (1941-45), Europe) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia the Independent State of Croatia, which extended over much of today's Croatia and contained all of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mussolini's Italy gained the remainder of Slovenia, Kosovo, and large chunks of the coastal Dalmatia region (along with nearly all its Adriatic islands). It also gained control over the newly created Montenegrin puppet state, and was granted the kingship in the Independent State of Croatia, though wielding little real power within it. Hungary dispatched the Hungarian Third Army to occupy Vojvodina in northern Serbia, and later forcibly annexed sections of Baranja, Bačka, Međimurje, and Prekmurje. Hungary - Shoah Foundation Institute Visual History Archive Bulgaria, meanwhile, annexed nearly all of the modern-day Republic of Macedonia. Tito's first responses to the German invasion of Yugoslavia were the founding of a Military Committee within the Central Committee of the Yugoslav Communist Party 10 April 1941 and issuing a pamphlet on 1 May 1941 calling on the people to unite in a battle against occupation. Stvaranje Titove Jugoslavije, page 84, ISBN 86-385-0091-2 On 4 July 1941, after Germany launched the invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), Tito called a Central committee meeting which named him military commander and issued a call to arms. On the same day, Yugoslav Partisans formed the 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment, the first armed resistance unit in Europe (mostly consisting of Croats from the nearby city). Founded in the Brezovica forest near Sisak, Croatia, its creation marked the beginning of armed anti-Axis resistance in occupied Yugoslavia. In the first period, Tito and the Partisans (promoting a pan-Yugoslav policy of tolerance) faced competition from the Serb-dominated Chetnik movement. Led by Draža Mihailović, the latter increasingly collaborated with the Axis occupation and lost its international recognition as a resistance force. 7David Martin, Ally Betrayed: The Uncensored Story of Tito and Mihailovich, (New York: Prentice Hall, 1946), 34. After a brief initial period of cooperation, the two factions quickly started fighting against each other. Gradually, the Chetniks ended up primarily fighting the Partisans Chetnik - Britannica Online Encyclopedia instead of the occupation forces, and started cooperating with the Axis in their struggle to destroy Tito's forces, receiving increasing amounts of logistical assistance (in particular, from Italy). http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+yu0031) The Partisans soon began a widespread and successful guerrilla campaign and started liberating areas of Yugoslav territory. Partisan activities provoked the Germans into "retaliation" against civilians. These retaliations resulted in mass murders (for each killed German soldier, 100 civilians were to be killed and for each wounded, 50). Despite this, liberated territories such as the "Republic of Užice" were formed and fiercely defended. In these liberated territories, the Partisans organized People's Committees to act as civilian government. The Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ), which convened in Bihać on 26 November 1942 and in Jajce on 29 November 1943, was a representative body established by the resistance in which Tito played a leading role. In the two sessions, the resistance representatives established the basis for post-war organization of the country, deciding on a federation of the Yugoslav nations. In Jajce, Tito was named President of the National Committee of Liberation. Rebirth in Bosnia, Time Magazine December 13, 1943 On 4 December 1943, while most of the country was still occupied by the Axis, Tito proclaimed a provisional democratic Yugoslav government. Members of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CK KPJ) on the Dalmatian island of Vis during World War II. Left to right: Vladimir Bakarić, Ivan Milutinović, Edvard Kardelj, Josip Broz Tito, Aleksandar "Leka" Ranković, Svetozar Vukmanović "Tempo", and Milovan Đilas However, with the growing possibility of an Allied invasion in the Balkans, the Axis began to divert more resources to the destruction of the Partisans. More specifically, the Germans planned and executed several massive anti-Partisan offensives with the aim of destroying the Partisan headquarters and mobile field hospital. The largest of these offensives were the Battle of Neretva (which included the Chetniks fighting alongside the Germans) and the Battle of Sutjeska (the Fourth and Fifth anti-Partisan offensives), involving nearly 200,000 troops. The Battle of Sutjeska in particular came very close to encircling and eliminating the resistance, however, the highly mobile Partisan formations managed to retreat beyond the reach of the Axis each time. The Germans therefore came close to capturing or killing Tito on at least three occasions: during the 1943 Battle of Neretva (Fall Weiss); during the subsequent Battle of Sutjeska (Fall Schwarz), in which he was wounded on 9 June, and on 25 May 1944, when he barely managed to evade the Germans after the Raid on Drvar (Operation Rösselsprung), an airborne assault outside his Drvar headquarters in Bosnia. After Tito's Partisans stood up to these intense Axis attacks between January and June 1943, and the extent of Chetnik collaboration became evident, Allied leaders switched their support from them to the Partisans. King Peter II of Yugoslavia, American President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill joined Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in officially recognizing Tito and the Partisans at the Tehran Conference. This resulted in Allied aid being parachuted behind Axis lines to assist the Partisans. On 17 June 1944 on the Dalmatian island of Vis, the Treaty of Vis (Viški sporazum) was signed in an attempt to merge Tito's government (the AVNOJ) with the government in exile of King Peter II. This treaty was also known as the Tito-Šubašić Agreement. As the leader of the Yugoslav forces, Tito was now personally a target for the Axis forces in occupied Yugoslavia. The Partisans were supported directly by Allied airdrops to their headquarters, with Brigadier Fitzroy Maclean playing a significant role in the liaison missions. The RAF Balkan Air Force was formed in June 1944 to control operations that were mainly aimed at aiding his forces. On 28 September 1944, Stvaranje Titove Jugoslavije, page 479, ISBN 86-385-0091-2 the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) reported that Tito signed an agreement with the USSR allowing "temporary entry of Soviet troops into Yugoslav territory" which allowed the Red Army to assist in operations in the northeastern areas of Yugoslavia. With their strategic right flank secured by the Allied advance, the Partisans prepared and executed a massive general offensive which succeeded in breaking through German lines and forcing a retreat beyond Yugoslav borders. After the Partisan victory and the end of hostilities in Europe, all external forces were ordered off Yugoslav territory. Aftermath of World War II Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito greeted by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Anthony Eden in London On 7 March 1945, the provisional government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia (Demokratska Federativna Jugoslavija, DFY) was assembled in Belgrade by Josip Broz Tito, while the provisional name allowed for either a republic or monarchy. This government was headed by Tito as provisional Yugoslav Prime Minister and included representatives from the royalist government-in-exile, among others Ivan Šubašić. In accordance with the agreement between resistance leaders and the government-in-exile, post-war elections were held to determine the form of government. In November 1945, Tito's pro-republican People's Front, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, won the elections with an overwhelming majority. During the period, Tito evidently enjoyed massive popular support due to being generally viewed by the populace as the liberator of Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav administration in the immediate post-war period managed to unite a country that had been severely affected by ultra-nationalist upheavals and war devastation, while successfully suppressing the nationalist sentiments of the various nations in favor of tolerance, and the common Yugoslav goal. After the overwhelming electoral victory, Tito was confirmed as the Prime Minister and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the DFY. The country was soon renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) (later finally renamed into Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, SFRY). On 29 November 1945, King Peter II was formally deposed by the Yugoslav Constituent Assembly. The Assembly drafted a new republican constitution soon afterwards. Yugoslavia organized an army from the Partisan movement, the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslavenska narodna armija, or JNA) which was, for a period, considered the fourth strongest in Europe. The State Security Administration (Uprava državne bezbednosti/sigurnosti/varnosti, UDBA) was also formed as the new secret police, along with a security agency, the Department of People's Security (Organ Zaštite Naroda (Armije), OZNA). Yugoslav intelligence was charged with imprisoning and bringing to trial large numbers of Nazi collaborators; controversially, this included Catholic clergymen due to the widespread involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustaša regime. Draža Mihailović was found guilty of collaboration, high treason and war crimes and was subsequently executed by firing squad in July 1946. Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito met with the president of the Bishops' Conference of Yugoslavia, Aloysius Stepinac on June 4, 1945, two days after his release from imprisonment. The two could not reach an agreement on the state of the Catholic Church. Under Stepinac's leadership, the bishops' conference released a letter condemning alleged Partisan war crimes in September, 1945. The following year Stepinac was arrested and put on trial. In October 1946, in its first special session for 75 years, the Vatican excommunicated Tito and the Yugoslav government for sentencing Stepinac to 16 years in prison on charges of assisting Ustaše terror and of supporting forced conversions of Serbs to Catholicism. Excommunicate's Interview - Time Magazine, 21 October 1946. Stepinac received preferential treatment in recognition of his status and the sentence was soon shortened and reduced to house-imprisonment, with the option of emigration open to the archbishop. At the conclusion of the "Informbiro period", reforms rendered Yugoslavia considerably more religiously liberal than the Eastern Bloc states. In the first post war years Tito was widely considered a communist leader very loyal to Moscow, indeed, he was often viewed as second only to Stalin in the Eastern Bloc. Yugoslav forces shot down American aircraft flying over Yugoslav territory, and relations with the West were strained. In fact, Stalin and Tito had an uneasy alliance from the start, with Stalin considering Tito too independent. Yugoslav President Tito-Stalin split Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev consulting with Josip Broz Tito in New York at the 15th Session of the UN General Assembly Unlike the other new communist states in east-central Europe, Yugoslavia liberated itself from Axis domination, without any direct support from the Red Army. Tito's leading role in liberating Yugoslavia not only greatly strengthened his position in his party and among the Yugoslav people, but also caused him to be more insistent that Yugoslavia had more room to follow its own interests than other Bloc leaders who had more reasons (and pressures) to recognize Soviet efforts in helping them liberate their own countries from Axis control. This had already led to some friction between the two countries before World War II was even over. Although Tito was formally an ally of Stalin after World War II, the Soviets had set up a spy ring in the Yugoslav party as early as 1945, giving way to an uneasy alliance. In the immediate aftermath of World War II, there occurred several armed incidents between Yugoslavia and the Western Allies. Following the war, Yugoslavia recovered the territory of Istria, as well as the cities of Zadar and Rijeka that had been taken by Italy in the 1920s. Yugoslav leadership was looking to incorporate Trieste into the country as well, which was opposed by the Western Allies. This led to several armed incidents, notably air attacks of Yugoslav fighter planes on U.S. transport aircraft, causing bitter criticism from the west. From 1945 to 1948, at least four US aircraft were shot down. Air victories of Yugoslav Air Force Stalin was opposed to these provocations, as he felt the USSR unready to face the West in open war so soon after the losses of World War II. In addition, Tito was openly supportive of the Communist side in the Greek Civil War, while Stalin kept his distance, having agreed with Churchill not to pursue Soviet interests there. In 1948, motivated by the desire to create a strong independent economy, Tito modeled his economic development plan independently from Moscow, which resulted in a diplomatic escalation followed by a bitter exchange of letters in which Tito affirmed that The Soviet answer on May 4 admonished Tito and the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) for failing to admit and correct its mistakes, and went on to accuse them of being too proud of their successes against the Germans, maintaining that the Red Army had saved them from destruction. Tito's response on May 17 suggested that the matter be settled at the meeting of the Cominform to be held that June. However, Tito did not attend the second meeting of the Cominform, fearing that Yugoslavia was to be openly attacked. At this point the crisis nearly escalated into an armed conflict, as Hungarian and Soviet forces were massing on the northern Yugoslav frontier. No Words Left? 22 August 1949. On June 28, the other member countries expelled Yugoslavia, citing "nationalist elements" that had "managed in the course of the past five or six months to reach a dominant position in the leadership" of the CPY. The expulsion effectively banished Yugoslavia from the international association of socialist states, while other socialist states of Eastern Europe subsequently underwent purges of alleged "Titoists". Stalin took the matter personally – for once, and attempted, unsuccessfully, to assassinate Tito on several occasions. In a correspondence between the two leaders, Tito openly wrote: However, Tito used the estrangement from the USSR to attain US aid via the Marshall Plan, as well as to involve Yugoslavia in the Non-Aligned Movement, in which he assured a leading position for Yugoslavia. The event was significant not only for Yugoslavia and Tito, but also for the global development of socialism, since it was the first major split between Communist states, casting doubt on Comintern's claims for socialism to be a unified force that would eventually control the whole world, as Tito became the first (and the only successful) socialist leader to defy Stalin's leadership in the COMINFORM. This rift with the Soviet Union brought Tito much international recognition, but also triggered a period of instability often referred to as the Informbiro period. Tito's form of communism was labeled "Titoism" by Moscow, which encouraged purges against suspected "Titoites'" throughout the Eastern bloc. As a result of the split with the USSR the Yugoslavian government established a prison camp on the Croatian island of Goli Otok for suspected pro-Soviet enemies of Tito and the CPY regime. In 1949, the entire island was officially made into a high-security, top secret prison and labor camp. Until 1956, throughout the Informbiro period, it was used to incarcerate political prisoners. They included known and alleged Stalinists, but also other Communist Party members or even regular citizens accused of exhibiting any sort of sympathy or leanings towards the Soviet Union. Some 10,000 people went through the camp. There are many witness accounts of brutality by prison guards, officers and staff. On 26 June 1950, the National Assembly supported a crucial bill written by Milovan Đilas and Tito about "self-management" (samoupravljanje): a type of independent socialism that experimented with profit sharing with workers in state-run enterprises. On 13 January 1953, they established that the law on self-management was the basis of the entire social order in Yugoslavia. Tito also succeeded Ivan Ribar as the President of Yugoslavia on 14 January 1953. After Stalin's death Tito rejected the USSR's invitation for a visit to discuss normalization of relations between two nations. Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin visited Tito in Belgrade in 1955 and apologized for wrongdoings by Stalin's administration. Come Back, Little Tito 6 June 1955. Tito visited the USSR in 1956, which signaled to the world that animosity between Yugoslavia and USSR was easing. Discrimination in a Tomb 18 June 1956. However, the relationship between the USSR and Yugoslavia would reach another low in the late 1960s. Commenting on the crisis, Tito concluded that: Non-aligned Yugoslavia The founding leaders of the Non-Aligned states meet in New York City, October 1960. Left to right: Jawaharlal Nehru, (India), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt); Sukarno (Indonesia), and Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia) Queen Elizabeth II with Josip Broz Tito during a visit to Yugoslavia, 1972; during her visit, she awarded Tito with the Order of the Bath US President John F. Kennedy greeting Josip Broz Tito during his visit to the US Under Tito's leadership, Yugoslavia became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1961, Tito co-founded the movement with Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, India's Jawaharlal Nehru, Indonesia's Sukarno and Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah, in an action called The Initiative of Five (Tito, Nehru, Nasser, Sukarno, Nkrumah), thus establishing strong ties with third world countries. This move did much to improve Yugoslavia's diplomatic position. On 1 September 1961, Josip Broz Tito became the first Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement. On 7 April 1963, the country changed its official name to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Reforms encouraged private enterprise and greatly relaxed restrictions on freedom of speech and religious expression. Socialism of Sorts 10 June 1966. Broz subsequently went ona tour of the Americas. In Chile, two government ministers resigned over his visit to that country. Ivica Lučić, Komunistički progoni Katoličke crkve u Bosni i Hercegovini 1945.-1990.. National Security and the Future, 2008. Broz spoke at the United Nations General Assembly in New York, with his visit being protested by both Croat and Serb emigrants. US Senator Thomas Dodd subsequently said Broz had "bloodied hands". In 1966 an agreement with the Vatican, spawned by the death of Stepinac in 1960 and the decisions of the Second Vatican Council, was signed according new freedom to the Yugoslav Roman Catholic Church, particularly to teach the catechism and open seminaries. The agreement also eased tensions, which had prevented the naming of new bishops in Yugoslavia since 1945. Tito's new socialism met opposition from traditional communists culminating in conspiracy headed by Aleksandar Ranković. Unmeritorious Pardon 16 December 1966. In the same year Tito declared that Communists must henceforth chart Yugoslavia's course by the force of their arguments (implying a granting of freedom of discussion and an abandonment of dictatorship). The state security agency (UDBA) saw its power scaled back and its staff reduced to 5000. On 1 January 1967, Yugoslavia was the first communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors and abolish visa requirements. Beyond Dictatorship 20 January 1967. In the same year Tito became active in promoting a peaceful resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict. His plan called for Arabs to recognize State of Israel in exchange for territories Israel gained. Still a Fever 25 August 1967. In 1967, Tito offered Czechoslovak leader Alexander Dubček to fly to Prague on three hours notice if Dubček needed help in facing down the Soviets. Back to the Business of Reform 16 August 1968. In 1971, Tito was re-elected as President of Yugoslavia for the sixth time. In his speech in front of the Federal Assembly he introduced 20 sweeping constitutional amendments that would provide an updated framework on which the country would be based. The amendments provided for a collective presidency, a 22 member body consisting of elected representatives from six republics and two autonomous provinces. The body would have a single chairman of the presidency and chairmanship would rotate among six republics. When the Federal Assembly fails to agree on legislation, the collective presidency would have the power to rule by decree. Amendments also provided for stronger cabinet with considerable power to initiate and pursue legislature independently from the Communist Party. Džemal Bijedić was chosen as the Premier. The new amendments aimed to decentralize the country by granting greater autonomy to republics and provinces. The federal government would retain authority only over foreign affairs, defense, internal security, monetary affairs, free trade within Yugoslavia, and development loans to poorer regions. Control of education, healthcare, and housing would be exercised entirely by the governments of the republics and the autonomous provinces. Yugoslavia: Tito's Daring Experiment 9 August 1971. Tito's greatest strength, in the eyes of the western communists, had been in suppressing nationalist insurrections and maintaining unity throughout the country. It was Tito's call for unity, and related methods, that held together the people of Yugoslavia. This ability was put to a test several times during his reign, notably during the so-called Croatian Spring (also referred to as masovni pokret, maspok, meaning "mass movement") when the government had to suppress both public demonstrations and dissenting opinions within the Communist Party. During the Spring, on December 22, 1971 in Rudo Broz allegedly said, "The Sava will flow upstream before the Croats get their own state". photo: Policija između dviju grupa prosvjednika Avis za početnike, Danas Despite this suppression, much of maspok's demands were later realised with the new constitution. On 16 May 1974, the new Constitution was passed, and Josip Broz Tito was named President for life. Foreign policy Left to right: Jovanka Broz, Tito, Richard Nixon, and Pat Nixon in the White House in 1971 Tito was notable for pursuing a foreign policy of neutrality during the Cold War and for establishing close ties with developing countries. Tito's strong belief in self-determination caused early rift with Stalin and consequently, the Eastern Bloc. His public speeches often reiterated that policy of neutrality and cooperation with all countries would be natural as long as these countries did not use their influence to pressure Yugoslavia to take sides. Relations with the United States and Western European nations were generally cordial. Yugoslavia had a liberal travel policy permitting foreigners to freely travel through the country and its citizens to travel worldwide. This was limited by most Communist countries. A number of Yugoslav citizens worked throughout Western Europe. Tito also developed warm relations with Burma under U Nu, traveling to the country in 1955 and again in 1959, though he didn't receive the same treatment in 1959 from the new leader, Ne Win. Because of its neutrality, Yugoslavia would often be one of the only Communist countries to have diplomatic relations with right-wing, anti-Communist governments. For example, Yugoslavia was the only communist country allowed to have an embassy in Alfredo Stroessner's Paraguay. However, one notable exception to Yugoslavia's neutral stance toward anti-communist countries was Chile under Augusto Pinochet; Yugoslavia was one of many left-wing countries which severed diplomatic relations with Chile after Allende was overthrown. J. Samuel Valenzuela and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), Military Rule in Chile: Dictatorship and Oppositions, p. 316 Final years and aftermath Josip Broz Tito's funeral, 8 May 1980 After the constitutional changes of 1974, Tito increasingly took the role of senior statesman. His direct involvement in domestic policy and governing was somewhat diminishing. On January 7 and again on January 11, 1980, Tito was admitted to Klinični center Ljubljana (the clinical center in Ljubljana, Slovenia) with circulation problems in his legs. His left leg was amputated soon afterwards. He died there on 4 May 1980 at 3:05 pm. His funeral drew many world statesmen. Josip Broz Tito Statement on the Death of the President of Yugoslavia 4 May 1980. Based on the number of attending politicians and state delegations, at the time it was the largest statesman funeral in history. Several authors; "Josip Broz Tito - Ilustrirani življenjepis", page 166 They included four kings, thirty-one presidents, six princes, twenty-two prime ministers and forty-seven ministers of foreign affairs. They came from both sides of the Cold War, from 128 different countries. Jasper Ridley, Tito: A Biography, page 19 At the time of his death, speculation began about whether his successors could continue to hold Yugoslavia together. Ethnic divisions and conflict grew and eventually erupted in a series of Yugoslav wars a decade after his death. Tito was buried in a mausoleum in Belgrade, called Kuća Cveća (The House of Flowers) and numerous people visit the place as a shrine to "better times". The gifts he received during his presidency are kept in the Museum of the History of Yugoslavia (whose old names were "Museum 25. May," and "Museum of the Revolution") in Belgrade. The collection includes works of many world-famous artists, including original prints of Los Caprichos by Francisco Goya, and many others. http://actualidad.terra.es/cultura/articulo/hallan-goya-tito-milosevic-belgrado-2920598.htm The Government of Serbia has planned to merge the museum into the Museum of the History of Serbia. Status of the Museum of the History of Yugoslavia, B92 During his life and especially in the first year after his death, several places were named after Tito. Several of these places have since returned to their original names, such as Podgorica, formerly Titograd (though Podgorica's international airport is still identified by the code TGD), which reverted to its original name in 1992. Streets in Belgrade, the capital, have all reverted back to their original pre-World War II and pre-communist names as well. In 2004, Antun Augustinčić's statue of Broz in his birthplace of Kumrovec was decapitated in an explosion. U Kumrovcu Srušen I Oštećen Spomenik Josipu Brozu Titu – Nacional It was subsequently repaired. Twice in 2008, protests took place in Zagreb's Marshal Tito Square, with an aim to force the city government to rename it ("Krug za Trg" (eng. Circle for the Square), while a counter-protest ("Građanska inicijativa protiv ustaštva" eng. Citizens' Initiative Against Ustashizm) accused the "Circle for the Square" for historical revisionism and neo-fascism . In the Croatian coastal city of Opatija the main street (also its longest street) still bears the name of Marshal Tito. Marshal Tito Street in Sarajevo is shortened but is still the main street. Every federal unit had one town or city renamed to have Tito's name included. Following are: SR Bosnia and Herzegovina : Titov Drvar (previously Drvar) SR Croatia : Titova Korenica (previously Korenica) SR Macedonia : Titov Veles (previously Veles) SR Montenegro : Titograd (previously Podgorica) SR Serbia : Titovo Uzice (previously Uzice) SR Slovenija : Titovo Velenje (previously Velenje) SAP Vojvodina : Titov Vrbas (previously Vrbas) SAP Kosovo and Metohija : Titova Mitrovica (previously Kosovska Mitrovica) SR - Socialistic Republic SAP - Socialistic Autonomous Province Family and personal life Tito's statue by Antun Augustinčić (1900-1979) in Kumrovec, Croatia Tito carried on numerous affairs and was married several times. In 1918 he was brought to Omsk, Russia as a prisoner of war. There he met Pelagija "Polka" Belousova who was then thirteen; he married her a year later, and she moved with him to Yugoslavia. Polka bore him five children but only their son Žarko (born 1924) survived. Barnett N., Tito, ibid, p39 When Tito was jailed in 1928, she returned to Russia. After the divorce in 1936 she later remarried. In 1936, when Tito stayed at the Hotel Lux in Moscow, he met the Austrian comrade Lucia Bauer. They married in October 1936, but the records of this marriage were later erased. Barnett N., Tito, ibid, p44 His next notable relationship was with Hertha Haas, whom he married. In May 1941, she bore him a son, Aleksandar nicknamed Miša. All throughout his relationship with Haas, Tito maintained a promiscuous life and had a parallel relationship with Davorjanka Paunović, codename Zdenka, a courier and his personal secretary. Hertha and Tito suddenly parted company in 1943 in Jajce during the second meeting of AVNOJ after she reportedly walked in on him and Davorjanka. Titova udovica daleko od očiju javnosti, Blic, December 28, 2008 Paunović, by most accounts, was the love of his life. She died of tuberculosis in 1946 and Tito insisted that she be buried in the backyard of the Beli Dvor, his Belgrade residence. Interview with Lordan Zafranovic His best known wife was Jovanka Broz (née Budisavljević). Tito was just shy of his 59th birthday, while she was 27, when they finally married in April 1952, with state security chief Aleksandar Ranković as the best man. Their eventual marriage came about somewhat unexpectedly since Tito actually rejected her some years earlier when his confidante Ivan Krajacic brought her in originally. At that time, she was in her early 20s and Tito, objecting to her energetic personality, opted for the more mature opera singer Zinka Kunc instead. Not the one to be discouraged easily, Jovanka continued working at Beli Dvor, where she managed the staff of servants and eventually got another chance after Tito's strange relationship with Zinka failed. Since Jovanka was the only female companion he married while in power, she also went down in history as Yugoslavia's first lady. Their relationship was not a happy one, however. It had gone through many, often public, ups and downs with episodes of infidelities and even allegations of preparation for a coup d'etat by the latter pair. Certain unofficial reports suggest Tito and Jovanka even formally divorced in the late 1970s, shortly before his death. However, during Tito's funeral she was officially present as Tito's wife, and later claimed rights for inheritance. The couple did not have any children. Tito's notable grandchildren include Aleksandra Broz, a prominent theatre director in Croatia, Svetlana Broz, a cardiologist and writer in Bosnia and Josip "Joška" Broz and Eduard Broz. Though Tito was most likely born on 7 May, he celebrated his birthday on 25 May, after he became president of Yugoslavia, to mark the occasion of an unsuccessful Nazi attempt at his life in 1944. The Germans found forged documents of Tito's, where 25 May was stated as his birthday. They attacked Tito on the day they believed was his birthday. Stvaranje Titove Jugoslavije. page 436, ISBN 86-385-0091-2 As the leader of Yugoslavia Tito maintained a lavish lifestyle and kept several mansions. In Belgrade he resided in the official palace, Beli dvor, and maintained a separate private residence; he spent much time at his private island of Brijuni (Brioni), an official residence from 1949 on, and at his palace at the Bled lake. His grounds at Karadjordjevo were the site of "diplomatic hunts". By 1974 Tito had 32 official residences. Barnett N, Tito, ibid p138 As regards the knowledge of languages, Tito replied that he spoke Yugoslav, German, Russian and partly English. http://books.google.com/books?id=C6SaAAAAIAAJ&q=Tito+spoke++languages&dq=Tito+spoke++languages&client=firefox-a&pgis=1 http://books.google.com/books?id=TjOsyebOTS8C&pg=PA155&dq=Tito+spoke++languages&client=firefox-a#PPA155,M1 25 May was institutionalized as the Day of Youth (Dan Mladosti) in former Yugoslavia. The Relay of Youth started about two months earlier, each time from a different town of Yugoslavia. The baton passed through hundreds of hands of relay runners and typically visited all major cities of the country. On 25 May of each year, the baton finally passed into the hands of Marshal Tito at the end of festivities at Yugoslav People's Army Stadium (hosting FK Partizan) in Belgrade. Origin of the name "Tito" It's not certain, but a popular explanation of the sobriquet claims that it is a conjunction of two Serbo-Croatian words, "ti" (meaning "you") and "to" (meaning "that"). As the story goes, during the frantic times of his command, he would issue commands with those two words, by pointing to the person, and then task. This explanation for the name's origin is provided in Fitzroy Maclean's 1949 book, Eastern Approaches. Tito is also an old, though uncommon, Croatian name, corresponding to Titus. Tito's biographer, Vladimir Dedijer, claimed that it came from the Croatian romantic writer, Tituš Brezovački, but the name is very well known in Zagorje. Josip Broz in a hand written note from 1958 (the note is kept in Archive of Communist Party of Yugoslavia) confirmed that this name was very common in his region, and it was the main reason for adopting it between 1934 and 1936. Previously he used names Rudi (for domestic activities ) and Walter (for international activities). However, Rodoljub Čolaković already used name Rudi too, so Josip Broz replaced it with Tito. Male Novine, "Titovim Stazama Revolucije", Special edition, 1977, page 96 The newest theory is from the Croatian journalist Denis Kuljiš. He got information from a descendant of the Comintern spy Baturin, operating in Istanbul in the thirties, about a code system that was used by the latter. Josip Broz was one of his agents, and his secret nicknames were allegedly always the names of pistols. Tito himself confirmed that he used the nickname "Walter", possibly after the German Walther PPK pistol. According to Baturin, one of the last nicknames was "TT", after the Soviet TT-30 pistol, and Broz even signed a number of Communist Party documents with that name after returning to Yugoslavia. Kuljiš believes that after a few years "TT" (pronounced in Serbo-Croatian as "te te") became "Tito". Quotes Tito in Karađorđevo near Bačka Palanka (Serbia) On Brotherhood and Unity: On Bosnia and Herzegovina: Awards and decorations Tito received many awards and decorations both from his own country and from other countries. Most notable of these (with defunct awards in italics) are: Yugoslav awards and decorations Marshal Josip Broz Tito's ribbons as they would appear today. Included are Yugoslav (SFRY) decorations and the ribbon of the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion. Award or decoration Country Date Place Remarks RefOrder of the People's Hero of Yugoslavia(Awarded three times)Yugoslavia Yugoslavia6 November 1944,15 May 1972,16 May 1977Vis, Belgrade, BelgradeOnly person to receive it three times. Bilo je časno živjeti s Titom. RO Mladost, RO Prosvjeta, Zagreb, February 1981. (pg. 102) Order of the Yugoslavian Great StarYugoslavia Yugoslavia1 February 1954BelgradeHighest national order of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.Order of FreedomYugoslavia Yugoslavia12 June 1945BelgradeHighest military order of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.Order of the Hero of Socialist labourYugoslavia Yugoslavia1950BelgradeOrder of National LiberationYugoslavia Yugoslavia15 August 1943JajceOrder of the War flagYugoslavia Yugoslavia29 December 1951BelgradeOrder of the Yugoslav Flag with SashYugoslavia Yugoslavia26 November 1947BelgradeOrder of the Partisan Star with Golden WreathYugoslavia Yugoslavia15 August 1943JajceOrder of the Republic with Golden WreathYugoslavia Yugoslavia2 July 1960BelgradeOrder of merits for the people with golden starYugoslavia Yugoslavia9 June 1945BelgradeOrder of the brotherhood and unity with golden wreathYugoslavia Yugoslavia15 August 1943JajceOrder of the National Army with Laurel WreathYugoslavia Yugoslavia29 December 1951BelgradeOrder of Military Merit with Great StarYugoslavia Yugoslavia29 December 1951BelgradeOrder of CourageYugoslavia Yugoslavia15 August 1943JajceCommemorative Medal of the Yugoslav Partisans - 1941Yugoslavia Yugoslavia14 September 1944Vis"30 Years of Victory over Fascism" MedalYugoslavia Yugoslavia9 May 1975Belgrade"10 Years of Yugoslav Army" MedalYugoslavia Yugoslavia22 December 1951Belgrade"20 Years of Yugoslav Army" MedalYugoslavia Yugoslavia22 December 1961Belgrade"30 Years of Yugoslav Army" MedalYugoslavia Yugoslavia22 December 1971Belgrade International awards and decorations Award or decoration Country Date Place Remarks RefOrder of the Grand Star for Exceptional Merit of the Republic of Austria with SashAustria Austria9. February 1965ViennaHighest Austrian order of merit.Grand Collar of the Order of Almara with SashAfghanistan Afghanistan1 November 1960BelgradeHighest decoration of the Kingdom of Afghanistan.Grand Cross of the Order of Léopold with SashBelgium Belgium6 October 1970BrusselsHighest military order of Belgium.Grand Collar of the Order of the Andean EagleBolivia Bolivia29 September 1963CochabambaBolivian state order.Grand Collar of the National Order of the Southern CrossBrazil Brazil19 September 1963BrasíliaBrazil's highest order of merit.Order of People's Liberty 1st ClassBulgaria Bulgaria25 November 1947SofiaAwarded for the participation in the revolutionary struggle of the Bulgarian people.Order of the 9 September 1944 1st Class with SwordsBulgaria Bulgaria25 November 1947SofiaAwarded to Bulgarian and foreign citizens who took part in the armed insurrection of September 9, 1944.Order of Georgi DimitrovBulgaria Bulgaria22 September 1965SofiaAwarded for exceptional merit. Came with the title of "People's Hero of Bulgaria".Grand Collar of the Order of Thiri ThudhammaBurma Burma6 January 1955RangoonThe highest Burmese commendation (at the time).Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia 1st Class with SashCambodia Cambodia20 July 1956BrioniCambodian chivalric order, originally established by France (still in use).Grand Collar of National IndependenceCambodia Cambodia17 January 1968Phnom PenhCambodian order.Grand Cross of the Order of Merit for Cameroon with SashCameroon Cameroon21 June 1967BrijuniHighest order of merit of the Republic of Cameroon.Grand Collar of the Order of Merit of Republic of ChileChile Chile24 September 1963SantiagoChilean order of merit.Order of Merit of the Congo with SashCongo Congo10 September 1975BelgradeHighest order of merit in the Congo.Order of the White Lion I. Class with CollarCzechoslovakia Czechoslovakia22 March 1946PragueThe highest order of Czechoslovakia.Military Order of the White Lion "For Victory" I. ClassCzechoslovakia Czechoslovakia22 March 1946PragueHighest military order of Czechoslovakia.Knight's Order of the Elephant with SashDenmark Denmark29 October 1974CopenhagenHighest order of Denmark. Recipients of Order of the Elephant Grand Collar of the Order of the NileEgypt Egypt28 December 1955CairoEgypt's highest state honor.Grand Collar of the Order of the Queen of Sheba with SashEthiopia Ethiopia21 July 1954BelgradeEthiopian imperial order.War Medal of Saint George with Victory LeavesEthiopia Ethiopia21 July 1954BelgradeMilitary medal of Ethiopia.Medal for Defence of the Country with Five Palm LeavesEthiopia Ethiopia21 July 1954BelgradeMilitary medal of Ethiopia.Commander Grand Cross, with Collar, of the Order of the White Rose of FinlandFinland Finland6 May 1963BelgradeOne of three highest state orders of Finland, established in 1919 by Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim.Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath with Collar and SashUnited Kingdom United Kingdom17 October 1972BelgradeBritish order of chivalry, awarded in Belgrade by Queen Elizabeth II.Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour 1st Class with SashFrance France7 May 1956ParisHighest decoration of France, awarded to Tito for extraordinary contributions in the struggle for peace.Médaille militaireFrance France7 May 1956ParisAlso received by Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Recipients of Médaille militaire Special class of the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Germany with SashFederal Republic of Germany FR Germany24 June 1974BonnHighest possible class of the only general state decoration of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany).Order of Karl Marx(Awarded two times)German Democratic Republic GDR12 November 1974, 12 January 1977Berlin, BelgradeThe most important order in the German Democratic Republic, GDR (East Germany).Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer with SashGreece Greece2 June 1954AthensHighest decoration of Greece.Grand Cross with Star of the Order of the Hungarian Republic with SashHungary Hungary7 December 1947BudapestHungarian national order.Order of Merit of the People's Republic of Hungary 1st ClassHungary Hungary7 December 1947BudapestHighest Hungarian order of merit.Order of the Flag of People's Republic of Hungary 1st Class with BrilliantsHungary Hungary14 September 1964BudapestHungarian national order.Order of ShaktiIndonesia Indonesia28 December 1958JakartaIndonesian order, awarded for extraordinary bravery.Guerilla MedalIndonesia Indonesia28 December 1958JakartaIndonesian medal, crafted from the first exploded shell of the Indonesian National Revolution.Grand Collar of the Order of Pahlavi with SashIran Iran3 June 1966BaghdadIranian order.Commemorative Order "2,500 years of the Iranian Empire"Iran Iran14 October 1971PersepolisIranian order, commemorating 2,500 years of the Iranian Empire.Order "Al Rafidain" 1st Class with SashIraq Iraq14 August 1967BelgradeContemporary Iraqi state order.Military Order "Al Rafidain" 1st Class with SashIraq Iraq7 February 1979BaghdadContemporary Iraqi military order.Order of the Grand Cross of Merit of the Republic with Collar and Sash(Cavaliere di Gran Croce Decorato di Gran Cordone Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana)Italy Italy2 October 1969BelgradeHighest existing Italian order of merit, awarded to Josip Broz Tito in Belgrade.Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the ChrysanthemumJapan Japan8 April 1968TokyoHighest Japanese decoration for living persons.Order of the Knight of the Golden Lion of the House of Nassau with SashLuxembourg Luxembourg9 October 1970LuxembourgChivalric Order of LuxembourgCollar of the Order of the Azetc EagleMexico Mexico30 March 1963BelgradeHighest decoration awarded to foreigners in Mexico.Order of Suha BatorMongolia Mongolia20 April 1968Ulan BatorA national order of Mongolia.Grand Collar of the Order of MehamediMorocco Moroccol April 1961RabatMoroccan order.Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands LionNetherlands Netherlands20 October 1970AmsterdamOrder of the Netherlands which was first created by the first King of the Netherlands, King William I.Grand Cross with Collar of St. OlavNorway Norway13 May 1965OsloHighest Norwegian order of chivalry, founded in 1066.Grand Collar of the Order of Manuel Amador GuerreroPanama Panama15 March 1976PanamaThe highest honour of Panama.Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta with Sash(Awarded two times)Poland Poland25 June 1964,4 May 1973Warsaw,Brdo CastleOne of Poland's highest orders.Grand Cross of the Order Virtuti Militari with StarPoland Poland16 March 1946WarsawPoland's highest military decoration for courage in the face of the enemy.Medal Zwycięstwa i Wolności 1945Poland Poland16 March 1946Warsaw670,000 of the medals were awarded from 1958 to 1992.Krzyż PartyzanckiPoland Poland16 March 1946Warsaw55,000 of the medals were awarded.Grand Collar of the Order of Saint James of the Sword with SashPortugal Portugal23 October 1975BelgradePortuguese order of chivalry, founded in 1171.Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry with SashPortugal Portugal17 October 1977LisbonPortuguese National Order of Knighthood.Order of the Victory of SocialismRomania Romania16 May 1972Drobeta-Turnu SeverinHighest Romanian decoration, awarded with the title of "People's Hero of Romania".Grand Cross of the Order for Civil and Military Merit of San Marino with SashSan Marino San Marino25 September 1967BelgradeHighest Order of San Marino.Order of VictorySoviet Union Soviet Union9 September 1945BelgradeHighest military decoration of the Soviet Union, one of only 5 foreigners to receive it.Last person to receive the Order (without having it revoked). List of order of Victory recipients Order of Suvorov 1st ClassSoviet Union Soviet UnionSeptember 1944MoscowAwarded to military personnel for exceptional duty in combat operations, also received by Marshal Georgi K. Zhukov.Order of LeninSoviet Union Soviet Union5 June 1972MoscowHighest National Order of the Soviet Union.Order of the October RevolutionSoviet Union Soviet Union16 August 1977MoscowSecond highest National Order of the Soviet Union. See also Brotherhood and unity Jovanka Broz wife List of places named after Tito List of Yugoslav politicians Marshal of Yugoslavia Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Titoism Yugoslav Navy Yacht "Galeb" Yugoslav Partisans Yugoslav People's Army Yugoslav People's Liberation War House of Flowers Notes References Silvin Eiletz: Titova skrivnostna leta v Moskvi 1935–1940, Mohorjeva založba, Celovec 2008 Further reading Barnett, Neil. Tito. London: Haus Publishing, 2006 (paperback, ISBN 1-904950-31-0). Reviewed by Adam LeBor in the New Statesman, September 11, 2006. Carter, April. Marshal Tito: A Bibliography (Bibliographies of World Leaders). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-313-28087-8). Dedijer, Vladimir. Tito. New York: Arno Press, 1980 (hardcover, ISBN 0-405-04565-4). Đilas, Milovan, Tito: The Story from Inside. London: Phoenix Press, 2001 (new paperback ed., ISBN 1-84212-047-6). Lorraine M. Lees. Keeping Tito Afloat - The United States, Yugoslavia, and the Cold War, 1945–1960. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-271-02650-3). MacLean, Fitzroy. Tito: A Pictorial Biography. McGraw-Hill 1980 (Hardcover, ISBN 0-07-044671-7). Pavlowitch, Stevan K. Tito: Yugoslavia's Great Dictator, A Reassessment. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1992 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8142-0600-X; paperback, ISBN 0-8142-0601-8); London: C. Hurst & Co. (Publishers), 1993 (hardcover, ISBN 1-85065-150-7; paperback, ISBN 1-85065-155-8). Vukcevich, Boško S. Tito: Architect of Yugoslav Disintegration. Orlando, FL: Rivercross Publishing, 1995 (hardcover, ISBN 0-944957-46-3). West, Richard. Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia. London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1994 (hardcover, ISBN 1-85619-437-X); New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1996 (paperback, ISBN 0-7867-0332-6). External links Josip Broz Tito Reference Archive at the Marxists Internet Archive Unseen pictures from US Archives |- | Josip_Broz_Tito |@lemmatized josip:25 broz:50 tito:147 cyrillic:1 script:1 јосип:1 броз:1 тито:1 celebrate:3 birthday:5 may:29 official:6 date:3 birth:1 certificate:1 yugoslav:52 revolutionary:4 statesman:6 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:4 secretary:8 general:9 later:10 president:13 communist:35 party:19 league:1 yugoslavia:83 go:8 lead:7 wwii:1 resistance:9 movement:10 partisan:24 ian:1 bremmer:1 j:2 curve:1 new:20 way:3 understand:1 nation:7 rise:3 fall:4 page:8 war:33 prime:8 minister:11 socialist:11 federal:13 republic:27 sfry:3 death:8 hold:5 rank:1 marshal:9 serve:2 supreme:2 commander:3 military:19 people:23 army:16 jna:2 chief:2 architect:2 second:6 federation:2 last:3 world:17 ii:15 despite:4 one:12 founder:2 cominform:4 also:18 first:17 leader:18 power:6 defy:2 soviet:26 hegemony:1 backer:1 independent:7 road:1 socialism:6 sometimes:1 refer:3 national:17 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3,756 | Apache_HTTP_Server | The Apache HTTP Server, commonly referred to as Apache (), is a web server notable for playing a key role in the initial growth of the World Wide Web and in 2009 became the first web server to surpass the 100 million web site milestone . Apache was the first viable alternative to the Netscape Communications Corporation web server (currently known as Sun Java System Web Server), and has since evolved to rival other Unix-based web servers in terms of functionality and performance. The majority of all web servers using Apache are Linux web servers. Apache is developed and maintained by an open community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation. The application is available for a wide variety of operating systems, including Unix, GNU, FreeBSD, Linux, Solaris, Novell NetWare, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, OS/2, TPF, and eComStation. Released under the Apache License, Apache is characterized as free software and open source software. Since April 1996 Apache has been the most popular HTTP server on the World Wide Web. Apache served over 46% of all websites and over 66% of the million busiest. History and name The first version of the Apache web server was created by Robert McCool, who was heavily involved with the National Center for Supercomputing Applications web server, known simply as NCSA HTTPd. When McCool left NCSA in mid-1994, the development of httpd stalled, leaving a variety of patches for improvements circulating through e-mails. These patches were provided by a number of other developers besides McCool: Brian Behlendorf, Roy Fielding, Rob Hartill, David Robinson, Cliff Skolnick, Randy Terbush, Robert S. Thau, Andrew Wilson, Eric Hagberg, Frank Peters and Nicolas Pioch, and they thus helped to form the original "Apache Group". There have been two explanations of the project's name. According to the Apache Foundation, the name was chosen out of respect for the Native American tribe of Apache (Indé), well-known for their endurance and their skills in warfare. However, the original FAQ on the Apache Server project's website, from 1996 to 2001, claimed that "The result after combining [the NCSA httpd patches] was a patchy server. The first explanation was supported at an Apache Conference and in an interview in 2000 by Brian Behlendorf, who said that the name connoted "Take no prisoners. Be kind of aggressive and kick some ass". Behlendorf then contradicted this in a 2007 interview, stating that "The Apache server isn't named in honor of Geronimo's tribe" but that so many revisions were sent in that "the group called it 'a patchy Web server'". Both explanations are probably appropriate though the pun explanation has fallen into disfavor. Version 2 of the Apache server was a substantial re-write of much of the Apache 1.x code, with a strong focus on further modularization and the development of a portability layer, the Apache Portable Runtime. The Apache 2.x core has several major enhancements over Apache 1.x. These include UNIX threading, better support for non-Unix platforms (such as Microsoft Windows), a new Apache API, and IPv6 support. The first alpha release of Apache 2 was in March 2000, with the first general availability release on April 6, 2002. Version 2.2 introduced a more flexible authorization API. It also features improved cache modules and proxy modules. Features Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality. These can range from server-side programming language support to authentication schemes. Some common language interfaces support mod_perl, mod_python, Tcl, and PHP. Popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, mod_digest, and mod_auth_digest, the successor to mod_digest. A sample of other features include SSL and TLS support (mod_ssl), a proxy module, a URL rewriter (also known as a rewrite engine, implemented under mod_rewrite), custom log files (mod_log_config), and filtering support (mod_include and mod_ext_filter). Popular compression methods on Apache include the external extension module, mod_gzip, implemented to help with reduction of the size (weight) of web pages served over HTTP. Apache logs can be analyzed through a web browser using free scripts such as AWStats/W3Perl or Visitors. Virtual hosting allows one Apache installation to serve many different actual websites. For example, one machine with one Apache installation could simultaneously serve www.example.com, www.test.com, test47.test-server.test.com, etc. Apache features configurable error messages, DBMS-based authentication databases, and content negotiation. It is also supported by several graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Use Apache is primarily used to serve both static content and dynamic Web pages on the World Wide Web. Many web applications are designed expecting the environment and features that Apache provides. Apache is the web server component of the popular LAMP web server application stack, alongside Linux, MySQL, and the PHP/Perl/Python (and now also Ruby) programming languages. Apache is redistributed as part of various proprietary software packages including the Oracle Database or the IBM WebSphere application server. Mac OS X integrates Apache as its built-in web server and as support for its WebObjects application server. It is also supported in some way by Borland in the Kylix and Delphi development tools. Apache is included with Novell NetWare 6.5, where it is the default web server. Apache is also included with many Linux distributions. Apache is used for many other tasks where content needs to be made available in a secure and reliable way. One example is sharing files from a personal computer over the Internet. A user who has Apache installed on their desktop can put arbitrary files in Apache's document root which can then be shared. Programmers developing web applications often use a locally installed version of Apache in order to preview and test code as it is being developed. Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS) is the main competitor to Apache, trailed by Sun Microsystems' Sun Java System Web Server and a host of other applications such as Zeus Web Server. License The software license under which software from the Apache Foundation is distributed is a distinctive part of the Apache HTTP Server's history and presence in the open source software community. The Apache License allows for the distribution of both open and closed source derivations of the source code. The Free Software Foundation does not consider the Apache License to be compatible with version 2 of the GNU General Public License (GPL) in that software licensed under the Apache License cannot be integrated with software that is distributed under the GPL: However, version 3 of the GPL includes a provision (Section 7e) which allows it to be compatible with licenses that have patent retaliation clauses, including the Apache License. The name Apache is a registered trademark and may only be used with the trademark holder's express permission. See also Nginx .htaccess ApacheBench Comparison of web servers LAMP (software bundle) POSSE project Stronghold (software) XAMPP References External links Project home page Starting Apache Web Server at every Reboot (for Linux) Giving Apache Web Server A Different Name by changing Source Code Before Installation (very simple instructions) | Apache_HTTP_Server |@lemmatized apache:51 http:4 server:30 commonly:1 refer:1 web:28 notable:1 play:1 key:1 role:1 initial:1 growth:1 world:3 wide:4 become:1 first:6 surpass:1 million:2 site:1 milestone:1 viable:1 alternative:1 netscape:1 communication:1 corporation:1 currently:1 know:4 sun:3 java:2 system:3 since:2 evolve:1 rival:1 unix:4 base:2 term:1 functionality:2 performance:1 majority:1 use:7 linux:5 develop:3 maintain:1 open:4 community:2 developer:2 auspex:1 software:12 foundation:4 application:8 available:2 variety:3 operate:1 include:10 gnu:2 freebsd:1 solaris:1 novell:2 netware:2 mac:2 os:3 x:5 microsoft:3 window:2 tpf:1 ecomstation:1 release:3 license:10 characterize:1 free:3 source:5 april:2 popular:4 serve:5 website:3 busy:1 history:2 name:7 version:6 create:1 robert:2 mccool:3 heavily:1 involve:1 national:1 center:1 supercomputing:1 simply:1 ncsa:3 httpd:3 leave:2 mid:1 development:3 stall:1 patch:3 improvement:1 circulate:1 e:1 mail:1 provide:2 number:1 besides:1 brian:2 behlendorf:3 roy:1 fielding:1 rob:1 hartill:1 david:1 robinson:1 cliff:1 skolnick:1 randy:1 terbush:1 thau:1 andrew:1 wilson:1 eric:1 hagberg:1 frank:1 peter:1 nicolas:1 pioch:1 thus:1 help:2 form:1 original:2 group:2 two:1 explanation:4 project:4 accord:1 choose:1 respect:1 native:1 american:1 tribe:2 indé:1 well:1 endurance:1 skill:1 warfare:1 however:2 faq:1 claim:1 result:1 combine:1 patchy:2 support:11 conference:1 interview:2 say:1 connote:1 take:1 prisoner:1 kind:1 aggressive:1 kick:1 contradict:1 state:1 honor:1 geronimo:1 many:6 revision:1 send:1 call:1 probably:1 appropriate:1 though:1 pun:1 fall:1 disfavor:1 substantial:1 write:1 much:1 code:4 strong:1 focus:1 modularization:1 portability:1 layer:1 portable:1 runtime:1 core:2 several:2 major:1 enhancement:1 threading:1 good:1 non:1 platform:1 new:1 api:2 alpha:1 march:1 general:2 availability:1 introduce:1 flexible:1 authorization:1 also:7 feature:6 improved:1 cache:1 module:6 proxy:2 implement:3 compiled:1 extend:1 range:1 side:1 programming:2 language:3 authentication:3 scheme:1 common:1 interface:2 tcl:1 php:2 successor:1 sample:1 ssl:1 tls:1 url:1 rewriter:1 rewrite:1 engine:1 custom:1 log:2 file:3 filter:1 compression:1 method:1 external:2 extension:1 reduction:1 size:1 weight:1 page:3 analyze:1 browser:1 script:1 awstats:1 visitor:1 virtual:1 hosting:1 allow:3 one:4 installation:3 different:2 actual:1 example:3 machine:1 could:1 simultaneously:1 www:2 com:3 test:4 etc:1 configurable:1 error:1 message:1 dbms:1 database:2 content:3 negotiation:1 graphical:1 user:2 gui:1 primarily:1 static:1 dynamic:1 design:1 expect:1 environment:1 component:1 lamp:2 stack:1 alongside:1 mysql:1 perl:1 python:1 ruby:1 redistribute:1 part:2 various:1 proprietary:1 package:1 oracle:1 ibm:1 websphere:1 integrate:2 built:1 webobjects:1 way:2 borland:1 kylix:1 delphi:1 tool:1 default:1 distribution:2 task:1 need:1 make:1 secure:1 reliable:1 share:2 personal:1 computer:1 internet:2 instal:1 desktop:1 put:1 arbitrary:1 document:1 root:1 programmer:1 often:1 locally:1 installed:1 order:1 preview:1 information:1 service:1 ii:1 main:1 competitor:1 trail:1 microsystems:1 host:1 zeus:1 distribute:2 distinctive:1 presence:1 close:1 derivation:1 consider:1 compatible:2 public:1 gpl:3 cannot:1 provision:1 section:1 patent:1 retaliation:1 clause:1 registered:1 trademark:2 may:1 holder:1 express:1 permission:1 see:1 nginx:1 htaccess:1 apachebench:1 comparison:1 bundle:1 posse:1 stronghold:1 xampp:1 reference:1 link:1 home:1 start:1 every:1 reboot:1 give:1 change:1 simple:1 instruction:1 |@bigram freebsd_linux:1 linux_solaris:1 novell_netware:2 mac_os:2 microsoft_window:2 apache_license:5 center_supercomputing:1 supercomputing_application:1 fall_disfavor:1 web_browser:1 virtual_hosting:1 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 interface_gui:1 perl_python:1 sun_microsystems:1 license_gpl:1 registered_trademark:1 external_link:1 |
3,757 | Komodo_dragon | The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) is a venomous species of lizard that inhabits the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and Gili Motang in Indonesia. A member of the monitor lizard family (Varanidae), it is the largest living species of lizard, growing to an average length of and weighing around . Their unusual size is attributed to island gigantism, since there are no other carnivorous animals to fill the niche on the islands where they live, and also to the Komodo dragon's low metabolic rate. As a result of their size, these lizards dominate the ecosystems in which they live. Although Komodo dragons eat mostly carrion, they will also hunt and ambush prey including invertebrates, birds, and mammals. Mating begins between May and August, and the eggs are laid in September. About twenty eggs are deposited in abandoned megapode nests and incubated for seven to eight months, hatching in April, when insects are most plentiful. Young Komodo dragons are vulnerable and therefore dwell in trees, safe from predators and cannibalistic adults. They take around three to five years to mature, and may live as long as fifty years. They are among the rare vertebrates capable of parthenogenesis, in which females may lay viable eggs if males are absent. This article in Nature (magazine) reports a female who reproduced parthenogenetically for one batch of eggs, and subsequently was impregnated by a male in a normal process. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v444/n7122/abs/4441021a.html Komodo dragons were discovered by Western scientists in 1910. Their large size and fearsome reputation make them popular zoo exhibits. In the wild their range has contracted due to human activities and they are listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. They are protected under Indonesian law, and a national park, Komodo National Park, was founded to aid protection efforts. Etymology The Komodo dragon is also known as the Komodo monitor or the Komodo Island monitor in scientific literature, although this is not very common. To the natives of Komodo Island, it is referred to as ora, buaya darat (land crocodile) or biawak raksasa (giant monitor). Evolutionary history The evolutionary development of the Komodo dragon started with the Varanus genus, which originated in Asia about 40 million years ago and migrated to Australia. Around 15 million years ago, a collision between Australia and Southeast Asia allowed the varanids to move into what is now the Indonesian archipelago. The Komodo dragon is believed to have differentiated from its Australian ancestors 4 million years ago, extending their range to as far east as the island of Timor. Dramatic lowering of sea level during the last glacial period uncovered extensive stretches of continental shelf that the Komodo dragon colonized, becoming isolated in their present island range as sea levels rose afterwards. Description Closeup of a Komodo dragon's skin In the wild, an adult Komodo dragon usually weighs around , although captive specimens often weigh more. The largest verified wild specimen was long and weighed , including undigested food. The Komodo dragon has a tail as long as its body, as well as about 60 frequently replaced serrated teeth that can measure up to 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) in length. Its saliva is frequently blood-tinged, because its teeth are almost completely covered by gingival tissue that is naturally lacerated during feeding. This creates an ideal culture for the virulent bacteria that live in its mouth. It also has a long, yellow, deeply forked tongue. Senses The Komodo dragon does not have a particularly acute sense of hearing, despite its visible earholes, and is only able to hear sounds between 400 and 2000 hertz. It is able to see as far away as , but because its retinas only contain cones, it is thought to have poor night vision. The Komodo dragon is able to see in color, but has poor visual discrimination of stationary objects. A Komodo dragon on Komodo Island uses his tongue to sample the air. The Komodo dragon uses its tongue to detect, taste, and smell stimuli, as with many other reptiles, with the vomeronasal sense using a Jacobson's organ, a sense that aids navigation in the dark. With the help of a favorable wind and its habit of swinging its head from side to side as it walks, Komodo dragons may be able to detect carrion from 4–9.5 kilometres (2.5–6 mi) away. The dragon's nostrils are not of great use for smelling, as the animal does not have a diaphragm. It only has a few taste buds in the back of its throat. Its scales, some of which are reinforced with bone, have sensory plaques connected to nerves that facilitate its sense of touch. The scales around the ears, lips, chin, and soles of the feet may have three or more sensory plaques. The Komodo dragon was formerly thought to be deaf when a study reported no agitation in wild Komodo dragons in response to whispers, raised voices, or shouts. This was disputed when London Zoological Garden employee Joan Proctor trained a captive specimen to come out to feed at the sound of her voice, even when she could not be seen. Ecology Close-up of a Komodo dragon's foot and tail The Komodo dragon prefers hot and dry places, and typically lives in dry open grassland, savanna, and tropical forest at low elevations. As an ectotherm, it is most active in the day, although it exhibits some nocturnal activity. Komodo dragons are largely solitary, coming together only to breed and eat. They are capable of running rapidly in brief sprints up to 20 kilometres per hour (12.4 mph), diving up to 4.5 metres (15 ft), and climbing trees proficiently when young through use of their strong claws. To catch prey that is out of reach, the Komodo dragon may stand on its hind legs and use its tail as a support. As the Komodo dragon matures, its claws are used primarily as weapons, as its great size makes climbing impractical. For shelter, the Komodo dragon digs holes that can measure from 1–3 metres (3–10 ft) wide with its powerful forelimbs and claws. Because of its large size and habit of sleeping in these burrows, it is able to conserve body heat throughout the night and minimize its basking period the morning after. The Komodo dragon typically hunts in the afternoon, but stays in the shade during the hottest part of the day. These special resting places, usually located on ridges with a cool sea breeze, are marked with droppings and are cleared of vegetation. They also serve as a strategic location from which to ambush deer. Diet Komodo dragons on Rinca Komodo dragons are carnivores. Although they eat mostly carrion, they will also ambush live prey with a stealthy approach, a technique that has allowed the Komodo dragon to capture even the most lethal prey, such as the King Cobra. When suitable prey arrives near a dragon's ambush site, it will suddenly charge at the animal and go for the underside or the throat. It is able to locate its prey using its keen sense of smell, which can locate a dead or dying animal from a range of up to 9.5 kilometers (6 miles). Komodo dragons have also been observed knocking down large pigs and deer with their strong tail. Komodo dragons eat by tearing large chunks of flesh and swallowing them whole while holding the carcass down with their forelegs. For smaller prey up to the size of a goat, their loosely articulated jaws, flexible skull, and expandable stomach allow it to swallow its prey whole. The vegetable contents of the stomach and intestines are typically avoided. Copious amounts of red saliva that the Komodo dragons produce help to lubricate the food, but swallowing is still a long process (15–20 minutes to swallow a goat). Komodo dragons may attempt to speed up the process by ramming the carcass against a tree to force it down its throat, sometimes ramming so forcefully that the tree is knocked down. To prevent itself from suffocating while swallowing, it breathes using a small tube under the tongue that connects to the lungs. After eating up to 80 percent of its body weight in one meal, it drags itself to a sunny location to speed digestion, as the food could rot and poison the dragon if left undigested for too long. Because of their slow metabolism, large dragons can survive on as little as 12 meals a year. After digestion, the Komodo dragon regurgitates a mass of horns, hair, and teeth known as the gastric pellet, which is covered in malodorous mucus. After regurgitating the gastric pellet, it rubs its face in the dirt or on bushes to get rid of the mucus, suggesting that it, like humans, does not relish the scent of its own excretions. A young Komodo dragon photographed on Rinca feeding on a water buffalo carcass The largest animals generally eat first, while the smaller ones follow a hierarchy. The largest male asserts his dominance and the smaller males show their submission by use of body language and rumbling hisses. Dragons of equal size may resort to "wrestling." Losers usually retreat though they have been known to be killed and eaten by victors. The Komodo dragon's diet is wide-ranging, and includes invertebrates, other reptiles (including smaller Komodo dragons), birds, bird eggs, small mammals, monkeys, wild boar, goats, deer, horses, and water buffalo. Young Komodos will eat insects, eggs, geckos, and small mammals. Occasionally they consume humans and human corpses, digging up bodies from shallow graves. This habit of raiding graves caused the villagers of Komodo to move their graves from sandy to clay ground and pile rocks on top of them to deter the lizards. The Komodo dragon may have evolved to feed on the extinct dwarf elephant Stegodon that once lived on Flores, according to evolutionary biologist Jared Diamond. The Komodo dragon has also been observed intentionally startling a pregnant deer in the hopes of a miscarriage whose remains they can eat, a technique that has also been observed in large African predators. Because the Komodo dragon does not have a diaphragm, it cannot suck water when drinking, nor can it lap water with its tongue. Instead, it drinks by taking a mouthful of water, lifting its head, and letting the water run down its throat. Venom A sleeping Komodo dragon. Its large, curved claws are used in fighting and eating. Auffenberg described the Komodo dragon as having septic pathogens in its saliva, specifically the bacteria: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus sp., Providencia sp., Proteus morgani and P. mirabilis. He noted that while these pathogens can be found in the mouths of wild Komodo dragons, they disappear from the mouths of captive animals, due to a cleaner diet. Balsai,Michael Joseph (2001). The phylogenetic position of Palaeosaniwa and the early evolution of the Platynotan (Varanoid) anguimorphs (January 1, 2001). Univ. of Pennsylvania - Electronic Dissertations. Paper AAI3031637. This was verified by taking mucous samples from the external gum surface of the upper jaw of two freshly captured individuals. Saliva samples were analyzed by researchers at the Univerity of Texas who found 57 different strains of bacteria growing in the mouths of three wild Komodo dragons including Pasteurella multocida. The rapid growth of this bacteria was noted by Friedking: "Normally it takes about three days for a sample of P. multocida to cover a petri dish,Ours took eight hours. We were very taken aback by how virulent these strains were". This study supported the observation that wounds inflicted by the Komodo dragon are often associated with sepsis and subsequent infections in prey animals. In late 2005, researchers at the University of Melbourne speculated that the perentie (Varanus giganteus), other species of monitor, and agamids may be somewhat venomous. The team believes that the immediate effects of bites from these lizards were caused by mild envenomation. Bites on human digits by a lace monitor (V. varius), a Komodo dragon, and a spotted tree monitor (V. scalaris) all produced similar effects: rapid swelling, localized disruption of blood clotting, and shooting pain up to the elbow, with some symptoms lasting for several hours. In 2009, the same researchers published further evidence demonstrating that Komodo dragons possess a venomous bite. MRI scans of a preserved skull showed the presence of two venom glands in the lower jaw. They extracted one of these glands from the head of a terminally ill specimen in the Singapore Zoological Gardens, and found that it secreted a venom containing several different toxic proteins. The known functions of these proteins include inhibition of blood clotting, lowering of blood pressure, muscle paralysis, and the induction of hypothermia, leading to shock and loss of consciousness in envenomated prey. Scientists discover deadly secret of Komodo's bite, Yahoo news from May 18th 2009 <ref name=fry>Bryan G. Fry, Stephen Wroec, Wouter Teeuwissed, et al., (University of Melbourne): PNAS, publisched online, , A central role for venom in predation by Varanus komodoensis (Komodo Dragon) and the extinct giant Varanus (Megalania) priscus''</ref> As a result of the discovery, the previous theory that bacteria were responsible for the deaths of komodo victims was disputed. Staff. "Komodo dragons kill with venom, not bacteria, study says." CNN. May 20, 2009. Retrieved on May 25, 2009. It has been proposed that all venomous lizards, together with their nonvenomous relatives and all snakes, share a common venomous ancestor. Reproduction Mating occurs between May and August, with the eggs laid in September. During this period, males fight over females and territory by grappling with one another upon their hind legs with the loser eventually being pinned to the ground. These males may vomit or defecate when preparing for the fight. The winner of the fight will then flick his long tongue at the female to gain information about her receptivity. Females are antagonistic and resist with their claws and teeth during the early phases of courtship. Therefore, the male must fully restrain the female during coitus to avoid being hurt. Other courtship displays include males rubbing their chins on the female, hard scratches to the back, and licking. Copulation occurs when the male inserts one of his hemipenes into the female's cloaca. Komodo dragons may be monogamous and form "pair bonds", a rare behavior for lizards. A Komodo dragon with its long tail and claws fully visible The female lays her eggs in burrows cut into the side of a hill or in the abandoned nesting mounds of the Orange-footed Scrubfowl (a moundbuilder or megapode), with a preference for the abandoned mounds. Clutches contain an average of 20 eggs which have an incubation period of 7–8 months. The female lies on the eggs to incubate and protect them until they hatch around April, at the end of the rainy season when insects are plentiful. Hatching is an exhausting effort for the pups, who break out of their eggshells with an egg tooth that falls off soon after. After cutting out the hatchlings may lie in their eggshells for hours before starting to dig out of the nest. They are born quite defenseless, and many are eaten by predators. Young Komodo dragons spend much of their first few years in trees, where they are relatively safe from predators, including cannibalistic adults, who make juvenile dragons 10% of their diet. According to David Attenborough, the habit of cannibalism may be advantageous in sustaining the large size of adults, as medium-sized prey on the islands is rare. When the young must approach a kill, they roll around in fecal matter and rest in the intestines of eviscerated animals to deter these hungry adults. Komodo dragons take about three to five years to mature, and may live for up to 50 years. Parthenogenesis A Komodo dragon at London Zoo named Sungai laid a clutch of eggs in late 2005 after being separated from male company for more than two years. Scientists initially assumed that she had been able to store sperm from her earlier encounter with a male, an adaptation known as superfecundation. On December 20, 2006, it was reported that Flora, a captive Komodo dragon living in the Chester Zoo in England, was the second known Komodo dragon to have laid unfertilized eggs: she laid 11 eggs, and 7 of them hatched, all of them male. Notice by her cage in Chester Zoo in England Scientists at Liverpool University in England performed genetic tests on three eggs that collapsed after being moved to an incubator, and verified that Flora had never been in physical contact with a male dragon. After Flora's eggs' condition had been discovered, testing showed that Sungai's eggs were also produced without outside fertilization. A parthenogenetic baby Komodo dragon, Chester Zoo, England Komodo dragons have the ZW chromosomal sex-determination system, as opposed to the mammalian XY system. Male progeny prove that Flora's unfertilized eggs were haploid (n) and doubled their chromosomes later to become diploid (2n) (by being fertilized by a polar body, or by chromosome duplication without cell division), rather than by her laying diploid eggs by one of the meiosis reduction-divisions in her ovaries failing). When a female Komodo dragon (with ZW sex chromosomes) reproduces in this manner, she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes, including only one of her two sex chromosomes. This single set of chromosomes is duplicated in the egg, which develops parthenogenetically. Eggs receiving a Z chromosome become ZZ (male); those receiving a W chromosome become WW and fail to develop. It has been hypothesized that this reproductive adaptation allows a single female to enter an isolated ecological niche (such as an island) and by parthenogenesis produce male offspring, thereby establishing a sexually reproducing population (via reproduction with her offspring that can result in both male and female young). Despite the advantages of such an adaptation, zoos are cautioned that parthenogenesis may be detrimental to genetic diversity. On January 31, 2008, the Sedgwick County Zoo in Wichita, Kansas became the first zoo in the Americas to document parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons. The zoo has two adult female Komodo dragons, one of which laid about 17 eggs on May 19–20, 2007. Only two eggs were incubated and hatched due to space issues; the first hatched on January 31, 2008 while the second hatched on February 1. Both hatchlings were males. History Discovery by the Western world Komodo dragon coin, issued by Indonesia Komodo dragons were first documented by Europeans in 1910, when rumors of a "land crocodile" reached Lieutenant van Steyn van Hensbroek of the Dutch colonial administration. Daily Mail - Should we really be scared of the Komodo dragon? Widespread notoriety came after 1912, when Peter Ouwens, the director of the Zoological Museum at Bogor, Java, published a paper on the topic after receiving a photo and a skin from the lieutenant, as well as two other specimens from a collector. Later, the Komodo dragon was the driving factor for an expedition to Komodo Island by W. Douglas Burden in 1926. After returning with 12 preserved specimens and 2 live ones, this expedition provided the inspiration for the 1933 movie King Kong. It was also Burden who coined the common name "Komodo dragon." Three of his specimens were stuffed and are still on display in the American Museum of Natural History. Studies The Dutch, realizing the limited number of individuals in the wild, outlawed sport hunting and heavily limited the number of individuals taken for scientific study. Collecting expeditions ground to a halt with the occurrence of World War II, not resuming until the 1950s and 1960s, when studies examined the Komodo dragon's feeding behavior, reproduction, and body temperature. At around this time, an expedition was planned in which a long-term study of the Komodo dragon would be undertaken. This task was given to the Auffenberg family, who stayed on Komodo Island for 11 months in 1969. During their stay, Walter Auffenberg and his assistant Putra Sastrawan captured and tagged more than 50 Komodo dragons. The research from the Auffenberg expedition would prove to be enormously influential in raising Komodo dragons in captivity. Research after the Auffenberg family has shed more light on the nature of the Komodo dragon, with biologists such as Claudio Ciofi continuing to study the creatures. Danger to humans The Komodo dragon is a fierce predator with razor-sharp teeth. Although attacks are very rare, Komodo dragons have been known to kill humans; four people have been killed in the last 35 years (2009, 2007, 2000 and 1974). Associated Press Komodo dragon attacks terrorize Indonesia villages, May 24, 2009 They are considered especially dangerous to children. On June 4, 2007 a Komodo dragon attacked an eight-year-old boy on Komodo Island. He later died of massive bleeding from his wounds. It was the first recorded fatal attack in 33 years. Natives blamed the attack on environmentalists who don't live on the island prohibiting goat sacrifices, causing the Komodo dragons to be denied their expected food source, causing them to wander into human territories in search of food. To the natives of Komodo Island, Komodo dragons are actually the reincarnation of fellow kinspeople and are thus treated with reverence. On March 24, 2009 two Komodo Dragons attacked and killed fisherman Muhamad Anwar on Komodo. Anwar was attacked after he fell out of a sugar-apple tree and was left bleeding badly from bites to his hands, body, legs and neck. He was taken to a clinic on the neighboring island of Flores where he was pronounced dead on arrival. Conservation A basking Komodo dragon photographed at Disney's Animal Kingdom The Komodo dragon is a vulnerable species and is found on the IUCN Red List. There are approximately 4,000–5,000 living Komodo dragons in the wild. Their populations are restricted to the islands of Gili Motang (100), Gili Dasami (100), Rinca (1,300), Komodo (1,700), and Flores (perhaps 2,000). However, there are concerns that there may presently be only 350 breeding females. To address these concerns, the Komodo National Park was founded in 1980 to protect Komodo dragon populations on islands including Komodo, Rinca, and Padar. Later, the Wae Wuul and Wolo Tado Reserves were opened on Flores to aid with Komodo dragon conservation. There is evidence that Komodo dragons became accustomed to human presence, as they were often fed animal carcasses at several feeding stations by tourists and sacrifices from natives before a hunt. As these practices have been outlawed, attacks on humans by the lizards has increased. Volcanic activity, earthquakes, loss of habitat, fire (the population at Padar was almost destroyed because of a wildfire, and has since mysteriously disappeared), loss of prey, tourism, and poaching have all contributed to the vulnerable status of the Komodo dragon. Under Appendix I of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), commercial trade of skins or specimens is illegal. The Australian biologist Tim Flannery has suggested that the Australian ecosystem may benefit from the introduction of Komodo dragons, as it could partially occupy the large-carnivore niche left vacant following the extinction of the giant varanid Megalania. However, he argues for great caution and gradualness in these acclimatisation experiments, especially as "the problem of predation of large varanids upon humans should not be understated". He uses the example of the successful coexistence with saltwater crocodiles as evidence that Australians could successfully adjust. In captivity A Komodo dragon at Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Despite the visible earholes, Komodo dragons cannot hear very well. Komodo dragons have long been great zoo attractions, where their size and reputation make them popular exhibits. They are, however, rare in zoos because they are susceptible to infection and parasitic disease if captured from the wild, and do not readily reproduce. As of May 2009, there are 13 European, 2 African, 35 North American, 1 Singaporean, and 2 Australian institutions that keep Komodo dragons. The first Komodo dragon was exhibited in 1934 at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park, but it lived for only two years. More attempts to exhibit Komodo dragons were made, but the lifespan of these creatures was very short, averaging five years in the National Zoological Park. Studies done by Walter Auffenberg, which were documented in his book The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor, eventually allowed for more successful managing and reproducing of the dragons in captivity. It has been observed in captive dragons that many individuals display relatively tame behavior within a short period of time in captivity. Many occurrences are reported where keepers have brought the animals out of their enclosures to interact with zoo visitors, including young children, to no harmful effect. Dragons are also capable of recognizing individual humans. Ruston Hartdegen of the Dallas Zoo reported that their Komodo dragons reacted differently when presented with their regular keeper, a less familiar keeper, or a completely unfamiliar keeper. Research with captive Komodo dragons has also provided evidence that they engage in play. One study concerned an individual who would push a shovel left by its keeper, apparently attracted to the sound of it scraping across the rocky surface. A young female dragon at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. would grab and shake various objects including statues, beverage cans, plastic rings and blankets. She would also insert her head into boxes, shoes, and other objects. She did not confuse these objects with food, as she would only swallow them if they were covered in rat blood. This social play has led to a striking comparison with mammalian play. Komodo dragons at Toronto Zoo. Komodo dragons in captivity often grow fat, especially in their tails, due to regular feeding. Another documentation of play in Komodo dragons comes from the University of Tennessee, where a young Komodo dragon named "Kraken" interacted with plastic rings, a shoe, a bucket, and a tin can by nudging them with her snout, swiping at them, and carrying them around in her mouth. She treated all of them differently than her food, prompting leading researcher Gordon Burghardt to conclude that they disprove the view of object play being "food-motivated predatory behavior." Kraken was the first Komodo dragon hatched in captivity outside of Indonesia, born in the National Zoo on September 13, 1992. Even seemingly docile dragons may become aggressive unpredictably, especially when the animal's territory is invaded by someone unfamiliar. In June 2001, a Komodo dragon seriously injured Phil Bronstein—executive editor of the San Francisco Chronicle—when he entered its enclosure at the Los Angeles Zoo after being invited in by its keeper. Bronstein was bitten on his bare foot, as the keeper had told him to take off his white shoes, which could have potentially excited the Komodo dragon. Although he escaped, he needed to have several tendons in his foot reattached surgically. See also Dragon Varanus priscus (formerly known as Megalania prisca) – A huge extinct varanid lizard of Pleistocene Australia Papua monitor (Varanus salvadorii'') – A monitor lizard often asserted to be the longest lizard Toxicofera – A hypothetical clade encompassing all venomous reptiles, including the Komodo dragon Whiptail lizards – Lizards widely studied for their parthenogenesis References Further reading | Komodo_dragon |@lemmatized komodo:120 dragon:115 varanus:7 komodoensis:2 venomous:6 specie:5 lizard:14 inhabit:1 island:18 rinca:5 flores:5 gili:3 motang:2 indonesia:4 member:1 monitor:10 family:3 varanidae:1 large:14 living:3 grow:3 average:3 length:2 weigh:4 around:9 unusual:1 size:10 attribute:1 gigantism:1 since:2 carnivorous:1 animal:12 fill:1 niche:3 live:11 also:15 low:3 metabolic:1 rate:1 result:3 dominate:1 ecosystem:2 although:7 eat:11 mostly:2 carrion:3 hunt:3 ambush:4 prey:12 include:13 invertebrate:2 bird:3 mammal:3 mat:2 begin:1 may:26 august:2 egg:23 lay:8 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3,758 | Jean-Jacques_Rousseau | Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Geneva, 28 June 1712 Ermenonville, 2 July 1778) was a major philosopher, writer, and composer of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, whose political philosophy influenced the French Revolution and the development of modern political and educational thought. His novel, Emile: or, On Education, which he considered his most important work, is a seminal treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, was of great importance to the development of pre-Romanticism and romanticism in fiction. See also Robert Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre, chapter 6: "Readers Respond to Rousseau: The Fabrication of Romantic Sensitivity" for some interesting examples of contemporary reactions to this novel. Rousseau's autobiographical writings: his Confessions, which initiated the modern autobiography, and his Reveries of a Solitary Walker (along with the works of Lessing and Goethe in Germany, and Richardson and Sterne in England), were among the pre-eminent examples of the late eighteenth-century movement known as the "Age of Sensibility", featuring an increasing focus on subjectivity and introspection that has characterized the modern age. Rousseau also wrote a play and two operas, and made important contributions to music as a theorist. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club. He was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, sixteen years after his death. Biography Rousseau was born in 1712 in Geneva, since 1536 a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism (now part of Switzerland). Rousseau was proud that his family, of the moyen (or middle-class) order, had voting rights in that city and throughout his life he described himself as a citizen of Geneva. In theory Geneva was governed democratically by its male voting citizens (who were a minority of the population). In fact, a secretive executive committee, called the Little Council (made up of 25 members of its wealthiest families), ruled the city. In 1707 a patriot called Pierre Fatio protested at this situation and the Little Council had him shot. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's father Isaac was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacques's grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it. Leo Damrosch, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005) p. 31. Rousseau's father, Isaac Rousseau, was a watchmaker who, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. "A Genevan watchmaker," Rousseau wrote, "is a man who can be introduced anywhere; a Parisian watchmaker is only fit to talk about watches." "And indeed, a British visitor commented, ‘Even the lower class of people [of Geneva] are exceedingly well informed, and there is per fond of reading the works of Locke and Montesquieu,” see Leo Damrosch, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius, p. 14. Rousseau's mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, the daughter of a Calvinist preacher, died of birth complications nine days after his birth. He and his older brother François were brought up by their father and a paternal aunt, also named Suzanne. Jean-Jacques had no recollection of learning to read, but he remembered how when he was five or six his father encouraged his love of reading:Every night, after supper, we read some part of a small collection of romances [i.e., adventure stories], which had been my mother's. My father's design was only to improve me in reading, and he thought these entertaining works were calculated to give me a fondness for it; but we soon found ourselves so interested in the adventures they contained, that we alternately read whole nights together and could not bear to give over until at the conclusion of a volume. Sometimes, in the morning, on hearing the swallows at our window, my father, quite ashamed of this weakness, would cry, "Come, come, let us go to bed; I am more a child than thou art." —Confessions, Book 1 Not long afterwards, Rousseau abandoned his taste for escapist stories in favor of the antiquity of Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, which he would read to his father while he made watches. When Jean Jacques Rousseau was ten, his father, an avid hunter, got into a legal quarrel with a wealthy landowner on whose lands he had been caught trespassing. To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of Bern, taking Rousseau's aunt Suzanne with him. He remarried, and from that point Jean-Jacques saw little of him. Damrosch, p. 24. Jean-Jacques was left in with his maternal uncle, who packed him, along with his own son, Abraham Bernard, away to board for two years with a Calvinist minister in a hamlet outside of Geneva. Here the boys picked up the elements of mathematics and drawing. Rousseau, who was always deeply moved by religious services, for a time even dreamed of becoming a Protestant minister. Les Charmettes: the house where Jean-Jacques Rousseau lived with Mme de Warens in 1735-6. Now a museum dedicated to Rousseau. Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio Venice that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the Ambassador Virtually all our information about Rousseau's first youth has come from his posthumously published Confessions, in which the chronology is somewhat confused, though recent scholars have combed the archives for confirming evidence to fill in the blanks. At age 13 Rousseau was apprenticed first to a notary and then to an engraver who beat him. At fifteen he ran away from Geneva (on 14 March 1728) after returning to the city and finding the city gates locked due to the curfew. In adjoining Savoy he took shelter with a Catholic priest, who introduced him to Françoise-Louise de Warens, age 29. She was a noblewoman of Protestant background who was separated from her husband. As professional lay proselytizer, she was paid by the King of Piedmont to help bring Protestants to Catholicism. They sent the boy to Turin, the capital of Savoy (which included Piedmont, in what is now Italy), to complete his conversion. This resulted in his having to give up his Genevan citizenship, although he would later revert back to Calvinism in order to regain it. In converting to Catholicism, both De Warens and Rousseau were likely reacting to the severity of Calvinism's insistence on the total depravity of man. Leo Damrosch writes, "an eighteenth-century Genevan liturgy still required believers to declare ‘that we are miserable sinners, born in corruption, inclined to evil, incapable by ourselves of doing good'." Rousseau: Restless Genius, p. 121. De Warens, a deist by inclination, was attracted to Catholicism's doctrine of forgiveness of sins. Finding himself on his own, since his father and uncle had more or less disowned him, the teenaged Rousseau supported himself for a time as a servant, secretary, and tutor, wandering in Italy (Piedmont and Savoy) and France. During this time, he lived on and off with De Warens, whom he idolized and called his "maman". Flattered by his devotion, De Warens tried to get him started in a profession, and arranged formal music lessons for him. At one point, he briefly attended a seminary with the idea of becoming a priest. When he reached 20 she took him as her lover, notwithstanding her ongoing relationship with the steward of her house. The sexual aspect of their relationship (in fact a ménage à trois) confused Rousseau and made him uncomfortable, but he always considered De Warens the greatest love of his life. A rather profligate spender, she had a large library and loved to entertain and listen to music. She and her circle, comprising educated members of the Catholic clergy, introduced Rousseau to the world of letters and ideas. Rousseau had been an indifferent student, but during his twenties, which were marked by long bouts of hypochondria, he applied himself in earnest to the study of philosophy, mathematics, and music. At twenty-five, he came into a small inheritance from his mother and used a portion of it to repay De Warens for her financial support of him. At twenty-seven he took a job as a tutor in Lyon. In 1742 Rousseau moved to Paris in order to present the Académie des Sciences with a new system of numbered musical notation he believed would make his fortune. His system, intended to be compatible with typography, is based on a single line, displaying numbers representing intervals between notes and dots and commas indicating rhythmic values. Believing the system was impractical, the Academy rejected it, though they praised his mastery of the subject, and urged him to try again. From 1743 to 1744 Rousseau had an honorable but ill-paying post as a secretary to the Comte de Montaigue, the French ambassador to Venice. This awoke in him a life-long love for Italian music, particularly opera: I had brought with me from Paris the prejudice of that city against Italian music; but I had also received from nature a sensibility and niceness of distinction which prejudice cannot withstand. I soon contracted that passion for Italian music with which it inspires all those who are capable of feeling its excellence. In listening to barcaroles, I found I had not yet known what singing was... —Confessions Rousseau's employer routinely received his stipend as much a year late and paid his staff irregularly. Leo Damrosch describes the count as “a virtual parody of a parasitic aristocrat, incredibly stupid, irascible, and swollen with self importance." He spoke no Italian, a language in which Rousseau was fluent. Although Rousseau did most of the work of the embassy, he was treated like a valet. (See Damrosch, p. 168). After eleven months Rousseau quit, taking from the experience a profound distrust of government bureaucracy. Returning to Paris, the penniless Rousseau befriended and became the lover of Thérèse Levasseur, a pretty seamstress who was the sole support of her termagant mother and numerous ne'er-do-well siblings. At first they did not live together, though later Rousseau took Thérèse and her mother in to live with him as his servants, and himself assumed the burden of supporting her large family. According to his Confessions, before she moved in with him, Thérèse bore him a son and as many as four other children (there is no independent corroboration for this number Some of Rousseau's contemporaries believed the babies were not his. According to Damrosch, George Sand's grandmother, in whose family Rousseau had been a tutor, was one of the doubters, maintaining that Rousseau's impotence was a well-known fact. ). Rousseau wrote that he persuaded Thérèse to give each of the newborns up to a foundling hospital, for the sake of her "honor". "Her mother, who feared the inconvenience of a brat, came to my aid, and she [Thérèse] allowed herself to be overcome" (Confessions). The foundling hospitals had been started as a reform to save the numerous infants who were being abandoned in the streets of Paris. Infant mortality at that date was extremely high — some fifty percent, in large part because families sent their infants to be wet nursed. The mortality rate in the foundling hospitals, which also sent the babies out to be wet nursed, proved worse, however, and most of the infants sent there likely perished. Ten years later Rousseau, made inquiries about the fate of his son, but no record could be found. When Rousseau subsequently became celebrated as a theorist of education and child-rearing, his abandonment of his children was used by his critics, including Voltaire and Edmund Burke, as the basis for ad hominem attacks. In an irony of fate, Rousseau's later injunction to women to breastfeed their own babies (as had previously been recommended by the French natural scientist Buffon), probably saved the lives of thousands of infants. While in Paris, Rousseau became a close friend of French philosopher Diderot and, beginning with some articles on music in 1749, Rousseau in his musical articles in the Encyclopedie engaged in lively controversy with other musicians, e.g. with Rameau, as in his article on Temperament, for which see Encyclopédie: Tempérament (English translation), also Temperament Ordinaire. contributed numerous articles to Diderot and D'Alambert's great Encyclopédie, the most famous of which was an article on political economy written in 1755. Rousseau's ideas were the result of an almost obsessive dialogue with writers of the past, filtered in many cases through conversations with Diderot. His genius lay in his strikingly original way of putting things rather than in the originality, per se, of his thinking. In 1749 Rousseau was paying daily visits to Diderot, who had been thrown into the fortress of Vincennes under a lettre de cachet for opinions in his "Lettre sur les aveugles," that hinted at materialism, a belief in atoms, and natural selection. Rousseau had read about an essay competition sponsored by the Académie de Dijon to be published in the Mercure de France on the theme of whether the development of the arts and sciences had been morally beneficial. He wrote that while walking to Vincennes (about three miles from Paris), he had a revelation that the arts and sciences were responsible for the moral degeneration of mankind, who were basically good by nature. According to Diderot, writing much later, Rousseau had originally intended to answer this in the conventional way, but his discussions with Diderot convinced him to propose the paradoxical negative answer that catapulted him into the public eye. Whatever the case, it was the great French naturalist Buffon had previously suggested that man's moral decline arose from his acquisition of property and culture. Both Rousseau and Diderot would have been aware of Buffon's speculations. Rousseau's 1750 "Discourse on the Arts and Sciences", in which he made that argument, was awarded the first prize and gained him significant fame. Rousseau continued his interest in music, and his opera Le Devin du Village (The Village Soothsayer) was performed for King Louis XV in 1752. The king was so pleased by the work that he offered Rousseau a life-long pension. To the exasperation of his friends, Rousseau turned down the great honor, bringing him notoriety as "the man who had refused a king's pension." He also turned down several other advantageous offers, sometimes with a brusqueness bordering on truculence that gave offense and caused him problems. The same year, the visit of a troupe of Italian musicians to Paris, and their performance of Giovanni Battista Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona, prompted the Querelle des Bouffons, which pitted protagonists of French music against supporters of the Italian style. Rousseau as noted above, was an enthusiastic supporter of the Italians against Jean-Philippe Rameau and others, making an important contribution with his Letter on French Music. On returning to Geneva in 1754, Rousseau reconverted to Calvinism and regained his official Genevan citizenship. In 1755, Rousseau completed his second major work, the Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (the Discourse on Inequality), which elaborated on the arguments of the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences. He also pursued an unconsummated romantic attachment with the twenty-five-year old Sophie d'Houdetot, which partly inspired his epistolary novel, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse (also based on memories of his idyllic youthful relationship with Mme de Warens). Sophie was the cousin and house guest of Rousseau's patroness and landlady Madame d'Epinay, whom he treated rather high highhandedly. He resented being at Mme d'Epinay's beck and call and detested the insincere conversation and shallow atheism of the Encyclopedistes whom he met at her table. Wounded feelings gave rise to a bitter three-way quarrel between Rousseau and Madame d'Epinay; her lover, the philologist Grimm; and their mutual friend, Diderot, who took their side against Rousseau. Diderot later described Rousseau as being, "false, vain as Satan, ungrateful, cruel, hypocritical, and wicked ... He sucked ideas from me, used them himself, and then affected to despise me". Damrosch (2005), p. 304. Rousseau's break with the Encyclopedistes coincided with the composition of his three major works, in all of which he emphasized his fervent belief in a spiritual origin of man's soul and the universe, in contradistinction to the materialism of Diderot, La Mettrie, and d'Holbach. During this period Rousseau enjoyed the support and patronage of the Duc de Luxembourg, and the Prince de Conti, two of the richest and most powerful nobles in France. These men truly liked Rousseau and enjoyed his ability to converse on any subject, but they also used him as a way of getting back at Louis XV and the political faction surrounding his mistress, Mme de Pompadour. Even with them, however, Rousseau went too far, courting rejection when he criticized the practice of tax farming, in which some of them engaged.<ref>Damrosch (2005), p. 357.</ref> Rousseau's 800-page novel of sentiment, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, was published in (1761) to immense success. The book's rhapsodic descriptions of the natural beauty of the Swiss countryside struck a chord in the public and may have helped spark the subsequent nineteenth century craze for Alpine scenery. In 1762, Rousseau published Du Contrat Social, Principes du droit politique (in English, literally Of the Social Contract, Principles of Political Right) in April and then Emile: or, On Education in May. The final section of Émile, "The Profession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar," was intended to be a defense of religious belief. Rousseau's choice of a Catholic vicar of humble peasant background (plausibly based on a kindly prelate he had met as a teenager) as a spokesman for the defense of religion was in itself a daring innovation for the time. The vicar's creed was that of Socinianism (or Unitarianism as it is called today). Because it rejected original sin and divine Revelation, both Protestant and Catholic authorities took offense. Moreover, Rousseau advocated the opinion that, insofar as they lead people to virtue, all religions are equally worthy, and that people should therefore conform to the religion in which they had been brought up. This religious indifferentism caused Rousseau and his books to be banned from France and Geneva. He was condemned from the pulpit by the Archbishop of Paris, his books were burned, and warrants were issued for his arrest. Rousseau's biographer Leo Damrosch, believes that the authorities chose to condemn him on religious rather than political grounds for tactical reasons. See Damrosch Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Restless Genius (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005). A sympathetic observer, British philosopher David Hume, "professed no surprise when he learned that Rousseau's books were banned in Geneva and elsewhere. Rousseau, he wrote, 'has not had the precaution to throw any veil over his sentiments; and, as he scorns to dissemble his contempt for established opinions, he could not wonder that all the zealots were in arms against him. The liberty of the press is not so secured in any country … as not to render such an open attack on popular prejudice somewhat dangerous.'" Peter Gay, The Enlightenment, The Science of Freedom, p. 72. Rousseau, who thought he had been defending religion, was crushed. Forced to flee arrest he made his way, with the help of the Duc of Luxembourg and Prince de Conti, to Neuchâtel, a Canton of the Swiss Confederation that was a protectorate of the Prussian crown. His powerful protectors discretely assisted him in his flight and they helped to get his banned books (published in Holland) distributed in France disguised as other works using false covers and title pages. In the town of Môtiers, he sought and found protection under Lord Keith, who was the local representative of the free-thinking Frederick the Great of Prussia. While in Môtiers, Rousseau wrote the Constitutional Project for Corsica (Projet de Constitution pour la Corse, 1765). After his house in Môtiers was stoned on the night of 6 September 1765, Rousseau took refuge with in Great Britain with Hume, who found lodgings for him at a friend's country estate in Wootton in Staffordshire. Neither Thérèse nor Rousseau were able to learn English or make friends. Isolated, Rousseau, never emotionally very stable, suffered a serious decline in his mental health and began to experience paranoid fantasies about plots against him involving Hume and others. “He is plainly mad, after having long been maddish”, Hume wrote to a friend. Quoted in Damrosch, p. 432 Rousseau's letter to Hume, in which he articulates the perceived misconduct, sparked an exchange which was published in and received with great interest in contemporary Paris. The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of the Panthéon, Paris Although officially barred from entering France before 1770, Rousseau returned in 1767 under a false name. In 1768 he went through a marriage of sorts to Thérèse (marriages between Catholics and Protestants were illegal), whom he had always hitherto referred to as his "housekeeper". Though she was illiterate, she had become a remarkably good cook, a hobby her husband shared. In 1770 they were allowed to return to Paris. As a condition of his return he was not allowed to publish any books, but after completing his Confessions, Rousseau began private readings in 1771. At the request of Madame d'Epinay, who was anxious to protect her privacy, however, the police ordered him to stop, and the Confessions was only partially published in 1782, four years after his death. All his subsequent works were to appear posthumously. In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland, which was to be his last major political work. In 1776 he completed Dialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques and began work on the Reveries of the Solitary Walker. In order to support himself, he returned to copying music, spending his leisure time in the study of botany. Although a celebrity, Rousseau's mental health did not permit him to enjoy his fame. His final years were largely spent in deliberate withdrawal; however, he did respond favorably to an approach from the composer Gluck, whom he met in 1774. One of Rousseau's last pieces of writing was a critical yet enthusiastic analysis of Gluck's opera Alceste. While taking a morning walk on the estate of the marquis René Louis de Girardin at Ermenonville (28 miles northeast of Paris), Rousseau suffered a hemorrhage and died on 2 July 1778. He was sixty-six. Rousseau was initially buried at Ermenonville on the Ile des Peupliers, which became a place of pilgrimage for his many admirers. His remains were moved to the Panthéon in Paris in 1794, sixteen years after his death, where they are located directly across from those of his contemporary Voltaire. His tomb, in the shape of a rustic temple, on which, in bas relief an arm reaches out, bearing the torch of liberty, evokes Rousseau's deep love of nature and of classical antiquity. In 1834, the Genevan government somewhat reluctantly erected a statue in his honor on the tiny Île Rousseau in Lake Geneva. Today he is proudly claimed as their most celebrated native son. In 2002, the Espace Rousseau was established at 40 Grand-Rue, Geneva, Rousseau's birthplace. Philosophy Rousseau in 1753, by Maurice Quentin de La Tour Theory of Natural Man Frontpiece of an edition of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754), published in 1755 in Holland. In common with other philosophers of the day, Rousseau looked to a hypothetical State of Nature as a normative guide. Rousseau deplores Hobbes for asserting that since man in the "state of nature . . . has no idea of goodness he must be naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know virtue". On the contrary, Rousseau holds that "uncorrupted morals" prevail in the "state of nature" and he especially praised the admirable moderation of the Caribbeans in expressing the sexual urge Rousseau, Discourse on Inequality, 72-73 despite the fact that they live in a hot climate, which "always seems to inflame the passions". Discourse, 78. This has led Anglophone critics to erroneously attribute to Rousseau the invention of idea of the noble savage, an oxymoronic expression that was never used in France Anglophone writers still use the term "Noble Savage" in describing race relations in New France, see for example: The Libertine Colony by Doris Garraway, There are No Slaves in France by Sue Peabody, The Avengers of the New World by Laurent Dubois, and The French Atlantic Triangle by Christopher Miller; for information about the relationship between the French and English colonial contexts, see Sentimental Figures of Empire by Lynn Festa. and which grossly misrepresents Rousseau's thought. See A. O. Lovejoy's essay on "The Suppposed Primitivism of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality" in Essays in the History of Ideas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1948, 1960). For a history of how the phrase became associated with Rousseau, see Ter Ellinson's, The Myth of the Noble Savage (Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 2001) (The expression, "the noble savage" was first used in 1672 by British poet John Dryden in his play The Conquest of Granada. The French word "sauvage" means "wild", as in "a wild flower", and does not have the connotations of fierceness or brutality that the word "savage" does in English, though in the eighteenth century the English word was closer in connotation to the French one.) Rousseau did deny that morality is a construct or creation of society. He considered it as "natural" in the sense of "innate", an outgrowth of man's instinctive disinclination to witness suffering, from which arise the emotions of compassion or empathy, sentiments whose existence even Hobbes acknowledged, and which are shared with animals. In locating the basis of ethics in emotions rather than reason Rousseau agreed with Adam Smith's 1759 Theory of Moral Sentiments. Contrary to what his many detractors have claimed on the basis of casual readings, Rousseau never suggests that humans in the state of nature act morally; in fact, terms such as "justice" or "wickedness" are inapplicable to pre-political society as Rousseau understands it. Morality proper, i.e., self restraint, can only develop through careful education in a civil state. Humans "in a state of Nature" may act with all of the ferocity of an animal. They are good only in a negative sense, insofar as they are self-sufficient and thus not subject to the vices of political society. In fact, Rousseau's natural man is virtually identical to a solitary chimpanzee or other ape, such as the orangutan as described by Buffon; and the "natural" goodness of humanity is thus the goodness of an animal, which is neither good nor bad. Rousseau, a deteriorationist, proposed that, except perhaps for brief moments of balance, at or near its inception, when a relative equality among men prevailed, human civilization has always been artificial, creating inequality, envy, and unnatural desires. In Rousseau's philosophy, society's negative influence on men centers on its transformation of amour de soi, a positive self-love, into amour-propre, or pride. Amour de soi represents the instinctive human desire for self-preservation, combined with the human power of reason. In contrast, amour-propre is artificial and encourages man to compare himself to others, thus creating unwarranted fear and allowing men to take pleasure in the pain or weakness of others. Rousseau was not the first to make this distinction; it had been invoked by, among others, Vauvenargues. In Discourse on the Arts and Sciences Rousseau argues that the arts and sciences have not been beneficial to humankind, because they arose not from authentic human needs but rather as a result of pride and vanity. Moreover, the opportunities they create for idleness and luxury have contributed to the corruption of man. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful and had crushed individual liberty; and he concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of true friendship by replacing it with jealousy, fear, and suspicion. In contrast to the optimistic view of other Enlightenment figures, for Rousseau, progress has been inimical to the well-being of humanity, that is, unless it can be counteracted by the cultivation of civic morality and duty. Only in Civil Society, can man be ennobled -- through the use of reason: The passage from the state of nature to the civil state produces a very remarkable change in man, by substituting justice for instinct in his conduct, and giving his actions the morality they had formerly lacked. Then only, when the voice of duty takes the place of physical impulses and right of appetite, does man, who so far had considered only himself, find that he is forced to act on different principles, and to consult his reason before listening to his inclinations. Although, in this state, he deprives himself of some advantages which he got from nature, he gains in return others so great, his faculties are so stimulated and developed, his ideas so extended, his feelings so ennobled, and his whole soul so uplifted, that, did not the abuses of this new condition often degrade him below that which he left, he would be bound to bless continually the happy moment which took him from it for ever, and, instead of a stupid and unimaginative animal, made him an intelligent being and a man. The Social Contract, Book I Chapter 8 Society corrupts men only insofar as the Social Contract has not de facto succeeded, as we see in contemporary society as described in the Discourse on Inequality (1754). In this essay, which elaborates the ideas introduced in the Discourse on Arts and Sciences, Rousseau traces man's social evolution from a primitive state of nature to modern society. The earliest solitary humans possessed a basic drive for self preservation and a natural disposition to compassion or pity. They differed from animals, however, in their capacity for free will and their potential perfectibility. As they began to live in groups and form clans they also began to experience family love, which Rousseau saw as the source of the greatest happiness known to humanity. As long as differences in wealth and status among families were minimal, the first coming together in groups was accompanied by a fleeting golden age of human flourishing. The development of agriculture, metallurgy, private property, and the division of labour and resulting dependency on one another, however, led to economic inequality and conflict. As population pressures forced them to associate more and more closely, they underwent a psychological transformation: they began to see themselves through the eyes of others and came to value the good opinion of others as essential to their self esteem. Rousseau posits that the original, deeply flawed Social Contract (i.e., that of Hobbes), which led to the modern state, was made at the suggestion of the rich and powerful, who tricked the general population into surrendering their liberties to them and instituted inequality as a fundamental feature of human society. Rousseau's own conception of the Social Contract can be understood as an alternative to this fraudulent form of association. At the end of the Discourse on Inequality, Rousseau explains how the desire to have value in the eyes of others comes to undermine personal integrity and authenticity in a society marked by interdependence, and hierarchy. In the last chapter of the Social Contract, Rousseau would ask "What is to be done?" He answers that now all men can do is to cultivate virtue in themselves and submit to their lawful rulers. To his readers, however the inescapable conclusion was that a new and more equitable Social Contract was needed. Political theory Perhaps Jean Jacques Rousseau's most important work is The Social Contract, which outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article Economie Politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's Encyclopédie. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. One man thinks himself the master of others, but remains more of a slave than they." Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while at the same time becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law. Although Rousseau argues that sovereignty (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government. The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will. The "sovereign" is the rule of law, ideally decided on by direct democracy in an assembly. Under a monarchy, however, the real sovereign is still the law. Rousseau was opposed to the idea that the people should exercise sovereignty via a representative assembly. The kind of republican government of which Rousseau approved was that of the city state, of which Geneva, was a model, or would have been, if renewed on Rousseau's principles. France could not meet Rousseau's criterion of an ideal state because it was too big. Much subsequent controversy about Rousseau's work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens constrained to obey the general will are thereby rendered free:The notion of the general will is wholly central to Rousseau's theory of political legitimacy ... It is, however, an unfortunately obscure and controversial notion. Some commentators see it as no more than the dictatorship of the proletariat or the tyranny of the urban poor (such as may perhaps be seen in the French Revolution). Such was not Rousseau's meaning. This is clear from the Discourse on Political Economy, where Rousseau emphasizes that the general will exists to protect individuals against the mass, not to require them to be sacrificed to it. He is, of course, sharply aware that men have selfish and sectional interests which will lead them to try to oppress others. It is for this reason that loyalty to the good of all alike must be a supreme (although not exclusive) commitment by everyone, not only if a truly general will is to be heeded but also if it is to be formulated successfully in the first place". Entry, "Rousseau" in the Routelege Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Craig, editor, Volume Eight, p. 371 Education and Child Rearing Rousseau’s philosophy of education is not concerned with particular techniques of imparting information and concepts, but rather with developing the pupil’s character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which will have to live. The hypothetical boy, Émile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences arranged by the tutor. Today we would call this the disciplinary method of "logical consequences", since like modern psychologists, Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts rather than through physical punishment. The tutor will make sure than no harm results to Émile through his learning experiences. Rousseau was one of the first to advocate developmentally appropriate education; and his description of the stages of child development mirrors his conception of the evolution of culture. He divides childhood into stages: the first is to the age of about 12, when children are guided by their emotions and impulses. During the second stage, from 12 to about 16, reason starts to develop; and finally the third stage, from the age of 16 onwards, when the child develops into an adult. Rousseau recommends that the young adult should learn a manual skill such as carpentry, which requires creativity and thought, will keep him out of trouble, and will supply a fallback means of making a living in the event of a change of fortune. (The most illustrious aristocratic youth to have been educated this way may have been Louis XVI, whose parents had him learn the skill of locksmithing, though he was beheaded before he had a chance to use it.) The sixteen-year old is also ready to have a companion of the opposite sex. Although his ideas foreshadowed modern ones in many ways, in one way they do not: Rousseau was a believer in the moral superiority of the patriarchal family on the antique Roman model. Sophie, the young woman Émile is destined to marry, as a representative of ideal womanhood, is educated to be governed by her husband while Émile, as representative of the ideal man, is educated to be self-governing. This is not an accidental feature of Rousseau's educational and political philosophy; it is essential to his account of the distinction between private, personal relations and the public world of political relations. The private sphere as Rousseau imagines it depends on the subordination of women, in order for both it and the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function as Rousseau imagines it could and should. Rousseau anticipated the modern idea of the bourgeois nuclear family, with the mother at home taking responsibility for the household and for childcare and early education. Feminists, beginning in the late eighteenth century with Mary Wollstonecraft have criticized Rousseau for his confinement of women to the domestic sphere, but his contemporaries saw it differently.Rousseau made a point on insisting that mothers should breastfeed their children instead of consigning them to wet nurses, and mothers listened. ’We all said it,’ the great naturalist Buffon remarked, ‘but M. Rousseau alone commanded it and made himself obeyed.’ Long after his death, women held him in high esteem on this score. Marmontel describes a near disaster his infant son suffered when given to a wet nurse who starved him, and said that his wife could never accept his constant denigration of Rousseau; she felt infinite gratitude for his persuading women to nurse their infants, and for taking care to make the first stage of life happy. "One must forgive something," she said, "in one who has taught us to be mothers." Damrosch, p. 341-42. Rousseau's detractors have blamed him for everything they do not like in what they call modern "child-centered" education. John Darling's 1994 book Child-Centered Education and its Critics argues that the history of modern educational theory is a series of footnotes to Rousseau, a development he regards as bad. Good or bad, the theories of educators such as Rousseau's near contemporaries Pestalozzi, Mme de Genliss, and later, Maria Montessori, and Dewey, which have directly influenced modern educational practices do have significant points in common with those of Rousseau. Religion Having converted to Catholicism early in life and returned to the austere Calvinism of his native Geneva as part of his period of moral reform, Rousseau maintained a profession of that religious philosophy and of Jean Calvin as a modern lawgiver throughout the remainder of his life. His views on religion presented in his works of philosophy, however, may strike some as discordant with the doctrines of both Catholicism and Calvinism. Although, unlike many of the more radical Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau affirmed the necessity of religion, he repudiated the doctrine of original sin, which plays so large a part in Calvinism (in Émile, Rousseau writes "there is no original perversity in the human heart"). il n’y a point de perversité originelle dans le cœur humain http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Émile,_ou_De_l’éducation_-_Livre_second In the eighteenth century, many deists viewed God merely an abstract and impersonal creator of the universe, which they likened to a giant machine. Rousseau's deism differed from the usual kind in its intense emotionality. He saw the presence of God in His creation, including mankind, which, apart from the harmful influence of society, is good, because God is good. Rousseau's acceptance of the argument of intelligent design and his explicit attribution of a spiritual value to the beauty of nature anticipates the attitudes of nineteenth-century Romanticism towards nature and religion. At the time, however, Rousseau's strong endorsement of religious toleration, as expounded by the Savoyard vicar in Émile, was interpreted as advocating indifferentism, a heresy, and led to the condemnation of the book in both Calvinist Geneva and Catholic Paris. His assertion in the Social Contract that true followers of Jesus would not make good citizens may have been another reason for Rousseau's condemnation in Geneva. Rousseau was upset that his deistic views were so forcefully condemned, while those of the more frankly atheistic philosophes were ignored. He defended himself against critics of his religious views in his "Letter to Christophe de Beaumont, the Archbishop of Paris.". The full text of the letter is available online only in the French original: Lettre à Mgr De Beaumont Archevêque de Paris (1762) Legacy A plaque commemorating the bicentenary of Rousseau's birth. Issued by the city of Geneva on 28 June 1912. The legend at the bottom says "Jean-Jacques, aime ton pays" ("love your country"), and shows Rousseau's father gesturing towards the window. The scene is drawn from a footnote to the Letter to d'Alembert where Rousseau recalls witnessing the popular celebrations following the exercises of the St Gervais regiment. Rousseau's idea of the volonté générale ("general will") was not original with him but rather belonged to a well-established technical vocabulary of juridical and theological writings in use at the time. The phrase was used by Diderot and also by Montesquieu (and by his teacher, the Oratorian friar Malebranche). It served to designate the common interest embodied in legal tradition, as distinct from and transcending people's private and particular interests at any particular time. The concept was also an important aspect of the more radical seventeenth century republican tradition of Spinoza, from whom Rousseau differed in important respects, but not in his insistence on the importance of equality. This emphasis on equality is Rousseau's most important and consequential legacy, causing him to be both reviled and applauded: While Rousseau's notion of the progressive moral degeneration of mankind from the moment civil society established itself diverges markedly from Spinoza's claim that human nature is always and everywhere the same . . . for both philosophers the pristine equality of the state of nature is our ultimate goal and criterion . . . in shaping the "common good", volonté générale, or Spinoza's mens una, which alone can ensure stability and political salvation. Without the supreme criterion of equality, the general will would indeed be meaningless. .. . When in the depths of the French Revolution the Jacobin clubs all over France regularly deployed Rousseau when demanding radical reforms. and especially anything -- such as land redistribution -- designed to enhance equality, they were at the same time, albeit unconsciously, invoking a radical tradition which reached back to the late seventeenth century. Jonathan I. Israel, Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 274. The cult that grew up around Rousseau after his death, and particularly the radicalized versions of Rousseau's ideas that were adopted by Robespierre and Saint Just during the Reign of Terror, caused him to become identified with the most extreme aspects of the French Revolution. Robspierre and Saint-Just's conception of L’intérêt général or the will of the people was derived from Rousseau's "general will", and they considered themselves "highly principled republicans, charged with stripping away what was superfluous and corrupt, inspired above all by Rousseau", Jonathan Israel, p. 717. The revolutionaries were also inspired by Rousseau to introduce Deism as the new official civil religion of France, scandalizing traditionalists:Ceremonial and symbolic occurrences of the more radical phases of the Revolution invoked Rousseau and his core ideas. Thus the ceremony held at the site of the demolished Bastille, organized by the foremost artistic director of the Revolution, Jacques-Louis David, in August 1793 to mark the inauguration of the new republican constitution, an event coming shortly after the final abolition of all forms of feudal privilege, featured a cantata based on Rousseau's democratic pantheistic deism as expounded in the celebrated "Profession de foi d'un vicaire savoyard" in Book four of Émile. Jonathan Israel, p. 717. Opponents of the Revolution and defenders of religion, most influentially the Irish essayist Edmund Burke, therefore placed the blame for the excesses of the French Revolution directly on the revolutionaries' misplaced (as he considered it) adulation of Rousseau. Burke's "Letter to a Member of the National Assembly", published in February 1791, was a diatribe against Rousseau, whom he considered the paramount influence on French Revolution (his ad hominem attack did not really engage with Rousseau's political writings). Burke maintained that the excesses of the Revolution were not accidents but were designed from the beginning and were rooted in Rousseau's personal vanity, arrogance, and other moral failings. He recalled Rousseau's visit to Britain in 1766, saying: "I had good opportunities of knowing his proceedings almost from day to day and he left no doubt in my mind that he entertained no principle either to influence his heart or to guide his understanding, but vanity". Conceding his gift of eloquence, Burke deplored Rousseau's lack of the good taste and finer feelings that would have been imparted by the education of a gentleman:Taste and elegance . . . are of no mean importance in the regulation of life. A moral taste. . .infinitely abates the evils of vice. Rousseau, a writer of great force and vivacity, is totally destitute of taste in any sense of the word. Your masters [i.e., the leaders of the Revolution], who are his scholars, conceive that all refinement has an aristocratic character. The last age had exhausted all its powers in giving a grace and nobleness to our mutual appetites, and in raising them into a higher class and order than seemed justly to belong to them. Through Rousseau, your masters are resolved to destroy these aristocratic prejudices. In America, where there was no such cult, the direct influence of Rousseau was arguably less. The American founders did share Rousseau's enthusiastic admiration for the austere virtues described by Livy and in Plutarch's portrayals the great men of ancient Sparta and the classical republicanism of early Rome, but so did most other enlightenment figures. Rousseau’s praise of Switzerland and Corsica’s economies of isolated and self-sufficient independent homesteads, and his endorsement of a well-regulated citizen militia, such as Switzerland’s, recall the ideals of Jeffersonian democracy. To Rousseau we owe the invention of the concept of a "civil religion", one of whose key tenets is religious toleration. Yet despite their mutual insistence on the self evidence that "all men are created equal", their insistence that the citizens of a republic be educated at public expense, and the evident parallel between the concepts of the "general welfare" and Rousseau's "general will", some scholars maintain there is little to suggest that Rousseau had that much impact on Thomas Jefferson and other founding fathers. "Rousseau, whose romantic and egalitarian tenets had practically no influence on the course of Jefferson's, or indeed any American, thought." Nathan Schachner, Thomas Jefferson: A Biography. (1957), p. 47. Jefferson never mentioned Rousseau in any of his writings, but made frequent references to Locke. On the other hand he did have a well-thumbed copy of Rousseau's work in his library and was known to have been influenced by "French philosophers." They argue that the American constitution owes as much or more to the English Liberal philosopher John Locke's emphasis on the rights of property and to Montesquieu's theories of the separation of powers. A case for Rousseau as an enemy of the Enlightenment is made in Graeme Garrard, Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the Philosophes (Albany: SUNY Press, 2003). Rousseau's writings had an indirect influence on American literature through the writings of Wordsworth and Kant, whose works were important to the New England Transcendentalists Ralph Waldo Emerson, and his disciple Henry David Thoreau, as well as on such Unitarians as theologian William Ellery Channing. American novelist James Fennimore Cooper's Last of the Mohicans and other novels reflect republican and egalitarian ideals present alike in Rousseau, Tom Paine, and also in English Romantic primitivism Cooper was a follower of Tom Paine, who in turn was an admirer of Rousseau. For the classical origins of American ideals of liberty, see also "Sibi Imperiosus: Cooper's Horatian Ideal of Self-Governance in The Deerslayer"(Villa Julie College) Placed on line July 2005 http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/articles/suny/2003suny-tamer.html. Another American admirer was lexicographer Noah Webster. Mark J. Temmer, "Rousseau and Thoreau," Yale French Studies, No. 28, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1961), pp. 112-121. Criticisms of Rousseau The first to criticize Rousseau were his fellow Philosophes, above all Voltaire. According to Jacques Barzun: Voltaire, who had felt annoyed by the first essay [On the Arts and Sciences], was outraged the second, [Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men], declaring that Rousseau wanted us to “walk on all fours” like animals and behave like savages, believing them creatures of perfection. From these interpretations, plausible but inexact, spring the clichés Noble Savage and Back to Nature. From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life: 1500 to the Present (Harper Collins, 2001), p. 384 . Barzun states that, contrary to myth, Rousseau was no primitivist, for him:The model man is the independent farmer, free of superiors and self-governing. This was cause enough for the philosophes hatred of their former friend. Rousseau’s unforgivable crime was his rejection of the graces and and luxuries of civilized existence. Voltaire had sung “The superfluous, that most necessary thing." For the high bourgeois standard of living Rousseau would substitute the middling peasant’s. It was the country versus the city – an exasperating idea, that, and so was the amazing fact that every new work of Rousseau’s was a huge success, whether the subject was politics, the theater, education, religion, or a novel about love. Rousseau’s unforgivable crime was the rejection of the graces and luxuries of civilized existence”. Jacques Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence (2001) p. 384 Following the French Revolution, other commentators fingered a potential danger of Rousseau’s project of realizing an “antique” conception of virtue amongst the citizenry in a modern world (e.g. through education, physical exercise, a citizen militia, public holidays, and the like). Taken too far, as under the Jacobins, such social engineering could result in tyranny. As early as 1819, in his famous speech “On Ancient and Modern Liberty,” the political philosopher Benjamin Constant, a proponent of constitutional monarchy and representative democracy, criticized Rousseau, or rather his more radical followers (specifically the Abbé de Mably), for allegedly believing that "everything should give way to collective will, and that all restrictions on individual rights would be amply compensated by participation in social power.” Common also were attacks by defenders of social hierarchy on Rousseau's "romantic" belief in equality. In 1860, shortly after the Sepoy Rebellion in India, two British white supremacists, John Crawfurd and James Hunt mounted a defense of British imperialism based on “scientific racism". see Ter Ellingson, The Myth of the Noble Savage, 2001. Crawfurd, in alliance with Hunt, took over the presidency of the British Anthropological Society, which had been founded with the mission to defend indigenous peoples against slavery and colonial exploitation. Invoking "science" and "realism", the two men derided their "philanthropic" predecessors for believing in human equality and for not recognizing the that mankind was divided into superior and inferior races. Crawfurd, who opposed Darwinian evolution, "denied any unity to mankind, insisting on immutable, hereditary, and timeless differences in racial character, principal amongst which was the 'very great' difference in 'intellectual capacity.'" For Crawfurd, the races had been created separately and were different species. Since Crawfurd was Scots, he thought the Scots "race" superior and all others inferior; whilst Hunt, on the other hand, believed in the supremacy of the Anglo-Saxon "race". Crawfurd and Hunt routinely accused those who disagreed with them of believing in "Rousseau’s Noble Savage". (The pair ultimately quarreled because Hunt believed in slavery and Crawfurd did not). "As Ter Ellinson demonstrates, Crawfurd was responsible for re-introducing the Pre-Rousseauian concept of 'the Noble Savage' to modern anthropology, attributing it wrongly and quite deliberately to Rousseau.” In 1919 Irving Babbitt, founder of a movement called the "New Humanism", wrote a critique of what he called "sentimental humanitarianism", for which he blamed Rousseau. Rousseau and Romanticism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1919. Babbitt's depiction of Rousseau was countered in a celebrated and much reprinted essay by A. O. Lovejoy in 1923. See "The Supposed Primitivism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau," in Essays in the History of Ideas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press: [1923] 1948). In France, fascist theorist and anti-Semite Charles Maurras, founder of Action Française, “had no compunctions in laying the blame for both Romantisme et Révolution firmly on Rousseau in 1922." See R. Simon Harvey, who goes on: "and mere concern for the facts has not inhibited others from doing likewise. Irving Babbitt’s Rousseau & Romanticism still remains the only general work on this subject though printed as long ago as 1919, but it is grossly inaccurate, discursive and biased ….”See Reappraisals of Rousseau: studies in honor of R. A. Leigh, R, Simon Harvey, Editor (Manchester University press. 1980). During the Cold War, some liberals, among them Karl Popper, criticized Rousseau for his association with nationalism and its attendant abuses. This came to be known among scholars as the "totalitarian thesis" (the word "totalitarian" having been coined during the reign of Mussolini). An example is J. L. Talmon's, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (1952). Talmon's thesis is rebutted by Ralph A. Leigh in “Liberté et autorité dans le Contrat Social” in Jean-Jacques Rousseau et son ouevre (Paris 1963). Another tenacious proponent of the totalitarian thesis was Lester C. Crocker, author of Rousseau’s Social Contract, An interpretive Essay (Case Western Reserve Press, Cleveland, 1968). Two reviews of the debate are: J. W. Chapman, Rousseau: Totalitarian or Liberal? (AMS Press New York, 1968) and Richard Fralin, Rousseau and Representation (Columbia University Press, NY, 1978). Political scientist J. S. Moloy states that “the twentieth century added Nazism and Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed. ... Rousseau was considered to have advocated just the sort of invasive tampering with human nature which the totalitarian regimes of mid-century had tried to instantiate." But Moloy adds that "The totalitarian thesis in Rousseau studies has, by now, been discredited as an attribution of real historical influence.” J. S. Maloy, “The Very Order of Things: Rousseau's Tutorial Republicanism,” Polity, Vol. 37 (2005). Arthur Melzer, however, while conceding that Rousseau would not have approved of modern nationalism, observes that his theories do contain the "seeds of nationalism", insofar as they set forth the "politics of identification", which are rooted in sympathetic emotion. Melzer also believes that in admitting that people's talents are unequal, Rousseau therefore tacitly condones the tyranny of the few over the many. Arthur Melzer, "Rousseau, Nationalism, and the Politics of Sympathetic Identification" in Educating the Prince: Essays in Honor of Harvey C. Mansfield, Mark Kristol and William Blitz, editors (Rowman & Littlefield, 2000). Others counter, however, that Rousseau was concerned with the concept of equality under the law, not equality of talents. For Stephen T. Engel, on the other hand, Roussseau's nationalism anticipated modern theories of "imagined communities" that transcend social and religious divisions within states. "Rousseau and Imagined Communities", The Review of Politics, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Summer, 2005), pp. 515-537. See also Age of Enlightenment Classical republicanism Civil militia Deism Georges Hébert, a physical culturist influenced by Rousseau's teachings Natural rights Rousseau's educational philosophy Rousseau Institute Social Contract State of Nature Notes References Abizadeh, Arash (2001). "Banishing the Particular: Rousseau on Rhetoric, Patrie, and the Passions" Political Theory 29.4: 556-82. Babbitt, Irving ([1919] 1991). Rousseau and Romanticism. Edison, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers (Library of Conservative Thought) Bertram, Christopher (2003). Rousseau and The Social Contract. London: Routledge. Cassirer, Ernst (1945). Rousseau, Kant, Goethe. Princeton University Press. Cassirer, Ernst ([1935]1989). The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Peter Gay, editor and translator. Series editor, Jacques Barzun. Yale University Press. Conrad, Felicity (2008). "Rousseau Gets Spanked, or, Chomsky's Revenge." The Journal of POLI 433. 1.1: 1-24. Cooper, Laurence (1999). Rousseau, Nature and the Problem of the Good Life. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. Cottret, Monique and Bernard Cottret. Jean-Jacques Rousseau en son temps, Paris, Perrin, 2005. Cranston, Maurice (1982). Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work. New York: Norton. Cranston, Maurice (1991). The Noble Savage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cranston, Maurice (1997). The Solitary Self. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Damrosch, Leo (2005). Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Dent, Nicholas, J.H. (1988). Rousseau : An Introduction to his Psychological, Social, and Political Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. Dent, Nicholas, J. H. (1992). A Rousseau Dictionary. Oxford: Blackwell. Dent, Nicholas. (2005). Rousseau. London: Routledge. Derathé, Robert.(1948). Le Rationalism de J.-J. Rousseau. Press Universitaires de France. Derathé, Robert ([1950] 1988). Jean-Jacques Rousseau et la Science Politique de Son Temps. Paris: Vrin, Derrida, Jacques (1976). Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Einaudi, Mario (1968). Early Rousseau. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Ellingson, Ter. (2001). The Myth of the Noble Savage. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Farrell, John (2006). Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau. New York: Cornell University Press. Garrard, Graeme (2003). Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the Philosophes. Albany: State University of New York Press. Gauthier, David (2006). Rousseau: The Sentiment of Existence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hendel, Charles W. (1934). Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Moralist. 2 Vols. (1934) Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs Merrill. de Jouvenel, Bertrand (1962). "Rousseau the Pessimistic Evolutionist." Yale French studies 27 83-96 Kateb, George (1961). “Aspects of Rousseau’s Political Thought,” Political Science Quarterly, December 1961. LaFreniere, Gilbert F. (1990). "Rousseau and the European Roots of Environmentalism." Environmental History Review 14 (No. 4): 41-72 Lange, Lynda (2002). Feminist Interpretations of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. University Park: Penn State University Press. Lovejoy, Arthur O. ([1923] 1948). "The Supposed Primitivism of Rousseau's 'Discourse on Inequality'". Modern Philology: XXI: 165-186. Reprinted in Essays in the History of Ideas (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press). "A classic treatment of the Second Discourse" --Nicholas Dent. Marks, Jonathan (2005). Perfection and Disharmony in the Thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Melzer, Arthur (1990). The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pateman, Carole (1979). The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critical Analysis of Liberal Theory. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Riley, Patrick (1970). “A Possible Explanation of the General Will”. American Political Science Review 64:88 Riley, Patrick (1978). "General Will Before Rousseau". Political Theory, vol. 6, No. 4: 485-516. Riley, Patrick (ed.) (2001). The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X. Scott, John, T., editor (2006). Jean Jacques Rousseau, Volume 3: Critical Assessments of Leading Political Philosophers. New York: Routledge. Simpson, Matthew (2006). Rousseau's Theory of Freedom. London: Continuum Books. Simpson, Matthew (2007). Rousseau: Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum Books. Starobinski, Jean (1988). Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Strauss, Leo (1953). Natural Right and History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, chap. 6A. Strauss, Leo (1947). "On the Intention of Rousseau," Social Research 14: 455-87. Strong, Tracy B. (2002). Jean Jacques Rousseau and the Politics of the Ordinary. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Talmon, Jacob R. (1952). The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy. New York: W. W. Norton. Virioli, Maurizio ([1988] 2003). Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the 'Well-Ordered Society'. Hanson, Derek, translator. Cambridge University Press, 2003 ISBN 0521531381, 9780521531382 Williams, David Lay (2007). Rousseau’s Platonic Enlightenment. Pennsylvania State University Press. Wokler, Robert (1995). Rousseau. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Major works Dissertation sur la musique moderne, 1736 Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (Discours sur les sciences et les arts), 1750 Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy, 1752 Le Devin du Village: an opera, 1752, Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes), 1754 Discourse on Political Economy, 1755 Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles, 1758 (Lettre à d'Alembert sur les spectacles) Julie, or the New Heloise (Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse), 1761 Émile: or, on Education (Émile ou de l'éducation), 1762 The Creed of a Savoyard Priest, 1762 (in Émile) The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right (Du contrat social), 1762 Four Letters to M. de Malesherbes, 1762 Pygmalion: a Lyric Scene, 1762 Letters Written from the Mountain, 1764 (Lettres de la montagne) Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Les Confessions), 1770, published 1782 Constitutional Project for Corsica, 1772 Considerations on the Government of Poland, 1772 Essay on the Origin of Languages, published 1781 (Essai sur l'origine des langues) Reveries of a Solitary Walker, incomplete, published 1782 (Rêveries du promeneur solitaire) Dialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques, published 1782 Editions in English Basic Political Writings, trans. Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987. Collected Writings, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Dartmouth: University Press of New England, 1990-2005, 11 vols. (Does not as yet include Émile.) The Confessions, trans. Angela Scholar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Emile, or On Education, trans. with an introd. by Allan Bloom, New York: Basic Books, 1979. "On the Origin of Language," trans. John H. Moran. In On the Origin of Language: Two Essays. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Reveries of a Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France. London: Penguin Books, 1980. 'The Discourses' and Other Early Political Writings, trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. 'The Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings, trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. 'The Social Contract, trans. Maurice Cranston. Penguin: Penguin Classics Various Editions, 1968-2007. The Political writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau'', edited from the original MCS and authentic editions with introduction and notes by C.E.Vaughan, Blackwell, Oxford, 1962. (In French but the introduction and notes are in English). Online texts A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences English translation Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau English translation, as published by Project Gutenberg, 2004 [EBook #3913] Considerations on the Government of Poland English translation Constitutional Project for Corsica English translation Discourse on Political Economy English translation Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men English translation Du contrat social at MetaLibri Digital Library. English translation Emile French text and English translation (Grace G. Roosevelt's revision and correction of Barbara Foxley's Everyman translation, at Columbia) Full Ebooks of Rousseau in french on the website 'La philosophie' Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's book, The Social Contract (G.D.H. Cole translation; full text) Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy English translation Project Concerning New Symbols for Music French text and English translation The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau The Creed of a Savoyard Priest English translation The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right English translation External links Jean-Jacques Rousseau Bibliography Jean-Jacques Rousseau page at Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Rousseau Association/Association Rousseau, a bilingual association devoted to the study of Rousseau's life and works Edward Winter, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Chess Jean-Jacques Rousseau, at the Internet edition of Encyclopedia Britannica. Chronology de Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 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3,759 | Alfonso_the_Battler | Alfonso I (1073/1074 According to the fourteenth-century Crónica de San Juan de la Peña he died in his sixty-first year (Lourie 1975:639 note). – 8 September 1134), called the Battler or the Warrior (), was the king of Aragón and Navarre from 1104 until his death in 1134. He was the second son of King Sancho Ramírez and successor of his brother Peter I. With his marriage to Urraca, queen regnant of Castile and León, in 1109, he began to use, with some justification, the grandiose title Emperor of Spain, formerly employed by his father-in-law, Alfonso VI. Alfonso the Battler earned his sobriquet in the Reconquista. He won his greatest military successes in the middle Ebro, where he expelled the Moors from Zaragoza in 1118 and took Egea, Tudela, Calatayud, Borja, Tarazona, Daroca, and Monreal del Campo. He died in September 1134 after an unsuccessful battle with the Moors at the siege of Fraga. Early life His earliest years were passed in the monastery of Siresa, learning to read and write and to practise the military arts until the tuition of Lope Garcés the Pilgrim, who was repaid for his services by his former charge with the county of Pedrola when Alphonso came to the throne. During his brother's reign, he participated in the taking of Huesca (the Battle of Alcoraz, 1096), which became the largest city in the kingdom and the new capital. He also joined El Cid's expeditions in Valencia. His father gave him the lordships of Biel, Luna, Ardenes, y Bailo. A series of fortunate deaths put Alfonso directly in line for the throne. His brother's children, Isabel and Peter (who married María Rodríguez, daughter of El Cid), died in 1103 and 1104 respectively. Matrimonial conflicts A passionate fighting-man (he fought twenty-nine battles against Christian or Moor), he was married (when well over 30 years and a habitual bachelor) in 1109 to the ambitious Urraca of León, widow of Raymond of Burgundy, a passionate woman unsuited for a subordinate role. The marriage had been arranged by her father Alfonso VI of León in 1106 to unite the two chief Christian states against the Almoravides, and to supply them with a capable military leader. But Urraca was tenacious of her right as proprietary queen and had not learnt chastity in the polygamous household of her father. Husband and wife quarrelled with the brutality of the age and came to open war. Alfonso had the support of one section of the nobles who found their account in the confusion. Being a much better soldier than any of his opponents he gained victories at Sepúlveda and Fuente de la Culebra, but his only trustworthy supporters were his Aragonese, who were not numerous enough to keep Castile and León subjugated. The marriage of Alfonso and Urraca was declared null by the pope, as they were second cousins, in 1110, but he ignored the papal nuncio and clung to his liaison with Urraca until 1114. During his marriage, he had called himself "King and Emperor of Castile, Toledo, Aragón, Pamplona, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza" in recognition of his rights as Urraca's husband; of his inheritance of the lands of his father, including the kingdom of his great-uncle Gonzalo; and his prerogative to conquer Andalusia from the Moor. He inserted the title of imperator on the basis that he had three kingdoms under his rule. Alfonso's late marriage and his failure to remarry and produce the essential legitimate heir that should have been a dynastic linchpin of his aggressive territorial policies have been adduced as a lack of interest in women. Ibn al-Athir (1166-1234) describes Alfonso as a tireless soldier who would sleep in his armor without benefit of cover, who responded when asked why he did not take his pleasure from one of the captives of Muslim chiefs, responded that the man devoted to war needs the companionship of men not women. Quoted in Lourie 1975:639 note. No bastards are recorded, though they would have cut prominent figures under the circumstances. No inference of homosexuality need be drawn: the chastity that supports fitness for the hunt or for battle is a cultural topos as old as the myth of Actaeon. Church relations The king quarrelled with the church, and particularly the Cistercians, almost as violently as with his wife. As he beat her, so he drove Archbishop Bernard into exile and expelled the monks of Sahagún. He was finally compelled to give way in Castile and Leon to his stepson Alfonso Raimúndez, son of Urraca and her first husband. The intervention of Pope Calixtus II brought about an arrangement between the old man and his young namesake. In 1122 in Belchite, he founded a confraternity of knights to fight against the Almoravids. It was the start of the military orders in Aragón. Years later, he organised a branch of the Militia Christi of the Holy Land at Monreal del Campo. Reconquista Alfonso spent his first four years in near-constant war with the Moor. In 1105, he conquered Ejea and Tauste and refortified Castellar and Juslibol. In 1106, he defeated Ahmad II al-Musta'in of Zaragoza at Valtierra. In 1107, he took Tamarite de Litera and Esteban de la Litera. Then followed a period dominated by his relations with Castile and León through his wife, Urraca. He resumed his Reconquista in 1117 by conquering Fitero, Corella, Cintruénigo, Murchante, Monteagudo, and Cascante. In 1118, the Council of Toulouse declared a crusade to assist in the reconquest of Zaragoza. Many Frenchmen consequently joined Alfonso at Ayerbe. They took Almudévar, Gurrea de Gállego, and Zuera, besieging Zaragoza itself by the end of May. The city fell on 18 December, and the forces of Alfonso occupied the Azuda, the government tower. The great palace of the city was given to the monks of Bernard. Promptly, the city was made Alfonso's capital. Two years later, in 1120, he defeated a Muslim army intent on reconquering his new capital at the Battle of Cutanda. He promulgated the fuero of tortum per tortum, facilitating taking the law into one's own hands, and forced the Muslim population of the city (greater than 20,000) to move to the suburbs. In 1119, he retook Cervera, Tudejen, Castellón, Tarazona, Ágreda, Magallón, Borja, Alagón, Novillas, Mallén, Rueda, Épila and repopulated the region of Soria. He began the siege of Calatayud, but left to defeat the army at Cutanda trying to retake Zaragoza. When Calatayud fell, he took Bubierca, Alhama de Aragón, Ariza, and Daroca (1120). In 1123, he besieged and took Lérida, which was in the hands of the count of Barcelona. From the winter of 1124 to September 1125, he was on a risky expedition to Peña Cadiella deep in Andalusia. In the great raid of 1125, he carried away a large part of the subject Christians from Granada, and in the south-west of France, he had claims as usurper-king of Navarre. From 1125 to 1126, he was on campaign against Granada, where he was trying to install a Christian prince, and Córdoba, where got only as far as Motril. In 1127, he reconquered Longares, but simultaneously lost all his Castilian possessions to Alfonso VII. He confirmed a treaty with Castile the next year (1128) with the Peace of Támara, which fixed the boundaries of the two realms. He conquered Molina de Aragón and repopulated Monzón in 1129, before besieging Valencia, which had fallen again upon the Cid's death. He went north of the Pyrenees in October 1130 to protect the Val d'Aran. Early in 1131, he besieged Bayonne. It is said he ruled "from Belorado to Pallars and from Bayonne to Monreal." At the siege of Bayonne in October 1131, three years before his death, he published a will leaving his kingdom to three autonomous religious orders based in Palestine and politically largely independent on the pope, the Knights Templars, the Hospitallers, and the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, whose influences might have been expected to cancel one another out. The will has greatly puzzled historians, who have read it as a bizarre gesture of extreme piety uncharacteristic of Alphonso's character, one that effectively undid his life's work. Elena Lourie (1975) suggested instead that it was Alphonso's attempt to neutralize the papacy's interest in a disputed succession— Aragon had been a fief of the Papacy since 1068— and to fend off Urraca's son from her first marriage, Alphonso VII of Castile, for the Papacy would be bound to press the terms of such a pious testament. Innocent II indeed did write Alfonso VII to just this effect, 10 June 1135 or 36 (Lourie 1995:645). Generous bequests to important churches and abbeys in Castile had the effect of making the noble churchmen there beneficiaries who would be encouraged by the will to act as a brake on Alphonso VII's ambitions to break it— and yet among the magnates witnessing the will in 1131 there is not a single cleric. In the event it was a will that his nobles refused to carry out— instead bringing his brother Ramiro from the monastery to assume royal powers— an eventuality that Lourie suggests was Alphonso's hidden intent. His final campaigns were against Mequinenza (1133) and Fraga (1134), where García Ramírez, the future king of Navarre, and a mere 500 other knights fought with him. It fell on 17 July. He was dead by September. Alfonso was a fierce, violent man, a soldier and nothing else, whose piety was wholly militant. He has a great role in the Spanish reconquest. Death His testament was not honored: Aragon took his aged brother abbot-bishop Ramiro out of a monastery and made him king, marrying him without papal dispensation to Agnes, sister of the Duke of Aquitaine; the Navarrese lords, perhaps irked at the personal union of Aragon and Navarre signalled their independence by putting García Ramírez Lord of Monzón, descendant of an illegitimate son of García Sánchez III, to the throne in Pamplona. "The result of the crisis produced by the result of Alfonso I's will was a major reorientation of the peninsula's kingdoms: the separation of Aragon and Navarre, the union of Aragon and Catalonia and— a moot point but stressed particularly by some Castilian historians— the affirmation of 'Castilian hegemony' in Spain" Lourie 1975:636. by the rendering of homage for Zaragoza by Alfonso's eventual heir, Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona. Notes References Lourie, Elena. "The Will of Alfonso I, 'El Batallador,' King of Aragon and Navarre: A Reassessment." 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3,760 | Bill_Joy | Bill Joy William Nelson Joy (born Nov 8, 1954), commonly known as Bill Joy, is an American computer scientist. Joy co-founded Sun Microsystems in 1982 along with Vinod Khosla, Scott McNealy, Andy Bechtolsheim and Vaughan Pratt, and served as chief scientist at the company until 2003. He is widely known for having written the essay "Why the future doesn't need us", where he expresses deep concerns over the development of modern technologies. He has two children, Hayden and Maddie. Early career After growing up in suburban Detroit, Michigan, Bill Joy received his B.S. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Michigan and his M.S. in EECS from UC Berkeley in 1979. cal.berkeley.edu Joy's PhD advisor was Robert Fabry. As a UC berkeley Grad Student Bill worked for Fabry's Computer Systems Research Group CSRG in managing the BSD support and rollout where many claim he was largely responsible for managing the authorship of BSD UNIX, from which sprang many modern forms of UNIX, including FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. Apple Inc. has based much of the Mac OS X kernel and OS Services on the BSD technology. Some of his most notable contributions were the editor, NFS, and csh. Joy's prowess as a computer programmer is legendary, with an oft-told anecdote that he wrote the editor in a weekend. Joy denies this assertion. Bill Joy's greatest gift to man – the vi editor, The Register Eric Schmidt, CEO of Novell at the time, continued the mythopoesis during an interview in PBS's documentary Nerds 2.0.1, inflating Bill Joy's accomplishments as having personally rewritten the BSD kernel in a weekend. Sun In 1982, Joy co-founded Sun Microsystems. According to a Salon.com article, during the early 1980s DARPA had contracted the company Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN) to add TCP/IP to Berkeley UNIX. Joy had been instructed to plug BBN's stack into Berkeley Unix, but he refused to do so, as he had a low opinion of BBN's TCP/IP. So, Joy wrote his own high-performance TCP/IP stack. According to John Gage, "BBN had a big contract to implement TCP/IP, but their stuff didn't work, and Joy's grad student stuff worked. So they had this big meeting and this grad student in a T-shirt shows up, and they said, 'How did you do this?' And Bill said, 'It's very simple — you read the protocol and write the code.'" Rob Gurwitz, who was working at BBN at the time, disputes this version of events. BSD Unix: Power to the people, from the code - Salon.com In 1986, Joy was awarded a Grace Murray Hopper Award by the ACM for his work on the Berkeley UNIX Operating System. Joy was also a primary figure in the development of the SPARC microprocessors, the Java programming language, Jini / JavaSpaces and JXTA. On September 9, 2003 Sun announced that Bill Joy was leaving the company and that he "is taking time to consider his next move and has no definite plans". Technology concerns In 2000 Joy gained notoriety with the publication of his article in Wired Magazine, "Why the future doesn't need us", in which he declared, in what some have described as a "neo-Luddite" position, that he was convinced that growing advances in genetic engineering and nanotechnology would bring risks to humanity. He argued that intelligent robots would replace humanity, at the very least in intellectual and social dominance, in the relatively near future. He advocates a position of relinquishment of GNR (Genetics, Nanotechnology, and Robotics) technologies, rather than going into an arms race between negative uses of the technology and defense against those negative uses (good nano-machines patrolling and defending against Grey Goo "bad" nano-machines). A bar-room discussion of these technologies with inventor and technological-singularity thinker Ray Kurzweil started to set his thinking along this path. He states in his essay that during the conversation, he became surprised that other serious scientists were considering such possibilities likely, and even more astounded at what he felt was a lack of considerations of the contingencies. After bringing the subject up with a few more acquaintances, he states that he was further alarmed by what he felt was the fact that although many people considered these futures possible or probable, that very few of them shared as serious a concern for the dangers as he seemed to. This concern led to his in-depth examination of the issue and other's positions on it, and eventually, to his current activities regarding it. Despite this he has become a venture capitalist, investing in GNR technology companies. He has also raised a specialty venture fund to address the dangers of Pandemic diseases, such as H5N1 Avian influenza and Bioterrorist threats. In 2006, he was awarded the Lifeboat Foundation Guardian Award for developing this biosafety venture fund and other actions. Lifeboat Foundation Guardian Award Post-Sun activities In 1999 Joy co-founded a venture capital firm, HighBAR Ventures, with two Sun colleagues: Andreas Bechtolsheim and Roy Thiele-Sardiña. In January 2005 he was named a partner in venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers. He has once said, "My method is to look at something that seems like a good idea and assume it's true". Shirky: A Group Is Its Own Worst Enemy References External links Bill Joy at Dropping Knowledge View Bill Joy's answers to the 100 questions at Dropping Knowledge's Table of Free Voices event in Berlin, 2006. Big Picture TV Free video clips of Bill Joy Software Isn't Complete Unless It's Secure, BusinessWeek, September 26, 2006 BSD Unix: Power to the people, from the code - Salon article Why the future doesn't need us, Wired, April 2000 Interview Wired, December 2003 Bill Joy's Hi-Tech Warning Bill Joy, techcast.ddj.com Co-founder Joy to leave Sun, news.com, September 9 2003 Joy After Sun, interview with Brent Schlender for Fortune, September 29 2003 Internet archive of biography from Sun Microsystems in 2003 CNet Interview: Talking tech with Bill Joy - 31 March 2005 NerdTV interview (video, audio, and transcript available) - 30 June 2005 An Introduction to Display Editing with Vi The Six Webs, 10 Years On - speech at MIT Emerging Technologies conference Computer History Museum, 11-Jan-2006: Sun Founders Panel Sun Feature Story: The Fab Four Reunites (webcast of the event) Joy's University of Michigan Profile Excerpts from a 1999 Linux Magazine interview regarding the development of vi TED 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3,761 | Lise_Meitner | Lise Meitner (7 or 17 November 1878 – 27 October 1968) was an Austrian-born, later Swedish physicist who studied radioactivity and nuclear physics. Biography Lise Meitner was part of the team that discovered nuclear fission, an achievement for which her colleague Otto Hahn was awarded the Nobel Prize. Meitner is often mentioned as one of the most glaring examples of scientific achievement overlooked by the Nobel committee. A 1997 Physics Today study concluded that Meitner's omission was "a rare instance in which personal negative opinions apparently led to the exclusion of a deserving scientist" from the Nobel. Early years Lise Meitner was born into a Jewish family as the third of eight children in Vienna, 2nd district (Leopoldstadt). Her father, Philipp Meitner, was one of the first Jewish lawyers in Austria. She was born on 7 November 1878. She shortened her name from Elise to Lise. Cornwell, Hitler's Scientists, 66. Lise Meitner | Biography | atomicarchive.com The birth register of Vienna's Jewish community lists Meitner as being born on 17 November 1878, but all other documents list it as 7 November, which is what she used. Ruth Lewin Sime, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (University of California Press, 1996), 1. Meitner was the second woman to earn a doctoral degree in physics at the University of Vienna. Women were not allowed to attend institutions of higher education in those days, but thanks to support from her parents, she was able to obtain private higher education, which she completed in 1901 with an "externe Matura" examination at the Akademisches Gymnasium. Scientific career Inspired by her teacher, physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, she studied physics and became the second woman to obtain a doctoral degree at the University of Vienna in 1905 ("Wärmeleitung im inhomogenen Körper"). Following the doctoral degree, she rejected an offer to work in a gas lamp factory. Encouraged by her father and backed by his financial support, she went to Berlin. Max Planck allowed her to attend his lectures, an unusual gesture by Planck, who until then had rejected any women wanting to attend his lectures. After one year, Meitner became Max Planck's assistant. During the first years she worked together with Otto Hahn and discovered with him several new isotopes. In 1909 she presented two papers on beta-radiation. In 1912 the research group Hahn-Meitner moved to the newly founded Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut(Emperor Wilhelm Institute - KWI)in Berlin-Dahlem, south west in Berlin. She worked without salary as a "guest" in Hahn's department of Radiochemistry. It was not until 1913, at 35 years old and following an offer to go to Prague as associate professor, that she got a permanent position at KWI. In the first part of the First World War (WW I), she served as a nurse handling X-ray equipment. She returned to Berlin and her research in 1916, but not without inner struggle. She felt in a way ashamed of wanting to continue her research efforts when thinking about the pain and suffering of the victims of war and their medical and emotional needs. Charlotte Kerner. Lise, Atomphysikerin. Die Lebensgeschicte der Lise Meitner. 2. Auflage. Weinheim: Verlag Beltz & Gelberg 2006 ISBN 978-3-407-78812-2 In 1917, she and chemist Otto Hahn discovered the first long-lived isotope of the element protactinium. That year, Meitner was given her own physics section at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry. In 1923, she discovered the cause, known as the Auger effect, of the emission from surfaces of electrons with 'signature' energies. The effect is named for Pierre Victor Auger, a French scientist who independently discovered the effect in 1925. In 1930, Meitner taught a seminar on nuclear physics and chemistry with Leó Szilárd. With the discovery of the neutron in the early 1930s, speculation arose in the scientific community that it might be possible to create elements heavier than uranium (atomic number 92) in the laboratory. A scientific race began between Ernest Rutherford in Britain, Irene Joliot-Curie in France, Enrico Fermi in Italy, and the Meitner-Hahn team in Berlin. At the time, all concerned believed that this was abstract research for the probable honor of a Nobel prize. None suspected that this research would culminate in nuclear weapons. When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, Meitner was acting director of the Institute for Chemistry. Although she was protected by her Austrian citizenship, all other Jewish scientists, including her nephew Otto Frisch, Fritz Haber, Leó Szilárd and many other eminent figures, were dismissed or forced to resign from their posts. Most of them emigrated from Germany. Her response was to say nothing and bury herself in her work. In 1946 she acknowledged that "It was not only stupid but also very wrong that I did not leave at once." Cornwell, Hitler's Scientists, 207-13 Nuclear fission experimental setup, reconstructed at the Deutsches Museum, Munich. After the Anschluss, her situation became desperate. In July 1938, Meitner, with help from the Dutch physicists Coster and Fokker, escaped to Holland. She was forced to travel under cover to the Dutch border, where Coster persuaded German immigration officers that she had permission to travel to the Netherlands. She reached safety, though without her possessions. Meitner later said that she left Germany forever with 10 marks in her purse. Before she left, Otto Hahn had given her a diamond ring he had inherited from his mother: this was to be used to bribe the frontier guards if required. It was not required, and Meitner's nephew's wife later wore it. Meitner was lucky to escape, as Kurt Hess, a chemist who was an avid Nazi, had informed the authorities that she was about to flee. However, unknown friends only checked after they knew she was safe. An appointment at Groningen University did not come through, and she went instead to Stockholm, where she took up a post at Manne Siegbahn's laboratory, despite the difficulty caused by Siegbahn's prejudice against women in science. Here she established a working relationship with Niels Bohr, who travelled regularly between Copenhagen and Stockholm. She continued to correspond with Hahn and other German scientists. Cornwell, Hitler's Scientists, 214-15 Hahn and Meitner met clandestinely in Copenhagen in November to plan a new round of experiments, and they subsequently exchanged a series of letters. Hahn then performed the difficult experiments which isolated the evidence for nuclear fission at his laboratory in Berlin. The surviving correspondence shows that Hahn recognized that fission was the only explanation for the barium, but, baffled by this remarkable conclusion, he wrote to Meitner. The possibility that uranium nuclei might break up under neutron bombardment had been suggested years before, notably by Ida Noddack in 1934. However, by employing the existing "liquid-drop" model of the nucleus, Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (1986), Simon&Shuster, NY, NY pp.257–60 Meitner and Frisch were the first to articulate a theory of how the nucleus of an atom could be split into smaller parts: uranium nuclei had split to form barium and krypton, accompanied by the ejection of several neutrons and a large amount of energy (the latter two products accounting for the loss in mass). She and Frisch had discovered the reason that no stable elements beyond uranium (in atomic number) existed naturally; the electrical repulsion of so many protons overcame the "strong" nuclear force. Meitner also first realized that Einstein's famous equation, E = mc2, explained the source of the tremendous releases of energy in atomic decay, by the conversion of the mass-defect into energy. A letter from Bohr, commenting on the fact that the amount of energy released when he bombarded uranium atoms was far larger than had been predicted by calculations based on a non-fissile core, had sparked the above inspiration in December 1938. Hahn claimed that his chemistry had been solely responsible for the discovery, although he had been unable to explain the results. It was politically impossible for the exiled Meitner to publish jointly with Hahn in 1939. Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann had sent the manuscript of their paper to Naturwissenschaften in December 1938, reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons; O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11-15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938. simultaneously, they had communicated their results to Meitner in a letter. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, correctly interpreted their results as being nuclear fission. Lise Meitner and O. R. Frisch Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction, Nature, Volume 143, Number 3615, 239-240 (16 February 1939). The paper is dated 16 January 1939. Meitner is identified as being at the Physical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. Frisch is identified as being at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Copenhagen. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. O. R. Frisch Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment, Nature, Volume 143, Number 3616, 276-276 (18 February 1939). The paper is dated 17 January 1939. [The experiment for this letter to the editor was conducted on 13 January 1939; see Richard Rhodes The Making of the Atomic Bomb 263 and 268 (Simon and Schuster, 1986).] Meitner recognized the possibility for a chain reaction of enormous explosive potential. This report had an electrifying effect on the scientific community. Because this could be used as a weapon, and since the knowledge was in German hands, Leó Szilárd, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner together jumped into action, persuading Albert Einstein, who had the celebrity, to write President Franklin D. Roosevelt a warning letter; this led directly to the establishment of the Manhattan Project. Meitner refused an offer to work on the project at Los Alamos, declaring "I will have nothing to do with a bomb!" Ruth Lewin Sime, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (University of California Press, 1996), 305 Einstein himself respected Meitner and called her "our Marie Curie." Awards and honours In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the discovery of nuclear fission. Some historians who have documented the history of the discovery of nuclear fission believe Meitner should have been awarded the Nobel Prize with Hahn. Ruth Lewin Sime From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry Ergebnisse 24 Forschungsprogramm Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus (2005). Ruth Lewin Sime Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (University of California, 1997). Elisabeth Crawford, Ruth Lewin Sime, and Mark Walker A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice, Physics Today Volume 50, Issue 9, 26-32 (1997). In 1966 Hahn, Fritz Strassmann and Meitner together were awarded the Enrico Fermi Award. On a visit to the USA in 1946 she received American press celebrity treatment as someone who had "left Germany with the bomb in my purse." She was honoured as "Woman of the Year" by the National Women's Press Club (USA) in 1946, and received the Max Planck Medal of the German Physics Society in 1949. Meitner was suggested to receive the prize three times. An even rarer honour was given to her in 1997 when element 109 was named meitnerium in her honour. Later years After the war, Meitner, while acknowledging her own moral failing in staying in Germany from 1933 to 1938, was bitterly critical of Hahn and other German scientists who had collaborated with the Nazis and done nothing to protest against the crimes of Hitler's regime. Referring to the leading German scientist Werner Heisenberg, she said: "Heisenberg and many millions with him should be forced to see these camps and the martyred people." She wrote to Hahn: Meitner's Grave in Bramley "You all worked for Nazi Germany. And you tried to offer only a passive resistance. Certainly, to buy off your conscience you helped here and there a persecuted person, but millions of innocent human beings were allowed to be murdered without any kind of protest being uttered ... [it is said that] first you betrayed your friends, then your children in that you let them stake their lives on a criminal war – and finally that you betrayed Germany itself, because when the war was already quite hopeless, you did not once arm yourselves against the senseless destruction of Germany." Cornwell, Hitler's Scientists, 411 Meitner and Hahn were lifelong friends, see: L. Meitner: Erinnerungen an Otto Hahn, hg. v. D. Hahn (2005) Meitner became a Swedish citizen in 1949, but moved to Britain in 1960 and died in Cambridge in 1968, shortly before her 90th birthday. As was her wish, she was buried in the village of Bramley in Hampshire, at St. James parish church, close to her younger brother Walter, who had died in 1964. Her nephew Otto Robert Frisch composed the inscription on her headstone. It reads "Lise Meitner: a physicist who never lost her humanity." General culture Besides the element named in her honor, there have been other mentions in general culture: In episode S01E09 of Eureka, the high school holds an annual dance that honors Lise Meitner, and says that Eureka strives to follow her ideals. According to the psychologist David Keirsey, she was an Rational Portrait of the Mastermind (INTJ). Retrieved 2008-12-19. , a set of people who are, as to personality, the least emotional, most rational ones. See also List of Austrian scientists Meitnerium Hans-Hermann Hupfeld References Further reading Sime, Ruth Lewin (2006) "Lise Meitner" in OUT OF THE SHADOWS: Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics, Nina Byers and Gary Williams, ed., Cambridge University Press. Sime, Ruth Lewin From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry Ergebnisse 24 Forschungsprogramm Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus (2005). External links "Lise Meitner" in CWP at UCLA A critical review of Patricia Rife's book from PhysicsWeb Lise Meitner Online Annotated bibliography for Lise Meitner from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues | Lise_Meitner |@lemmatized lise:19 meitner:51 november:5 october:1 austrian:3 born:1 later:4 swedish:2 physicist:4 study:3 radioactivity:1 nuclear:12 physic:13 biography:2 part:3 team:2 discover:6 fission:7 achievement:2 colleague:1 otto:9 hahn:23 award:5 nobel:7 prize:5 often:1 mention:2 one:4 glaring:1 example:1 scientific:5 overlook:1 committee:1 today:2 conclude:1 omission:1 rare:2 instance:1 personal:1 negative:1 opinion:1 apparently:1 lead:2 exclusion:1 deserve:1 scientist:11 early:2 year:8 bear:3 jewish:4 family:1 third:1 eight:1 child:2 vienna:4 district:1 leopoldstadt:1 father:2 philipp:1 first:8 lawyer:1 austria:1 shorten:1 name:4 elise:1 cornwell:4 hitler:6 atomicarchive:1 com:1 birth:1 register:1 community:3 list:3 document:2 use:3 ruth:7 lewin:7 sime:7 life:4 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3,762 | History_of_Microsoft_Windows | The Windows logo used since November 2006. In 1983 Microsoft announced the development of Windows, a graphical user interface (GUI) for its own operating system (MS-DOS), which had shipped for IBM PC and compatible computers since 1981. Since then, Microsoft has shipped many versions of Windows, and the product line has changed from a GUI product to a modern operating system. Early history: an expansion of MS-DOS Early Windows logo The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on 20 November 1985, achieved little popularity. It was originally going to be called "Interface Manager" but Rowland Hanson, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name <Windows> would be more appealing to consumers. Windows 1.0 was not a complete operating system, but rather an "operating environment" that extended MS-DOS, and shared the latter's inherent flaws and problems. The first version of Microsoft Windows included a simple graphics painting program called Windows Paint, Windows Write, a simple word processor, an appointment "calendar", a "cardfiler", a "Microsoft notepad", a "clock", a " control panel", a "computer terminal", "Clipboard", and RAM driver. It also included the MS-DOS Executive and a game called Reversi. Microsoft had worked with Apple Computer to develop several Desk Accessories and other minor pieces of software that were included with early Macintosh system software. As part of the related business negotiations, Microsoft had licensed certain aspects of the Macintosh user interface from Apple; in later litigation, a district court summarized these aspects as "screen displays". In the development of Windows 1.0, Microsoft intentionally limited its borrowing of certain GUI elements from the Macintosh user interface, in order to comply with its license. For example, windows were only displayed "tiled" on the screen; that is, they could not overlap or overlie one another. There was no trash can icon with which to delete files, since Apple claimed ownership of the rights to that paradigm. Microsoft Windows version 2 came out on 9 December 1987, and proved slightly more popular than its predecessor. Much of the popularity for Windows 2.0 came by way of its inclusion as a "run-time version" with Microsoft's new graphical applications, Excel and Word for Windows. They could be run from MS-DOS, executing Windows for the duration of their activity, and closing down Windows upon exit. Microsoft Windows received a major boost around this time when Aldus PageMaker appeared in a Windows version, having previously run only on Macintosh. Some computer historians date this, the first appearance of a significant and non-Microsoft application for Windows, as the beginning of the success of Windows. Versions 2.0x used the real-mode memory model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 megabyte of memory. In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasker like DESQview, which used the 286 Protected Mode. Later, two new versions were released: Windows/286 2.1 and Windows/386 2.1. Like previous versions of Windows, Windows/286 2.1 used the real-mode memory model, but was the first version to support the "High Memory Area|HMA". Windows/386 2.1 had a protected mode kernel with LIM-standard EMS emulation, the predecessor to XMS which would finally change the topology of IBM PC computing. All Windows and DOS-based applications at the time were real mode, running over the protected mode kernel by using the virtual 8086 mode, which was new with the 80386 processor. Version 2.03, and later 3.0, faced challenges from Apple over its overlapping windows and other features Apple charged mimicked the ostensibly copyrighted "look and feel" of its operating system and "embodie[d] and generated a copy of the Macintosh" in its OS. Judge William Schwarzer dropped all but 10 of Apple's 189 claims of copyright infringement, and ruled that most of the remaining 10 were over uncopyrightable ideas. Success with Windows 3.0 Windows 3.0 screenshot. Microsoft Windows scored a significant success with Windows 3.0, released in 1990. In addition to improved capabilities given to native applications, Windows also allowed users to better multitask older MS-DOS based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of virtual memory. Windows 3.0's user interface was finally a serious competitor to the user interface of the Macintosh computer. PCs had improved graphics by this time, due to VGA video cards, and the Protected/Enhanced mode allowed Windows applications to use more memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. Windows 3.0 could run in Real, Standard, or 386 Enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the 8086/8088 up to the 80286 and 80386. This was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel in Windows/386. A "multimedia" version, Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions 1.0, was released several months later. This was bundled with "multimedia upgrade kits", comprising a CD-ROM drive and a sound card, such as the Creative Labs Sound Blaster Pro. This version was the precursor to the multimedia features available in Windows 3.1 and later, and was part of Microsoft's specification for the Multimedia PC. The features listed above and growing market support from application software developers made Windows 3.0 wildly successful, selling around 10 million copies in the two years before the release of version 3.1. Windows 3.0 became a major source of income for Microsoft, and led the company to revise some of its earlier plans. A step sideways: OS/2 OS/2 logo During the mid to late 1980s, Microsoft and IBM had cooperatively been developing OS/2 as a successor to DOS. OS/2 would take full advantage of the aforementioned Protected Mode of the Intel 80286 processor and up to 16MB of memory. OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, supported swapping and multitasking and allowed running of DOS executables. A GUI, called the Presentation Manager (PM), was not available with OS/2 until version 1.1, released in 1988. Its API was incompatible with Windows. (Among other things, Presentation Manager placed X,Y coordinate 0,0 at the bottom left of the screen like Cartesian coordinates, while Windows put 0,0 at the top left of the screen like most other computer window systems.) Version 1.2, released in 1989, introduced a new file system, HPFS, to replace the FAT file system. By the early 1990s, conflicts developed in the Microsoft/IBM relationship. They cooperated with each other in developing their PC operating systems, and had access to each others' code. Microsoft wanted to further develop Windows, while IBM desired for future work to be based on OS/2. In an attempt to resolve this tension, IBM and Microsoft agreed that IBM would develop OS/2 2.0, to replace OS/2 1.3 and Windows 3.0, while Microsoft would develop a new operating system, OS/2 3.0, to later succeed OS/2 2.0. This agreement soon however fell apart, and the Microsoft/IBM relationship was terminated. IBM continued to develop OS/2, while Microsoft changed the name of its (as yet unreleased) OS/2 3.0 to Windows NT. Both retained the rights to use OS/2 and Windows technology developed up to the termination of the agreement; Windows NT, however, was to be written anew, mostly independently (see below). After an interim 1.3 version to fix up many remaining problems with the 1.x series, IBM released OS/2 version 2.0 in 1992. This was a major improvement: it featured a new, object-oriented GUI, the Workplace Shell (WPS), that included a desktop and was considered by many to be OS/2's best feature. Microsoft would later imitate much of it in Windows 95. Version 2.0 also provided a full 32-bit API, offered smooth multitasking and could take advantage of the 4 gigabytes of address space provided by the Intel 80386. Still, much of the system still had 16-bit code internally which required, among other things, device drivers to be 16-bit code as well. This was one of the reasons for the chronic shortage of OS/2 drivers for the latest devices. Version 2.0 could also run DOS and Windows 3.0 programs, since IBM had retained the right to use the DOS and Windows code as a result of the breakup. Windows 3.1 and NT Microsoft Windows logo (1992-2000) Windows 3.11 screenshot. In response to the impending release of OS/2 2.0, Microsoft developed Windows 3.1, which includes several minor improvements to Windows 3.0 (such as display of TrueType scalable fonts, developed jointly with Apple), but primarily consists of bugfixes and multimedia support. It also excludes support for Real mode, and only runs on an 80286 or better processor. Later Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a touch-up to Windows 3.1 which includes all of the patches and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in 1992. Around the same time, Microsoft released Windows for Workgroups (WfW), available both as an add-on for existing Windows 3.1 installations and in a version that included the base Windows environment and the networking extensions all in one package. Windows for Workgroups includes improved network drivers and protocol stacks, and support for peer-to-peer networking. One optional download for WfW was the "Wolverine" TCP/IP protocol stack, which allowed for easy access to the Internet through corporate networks. There are two versions of Windows for Workgroups, WfW 3.1 and WfW 3.11. Unlike the previous versions, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 only runs in 386 Enhanced mode, and requires at least an 80386SX processor. All these versions continued version 3.0's impressive sales pace. Even though the 3.1x series still lacked most of the important features of OS/2, such as long file names, a desktop, or protection of the system against misbehaving applications, Microsoft quickly took over the OS and GUI markets for the IBM PC. The Windows API became the de-facto standard for consumer software. Meanwhile Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT. The main architect of the system was Dave Cutler, one of the chief architects of VMS at Digital Equipment Corporation (later purchased by Compaq, now part of Hewlett-Packard). Microsoft hired him in August 1988 to create a successor to OS/2, but Cutler created a completely new system instead. Cutler had been developing a follow-on to VMS at DEC called Mica, and when DEC dropped the project he brought the expertise and around 20 engineers with him to Microsoft. DEC also believed he brought Mica's code to Microsoft and sued. Microsoft eventually paid $150 million U.S. and agreed to support DEC's Alpha CPU chip in NT. Windows NT 3.1 (Microsoft marketing wanted Windows NT to appear to be a continuation of Windows 3.1) arrived in Beta form to developers at the July 1992 Professional Developers Conference in San Francisco. Microsoft announced at the conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (code-named Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed Cairo. In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft had anticipated and, as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified until Windows XP. Parts of Cairo have still not made it into Windows as of 2009 - specifically, the WinFS file system, which was the much touted Object File System of Cairo. Microsoft announced that they have discontinued the separate release of WinFS for Windows XP and Windows Vista and will gradually incorporate the technologies developed for WinFS in other products and technologies, notably Microsoft SQL Server. Driver support was lacking due to the increased programming difficulty in dealing with NT's superior hardware abstraction model. This problem plagued the NT line all the way through Windows 2000. Programmers complained that it was too hard to write drivers for NT, and hardware developers were not going to go through the trouble of developing drivers for a small segment of the market. Additionally, although allowing for good performance and fuller exploitation of system resources, it was also resource-intensive on limited hardware, and thus was only suitable for larger, more expensive machines. However, these same features made Windows NT perfect for the LAN server market (which in 1993 was experiencing a rapid boom, as office networking was becoming common). NT also had advanced network connectivity options and the efficient NTFS file system. Windows NT version 3.51 was Microsoft's entry into this field, and took away market share from Novell (the dominant player) in the following years. One of Microsoft's biggest advances initially developed for Windows NT was a new 32-bit API, to replace the legacy 16-bit Windows API. This API was called Win32, and from then on Microsoft referred to the older 16-bit API as Win16. The Win32 API had three main implementations: one for Windows NT, one for Win32s (which was a subset of Win32 which could be used on Windows 3.1 systems), and one for Chicago. Thus Microsoft sought to ensure some degree of compatibility between the Chicago design and Windows NT, even though the two systems had radically different internal architectures. Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel. Windows 95 Windows 95 Logo Windows 95 screenshot. After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new consumer oriented version of the operating system code-named Chicago. Chicago was designed to have support for 32-bit preemptive multitasking like OS/2 and Windows NT, although a 16-bit kernel would remain for the sake of backward compatibility. The Win32 API first introduced with Windows NT was adopted as the standard 32-bit programming interface, with Win16 compatibility being preserved through a technique known as "thunking". A new GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably Plug and Play) slipped. Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32-bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using real mode) for reasons of compatibility, performance and development time. Additionally it was necessary to carry over design decisions from earlier versions of Windows for reasons of backwards compatibility, even if these design decisions no longer matched a more modern computing environment. These factors eventually began to impact the operating system's efficiency and stability. Microsoft marketing adopted Windows 95 as the product name for Chicago when it was released on August 24, 1995. Microsoft had a double gain from its release: first it made it impossible for consumers to run Windows 95 on a cheaper, non-Microsoft DOS; secondly, although traces of DOS were never completely removed from the system, and a version of DOS would be loaded briefly as a part of the booting process, Windows 95 applications ran solely in 386 Enhanced Mode, with a flat 32-bit address space and virtual memory. These features make it possible for Win32 applications to address up to 2 gigabytes of virtual RAM (with another 2GB reserved for the operating system), and in theory prevented them from inadvertently corrupting the memory space of other Win32 applications. In this respect the functionality of Windows 95 moved closer to Windows NT, although Windows 95/98/ME did not support more than 512 megabytes of physical RAM without obscure system tweaks. IBM continued to market OS/2, producing later versions in OS/2 3.0 and 4.0 (also called Warp). Responding to complaints about OS/2 2.0's high demands on computer hardware, version 3.0 was significantly optimized both for speed and size. Before Windows 95 was released, OS/2 Warp 3.0 was even shipped preinstalled with several large German hardware vendor chains. However, with the release of Windows 95, OS/2 began to lose market share. It is probably impossible to choose one specific reason why OS/2 failed to gain much market share. While OS/2 continued to run Windows 3.1 applications, it lacked support for anything but the Win32s subset of Win32 API (see above). Unlike with Windows 3.1, IBM did not have access to the source code for Windows 95 and was unwilling to commit the time and resources to emulate the moving target of the Win32 API. IBM also introduced OS/2 into the United States v. Microsoft case, blaming unfair marketing tactics on Microsoft's part, but many people would probably agree that IBM's own marketing problems and lack of support for developers contributed at least as much to the failure. Microsoft went on to release five different versions of Windows 95: Windows 95 - original release Windows 95 A - included Windows 95 OSR1 slipstreamed into the installation. Windows 95 B - (OSR2) included several major enhancements, Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and full FAT32 file system support. Windows 95 B USB - (OSR2.1) included basic USB support. Windows 95 C - (OSR2.5) included all the above features, plus IE 4.0. This was the last 95 version produced. OSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public, rather, they were available only to OEMs that would preload the OS onto computers. Some companies sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (officially justifying this as needed due to the hard drive's capacity). The first Microsoft Plus! add-on pack was sold for Windows 95. Windows NT 4.0 Windows NT logo Microsoft released Windows NT 4.0, which features the new Windows 95 interface on top of the Windows NT kernel. (a patch was available for developers to make NT 3.51 use the new UI, but it was quite buggy). Windows NT 4.0 came in four versions: Windows NT 4.0 Workstation Windows NT 4.0 Server Windows NT 4.0 Server, Enterprise Edition (includes support for 8-way SMP and clustering) Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server Windows 98 Windows 98 logo Windows 98 screenshot. On 25 June 1998, Microsoft released Windows 98, which was widely regarded as a minor revision of Windows 95, but generally found to be more stable and reliable than its 1995 predecessor. It included new hardware drivers and better support for the FAT32 file system which allows support for disk partitions larger than the 2 GB maximum accepted by Windows 95. The USB support in Windows 98 is far superior to the token, unreliable support provided by the OEM editions of Windows 95. It also controversially integrated the Internet Explorer browser into the Windows GUI and Windows Explorer file manager, prompting the opening of the United States v. Microsoft case, dealing with the question of whether Microsoft was abusing its hold on the PC operating system market to unfairly compete with companies such as Netscape. In 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an interim release whose most notable feature was the addition of Internet Connection Sharing, which was a form of network address translation, allowing several machines on a LAN (Local Area Network) to share a single Internet connection. Hardware support through device drivers was increased. Many minor problems present in the original Windows 98 were found and fixed which make it, according to many, the most stable release of Windows 9x family. Windows 2000 Windows 2000 logo Windows 2000 screenshot. Microsoft released Windows 2000, known during its development cycle as Windows NT 5.0, in February 2000. It was successfully deployed both on the server and the workstation markets. Amongst Windows 2000's most significant new features was Active Directory, a near-complete replacement of the NT 4.0 Windows Server domain model, which built on industry-standard technologies like DNS, LDAP, and Kerberos to connect machines to one another. Terminal Services, previously only available as a separate edition of NT 4, was expanded to all server versions. A number of features from Windows 98 were incorporated as well, such as an improved Device Manager, Windows Media Player, and a revised DirectX that made it possible for the first time for many modern games to work on the NT kernel. Windows 2000 is also the last NT-kernel Windows operating system to lack Product Activation. While Windows 2000 upgrades were available for Windows 95 and Windows 98, it was not intended for home users. It lacked device drivers for many common consumer devices such as scanners and printers . Windows 2000 was available in six editions: Windows 2000 Professional Windows 2000 Server Windows 2000 Advanced Server Windows 2000 Datacenter Server Windows 2000 Advanced Server Limited Edition Windows 2000 Datacenter Server Limited Edition Windows Millennium Edition (Me) Windows Me logo In September 2000, Microsoft introduced Windows Me (Millennium Edition), which upgraded Windows 98 with enhanced multimedia and Internet features. It also introduced the first version of System Restore, which allowed users to revert their system state to a previous "known-good" point in the case of system failure. System Restore was a notable feature that made its way into Windows XP. The first version of Windows Movie Maker was introduced as well. Windows Me was conceived as a quick one-year project that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and Windows XP. Many of the new features were available from the Windows Update site as updates for older Windows versions, (System Restore and Windows Movie Maker were exceptions). As a result, Windows Me was not acknowledged as a unique Operating System along the lines of 95 or 98. Windows Me was widely criticised for serious stability issues, and for lacking real mode DOS support, to the point of being referred to as the "Mistake Edition" or Me meaning "Many Errors". Windows Me was the last operating system to be based on the Windows 9x (monolithic) kernel and MS-DOS. It is also the last 32-bit release of Microsoft Windows which does not include Product Activation. Windows XP The Windows logo, redesigned with the release of Windows XP, used until 4 December 2006. Windows XP screenshot - showing the Sample Pictures folder, Sample Music folder, and Control Panel, with the blue Luna scheme and Bliss desktop. In 2001, Microsoft introduced Windows XP (code named "Whistler"). The merging of the Windows NT/2000 and Windows 95/98/Me lines was finally achieved with Windows XP. Windows XP uses the Windows NT 5.1 kernel, marking the entrance of the Windows NT core to the consumer market, to replace the aging 16/32-bit branch. The initial release met with considerable criticism, particularly in the area of security, leading to the release of three major Service Packs. Windows XP SP1 was released in September of 2002, SP2 came out in August, 2004 and SP3 came out in April, 2008. Service Pack 2 provided significant improvements and encouraged widespread adoption of XP among both home and business users. Windows XP lasted longer than any other version of Windows, from 2001 to 2007 when Windows Vista was released to consumers. The Windows XP line of operating systems was succeeded by Windows Vista on January 30th, 2007. Windows XP is available in a number of versions: Windows XP Home Edition, for home desktops and laptops (notebooks) Windows XP Home Edition N, as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling Windows XP Professional, for business and power users Windows XP Professional N, as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling Windows XP Media Center Edition (MCE), released in November 2002 for desktops and notebooks with an emphasis on home entertainment Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003 Windows XP Media Center Edition 2004 Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005, released on 12 October 2004. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition, for tablet PCs (PCs with touch screens) Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005 Windows XP Embedded, for embedded systems Windows XP Starter Edition, for new computer users in developing countries Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, released on 25 April 2005 for home and workstation systems utilizing 64-bit processors based on the x86-64 instruction set developed by AMD as AMD64; Intel calls their version Intel 64 Windows XP 64-bit Edition, is a version for Intel's Itanium line of processors; maintains 32-bit compatibility solely through a software emulator. It is roughly analogous to Windows XP Professional in features. It was discontinued in September 2005 when the last vendor of Itanium workstations stopped shipping Itanium systems marketed as "Workstations". Windows XP 64-bit Edition 2003, based on the Windows NT 5.2 codebase. Windows Server 2003 On 24 April 2003 Microsoft launched Windows Server 2003, a notable update to Windows 2000 Server encompassing many new security features, a new "Manage Your Server" wizard that simplifies configuring a machine for specific roles, and improved performance. It has the version number NT 5.2. A few services not essential for server environments are disabled by default for stability reasons, most noticeable are the "Windows Audio" and "Themes" services; Users have to enable them manually to get sound or the "Luna" look as per Windows XP. The hardware acceleration for display is also turned off by default, users have to turn the acceleration level up themselves if they trust the display card driver. December 2005, Microsoft released Windows Server 2003 R2, which is actually Windows Server 2003 with SP1 (Service Pack 1) plus an add-on package. Among the new features are a number of management features for branch offices, file serving, printing and company-wide identity integration. Windows Server 2003 is available in six editions: Web Edition (32-bit) Standard Edition (32 and 64-bit) Enterprise Edition (32 and 64-bit) Datacenter Edition (32 and 64-bit) Small Business Server (32 and 64-bit) Storage Server (OEM channel only) Thin client: Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs In July 2006, Microsoft released a thin-client version of Windows XP Service Pack 2, called Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs (WinFLP). It is only available to Software Assurance customers. The aim of WinFLP is to give companies a viable upgrade option for older PCs that are running Windows 95, 98, and Me that will be supported with patches and updates for the next several years. Most user applications will typically be run on a remote machine using Terminal Services or Citrix. Windows Home Server Windows Home Server (codenamed Q, Quattro) is a server product based on Windows Server 2003, designed for consumer use. The system was announced on January 7th, 2007 by Bill Gates. Windows Home Server can be configured and monitored using a console program that can be installed on a client PC. Such features as Media Sharing, local and remote drive backup and file duplication are all listed as features. Windows Vista Windows Vista logo Windows Vista, showing its new Aero Glass interface, Welcome Center and Start menu. The current client version of Windows, Windows Vista (codenamed Longhorn) was released on 30 November 2006 to business customers, with consumer versions following on 30 January 2007. Windows Vista intended to have enhanced security by introducing a new restricted user mode called User Account Control, replacing the "administrator-by-default" philosophy of Windows XP. Vista also features new graphics features, the Windows Aero GUI, new applications (such as Windows Calendar, Windows DVD Maker and some new games including Chess, Mahjong, and Purble Place) , a revised and more secure version of Internet Explorer, a new version of Windows Media Player, and a large number of underlying architectural changes. Windows Vista ships in several editions: Starter (only available in developing countries) Home Basic Home Premium Business Enterprise (only available to large businesses and enterprises) Ultimate (combines both Home Premium and Enterprise) All editions (except Starter edition) are currently available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. The biggest advantage of the 64-bit version is breaking the 4 gigabyte memory barrier, which 32-bit computers cannot fully access. In the first year after Vista's release, most installations were still 32-bit, due to poor driver support of the 64-bit version. Windows Server 2008 Windows Server 2008, released on 27 February 2008, was originally known as Windows Server Codename "Longhorn". Windows Server 2008 builds on the technological and security advances first introduced with Windows Vista, and is significantly more modular than its predecessor, Windows Server 2003. At the Professional Developers Conference (PDC) 2008, Microsoft announced Windows Server 2008 R2, as the server variant of Windows 7. Windows Server 2008 R2 will ship in 64-bit (x64 and Itanium) only. Windows Server 2008 is available in ten editions: Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition (32-bit and 64-bit) Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition (32-bit and 64-bit) Windows Server 2008 Datacenter Edition (32-bit and 64-bit) Windows HPC Server 2008 Windows Web Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit) Windows Storage Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit) Windows Small Business Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit) Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit) Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems Windows Server 2008 Foundation Server Windows 7 Windows 7 logo Windows 7 is the next major release after Windows Vista and is planned for a three-year development timeframe. It was previously known by the code-names Blackcomb and Vienna. Some features of Windows 7 are faster boot-up, Device Stage, Windows PowerShell, less obtrusive User Account Control, multi-touch, improved window management, homegroup networking, multiple thumbnails for combined taskbar buttons, and better power management for notebooks. Features included with Windows Vista and not in the Windows 7 Release Candidate include the sidebar (although gadgets remain) and several programs that were removed in favor of downloading their Windows Live counterparts. On February 3rd, 2009, Microsoft announced that Windows 7 would ship in six editions: Starter (available worldwide with new PCs only) Home Basic (only available to emerging markets) Home Premium Professional Enterprise (only available to volume-license business customers only) Ultimate (available to retail market with limited availability to OEMs) Microsoft will focus on selling Windows 7 Home Premium and Professional. All editions, except the Starter edition, will be available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. According to Paul Thurrott, news editor for Windows IT Pro Magazine, Microsoft plans to ship Windows 7 in 2009. Product progression MS-DOS MS-DOS 1.x through 6.22 Windows 95 (MS-DOS 7.0) Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2.x and Windows 98 (MS-DOS 7.1) Windows Millennium Edition (MS-DOS 8.0) Windows (MS-DOS Based) Windows 1.0 Windows 2.0 Windows/286 and Windows/386 (Windows 2.1) Windows 3.0 Windows 3.1, Windows 3.1 for Workgroups, Windows 3.11, and Windows 3.11 for Workgroups (WfW) Windows 95 (Windows 4.0) Windows 98 (Windows 4.1) Windows Millennium Edition (Windows 4.9) Windows NT Windows NT 3.1 Windows NT 3.5 Windows NT 3.51 Windows NT 4.0 including up to Service Pack 6a Windows 2000 (Windows NT 5.0) including up to Service Pack 4 Windows XP (Windows NT 5.1) including up to Service Pack 3 Windows Server 2003 (Windows NT 5.2) including up to Service Pack 2 Windows XP Professional x64 Edition (Windows NT 5.2) including up to Service Pack 2 Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs (Windows NT 5.1) including up to Service Pack 3 Windows Home Server (Windows NT 5.2) Windows Vista (Windows NT 6.0) including up to Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2008 (Windows NT 6.0) including up to Service Pack 2 Windows 7 (Windows NT 6.1) Windows Server 2008 R2 (Windows NT 6.1) Other Windows CE Xenix See also Timeline of Microsoft Windows Comparison of Microsoft Windows versions Comparison of operating systems History of operating systems Operating system Microsoft Version Number Microsoft codenames References External links Microsoft Windows OS Release Dates "History of Microsoft Windows Releases" A very detailed timeline produced by Eric Levenez PC Magazine's long article titled "20 Years of Windows" Old Os (help get your old PC surfing again) ToastyTech GUI Gallery (screenshots of early versions of Windows) http://www.microsoft.com/windowsvista/ Vintage Microsoft Windows Very detailed german Site about Microsofts History | History_of_Microsoft_Windows |@lemmatized window:232 logo:12 use:16 since:5 november:4 microsoft:76 announce:6 development:5 graphical:2 user:18 interface:10 gui:10 operating:10 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3,763 | Acetylene | Acetylene (IUPAC name: ethyne) is the chemical compound with the formula HC2H. It is a hydrocarbon and the simplest alkyne. This colourless gas is widely used as a fuel and a chemical building block. It is unstable in pure form and thus is usually handled as a solution. As an alkyne, acetylene is unsaturated because its two carbon atoms are bonded together in a triple bond. The carbon-carbon triple bond places all four atoms in the same straight line, with CCH bond angles of 180°. Discovery Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy who identified it as a "new carburet of hydrogen." It was rediscovered in 1860 by French chemist Marcellin Berthelot, who coined the name "acetylene." Berthelot was able to prepare this gas by passing vapours of organic compounds (methanol, ethanol, etc) through a red-hot tube and collecting the effluent. He also found acetylene was formed by sparking electricity through mixed cyanogen and hydrogen gases. He was also able to form acetylene directly by combining pure hydrogen with carbon using electrical discharge of a carbon arc. Preparation Nowadays acetylene is mainly manufactured by the partial combustion of methane or appears as a side product in the ethylene stream from cracking of hydrocarbons. Approximately 400M kg are produced this way annually. Peter Pässler, Werner Hefner, Klaus Buckl, Helmut Meinass, Andreas Meiswinkel, Hans-Jürgen Wernicke, Günter Ebersberg, Richard Müller, Jürgen Bässler, Hartmut Behringer, Dieter Mayer “Acetylene” in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2008, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. . Article Online Posting Date: October 15, 2008 Its presence in ethylene is usually undesirable because of its explosive character and its ability to poison Ziegler-Natta catalysts. It is selectively hydrogenated into ethylene, usually using Pd-Ag catalysts. Acetylene: How Products are Made Until the 1950s, when oil supplanted coal as the chief source of carbon, acetylene (and the aromatic fraction from coal tar) was the main source of organic chemicals in the chemical industry. It was prepared by the hydrolysis of calcium carbide, a reaction discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in 1862 and still familiar to students: CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2 Calcium carbide production requires extremely high temperatures, ~2000 degrees Celsius, necessitating the use of an electric arc furnace. In the US, this process was an important part of the late-1800s revolution in chemistry enabled by the massive hydroelectric power project at Niagara Falls. Reactions Approximately 80 percent of the acetylene produced annually in the United States is used in chemical synthesis. One new application is the conversion of acetylene to ethylene for use in making a variety of polyethylene plastics. An important reaction of acetylene is its combustion, the basis of the acetylene welding technologies. Otherwise, its major applications involve its converstion to acrylic acid derivatives. Acetylides with many metal ions by reactions of with solutions of their salts. Several, e.g., silver acetylide and copper acetylide, are powerful explosives. Copper acetylide is also formed by reacting acetylene with metallic copper or its alloys; these materials are therefore unsuitable for installations for handling acetylene. Reppe chemistry Walter Reppe discovered that in the presence of metal catalysts, acetylene can react to give a wide range of industrially significant chemicals. With alcohols, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, or carboxylic acids to give vinyl compounds: With aldehydes to give ethynyl diols. 1,4-Butynediol is produced industrially in this way from formaldehyde and acetylene. With carbon monoxide to give acrylic acid, or acrylic esters, which can be used to produce acrylic glass. Cyclicization to give benzene and cyclooctatetraene: Welding Approximately 20 percent of acetylene is consumed for oxyacetylene gas welding and cutting due to the high temperature of the flame; combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces a flame of over 3300 °C (6000 °F), releasing 11.8 kJ/g. Oxyacetylene is the hottest burning common fuel gas. Acetylene | BOC Gases Acetylene is the 3rd hottest chemical flame after Cyanogen at 4525 °C (8180 °F) and Dicyanoacetylene's 5260 K (4990 °C, 9010 °F). Oxy-acetylene welding was a very popular welding process in previous decades, however, the development and advantages of arc-based welding processes have made oxy-fuel welding nearly extinct. Acetylene usage for welding has dropped significantly. However, oxy-fuel cutting is still very popular and oxy-acetylene cutting is present in nearly every metal fabrication shop. For use in welding and cutting, the working pressures must be controlled by a regulator, or the gas will spontaneously combust. . Niche and historically interesting applications In 1881, the Russian chemist Mikhail Kucherov Kutscheroff, M. "Ueber eine neue Methode direkter Addition von Wasser (Hydratation) an die Kohlenwasserstoffe der Acetylenreihe" Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 1881, Volume 14, 1540–1542. described the hydration of acetylene to acetaldehyde using catalysts such as mercury(II) bromide. Before the advent of the Wacker process, this reaction was conducted on an industrial scale. The polymerization of acetylene with Ziegler-Natta catalysts produces polyacetylene films. Polyacetylene, a chain of CH centres with alternating single and double bonds, was the one of first discovered organic semiconductors. Its reaction with iodine produces a highly electrically conducting material. Although such materials are not useful, these discoveries led to the developments of organic semiconductors, as recognized by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2000 to Alan J. Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa. In the early 20th century acetylene was widely used for illumination, including street lighting in some towns. The 100 most important chemical compounds: a reference guide Acetylene is sometimes used for carburization (that is, hardening) of steel when the object is too large to fit into a furnace. Acetylene is used to volatilize carbon in radiocarbon dating. The carbonaceous material in an archeological sample is reacted with lithium metal in a small specialized research furnace to form lithium carbide (also known as lithium acetylide). The carbide can then be reacted with water, as usual, to form acetylene gas to be fed into mass spectrometer to sort out the isotopic ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12. Natural occurrence Acetylene is a moderately common chemical in the universe, often associated with the atmospheres of gas giants. One curious discovery of acetylene is on Enceladus, a moon of Saturn. Natural acetylene is believed to form from either catalytic decomposition of long chain hydrocarbons at temperatures ≥ 1,770 kelvin. Since such temperatures are highly unlikely on such a small distant body, this discovery is potentially suggestive of catalytic reactions within the moon, making it a promising site to search for prebiotic chemistry. Safety and handling Acetylene is not especially toxic but when generated from calcium carbide it can contain toxic impurities such as traces phosphine and arsine. It is also highly flammable (hence its use in welding). Its singular hazard is associated with its intrinsic instability; samples of concentrated or pure acetyle will explosively decompose. Acetylene can explode with extreme violence if the pressure of the gas exceeds about 200 kPa (≈39 psi) as a gas or when in liquid or solid form. It is therefore shipped and stored dissolved in acetone or dimethylformamide (DMF), contained in a metal cylinder with porous filling (Agamassan), which renders it safe to transport and use. References External links Acetylene at Chemistry Comes Alive! Movie explaining acetylen formation from calcium carbide and the explosive limits forming fire hazards | Acetylene |@lemmatized acetylene:37 iupac:1 name:2 ethyne:1 chemical:9 compound:4 formula:1 hydrocarbon:3 simple:1 alkyne:2 colourless:1 gas:11 widely:2 use:14 fuel:4 building:1 block:1 unstable:1 pure:3 form:9 thus:1 usually:3 handle:3 solution:2 unsaturated:1 two:1 carbon:10 atom:2 bond:5 together:1 triple:2 place:1 four:1 straight:1 line:1 cch:1 angle:1 discovery:4 discover:4 edmund:1 davy:1 identify:1 new:2 carburet:1 hydrogen:5 rediscover:1 french:1 chemist:2 marcellin:1 berthelot:2 coin:1 able:2 prepare:2 pass:1 vapour:1 organic:4 methanol:1 ethanol:1 etc:1 red:1 hot:3 tube:1 collect:1 effluent:1 also:5 find:1 spark:1 electricity:1 mixed:1 cyanogen:2 directly:1 combine:1 electrical:1 discharge:1 arc:3 preparation:1 nowadays:1 mainly:1 manufacture:1 partial:1 combustion:3 methane:1 appear:1 side:1 product:2 ethylene:4 stream:1 crack:1 approximately:3 kg:1 produce:7 way:2 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3,764 | Bali | Bali is an Indonesian island located at , the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands, lying between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. It is one of the country's 33 provinces with the provincial capital at Denpasar towards the south of the island. With a population recorded as 3,151,000 in 2005, the island is home to the vast majority of Indonesia's small Hindu minority. 93.18% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, while most of the remainder follow Islam. It is also the largest tourist destination in the country and is renowned for its highly developed arts, including dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking and music. History Bali was inhabited by Austronesian peoples by about 2000 BCE who migrated originally from Taiwan through Maritime Southeast Asia. Taylor (2003), pp. 5, 7; Hinzler (1995) Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are thus closely related to the peoples of the Indonesian archipelago, the Philippines, and Oceania. Hinzler (1995) Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west. Taylor (2003), p. 12; Lonely Planet (1999), p. 15. Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian and Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, in a process beginning around the 1st century AD. The name Bali dwipa ("Bali island") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong charter issued by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 913 AD and mentioning Walidwipa. It was during this time that the complex irrigation system subak was developed to grow rice. Some religious and cultural traditions still in existence today can be traced back to this period. The Hindu Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343. When the empire declined, there was an exodus of intellectuals, artists, priests and musicians from Java to Bali in the 15th century. The first European contact with Bali is thought to have been made by Dutch explorer Cornelis de Houtman who arrived in 1597, though a Portuguese ship had foundered off the Bukit Peninsula as early as 1585. Dutch colonial control was expanded across the Indonesian archipelago in the nineteenth century (see Dutch East Indies). Their political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast by playing various distrustful Balinese realms against each other. Vickers (1995) In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms in the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control. The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who marched to certain death against superior Dutch force in a suicidal puputan defensive assault rather than face the humiliation of surrender. Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 4,000 Balinese marched to their death against the invaders. In 1908, a similar massacre occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung. Afterwards the Dutch governors were able to exercise little influence over the island, and local control over religion and culture generally remained intact. Dutch rule over Bali had come later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku. Imperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II during which time a Balinese military officer, Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, and artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee created a western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature", and western tourism first developed on the island. Friend (2003), p. 111. Following Japan's Pacific surrender in August 1945, the Dutch promptly returned to Indonesia, including Bali, immediately to reinstate their pre-war colonial administration. This was resisted by the Balinese rebels now using Japanese weapons. On 20 November 1946, the Battle of Marga was fought in Tabanan in central Bali. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai, 29 years old, finally rallied his forces in east Bali at Marga Rana, where they made a suicide attack on the heavily armed Dutch. The Balinese battalion was entirely wiped out, breaking the last thread of Balinese military resistance. In 1946 the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly-proclaimed Republic of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Bali was included in the "Republic of the United States of Indonesia" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949. The 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia. Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting these traditional values. Politically, this was represented by opposing supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programs. An attempted coup in Jakarta was put down by forces led by General Suharto. The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup. Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5 per cent of the island's population. Friend (2003), p. 111; Ricklefs (1991), p. 289; Vickers (1995) With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members. Ricklefs, p. 289. As a result of the 1965/66 upheavals, Suharto was able to maneuver Sukarno out of the presidency, and his "New Order" government reestablished relations with western countries. The pre-War Bali as "paradise" was revised in a modern form, and the resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country. A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners. This attack, and another in 2005, severely affected tourism, bringing much economic hardship to the island. Geography See also List of bodies of water in Bali and List of mountains in Bali. The island of Bali lies 3.2 km (2 mi) east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator. East to west, the island is approximately 153 km (95 mi) wide and is approximately 112 km (69 mi) north to south; its land area is 5,632 km². The highest point is Mount Agung at 3,142 m (10,308 feet) high, an active volcano that last erupted in March 1963. Mountains cover centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Mount Batur (1,717 m) is also still active; an eruption 30,000 years ago was one of the largest known volcanic events on Earth. In the south the land descends to form an alluvial plain, watered by shallow, north-south flowing rivers, drier in the dry season and overflowing during periods of heavy rain. The longest of these rivers, Sungai Ayung, is also the longest on the island (approx. 75 km). The island is surrounded by coral reefs. Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand. The beach town of Padangbai in the south east has both. Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small sampan boats. Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism. The principal city is the present provincial capital and largest city, Denpasar, near the southern coast. Its population is around 300,000. Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 100,000 people. Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area; and Ubud, which is north of Denpasar, and known as the island's cultural centre. There is a coastal road surrounding the island, as well as three major two-lane arteries that cross the central mountains at passes reaching to 1,750m in height (at Penelokan). Minor roads branch off of these major highways. The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar and enables cars to travel quickly in the heavily populated south. Bali has no railway lines. To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan ecozone and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated. Ecology Bali has around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali Starling. The only endemic high-level predator of the island, the Bali tiger, became extinct in the 1930s. The Bali Barat National Park, located on the north western side of the island, is a refuge for wildlife such as the Sunda Pangolin, Indian Muntjac, Mouse-deer, Leopard Cat, Black Giant Squirrel, and several species of macaque and leaf monkey. Administrative divisions The province is divided into 8 regencies (kabupaten) and 1 city (kota). Unless otherwise stated, the regency's capital Badung, capital Mengwi Bangli Buleleng, capital Singaraja Denpasar (city) Gianyar Jembrana, capital Negara Karangasem, capital Amlapura Klungkung Tabanan Economy Three decades ago, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment. Tourism is now the largest single industry; and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia’s wealthiest regions. The economy, however, suffered significantly as a result of the terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005 however the industry is slowly recovering once again. Although in terms of output, tourism is the economy’s largest industry, agriculture is still the island’s biggest employer , most notably rice cultivation. Crops grown in smaller amounts include fruit, vegetables, Coffea arabica and other cash and subsistence crops. A significant number of Balinese are also fishermen. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings and silverware. The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur. Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method. This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency. Typical flavors include lemon and other citrus notes. Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of "Tri Hita Karana”. According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people and the environment. The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production. Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a Geographical Indication. "Book of Requirements for Kopi Kintamani Bali", page 12, July 2007 Although significant tourism exists in the north, centre and east of the island, the tourist industry is overwhelmingly focused in the south. The main tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs (which were once independent townships) of Legian and Seminyak, the on the east coast the town of Sanur(once the only tourist hub), then to the south of the airport is Jimbaran, in the center of the island Ubud, and the newer development of Nusa Dua. The Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus joining the southernmost part of the island to the main part of the island. Another increasingly important source of income for Bali is what is called "Congress Tourism" from the frequent international conferences held on the island, especially after the terrorist bombings of 2002; ostensibly to resurrect Bali's damaged tourism industry as well as its tarnished image. Bali's tourism economy has now recovered from the horrible terrorism incidents. Arrivals in 2008 saw a record number of foreign visitors, just under 2 million. The American government lifted its travel warnings during that same year, though as of 2009 the Australian government still rates it a 4 danger level (the same as several countries in central Africa) on a scale of 5. An offshoot of the tourism business is the growing real estate industry in Bali. Bali real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist districts of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak and Oberoi. Most recently, high end 5 star developments are taking place on the Bukit peninsula on the south side of the island. Villas in the million dollar category are springing up along the cliff sides of south Bali, commanding panoramic ocean views. Foreign and domestic (many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active)investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow. Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis have remained stable. In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors value for their currencies. Visitor arrivals for 2009 are forecast to drop 8% (which would be higher than 2007 levels). Bali's tourism brand is Bali Shanti Shanti Shanti. Kompas (Indonesian) http://www.kompas.com/ver1/Nusantara/0711/29/210534.htm Where Shanti derived from Sanskrit "Shanti" (शान्ति) meaning peace. Transportation Airports: Denpasar International Airport (south Bali), Lt.Col. Wisnu Airfield (north-west Bali) Demographics The population of Bali is 3,151,000 (as of 2005). Religion Unlike most of Muslim-majority Indonesia, about 93.18% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hindu influences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. Minority religions include Islam (4.79%), Christianity (1.38%), and Buddhism (0.64%). These figures do not include immigrants from other parts of Indonesia. Balinese Hinduism is a heterogeneous amalgam in which gods and demigods are worshipped together with Buddhist heroes, the spirits of ancestors, indigenous agricultural deities and also with places considered sacred. Religion as it is practiced in Bali is a composite belief system that embraces not only theology, philosophy, and mythology, but ancestor worship, animism and magic. It pervades nearly every aspect of traditional life. Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and in Buddhism, and adopted the animistic traditions of the indigenous people, who inhabited the island around the first millennium BCE. This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things. Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its own power, which reflects the power of the gods. A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil. Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual, and is less closely preoccupied with scripture, law, and belief than Islam in Indonesia. Ritualizing states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behavior. Slattum, J. (2003) Balinese Masks: Spirits of an Ancient Drama. Indonesia, Asia Pacific, Japan, North America, Latin America and Europe Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd Language Balinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and most Indonesians, the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual. There are several indigenous Balinese languages, but most Balinese can also use the most widely spoken option: modern common Balinese. The usage of different Balinese languages was traditionally determined by the Balinese caste system and by clan membership, but this tradition is diminishing. English is a common third language (and the primary foreign language) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry. Culture Bali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts. Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as gamelan, is highly developed and varied. Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence. Famous Balinese dances include pendet, legong, baris, topeng, barong, gong keybar, and kecak (the monkey dance). Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, or public shows. The author is a Western theater professor who has become a performer in Balinese topeng theater himself. The Hindu New Year, Nyepi, is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence. On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged to remain in their hotels. But the day before that large, colourful sculptures of ogoh-ogoh monsters are paraded and finally burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits. Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese pawukon calendrical system. Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or odalan (temple festival). One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of désa kala patra, which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context. Herbst 1997, p. 1-2. Many of the ceremonial art forms such as wayang kulit and topeng are highly improvisatory, providing flexibility for the performer to adapt the performance to the current situation. Foley and Sedana 2005, p. 208. Many celebrations call for a loud, boisterous atmosphere with lots of activity and the resulting aesthetic, ramé, is distinctively Balinese. Oftentimes two or more gamelan ensembles will be performing well within earshot, and sometimes compete with each other in order to be heard. Likewise, the audience members talk amongst themselves, get up and walk around, or even cheer on the performance, which adds to the many layers of activity and the liveliness typical of ramé. Gold 2005, p. 8. Kaja and kelod are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to ones orientation between the island’s largest mountain Gunung Agung (kaja), and the sea (kelod). In addition to spatial orientation, kaja and kelod have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea. Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea. Herbst 1997, p. 1-2.; Gold 2005, p. 19. Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest kaja. These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance and drama. The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as wali, the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where bebali ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people. Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the walls of the temple and are called bali-balihan. This three-tiered system of classification was standardized in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists in order to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience. Gold 2005, p. 18-26. Tourism, Bali’s chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers. The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context. Since the 1930’s sacred rituals such as the barong dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists. This has led to new versions of many of these performances which have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a barong mask specifically for non-ritual performances as well as an older mask which is only used for sacred performances. Sanger 1988, p. 90-93. The Balinese eat with their right hand, as the left is impure, a common belief throughout Indonesia. The Balinese do not hand or receive things with their left hand and would not wave at anyone with their left hand. See also Balinese people Balinese art Tourism in Indonesia 2005 Java-Bali Blackout 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference List of hospitals in Bali Notes References Miguel Covarrubias, Island of Bali, 1946. ISBN 962-593-060-4 Hinzler, Heidi (1995) Artifacts and Early Foreign Influences. 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3,765 | Cerebral_arteriovenous_malformation | Cerebral arteriovenous malformation (AVM) is a malformed collection of blood vessels within the brain, characterized by tangle(s) of veins and arteries. While an arteriovenous malformation can occur elsewhere in the body, this article discusses malformations found in the brain. Symptoms The most frequently observed problems related to an AVM are headaches and seizures. These symptoms vary from extremely mild neurological events (e.g. unusual sensations) to uncontrolled grand mal seizures. Moreover, AVMs in certain critical locations may stop the circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid, causing accumulation of the fluid within the skull and giving rise to a clinical condition called hydrocephalus. Symptoms of bleeding within the brain (intracranial hemorrhage) include loss of consciousness, sudden and severe headache, nausea, vomiting, incontinence, and blurred vision, amongst others. Minor bleeding can occur with no noticeable symptoms. A stiff neck can occur as the result of increased pressure within the skull and irritation of the meninges. Impairments caused by local brain tissue damage on the bleed site are possible, including seizure, one-sided weakness (hemiparesis), a loss of touch sensation on one side of the body and deficits in language processing (aphasia). A variety of other symptoms can accompany this type of cerebrovascular accident. Generally, intense headache, perhaps coincident with seizure or loss of bodily consciousness, is the first indication of a cerebral AVM. Estimates of the number of AVM-afflicted people in the United States range from 0.1% to 0.001% of the population. Diagnosis An AVM diagnosis is established by neuroimaging studies. A computed tomography scan of the head (head CT) is usually performed—this can reveal the site of the bleed. More detailed pictures of the tangle of blood vessels that compose an AVM can be obtained by using radioactive reagents injected into the blood stream, then observed using a fluoroscope or Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). A spinal tap (lumbar puncture) can be used to examine spinal fluid for red blood cells; this condition is indicative of leakage of blood from the bleeding vessels into the subarachnoid space. The best images of an AVM are obtained through cerebral angiography. This procedure involves using a catheter, threaded through an artery up to the head, to deliver a contrast agent into the AVM. As the contrast agent flows through the AVM structure, a sequence of X-ray images can be obtained to ascertain the size, shape and extent of that structure. Pathophysiology While the cause of AVMs remains unknown, the main risk is intracranial hemorrhage. This risk is difficult to quantify. Approximately 40% of cases with cerebral AVM are discovered through symptoms caused by sudden bleeding due to the fragility of abnormally-structured blood vessels in the brain. However, some patients may remain asymptomatic or have minor complaints due to the local effects of the tangle of vessels. If a rupture or bleeding incident occurs, the blood may penetrate either into the brain tissue (cerebral hemorrhage) or into the subarachnoid space, which is located between the sheaths (meninges) surrounding the brain (subarachnoid hemorrhage). Bleeding may also extend into the ventricular system (intraventricular hemorrhage). Cerebral hemorrhage appears to be most common. Once an AVM bleeds, the probability of rebleeding may increase. However, as long as the AVM is unruptured, the risk of hemorrhage may be relatively low. AVMs that do not bleed may cause symptoms such as epileptic seizures, headaches, or fluctuating neurological symptoms. Many of them may even remain asymptomatic; at least 15% of AVMs are detected before they produce symptoms. Treatment The treatment in the case of sudden bleeding is focused on restoration of vital function. Anticonvulsant medications such as phenytoin are often used to control seizure; medications or procedures may be employed to relieve intracranial pressure. Eventually, curative treatment may be required to prevent recurrent hemorrhage. However, any type of intervention may also carry a risk of creating a neurological deficit. In the U.S., surgical removal of the blood vessels involved (craniotomy) is the preferred curative treatment for most types of AVM. While this surgery results in an immediate, complete removal of the AVM, risks exist depending on the size and the location of the malformation. Radiation treatment (radiosurgery) has been widely used on smaller AVMs with considerable success. The Gamma Knife, developed by Swedish physician Lars Leksell, is one apparatus used in radiosurgery to precisely apply a controlled radiation dosage to the volume of the brain occupied by the AVM. While this treatment is non-invasive, two to three years may pass before the complete effects are known. Complete occlusion of the AVM may or may not occur, and 8%-10% of patients develop long term neurological symptoms after radiation. Embolization, that is, occlusion of blood vessels with coils or particles or glue introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, is frequently used as an adjunct to either surgery or radiation treatment. However, embolization alone is rarely successful in completely blocking blood flow through the AVM. The benefit of invasive treatment for unruptured AVMs has never been proven, as the risk of intervention may be as high as the spontaneous bleeding risk. An international study is currently under way to determine the best therapy for patients with unruptured AVMs (ARUBA—A Randomized Trial of Unruptured Brain AVMs ). Epidemiology The annual incidence of AVMs is about one in 100,000 people. AVMs are responsible for about 1 to 2% of strokes each year (3% in young adults). Famous sufferers Neuroanatomist Jill Bolte Taylor suffered an AVM-related stroke on December 10, 1996. A. J. Price, a basketballer at the University of Connecticut, was found to have AVM during his freshman season (2005–06). South Dakota Senator Tim Johnson suffered an AVM-related stroke on December 13, 2006. Fictional characters Six Feet Under character Nate Fisher was presented as suffering from a cerebral AVM. In Robert J. Sawyer's novel Mindscan, the main character has AVM, as did his father. References External links Arterio Venous Malformations of the Brain and Spine ARUBA - A Randomized trial of Unruptured Brain AVMs Support group for brain AVM patients and families | Cerebral_arteriovenous_malformation |@lemmatized cerebral:7 arteriovenous:2 malformation:5 avm:23 malformed:1 collection:1 blood:10 vessel:7 within:4 brain:12 characterize:1 tangle:3 vein:1 artery:2 occur:4 elsewhere:1 body:2 article:1 discuss:1 find:2 symptoms:1 frequently:2 observe:2 problem:1 relate:1 headache:4 seizure:6 symptom:9 vary:1 extremely:1 mild:1 neurological:4 event:1 e:1 g:1 unusual:1 sensation:2 uncontrolled:1 grand:1 mal:1 moreover:1 avms:11 certain:1 critical:1 location:2 may:15 stop:1 circulation:1 cerebrospinal:1 fluid:3 cause:5 accumulation:1 skull:2 give:1 rise:1 clinical:1 condition:2 call:1 hydrocephalus:1 bleed:5 intracranial:3 hemorrhage:8 include:2 loss:3 consciousness:2 sudden:3 severe:1 nausea:1 vomit:1 incontinence:1 blur:1 vision:1 amongst:1 others:1 minor:2 bleeding:6 noticeable:1 stiff:1 neck:1 result:2 increased:1 pressure:2 irritation:1 meninges:2 impairment:1 local:2 tissue:2 damage:1 site:2 possible:1 one:4 side:2 weakness:1 hemiparesis:1 touch:1 deficit:2 language:1 processing:1 aphasia:1 variety:1 accompany:1 type:3 cerebrovascular:1 accident:1 generally:1 intense:1 perhaps:1 coincident:1 bodily:1 first:1 indication:1 estimate:1 number:1 afflicted:1 people:2 united:1 state:1 range:1 population:1 diagnosis:2 establish:1 neuroimaging:1 study:2 computed:1 tomography:1 scan:1 head:3 ct:1 usually:1 perform:1 reveal:1 detailed:1 picture:1 compose:1 obtain:3 use:8 radioactive:1 reagent:1 inject:1 stream:1 fluoroscope:1 magnetic:1 resonance:1 imaging:1 mri:1 spinal:2 tap:1 lumbar:1 puncture:1 examine:1 red:1 cell:1 indicative:1 leakage:1 subarachnoid:3 space:2 best:2 image:2 angiography:1 procedure:2 involve:2 catheter:2 thread:1 deliver:1 contrast:2 agent:2 flow:2 structure:3 sequence:1 x:1 ray:1 ascertain:1 size:2 shape:1 extent:1 pathophysiology:1 remain:3 unknown:1 main:2 risk:7 difficult:1 quantify:1 approximately:1 case:2 discover:1 due:2 fragility:1 abnormally:1 however:4 patient:4 asymptomatic:2 complaint:1 effect:2 rupture:1 incident:1 occurs:1 penetrate:1 either:2 locate:1 sheath:1 surround:1 also:2 extend:1 ventricular:1 system:1 intraventricular:1 appear:1 common:1 bleeds:1 probability:1 rebleeding:1 increase:1 long:2 unruptured:5 relatively:1 low:1 epileptic:1 fluctuate:1 many:1 even:1 least:1 detect:1 produce:1 treatment:8 focus:1 restoration:1 vital:1 function:1 anticonvulsant:1 medication:2 phenytoin:1 often:1 control:1 employ:1 relieve:1 eventually:1 curative:2 require:1 prevent:1 recurrent:1 intervention:2 carry:1 create:1 u:1 surgical:1 removal:2 craniotomy:1 preferred:1 surgery:2 immediate:1 complete:3 exist:1 depend:1 radiation:4 radiosurgery:2 widely:1 small:1 considerable:1 success:1 gamma:1 knife:1 develop:2 swedish:1 physician:1 lars:1 leksell:1 apparatus:1 precisely:1 apply:1 controlled:1 dosage:1 volume:1 occupy:1 non:1 invasive:2 two:1 three:1 year:2 pass:1 know:1 occlusion:2 term:1 embolization:2 coil:1 particle:1 glue:1 introduce:1 radiographically:1 guide:1 adjunct:1 alone:1 rarely:1 successful:1 completely:1 block:1 benefit:1 never:1 proven:1 high:1 spontaneous:1 international:1 currently:1 way:1 determine:1 therapy:1 aruba:2 randomized:2 trial:2 epidemiology:1 annual:1 incidence:1 responsible:1 stroke:3 young:1 adult:1 famous:1 sufferer:1 neuroanatomist:1 jill:1 bolte:1 taylor:1 suffer:3 related:2 december:2 j:2 price:1 basketballer:1 university:1 connecticut:1 freshman:1 season:1 south:1 dakota:1 senator:1 tim:1 johnson:1 fictional:1 character:3 six:1 foot:1 nate:1 fisher:1 present:1 robert:1 sawyer:1 novel:1 mindscan:1 father:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 arterio:1 venous:1 spine:1 support:1 group:1 family:1 |@bigram arteriovenous_malformation:2 vein_artery:1 cerebrospinal_fluid:1 headache_nausea:1 nausea_vomit:1 computed_tomography:1 magnetic_resonance:1 resonance_imaging:1 imaging_mri:1 spinal_tap:1 lumbar_puncture:1 subarachnoid_space:2 cerebral_hemorrhage:2 epileptic_seizure:1 anticonvulsant_medication:1 intracranial_pressure:1 neurological_deficit:1 surgical_removal:1 randomized_trial:2 external_link:1 |
3,766 | Bob_Hawke | Robert James Lee (Bob) Hawke, AC (born 9 December 1929) was the 23rd Prime Minister of Australia and longest serving Australian Labor Party Prime Minister. After a decade as president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions, he entered politics at the 1980 elections and became Prime Minister within three years. He became by far the longest-serving and most electorally successful Labor Prime Minister, achieving the rare feat of winning four consecutive federal elections, and he is Australia's third longest-serving Prime Minister. Early life and education Hawke's memorial at the Turf Tavern for downing a yard of ale (or 2.5 pints) in just 11 seconds in 1963 while at Oxford Uni, a record at the time, and entered the Guinness Book of Records. Hawke was born in Bordertown, a small town in South Australia near the Victorian border. His father was a Congregationalist minister; his uncle, Albert Hawke, was Labor Premier of Western Australia between 1953 and 1959 and was a close friend of Labor Prime Minister John Curtin, who was in many ways Bob Hawke's role model. Hawke's mother, Ellie, had an almost messianic belief in her son's destiny and this contributed to his supreme self-confidence throughout his career. Both his parents were of English extraction. Hawke abandoned his Christian beliefs as a young man and by the time he entered politics he was a self-described agnostic. Blanche d'Alpuget, Robert J. Hawke, 87 Hawke was raised in Perth and attended Perth Modern School and completed undergraduate degrees in Law and Arts (Economics) at the University of Western Australia. He joined the Labor Party in 1947, was selected as a Rhodes Scholar in 1953 and went to the University of Oxford to complete a Bachelor of Letters at University College with a thesis on wage-fixing in Australia. His academic achievements were possibly outweighed by the notoriety he achieved as the holder of a world record for the fastest consumption of beer: a yard glass (approximately 3 imperial pints or 1.7 litres) in eleven seconds. Media Man Australia — The Online Home of Greg Tingle — Journalist & TV Presenter In his memoirs, Hawke suggested that this single feat may have contributed to his political success more than any other, by endearing him to a voting population with a strong beer culture. Trade union leader Part of Hawke's work at the ACTU was the presentation of its annual case for higher wages to the national wages tribunal, the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. He attained such success and prominence in this role that in 1969 he was encouraged to run for ACTU President, despite the fact that he had never held elected office in a trade union. He was elected to the presidency of the ACTU in 1969 on a modernising platform, by a narrow margin (399 to 350) and with the support of the left of the union movement, including some associated with the Communist Party. Hawke declared publicly that "socialist is not a word I would use to describe myself" and his approach to government was pragmatic. He concerned himself with making improvements to workers' lives from within the traditional institutions of government, rather than to any ideological theory. He opposed the Vietnam war, but was a strong supporter of the US-Australian alliance, and also an emotional supporter of Israel. It was his commitment to the cause of Jewish Refuseniks that led to a planned assassination attempt by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and its Australian operative Munif Mohammed Abou Rish. Terrorists plotted Hawke assassination: ASIO — National — theage.com.au In industrial matters, Hawke continued to demonstrate a preference for and considerable skill at negotiation, and was generally liked and respected by employers as well as the unions he advocated for. As early as 1972 speculation began that he would soon enter Parliament and become Labor leader. But while his career continued successfully, his heavy use of alcohol and his notorious womanising placed considerable strains on his family life. In 1973 Hawke became Federal President of the Labor Party. When the Gough Whitlam government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General in 1975 and the government defeated at the ensuing election, Whitlam initially offered the Labor leadership to Hawke, although it was not within Whitlam's power to decide who would succeed him. Hawke decided not to enter Parliament at that time, a decision he soon regretted. He was, however, influential in averting national strike action. The strain of this period took its toll, and in 1979 he suffered a physical collapse. This shock led Hawke to make a sustained and ultimately successful effort to conquer his alcoholism — John Curtin was his inspiration in this as in other things. He was helped in this by his relationship with the writer Blanche d'Alpuget, who in 1982 published an admiring biography of Hawke. His popularity with the public was unaffected, and polling suggested that he was a far more popular politician than either Bill Hayden, the Labor leader since 1977, or the incumbent Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. Hawke was elected to the House of Representatives for the Melbourne seat of Wills at the 1980 Election held on 18 October. Immediately upon his entry into Parliament, Hawke was appointed to the Opposition front bench, taking his place as Shadow Minister for Industrial Relations, Employment and Youth. With numerous polls (public and private) suggesting that Hawke was preferred to both Hayden and Prime Minister Fraser, Hayden called a leadership ballot for 16 July. Although Hayden defeated the ambitious Hawke, his five vote victory over the former President of the ACTU was unable to difuse doubters amongst caucus that he could lead the ALP to victory at the next election, due sometime in the forthcoming year. Hayden's fate as leader of the Labor Party was sealed, when a by-election was contested in the Victorian seat of Flinders. A miserably small swing towards Labor convinced many doubters within caucus that only Hawke could guarantee a Labor victory at the upcoming election. Consequently, less than two months after Labor's lacklustre performance in Flinders, Hawke's leadership ambitions were realised when Hayden announced his resignation as Labor leader on the morning of 3 February 1983, at a meeting of the shadow ministry in Brisbane. The same day, Fraser, hoping to capitalise on Labor's feuding, and unaware of events that had taken place in Brisbane, called an election for 5 March, only to discover that his opponent would not be Hayden, but the overwhelmingly popular Hawke. Five days later, Hawke was unanimously elected leader of the Australian Labor Party. Twenty five days later, Labor won the 1983 election by a landslide, ending over seven years of conservative rule. Prime Minister 1983–91 A cheque for Ash Wednesday bushfire relief to South Australian Premier John Bannon is presented by Hawke in April 1983. The inaugural days of the Hawke government were distinctly different from those of the Whitlam era. Rather than immediately initiating extensive reform programmes, Hawke announced that Fraser's pre-election concealment of the budget deficit meant that many of Labor's election commitments would have to be deferred. Hawke managed to persuade the Labor caucus to divide the ministry into two tiers, with only the most important Ministers attending regular cabinet meetings. This was to avoid what Hawke viewed as the unwieldy nature of the 27-member Whitlam cabinet. The caucus under Hawke also exhibited a much more formalised system of parliamentary factions, which significantly altered the dynamics of caucus operations. Hawke used his great authority to carry out a substantial set of policy changes. Accounts from ministers indicate that while Hawke was not usually the driving force for economic reform (that impetus coming from the Treasurer Paul Keating and Industry Minister John Button), he took the role of reaching consensus and providing political guidance on what was electorally feasible and how best to sell it to the public, at which he was highly successful. Hawke proved to be very popular with the Australian electorate and set during his first term the record for the highest approval rating on the ACNielsen Poll (a record which still stands as of 2008). Keating and Hawke provided a study in contrasts. Hawke was a Rhodes Scholar; Keating left high school early. Hawke's enthusiasms were cigars, horse racing and all forms of sport; Keating preferred classical architecture, Mahler symphonies, and collecting antique Swiss cuckoo clocks. Hawke was consensus-driven; Keating revelled in aggressive debate. Hawke was a lapsed Protestant; Keating was a practising Catholic. Despite their differences, the two formed an effective political partnership. Among other reforms, the Hawke Government floated the Australian dollar, deregulated the financial system, dismantled the tariff system, privatised state sector industries, ended subsidisation of loss-making industries, and sold off the state-owned Commonwealth Bank of Australia. The tax system was reformed, with the introduction of fringe benefits tax and a capital gains tax — a reform strongly opposed by the Liberal Party at the time, but not reversed when they returned to office. Hawke benefitted greatly from the disarray into which the Liberal opposition fell after the resignation of Fraser. The Liberals were divided between supporters of the dour, economically and socially conservative John Howard and the urbane Andrew Peacock. The arch-conservative Premier of Queensland, Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen, also helped Hawke with his "Joh for Canberra" campaign in 1987, which proved highly damaging for the conservatives. Exploiting these divisions, Hawke led the Labor Party to comfortable election victories in 1984 and 1987. Hawke's Prime Ministership saw considerable friction between himself and the grassroots of the Labor Party, who were unhappy at what they viewed as Hawke's iconoclasm and willingness to co-operate with business interests. All Labor Prime Ministers have at times engendered the hostility of the organisational wing of the party, but none more so than Hawke, who expressed his willingness to cull Labor's "sacred cows". The Socialist Left faction, as well as prominent Labor figure Barry Jones, offered severe criticism of a number of government decisions. He has also received criticism for largely siding with the airlines in the 1989 Australian pilots' strike. On social policy, the Hawke government saw gradual reforms. The Whitlam government's universal health insurance system (Medibank), which had been dismantled by Fraser, was restored under a new name, Medicare. A notable success for which the government's response is given considerable credit was Australia's public health campaign about AIDS. For discussion see William Bowtell, Australia’s Response to HIV/AIDS 1982–2005, Lowy Institute for International Policy, May 2005 In the later years of the Hawke government, Aboriginal affairs saw considerable attention, with an investigation of the idea of a treaty between Aborigines and the government, though this idea was overtaken by events, notably including the Mabo court decision. The Hawke government also made some notable environmental decisions. In its first months in office it stopped the construction of the Franklin Dam, on the Franklin River in Tasmania, responding to a groundswell of protest about the issue. In 1990, a looming tight election saw a tough political operator, Graham Richardson, appointed Environment Minister, whose task it was to attract second-preference votes from the Australian Democrats and other environmental parties. Richardson claimed this as a major factor in the government's narrow re-election in 1990, Hawke's last triumph. Decline and fall Bob Hawke with Labor leader Mark Latham unveil a plaque in 2004 to commemorate the centenary of the Chris Watson Labor government in 1904. The late 1980s recession and high interest rates saw the government in considerable electoral trouble. Although Keating was the main architect of the government's economic policies, he took advantage of Hawke's declining popularity to plan a leadership challenge. In 1988 Hawke had responded to pressure from Keating to step down by making a secret agreement (the so-called "Kirribilli agreement" or "Kirribilli accord") to resign in favour of Keating some time after winning the 1990 election. After Keating made a speech to the Federal Parliamentary Press Gallery that Hawke considered disloyal, Hawke indicated to Keating that he would renege on the agreement. In June 1991 Keating responded by resigning from Cabinet and challenging for the Labor Party leadership. Hawke defeated Keating's leadership challenge, but he was clearly a wounded leader. Hawke had himself sworn in as Treasurer for one day while he decided between the rival claims of Ralph Willis and John Kerin for the job, eventually choosing Kerin, who proved to be unequal to the job. Hawke's demise came when the new Liberal leader, Dr John Hewson, released a proposal for sweeping economic change, including a goods and services tax and deep cuts to government spending and personal income tax, in November 1991. At the time, Australia was the second lowest taxing country in the OECD. Neither Hawke nor his new Treasurer, John Kerin, could mount an effective response to this challenge, and a rattled Labor Party turned to Keating. At a second challenge, on , Keating defeated Hawke in a party-room ballot, 56 votes to 51. Hawke resigned from Parliament shortly after, sparking the 1992 Wills by-election, which was won by independent Phil Cleary from a record field of 22 candidates. Hawke apparently had few regrets, although his bitterness towards Keating surfaced in his memoirs. Hawke now claims to have buried his differences and considers Keating a friend. Hawke and Keating bury the hatchet — ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) In July 1990, Hawke had outstripped Malcolm Fraser to become Australia's second-longest serving Prime Minister. This record has since been overtaken by John Howard. Hawke remains the Australian Labor Party's longest-serving Prime Minister. It is also said by a former Tony Blair staffer that UK Labour and Blair learnt from the Hawke government in the 1980s on how to govern when they took power in the UK. How the British came, saw and helped Rudd — National — theage.com.au Life after politics Bob Hawke campaigning in support of Kevin Rudd and Labor for the 2007 federal election with Julie Owens MP for Parramatta at a local retail precinct. Bob Hawke at Parliament House for the national apology to the Stolen Generations. After politics, Hawke entered the business world with considerable success. Hazel Hawke, who for the sake of the Labor cause had put up with the open secret of his relationship with his biographer Blanche d'Alpuget while he was Prime Minister, divorced him, and shortly afterwards he married d'Alpuget. He had little to do with the Labor Party during Keating's leadership, however he often provided public criticism of the Keating Government. 1994 Year in Review — Australia Encyclopædia Britannica online He was also reported to have said that then-Liberal leader Alexander Downer would win the next election (a claim he later said was taken out of context). After the election of the Howard Liberal government in 1996 he became a close supporter of Opposition Leader Kim Beazley. In the run up to the 2007 election, Hawke (at the age of 78) made a considerable personal effort to support the Australian Labor Party's campaign, making speeches at a large number of campaign office openings across Australia. As well as campaigning against WorkChoices, Hawke also attacked John Howard's record as Treasurer, stating "it was the judgement of every economist and international financial institution that it was the restructuring reforms undertaken by my government with the full co-operation of the trade union movement which created the strength of the Australian economy today". Hawke queries record of man who 'buggered' the economy: The Age Honours Bust of Bob Hawke by political cartoonist, caricaturist and sculptor Peter Nicholson located in the Prime Minister's Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical Gardens Hawke was made a Companion of the Order of Australia in 1979. In late 2008, he was made Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu, the highest Papua New Guinean honour available to non-Papua New Guinean citizens, entitling him to be referred to as "Chief". In a letter to Bob Hawke, Papua New Guinean Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare informed him that he was being honoured for his "support for Papua New Guinea [...] from the time you assisted in the development of our trade union movement, and basic workplace conditions, to the strong support you gave us during your term as Prime Minister of Australia". "Former Australian Prime Minister Named PNG Chief", Solomon Times, January 8, 2009 Bob Hawke has received the following honours from academic institutions : Honorary Fellow — University College of Oxford Honorary Doctor of Letters — University of Western Australia Honorary Doctor of Civil Law — Oxford University Honorary Doctor of Humanities — Rikkyo University other honorary doctoral degrees from Nanjing University, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, University of New South Wales, and the University of South Australia The University of South Australia named the Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library in his honour. References See also First Hawke Ministry Second Hawke Ministry Third Hawke Ministry Fourth Hawke Ministry The Accord External links Hawke Swoops into Power — Time 14/3/1983 Robert Hawke — Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Centre Video of Hawke campaigning for McKew in Bennellong in late 2007 Video of Hawke campaigning for an Australian republic Video of Norman Gunston, Gough Whitlam, Bill Hayden and Bob Hawke at 'The Dismissal' Further reading | Bob_Hawke |@lemmatized robert:3 james:1 lee:1 bob:11 hawke:91 ac:1 born:1 december:1 prime:21 minister:24 australia:21 long:5 serve:4 australian:16 labor:33 party:17 decade:1 president:4 council:1 trade:5 union:7 enter:6 politics:4 election:20 become:6 within:4 three:1 year:5 far:2 serving:1 electorally:2 successful:3 achieve:2 rare:1 feat:2 win:5 four:1 consecutive:1 federal:4 third:2 early:3 life:4 education:1 memorial:1 turf:1 tavern:1 yard:2 ale:1 pint:2 second:7 oxford:4 uni:1 record:9 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put:1 open:1 biographer:1 divorce:1 afterwards:1 marry:1 little:1 often:1 review:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 report:1 alexander:1 downer:1 context:1 kim:1 beazley:1 age:2 large:1 opening:1 across:1 workchoices:1 attack:1 judgement:1 every:1 economist:1 restructuring:1 undertake:1 full:1 create:1 strength:1 economy:2 today:1 query:1 bugger:1 honour:5 bust:1 cartoonist:1 caricaturist:1 sculptor:1 peter:1 nicholson:1 locate:1 avenue:1 ballarat:1 botanical:1 garden:1 companion:2 order:2 grand:1 logohu:1 papua:4 guinean:3 available:1 non:1 citizen:1 entitle:1 refer:1 chief:2 michael:1 somare:1 inform:1 guinea:1 assist:1 development:1 basic:1 workplace:1 condition:1 png:1 solomon:1 january:1 following:1 honorary:5 fellow:1 doctor:3 civil:1 humanity:1 rikkyo:1 doctoral:1 nanjing:1 hebrew:1 jerusalem:1 wale:1 ministerial:2 library:1 reference:1 fourth:1 external:1 link:1 swoop:1 archive:1 centre:1 video:3 mckew:1 bennellong:1 republic:1 norman:1 gunston:1 dismissal:1 reading:1 |@bigram bob_hawke:11 prime_minister:18 imperial_pint:1 conciliation_arbitration:1 narrow_margin:1 theage_com:2 gough_whitlam:2 malcolm_fraser:2 ash_wednesday:1 budget_deficit:1 approval_rating:1 economically_socially:1 bjelke_petersen:1 prime_ministership:1 hiv_aid:1 plaque_commemorate:1 commemorate_centenary:1 income_tax:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 tony_blair:1 kevin_rudd:1 shortly_afterwards:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 britannica_online:1 botanical_garden:1 doctoral_degree:1 external_link:1 |
3,767 | Gary_North | Gary North may refer to: Gary North (Christian Reconstructionist) Gary North (journalist) | Gary_North |@lemmatized gary:3 north:3 may:1 refer:1 christian:1 reconstructionist:1 journalist:1 |@bigram |
3,768 | Econometrics | Econometrics is concerned with the tasks of developing and applying quantitative or statistical methods to the study and elucidation of economic principles. Ragnar Frisch (1933). "Editor's Note". Econometrica 1. 1-4. Econometrics combines economic theory with statistics to analyze and test economic relationships. Theoretical econometrics considers questions about the statistical properties of estimators and tests, while applied econometrics is concerned with the application of econometric methods to assess economic theories. Although the first known use of the term "econometrics" was by Pawel Ciompa in 1910, Ragnar Frisch is given credit for coining the term in the sense that it is used today. Although many econometric methods represent applications of standard statistical models, there are some special features of economic data that distinguish econometrics from other branches of statistics. Economic data are generally observational, rather than being derived from controlled experiments. Because the individual units in an economy interact with each other, the observed data tend to reflect complex economic equilibrium conditions rather than simple behavioral relationships based on preferences or technology. Consequently, the field of econometrics has developed methods for identification and estimation of simultaneous equation models. These methods allow researchers to make causal inferences in the absence of controlled experiments. Early work in econometrics focused on time-series data, but now econometrics also fully covers cross-sectional and panel data. Purpose The two main purposes of econometrics are to give empirical content to economic theory and to subject economic theory to potentially falsifying tests. For example, consider one of the basic relationships in economics: the relationship between the price of a commodity and the quantities of that commodity that people wish to purchase at each price (the demand relationship). According to economic theory, an increase in the price would lead to a decrease in the quantity demanded, holding other relevant variables constant to isolate the relationship of interest. A mathematical equation can be written that describes the relationship between quantity, price, other demand variables like income, and a random term ε to reflect simplification and imprecision of the theoretical model: Regression analysis could be used to estimate the unknown parameters , , and in the relationship, using data on price, income, and quantity. The model could then be tested for statistical significance as to whether an increase in price is associated with a decrease in the quantity, as hypothesized: . There are complications even in this simple example, and it is often easy to mistake statistical significance with economic significance. Statistical significance is neither necessary nor sufficient for economic significance. Ziliak, Stephen T. and Deirde N. McCloskey. "Size Matters: The Standard Error of Regressions in the American Economic Review" (August 2004). In order to estimate the theoretical demand relationship, the observations in the data set must be price and quantity pairs that are collected along a demand schedule that is stable. If those assumptions are not satisfied, a more sophisticated model or econometric method may be necessary to derive reliable estimates and tests. Methods One of the fundamental statistical methods used by econometricians is regression analysis. For an overview of a linear implementation of this framework, see linear regression. Regression methods are important in econometrics because economists typically cannot use controlled experiments. Econometricians often seek illuminating natural experiments in the absence of evidence from controlled experiments. Observational data may be subject to omitted-variable bias and a list of other problems that must be addressed using causal analysis of simultaneous equation models.<ref>Edward E. Leamer, "Specification problems in econometrics," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4 (1987), pp. 472-75.</ref> Data sets to which econometric analyses are applied can be classified as time-series data, cross-sectional data, panel data, and multidimensional panel data. Time-series data sets contain observations over time; for example, inflation over the course of several years. Cross-sectional data sets contain observations at a single point in time; for example, many individuals' incomes in a given year. Panel data sets contain both time-series and cross-sectional observations. Multi-dimensional panel data sets contain observations across time, cross-sectionally, and across some third dimension. For example, the Survey of Professional Forecasters contains forecasts for many forecasters (cross-sectional observations), at many points in time (time series observations), and at multiple forecast horizons (a third dimension). Econometric analysis may also be classified on the basis of the number of relationships modeled. Single equation methods model a single variable (the dependent variable) as a function of one or more explanatory (or independent) variables. In many econometric contexts, such single equation methods may not recover the effect desired, or may produce estimates with poor statistical properties. Simultaneous equation methods have been developed as one means of addressing these problems. Many of these methods use variants of instrumental variable to make estimates. Other important methods include Method of Moments, Generalized Method of Moments (GMM), Bayesian methods, Two Stage Least Squares (2SLS), and Three Stage Least Squares (3SLS). Example A simple example of a relationship in econometrics from the field of labor economics is: Economic theory says that the natural logarithm of a person's wage is a linear function of (among other things) the number of years of education that person has acquired. The parameter measures the increase in the natural log of the wage attributable to one more year of education. It should be noted that by using the natural log we have moved away from a simple linear regression model and are now using a non linear model, in this case, a semi-log y model. The term is a random variable representing all other factors that may have direct influence on wage. The econometric goal is to estimate the parameters, under specific assumptions about the random variable . For example, if is uncorrelated with years of education, then the equation can be estimated with ordinary least squares. If the researcher could randomly assign people to different levels of education, the data set thus generated would allow estimation of the effect of changes in years of education on wages. In reality, those experiments cannot be conducted. Instead, the econometrician observes the years of education of and the wages paid to people who differ along many dimensions. Given this kind of data, the estimated coefficient on Years of Education in the equation above reflects both the effect of education on wages and the effect of other variables on wages, if those other variables were correlated with education. For example, people with more innate ability may have higher wages and higher levels of education. Unless the econometrician controls for innate ability in the above equation, the effect of innate ability on wages may be falsely attributed to the effect of education on wages. The most obvious way to control for innate ability is to include a measure of ability in the equation above. Exclusion of innate ability, together with the assumption that is uncorrelated with education produces a misspecified model. A second technique for dealing with omitted variables is instrumental variables estimation. Still a third technique is to include in the equation additional set of measured covariates which are not instrumental variables, yet render identifiable Pearl, Judea. Causality: Model, Reasoning, and Inference, Cambridge University Press, 2000 . An overview of econometric methods used to study this problem can be found in Card (1999). Card, D. (1999) "The causal effect of education on earning," in Ashenfelter, O. and Card, D., (eds.) Handbook of Labor Economics, pp 1801-63. Notable econometricians The following are the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences recipients in the field of econometrics: Jan Tinbergen, former Professor at the Erasmus University Rotterdam, and Ragnar Frisch were awarded the first prize in 1969 for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes. Lawrence Klein, Professor of Economics at the University of Pennsylvania, was awarded in 1980 for his computer modeling work in the field. Trygve Haavelmo was awarded in 1989. His main contribution to econometrics was his 1944 article (published in Econometrica) "The Probability Approach to Econometrics." Daniel McFadden and James Heckman shared the award in 2000 for their work in microeconometrics. McFadden founded the econometrics lab at the University of California, Berkeley. Robert Engle and Clive Granger at the University of California, San Diego, were awarded in 2003 for work on analyzing economic time series. Engle pioneered the method of autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH) and Granger the method of cointegration. The Econometric Author Links of the Econometrics Journal provides personal links to recent articles and working papers of econometric authors via the RePEc system in EconPapers. Journals The main journals which publish work in econometrics are Econometrica, the Journal of Econometrics, the Review of Economics and Statistics, the Econometric Theory, the Journal of Applied Econometrics, the Econometric Reviews, and the Journal of Business and Economic Statistics . See also Cowles Foundation Correlation does not imply causation Choice Modelling Modeling and analysis of financial markets Important publications in econometrics Gretl, the Gnu Regression, Econometrics and Time Series Library, open source and free software for econometrics. Hayashi, Fumio. Econometrics. Princeton University Press, 2000. Single equation methods (econometrics) Granger causality Augmented Dickey–Fuller test Unit root Predetermined variables Notes References Handbook of Econometrics Elsevier, links to: v. 1, pp. 3-771 (1983) v. 2, pp. 775-1461 (1984) v. 3, pp. 1465-2107 (1986) v. 4, pp. 2111-3155 (1994) v. 5, pp. 3159-3843 (2001) v. 6, Part 1, pp. 3845-4776 (2007) v. 6, Part 2, pp. 4777-5752 (2007) Harry H. Kelejian and Wallace E. Oates (1989, 3rd ed.) Introduction to Econometrics. Peter Kennedy (2003). A Guide to Econometrics, 5th ed. Preview. Robert S. Pindyck and Daniel L. Rubinfeld (1998, 4th ed.). A.H. Studenmund (2000, 4th ed.) Using Econometrics: A Practical Guide. Greene (1999, 4th ed.) Econometric Analysis, Prentice Hall. Hamilton, James (1994, 1st ed.) Time Series Analysis, Princeton University Press. Further reading Mills, Terence C and Patterson, Kerry. Palgrave Handbook of Econometrics, Volume 2: Applied Econometrics". Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. ISBN 9781403917997 Econometric Theory book on Wikibooks MacKinnon, James and Davidson, Russell. Econometric Theory and Methods. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Pearl, J. Causality: Models, Reasoning and Inference, Cambridge University Press, 2000. Wooldridge, Jeffrey. Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach. Mason: Thomson South-Western, 2003. ISBN 0-324-11364-1 Giovanini, Enrico Understanding Economic Statistics, OECD Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-92-64-03312-2 External links Econometric Links Econometric Society The Econometrics Journal MERLOT Learning materials in Econometrics (US-based catalogue of materials) Teaching Econometrics (Index by the Economics Network (UK)) Applied Econometric Association "The Art and Science of Cause and Effect": a slide show and tutorial lecture by Judea Pearl be-x-old:Эканамэтрыка | Econometrics |@lemmatized econometrics:36 concern:2 task:1 develop:4 apply:6 quantitative:1 statistical:8 method:22 study:2 elucidation:1 economic:19 principle:1 ragnar:3 frisch:3 editor:1 note:3 econometrica:3 combine:1 theory:9 statistic:5 analyze:2 test:6 relationship:11 theoretical:3 considers:1 question:1 property:2 estimator:1 application:2 econometric:18 assess:1 although:2 first:2 know:1 use:12 term:4 pawel:1 ciompa:1 give:4 credit:1 coin:1 sense:1 today:1 many:7 represent:2 standard:2 model:17 special:1 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3,769 | Diffeomorphism | In mathematics, a diffeomorphism is an isomorphism in the category of smooth manifolds. It is an invertible function that maps one differentiable manifold to another, such that both the function and its inverse are smooth. The image of a rectangular grid on a square under a diffeomorphism from the square onto itself. Definition Given two manifolds M and N, a bijective map from M to N is called a diffeomorphism if both and its inverse are differentiable (if these functions are r times continuously differentiable, f is called a -diffeomorphism). Two manifolds M and N are diffeomorphic (symbol being usually ) if there is a smooth bijective function from M to N with smooth inverse. They are diffeomorphic if there is an r times continuously differentiable bijective function between them whose inverse is also r times continuously differentiable. Diffeomorphisms of subsets of manifolds Given a subset X of a manifold M and a subset Y of a manifold N, a function is said to be smooth if for all there is a neighborhood of and a smooth function such that the restrictions agree (note that g is an extension of f). We say that is a diffeomorphism if it is one-to-one, onto, smooth, and if its inverse is smooth. Local description Model example: if and are two simply connected open subsets of , a differentiable map from to is a diffeomorphism if The differential is bijective at each point . Remarks: It is essential for U to be simply connected for the function f to be globally invertible (under the sole condition that its derivative is a bijective map at each point). For example, consider the map (which is the "realification" of the complex square function) where . Then the map is surjective and its satisfies (thus is bijective at each point) yet is not invertible, because it fails to be injective, e.g., . Since the differential at a point (for a differentiable function) is a linear map it has a well defined inverse if, and only if, is a bijection. The matrix representation of is the matrix of first order partial derivatives whose entry in the i-th row and j-th colomn is . We often use this so-called Jacobian matrix for explicit computations. Diffeomorphisms are necessarily between manifold of the same dimension. Imagine that f were going from dimension to dimension . If n < k then could never be surjective, and if n > k then could never be injective. So in both cases fails to be a bijection. If is a bijection at x then we say that f is a local diffeomorphism (since by continuity will also be bijective for all y sufficiently close to x). If is a bijection for all x then we say that f is a (global) diffeomorphism. Given a smooth map from dimension n to dimension k, if Df (resp. ) is surjective then we say that f is a submersion (resp. local submersion), and if Df (resp. ) is injective we say that f is an immersion (resp. local immersion). A differentiable bijection is not necessarily a diffeomorphism, e.g. is not a diffeomorphism from to itself because its derivative vanishes at 0 (and hence its inverse is not differentiable at 0). This is an example of a homeomorphism that is not a diffeomorphism. f being a diffeomorphism is a stronger condition than f being a homeomorphism (when f is a map between differentiable manifolds). For a diffeomorphism we need f and its inverse to be differentiable. For a homeomorphism we only require that f and its inverse be continuous. Thus every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, but the converse is false: not every homeomorphism is a diffeomorphism. Now, from M to N is called a diffeomorphism if in coordinates charts it satisfies the definition above. More precisely, pick any cover of M by compatible coordinate charts, and do the same for N. Let and be charts on M and N respectively, with being the image of and the image of . Then the conditions says that the map from to is a diffeomorphism as in the definition above (whenever it makes sense). One has to check that for every couple of charts , of two given atlases, but once checked, it will be true for any other compatible chart. Again we see that dimensions have to agree. Examples Since any manifold can be locally parametrised, we can consider some explicit maps from two-space into two-space. Let . We can calculate the Jacobian matrix: The Jacobian matrix has zero determinant if, and only if. . We see that f is a diffeomorphism away from the x-axis and the y-axis. Let where the and are arbitrary real numbers, and the omitted terms are of degree at least two in x and y. We can calculate the Jacobian matrix at 0: We see that g is a local diffeomorphism at 0 if, and only if, , i.e. the linear terms in the components of g are linearly independent as polynomials. Now let . We can calculate the Jacobian matrix: The Jacobian matrix has zero determinant everywhere! In fact we see that the image of h is the unit circle. Diffeomorphism group The diffeomorphism group of a manifold is the group of all its automorphisms (diffeomorphisms to itself). For dimension greater than or equal to one this is a 'large' group, in the sense that it is not locally compact. The following comments will assume manifolds are 2nd countable and Hausdorff. The diffeomorphism group has two natural topologies, called the weak and strong topology respectively M.Hirsch, Differential Topology, Springer-Verlag 1997. Provided the manifold is compact, these two topologies agree. In both cases, the diffeomorphism group is locally homeomorphic to the space of vector fields on the manifold (where is the order of differentiability considered). If is finite and the manifold is compact, this is a Banach space. Moreover, the transition maps are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Banach manifold. If and the manifold is σ-compact, the space of vector fields is a Fréchet space. Moreover, the transition maps are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Fréchet manifold. For a connected manifold M the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on M. More generally, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space . If the dimension of is at least two the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space ie: the action on M is multiply transitive. In the case that M is a Lie group , there is a natural inclusion of G in its own diffeomorphism group via left-translation. Let denote the diffeomorphism group of , then there is a splitting where is the subgroup of that fixes the identity element of the group. For a finite set of points, the diffeomorphism group is simply the symmetric group. Similarly, if is any manifold there is a group extension . Here is the subgroup of which preserves all the components of M, and is the permutation group of the set (the components of M). Moreover, the image of the map is the bijections of that preserve diffeomorphism classes. In 1926, Tibor Radó asked whether the harmonic extension of any homeomorphism (or diffeomorphism) of the unit circle to the unit disc yields a diffeomorphism on the open disc. An elegant proof was provided shortly afterwards by Hellmuth Kneser and a completely different proof was discovered in 1945 by Gustave Choquet, apparently unaware that the theorem was already known. The (orientation-preserving) diffeomorphism group of the circle is pathwise connected. This can be seen by noting that any such diffeomorphism can be lifted to a diffeomorphism f of the reals satisfying f(x+1) = f(x) +1; this space is convex and hence path connected. A smooth eventually constant path to the identity gives a second more elementary way of extending a diffeomorphism from the circle to the open unit disc (this is a special case of the Alexander trick). Moreover, the diffeomorphism group of the circle has the homotopy-type of the orthogonal group . The corresponding extension problem for diffeomorphisms of higher dimensional spheres Sn-1 was much studied in the 1950s and 1960s, with notable contributions from René Thom, John Milnor and Stephen Smale. An obstruction to such extensions is given by the finite Abelian group Γn, the "group of twisted spheres", defined as the quotient of the Abelian component group of the diffeomorphism group by the subgroup of classes extending to diffeomorphisms of the ball Bn. For manifolds the diffeomorphism group is usually not connected. Its component group is called the mapping class group. In dimension 2, i.e. for surfaces, the mapping class group is a finitely presented group, generated by Dehn twists (Dehn, Lickorish, Hatcher). Max Dehn and Jakob Nielsen showed that it can be identified with the outer automorphism group of the fundamental group of the surface. William Thurston refined this analysis by classifying elements of the mapping class group into three types: those equivalent to a periodic diffeomorphism; those equivalent to a diffeomorphism leaving a simple closed curve invariant; and those equivalent to pseudo-Anosov diffeomorphisms. In the case of the torus S¹ x S¹ = R²/Z², the mapping class group is just the modular group SL(2,Z) and the classification reduces to the classical one in terms of elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic matrices. Thurston accomplished his classification by observing that the mapping class group acted naturally on a compactification of Teichmuller space; since this enlarged space was homeomorphic to a closed ball, the Brouwer fixed point theorem became applicable. If M is an oriented smooth closed manifold, it was conjectured by Smale that the identity component of the group of orientation-preserving diffeomorphisms is simple. This had first been proved for a product of circles by Michel Herman; it was proved in full generality by Thurston. The diffeomorphism group of has the homotopy-type of the subgroup . This was proven by Steve Smale Smale, Diffeomorphisms of the 2-sphere, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 10 (1959) 621--626. . The diffeomorphism group of the torus has the homotopy-type of its linear automorphisms: . The diffeomorphism groups of orientable surfaces of genus have the homotopy-type of their mapping class groups -- ie: the components are contractible. The homotopy-type of the diffeomorphism groups of 3-manifolds are fairly well-understood via the work of Ivanov, Hatcher, Gabai and Rubinstein although there are a few outstanding open cases, primarily 3-manifolds with finite fundamental groups. The homotopy-type of diffeomorphism groups of n-manifolds for are poorly undersood. For example, it is an open problem whether or not has more than two components. But via the work of Milnor, Kahn and Antonelli it's known that does not have the homotopy-type of a finite CW-complex provided . Homeomorphism and diffeomorphism It is easy to find a homeomorphism which is not a diffeomorphism, but it is more difficult to find a pair of homeomorphic manifolds that are not diffeomorphic. In dimensions 1, 2, 3, any pair of homeomorphic smooth manifolds are diffeomorphic. In dimension 4 or greater, examples of homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic pairs have been found. The first such example was constructed by John Milnor in dimension 7, he constructed a smooth 7-dimensional manifold (called now Milnor's sphere) which is homeomorphic to the standard 7-sphere but not diffeomorphic to it. There are in fact 28 oriented diffeomorphism classes of manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere (each of them is a total space of the fiber bundle over the 4-sphere with fiber the 3-sphere). Much more extreme phenomena occur for 4-manifolds: in the early 1980s, a combination of results due to Simon Donaldson and Michael Freedman led to the discovery of exotic R4s: there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic open subsets of each of which is homeomorphic to , and also there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic differentiable manifolds homeomorphic to which do not embed smoothly in . See also Local diffeomorphism Étale morphism Notes References | Diffeomorphism |@lemmatized mathematics:1 diffeomorphism:52 isomorphism:1 category:1 smooth:15 manifold:31 invertible:3 function:10 map:14 one:6 differentiable:12 another:1 inverse:9 image:5 rectangular:1 grid:1 square:3 onto:2 definition:3 give:6 two:11 n:12 bijective:7 call:7 r:3 time:3 continuously:3 f:17 diffeomorphic:8 symbol:1 usually:2 whose:2 also:4 diffeomorphisms:8 subset:5 x:9 say:7 neighborhood:1 restriction:1 agree:3 note:3 g:6 extension:5 local:6 description:1 model:1 example:7 simply:3 connect:5 open:6 differential:3 point:6 remark:1 essential:1 u:1 globally:1 sole:1 condition:3 derivative:3 consider:3 realification:1 complex:2 surjective:3 satisfies:1 thus:2 yet:1 fail:2 injective:3 e:4 since:4 linear:3 well:2 define:2 bijection:5 matrix:9 representation:1 first:3 order:2 partial:1 entry:1 th:2 row:1 j:1 colomn:1 often:1 use:1 jacobian:6 explicit:2 computation:1 necessarily:2 dimension:12 imagine:1 go:1 k:3 could:2 never:2 case:6 continuity:1 sufficiently:1 close:3 global:1 df:2 resp:4 submersion:2 immersion:2 vanishes:1 hence:2 homeomorphism:8 strong:2 need:1 require:1 continuous:1 every:3 converse:1 false:1 coordinate:2 chart:5 satisfy:2 precisely:1 pick:1 cover:1 compatible:2 let:5 respectively:2 whenever:1 make:3 sense:2 check:2 couple:1 atlas:1 true:1 see:6 locally:3 parametrised:1 space:12 calculate:3 zero:2 determinant:2 away:1 axis:2 arbitrary:1 real:2 number:1 omit:1 term:3 degree:1 least:2 component:8 linearly:1 independent:1 polynomial:1 everywhere:1 fact:2 h:1 unit:4 circle:6 group:45 automorphisms:2 great:2 equal:1 large:1 compact:4 following:1 comment:1 assume:1 countable:1 hausdorff:1 natural:2 topology:4 weak:1 hirsch:1 springer:1 verlag:1 provide:3 homeomorphic:9 vector:2 field:2 differentiability:1 finite:5 banach:2 moreover:4 transition:2 σ:1 fréchet:2 connected:1 act:4 transitively:3 generally:1 configuration:2 ie:2 action:1 multiply:1 transitive:1 lie:1 inclusion:1 via:3 leave:2 translation:1 denote:1 splitting:1 subgroup:4 fix:2 identity:3 element:2 set:2 symmetric:1 similarly:1 preserve:2 permutation:1 bijections:1 class:9 tibor:1 radó:1 ask:1 whether:2 harmonic:1 disc:3 yield:1 elegant:1 proof:2 shortly:1 afterwards:1 hellmuth:1 kneser:1 completely:1 different:1 discover:1 gustave:1 choquet:1 apparently:1 unaware:1 theorem:2 already:1 know:2 orientation:2 preserving:2 pathwise:1 lift:1 convex:1 path:2 eventually:1 constant:1 second:1 elementary:1 way:1 extend:2 special:1 alexander:1 trick:1 homotopy:7 type:8 orthogonal:1 corresponding:1 problem:2 high:1 dimensional:2 sphere:8 sn:1 much:2 study:1 notable:1 contribution:1 rené:1 thom:1 john:2 milnor:4 stephen:1 smale:4 obstruction:1 abelian:2 γn:1 twisted:1 quotient:1 ball:2 bn:1 mapping:6 surface:3 finitely:1 present:1 generate:1 dehn:3 twist:1 lickorish:1 hatcher:2 max:1 jakob:1 nielsen:1 show:1 identify:1 outer:1 automorphism:1 fundamental:2 william:1 thurston:3 refine:1 analysis:1 classify:1 three:1 equivalent:3 periodic:1 simple:2 curve:1 invariant:1 pseudo:1 anosov:1 torus:2 modular:1 sl:1 z:1 classification:2 reduce:1 classical:1 elliptic:1 parabolic:1 hyperbolic:1 accomplish:1 observe:1 naturally:1 compactification:1 teichmuller:1 enlarged:1 closed:1 brouwer:1 become:1 applicable:1 oriented:1 conjecture:1 prove:3 product:1 michel:1 herman:1 full:1 generality:1 steve:1 proc:1 amer:1 math:1 soc:1 orientable:1 genus:1 contractible:1 fairly:1 understood:1 work:2 ivanov:1 gabai:1 rubinstein:1 although:1 outstanding:1 primarily:1 poorly:1 undersood:1 kahn:1 antonelli:1 cw:1 easy:1 find:3 difficult:1 pair:3 construct:2 standard:1 orient:1 total:1 fiber:2 bundle:1 extreme:1 phenomenon:1 occur:1 early:1 combination:1 result:1 due:1 simon:1 donaldson:1 michael:1 freedman:1 lead:1 discovery:1 exotic:1 uncountably:2 many:2 pairwise:2 non:2 embed:1 smoothly:1 étale:1 morphism:1 reference:1 |@bigram smooth_manifold:2 differentiable_manifold:3 continuously_differentiable:3 jacobian_matrix:6 homeomorphism_diffeomorphism:5 linearly_independent:1 locally_compact:1 differential_topology:1 springer_verlag:1 banach_space:1 fréchet_space:1 act_transitively:3 shortly_afterwards:1 finite_abelian:1 brouwer_fix:1 amer_math:1 math_soc:1 orientable_surface:1 dimensional_manifold:1 étale_morphism:1 |
3,770 | Fire_(classical_element) | Fire has been an important part of many cultures and religions, from pre-history to modern day, and was vital to the development of civilization. It has been regarded in many different fashions throughout history. Greek and Roman Tradition Fire is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. It was commonly associated with the qualities of energy, assertiveness, and passion. In one Greek myth, Prometheus stole fire from the gods to protect the otherwise helpless humans, but was punished for this kindness. The ancient Greeks distinguished the destructive (aidelon) fire, associated with Hades, from the creative fire, associated with Hephaistos. Goddess Hekate was called Pyrphoros (Fire-bearing), Pyripnon (Fire-breather), Daidoukhos (Torch-bearer) and Phosphoros (Light-bearer). Fire was one of many archai proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance. However, Empedocles of Acragas (c. 495-c. 435 BCE) selected four archai for his four roots: air, fire, water, and earth. Empedocles’ roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy. Plato (427-347 BCE) took over the four elements of Empedocles. In the Timaeus, his major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid associated with fire is the tetrahedron which is formed from four equilateral triangles. This makes fire the element with the smallest number of sides, which Plato regarded as appropriate as the heat of fire feels sharp and stabbing (like little tetrahedra). Plato, Timaeus, chap. 22-23; Gregory Vlastos, Plato’s Universe, pp. 66-82. Plato’s student Aristotle (384-322 BCE) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities. The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the universe to form the sublunary sphere. According to Aristotle, fire is both hot and dry, and occupies a place between earth and air among the elemental spheres. G. E. R. Lloyd, Aristotle, chapters 7-8. In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Yellow bile was the humor identified with fire, since both were hot and dry. Other things associated with fire and yellow bile in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of summer, since it increased the qualities of heat and aridity; the choleric temperament (of a person dominated by the yellow bile humour); the masculine; and the eastern point of the compass. Symbol for fire In alchemy, the chemical element of sulfur was often associated with fire and its alchemical symbol and its symbol was an upward-pointing triangle. In alchemic tradition, metals are incubated by fire in the womb of the Earth and alchemists only accelerate their development. Indian Tradition Agni is a Hindu and Vedic deity. The word agni is Sanskrit for "fire" (noun), cognate with Latin ignis (the root of English ignite), Russian ogon (fire), pronounced agon, and ogni, pronounced agni (fires). Agni has three forms: fire, lightning and the sun. Agni is one of the most important of the Vedic gods. He is the god of fire and the acceptor of sacrifices. The sacrifices made to Agni go to the deities because Agni is a messenger from and to the other gods. He is ever-young, because the fire is re-lit every day, yet he is also immortal. In Indian tradition Fire is also linked to Surya or the Sun and Mangala or Mars, and with the south-east direction. In modern magic Ceremonial Magic Fire and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system despite being considered obsolete by modern science. Philosophus (4=7) is the elemental grade attributed to fire; this grade is also attributed to the Qabalistic Sephirah Netzach and the planet Venus. Israel Regardie, The Golden Dawn, pp. 154-65. The elemental weapon of fire is the Wand or Dagger. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p.322; Kraig, Modern Magick, pp. 149-53. Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of fire is Michael, the angel is Aral, the ruler is Seraph, the king is Djin, and the fire elementals (following Paracelsus) are called salamanders. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p. 80. Fire is considered to be active; it is represented by the symbol for Leo, and it is referred to the lower right point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram. Regardie, Golden Dawn, pp. 280-286; Kraig, Modern Magick, pp. 206-209. Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community. Wicca In most Wiccan traditions, fire is associated with: The South, The Summer The color red on the physical plane. The athame or ceremonial dagger. In covens that use the sword, it is often associated with this element. Other correspondences include blood, candles, the guitar, rubies and incense. Fire represents energy, inspiration, passion and masculinity. It is sometimes represented in writing by a red upwards triangle. In rituals, fire is represented in the forms of burning objects, love spells, baking and lighting candles or fires. The manifestations of the element are found in the sun, lightning, fire, volcanoes and lava, and all forms of light. Cats of all types, especially the lion and tiger, are also thought to personify the element of fire, as are all predatory creatures, such as the fox. The astral creatures of fire, known as elementals, are the salamander, phoenix, drake/dragon and, occasionally, the falcon (Although most associate this animal with air, instead). Fire's place on the pentagram is the lower right point. Fire belongs to the suit of Wands in occult or divinatory tarot, although some Wiccans associate it with the suit of Swords because the athame (ritual knife) is often associated with fire. Fire is associated with warm colours, like red, orange and yellow, but also colours like black. Astrological Personalities People born under the astrological signs of Aries, Leo and Sagittarius are thought to have dominant fire personalities. Fire personalities are believed to have good leading qualities, and also tend to be extroverted, rebellious, passionate and enthusiastic; however, they can also be moody, hot-tempered, snappy, uncontrollable and angry. Other traditions Fire represents the creativity and passion that all intellectual and emotional beings have. It is an active force that has the passion to create and animate things. The element is also very rational and quick to "flare up" as is the personality of many "fire-children." Fire in many ancient cultures and myths has been known to purify the land with the flames of destruction; however, it is also capable of the renewal of life through the warmth and comfort of those very same flames. The element of fire shows up in mythological stories all across the world, often in stories related to the Sun. In East Asia fire is represented by the Vermilion Bird, known as 朱雀 (Zhū Què) in Chinese, Suzaku in Japanese and Ju-jak (주작, Hanja:朱雀) in Korean. Fire is represented in the Aztec religion by a flint; to the Native Americans, a mouse; to the Hindu and Islamic faiths, a lightning bolt; to the Scythians, an axe, to the Greeks, an apple-bough; and in Christian iconography, a lion. See also Fire Fire worship Pyromania Pyrokinesis Notes Further reading Frazer, Sir James George, Myths of the Origin of Fire, London: Macmillan, 1930. External links Different versions of the classical elements Overview the 5 elements Section on 4 elements in Buddhism | Fire_(classical_element) |@lemmatized fire:53 important:2 part:1 many:6 culture:2 religion:2 pre:2 history:2 modern:5 day:2 vital:1 development:2 civilization:1 regard:2 different:3 fashion:1 throughout:2 greek:8 roman:1 tradition:6 one:4 four:8 classical:4 element:18 ancient:5 philosophy:2 science:2 commonly:1 associate:14 quality:4 energy:2 assertiveness:1 passion:4 myth:3 prometheus:1 stole:1 god:4 protect:1 otherwise:1 helpless:1 human:1 punish:1 kindness:1 distinguish:1 destructive:1 aidelon:1 hades:1 creative:1 hephaistos:1 goddess:1 hekate:1 call:2 pyrphoros:1 bearing:1 pyripnon:1 breather:1 daidoukhos:1 torch:1 bearer:2 phosphoros:1 light:3 archai:2 propose:1 socratics:1 try:1 reduce:1 thing:3 single:1 substance:1 however:3 empedocles:3 acragas:1 c:2 bce:3 select:1 root:3 air:3 water:1 earth:3 become:2 plato:5 take:1 timaeus:2 major:1 cosmological:1 dialogue:1 platonic:1 solid:1 tetrahedron:1 form:5 equilateral:1 triangle:3 make:2 small:1 number:1 side:1 appropriate:1 heat:2 feel:1 sharp:1 stab:1 like:3 little:1 tetrahedra:1 chap:1 gregory:1 vlastos:1 universe:2 pp:5 student:1 aristotle:3 develop:1 explanation:1 base:1 pair:1 arrange:1 concentrically:1 around:1 center:1 sublunary:1 sphere:2 accord:1 hot:3 dry:2 occupy:1 place:2 among:1 elemental:3 g:1 e:1 r:1 lloyd:1 chapter:1 medicine:2 humour:2 yellow:4 bile:3 humor:1 identify:1 since:3 medieval:1 include:2 season:1 summer:2 increase:1 aridity:1 choleric:1 temperament:1 person:1 dominate:1 masculine:1 eastern:1 point:4 compass:1 symbol:4 alchemy:1 chemical:1 sulfur:1 often:4 alchemical:1 upward:1 alchemic:1 metal:1 incubate:1 womb:1 alchemists:1 accelerate:1 indian:2 agni:7 hindu:2 vedic:2 deity:2 word:1 sanskrit:1 noun:1 cognate:1 latin:1 ignis:1 english:1 ignite:1 russian:1 ogon:1 pronounce:2 agon:1 ogni:1 three:1 lightning:3 sun:4 acceptor:1 sacrifice:2 go:1 messenger:1 ever:1 young:1 lit:1 every:1 yet:1 also:10 immortal:1 link:2 surya:1 mangala:1 mar:1 south:2 east:2 direction:1 magic:2 ceremonial:2 incorporate:1 golden:5 dawn:5 system:1 despite:1 consider:2 obsolete:1 philosophus:1 grade:2 attribute:2 qabalistic:1 sephirah:1 netzach:1 planet:1 venus:1 israel:1 regardie:4 weapon:1 wand:2 dagger:2 p:2 kraig:2 magick:2 several:1 spiritual:1 archangel:1 michael:1 angel:1 aral:1 ruler:1 seraph:1 king:1 djin:1 elementals:2 follow:1 paracelsus:1 salamander:2 active:2 represent:7 leo:2 refer:1 low:2 right:2 pentagram:3 supreme:1 invoke:1 ritual:3 association:1 spread:1 occult:2 community:1 wicca:1 wiccan:2 color:1 red:3 physical:1 plane:1 athame:2 coven:1 use:1 sword:2 correspondence:1 blood:1 candle:2 guitar:1 ruby:1 incense:1 inspiration:1 masculinity:1 sometimes:1 writing:1 upwards:1 burn:1 object:1 love:1 spell:1 bake:1 manifestation:1 find:1 volcano:1 lava:1 cat:1 type:1 especially:1 lion:2 tiger:1 think:2 personify:1 predatory:1 creature:2 fox:1 astral:1 know:3 phoenix:1 drake:1 dragon:1 occasionally:1 falcon:1 although:2 animal:1 instead:1 belongs:1 suit:2 divinatory:1 tarot:1 knife:1 warm:1 colour:2 orange:1 black:1 astrological:2 personality:4 people:1 bear:1 sign:1 aries:1 sagittarius:1 dominant:1 believe:1 good:1 lead:1 tend:1 extroverted:1 rebellious:1 passionate:1 enthusiastic:1 moody:1 temper:1 snappy:1 uncontrollable:1 angry:1 creativity:1 intellectual:1 emotional:1 force:1 create:1 animate:1 rational:1 quick:1 flare:1 child:1 purify:1 land:1 flame:2 destruction:1 capable:1 renewal:1 life:1 warmth:1 comfort:1 show:1 mythological:1 story:2 across:1 world:1 relate:1 asia:1 vermilion:1 bird:1 朱雀:2 zhū:1 què:1 chinese:1 suzaku:1 japanese:1 ju:1 jak:1 주작:1 hanja:1 korean:1 aztec:1 flint:1 native:1 american:1 mouse:1 islamic:1 faith:1 bolt:1 scythian:1 axe:1 apple:1 bough:1 christian:1 iconography:1 see:1 worship:1 pyromania:1 pyrokinesis:1 note:1 far:1 reading:1 frazer:1 sir:1 james:1 george:1 origin:1 london:1 macmillan:1 external:1 version:1 overview:1 section:1 buddhism:1 |@bigram torch_bearer:1 pre_socratics:1 empedocles_acragas:1 dialogue_platonic:1 platonic_solid:1 equilateral_triangle:1 plato_timaeus:1 arrange_concentrically:1 yellow_bile:3 alchemical_symbol:1 vedic_deity:1 golden_dawn:5 israel_regardie:1 regardie_golden:4 kraig_modern:2 wicca_wiccan:1 lightning_bolt:1 external_link:1 |
3,771 | Elliptic_curve_cryptography | Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is an approach to public-key cryptography based on the algebraic structure of elliptic curves over finite fields. The use of elliptic curves in cryptography was suggested independently by Neal Koblitz N. Koblitz, Elliptic curve cryptosystems, in Mathematics of Computation 48, 1987, pp. 203–209 and Victor S. Miller V. Miller, Use of elliptic curves in cryptography, CRYPTO 85, 1985. in 1985. Elliptic curves are also used in several integer factorization algorithms that have applications in cryptography, such as Lenstra elliptic curve factorization, but this use of elliptic curves is not usually referred to as "elliptic curve cryptography", being rather a cryptanalysis tool for factorisation-based public key cryptosystems. Introduction Public-key cryptography is based on the intractability of certain mathematical problems. Early public key systems, such as the RSA algorithm, used the product of two large prime numbers as the puzzle: a user picks two large random primes as his private key, and publishes their product as his public key. While finding large primes and multiplying them together is computationally easy, reversing the process is thought to be hard. It is generally recommended that RSA public keys be 1024 bits in length to render integer factoring algorithms infeasible. FIPS 186-3, November, 2008, draft For elliptic curves, the problem assumed to be intractable is finding the discrete logarithm of an element. Given P and Q find a such that aP=Q. The size of the elliptic curve determines the difficulty of the problem. It is believed that a smaller group can be used to obtain the same level of security as RSA-based systems. Using a small group reduces bandwidth. An elliptic curve is a plane curve which is isomorphic to a curve defined by an equation of the form provided the field one is working over does not have characteristic 2 or 3. (See: elliptic curve) The set of points on such a curve — all solutions of the above equation together with a point at infinity — form an Abelian group, with the point at infinity as identity element. If the coordinates x and y are chosen from a finite field, the solutions form a finite abelian group. If the finite field is large, the discrete logarithm problem on such elliptic curve groups is believed to be more difficult than the corresponding problem in the underlying finite field's multiplicative group. Thus keys in elliptic curve cryptography can be chosen to be much shorter for a comparable level of security compared to integer-based methods. (See: cryptographic key length) As for other popular public key cryptosystems, no mathematical proof of difficulty has been published for ECC . However, the U.S. National Security Agency has endorsed ECC technology by including it in its Suite B set of recommended algorithms and allows their use for protecting information classified up to top secret with 384-bit keys. http://www.nsa.gov/ia/programs/suiteb_cryptography/index.shtml Fact Sheet NSA Suite B Cryptography, U.S. National Security Agency Although the RSA patent has expired, there are patents in force covering certain aspects of ECC implementation, though some argue that a practical ECC key exchange system can be implemented without infringing them. D.J. Bernstein, Irrelevant patents on elliptic-curve cryptography Mathematical introduction Elliptic curves used in cryptography are typically defined over two types of finite fields: fields of odd characteristic (, where is a large prime number) and fields of characteristic two (). When the distinction is not important we denote both of them as , where or . In the elements are integers () which are combined using modular arithmetic. The case of is slightly more complicated (see finite field arithmetic for details): one obtains different representations of the field elements as bitstrings for each choice of irreducible binary polynomial of degree . The set of all pairs of affine coordinates for form the affine plane . An elliptic curve is the locus of points in the affine plane whose coordinates satisfy a certain cubic equation together with a point at infinity (the point at which the locus in the projective plane intersects the line at infinity). In the case of characteristic p > 3 the defining equation of can be written: where and are constants such that . In the binary case the defining equation of can be written: where and are constants and . Although the point at infinity has no affine coordinates, it is convenient to represent it using a pair of coordinates which do not satisfy the defining equation, for example, if and otherwise. According to Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves the number of points on a curve is close to the size of the underlying field; more precisely: . There are also algorithms for counting points on elliptic curves. The points on an elliptic curve form an Abelian group with , the distinguished point at infinity, playing the role of additive identity. In other words, given two points , there is a third point, denoted by on , and the following relations hold for all (commutativity) (associativity) (existence of an identity element) there exists such that (existence of inverses) We already specified how is defined. If we define the negative of a point to be for and for , we can define the addition operation as follows: if then if then if then , where in the prime case , , and , or in the binary case , , and (Geometrically, is the inverse of the third point of intersection of the cubic with the line through and .) if then , where in the prime case , , and , or in the binary case , , and (Geometrically, is the inverse of the second point of intersection of the cubic with its tangent line at .) Certicom's Online ECC Tutorial contains a Java applet that can be used to experiment with addition in different EC groups. We already described the underlying field and the group of points of elliptic curve but there is yet another mathematical structure commonly used in cryptography — a cyclic subgroup of . For any point the set is a cyclic group. It is convenient to use the following notation: , , , , etc. The calculation of , where is an integer and is a point, is called scalar multiplication. Cryptographic schemes Since the (additive) cyclic group described above can be considered similar to the (multiplicative) group of powers of an integer modulo prime : , the problem of finding given points and is called the elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem (ECDLP). The assumed hardness of several problems related to the discrete logarithm in the subgroup of allows cryptographic use of elliptic curves. Most of the elliptic curve cryptographic schemes are related to the discrete logarithm schemes which were originally formulated for usual modular arithmetic: the Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman key agreement scheme is based on the Diffie-Hellman scheme, the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm is based on the Digital Signature Algorithm, the ECMQV key agreement scheme is based on the MQV key agreement scheme. Not all the DLP schemes should be ported to the elliptic curve domain. For example, the well known ElGamal encryption scheme was never standardized by official bodies and should not be directly used over an elliptic curve (the standard encryption scheme for ECC is called Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption Scheme). The main reason is that although it is straightforward to convert an arbitrary message (of limited length) to an integer modulo , it is not that simple to convert a bitstring to a point of a curve (it is not true that for every there is a such that ). (Another factor is that ElGamal scheme is vulnerable to chosen-ciphertext attacks.) Some believe that ECDLP-based cryptography is going to replace cryptography based on integer factorization (e.g., RSA) and finite-field cryptography (e.g., DSA). At the RSA Conference 2005, the National Security Agency (NSA) announced Suite B which exclusively uses ECC for digital signature generation and key exchange. The suite is intended to protect both classified and unclassified national security systems and information. The Case for Elliptic Curve Cryptography, NSA Recently, a large number of cryptographic primitives based on bilinear mappings on various elliptic curve groups (such as the Weil and Tate, eta and ate pairings) have been introduced. Schemes based on these primitives provide efficient identity-based encryption as well as pairing-based signatures, signcryption, key agreement, and proxy re-encryption (see The Pairing-Based Crypto Lounge as well as P1363.3). Implementation considerations Although the details of each particular elliptic curve scheme are described in the article referenced above some common implementation considerations are discussed here. Domain parameters To use ECC all parties must agree on all the elements defining the elliptic curve, that is domain parameters of the scheme. The field is defined by in the prime case and the pair of and in the binary case. The elliptic curve is defined by the constants and used in its defining equation. Finally, the cyclic subgroup is defined by its generator (aka. base point) . For cryptographic application the order of , that is the smallest non-negative number such that , must be prime. Since is the size of a subgroup of it follows from the Lagrange's theorem that the number is integer. In cryptographic applications this number , called cofactor, at least must be small () and, preferably, . Let us summarize: in the prime case the domain parameters are and in the binary case they are . Unless there is an assurance that domain parameters were generated by a party trusted with respect to their use, the domain parameters must be validated before use. The generation of domain parameters is not usually done by each participant since this involves counting the number of points on a curve which is time-consuming and troublesome to implement. As a result several standard bodies published domain parameters of elliptic curves for several common field sizes: NIST, Recommended Elliptic Curves for Government Use SECG, SEC 2: Recommended Elliptic Curve Domain Parameters Test vectors are also available . If one (despite the said above) wants to build his own domain parameters he should select the underlying field and then use one of the following strategies to find a curve with appropriate (i.e., near prime) number of points using one of the following methods: select a random curve and use a general point-counting algorithm, for example, Schoof's algorithm or Schoof-Elkies-Atkin algorithm, select a random curve from a family which allows easy calculation of the number of points (e.g., Koblitz curves), or select the number of points and generate a curve with this number of points using complex multiplication technique. G. Lay and H. Zimmer, Constructing elliptic curves with given group order over large finite fields, Algorithmic Number Theory Symposium, 1994. Several classes of curves are weak and shall be avoided: curves over with non-prime are vulnerable to Weil descent attacks. S.D. Galbraith and N.P. Smart, A cryptographic application of the Weil descent, Cryptography and Coding, 1999. P. Gaudry, F. Hess, and N.P. Smart, Constructive and destructive facets of Weil descent on elliptic curves, Hewlett Packard Laboratories Technical Report, 2000. curves such that divides (where is the characteristic of the field – for a prime field, or for a binary field) for sufficiently small are vulnerable to MOV attack A. Menezes, T. Okamoto, and S.A. Vanstone, Reducing elliptic curve logarithms to logarithms in a finite field, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, Volume 39, 1993. L. Hitt, On an Improved Definition of Embedding Degree, IACR ePrint report 2006/415. which applies usual DLP in a small degree extension field of to solve ECDLP. The bound should be chosen so that discrete logarithms in the field are at least as difficult to compute as discrete logs on the elliptic curve . IEEE P1363, section A.12.1 curves such that are vulnerable to the attack that maps the points on the curve to the additive group of I. Semaev, Evaluation of discrete logarithm in a group of P-torsion points of an elliptic curve in characteristic P, Mathematics of Computation, number 67, 1998. N. Smart, The discrete logarithm problem on elliptic curves of trace one, Journal of Cryptology, Volume 12, 1999. T. Satoh and K. Araki, Fermat quotients and the polynomial time discrete log algorithm for anomalous elliptic curves, Commentarii Mathematici Universitatis Sancti Pauli, Volume 47, 1998. Key sizes Since all the fastest known algorithms that allow to solve the ECDLP (baby-step giant-step, Pollard's rho, etc.), need steps, it follows that the size of the underlying field shall be roughly twice the security parameter. For example, for 128-bit security one needs a curve over , where . This can be contrasted with finite-field cryptography (e.g., DSA) which requires NIST, Recommendation for Key Management — Part 1: general, Special Publication 800-57, August 2005. 3072-bit public keys and 256-bit private keys, and integer factorization cryptography (e.g., RSA) which requires 3072-bit public and private keys. The hardest ECC scheme (publicly) broken to date had a 109-bit key (that is about 55 bits of security). For the prime field case, it was broken near the beginning of 2003 using over 10,000 Pentium class PCs running continuously for over 540 days (see ). For the binary field case, it was broken in April 2004 using 2600 computers for 17 months (see ). Projective coordinates A close examination of the addition rules shows that in order to add two points one needs not only several additions and multiplications in but also an inversion operation. The inversion (for given find such that ) is one to two orders of magnitude slower Y. Hitchcock, E. Dawson, A. Clark, and P. Montague, Implementing an efficient elliptic curve cryptosystem over GF(p) on a smart card, 2002. than multiplication. Fortunately, points on a curve can be represented in different coordinate systems which do not require an inversion operation to add two points. Several such systems were proposed: in the projective system each point is represented by three coordinates using the following relation: , ; in the Jacobian system a point is also represented with three coordinates , but a different relation is used: , ; in the López-Dahab system the relation is , ; in the modified Jacobian system the same relations are used but four coordinates are stored and used for calculations ; and in the Chudnovsky Jacobian system five coordinates are used . Note that there may be different naming conventions, for example, IEEE P1363-2000 standard uses "projective coordinates" to refer to what is commonly called Jacobian coordinates. An additional speed-up is possible if mixed coordinates are used. H. Cohen, A. Miyaji, T. Ono, Efficient Elliptic Curve Exponentiation Using Mixed Coordinates, ASIACRYPT 1998. Fast reduction (NIST curves) Reduction modulo (which is needed for addition and multiplication) can be executed much faster if the prime is a pseudo-Mersenne prime that is , for example, or . Compared to Barrett reduction there can be an order of magnitude speed-up. M. Brown, D. Hankerson, J. Lopez, and A. Menezes, Software Implementation of the NIST Elliptic Curves Over Prime Fields. The curves over with pseudo-Mersenne are recommended by NIST. Yet another advantage of the NIST curves is the fact that they use which improves addition in Jacobian coordinates. The speedup here is a practical rather than theoretical one, and derives from the fact that the moduli of numbers against numbers near powers of two can be performed efficiently by computers operating on binary numbers with bitwise operations. NIST-recommended elliptic curves NIST recommends fifteen elliptic curves. Specifically, FIPS 186-2 has ten recommended finite fields. There are five prime fields for , , , and . For each of the prime fields one elliptic curve is recommended. There are five binary fields for , , , , and . For each of the binary fields one elliptic curve and one Koblitz curve was selected. Thus five prime curves and ten binary curves. The curves were chosen for optimal security and implementation efficiency. FIPS PUB 186-2, Digital Signature Standard (DSS). Side-channel attacks Unlike DLP systems (where it is possible to use the same procedure for squaring and multiplication) the EC addition is significantly different for doubling () and general addition () depending on the coordinate system used. Consequently, it is important to counteract side channel attacks (e.g., timing and simple power analysis attacks) using, for example, fixed pattern window (aka. comb) methods M. Hedabou, P. Pinel, and L. Beneteau, A comb method to render ECC resistant against Side Channel Attacks, 2004. (note that this does not increase the computation time). Patents At least one ECC scheme (ECMQV) and some implementation techniques are covered by patents. Uncertainty about the availability of unencumbered ECC has limited the acceptance of ECC. Implementations Open source OpenSSL: Open source library written in C with ECC library Crypto++ : Open source library written in C++ with ECC NSS: Open source crypto libraries with ECC seccure: minimal footprint GPLed ECC tool with public key encryption and digital signatures SKS: very small open source tool for ECC (like a simplified PGP) eccGnuPG: An experimental patch to GnuPG Curve25519: A state-of-the-art Diffie-Hellman function by Dan Bernstein TinyECC: a software package providing ECC operations on TinyOS libecc: Open source ECC library Bouncy Castle: Open source crypto package for Java and C# that includes ECC Proprietary/commercial MIRACL: Multiprecision Integer and Rational Arithmetic C/C++ Library CNG API in Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 with managed wrappers for CNG in .NET Framework 3.5 Sun Java System Web Server 7.0 and later Java SE 6 Java Card Security Builder Crypto See also Public-key cryptography ECDSA ECDH ECMQV DNSCurve Notes References Standards for Efficient Cryptography Group (SECG), SEC 1: Elliptic Curve Cryptography, Version 1.0, September 20, 2000. D. Hankerson, A. Menezes, and S.A. Vanstone, Guide to Elliptic Curve Cryptography, Springer-Verlag, 2004. I. Blake, G. Seroussi, and N. Smart, Elliptic Curves in Cryptography, London Mathematical Society 265, Cambridge University Press, 1999. I. Blake, G. Seroussi, and N. Smart, editors, Advances in Elliptic Curve Cryptography, London Mathematical Society 317, Cambridge University Press, 2005. L. Washington, Elliptic Curves: Number Theory and Cryptography, Chapman & Hall / CRC, 2003. Anoop MS, Elliptic Curve Cryptography -- An Implementation Tutorial, Tata Elxsi, India, January 5, 2007. The Case for Elliptic Curve Cryptography, National Security Agency Online Elliptic Curve Cryptography Tutorial, Certicom Corp. K. Malhotra, S. Gardner, and R. Patz, Implementation of Elliptic-Curve Cryptography on Mobile Healthcare Devices, Networking, Sensing and Control, 2007 IEEE International Conference on, London, 15-17 April 2007 Page(s):239 - 244 External links Interactive introduction to elliptic curves and ECC Certicom ECC Tutorial | Elliptic_curve_cryptography |@lemmatized elliptic:62 curve:87 cryptography:30 ecc:24 approach:1 public:11 key:25 base:16 algebraic:1 structure:2 finite:12 field:33 use:40 suggest:1 independently:1 neal:1 koblitz:4 n:7 cryptosystems:3 mathematics:2 computation:3 pp:1 victor:1 miller:2 v:1 crypto:6 also:6 several:7 integer:11 factorization:4 algorithm:10 application:4 lenstra:1 usually:2 refer:2 rather:2 cryptanalysis:1 tool:3 factorisation:1 introduction:3 intractability:1 certain:3 mathematical:6 problem:9 early:1 system:14 rsa:7 product:2 two:9 large:7 prime:20 number:18 puzzle:1 user:1 pick:1 random:3 private:3 publishes:1 find:6 multiply:1 together:3 computationally:1 easy:2 reverse:1 process:1 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3,772 | Arabic_language | Arabic ( ; less formally: ) is a Central Semitic language, thus related to and classified alongside other Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Syriac. In terms of speakers, Arabic is the largest member of the Semitic language family. It is spoken by more than 280 million people as a first language and by 250 million Ethnologue (1999) more as a second language. Most native speakers live in the Middle East and North Africa. Different spoken varieties of Arabic exist and differ according to region. Not all of the varieties are mutually intelligible and speakers may use a sort of medial language with features common to most Arabic varieties to communicate with speakers of mutually unintelligible varieties. Standard Arabic is widely taught in schools, universities, and used in the office and the media. Modern Standard Arabic derives from Classical Arabic, the only surviving member of the Old North Arabian dialect group, attested in Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions dating back to the 4th century. Versteegh, 1997, p. 33. Classical Arabic has also been a literary language and the liturgical language of Islam since its inception in the 7th century. Arabic has lent many words to other languages of the Islamic world. During the Middle Ages, Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed numerous words from it. Arabic influence is seen in Mediterranean languages, particularly Spanish, Portuguese, Maltese, and Sicilian, due to both the proximity of European and Arab civilization and 700 years of Arab rule in the Iberian peninsula (see Al-Andalus). Arabic has also borrowed words from many languages, including Hebrew, Persian and Syriac in early centuries, and contemporary European languages in modern times. Classical and Modern Standard Arabic The term "Arabic" may refer to either literary/standard Arabic ( ) or the many localized spoken varieties of Arabic commonly called "colloquial Arabic". Arabs consider literary Arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as dialects. The only variety, through its descent from Siculo-Arabic, to have acquired official language status is Maltese, spoken in (predominately Catholic) Malta and written with the Latin alphabet. Standard Arabic ( "the most eloquent Arabic language"), refers both to the language of present-day media across North Africa and the Middle East, the language of the Qur'an, as well as practically all written matter. To be accurate, there only is one Arabic which termed al-fuṣḥā, all other forms are simply dialects and are labeled as non-Arabic Tongue. Historically, Classical Arabic (especially from the pre-Islamic to the Abbasid period, including Qur'anic Arabic) can be distinguished from Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) as used today. Classical Arabic is considered normative; modern authors attempt to follow the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by Classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh), and use the vocabulary defined in Classical dictionaries (such as the Lisān al-Arab). "Colloquial" or "dialectal" Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties originally derived from Classical Arabic, which constitutes the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many different regional variants. These sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible. The dialects are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia, which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic. When speaking with someone from the same country, many speakers switch back and forth between the two varieties of the language (code switching), sometimes even within the same sentence. When educated Arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), both may switch into Literary Arabic for the sake of communication. However, the most common method of communication is for both to speak in their respective dialects, provided they can understand each other. Arabic speakers often improve their familiarity with other dialects via music or film. Lastly, in certain circumstances, educated Arabic speakers of sharply different dialects may resort to the use of English or French to communicate, since knowledge of foreign languages is a key part of education in most of the Arab world. Like other languages, literary Arabic continues to evolve. Many modern terms have entered into common usage; in some cases taken from other languages (for example, فيلم film) or coined from existing lexical resources (for example, هاتف hātif "telephone" = "caller"). Structural influence from foreign languages or from the colloquial varieties has also affected Modern Standard Arabic. For example, MSA texts sometimes use the format "A, B, C, and D" when listing things, whereas Classical Arabic prefers "A and B and C and D", and subject-initial sentences are more common in MSA than in Classical Arabic. For these reasons, Modern Standard Arabic is generally treated separately in non-Arab sources. Influence of Arabic on other languages The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries. Arabic is a major source of vocabulary for languages such as Spanish, Sindhi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Portuguese, Berber, Kurdish, Pashto, Persian, Swahili, Urdu, Hindustani (especially the spoken variety), Turkish, Malay, Rohingya, Bengali, Tagalog, and Indonesian, as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken. For example, the Arabic word for book (/kitāb/) has been borrowed in all the languages listed, with the exception of Spanish and Portuguese which use the Latin-derived words "libro" and "livro", respectively, and Tagalog which uses "aklat". In addition, English has quite a few Arabic loan words, and, some directly but most through the medium of other Mediterranean languages. Other languages such as Maltese Maltese language - Britannica Online Encyclopedia and Kinubi derive from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammar rules. The terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber "prayer" < salat), academic terms (like Uyghur mentiq "logic"), economic items (like English sugar) to placeholders (like Spanish fulano "so-and-so") and everyday conjunctions (like Hindustani lekin "but", or Spanish hasta "until"). Most Berber varieties (such as Kabyle), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as salat 'prayer' and imam 'prayer leader.' In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Hindustani entered through Persian, and many older Arabic loanwords in Hausa were borrowed from Kanuri. Some words in English and other European languages are derived from Arabic, often through other European languages, especially Spanish and Italian. Among them are commonly-used words like "sugar" (sukkar), "cotton" () and "magazine" (). English words more recognizably of Arabic origin include "algebra", "alcohol", "alchemy", "alkali", "zenith" and "nadir". Some words in common use, such as "intention" and "information", were originally calques of Arabic philosophical terms. Arabic words also made their way into several West African languages as Islam spread across the Sahara. Variants of Arabic words such as kitaab (book) have spread to the languages of African groups who had no direct contact with Arab traders. Arabic was also influenced by other languages including Persian. Arabic and Islam Arabic is the language of the Qur'an. Arabic is often associated with Islam, but it is also spoken by Arab Christians, Arab Druze, Mizrahi Jews and Iraqi Mandaeans. Most of the world's Muslims do not speak Arabic as their native language but can read the script and recite the words of religious texts. Some Muslim speakers of Arabic consider their language to be "the language chosen by God to speak to mankind." History The earliest surviving texts in Proto-Arabic, or Ancient North Arabian, are the Hasaean inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, from the 8th century BC, written not in the modern Arabic alphabet, nor in its Nabataean ancestor, but in variants of the epigraphic South Arabian musnad. These are followed by 6th-century BC Lihyanite texts from southeastern Saudi Arabia and the Thamudic texts found throughout Arabia and the Sinai, and not actually connected with Thamud. Later come the Safaitic inscriptions beginning in the 1st century BC, and the many Arabic personal names attested in Nabataean inscriptions (which are, however, written in Aramaic). From about the 2nd century BC, a few inscriptions from Qaryat al-Faw (near Sulayyil) reveal a dialect which is no longer considered "Proto-Arabic", but Pre-Classical Arabic. By the fourth century AD, the Arab kingdoms of the Lakhmids in southern Iraq, the Ghassanids in southern Syria the Kindite Kingdom emerged in Central Arabia. Their courts were responsible for some notable examples of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, and for some of the few surviving pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions in the Arabic alphabet. A History of the Arabic Language Dialects and descendants "Colloquial Arabic" is a collective term for the spoken varieties of Arabic used throughout the Arab world, which differ radically from the literary language. The main dialectal division is between the North African dialects and those of the Middle East, followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative Bedouin dialects. Speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of Arabic. In particular, while Middle Easterners can generally understand one another, they often have trouble understanding North Africans (although the converse is not true, in part due to the popularity of Middle Eastern—especially Egyptian—films and other media). One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words, and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among Romance languages, retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi aku, Levantine fīh, and North African kayən all mean "there is", and all come from classical Arabic forms (yakūn, fīhi, kā'in respectively), but now sound very different. The major dialect groups are: Egyptian Arabic, spoken by around 76 million in Egypt. It is one of the most understood varieties of Arabic. Closely related varieties are also spoken in Sudan. Gulf Arabic, spoken by around 34 million people in Arab states of the Persian Gulf and eastern Saudi Arabia. Iraqi Arabic, spoken by about 29 million people in Iraq. With significant differences between the Arabian-like dialects of the south and the more conservative dialects of the north. Closely related varieties are also spoken in Iran, Syria, and Turkey. Levantine Arabic, includes North Levantine Arabic, South Levantine Arabic, and Cypriot Arabic, and is spoken by almost 35 million people in Israel, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Cyprus, and Turkey. It's also called Mediterranean Arabic. Maghrebi Arabic, heavily influenced by Berber in pronunciation, and includes Moroccan Arabic, Algerian Arabic, Algerian Saharan Arabic, Tunisian Arabic, and Libyan Arabic, and is spoken by around 45 million North Africans in Morocco, Western Sahara, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Niger, and western Egypt; it is mostly difficult for speakers of Near Eastern Arabic varieties to understand. The Berber influence in these dialects varies in degree. Robert B. Kaplan, Richard B. Baldauf, Language Planning and Policy in Africa, (Multilingual Matters: 2007), p.48Mary Catherine Bateson, Arabic Language Handbook, (Georgetown University Press, 2003), pp. 96-103.Berber: Linguistic "Substratum" of North African Arabic by By Professor Ernest N. McCarus Other varieties include: Andalusi Arabic, spoken in Spain until 17th century, now extinct. Bahrani Arabic, spoken by Bahrani Shia in Bahrain, where it exhibits some differences from Bahraini Arabic. It is also spoken to a lesser extent in Oman. Central Asian Arabic, spoken in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan, is highly endangered Hassaniya Arabic, spoken in Mauritania, some parts of Mali and Western Sahara Hejazi Arabic, spoken in Hejaz, western Saudi Arabia Judeo-Arabic dialects Maltese, spoken on the Mediterranean island of Malta, is the only one to have established itself as a fully separate language, with independent literary norms. In the course of its history the language has adopted numerous loanwords, phonetic and phonological features, and even some grammatical patterns, from Italian, Sicilian, and English. It is also the only Semitic tongue written in the Latin alphabet. Najdi Arabic, spoken in Nejd, central Saudi Arabia Shuwa Arabic, spoken in Chad, Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria, and Sudan Siculo Arabic, spoken on Sicily, South Italy until 14th century, developed into Maltese MED Magazine Sudanese Arabic, spoken in Sudan Yemeni Arabic, spoken in Yemen, southern Saudi Arabia, Djibouti, and Somalia Sounds The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Standard Arabic. There are minor variations from country to country. Additionally, these dialects can vary from region to region within a country. Vowels Arabic has three vowels, with long and short forms of , , and . There are also two diphthongs: and . Consonants + Standard Arabic consonant phonemes</CAPTION> Labial Inter-dental Dental/Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-geal3 Glottal plain emphatic plain emphatic Nasal م ن Stop voiceless <font style="text-decoration: none">ء voiced 1 Fricative voiceless ف ث ش 4 voiced ذ ظ ز غ 4ع Approximant ل 2 ي و Trill ر See Arabic alphabet for explanations on the IPA phonetic symbols found in this chart. is pronounced as by some speakers. This is especially characteristic of the Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects. In many parts of North Africa and in the Levant, it is pronounced as . is pronounced only in , the name of God, q.e. Allah, when the word follows a, ā, u or ū (after i or ī it is unvelarized: bismi l-lāh ). In many varieties, are actually epiglottal (despite what is reported in many earlier works). and are often post-velar though velar and uvular pronunciations are also possible. Arabic has consonants traditionally termed "emphatic" exhibit simultaneous pharyngealization as well as varying degrees of velarization . This simultaneous articulation is described as "Retracted Tongue Root" by phonologists. e.g. In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter, for example, is written ‹D›; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it, for example, ‹›. Vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark shaddah, which indicates doubled consonants. In actual pronunciation, doubled consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: qabala "he accepted" vs. qabbala "he kissed." Syllable structure Arabic has two kinds of syllables: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) - and closed syllables (CVC). Every syllable begins with a consonant. Syllables cannot begin with a vowel. Arabic phonology recognizes the glottal stop as an independent consonant, so in cases where a word begins with a vowel sound, as the definite article "al", for example, the word is recognized in Arabic as beginning with the consonant (glottal stop). When a word ends in a vowel and the following word begins with a glottal stop, then the glottal stop and the initial vowel of the word are in some cases elided, and the following consonant closes the final syllable of the preceding word, for example, baytu al-mudi:r "house (of) the director," which becomes . Stress Although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic, it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length. The basic rules are: Only one of the last three syllables may be stressed. Given this restriction, the last "superheavy" syllable (containing a long vowel or ending in a consonant) is stressed. If there is no such syllable, the pre-final syllable is stressed if it is 'heavy.' Otherwise, the first allowable syllable is stressed. In Standard Arabic, a final long vowel may not be stressed. (This restriction does not apply to the spoken dialects, where original final long vowels have been shortened and secondary final long vowels have arisen.) For example: ki-TAA-bun "book", KAA-ti-bun "writer", MAK-ta-bun "desk", ma-KAA-ti-bun "desks", mak-TA-ba-tun "library", KA-ta-buu (MSA) "they wrote" = KA-ta-bu (dialect), ka-ta-BUU-hu (MSA) "they wrote it" = ka-ta-BUU (dialect), ka-TA-ba-taa (MSA) "they (dual, fem) wrote", ka-TAB-tu (MSA) "I wrote" = ka-TABT (dialect). Doubled consonants count as two consonants: ma-JAL-la "magazine", ma-HALL "place". Some dialects have different stress rules. In the Cairo (Egyptian Arabic) dialect, for example, a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, hence mad-RA-sa "school", qaa-HI-ra "Cairo". In the Arabic of Sana, stress is often retracted: BAY-tayn "two houses", MAA-sat-hum "their table", ma-KAA-tiib "desks", ZAA-rat-hiin "sometimes", mad-RA-sat-hum "their school". (In this dialect, only syllables with long vowels or diphthongs are considered heavy; in a two-syllable word, the final syllable can be stressed only if the preceding syllable is light; and in longer words, the final syllable cannot be stressed.) Dialectal variations In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, non-Arabic is used in the Maghrebi dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names. Semitic became extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by Persian and Turkish) distinguish between and . Interdental fricatives ( and ) are rendered as stops and in some dialects (such as Egyptian, Levantine, and much of the Maghreb); some of these dialects render them as and in "learned" words from the Standard language. Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes and coallesced into a single phoneme, becoming one or the other. Predictably, dialects without interdental fricatives use exclusively, while dialects with such fricatives use . Again, in "learned" words from the Standard language, is rendered as (in Egypt & the Levant) or (in North Africa) in dialects without interdental fricatives. Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular stops , (Proto-Semitic ), and : ق retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen, Morocco, and urban areas of the Maghreb. It is pronounced as a glottal stop in several prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. But it is rendered as a voiced velar stop in Gulf Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Upper Egypt, much of the Maghreb, and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan). Some traditionally Christian villages in rural areas of the Levant render the sound as , as do Shia Bahrainis. In some Gulf dialects, it is palatalized to or . It is pronounced as a voiced uvular constrictive in Sudanese Arabic. Many dialects with a modified pronunciation for maintain the pronunciation in certain words (often with religious or educational overtones) borrowed from the Classical language. ج retains its pronunciation in Iraq and much of the Arabian Peninsula, but is pronounced in most of North Egypt and parts of Yemen, in Morocco and the Levant, and in some words in much of Gulf Arabic. ك usually retains its original pronunciation, but is palatalized to in many words in Palestine, Iraq and much of the Arabian Peninsula. Often a distinction is made between the suffixes (you, masc.) and (you, fem.), which become and , respectively. In Sana Arabic, is pronounced . Grammar Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, and genitive [also used when the noun is governed by a preposition]); three numbers (singular, dual and plural); two genders (masculine and feminine); and three "states" (indefinite, definite, and construct). The cases of singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) are indicated by suffixed short vowels (/-u/ for nominative, /-a/ for accusative, /-i/ for genitive). The feminine singular is often marked by /-at/, which is reduced to /-ah/ or /-a/ before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the sound plural) or internal modification (the broken plural). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in "construct state" and all nouns which are prefixed by the definite article /al-/. Indefinite singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) add a final /-n/ to the case-marking vowels, giving /-un/, /-an/ or /-in/ (which is also referred to as nunation or tanwīn). Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are conjugated in two major paradigms (termed perfective and imperfective, or past and non-past); two voices (active and passive); and five moods in the imperfective (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, jussive and energetic). There are also two participles (active and passive) and a verbal noun, but no infinitive. As indicated by the differing terms for the two tense systems, there is some disagreement over whether the distinction between the two systems should be most accurately characterized as tense, aspect or a combination of the two. The perfective aspect is constructed using fused suffixes that combine person, number and gender in a single morpheme, while the imperfective aspect is constructed using a combination of prefixes (primarily encoding person) and suffixes (primarily encoding gender and number). The moods other than imperative are primarily marked by suffixes (/u/ for indicative, /a/ for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, /an/ for energetic). The imperative has the endings of the jussive but lacks any prefixes. The passive is marked through internal vowel changes. Plural forms for the verb are only used when the subject is not mentioned, or is preceding it, and the feminine singular is used for all non-human plurals. Adjectives in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. However, the plural of all non-human nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective, which takes the /-ah/ or /-at/ suffix. Pronouns in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and enclitics. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs (/-ni/) and for nouns or prepositions (/-ī/ after consonants, /-ya/ after vowels). Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. However, non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. Furthermore, a verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show "chiasmic" agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice versa. The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite "nunation" and the internal passive. Modern Standard Arabic maintains the grammatical distinctions of Literary Arabic except that the energetic mood is almost never used; in addition, Modern Standard Arabic sometimes drop the final short vowels that indicate case and mood. As in many other Semitic languages, Arabic verb formation is based on a (usually) triconsonantal root, which is not a word in itself but contains the semantic core. The consonants , for example, indicate write, indicate read, indicate eat, etc. Words are formed by supplying the root with a vowel structure and with affixes. (Traditionally, Arabic grammarians have used the root , do, as a template to discuss word formation.) From any particular root, up to fifteen different verbs can be formed, each with its own template; these are referred to by Western scholars as "form I", "form II", and so on through "form XV". These forms, and their associated participles and verbal nouns, are the primary means of forming vocabulary in Arabic. Forms XI to XV are incidental. Writing system The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic script (through Syriac and then Nabatean), to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of Coptic or Cyrillic script to Greek script. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern version of the alphabet—in particular, the fa and qaf had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools (zaouias) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other Semitic languages (except for the Latin-written Maltese, and the languages with the Ge'ez script), is written from right to left. There are several styles of script, notably Naskh which is used in print and by computers, and Ruq'ah which is commonly used in handwriting. Calligraphy After the definitive fixing of the Arabic script around 786, by Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Qur'an and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration. Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the Latin alphabet, Arabic script is used to write down a verse of the Qur'an, a Hadith, or simply a proverb, in a spectacular composition. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. One of the current masters of the genre is Hassan Massoudy. Transliteration There are a number of different standards of Arabic transliteration: methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the Latin alphabet. There are multiple conflicting motivations for transliteration. Scholarly systems are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic, generally supplying making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the Arabic alphabet. These systems are heavily reliant on diacritical marks such as "š" for sound equivalently written sh in English. In some cases, the sh or kh sounds can be represented by italicizing or underlining them that way, they can be distinguished from separate s and h sounds or k and h sounds, respectively. (Compare gashouse to gash.) At first sight, this may be difficult to recognize. Less scientific systems often use digraphs (like sh and kh), which are usually more simple to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems. Such systems may be intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists to intuitively pronounce Arabic names and phrases. An example of such a system is the Bahá'í orthography. A third type of transliteration seeks to represent an equivalent of the Arabic spelling with Latin letters, for use by Arabic speakers when Arabic writing is not available (for example, when using an ASCII communication device). An example is the system used by the US military, Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System or SATTS, which represents each Arabic letter with a unique symbol in the ASCII range to provide a one-to-one mapping from Arabic to ASCII and back. This system, while facilitating typing on English keyboards, presents its own ambiguities and disadvantages. During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the Arab world, such as personal computers, the World Wide Web, email, Bulletin board systems, IRC, instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the Latin alphabet only, and some of them still do not have the Arabic alphabet as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometimes known as IM Arabic. To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter "ع", ayn. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it Arabic Chat Alphabet. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter "د", or daal, may be represented by d. Its emphatic counterpart, "ض", may be written as D. Numerals In most of present-day North Africa, the Western Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are used. However in Egypt and Arabic-speaking countries to the east of it, the Eastern Arabic numerals () are in use. When representing a number in Arabic, the lowest-valued position is placed on the right, so the order of positions is the same as in left-to-right scripts. Sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right, but numbers are spoken in the traditional Arabic fashion, with units and tens reversed from the modern English usage. For example, 24 is said "four and twenty", and 1975 is said "one thousand and nine hundred and five and seventy." Language-standards regulators Academy of the Arabic Language is the name of a number of language-regulation bodies formed in Arab countries. The most active are in Damascus and Cairo. They review language development, monitor new words and approve inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. Studying Arabic Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study the language. Arabic has been taught in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools, worldwide. Universities around the world have classes teaching Arabic as part of their foreign languages, Middle Eastern studies, religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students in learning Arabic outside of the academic world. Many Arabic language schools are located in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Software and books with tapes are also important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education. Examples English Arabic Romanization IPA ALA-LC DINEnglish الإنكليزية al-inglīzīyah al-inglīzīyah Yes نعم na‘am naʿam No لا lā lā Welcome مرحباً marḥaban marḥaban Hello أهلاً ahlan ahlan Goodbye مع السلامة ma‘a as-salāmah maʿa as-salāmah Please أرجوك arjūk arǧūk Thank you شكرًا shukran šukran You're welcome عفوًا ‘afwan ʿafwan I'm sorry آسف āsif āsif What's your name? ما اسمك؟ mā ismuk? mā ismuk? How much? كم؟ kam? kam? I don't understand. لا أفهم lā afham lā afham I don't speak Arabic. لا أتكلم العربية lā atakallamu al-‘arabīyah lā atakallamu al-ʿarabīyah I don't know. لا أعرف lā a‘rif lā aʿrif I am hungry. أنا جائع anā jā’i‘un anā ǧāʾiʿun Orange برتقالي burtuqāli burtuqāli Black أسود aswad aswad One واحد wāḥid wāḥid Two اثنان ithnān iṯnān Three ثلاثة thalāthah ṯalāṯah Four أربعة arba‘ah arbaʿah Five خمسة khamsah ḫamsah See also Arabic alphabet Arabic calligraphy Arabic diglossia Arabic influence on Spanish Arabic literature Arabist Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic List of Arabic loanwords in English List of French words of Arabic origin List of greetings in various languages List of Islamic terms in Arabic List of Portuguese words of Arabic origin List of replaced loanwords in Turkish Literary Arabic Varieties of Arabic Notes References Edward William Lane, Arabic English Lexicon, 1893, 2003 reprint: ISBN 81-206-0107-6, 3064 pages (online edition). R. Traini, Vocabolario di arabo, I.P.O., Rome Hans Wehr, Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart: Arabisch-Deutsch, Harassowitz, 1952, 1985 reprint: ISBN 3-447-01998-0, 1452 pages; English translation: Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, Harassowitz, 1961. Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language, Edinburgh University Press (1997). Mumisa, Michael, Introducing Arabic, Goodword Books (2003). Haywood and Nahmad, A new Arabic grammar: London 1965, ISBN 0 85331 585 X Laura Veccia Vaglieri, Grammatica teorico-pratica della lingua araba, I.P.O., Rome. George Grigore, (2007). L'arabe parlé à Mardin. Monographie d'un parler arabe périphérique. Bucharest: Editura Universitatii din Bucuresti, ISBN (13) 978-973-737-249-9 External links Google Ta3reeb - Arabic Keyboard using English/Latin Characters Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon, an 8-volume, 3000-page dictionary available for download in PDF format. Arabic keyboard to type Arabic characters online. Learn Classical Arabic Online A review of Arabic language study books and methods Enhanced Ottoman Turkish/Arabic Keyboard by Isa SARI The New Arabic keyboard Layout for fast and easy typing. Arabic - a Category III language Languages which are exceptionally difficult for native English speakers Arabic grammar online Arabic Musi Learn Arabic By listening to Arabic Music Arabic language pronunciation applet with audio samples Arabic podcast by ArabicPod.net Arabic Pronunciation Guide Arabic words and phrases - Arabic useful words and phrases by Oman Pocket Guide with Audio Online Arabic transliteration pad The Development of Classical Arabic by Kees Versteegh The Expansion of the Arabic language video on YouTube Write and send Arabic emails Arabic language Free Arabic Course Online Dr. Habash's Introduction to Arabic Natural Language Processing The Arabic Language & the Qur'an be-x-old:Арабская мова | Arabic_language |@lemmatized arabic:229 less:3 formally:1 central:4 semitic:8 language:79 thus:2 relate:1 classify:1 alongside:1 hebrew:2 syriac:3 term:14 speaker:15 large:1 member:2 family:1 speak:33 million:8 people:4 first:5 ethnologue:1 second:2 native:3 live:2 middle:8 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3,773 | Transport_in_Cyprus | Because Cyprus has no working railway system, various other methods of transportation are needed to ensure the proper delivery of any cargo, be it human or freight. Since the last railway was dismantled in 1952, the only remaining modes of transport are by motorways, by sea, and by air. Roads Night view between Agios Athanasios junction and Mesa Geitonia junction in Limassol Of the 12,118 km of roads in the areas still controlled by the Republic of Cyprus in 2006, 7,850 km were paved, while 4,268 km were unpaved. In 1996, the Turkish Cypriot area showed a close, but smaller ratio of paved to unpaved with about 1,370 km out of 2,350 km paved and 980 km unpaved. Τμήμα Δημοσίων Έργων - Στατιστικά Στοιχεία - Συντήρηση Δρόμων 2006 A remnant of British occupation, Cyprus is one of the few EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left side of the road. Motorways A1 Nicosia to Limassol A2 connects A1 near Pera Chorio with A3 by Larnaca A3 Larnaca to Agia Napa A5 connects A1 near Kofinou with A3 by Larnaca A6 Pafos to Limassol A7 Pafos to Polis (final plans) A9 Nicosia to Astromeritis (partially under construction) A22 Dali industrial area to Anthoupolis, Lakatamia (Nicosia 3rd ring road, final plans) Licensed Vehicles Road transport is the dominant form of transport on the island. Figures released by the International Road Federation in 2007 show that Cyprus holds the highest car ownership rate in the world with 742 cars per 1,000 people. + Number of licensed vehicles Public Works Department official statistics. Vehicle Category 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Private vehicles 270,348 277,554 291,645 324,212 344,953 363.383 400.432 Taxis 1,641 1,559 1,696 1,770 1,845 1.780 1.856Rental cars8,0808,5099,1609,6528,3367.7828.648Buses3,0032,9973,2753,1993,2173.2213.292 Light trucks (lighter than 40 tonnes)107,060106,610107,527105,017105,327102.520 Heavy trucks (over 40 tonnes)10,88211,18212,11912,80813,02813.203 Motorcycles (2 wheels) 12,95614,98316,00916,80216,83617.511Motorcycles (3 wheels) 42414355558990Scooters 28,98725,25225,46424,53922,98721.858TOTAL442,999448,687466,938498,054517,087532.248591,962 Public transport in Cyprus is limited to privately run bus services (Except in Nicosia), taxis, and 'Shared' taxi services (locally referred to as service taxis). Thus, private car ownership in the country is the 5th highest per capita in the world. However in 2006 extensive plans were announced to expand and improve bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank Ports and harbours The ports of Cyprus are operated and maintained by the Cyprus Ports Authority. Major harbours of the island are Limassol harbour, and Larnaca harbour, which service cargo, passenger, and cruise ships. Limassol is the larger of the two, and handles a large volume of both cargo and cruise vessels. Larnaca is primarily a cargo port but played a big part in the evacuation of foreign nationals from Lebanon in 2006, and in the subsequent humanitarian aid effort. A smaller cargo dock also exists at Vasilikos, near Zygi (a small town between Larnaca and Limassol). Smaller vessels and private yachts can dock at Marinas in Cyprus. Larnaca Marina in Larnaca St Raphael Marina in Limassol Paphos harbour List of ports and harbours: Larnaca, Limassol, Paphos, Vasilikos. Merchant marine See full article on Cyprus Merchant Marine total: 1,414 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / ships by type: barge carrier 2, bulk carrier 442, cargo ship 495, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 40, combination ore/oil 8, container ship 144, Liquified Gas Carrier 6, passenger ship 8, petroleum tanker 142, refrigerated cargo 41, roll-on/roll-off 45, short-sea passenger 13, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.) Airports Larnaca Airport In 1999, Cyprus had 12 airports with paved runways. Of them, seven had runways of lengths between 2,438 and 3,047 metres, one had a length between 1,524 and 2,437 metres, three had lengths between 914 and 1524 metres, and one had a length less than 914 metres. Of the 3 airports with unpaved runways, 2 had lengths less than 914 metres and one had a length between 914 and 1524 metres. In 1999, Cyprus had six heliports and two international airports: Larnaca International Airport and Paphos International Airport. Nicosia International Airport has been closed since 1974. 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3,774 | David_Letterman | David Michael Letterman (born April 12, 1947) is an American television host, comedian, and co-owner of Rahal Letterman Racing. He is the host of the Late Show with David Letterman, a late-night talk show broadcast on CBS. Letterman's ironic, often absurd comedy is heavily influenced by former Tonight Show hosts Steve Allen, Johnny Carson, and Jack Paar. Letterman has been a fixture of United States late night television since his 1982 debut on Late Night with David Letterman; only Johnny Carson, one of Letterman's idols, has had a longer late-night hosting career. Letterman is also a television and film producer; his company Worldwide Pants produces his late-night show and the show that follows his on CBS, The Late Late Show With Craig Ferguson. Worldwide Pants has also produced several prime-time comedies, the most successful of which was Everybody Loves Raymond, currently in syndication. Early life and career David Michael Letterman was born in Indianapolis, Indiana. His father, Harry Joseph Letterman, was a florist who died in 1973; his mother Dorothy Letterman (née Hofert, now Dorothy Mengering), a Presbyterian church secretary of German descent, is an occasional figure on the show, usually at holidays and birthdays. He has an older sister Janice and a younger sister Gretchen. Letterman lived near the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and enjoyed collecting model cars, including racers. Gary Graves. "Letterman Gets Moment in Hot Seat." USA Today, May 23, 2005, p. 1C. In 2000 he would tell an interviewer for Esquire that while he was growing up he admired his father's ability to tell jokes and be the life of the party. Harry Joseph Letterman survived a heart attack when he was only 36 years old and Dave was just a young boy. The fear of losing his dad was constantly with Letterman as he grew up. Daveheart, a profile of Letterman by Bill Zehme from the May 2000 issue of Esquire Harry Joseph Letterman died of a second heart attack at age 57. Letterman attended his hometown's Broad Ripple High School. According to the Ball State Daily News, he originally had wanted to attend Indiana University, but his grades weren't good enough, so he decided to attend Ball State University, in Muncie, Indiana. Gail Koch. "After Two Decades, Letterman Wit Shows No Signs of Stopping." Ball State Daily News, February 23, 2002. He was a member of the Sigma Chi Fraternity, and he graduated from what was then called the Department of Radio and Television, in 1969. A self-described average student, Lettermen endowed a scholarship for what he called "C Students" at Ball State. http://www.finaid.org/scholarships/average.phtml Letterman began his broadcasting career as an announcer and newscaster at the college's student-run radio station, WBST, a 10-watt campus station that is today part of Indiana public radio. The Ball State University website Indiana Public Radio - About Us from the Indiana Public Radio website He was fired for treating classical music with irreverence. Letterman then became involved with the founding of another campus station, WAGO-AM 570 (now known as WCRD, 91.3). Letterman credits Paul Dixon, host of the Paul Dixon Show, a Cincinnati-based talk show also shown in Indianapolis while Letterman was growing up, for inspiring his choice of career: "I was just out of college [in 1969], and I really didn't know what I wanted to do. And then all the sudden I saw him doing it [on TV]. And I thought: That's really what I want to do!" Weatherman Letterman began his career as a radio talk show host on WXLW (AM), and on Indianapolis television station WLWI (now called WTHR) as a local anchor and weatherman. He received some recognition for his unpredictable on-air behavior, which included jokingly calling attention to state borders missing from the weather map, and predicting sizable hail stones "the size of canned hams." (Because this upset his bosses, to this day he occasionally still does also give out canned hams on his show). One night he reportedly upset his bosses when he congratulated a tropical storm for being upgraded to a hurricane. He also hosted a talk show which aired early on Saturday mornings called "Clover Power," in which he interviewed 4-H members about their projects. He would also occasionally report the day's very high and low temps for fictitious cities. In 1971, Letterman appeared as a pit road reporter for ABC's Wide World of Sports delayed same-day coverage of the Indianapolis 500. Move to Los Angeles In 1975, encouraged by his then-wife Michelle and several of his fraternity brothers, Letterman moved to Los Angeles, California, with hope of becoming a comedy writer. Gail Koch. "Letterman Evolved from Struggling Radio Host to Star." Ball State Daily News, February 1, 2002. He started off by writing material for the TV sitcom, Good Times. He also began performing stand-up comedy at The Comedy Store, a famed Los Angeles comedy club and proving ground for young comics. Letterman appeared in the summer of 1977 on the short-lived Starland Vocal Band Show. He has since joked about how fortunate he was that nobody would ever see his performance on the program (because of its low ratings). Letterman had a stint as a cast member on Mary Tyler Moore's variety show, Mary, a guest appearance on Mork & Mindy (as a parody of est leader Werner Erhard), and appearances on game shows such as The $20,000 Pyramid, The Gong Show, Password Plus and The Liar's Club. He also hosted a 1977 pilot for a game show entitled The Riddlers that was never picked up. His dry, sarcastic humor caught the attention of scouts for The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, and Letterman was soon a regular guest on the show. Letterman became a favorite of Carson's and was a regular guest host for the show beginning in 1978. Letterman personally credits Carson as the person who influenced his career the most. NBC Morning show In late June 1980, Letterman was given his own morning comedy show on NBC, The David Letterman Show. It was originally 90 minutes long, but was shortened to 60 minutes in August. Peter Kerr. "David Letterman's Off-Center Humor Finds a Home." New York Times, February 19, 1984, p. H27 The show was a critical success, winning two Emmy Awards, but was a ratings disappointment and was canceled in October 1980. Late Night with David Letterman NBC kept Letterman under contract to try him in a different time slot, after which Late Night with David Letterman debuted in 1982. Letterman's show, which ran weeknights at 12:30 a.m. Eastern Time, immediately following The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, quickly established a reputation as being edgy and unpredictable, and soon developed a cult following (particularly among college students). Letterman's reputation as an acerbic interviewer was borne out of moments such as his verbal sparring matches with Cher, Shirley MacLaine, Charles Grodin and Madonna. The show also featured inventive comedy segments and running characters, in a style heavily influenced by the 1950s and '60s programs of Steve Allen. Although Ernie Kovacs is often cited as an influence on the show, Letterman has denied this. The show often included quirky, genre-mocking regular features, including "Stupid Pet Tricks," dropping various objects off the roof of a five story building, demonstrations of unorthodox clothing (such as a Velcro suit and a suit of suet), a recurring Top 10 list, the Monkey-Cam (and the Audience Cam), and a facetious letter-answering segment. The Top 10 list, Stupid Human Tricks, Small Town News, and Stupid Pet Tricks (which had its origins on Letterman's morning show) all eventually moved with Letterman to CBS. Other memorable moments included Letterman once using a bullhorn to interrupt a live interview on The Today Show, announcing that he was the NBC president and not wearing any pants; interrupting Al Roker on the Live at Five local news by walking into their studio (which occupied the same floor of 30 Rockefeller Plaza as Letterman's studio); and staging "elevator races", complete with commentary by NBC Sports' Bob Costas. In one infamous appearance, Andy Kaufman (who was already wearing a neck brace) appeared to be slapped and knocked to the ground by professional wrestler Jerry Lawler (though Lawler and Kaufman's friend Bob Zmuda later revealed that the event was staged). Late Show with David Letterman The Ed Sullivan theater, where Late Show with David Letterman is recorded Letterman remained with NBC for eleven years, becoming very successful and enjoying high ratings in the 12:30 A.M. time slot. By the time Johnny Carson retired in 1992, Letterman expected to be considered for the host of The Tonight Show. He did not know that months earlier NBC had signed Jay Leno (then the regular "Tonight" substitute host) to a contract guaranteeing him as the next permanent host. Feeling scorned by NBC, in 1993 Letterman departed the network to host his own late-night show opposite Tonight on CBS at 11:30 p.m., called the Late Show with David Letterman. The new show debuted on August 30, 1993 and was filmed at the historic Ed Sullivan Theater, on which CBS had spent $14 million in renovations for Letterman's arrival. In addition to that cost, CBS also signed Letterman to a lucrative 3-year, $14 million/year contract, doubling his old Late Night salary. But while the expectation was that Dave would retain his unique style and sense of humor with the move, Late Show was not an exact replica of his old NBC program. Recognizing the more formal mood (and wider audience) of his new timeslot and studio, Letterman eschewed his trademark blazer/ khaki pants/white sneakers wardrobe combination in favor of expensive shoes and tailored suits. Paul Shaffer and the "World's Most Dangerous Band" followed Dave to CBS, but they added a brass section and were rebranded the "CBS Orchestra". Additionally, because of intellectual property disagreements, Letterman was unable to import many of his Late Night segments verbatim – but he sidestepped this problem by simply renaming them (the "Top Ten List" became the "Late Show Top Ten", "Viewer Mail" became the "CBS Mailbag", etc.). Finally, Letterman's interview style became less caustic and combative with the change in scenery, leading many to describe the CBS version as a "kinder, gentler David Letterman". Popularity Letterman at the 38th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1986 The Late Show competes in the same time slot as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. For its first 18 months, The Late Show consistently gained higher ratings than Tonight. But in 1995, ratings dipped and Leno's show has consistently beaten Letterman's in the ratings ever since. In 2009 Leno has been beating Letterman in the ratings by a 1.3 million viewer margin (5.2 million to 3.9 million), and Nightline and The Late Show have been virtually tied. TV By The Numbers "Jay Leno And Jimmy Fallon Win the Late-Night Week of April 27 - May 1" May 7, 2009 Letterman's shows have garnered both critical and industry praise, receiving 67 Emmy Award nominations, winning twelve times in his first 20 years in late night television. Letterman has consistently ranked higher than Leno in the annual Harris Poll of Nation's Favorite TV Personality. For example, in 2004 Letterman ranked second in that poll, behind only Oprah Winfrey, while Leno was ranked number 5. The Harris Poll #101 December 29, 2004 In 2008, however, the same poll ranked Leno as America's favorite TV personality for the first time, moving up from number 3 in 2007. Oprah Winfrey came in at number 4 in 2008 and Letterman was ranked fifth. http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/pubs/Harris_Poll_2009_01_28.pdf The Harris Poll "America’s Favorite Television Personality"] January 28, 2009 Hosting the Academy Awards On March 27, 1995, Letterman acted as the host for the 67th Academy Awards ceremony. Critics blasted Letterman for what they deemed a poor hosting of the Oscars, noting that his irreverent style undermined the importance and glamor of the event. In a joke about their unusual names, he started off by introducing Uma Thurman to Oprah Winfrey, and then the both of them to Keanu Reeves: "Uma...Oprah! Oprah...Uma! Oprah, Uma...Keanu!" This and many of his other jokes fell flat. Although Letterman attracted the highest ratings to the annual telecast since 1983, many felt that the bad publicity garnered by Letterman's hosting caused a decline in the Late Show'''s ratings. Letterman recycled the apparent debacle into a long-running gag. On his first show after the Oscars, he joked, "Looking back, I had no idea that thing was being televised." For years afterward, Letterman recounted his horrible hosting at the Oscars, although the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences still holds Letterman in high regard and has repeatedly asked him to host the Oscars again. Heart surgery hiatus On January 14, 2000, a routine check-up revealed that an artery in Letterman's heart was severely constricted. He was rushed to emergency surgery for a quintuple bypass. During the initial weeks of his recovery, friends of Letterman introduced reruns of the Late Show, including Drew Barrymore, Ray Romano, Robin Williams, Bonnie Hunt, Megan Mullally, Bill Murray, Regis Philbin, Charles Grodin, Nathan Lane, Julia Roberts, Bruce Willis, Jerry Seinfeld, Martin Short, Steven Segal, Hillary Clinton, Danny DeVito, Steve Martin, and Sarah Jessica Parker. Subsequently, while still recovering from surgery, Letterman revived the late night tradition that had virtually disappeared on network television during the 1990s of 'guest hosts' by allowing Bill Cosby, Kathie Lee Gifford (recommended by Regis, who was asked first but had no time in his schedule), Dana Carvey, Janeane Garofalo, and others to host new episodes of The Late Show. Cosby, the show's first guest host, refused to sit at Letterman's desk out of respect, using the couch instead; Garofalo followed suit, utilizing a set of grade-school desks instead. Upon his return to the show on February 21, 2000, a visibly thinner and weakened Letterman brought all of the doctors and nurses on stage who had participated in his surgery and recovery (with extra teasing of a nurse who had given him bed baths—"This woman has seen me naked!"), including Dr. O. Wayne Isom and physician Louis J. Aronne, who frequently appears on the show. In an unusual show of emotion, Letterman was nearly in tears as he thanked the health care team with the words "These are the people who saved my life!" The episode earned an Emmy nomination. For a number of episodes, Letterman continued to crack jokes about his bypass, including saying, "Bypass surgery - it's when doctors surgically create new blood flow to your heart. A bypass is what happened to me when I didn't get The Tonight Show! It's a whole different thing." In a later running gag he lobbied his home state of Indiana to rename the freeway circling Indianapolis (I-465) "The David Letterman Bypass." He also featured a montage of faux news coverage of his bypass surgery, which included a clip of Dave's heart for sale on the Home Shopping Network. Letterman became friends with his doctors and nurses. In 2008, a Rolling Stone interview stated "he hosted a doctor and nurse who'd helped perform the emergency quintuple-bypass heart surgery that saved his life in 2000. 'These are people who were complete strangers when they opened my chest,' he says. 'And now, eight years later, they're among my best friends.' " Additionally, Letterman invited the band Foo Fighters to play "Everlong," introducing them as "my favorite band, playing my favorite song." During a later Foo Fighters appearance, Letterman said that the Foo Fighters had been in the middle of a South American tour which they canceled to come play on his comeback episode. Letterman again handed over the reins of the show to several guest hosts (including Bill Cosby, Brad Garrett, Elvis Costello, John McEnroe, Vince Vaughn, Will Ferrell, Bonnie Hunt, Luke Wilson and bandleader Paul Shaffer) in February 2003, when he was diagnosed with a severe case of shingles. Later that year, Letterman made regular use of guest hosts, including Tom Arnold and Kelsey Grammer, for new shows broadcast on Fridays. In March 2007, Adam Sandler, who had been scheduled to be the lead guest, served as a guest host while Letterman was ill with a stomach virus. Re-signing with CBS In March 2002, as Letterman's contract with CBS neared expiration, ABC expressed the intention to offer Letterman the time slot for long-running news program Nightline with Ted Koppel, citing more desirable viewer demographics. This caused a minor flap that ended when Letterman re-signed with CBS. Letterman addressed his decision to re-sign on the air, stating that he was content at CBS and that he had great respect for Koppel. On December 4, 2006, CBS revealed that David Letterman signed a new contract to host The Late Show with David Letterman through the fall of 2010. "I'm thrilled to be continuing on at CBS," said Letterman. "At my age you really don't want to have to learn a new commute." Letterman further joked about the subject by pulling up his right pants leg, revealing a tattoo, presumably temporary, of the ABC logo. "Thirteen years ago, David Letterman put CBS late night on the map and in the process became one of the defining icons of our network," said Leslie Moonves, president and CEO of CBS Corporation. "His presence on our air is an ongoing source of pride, and the creativity and imagination that the Late Show puts forth every night is an ongoing display of the highest quality entertainment. We are truly honored that one of the most revered and talented entertainers of our time will continue to call CBS 'home.' " According to Forbes magazine, Letterman earns $40 million a year. Only sixteen entertainers earn more. Leno, with higher ratings, is #23 with $32 million, but Letterman owns a piece of his show. Letterman's "WorldWide Pants" also produced hits such as Everybody Loves Raymond. 2007-2008 Writers' Strike The Late Show went off air for eight weeks during the months of November and December because of the Writers Guild of America strike. David Letterman's production company, Worldwide Pants, was the first company to make an individual agreement with the WGA, thus allowing his show to come back on air on January 2, 2008. On his first episode since being off air, he surprised the viewing audience with his newly grown beard. His beard was shaved off during the show on January 7, 2008. Letterman and Carson It has long been rumored that Letterman, and not Jay Leno, was Johnny Carson's personal choice to succeed him as host of The Tonight Show. Letterman maintained a close relationship with Carson through his break with NBC. Three years after he left for CBS, HBO produced a made-for-television movie called The Late Shift, based on a book by New York Times reporter Bill Carter, chronicling the battle between Letterman and Leno for the coveted Tonight Show hosting spot. Letterman would mock the film for months afterward, specifically on how the actor playing him, John Michael Higgins, did not resemble him in the least. ("They took a guy who looked nothing like me and with make-up and special camera angles, turned him into a guy who looked nothing like me, with red hair.") Carson later made a few cameo appearances as a guest on Letterman's show. Carson's final television appearance came on a Late Show episode taped in Los Angeles, when he made a surprise appearance during a 'Top 10 list' segment. The audience went wild as Letterman stood up and proudly invited Carson to sit at his desk. The overwhelming applause was so protracted that Carson was unable to say anything, and he finally returned backstage as the applause continued (it was later explained that Carson had laryngitis). In early 2005, it was revealed that retired Tonight Show host Johnny Carson still kept up with current events and late-night TV right up to his death that year, and that he occasionally sent jokes to Letterman, who used these jokes in his monologue; according to CBS senior vice president Peter Lassally (a onetime producer for both men), Carson got "a big kick out of it." Letterman would do a characteristic Johnny Carson golf swing after delivering one of Carson's jokes. In a tribute to Carson, all of the opening monologue jokes during the first show following Carson's death were written by Carson. Lassally also claimed that Carson had always believed Letterman, not Leno, to be his "rightful successor." Letterman also frequently employs some of Carson's trademark bits on his show, including "Carnac the Magnificent" (with Paul Shaffer as Carnac), "Stump the Band" and the "Week in Review." Letterman and Oprah Winfrey On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show at Madison Square Garden in New York. He shared pictures of his son and live-in girlfriend. The so-called "feud" between Letterman and Winfrey ended in 2005 when Winfrey appeared on CBS' Late Show with David Letterman on December 2, in an event Dave jokingly referred to as "the Super Bowl of Love". Oprah had previously appeared on Letterman's show when he was hosting NBC's Late Night on May 2, 1989. Winfrey and Letterman also appeared together in a Late Show promo that aired during CBS' coverage of Super Bowl XLI in February 2007, with the two sitting next to each other on the couch watching the game. Since the game was played between the Indianapolis Colts and Chicago Bears, the Indianapolis-born Letterman wears a Peyton Manning jersey, while Winfrey, who tapes her show in Chicago, is in a Brian Urlacher jersey. Other projects Worldwide Pants Letterman started his own production company, Worldwide Pants Incorporated, which produces his show and several others, including Everybody Loves Raymond, The Late Late Show, and several critically acclaimed, but short-lived television series for Bonnie Hunt. Worldwide Pants also produced the dramedy program Ed, starring Tom Cavanagh, which aired on NBC from 2000–2004. It was Letterman's first association with NBC since he left the network in 1993. During Ed's run, Cavanagh appeared as a guest on The Late Show several times. In 2005, Worldwide Pants produced its first feature film, Strangers with Candy, which was a prequel to the Comedy Central TV series of the same title. In 2007, Worldwide Pants produced the ABC comedy series, The Knights Of Prosperity. Worldwide Pants made significant news in December 2007 when it was announced that Letterman's company had independently negotiated its own contract with the Writers Guild of America, East, thus allowing Letterman, Craig Ferguson, and their writers to return to work, while the union continued its strike against production companies, networks and studios who had not reached an agreement. Rahal Letterman Racing Rahal Letterman Racing (RLR) is an auto racing team that currently races in the Indy Racing League. It is co-owned by 1986 Indianapolis 500 winner Bobby Rahal and Letterman himself, and is based in Hilliard, Ohio. The team won the 2004 Indianapolis 500 with driver Buddy Rice. Letterman was a pit reporter for ABC in the 1971 Indianapolis 500. American Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming American Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming is Letterman's private foundation. Through it, Letterman has donated millions of dollars to charities and other non-profits in Indiana and Montana, celebrity-affiliated organizations such as Paul Newman's Hole in the Wall Gang Camp, universities such as Ball State, and other organizations such as the American Cancer Society, Salvation Army and Doctors without Borders. David Letterman Communication and Media Building David Letterman Communication and Media Building On September 7, 2007, Letterman visited his alma mater, Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana, for the dedication of a communications facility named in his honor. The $21 million, David Letterman Communication and Media Building opened for the 2007 Fall semester. It features state-of-the-art recording equipment and facilities. Thousands of Ball State students, faculty, and local residents welcomed Letterman back to Indiana. http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070907/LOCAL/709070486 Letterman's emotional speech touched on his struggles as a college student and his late father, and also included the "top ten good things about having your name on a building." Letterman received the honor for his dedication to the university throughout his career as a comedian. Letterman finished with, "If reasonable people can put my name on a $21 million building, anything is possible." Letterman also received a Sagamore of the Wabash from Governor Mitch Daniels. Appearances in other media Letterman appeared in issue 239 of the Marvel comic book The Avengers, in which the title characters are guests on Late Night. The Avengers meet David Letterman reviewed at misterkitty.org A parody of Letterman, called "David Endocrine", is gassed to death along with his bandleader named "Paul" and their audience in Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns. Review of The Dark Knight Returns at Batman-on-film.com Letterman provided vocals for the Warren Zevon song "Hit Somebody" from My Ride's Here, Warren Zevon : Hit Somebody (The Hockey Song) from Artistdirect and provided the voice for Butt-head's father in the 1996 animated film, Beavis and Butt-head Do America. He also had a cameo in the feature film Cabin Boy, with Chris Elliott, who worked as a writer on Letterman's show. In this and other appearances, Letterman is listed in the credits as "Earl Hofert", the name of Letterman's maternal grandfather. He also appeared in a few episodes of The Larry Sanders Show. Letterman also appeared in the TV Sitcom "Seinfeld" as himself, season 8, episode 9 (1996). Personal life In 1969, Letterman married Michelle Cook; the marriage ended by divorce in 1977. David Letterman bio on IMDb He also had a long-term relationship with former head writer and producer on Late Night, Merrill Markoe. In fact, Markoe was the mind behind several Late Night'' staples, such as "Stupid Pet/Human Tricks". Beginning in May 1988, Letterman was stalked by Margaret Mary Ray, a woman suffering from schizophrenia. Letterman occasionally referenced her in his show, although not by name. She committed suicide in 1998. Letterman has a son, Harry Joseph (born in 2003), with Regina Lasko. Harry is named after Letterman's father. In 2005, police discovered a plot to kidnap Harry Letterman and ransom him for $5 million. Kelly Frank, a house painter who had worked for Letterman, was charged in the conspiracy. Letterman and Lasko, who had been together since 1986, wed during a quiet courthouse ceremony in Choteau, Montana on March 19, 2009. Letterman announced the marriage during the taping of his March 23 show, shortly after congratulating Bruce Willis for getting married the previous week. Letterman told the audience he nearly missed the ceremony because his truck became stuck in mud two miles from their house. The family resides in North Salem, New York, on a estate. Dave's domain from the March 22, 2007 "Gimme Shelter" column in the New York Post References Specific references and footnotes: General references: Show with David Letterman" at Yahoo! TV Official Late Show biography 1999 article on Letterman from Salon.com External links David Letterman's Feb. 24, 1978 appearance on 90 Minutes Live | David_Letterman |@lemmatized david:26 michael:3 letterman:158 bear:5 april:2 american:5 television:11 host:29 comedian:2 co:2 owner:1 rahal:4 racing:3 late:48 show:85 night:21 talk:4 broadcast:3 cbs:23 ironic:1 often:3 absurd:1 comedy:10 heavily:2 influence:4 former:2 tonight:12 steve:3 allen:2 johnny:8 carson:24 jack:1 paar:1 fixture:1 united:1 state:15 since:8 debut:3 one:6 idol:1 longer:1 career:7 also:22 film:7 producer:3 company:6 worldwide:10 pant:13 produce:8 follow:6 craig:2 ferguson:2 several:7 prime:1 time:15 successful:2 everybody:3 love:4 raymond:3 currently:2 syndication:1 early:3 life:5 indianapolis:11 indiana:10 father:5 harry:6 joseph:4 florist:1 die:2 mother:1 dorothy:2 née:1 hofert:2 mengering:1 presbyterian:1 church:1 secretary:1 german:1 descent:1 occasional:1 figure:1 usually:1 holiday:1 birthday:1 old:4 sister:2 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3,775 | Atari_7800 | The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a video game console re-released by Atari Corporation in June 1986. The original release had occurred two years earlier under Atari Inc. The 7800 was designed to replace Atari Inc.'s unsuccessful Atari 5200 and later to re-establish Atari Corp.'s market supremacy against Nintendo and Sega. With this system, Atari Inc. addressed all the shortcomings of the Atari 5200: it had simple digital joysticks; it was almost fully backward-compatible with the Atari 2600; and it was affordable (originally priced at US$140). Introduction The Atari 7800 ProSystem was the first game system from Atari Inc. designed by an outside company, General Computer Corporation (GCC). The system had been designed in 1983 through 1984 with an intended mass market rollout in June 1984, but was canceled shortly there after due to the sale of the company to Tramiel Technology Ltd on July 2, 1984. The project was originally called the 3600 and then later renamed the 7800. Several key factors influenced the design of the 7800. First, Atari had been facing mounting pressure from the ColecoVision, which boasted graphics that more closely mirrored arcade games of the time than Atari’s reigning 2600 VCS system. Second, the Atari 5200 (the original intended successor to the Atari 2600 VCS) had been widely criticized for not being able to play Atari 2600 VCS games and for the poor quality of its analog joysticks. Finally, dropping prices of home computers like the Commodore 64 had caused many to believe that buying a home computer was a better investment because it provided more detailed game play and could be used for other purposes such as word processing. Previous game consoles sometimes had a difficult time replicating the arcade experience in home versions of popular arcade games. In particular, home versions of arcade games sometimes had problems with flickering and slow down when more than a few moving objects appeared on the screen at once. GCC, which had a background in creating arcade games, designed their new system with a graphical architecture similar to arcade machines of the time. The 7800 featured the ability to move around tremendous amount of objects (75-to-100) that far exceeded previous consoles. Powering the system was a 6502C processor running at 1.79 MHz, similar to the processor found in home computers (Atari 8-bit, Apple II, Commodore 64) and other consoles (Atari 5200 and Nintendo Entertainment System) but running at almost twice the clock frequency. In response to the criticisms of the Atari 5200, the Atari 7800 could play almost all Atari 2600 games out of the box, without the need for an adapter. In addition, it featured a return to a digital controller. To address the concerns of parents that home computers were a better investment than consoles, the system was designed to be upgraded to a full-fledged home computer. A keyboard was developed, and the keyboard had an expansion port (which was the SIO port from Atari's 8-bit computer line, though the 7800 could not run Atari computer programs) allowed for the addition of peripherals such as disk drives and printers. To enhance the gaming experience further, GCC had also designed a 'high score cartridge,' a battery-backed RAM cartridge designed for storing game scores. On the side of the 7800 was an expansion port, reportedly for a planned connection with a laserdisc player. Original release and shelving The 7800 was initially released in southern California in June 1984, following an announcement on May 21, 1984 at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show (CES). Thirteen games were initially announced, including Ms. Pac-Man, Pole Position II, Centipede, Joust, Dig Dug, Desert Falcon, Robotron: 2084, Galaga, Xevious, Food Fight, Ballblazer, Rescue on Fractalus!, and Track and Field. Atari was a sponsor of the 1984 Summer Olympics and planned to push the 7800 aggressively in time for Christmas that year. One month later, Warner Communications sold Atari's Consumer Division to Jack Tramiel, who did not want to release a new video game console under his newly formed Atari Corporation. He pulled the plug on all projects related to video games and decided to focus on Atari's existing computer line in order to begin development of the new 16-bit computer line (which appeared as the Atari ST). The Atari 7800 languished on warehouse shelves until it was re-introduced in January 1986 after strong 2600 sales the previous Christmas. Atari, Sega, and Nintendo Plan Comeback for Video Games - HFD: The Weekly Home Furnishings Newspaper Tramiel’s marketing push was far more subdued than Warner had planned originally. The keyboard and high score cartridge were canceled and the expansion port was removed from later production runs of the system. Tramiel dusted off any games that were completed from the original 1984 launch with the color labels of the original games often being replaced with low-cost black and white labels. Advertising was not a priority, with Tramiel pushing the system to market with a meager $300,000 marketing budget that could not compare with the multi-million dollar campaigns by Nintendo and Sega. Graphics The strengths and weaknesses of the 7800's graphics are often debated. The graphics are generated by a custom Graphics Processing Unit called MARIA (a name chosen to represent its succession from the Atari 2600's graphics and sound chip, TIA ... TIA-MARIA). MARIA is very different from other second and third generation consoles, which made it more difficult for game programmers to make the transition. Instead of a limited number of hardware sprites, the MARIA allows for a much larger number of sprites described in a list of display lists. Each display list contains sprite entries with pointers to graphics data, color information, and horizontal positioning. The same display list is used for multiple rasters with the pointers being automatically adjusted. However, managing and displaying a large number of sprites required much more CPU time (both directly and indirectly since the MARIA would halt the CPU when drawing sprites) than consoles with hardware sprites and backgrounds. MARIA has a number of different graphics modes which are either 160 pixels wide or 320 pixels wide. While the 320 pixel modes theoretically enable the 7800 to create games at higher resolution than the 256 pixel wide graphics found in the Nintendo Entertainment System and Sega Master System, the intense processing demands of MARIA typically meant that programmers created their games using the lower 160 pixel modes. The 7800, like other Atari consoles, featured a (then) broad palette of 256 colors. Up to 25 colors could be displayed on screen at one time in the absence of special hardware tricks, though demos exist which place all 256 colors on the screen at the same time. Sprites can be between 4 and 12 colors. The MARIA’s approach had advantages and disadvantages when it came to generating graphics in software during the lifespan of the 7800. It excelled at moving around large numbers of sprites on a static screen without the screen flickering that plagued other 8-bit systems. Its flexible design enabled it to play games which used display list manipulation to generate a pseudo 3D appearance such as Ballblazer (1987) and F-18 Hornet (1988). While side-scrolling games in the vein of Super Mario Brothers are possible on the system (1990's Scrapyard Dog is the best example), it is significantly harder to develop such a title than on a tile-based system such as the Nintendo Entertainment System. Sound A common criticism of the 7800 regards its use of the TIA to provide 2-channel sound effects and music, resulting in sound quality that is virtually identical to the Atari 2600 VCS from 1977. While the inclusion of 2600 hardware is required to maintain compatibility with the older system, this drove up production costs and reduced available space on the 7800’s motherboard. As such, the 7800 does not include additional hardware for generating sound as it does with graphics and the sound hardware is considered the weakest part of the system. To compensate for this, GCC’s engineers allowed games to include a POKEY audio chip in the cartridge which substantially improved the audio quality. To ensure software developers had an economical means of producing better sound than TIA, GCC had originally planned to make a low-cost, high performance sound chip, GUMBY, which could also be placed in 7800 cartridges to enhance its sound capabilities further. This project was cancelled when Atari was sold to Jack Tramiel. Despite having the capability to support sound chips in cartridges, almost no 7800 cartridges feature POKEY hardware for enhanced sound. Ballblazer, released in 1987, uses the POKEY to generate all music and sound effects. Similarly, Commando, released in 1989, uses a POKEY to generate in-game music while the TIA generates the game's sound effects for a total of 6 channels of sound. Lockout features Following the debate over “Custer's Revenge”, a controversial Atari 2600 VCS title with adult themes, Atari had concerns over similar adult titles finding their way onto the 7800 and displaying adult graphics on the significantly improved graphics of the MARIA chip. To combat this, they included a digital signature protection method which prevented unauthorized 7800 games from being played on the system. When a cartridge was inserted into the system, the 7800 BIOS included code which would generate a digital signature of the cartridge ROM and compare it to the signature stored on the cartridge. If a correct signature was located on the cartridge, the 7800 would operate in 7800 mode, granting the game access to MARIA and other features. If a signature was not located, the 7800 remained in 2600 mode and MARIA was unavailable. All 7800 games released in North America had to be digitally signed by Atari. This digital signature code is not present in PAL 7800s, which use various heuristics to detect 2600 cartridges, due to export restrictions. Comparison with the Atari 2600 VCS A view held by some was that the 7800 was essentially a souped up 2600. Even in an interview, Leonard Tramiel supported this viewpoint, stating "the 7800 is essentially a 2600 with some things put into hardware that were done in software on the 2600." While this view is shared by many, the 7800 is different than the 2600 in several important areas. It features a full 6502c processor whereas the 2600 VCS has a stripped down 6507 processor which runs at a slower speed. It has additional RAM (Random Access Memory) and the ability to access more cartridge data at one time than the 2600. The most substantial difference, however, is its entirely different graphics architecture which differs markedly from either the Atari 2600 VCS or Atari’s 8-bit line of computers. The source of the confusion stems from the fact that compatibility with the Atari 2600 is enabled by including the same chips used in the Atari 2600. When operating in “2600” mode in order to play 2600 titles, the 7800 uses a Television Interface Adapter (TIA) chip to generate graphics and sound. The processor is slowed to 1.19 MHz in order to mirror the performance of the 2600’s stripped-down 6507 processor. RAM is limited to 128 bytes found in the RIOT and game data is accessed in 4K blocks. When in “7800” mode (signified by the appearance of the full screen Atari logo), the graphics are generated entirely by the MARIA graphics processing unit, all system RAM is available and game data is accessed in larger 48K blocks. The system’s 6502c runs at its normal 1.79 MHz instead of the reduced speed of 2600 mode. The 2600 chips are used in 7800 mode to generate sound as well as switch and controller interfaces. Software library The Atari 7800 faced the severe software drought that would plague all the Atari Corp. consoles sold after the video game crash. While the system can actually play hundreds of different cartridge titles (due to its compatibility with the Atari 2600), the number of titles specifically designed for the Atari 7800 hardware is the lowest of any commercially released Atari system. Only about 60 titles were released during its original production run. The system has a fan base who appreciate its solid conversions of early 1980s arcade hits as well as quirky original titles and computer ports. However, there are notable flaws in the Atari 7800's game library that prevented it from achieving the success of its contemporary competitors. Initially dated library and low development investment The initial launch titles in 1986 were not competitive in the marketplace following the video game crash. Rather than investing in competitive games for the system, Jack Tramiel initially preferred to dust off the system’s pre-crash library, which were less detailed than post-crash games such as Super Mario Bros. These games seemed dated, and did not resonate with mainstream audiences. After releasing the initial pre-crash titles, Atari began development on new 7800 titles but their investment in development and production was very limited. Numerous Tramiel-era 7800 games were quickly rushed to market and with work done by low cost developers resulting in games which were disappointingly unpolished and lacking in features. Steve Golson from GCC would later remark, “Jack [Tramiel] couldn’t get any development done for new games. He tried to get people to develop games for the system but he wasn’t willing to pay them any money. So, none of the game developers were willing to work on it.” A key differentiator between games on the Nintendo Entertainment System and Sega Master System compared to games before the crash was the overall size of the game programs. Whereas games prior to the 1983 video game crash were typically 4K to 32K, games released after 1985 were often 128K to 640K (1 to 5 megabits in size). The 8-bit processors in consoles limited how much game data could be accessed at once, so game data was accessed in small (32K to 64K) bankswitched sections. While the Atari 7800 is capable of playing bankswitched games, neither its pre-crash library, nor Tramiel’s first releases made use of bankswitching, with games being 16K to 48K in size. This severely limited the amount of complexity on the initial run of Atari 7800 games when compared to the competition. While some initial 7800 games were referred to as “Super Games”, this was a marketing spin that typically referred to a game which had previously appeared on a home computer and not to the size of the cartridge itself. Consumers complained that Atari 7800 lacked the depth and variation often found on Nintendo and Sega machines. In response to criticisms about the shallowness of their game depth, Atari later began to use bankswitching in 1988, releasing 64K and later 128K (1 megabit games). By the end of the system’s life cycle, most games were 128K in size, with a few being 144K. While the system was certainly capable of playing even larger games (4 megabit and beyond) no games of that size were developed. Availability of current arcade conversions At the time, a key driver for success with a home console was the number of home conversions it had of popular arcade games. This had been a primary reason for the success of the Atari 2600 VCS against systems like the Intellivision. During the Atari 7800’s life cycle, Atari found themselves struggling to get developers to create 7800 versions of then-popular arcade titles because of a controversial policy employed by Nintendo. When Nintendo revived the industry, they signed up software development companies to create NES games under a strict license agreement which imposed serious restrictions on what they were allowed to do. One of the key clauses was that companies who made Nintendo games were not allowed to make that game on a competing system for a period of two years. Because of the market success of the NES, companies chose to develop for it first and were thus barred from developing the same games on competing systems for two years. The software libraries of the Atari 7800 and Sega Master System suffered tremendously as a result. The 7800 fared even worse due to the fact that Sega could draw from their own library of arcade hits in supporting the Master System (Atari’s arcade division had been spun off into a separate company in 1984). The Atari 7800 was often forced to fill the void with either computer conversions or original titles, to varying degrees of success. Some NES titles were developed by companies who had licensed their title from a different arcade manufacturer. While the creator of the NES version would be restricted from making a competitive version of an NES game, the original arcade copyright holder was not precluded from licensing out rights for a home version of an arcade game to multiple systems. Through this loophole, Atari 7800 conversions of Mario Bros., Double Dragon, Commando, Rampage, Xenophobe, Ikari Warriors and Kung Fu Master were licensed and developed. Exclusive content and missing genres A primary criticism of the Atari 7800’s library is that many games on the system were also available elsewhere. Most of the original lineup of games had already appeared on either Atari’s 2600, 5200 or 8-bit computers. This practice continued after Jack Tramiel’s takeover of Atari as many 7800 games also appeared on the 2600 and XE Game Systems as well. Later, many games that were on the 7800 also appeared on the Atari Lynx. The Atari 7800’s small library also suffered because some key genres were either unrepresented (role playing games), poorly represented (sports games), or had a disproportionate glut of titles (flight simulators) Third-party software support There was virtually no effort by Atari Corp. to recruit third party developers, and most software houses were locked into making Nintendo games for the NES. Eight third party Atari 7800 titles were manufactured by three companies (Absolute, Activision, and Froggo) with the rest manufactured by Atari themselves. However, most Atari development was actually contracted out. Peripherals The gamepad of the Atari 7800. Unlike Nintendo or Sega, Atari was unwilling to invest in many peripherals for the 7800. The most notable peripheral was the XG-1 lightgun, which came bundled with the Atari XE Game System. The XG-1 was fully compatible with the 7800 and was sold separately for owners of other Atari systems. Atari released four 7800 light gun games – Alien Brigade, Crossbow, Meltdown and Barnyard Blaster. In response to criticism over ergonomic issues in the 7800’s Pro-Line controllers, Atari later released joypad controllers with European 7800s, which were similar in style to controllers found on Nintendo and Sega Systems. Originally in 1984, the 7800 boasted a rather impressive line of add-ons and expansions for the console. Most notable was a computer keyboard add-on, giving the system the ability to run computer programs and use all of Atari's home computer peripherals. An expansion interface on the side of the 7800 would've allowed for a Laserdisc player to connect to the 7800 to play Laserdisc games like Dragon's Lair. A High Score cartridge was designed to save scores for up to 65 separate games. In 1999, Curt Vendel with a schematic and ROM code from Gary Rubio - the former Atari liaison to GCC on the Atari 7800 project, reproduced a new run of Atari 7800 high score cartridges. A dual joystick holder was designed for games like Robotron 2084 and future games like Battlezone and others, but not produced. Market performance The Atari 7800 remained active officially between 1986 and 1991. On January 1, 1992, Atari Corp. formally announced abandonment of the Atari 7800, in addition to the Atari 2600, the Atari 8-bit computer line, and the Atari XE Game System. By the time of the cancellation, Nintendo's NES had dominated the market, controlling 80% of the North American market while Atari Corp. only controlled 12%. COMPANY NEWS; Nintendo Suit by Atari Is Dismissed - New York Times The Atari 7800 distantly trailed the Nintendo Entertainment System in terms of units sold but was a profitable enterprise for Atari Corp., coasting largely on Atari’s name and its 2600 compatibility. Profits were strong, due to low investment in game development and marketing. However, Atari’s marketing of the 7800 helped to further tarnish their reputation, ultimately leading to their continuous decline with subsequent systems such as the Jaguar and Lynx. Homebrew community and emulation When emulators of 1980s video game consoles began to appear on home computers in the late 1990s, the Atari 7800 was one of the last to be emulated. The lack of awareness of the system, the lack of understanding of the hardware, and fears about the digital signature lockout initially caused concerns. Since that time, however, the 7800 has been emulated successfully and is now common on emulation sites. The digital signature long prevented homebrew games from being developed until the original encryption generating software was discovered. When the original digital signature generating software was turned over to the Atari community, development of new Atari 7800 titles began. In addition, the Atari community has slowly uncovered the original 7800 development tools and released them into the public domain. New tools, documentation, source code and utilities for development have since been created which has sponsored additional homebrew development. Several new commercial Atari 7800 titles such as Beef Drop, Bon*Q, Pac Man Collection, Combat 1990, Santa Simon, and Space War have been created and released. Perhaps the most interesting recent development was the creation of the Cuttle Cart II, a device that allowed the Atari 7800 to read MMC cards containing binary files of Atari 7800 programs. The Cuttle Cart II has enabled more people to play the entire 2600 and 7800 library on an original system as well as binaries of unreleased games and new homebrew titles. The Cuttle Cart II was a success by homebrew standards, selling out both production runs and commanding high prices on Ebay. New mainstream releases In 2004, Atari (now owned by Infogrames) released the first Atari Flashback console. This system resembled a miniature Atari 7800 and joysticks and had 20 built in games (five 7800 and twenty 2600 titles). While the unit sold well, it was controversial among Atari fans. Atari had given the engineering firm, Legacy Engineering, extremely limited development timelines. The firm was forced to build the Flashback using NES-On-A-Chip hardware instead of recreating the Atari 7800 hardware. As a result, the Flashback has been criticized for failing to properly replicate the actual Atari gaming experience. Legacy Engineering was later commissioned to create another 7800 project that never made it to market. A reseller with millions of unsold Atari 2600 and 7800 games acquired from the Tramiels looked into remaking the system and bringing it to market as a way for new customers to play old Atari games. The project was cancelled after prototypes were made. Unreleased games As with most game consoles, there were more games in development for the 7800 than were actually released. However, very few prototypes have been located, due to Tramiel Atari’s reluctance to make them in the first place. Atari 7800 prototypes tend to be highly coveted by collectors, often fetching hundreds of dollars when sold. Some collectors are unwilling to share the rare items publicly as doing so risks decreasing the value of their prototypes. Nonetheless, some unreleased Atari 7800 games, as well as early versions of released games have been released to the public. A few have been manufactured and sold. These include: Klax (Programmed by Blue Sky Software). The game was nearly completed when canceled. For years, it was traded privately until a ROM was made available to the general public. Later, the developer appeared to create additional levels for the community. Gato (Programmed by Ibid Inc Software). Released on the XE Game System, an Atari 7800 version was started but not completed beyond a simple demo. Missing in Action (Programmed by Sculptured Software for TNT Games). A side scrolling adventure that was about 85% complete when canceled. The game is mostly playable with some later collision detection issues requiring cheats to get past. Pit-Fighter (Programmed by Imagitec Design). An early demo of the game has been found, with crude graphics, no sound and poor collision detection. Rescue on Fractalus! (Programmed by GCC). A conversion of the popular computer game was released by GCC in 2004. The game was partially complete with a running engine but no enemies. Other 7800 games remain lost, despite indications that development occurred. The most notable of these are Skyfox (shown on the back of the original system box) and Electrocop (artwork has since been uncovered). Engineering Notes list Tempest as a game that was between 15-20% completed for the Atari 7800, no code to date has been found. The Atari Museum located and posted unreleased box art and notes for a 7800 version of Crystal Castles. No code to date has been found for that game either. Atari's earlier 7800 games listing showed Millipede as one of the games in the line up, however it does not appear that it was ever started or worked on. Technical specifications CPU: Custom 6502C Speed: 1.79 MHz, drops to 1.19 MHz when the TIA or RIOT chips are accessed (note: This is Atari's custom 6502 known as SALLY which can be halted to allow other devices to control the bus) RAM: 4 KB (2 6116 2Kx8 RAM ICs) ROM: built in 4 KB BIOS ROM, 48 KB Cartridge ROM space without bankswitching Graphics: MARIA custom graphics controller 160x240 (160x288 PAL) resolution or 320x240/288 resolution 25 color palette out of 256 colors (16 hues * 16 luma), different graphics modes restricted the number of usable colors and the number of colors per sprite Direct Memory Access (DMA) Graphics clock: 7.16 MHz I/O: Joystick and console switch IO handled byte 6532 RIOT and TIA Ports: 2 joystick ports, 1 cartridge port, 1 expansion connector, power in, RF output Sound: TIA video and sound chip, same as the 2600. Only the sound is used in 7800 games. Both video and sound are used in 2600 games. Optional POKEY sound chip on cartridge for improved sounds. System revisions Prototypes: Atari 3600 - original model number Atari CX-9000 Video Computer System Production: Atari CX7800 - Two joystick ports on lower front panel. Side expansion port for upgrades and add-ons. Bundled accessories included two CX24 Pro-Line joysticks, AC adapter, switchbox, RCA connecting cable, and Pole Position II cartridge. Atari CX7800 - Second revision. Slightly revised motherboard, added an additional timing circuit. Expansion port connector removed from motherboard but is still etched. Shell has indentation of where expansion port was to be. Atari CX7800 - Third revision. Same as above but with only a small blemish on the shell where the expansion port was. See also History of Atari List of Atari 7800 games List of Atari 2600 games External links AtariAge – Comprehensive Atari 7800 database and information Atari Museum – Technical files archive Atari Museum – Full History of the Atari 7800 References | Atari_7800 |@lemmatized atari:129 prosystem:2 simply:1 video:11 game:111 console:17 release:25 corporation:3 june:3 original:16 occur:2 two:5 year:5 earlier:2 inc:5 design:13 replace:2 unsuccessful:1 later:10 establish:1 corp:6 market:10 supremacy:1 nintendo:17 sega:10 system:55 address:2 shortcoming:1 simple:2 digital:8 joystick:8 almost:4 fully:2 backward:1 compatible:2 affordable:1 originally:5 price:3 u:1 introduction:1 first:6 outside:1 company:9 general:2 computer:22 gcc:9 intended:1 mass:1 rollout:1 cancel:6 shortly:1 due:6 sale:2 tramiel:13 technology:1 ltd:1 july:1 project:6 call:2 rename:1 several:3 key:5 factor:1 influence:1 face:2 mount:1 pressure:1 colecovision:1 boast:2 graphic:22 closely:1 mirrored:1 arcade:15 time:12 reign:1 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3,776 | Computer_monitor | A 19" flat-panel LCD monitor. A visual display unit, often called simply a monitor or display, is a piece of electrical equipment which displays images generated from the video output of devices such as computers, without producing a permanent record. Most newer monitors typically consist of a [TFT-LCD](thin film transistor liquid crystal display) with older monitors based around a cathode ray tube (CRT). Almost all of the mainstream new monitors being sold on market now are LCD. The monitor comprises the display device, simple circuitry to generate and format a picture from video sent by the signals source, and usually an enclosure. Within the signal source, either as an integral section or a modular component, there is a display adapter to generate video in a format compatible with the monitor. Screen size Diagonal size For any rectangular section on a round tube, the diagonal measurement is also the diameter of the tube The size of a display is typically given as the distance between two opposite screen corners. One problem with this method is that it does not distinguish between the aspect ratios of monitors with identical diagonal sizes, in spite of the fact that a shape of a given diagonal span's area decreases as it becomes less square. For example, a 4:3 21" monitor has an area of ~211 square inches, while a 16:9 21" widescreen has an area of only ~188 square inches. This method of measurement is from the first types of CRT television, when round picture tubes were in common use. Being circular, they only needed to use their diameter to describe their tube size. When round tubes were used to display rectangular images, the diagonal measurement was equivalent to the round tube's diameter. This method continued even when CRT tubes were manufactured as rounded rectangles. Another historically problematic practice is the direct measurement of a monitor's imaging element as its quoted size in publicity and advertising materials. Especially on CRT displays, a substantial portion of the imaging element is concealed behind the case's bezel or shroud in order to hide areas outside the monitor's safe area due to overscan. Seen as deceptive, widespread consumer objection and lawsuits eventually forced most manufacturers to instead measure viewable size. Imaging technologies As with television, many different hardware technologies exist for displaying computer-generated output: Liquid crystal display (LCD). TFT LCDs are currently the most popular display device for computers. Passive LCDs are noted for poor contrast and slow response. They were used in laptops until the mid 1990s. Thin film transistor LCDs generate much better images. Nearly all modern LCD monitors are TFTs. Cathode ray tube (CRT) Raster scan computer monitors produce images using pixels. These were the most popular display device for older computers. Vector displays, as used on the Vectrex, scientific and radar applications, and several early arcade machines such as Asteroids use CRT displays because of requirement for a deflection system, although a raster-based display may be used, too. Television sets were used by most early personal and home computers, connecting composite video to the television set using a modulator. Resolution and image quality were strongly limited by the display capabilities of television. Plasma display Video projectors use CRT, LCD, DLP, LCoS, and other technology to emit light to a projection screen. Front projectors use screens as reflectors to send light back, while rear projectors use screens as diffusers to refract light forward. Rear projectors are often integrated into the same case as their screen. Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display Penetron military aircraft displays Cathode ray tube The CRT or cathode ray tube, is the picture tube of a monitor. The back of the tube has a negatively charged cathode. The electron gun shoots electrons down the tube and onto a charged screen. The screen is coated with a pattern of phosphor dots that glow when struck by the electron stream. Each cluster of three dots, one of each color, is one pixel. The image on the monitor's screen is usually made up from at least tens of thousands of such tiny dots glowing on command from the computer. The closer together the pixels are, the sharper the image on screen can be. The distance between pixels on a computer monitor screen is called its dot pitch and is measured in millimeters. Most monitors have a dot pitch of 0.28 mm or less. There are two electromagnets around the collar of the tube which deflect the electron beam. The beam scans across the top of the monitor from left to right, is then blanked and moved back to the left-hand side slightly below the previous trace (on the next scan line), scans across the second line and so on until the bottom right of the screen is reached. The beam is again blanked, and moved back to the top left to start again. This process draws a complete picture, typically 50 to 100 times a second. The number of times in one second that the electron gun redraws the entire image is called the refresh rate and is measured in hertz (cycles per second). It is common in television or very early computer equipment, to use a technique called interlacing, in which all the odd-numbered lines of an image are traced, and then all the even-numbered lines; the circuitry of such an interlaced display need be capable of only half the speed of a non-interlaced display. An interlaced display, particularly at a relatively low refresh rate, can appear to some observers to flicker, and may cause eyestrain. Performance measurements The performance of a monitor is measured in the following parameters: Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter. Viewable image size is measured diagonally. For CRTs, the viewable size is typically one inch (25 mm) smaller than the tube itself. Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. Maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch. Dot pitch is the distance between pixels of the same color in millimeters. In general, the smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the picture will appear. Refresh rate is the number of times in a second that a display is illuminated. Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time. Response time is the amount of time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from active (black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again. It is measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts. Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing. Power consumption is measured in watts. Aspect ratios is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length. 4:3 is the standard aspect ratio, for example, so that a screen with a width of 1024 pixels will have a height of 768 pixels. If a widescreen display has an aspect ratio of 16:9, a display that is 1024 pixels wide will have a height of 576 pixels. Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the monitor can be viewed, without excessive degradation to the images. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically. Comparison CRT Pros: Very high contrast ratio. 20,000:1 or greater, much higher than many modern LCDs and plasma displays. High speed response. Excellent Additive color, wide gamut and low black level limited only by external environment. Can display natively in almost any resolution and refresh rate. Near zero color, saturation, contrast or brightness distortion. Excellent viewing angle. No input lag. A reliable, proven display technology. Cons: Large size and weight (a 40" unit weighs over 200lbs). Geometric distortion in non-flat CRTs. Older CRTs are prone to burn-in. Warm up time required prior to peak luminance and proper color rendering. Greater power consumption than similarly sized displays, such as LCD. Screened devices are prone to moiré effect at highest resolution (does not apply to triple-tube projection) Intolerant of damp conditions, with dangerous wet failure characteristics. Small risk of implosion (due to internal vacuum) if the picture tube is broken in aging sets. Use under Lower refresh rates causes noticeable flicker. Internal lethally high voltages. Flyback transformer produces characteristic high-pitched noise when close to set. Increasingly difficult to obtain models at HDTV resolutions, due to consumers' perception of antiquity. LCD Pros: Very compact and light. Low power consumption. No geometric distortion. Rugged. Little or no flicker depending on back light. Cons: Low contrast ratio. Limited viewing angle, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary, even within the intended viewing angle, by mere variations in posture. Uneven back lighting in some monitors, causing brightness distortion, especially toward the edges. Slow response times, which cause smearing and ghosting artifacts (although many modern LCDs have response times of 8ms or less). Only one native resolution. Displaying other resolutions requires a video scaler, which degrades image quality at lower resolutions. Fixed bit depth, many cheaper LCDs are incapable of truecolor. Input lag. Somewhat more expensive than CRT. Dead pixels are possible during manufacturing. Plasma Pros: Compact and light. High contrast ratios (10,000:1 or greater). High speed response. Excellent color, wide gamut and low black level. Near zero color, saturation, contrast or brightness distortion. Excellent viewing angle. No geometric distortion. Highly scalable, with less weight gain per increase in size (from less than 30 inches wide to the world's largest at 150 inches). Cons: Large pixel pitch means either low resolution or a large screen Noticeable flicker when viewed at close range High operating temperature. Somewhat more expensive than LCD. High power consumption. Only has one native resolution. Displaying other resolutions requires a video scaler, which degrades image quality at lower resolutions. Fixed bit depth. Input lag. Older PDPs are prone to burn-in. Dead pixels are possible during manufacturing. Penetron Pros: See-through for transparent HUDs (although LCDs are also transparent, they are not self-lighting.) Very high contrast ratios. Extremely sharp. Cons: Color displays are limited to about four tints. Orders of magnitude more expensive than the other display technologies listed here. Problems Dead pixels A few LCD monitors are produced with "dead pixels". Due to the desire for affordable monitors, most manufacturers sell monitors with dead pixels. Almost all manufacturers have clauses in their warranties which claim monitors with fewer than some number of dead pixels are not broken and will not be replaced. The dead pixels are usually stuck with the green, red, and/or blue sub-pixels either individually always stuck on or off. Like image persistence, this can sometimes be partially or fully reversed by using the same method listed below, however the chance of success is far lower than with a "stuck" pixel. It can also sometimes be repaired by physically flicking the pixel, however it is always a possibility for someone to use too much force and rupture the weak screen internals doing this. Stuck pixels LCD monitors, while lacking phosphor screens and thus immune to phosphor burn-in, have a similar condition known as image persistence, where the pixels of the LCD monitor can "remember" a particular color and become "stuck" and unable to change. Unlike phosphor burn-in, however, image persistence can sometimes be reversed partially or completely. This is accomplished by rapidly displaying varying colors to "wake up" the stuck pixels. Phosphor burn-in Phosphor burn-in is localized aging of the phosphor layer of a CRT screen where it has displayed a static bright image for many years. This results in a faint permanent image on the screen, even when turned off. In severe cases it can even be possible to read some of the text, though this only occurs where the displayed text remained the same for years. This was once a common phenomenon in single purpose business computers. It can still be an issue with CRT displays when used to display the same image for years at a time, but modern computers aren't normally used this way anymore, so the problem is not a significant issue. The issue seems to have become exaggerated in popular opinion. The only systems that suffered the defect were ones displaying the same image for years, and with these the presence of burn-in was not a noticeable effect when in use, since it coincided with the displayed image perfectly. It only became a significant issue in three situations: when some heavily used monitors were reused at home, or re-used for display purposes in some high-security applications (but only those where the high-security data displayed did not change for years at a time). Screen savers were developed as a means to avoid burn-in, but are unnecessary for CRTs today, despite their popularity. Phosphor burn-in can be gradually removed on damaged CRT displays by displaying an all-white screen with brightness and contrast turned up full. This is a slow procedure, but is usually effective. Plasma burn-in Burn-in re-emerged as an issue with early plasma displays, which are more vulnerable to this than CRTs. Screen savers with moving images may be used with these to minimize localized burn. Periodic change of the colour scheme in use also helps. Glare Glare is a problem caused by the relationship between lighting and screen, or by using monitors in bright sunlight. Matte finish LCDs and flat screen CRTs are less prone to reflected glare than conventional curved CRTs or glossy LCDs, and aperture grille CRTs, which are curved on one axis only and are less prone to it than other CRTs curved on both axes. If the problem persists despite moving the monitor or adjusting lighting, a filter using a mesh of very fine black wires may be placed on the screen to reduce glare and improve contrast. These filters were popular in the late 1980s. They do also reduce light output. It is on the top part of your screen. The above will only work against reflective glare; direct glare (such as sunlight) will completely wash out most monitors' internal lighting, and can only be dealt with by use of a hood or transreflective LCD. Color misregistration With exceptions of correctly aligned video projectors and stacked LEDs, most display technologies, especially LCD, have an inherent misregistration of the color channels, that is, the centers of the red, green, and blue dots do not line up perfectly. Sub-pixel rendering depends on this misalignment; technologies making use of this include the Apple II from 1976, GRC | The Origins of Sub-Pixel Font Rendering and more recently Microsoft (ClearType, 1998) and XFree86 (X Rendering Extension). Incomplete spectrum RGB displays produce most of the visible color spectrum, but not all. This can be a problem where good color matching to non-RGB images is needed. This issue is common to all monitor technologies with 3 color channels. Display interfaces Computer terminals Early CRT-based VDUs (Visual Display Units) such as the DEC VT05 without graphics capabilities gained the label glass teletypes, because of the functional similarity to their electromechanical predecessors. Some historic computers had no modern display, using a teletype, modified electric typewriter, or printer instead. Composite signal Early home computers such as the Apple II and the Commodore 64 used a composite signal output to drive a CRT monitor or TV. This resulted in degraded resolution due to compromises in the broadcast TV standards used. This method is still used with video game consoles. The Commodore monitor had S-Video input to improve resolution. Digital monitors Early digital monitors are sometimes known as TTLs because the voltages on the red, green, and blue inputs are compatible with TTL logic chips. Later digital monitors support LVDS, or TMDS protocols. TTL monitors IBM PC with green monochrome display. An amber monochrome computer monitor, manufactured in 2007, which uses a 15-pin SVGA connector just like a standard color monitor. Monitors used with the MDA, Hercules, CGA, and EGA graphics adapters used in early IBM PC's (Personal Computer) and clones were controlled via TTL logic. Such monitors can usually be identified by a male DB-9 connector used on the video cable. The disadvantage of TTL monitors was the limited number of colors available due to the low number of digital bits used for video signaling. Modern monochrome monitors use the same 15-pin SVGA connector as standard color monitors. They are capable of displaying 32-bit grayscale at 1024x768 resolution, making them able to interface with modern computers. TTL Monochrome monitors only made use of five out of the nine pins. One pin was used as a ground, and two pins were used for horizontal/vertical synchronization. The electron gun was controlled by two separate digital signals, a video bit, and an intensity bit to control the brightness of the drawn pixels. Only four shades were possible; black, dim, medium or bright. CGA monitors used four digital signals to control the three electron guns used in color CRTs, in a signaling method known as RGBI, or Red Green and Blue, plus Intensity. Each of the three RGB colors can be switched on or off independently. The intensity bit increases the brightness of all guns that are switched on, or if no colors are switched on the intensity bit will switch on all guns at a very low brightness to produce a dark grey. A CGA monitor is only capable of rendering 16 colors. The CGA monitor was not exclusively used by PC based hardware. The Commodore 128 could also utilize CGA monitors. Many CGA monitors were capable of displaying composite video via a separate jack. EGA monitors used six digital signals to control the three electron guns in a signaling method known as RrGgBb. Unlike CGA, each gun is allocated its own intensity bit. This allowed each of the three primary colors to have four different states (off, soft, medium, and bright) resulting in 64 colors. Although not supported in the original IBM specification, many vendors of clone graphics adapters have implemented backwards monitor compatibility and auto detection. For example, EGA cards produced by Paradise could operate as an MDA, or CGA adapter if a monochrome or CGA monitor was used in place of an EGA monitor. Many CGA cards were also capable of operating as MDA or Hercules card if a monochrome monitor was used. Single color screens Display colors other than white were very popular on monochrome monitors in the 1980s. These colors were more comfortable on the eye. This was particularly an issue at the time due to the lower refresh rates in use at the time causing flicker, plus the use of less comfortable color schemes than used with most of today's software. Green screens were the most popular color, with amber displays also available. 'Paper white' was also in use, which was a warm white. Modern technology Analog monitors Most modern computer displays can show an infinite number of different colors in the RGB color space by changing red, green, and blue analog video signals in continuously variable intensities. These have been almost exclusively progressive scan since the middle 1980s. While many early plasma and liquid crystal displays have exclusively analog connections, all signals in such monitors pass through a completely digital section prior to display. While many similar connectors (13W3, BNC, etc…) were used on other platforms, the IBM PC and compatible systems long ago standardized on the VGA connector. All of these connectors deliver nearly flawless high resolution video which vastly outclasses that of a TV. Digital and analog combination The first popular external digital monitor connectors, such as DVI-I and the various breakout connectors based on it, included both analog signals compatible with VGA and digital signals compatible with new flat-screen displays in the same connector. This made the connector nearly painless for users of both technologies. Digital monitors Newer connectors are being made which have digital only video signals. Many of these, such as HDMI and DisplayPort, also feature integrated audio and data connections. One less popular feature most of these connectors share are DRM encrypted signals, although the HDCP technology responsible for implementing the protection was necessarily rudimentary to meet cost constraints, and was primarily a barrier aimed towards dissuading average consumers from creating exact duplicates without a noticeable loss in image quality. Configuration and usage Multiple monitors More than one monitor can be attached to the same device. Each display can operate in two basic configurations: The simpler of the two is mirroring (sometimes cloning,) in which at least two displays are showing the same image. It is commonly used for presentations. Hardware with only one video output can be tricked into doing this with an external splitter device, commonly built into many video projectors as a pass through connection. The more sophisticated of the two, extension allows each monitor to display a different image, so as to form a contiguous area of arbitrary shape. This requires software support and extra hardware, and may be locked out on "low end" products by crippleware. Primitive software is incapable of recognizing multiple displays, so spanning must be used, in which case a very large virtual display is created, and then pieces are split into multiple video outputs for separate monitors. Hardware with only one video output can be tricked into doing this with an expensive external splitter device, this is most often used for very large composite displays made from many smaller monitors placed edge to edge. Multiple video sources Multiple devices can be connected to the same monitor using a video switch. In the case of computers, this usually takes the form of a "Keyboard Video Mouse switch" (KVM) switch, which is designed to switch all of the user interface devices for a workstation between different computers at once. Virtual displays Much software and video hardware supports the ability to create additional, virtual pieces of desktop, commonly known as workspaces. Spaces is Apple's implementation of virtual displays. Additional features Power saving Most modern monitors will switch to a power-saving mode if no video-input signal is received. This allows modern operating systems to turn off a monitor after a specified period of inactivity. This also extends the monitor's service life. Some monitors will also switch themselves off after a time period on standby. Most modern laptops provide a method of screen dimming after periods of inactivity or when the battery is in use. This extends battery life and reduces wear. Integrated accessories Many monitors have other accessories (or connections for them) integrated. This places standard ports within easy reach and eliminates the need for another separate hub, camera, microphone, or set of speakers. Integrated accessories are often of substandard quality. Glossy screen Some displays, especially newer LCD monitors, replace the traditional anti-glare matte finish with a glossy one. While this is ostensibly done to increase saturation and sharpness, its benefits and drawbacks are extremely contentious among consumers. Directional screen Narrow viewing angle screens are used in some security conscious applications. Autopolyscopic screen A specially designed directional screen which generates 3D images without headgear, distortion or eyestrain. Touch screen These monitors use touching of the screen as an input method. Items can be selected or moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used to convey commands. This does however mean the screen needs frequent cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints. Tablet screens A combination of a monitor with a graphics tablet. Such devices are typically unresponsive to touch, but may offer sensitivity to one or more special tools' pressure, tilt, controls, opposite ends, and multiple tools. Major manufacturers Acer Apple Inc. BenQ Dell Eizo Hewlett-Packard HannStar Display Corporation Iiyama Corporation Samsung Tyco Electronics See also Flat panel display References be-x-old:Манітор | Computer_monitor |@lemmatized flat:5 panel:2 lcd:24 monitor:77 visual:2 display:72 unit:3 often:4 call:4 simply:1 piece:3 electrical:1 equipment:2 image:32 generate:6 video:26 output:7 device:11 computer:20 without:5 produce:8 permanent:2 record:1 new:4 typically:5 consist:1 tft:2 thin:2 film:2 transistor:2 liquid:3 crystal:3 old:5 base:5 around:2 cathode:5 ray:4 tube:18 crt:25 almost:4 mainstream:1 sell:2 market:1 comprise:1 simple:1 circuitry:2 format:2 picture:6 send:2 signal:14 source:3 usually:6 enclosure:1 within:3 either:3 integral:1 section:3 modular:1 component:1 adapter:4 compatible:5 screen:39 size:12 diagonal:5 rectangular:2 round:4 measurement:4 also:13 diameter:3 give:2 distance:3 two:8 opposite:2 corner:1 one:16 problem:6 method:9 distinguish:1 aspect:4 ratio:11 identical:1 spite:1 fact:1 shape:2 span:1 area:6 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3,777 | Ludwig_van_Beethoven | Ludwig van Beethoven (; , 16 December 1770 Beethoven was baptized on 17 December; his date of birth—usually given as 16 December—is not known with certainty – 26 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. He was a crucial figure in the transitional period between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western classical music, and remains one of the most acclaimed and influential of all composers. Born in Bonn, then in the Electorate of Cologne in western Germany, he moved to Vienna in his early twenties and settled there, studying with Joseph Haydn and quickly gaining a reputation as a virtuoso pianist. Beethoven's hearing gradually deteriorated beginning in his twenties, yet he continued to compose, and to conduct and perform, even after he was completely deaf. Biography Kurfürstliches Schloss (Electoral Prince's Castle) in Bonn, where the Beethoven family had been active since the 1730s Background and early life Beethoven was the grandson of a musician of Flemish origin who was also named Ludwig van Beethoven (1712–1773). The surname Beethoven is probably a corruption from Bettenhoven (Bettincourt in French), a village near Waremme, at the boundary of the Belgian provinces of Liège and Limburg. As of 1733 the elder Ludwig had served as a bass singer in the court of the Elector of Cologne. He rose through the ranks of the musical establishment, eventually becoming Kapellmeister (music director). The elder Ludwig had one son, Johann van Beethoven (1740–1792), who worked as a tenor in the same musical establishment, also giving lessons on piano and violin to supplement his income. Grove Online, section 1 Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767; she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, who had been the head chef at the court of the Archbishopric of Trier. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 49 House of birth, Bonn, Bonngasse Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn in December 1770, and was baptized on 17 December 1770. Children of that era were usually baptized the day after birth, but there is no documentary evidence that this occurred in Beethoven's case. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 53 It is known that his family and his teacher Johann Albrechtsberger celebrated his birthday on 16 December. Thus, while the evidence supports the probability that 16 December 1770 was Beethoven's date of birth, this cannot be stated with certainty. This is discussed in depth in Solomon, chapter 1. Of the seven children born to Johann Beethoven, only second-born Ludwig and two younger brothers survived infancy. Caspar Anton Carl was born in 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born in 1776. Stanley, p. 7 Beethoven's first music teacher was his father. A traditional belief concerning Johann is that he was a harsh instructor, and that the child Beethoven, "made to stand at the keyboard, was often in tears". Concerning this, the New Grove indicates that there is no solid documentation to support it, and asserts that "speculation and myth-making have both been productive." Beethoven had other local teachers as well: the court organist van den Eeden, Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer (a family friend, who taught Beethoven piano), and a relative, Franz Rovantini (violin and viola). His musical talent manifested itself early—apparently he was advanced enough to perform at the age of nine, not seven as popularly believed. Johann, aware of Leopold Mozart's successes in this area, attempted unsuccessfully to exploit his son as a child prodigy. It was Johann who falsely claimed Beethoven was six (he was seven) on the posters for Beethoven's first public performance in March 1778. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 59 Some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Court's Organist in that year. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 67 Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition: a set of keyboard variations (WoO 63). Stanley, p. 7 Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, first on an unpaid basis (1781), and then as paid employee (1784) of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named "Kurfürst" ("Elector") for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Frederick, were published in 1783. Maximilian Frederick, who died in 1784, not long after Beethoven's appointment as assistant organist, had noticed Beethoven's talent early, and had subsidized and encouraged the young Beethoven's musical studies. Thayer, Vol 1, pp. 71–74 Maximilian Frederick's successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Franz, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, and he brought notable changes to Bonn. Echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts. The teenage Beethoven was almost certainly influenced by these changes. He may also have been strongly influenced at this time by ideas prominent in freemasonry, as Neefe and others around Beethoven were members of the local chapter of the Order of the Illuminati. Cooper (2008), p. 15 In March 1787 Beethoven traveled to Vienna (it is unknown at whose expense) for the first time, apparently in the hope of studying with Mozart. The exact details of their relationship are uncertain, including whether or not they actually met. Cooper (2008), p. 23 After just two weeks there Beethoven learned that his mother was severely ill, and he was forced to return home. His mother died shortly thereafter, and the father lapsed deeper into alcoholism. As a result, Beethoven became responsible for the care of his two younger brothers, and he spent the next five years in Bonn. Cooper (2008), p. 24 Beethoven was introduced to a number of people who became important in his life in these years. Franz Wegeler, a young medical student, introduced him to the von Breuning family (one of whose daughters Wegeler eventually married). Beethoven was often at the von Breuning household, where he was exposed to German and classical literature, and where he also gave piano instruction to some of the children. The von Breuning family environment was also less stressful than his own, which was increasingly dominated by his father's strict control and descent into alcoholism. Cooper (2008), p. 16 It is also in these years that Beethoven came to the attention of Count Ferdinand von Waldstein, who became a lifelong friend and financial supporter. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 102 A portrait of the thirteen-year-old Beethoven by an unknown Bonn master(c. 1783) In 1789, he obtained a legal order by which half of his father's salary was paid directly to him for support of the family. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 104 He also contributed further to the family's income by playing viola in the court orchestra. This familiarized Beethoven with a variety of operas, including three of Mozart's operas performed at court in this period. He also befriended Anton Reicha, a flautist and violinist of about his own age who was the conductor's nephew. Thayer, Vol 1, pp. 105–109 Establishing his career in Vienna With the Elector's help, Beethoven moved to Vienna in 1792. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 124 He was probably first introduced to Joseph Haydn in late 1790, when the latter was traveling to London and stopped in Bonn around Christmastime. Cooper (2008), p. 35 They definitely met in Bonn on Haydn's return trip from London to Vienna in July 1792, and it is likely that arrangements were made at that time for Beethoven to study with the old master. Cooper (2008), p. 41 In the intervening years, Beethoven composed a significant number of works (none were published at the time, and most are now listed as works without opus) that demonstrated a growing range and maturity of style. Musicologists have identified a theme similar to those of his third symphony in a set of variations written in 1791. Cooper (2008), pp. 35–41 Beethoven left Bonn for Vienna in November 1792, amid rumors of war spilling out of France, and learned shortly after his arrival that his father had died. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 148 Count Waldstein in his farewell note to Beethoven wrote: "Through uninterrupted diligence you will receive Mozart's spirit through Haydn's hands." Cooper (2008), p. 42 Beethoven responded to the widespread feeling that he was a successor to the recently-deceased Mozart over the next few years by studying that master's work and writing works with distinctly Mozartean flavor. Cooper (2008), p. 43 Beethoven did not immediately set out to establish himself as a composer, but rather devoted himself to study and to piano performance. Working under Haydn's direction Grove Online, section 3 he sought to master counterpoint, and he also took violin lessons from Ignaz Schuppanzigh. Cooper (2008), pp. 47,54 Early in this time he also began receiving occasional instruction from Antonio Salieri, primarily in Italian vocal composition style; this relationship persisted until at least 1802, and possibly 1809. Thayer, Vol 1, p. 161 With Haydn's departure for England in 1794, Beethoven was expected by the Elector to return home. He chose instead to remain in Vienna, continuing the instruction in counterpoint with Johann Albrechtsberger and other teachers. Although his stipend from the Elector expired, a number of Viennese noblemen had already recognized his ability and offered him financial support, among them Prince Joseph Franz Lobkowitz, Prince Karl Lichnowsky, and Baron Gottfried van Swieten. Cooper (2008), p. 53 By 1793, Beethoven established a reputation in Vienna as a piano virtuoso and improviser in the salons of the nobility, often playing the preludes and fugues of J. S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier. Milton Cross, David Ewen, The Milton Cross New Encyclopedia of the Great Composers and Their Music, Doubleday 1953 p79 His friend Nikolaus Simrock had also begun publishing his compositions; the first are believed to be a set of variations (WoO 66). Cooper (2008), p. 46 Beethoven's first public performance in Vienna was in March 1795, a concert in which he debuted a piano concerto. It is uncertain whether this was the First or Second, as documentary evidence is unclear, and both concertos were in a similar state of near-completion (neither was completed or published for several years). Lockwood (2005), p. 144 Shortly after this performance he arranged for the publication of the first of his compositions to which he assigned an opus number, the piano trios of Opus 1. These works were dedicated to his patron Prince Lichnowsky. Cooper (2008), p. 59 Beethoven in 1803 During his early career as a composer, Beethoven concentrated first on works for piano solo, then string quartets, symphonies, and other genres. This was a pattern he was to repeat in the "late" period of his career. Twelve of Beethoven's famous series of 32 piano sonatas date from before 1802, and could be considered early-period works; of these, the most celebrated today is probably the "Pathétique", Op. 13. The first six quartets were published as a set (Op. 18) in 1800, and the First and Second Symphonies premiered in 1800 and 1802. By 1800, with the premiere of his First Symphony, Beethoven was already considered one of the most important of a generation of young composers who followed after Haydn and Mozart. All musical authorities agree that Beethoven's early work was closely modeled on that of Haydn and Mozart. However, Beethoven's own musical personality is still very much evident even at this stage. This is seen, for instance, in his frequent use of the musical dynamic sforzando, found even in the early "Kurfürst" sonatas for piano that Beethoven wrote as a child. Some of the longer piano sonatas of the 1790s are written in a rather discursive style quite unlike their models, making use of the so-called "three-key exposition". In this time he settled into a career pattern he would follow for the remainder of his life: rather than working for the church or a noble court (as most composers before him had done), he supported himself through a combination of annual stipends or single gifts from members of the aristocracy; income from subscription concerts, concerts, and lessons; and proceeds from sales of his works. Teaching and financial support Ludwig van Beethoven: detail of an 1804 portrait by W.J. Mähler Beethoven had few students. From 1801 to 1805, he tutored Ferdinand Ries, who would go on to become a composer and later published Beethoven remembered, a book about their encounters. Carl Czerny studied with Beethoven from 1801 to 1803. He went on to become a renowned music teacher himself, taking on Franz Liszt as one of his students. He also gave the Vienna premiere of Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 5 "Emperor" in 1812. Perhaps Beethoven's most important aristocratic patron was Archduke Rudolph, youngest son of Emperor Leopold II, who in 1803 or 1804 began to study piano and composition with Beethoven. The two became friends, and their meetings continued until 1824. Beethoven dedicated 14 compositions to Rudolph, including the Archduke Trio (1811) and his great Missa Solemnis (1823). Rudolph, in turn, dedicated one of his own compositions to Beethoven. The letters Beethoven wrote to Rudolph are today kept at the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna. Other important patrons were Prince Lichnowsky, with whom Beethoven had a falling out in 1806, Count Franz Joseph Kinsky, and Prince Joseph Franz Maximilian Lobkowitz. In the fall of 1808, after having been rejected for a position at the royal theatre, Beethoven received an offer from Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte, then king of Westphalia, for a well-paid position as Kapellmeister at the court in Cassel. To persuade him to stay in Vienna, the Archduke Rudolf, Count Kinsky and Prince Lobkowitz, after receiving representations from the composer's friends, pledged to pay Beethoven a pension of 4000 florins a year. Only Archduke Rudolf paid his share of the pension on the agreed date. Kinsky, immediately called to duty as an officer, did not contribute and soon died after falling from his horse. Lobkowitz stopped paying in September 1811. No successors came forward to continue the patronage, and Beethoven relied mostly on selling composition rights and a smaller pension after 1815. Loss of hearing Around 1796, Beethoven began to lose his hearing. Grove Online, section 5 He suffered a severe form of tinnitus, a "ringing" in his ears that made it hard for him to perceive and appreciate music; he also avoided conversation. The cause of Beethoven's deafness is unknown, but it has variously been attributed to syphilis, lead poisoning, typhus, and even his habit of immersing his head in cold water to stay awake. The oldest explanation, from the autopsy of the time, is that he had a "distended inner ear" which developed lesions over time. Russell Martin has shown from analysis done on a sample of Beethoven's hair that there were alarmingly high levels of lead in Beethoven's system. High concentrations of lead can lead to bizarre and erratic behaviour, including rages. Another symptom of lead poisoning is deafness. In Beethoven's time, lead was used widely without an understanding of the damage to which it could lead: for sweetening wine, in finishes on porcelain, and even in medicines. The investigation of this link was detailed in the book, Beethoven's Hair: An Extraordinary Historical Odyssey and a Scientific Mystery Solved. However, while the likelihood of lead poisoning is very high, the deafness associated with it seldom takes the form that Beethoven exhibited. He lived for a time in the small Austrian town of Heiligenstadt, just outside Vienna. Here he wrote his Heiligenstadt Testament, which records his resolution to continue living for and through his art. Over time, his hearing loss became profound: there is a well-attested story that, at the end of the premiere of his Ninth Symphony, he had to be turned around to see the tumultuous applause of the audience; hearing nothing, he began to weep. "Some Tributes to Beethoven in English Verse" — Felix White The Musical Times, Vol. 68, No. 1010 (1 April 1927) mentions this Beethoven's hearing loss did not prevent his composing music, but it made concerts—lucrative sources of income—increasingly hard. After a failed attempt in 1811 to perform his own Piano Concerto No. 5 (the "Emperor"), he never performed in public again. Beethoven in 1815 Beethoven used a special rod attached to the soundboard on a piano that he could bite—the vibrations would then transfer from the piano to his jaw to increase his perception of the sound. A large collection of his hearing aids such as special ear horns can be viewed at the Beethoven House Museum in Bonn, Germany. Despite his obvious distress, however, Carl Czerny remarked that Beethoven could still hear speech and music normally until 1812. By 1814 however, Beethoven was almost totally deaf, and when a group of visitors saw him play a loud arpeggio or thundering bass notes at his piano remarking, "Ist es nicht schön?" (Isn't that beautiful?), they felt deep sympathy considering his courage and sense of humor. An incident described in Maynard Solomon's biography. As a result of Beethoven's hearing loss, a unique historical record has been preserved: his conversation books. His friends wrote in the book so that he could know what they were saying, and he then responded either orally or in the book. The books contain discussions about music and other issues, and give insights into his thinking; they are a source for investigation into how he felt his music should be performed, and also his perception of his relationship to art. Unfortunately, 264 out of a total of 400 conversation books were destroyed (and others were altered) after Beethoven's death by Anton Schindler, in his attempt to paint an idealized picture of the composer. Clive, p. 239 The Middle period Beethoven in 1814. Portrait by Louis-René Létronne Around 1802 Beethoven declared "I am but lately little satisfied with my works, I shall take a new way." The first major work of this new way was the "Eroica" Symphony No. 3 in E flat. While other composers had written symphonies with implied programs, or stories, this symphony was longer and larger in scope than any other written. It made huge demands on the players, because at that time there were few orchestras devoted to concert music that were independent of royal or aristocratic patrons, and hence performance standards at concerts were often haphazard. Nevertheless, it was a success. The Eroica was one of the first works of Beethoven's so-called "Middle period", or "Heroic Period", a time when Beethoven composed highly ambitious works, often heroic in tone, that extended the scope of the classical musical language Beethoven had inherited from Haydn and Mozart. The Middle period work includes the Third through Eighth Symphonies, the string quartets 7–11, the Waldstein and Appassionata piano sonatas, his only oratorio, Christ on the Mount of Olives, the opera Fidelio, the Violin Concerto and many other compositions. During this time Beethoven earned his living partly from the sale and performance of his work, and partly from subsidies granted by various wealthy nobles who recognized his ability. The work of the Middle period established Beethoven's reputation as a great composer. In a review from 1810, he was enshrined by E. T. A. Hoffman as one of the three great "Romantic" composers; Hoffman called Beethoven's Fifth Symphony "one of the most important works of the age". Life mask made in 1812 A particular trauma for Beethoven occurred during this period in 1809, when the attacking forces of Napoleon bombarded Vienna. Beethoven, very worried that the noise would destroy what remained of his hearing, hid in the basement of his brother's house, covering his ears with pillows. He was composing the "Emperor" Concerto at the time. The Middle period ended with a flourish around 1812, with the Seventh and Eighth Symphonies and the third—and at last, successful—version of Fidelio. It was around this time that Beethoven's popularity with the contemporary public reached its apogee, and he was almost universally regarded as the greatest of living composers. Romantic difficulties Beethoven never married, although he was engaged to Giulietta Guiccardi. Her father was the main obstacle to their marriage. Giulietta's marriage to a nobleman was unhappy, and when it ended in 1822, she attempted unsuccessfully to return to Beethoven. His only other documented love affair with an identified woman began in 1805 with Josephine von Brunswick, young widow of the Graf von Deym. It is believed the relationship ended by 1807 because of Beethoven's indecisiveness and the disapproval of Josephine's aristocratic family. Landon In 1812, Beethoven wrote three love letters to an "Immortal Beloved." Several possible addressees (male and female) have been suggested, with the most likely being Antonie Brentano. Beethoven in 1818 by August Klöber Custody struggle On 15 November 1815 Beethoven's brother Karl van Beethoven died of consumption leaving a son, Karl, Beethoven's nephew. Although Beethoven had apparently shown little interest in the boy up to this point, he now became obsessed with obtaining custody of this nine-year old child from his mother, Johanna — whom Beethoven despised and considered an unfit parent. The fight for custody of his nephew brought out the very worst aspects of Beethoven's character. In the lengthy court cases Beethoven stopped at nothing to ensure that he achieved this goal. During this time Beethoven stopped composing for long periods. The Austrian court system had one court for the nobility, The R&I Landrechte, and another for commoners, The Civil Court of the Magistrate. Beethoven disguised the fact that the Dutch "van" in his name did not denote nobility as does the German "von", On 18 December 1818, The Landrechte, the Austrian court for the nobility, handed over the whole matter of guardianship to the Stadtmagistrat, the court for commoners " It .... appears from the statement of Ludwig van Beethoven, as the accompanying copy of the court minutes of 11 December of this year shows, that he is unable to prove nobility: hence the matter of guardianship is transferred to an honorable magistrate" Landrechte of the Magisterial tribunal. and his case was tried in the Landrechte. Owing to his influence with the court, Beethoven felt assured of a favorable outcome. Beethoven was awarded sole guardianship. While giving evidence to the Landrechte, however, Beethoven inadvertently admitted that he was not nobly born. The case was transferred to the Magistracy on 18 December 1818, where he lost sole guardianship. Beethoven appealed, and regained custody of Karl. Johanna's appeal for justice to the Emperor was not successful: the Emperor "washed his hands of the matter". Beethoven stopped at nothing to blacken her name, as can be read in surviving court papers. When Karl could stand his tyrannical uncle no longer, he attempted suicide on 31 July 1826 by shooting himself in the head. He survived, and later asked to be taken to his mother's house. Late works Beethoven in 1823; copy of a destroyed portrait by Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller There soon followed a deep crisis in Beethoven's personal life, and possibly in his artistic life as well. His output dropped, and one critic even wrote that "the composing of great works seems behind him". The few works that date from this period are often of an experimental character. They include the song cycle "An die ferne Geliebte" and the Piano Sonata, Op. 90, works which inspired later generations of Romantic composers. This period also produced the extraordinarily expressive, but almost incoherent, song "An die Hoffnung" (Opus 94). Beethoven began a renewed study of older music, including works by J. S. Bach and Handel, then being published in the first attempts at complete editions. He composed the Consecration of the House Overture, which was the first work to attempt to incorporate his new influences. But it is when he returned to the keyboard to compose his first new piano sonatas in almost a decade, that a new style, now called his "late period", emerged. The works of the late period are commonly held to include the last five piano sonatas and the Diabelli Variations, the last two sonatas for cello and piano, the late quartets (see below), and two works for very large forces: the Missa Solemnis and the Ninth Symphony. Beethoven then turned to writing string quartets on a commission from Prince Nikolay Golitsin of St. Petersburg. The war between Austria and France had devastated his finances, and the Prince was to pay an honorarium of 50 gold ducats per quartet. This series of quartets, known as the "Late Quartets", would go far beyond what either musicians or audiences were ready for at that time. One musician commented that "we know there is something there, but we do not know what it is." Composer Louis Spohr called them "indecipherable, uncorrected horrors," though that opinion has changed considerably from the time of their first bewildered reception. They would continue to inspire musicians and composers, from Richard Wagner to Béla Bartók, for their unique forms and ideas. Of the late quartets, Beethoven's favourite was the Fourteenth Quartet, op. 131 in C# minor, upon hearing which Schubert is said to have remarked, "After this, what is left for us to write?" Beethoven wrote the last quartets amidst failing health. In 1821, a bad case of jaundice afflicted him, a sign of his impending liver failure. In April 1825 he was bedridden, and remained ill for about a month. The illness—or more precisely, Beethoven's recovery from it—is remembered for having given rise to the deeply felt slow movement of the Fifteenth Quartet, which Beethoven called "Holy song of thanks ('Heiliger dankgesang') to the divinity, from one made well". Beethoven went on to complete the (misnumbered) Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Sixteenth Quartets. The last work completed by Beethoven was the substitute final movement of the Thirteenth Quartet, deemed necessary to replace the difficult Große Fuge. Shortly thereafter (December 1826), illness struck again, with episodes of vomiting and diarrhea that nearly ended his life. Illness and death Beethoven grave, Vienna Zentralfriedhof After Beethoven lost custody of his nephew, he went into a decline that led to his death on Monday 26 March 1827 1827 Calendar during a thunderstorm. Viennese pathologist and forensic expert Christian Reiter (head of the Department of Forensic Medicine at Vienna Medical University) claimed that Beethoven's physician, Andreas Wawruch, inadvertently hastened Beethoven's death. According to Reiter, Wawruch worsened Beethoven's already lead poisoned condition with lead poultices applied after repeated surgical draining of his bloated abdomen. Reiter's hypothesis, however, is at odds with Wawruch's written instruction "that the wound was kept dry all the time". Furthermore human hair is a very bad biomarker for lead contamination and Reiter's hypothesis must be considered dubious, because of the lack of proper scholarly documentation in his article. Josef Eisinger: "The lead in Beethoven's hair", Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, Volume 90, Issue 1 January 2008, pp. 1–5 Unlike Mozart, who was buried in a common grave (as was the custom at the time), 20,000 Viennese citizens lined the streets at Beethoven's funeral on 29 March 1827. Franz Schubert was a torch bearer. Beethoven was buried in the Währing cemetery, west of Vienna. His remains were moved in 1888 to Vienna's Zentralfriedhof. Character Beethoven's personal life was troubled due to his encroaching deafness which led him to contemplate suicide (documented in his Heiligenstadt Testament). Beethoven was often irascible and may have suffered from bipolar disorder Beethoven bipolar? http://www.gazette.uottawa.ca/article_e_1529.html and irritability brought on by chronic abdominal pain beginning in his twenties that has been attributed to possible lead poisoning. Cold Case in Vienna: Who Killed Beethoven? — CBS News Nevertheless, he had a close and devoted circle of friends all his life, thought to have been attracted by his reputed strength of personality. Towards the end of his life, Beethoven's friends competed in their efforts to help him cope with his incapacities. Grove Online Sources show Beethoven's disdain for authority, and for social rank. He stopped performing at the piano if the audience chatted among themselves, or afforded him less than their full attention. At soirées, he refused to perform if suddenly called upon to do so. Eventually, after many confrontations, the Archduke Rudolph decreed that the usual rules of court etiquette did not apply to Beethoven. Beliefs and their musical influence A bust based upon Beethoven's death mask. Beethoven was attracted to the ideals of the Enlightenment. In 1804, when Napoleon's imperial ambitions became clear, Beethoven took hold of the title-page of his Third Symphony and scratched the name Bonaparte out so violently that he made a hole in the paper. He later changed the work's title to "Sinfonia Eroica, composta per festeggiare il sovvenire d'un grand'uom" ("Heroic Symphony, composed to celebrate the memory of a great man"), and he rededicated it to his patron, Prince Joseph Franz von Lobkowitz, at whose palace it was first performed. The fourth movement of his Ninth Symphony features an elaborate choral setting of Schiller's Ode An die Freude ("Ode to Joy"), an optimistic hymn championing the brotherhood of humanity. Scholars disagree about Beethoven's religious beliefs, and about the role they played in his work: see Ludwig van Beethoven's religious beliefs. It has been asserted, but not proven, that Beethoven was a Freemason. Ludwig van Beethoven — Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon Music Beethoven is acknowledged as one of the giants of classical music; occasionally he is referred to as one of the "three Bs" (along with Bach and Brahms) who epitomize that tradition. He was also a pivotal figure in the transition from 18th century musical classicism to 19th century romanticism, and his influence on subsequent generations of composers was profound. Overview Beethoven composed in a fairly wide variety of musical genres, and for a fairly wide variety of instrument combinations. His works for symphony orchestra include nine symphonies (of which the Ninth includes a chorus), and about a dozen pieces of "occasional" music. He wrote nine concerti for one or more soloists and orchestra, as well as four shorter works that include soloists accompanied by orchestra. Fidelio is the only opera he wrote; vocal works including orchestral accompaniment include two masses and a number of shorter works. His work for piano was extensive; 32 piano sonatas, and numerous shorter works, including arrangements (for piano solo or piano duet) of some of his other works. Works with piano accompaniment include 10 violin sonatas, 5 cello sonatas, and a sonata for french horn, as well as numerous lieder. The amount of chamber music produced by Beethoven was notable. In addition to the 16 string quartets, he wrote five works for string quintet, seven for piano trio, five for string trio, and more than a dozen works for a variety of combinations of wind instruments. The three periods Beethoven's compositional career is usually divided into Early, Middle, and Late periods. In this scheme, his early period is taken to last until about 1802, the middle period from about 1803 to about 1814, and the late period from about 1815. In his Early period, Beethoven's work was strongly influenced by his predecessors Haydn and Mozart, but he also explored new directions and gradually expanded the scope and ambition of his work. Some important pieces from the Early period are the first and second symphonies, the set of six string quartets Opus 18, the first two piano concertos, and the first dozen or so piano sonatas, including the famous Pathétique sonata, Op. 13 His Middle (Heroic) period began shortly after Beethoven's personal crisis brought on by his recognition of encroaching deafness. It is noted for large-scale works that express heroism and struggle. Middle-period works include six symphonies (Nos. 3–8), the last three piano concertos, the Triple Concerto and violin concerto, five string quartets (Nos. 7–11), several piano sonatas (including the Moonlight, Waldstein and Appassionata sonatas), the Kreutzer violin sonata and Beethoven's only opera, Fidelio. Beethoven's Late period began around 1815. Works from this period are characterized by their intellectual depth, their formal innovations, and their intense, highly personal expression. The String Quartet, Op. 131 has seven linked movements, and the Ninth Symphony adds choral forces to the orchestra in the last movement. Other compositions from this period include the Missa Solemnis, the last five string quartets (including the massive Große Fuge) and the last five piano sonatas. References Sources Further reading Albrecht, Theodor, and Elaine Schwensen, "More Than Just Peanuts: Evidence for December 16 as Beethoven's birthday." The Beethoven Newsletter 3 (1988): 49, 60–63. Bohle, Bruce, and Robert Sabin. The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. London: J.M.Dent & Sons LTD, 1975. ISBN 0-460-04235-1. Davies, Peter J. The Character of a Genius: Beethoven in Perspective. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. ISBN 0-313-31913-8. Davies, Peter J. Beethoven in Person: His Deafness, Illnesses, and Death. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001. ISBN 0-313-31587-6. DeNora, Tia. "Beethoven and the Construction of Genius: Musical Politics in Vienna, 1792–1803." Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0-520-21158-8. Geck, Martin. Beethoven. Translated by Anthea Bell. London: Haus, 2003. ISBN 1-904341-03-9 (h), ISBN 1-904341-00-4 (p). Kropfinger, Klaus. Beethoven. Verlage Bärenreiter/Metzler, 2001. ISBN 3-7618-1621-9. Martin, Russell. Beethoven's Hair. New York: Broadway Books, 2000. ISBN 978-0767903509 Meredith, William. "The History of Beethoven's Skull Fragments." The Beethoven Journal 20 (2005): 3-46. Morris, Edmund. Beethoven: The Universal Composer. New York: Atlas Books / HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-075974-7. Rosen, Charles. The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. (Expanded ed.) New York: W. W. Norton, 1998. ISBN 0-393-04020-8 (hc); ISBN 0-393-31712-9 (pb). Solomon, Maynard. Late Beethoven: Music, Thought, Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. ISBN 0-520-23746-3. Thayer, A. W., rev and ed. Elliot Forbes. Thayer's Life of Beethoven. (2 vols.) Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09103-X External links General reference Mad About Beethoven by British television and radio announcer John Suchet Beethoven Depot. Contains all of his works in midi format. Beethoven's Letters 1790–1826, Volume 1, Volume 2. In English at Gutenberg.org. Beethoven: The Immortal. Introduction and detailed account of the composer's life. Articles include his deafness, demeanor, daily routine, medical history, final days, and letters. Beethoven-Haus Bonn. Official website of Beethoven-Haus in Bonn, Germany. Links to extensive studio and digital archive, library holdings, the Beethoven-Haus Museum (including "internet exhibitions" and "virtual visits"), the Beethoven-Archiv research center, and information on Beethoven publications of interest to the specialist and general reader. Extensive collection of Beethoven's compositions and written documents, with sound samples and a digital reconstruction of his last house in Vienna. Webcam pic from the Beethoven-Haus showing the rear of the building as photographed within the last minute. Raptus Association for Music Appreciation site on Beethoven One Stop Beethoven Resource — articles and facts about Beethoven from Aaron Green, guide to Classical Music at About.com. All About Ludwig van Beethoven Beethoven’s Personality and Music: The Introverted Romantic Specific topics Pictures of "Beethoven in Vienna and Baden". In French. Beethoven's Hair — trace the journey of Beethoven's Hair. The Guevara Lock of Beethoven's Hair, from The Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies. Hair analysis says Beethoven died of lead poisoning. CBC News, . Researchers confirm lead as cause of Beethoven's illness Argonne, Ill. (6 December 2005) Beethoven's last apartment in Vienna, digitally reconstructed 2004, on Multimedia CD-ROM edited by Beethoven-Haus Bonn Lists of works University of Quebec In French. Contains links to the works arranged according to various criteria, and to a concordance of the various catalogues. Comprehensive lists of works by opus, WoO, Hess, Biamonti Scores Free sheet music from Kreusch-sheet-music.net Beethoven scores from Mutopia Project Sibley Music Library resources Beethoven manuscripts at the British Library Recordings Musopen.com Free Public Domain MP3 Files, Including the Complete Piano Sonatas MP3 Creative Commons recordings from Magnatune Kunst der Fuge: hundreds of MIDI files The Unheard Beethoven — MIDI files of hundreds of Beethoven compositions never recorded and many that have never been published. Beethoven cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library. , a collection of information about commercial recordings. Performances of works by Beethoven in MP3 and MIDI formats at Logos Virtual Library The British Library Archival Sound Recordings online audio service includes 100 years of String Quartets. be-x-old:Людвіґ ван Бэтховэн | Ludwig_van_Beethoven |@lemmatized ludwig:10 van:12 beethoven:197 december:13 baptize:3 date:5 birth:4 usually:3 give:7 know:6 certainty:2 march:7 german:3 composer:20 pianist:2 crucial:1 figure:2 transitional:1 period:28 classical:7 romantic:5 era:2 western:2 music:24 remain:4 one:17 acclaimed:1 influential:1 bear:7 bonn:16 electorate:1 cologne:2 germany:3 move:3 vienna:24 early:13 twenty:3 settle:2 study:11 joseph:7 haydn:11 quickly:1 gain:1 reputation:3 virtuoso:2 hear:6 gradually:2 deteriorate:1 beginning:2 yet:1 continue:6 compose:10 conduct:2 perform:9 even:6 completely:1 deaf:2 biography:2 kurfürstliches:1 schloss:1 electoral:1 prince:10 castle:1 family:8 active:1 since:1 background:1 life:12 grandson:1 musician:5 flemish:1 origin:1 also:17 name:5 surname:1 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3,778 | Germanicus | for Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, Roman general, lived 38-9 BC, see Nero Claudius Drusus for Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Roman emperor, reigned AD 37-41, see Caligula for Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Roman emperor, reigned AD 41-54, see Claudius Germanicus Julius Caesar (24 May 16 BC or 15 BC – 10 October AD 19) was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. He was born in Lugdunum, Gaul (modern Lyon). At birth he was named either Nero Claudius Drusus after his father or Tiberius Claudius Nero after his uncle. He received the agnomen Germanicus, by which he is principally known, in 9 BC, when it was posthumously awarded to his father in honour of his victories in Germania. He was nephew of emperor Tiberius, father of emperor Caligula, brother of emperor Claudius, and maternal grandfather of emperor Nero. Early life Germanicus was raised and educated in Rome. His parents were general Nero Claudius Drusus (son of Empress Livia Drusilla, third wife of Emperor Augustus) and Antonia Minor (daughter of triumvir Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, sister of Augustus). Livilla and Claudius were his siblings. Germanicus married his maternal second cousin Agrippina the Elder, a granddaughter of Augustus, between 1 BC-5. They had nine children. Two died whilst very young, another Gaius Julius Caesar died in early childhood. The other six survived to grown age were Nero Caesar, Drusus Caesar, Caligula (born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, future Emperor), Julia Agrippina or Agrippina the Younger (future Empress and mother of Emperor Nero), Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. Germanicus became immensely popular among the citizens of Rome, who enthusiastically celebrated all his victories. He was also a favourite with Augustus, his great-uncle who for some time, considered him as heir to the Empire. In 4, at the persuasion of Livia (Augustus' wife), Augustus decided in favour of Tiberius, a stepson from Livia's first marriage. Augustus compelled Tiberius to adopt Germanicus as a son and name him as his heir (Tacitus, Annals IV.57). Upon his adoption by Tiberius his name was changed to Germanicus Julius Caesar. Germanicus assumed several military commands leading the army in the campaigns in Pannonia and Dalmatia. He is recorded to have been an excellent soldier and inspired leader, loved by the legions. In 12 he was appointed consul after five mandates as quaestor. Commander of Germania The death of Germanicus, by Nicholas Poussin, laments the passing of Rome's last Republican. After the death of Augustus in 14, the Senate appointed Germanicus commander of the forces in Germania. A short time after, the legions rioted on the news that their recruitments would not be marked back down to 16 years from the now standard 20. Refusing to accept this, the rebel soldiers cried for Germanicus as emperor. Germanicus put down this rebellion himself, to honour Augustus' choice and stamp out the mutiny, preferring to continue only as a general. In a bid to secure the loyalty of his troops and his own popularity with them and with the Roman people, he led them on a spectacular but brutal raid against the Marsi, a German tribe on the upper Ruhr river, in which he massacred much of the tribe. During each of the next two years, he led his 8-legion army into Germany against the coalition of tribes led by Arminius, which had successfully overthrown Roman rule in a rebellion in 9. His major success was the capture of Arminius' wife Thusnelda in May 15. He let Arminius' wife sleep in his quarters during the whole of the time she was a prisoner. He said, "They are women and they must be respected, for they will be citizens of Rome soon" . He was able to devastate large areas and eliminate any form of active resistance, but the majority of the Germans fled at the sight of the Roman army into remote forests. The raids were considered a success since the major goal of destroying any rebel alliance networks was completed. After visiting the site of the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, where 20,000 Romans had been killed in 9, and burying their remains, he launched a massive assault on the heartland of Arminius' tribe, the Cheruscans. Arminius initially lured Germanicus' cavalry into a trap and inflicted minor casualties, until successful fighting by the Roman infantry caused the Germans to break and flee into the forest. This victory, combined with the fact that winter was fast approaching, meant Germanicus's next step was to lead his army back to its winter quarters on the Rhine. In spite of doubts on the part of his uncle, Emperor Tiberius, Germanicus managed to raise another huge army and invaded Germany again the next year, in 16. He forced a crossing of the Weser near modern Minden, suffering heavy losses, and then met Arminius' army at Idistoviso, further up the Weser, near modern Rinteln, in an engagement often called the Battle of the Weser River. Germanicus's leadership and command qualities were shown in full at the battle as his superior tactics and better trained and equipped legions inflicted huge casualties on the German army with only minor losses. One final battle was fought at the Angivarian Wall west of modern Hanover, repeating the pattern of high German fatalities forcing them to flee. With his main objectives reached and with winter approaching Germanicus ordered his army back to their winter camps, with the fleet occasioning some damage by a storm in the North Sea. Although only a small number of soldiers died it was still a bad ending for a brilliantly fought campaign. After a few more raids across the Rhine, which resulted in the recovery of two of the three legion's eagles lost in 9, Germanicus was recalled to Rome and informed by Tiberius that he would be given a triumph and reassigned to a different command. Despite the successes enjoyed by his troops, Germanicus' German campaign was in reaction to the mutinous intentions of his troops, and lacked any strategic value. In addition he engaged the very German leader (Arminius) who had destroyed three Roman legions in 9, and exposed his troops to the remains of those dead Romans. Furthermore, in leading his troops across the Rhine, without recourse to Tiberius, he contradicted the advice of Augustus to keep that river as the boundary of the empire, and opened himself to doubts about his motives in such independent action. These errors in strategic and political judgement gave Tiberius reason enough to recall his nephew. David Shotter, Tiberius Caesar (London: Routledge, 1992) 35-37 Time spent in Asia and eventual death Agrippina landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus, Oil on canvas, c. 1768. Germanicus was then sent to Asia, where in 18 he defeated the kingdoms of Cappadocia and Commagene, turning them into Roman provinces. During a sightseeing trip to Egypt (not a regular province, but the personal property of the Emperor) he seems to have unwittingly usurped several imperial prerogatives. Shotter, 38 The following year he found that the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, had cancelled the provincial arrangements that he had made. Germanicus in turn ordered Piso's recall to Rome, although this action was probably beyond his authority. In the midst of this feud Germanicus died suddenly in Antioch. His death aroused much speculation, with several sources blaming Piso, under orders from Emperor Tiberius. This was never proven, and Piso later died while facing trial (ostensibly by suicide, but Tacitus supposes Tiberius may have had him murdered before he could implicate the emperor in Germanicus' death), because he feared the people of Rome knew of the conspiracy against Germanicus, but Tiberius' jealousy and fear of his cousin's popularity and increasing power was the true motive. The death of Germanicus in what can only be described as dubious circumstances greatly affected Tiberius' popularity in Rome, leading to the creation of a climate of fear in Rome itself. Also suspected of connivance in his death was Tiberius' chief advisor, Sejanus, who would then turn the empire into a frightful tyranny throughout the 20s, before himself being removed and executed by Tiberius in a bloody purge in 31. Posthumous honors When he died, Germanicus’ death brought much public grief in Rome and throughout the Roman Empire. His death was announced in Rome during December of 19. There was public mourning during the festive days in December. The historians Tacitus and Suetonius record the funeral and posthumous honors of Germanicus. At his funeral, there were no procession statues of Germanicus. There were abundant eulogies and reminders of his fine character. His posthumous honors included his name was placed into the following: the Carmen Saliare; the Curule chairs; placed as an honorary seat of the Brotherhood of Augustus and his coffin was crowned by oak-wreaths. Other honors include his ivory statue as head of procession of the Circus Games; his posts of priest of Augustus and Augur were to be filled by members of the imperial family; knights of Rome gave his name to a block of seats to a theatre in Rome. Arches were raised to him throughout the Roman Empire in particularly, arches that recorded his deeds and death at Rome, Rhine River and Nur Mountains. In Antioch, where he was cremated had a sepulchre and funeral monument dedicated to him. On the day of Germanicus’ death his sister Livilla gave birth to twins. The second, named Germanicus, died young. In 37, when Germanicus’ only remaining son, Caligula, became emperor and renamed September Germanicus in honour of his father. Many Romans considered him as their equivalent to King Alexander the Great and later emperors took on his name as a succession name. Literary activity Germanicus made a Latin version, which survives, of Aratus's Phainomena, for which reason he is ranked among Roman writers on astrology. His work was popular enough for scholia to be written on it, which have survived. Germanicus in historical fiction Robert Graves, in his historical novel I, Claudius, blames the death of Germanicus on Caligula, who was only seven at the time, but already a monster. See also Julio-Claudian family tree References External links (Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell'Umbria) "The Bronze Statue of Germanicus" of Amelia (Terni). 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3,779 | Geocaching | One of the most widely used symbols for Geocaching Geocaching is an outdoor treasure-hunting game in which the participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers (called "geocaches" or "caches") anywhere in the world. A typical cache is a small waterproof container (usually a tupperware or ammo box) containing a logbook and "treasure," usually toys or trinkets of little value. Geocaches are currently placed in over 100 countries around the world and on all seven continents, including Antarctica. History The GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating to illustrate GPS function as applied in Geocaching Geocaching is similar to the 150-year-old game letterboxing, which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. Geocaching was imagined shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from GPS on May 1, 2000, because the improved accuracy Improved GPS accuracy of the system allowed for a small container to be specifically placed and located. The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon. Geocaching.com http://www.geocaching.com/about/history.aspx The location was posted on the Usenet newsgroup sci.geo.satellite-nav as . By May 6, 2000, it had been found twice and logged once (by Mike Teague of Vancouver, Washington). According to Dave Ulmer's message, the original stash was a black plastic bucket buried most of the way in the ground and contained software, videos, books, food, money, and a slingshot. Origin of the name The activity was originally referred to as GPS stash hunt or gpsstashing. This was changed after a discussion in the gpsstash discussion group at eGroups (now Yahoo!). On May 30, 2000, Matt Stum suggested that "stash" could have negative connotations, and suggested instead "geocaching." Geocaches Geocache Pfalz Werla in Germany For the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container, containing a log book (with pen or pencil) and trinkets or some sort of treasures, then note the cache's coordinates. These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted on a website. Other geocachers obtain the coordinates from the Internet and seek out the cache using their GPS handheld receivers. The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online. Geocachers are free to take objects from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher value, so there is treasure for the next person to find. Typical cache treasures are not high in monetary value but may hold personal value to the finder. Aside from the logbook, common cache contents are unusual coins or currency, small toys, ornamental buttons, CDs, or books. Also common are objects that are moved from cache to cache, such as Travel Bugs or Geocoins, whose travels may be logged and followed online. Cachers who initially place a Travel Bug or Geocoin often assign specific goals for their trackable items. One such goal could be to pass it westward across the continent. Occasionally, higher value items are included in geocaches, normally reserved for the first to find, or "FTF", or in locations which are harder to reach. A Travel Bug Geocache container sizes range from containers as small as the tip of your little finger ("nanos"), to film canisters (often called "microcaches"), too small to hold anything more than a tiny paper log, to five-gallon buckets or even larger containers. If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen, it is said to have been "muggled" or "plundered." The former term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called "geo-muggles" or just muggles, a term popularised by the Harry Potter series of books. If a cacher discovers that a cache has been muggled, it can be logged as needing maintenance, which sends an e-mail to the cache owner so it can be repaired, replaced, or archived (deactivated). Variations Geocaches vary in size, difficulty, and location. Simple caches are often called "drive-bys," "park 'n grabs" ("PNGs"), or "cache and dash." Geocaches may also be complex, involving lengthy searches or significant travel. Examples include staged multi-caches; underwater caches, caches located 50 feet (15 m) up a tree, caches found only after long offroad drives, caches on high mountain peaks, caches located in challenging environments (such as Antarctica or north of the Arctic Circle ), and magnetic caches attached to metal structures and/or objects. Different geocaching websites list different variations per their own policies (e.g. Geocaching.com does not list new Webcam, Virtual, Locationless, or Moving geocaches). Variations of geocaches include: Traditional: The basic cache type, a traditional cache must include a log book of some sort. It may or may not include trade or trackable items. A traditional cache is distinguished from other cache variations in that the geocache is found at the coordinates given and involves only one stage. Multi-cache: This variation consists of multiple discoveries of one or more intermediate points containing the coordinates for the next stage; the final stage contains the log book and trade items. Offset: This cache is similar to the multi-cache except that the initial coordinates are for a location containing information that encodes the final cache coordinates. An example would be to direct the finder to a plaque where the digits of a date on the plaque correspond to coordinates of the final cache. Night Cache: These multi-stage caches are designed to be found at night and generally involve following a series of reflectors with a flashlight to the final cache location. Mystery/puzzle: This cache requires one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a false set of coordinates with a puzzle that must be solved to determine the final cache location. In other cases, the given location is accurate, but the name of the location or other features are themselves a puzzle leading to the final cache. Alternatively, additional information is necessary to complete the find, such as a padlock combination to access the cache. Letterbox Hybrid: A letterbox hybrid cache is a combination of a geocache and a letterbox in the same container. A letterbox has a rubber stamp and a logbook instead of tradable items. Letterboxers carry their own stamp with them, to stamp the letterbox's log book and inversely stamp their personal log book with the letterbox stamp. The hybrid cache contains the important materials for this and may or may not include trade items. Whether the letterbox hybrid contains trade items is up to the owner. Locationless/Reverse: This variation is similar to a scavenger hunt. A description is given for something to find, such as a one-room schoolhouse, and the finder locates an example of this object. The finder records the location using their GPS hand-held receiver and often takes a picture at the location showing the named object and his or her GPS receiver. Typically others are not allowed to log that same location as a find. Moving/Traveling: Similar to a traditional geocache, this variation is found at a listed set of coordinates. The finder uses the log book, trades trinkets, and then hides the cache in a different location. By updating this new location on the listing, the finder essentially becomes the hider, and the next finder continues the cycle. Virtual: Caches of this nature are coordinates for a location that does not contain the traditional box, log book, or trade items. Instead, the location contains some other described object. Validation for finding a virtual cache generally requires you to email the cache hider with information such as a date or a name on a plaque, or to post a picture of yourself at the site with GPS receiver in hand. Earthcache: A type of virtual-cache which is maintained by the Geological Society of America. The cacher usually has to perform a task which teaches him/her an educational lesson about the earth science of the cache area. Webcam: Similar to a virtual cache; there is no container, log book, or trade items for this cache type. Instead, the coordinates are for a location with a public webcam. Instead of signing a log book, the finder is often required to capture their image from the webcam for verification of the find. Event Cache: This is a gathering organized and attended by geocachers. Physical caches placed at events are often active only for the event date. Cache-In Trash-Out (CITO) Events: This variation on event caching is a coordinated activity of trash pickup and other maintenance to improve the environment. Mega Event: An event that is attended by over 500 people. Mega Events are typically annual events, usually attracting geocachers from all over the world. Wherigo cache: A Wherigo cache is similar to a multi-stage cache hunt that uses a Wherigo cartridge to guide the player. The player plays the cartridge and finds a physical cache sometime during cartridge play, usually at the end. Not all Wherigo cartridges incorporate geocaches into game play. Wherigo caches are unique to the geocaching.com website. Pirates: A short-lived phenomenon where rogue geocachers would steal caches, and then either: a) destroy the cache; b) hold it for ransom; or c) move it to another location, leaving only a note behind with the new location. A number of minor variations were also used. A late attempt was made by some pirates to legitimize the activity, by making it an opt-in, non-destructive activity. But by that time, pirates had generated so much ill-will among mainstream geocachers that they were drummed out of the sport. http://www.geocachingmaine.org/forum/archive/index.php/t-3174.html Obtaining data GPX files contain information such as a cache description and information about recent visitors to the cache. Geocachers may upload geocache data (also known as waypoints) from various websites in various formats, most commonly in file-type GPX, which uses XML. Some websites allow geocachers to search (build queries) for multiple caches within a geographic area based on criteria such as Zip Code or coordinates, downloading the results as an email attachment on a schedule. Although often a time-consuming process with many possibilities for error, appropriate client software allows cachers to build individual GPX files. Converting and filtering data A variety of geocaching applications are available for geocache data management, file-type translation, and personalization. Geocaching software can assign special icons or search (filter) for caches based on certain criteria (e.g. distance from an assigned point, difficulty, date last found). Paperless geocaching employs PDAs or other electronic devices to carry geocache information instead of paper. Various applications are able to directly upload and read GPX files without further conversion. Newer GPS devices released by Garmin have the ability to read GPX files directly, thus eliminating the need for a PDA. The release of numerous cellphones which have a GPS chip built in, has enabled another platform for paperless geocaching. An example of this is the iPhone http://www.tuaw.com/2008/07/19/iphone-101-geocaching-with-an-iphone-3g/ as well as some Nokia and Blackberry devices for which a Geocache Navigator application is available http://www.geocachenavigator.com/ . Ethics Individual geocaching websites have developed their own guidelines for acceptable geocache publications. Though not universally required, the Geocacher's Creed provides ethical search guidelines. Government agencies and others responsible for public use of land often establish their own guidelines for geocaching. Fredrick Kunkle, Geocaching Craze Pushes Officials To Set Guidelines, Washington Post, September 27, 2007. Retrieved March 11, 2008. Generally accepted rules are to not endanger others, to minimize the impact on nature, to respect private property, and to avoid public alarm. Problems Cachers have been approached by police and questioned when they were seen as acting suspiciously. Other times, investigation of a cache location after suspicious activity was reported has resulted in police and bomb squad discovery of the geocache. Schools have been occasionally evacuated when a cache has been seen by teachers or police, as in the case of Fairview High School in 2009. Geocache causes bomb scare, Auckland, new Zealand Bomb scare closes main entrance at the University of California, Santa Cruz on the morning of May 21, 2009. A number of caches have been destroyed by bomb squads. Geocaching is not illegal, and is usually positively received when explained to law enforcement officials (e.g. police officers). However, certain types of placements can be problematic. Although disallowed, hiders could place caches on private property (intentionally or otherwise), which encourages cache finders to trespass. Caches might also be hidden in places where the act of searching can make a finder look suspicious (e.g. skulking near schools, children's playgrounds or in residential neighborhoods), or where the container placement could be mistaken for a drug stash or potential bomb threat (often in urban settings, under bridges, near banks or embassies). Hides in these areas are discouraged, and cache listing websites enforce guidelines that disallow certain types of placements. However, as cache reviewers typically cannot see exactly where and how every particular cache is hidden, problematic hides can slip through. Ultimately it is also up to cache finders to use discretion when attempting to search for a cache, and report any problems. Websites Numerous websites list geocaches around the world. In the United States, where most geocaching services are hosted, only a cache's coordinates are in public domain. Other cache information, including the description, is protected by copyright law. Geocaching websites vary in active protection of cache data. First page The first website to list geocaches was announced by Mike Teague on May 8, 2000. On September 2, 2000, Jeremy Irish emailed the gpsstash mailing list that he had registered the domain name geocaching.com and had setup his own Web site. He copied the caches from Mike Teague's database into his own. On September 6, Mike Teague announced that Jeremy Irish was taking over cache listings. Geocaching.com Typical GPS receivers as used to locate the co-ordinates of a Geocache. A large site is Geocaching.com, owned by Groundspeak Inc., which began operating on September 2, 2000. With a worldwide membership, Geocaching.com lists hundreds of thousands of caches. As of May 2009 over 790,000 caches had been hidden with more created daily. Each cache is reviewed by regional cache reviewers before publication with an emphasis on family-oriented caching. Free basic membership allows users to see coordinates for most caches in its database; premium membership includes a fee for additional features, including advanced search tools and caches designed for premium members. Geocaching.com no longer lists new caches without a physical container, including locationless/reverse and webcam; however, older caches of these types have been grandfathered in (except for locationless/reverse, which are completely archived). Earthcaches are the exception to the no-container rule; they are caches in which players must answer geological questions to complete the cache. Groundspeak created a waymarking website to handle all other non-physical caches. Geocaching.com also supports the discovery of benchmarks, which are a location (only in the USA) "known to a high degree of accuracy" Benchmark Hunting Sometimes these can be metal disks, radio towers, or a bolt in central locations or on a highway. Their main purpose is for surveying an area. Geocaching gives the longitude and latitude to this location and the user must rely on given clues to find the benchmark. NaviCache Navicache.com started as a regional listing service around February 2001, but quickly gained popularity among those looking for a less restrictive alternatives to what was currently available. While many of Navicache.com's listings have been posted to other sites, they also offer many unique listings. Navicache.com also lists nearly any type of geocache (within reason) and does not charge to access any of the caches listed in their database. While all submissions are reviewed and approved, Navicache is more liberal in approving caches believing that the pastime belongs to participants rather than a governing agency. TerraCaching Terracaching seeks to provide high-quality caches made so by the difficulty of the hide or from the quality of the location. Membership is managed through a sponsorship system, and each cache is under continual peer review from other members. TerraCaching.com embraces virtual caches alongside traditional/multi-stage caches and includes many locationless caches among the thousands of caches in its database. It is increasingly attracting members who like the point system. In Europe TerraCaching is supported by TerraCaching.EU. This site is translated in different European languages, has an extended FAQ and extra supporting tools for TerraCaching. Other sites In many countries there are regional geocaching sites, but these do mostly only compile lists of caches in the area from the three main sites. Many of them also accept unique listings of caches for their site, but these listings tend to be less popular than the international sites. There are some exceptions though, e.g. in the former Soviet Union the site geocaching.su remains popular because it accepts listings in the cyrillic alphabet. Sites dedicated to the sport have cropped up all over the internet including CacherStats on which you can track statistics and CachingTree which helps cachers trace their roots in the sport. Online stores such as CoinsAndPins and GeoSwag are also popular. PodCacher is the home to the first geocaching podcast, aired weekly. See also Ad loc Benchmarking (geolocating) Dead drop Degree Confluence Project Geodashing Geohashing Letterboxing Location-based game Minnesota State Park Geocaching Challenge Orienteering Waymarking Wherigo Transmitter hunting Further reading The Essential Guide to Geocaching by Mike Dyer (ISBN 1-55591-522-1) The Complete Idiot's Guide to Geocaching by Jack W. Peters (ISBN 1-59257-235-9) Geocaching For Dummies by Joel McNamara (ISBN 978-0764575716) Geocaching: Hike and Seek with Your GPS by Erik Sherman (ISBN 978-1590591222) The Geocaching Handbook (Falcon Guide) by Layne Cameron and Dave Ulmer (ISBN 978-076273044) Let's Go Geocaching by DK Publishing (ISBN 978-0756637170) It's a Treasure Hunt! Geocaching & Letterboxing by Cq Products (ISBN 978-1563832680) Open Your Heart with Geocaching: Mastering Life Through Love of Exploration by Jeannette Cezanne (ISBN 978-1601660046) References External links The Geocaching Pedigree Project Geocaching Guides A Beginner’s Guide to Geocaching GeoLex - The Lexicon of Geocaching Comprehensive listing of the terms and abbreviations used in the geocaching world, and their meanings. TerraCaching 101 Introduction to TerraCaching How to go Geocaching: a WikiHow guide Policy information Geocaching Policy website Public land policies regarding Geocaching and related activities The Geocachers' Creed A voluntary set of principles for placing and hiding geocaches Cache in Trash Out Homepage be-x-old:Геакэшынг | Geocaching |@lemmatized one:6 widely:1 used:1 symbol:1 geocaching:50 outdoor:1 treasure:6 hunting:1 game:4 participant:2 use:12 global:1 positioning:1 system:4 gps:15 receiver:6 navigational:1 technique:1 hide:9 seek:4 container:12 call:4 geocaches:12 cache:101 anywhere:1 world:5 typical:3 small:5 waterproof:2 usually:6 tupperware:1 ammo:1 box:2 contain:10 logbook:4 toy:2 trinket:3 little:2 value:5 currently:2 place:9 country:2 around:3 seven:1 continent:2 include:13 antarctica:2 history:2 constellation:1 motion:1 earth:2 rotate:1 illustrate:1 function:1 apply:1 similar:7 year:1 old:3 letterboxing:3 clue:2 reference:2 landmark:1 embed:1 story:1 imagine:1 shortly:1 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3,780 | GNOME | GNOME () is a desktop environment—the graphical user interface which runs on top of a computer operating system—composed entirely of free software. It is an international project that includes creating software development frameworks, selecting application software for the desktop, and working on the programs which manage application launching, file handling, and window and task management. GNOME is part of the GNU Project and can be used with various Unix-like operating systems, most notably those built on top of the Linux kernel and the GNU system, and as part of Java Desktop System in Solaris. The name originally stood for GNU Network Object Model Environment. Aims The GNOME project puts heavy emphasis on simplicity, usability, and making things “just work”. The other aims of the project are: Freedom—to create a desktop environment that will always have the source code available for re-use under a free software license. Accessibility—ensuring the desktop can be used by anyone, regardless of technical skill or physical disability. Internationalization and localization—making the desktop available in many languages. At the moment GNOME is being translated to over 100 languages. Developer-friendliness—ensuring it is easy to write software that integrates smoothly with the desktop, and allow developers a free choice of programming language. Organization—a regular release cycle and a disciplined community structure. Support—ensuring backing from other institutions beyond the GNOME community. History In 1996, the KDE project was started. KDE was free software from the start, but members of the GNU project were concerned with KDE's dependence on the then non-free Qt widget toolkit. In August 1997, two projects were started in response to this issue: the Harmony toolkit (a free replacement for the Qt libraries) and GNOME (a different desktop not using Qt, but built entirely on top of free software). The initial project leaders for GNOME were Miguel de Icaza and Federico Mena. In place of the Qt toolkit, GTK+ was chosen as the base of the GNOME desktop. GTK+ uses the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a free software license that allows GPL-incompatible software (including proprietary software) to link to it. The GNOME desktop itself is licensed under the LGPL for its libraries, and the GPL for applications that are part of the GNOME project. Having the toolkit and libraries under the LGPL allowed applications written for GNOME to use a much wider set of licenses (including proprietary software licenses). In 1998, Qt became open source. While Qt was dual-licensed under both the QPL and the GPL, the freedom to link proprietary software with GTK+ at no charge made it differ from Qt. With Qt licensed under the GPL, the Harmony Project stopped its efforts at the end of 2000, as KDE did not depend on non-free software anymore. In contrast, as of 2009, the development of GNOME has not stopped. In March 2009, Qt 4.5 was released, adding another licensing option, the LGPL. Name The name “GNOME” was proposed as an acronym of GNU Network Object Model Environment by Elliot Lee, one of the authors of ORBit and the Object Activation Framework. It refers to GNOME’s original intention of creating a distributed object framework similar to Microsoft’s OLE. This no longer reflects the core vision of the GNOME project, and the full expansion of the name is now considered obsolete. As such, some members of the project advocate dropping the acronym and re-naming “GNOME” to “Gnome”. Evolution Project structure As with most free software projects, the GNOME project is loosely managed. Discussion chiefly occurs on a number of public mailing lists. In August 2000 the GNOME Foundation was set up to deal with administrative tasks and press interest and to act as a contact point for companies interested in developing GNOME software. While not directly involved in technical decisions, the Foundation does coordinate releases and decide which projects will be part of GNOME. Membership is open to anyone who has made a non-trivial contribution to the project. Members of the Foundation elect a board of directors every November, and candidates for the positions must be members themselves. Developers and users of GNOME gather at an annual meeting known as GUADEC in order to discuss the current state of the project and its future direction. GNOME often incorporates standards from freedesktop.org into itself to allow GNOME applications to appear more integrated into other desktops (and vice versa), and encourages cooperation as well as competition. Major subprojects GNOME is built from a large number of different projects. A few of the major ones are listed below: Bonobo – a (obsolete in current releases) compound document technology. GConf – for storing application settings. GVFS – a virtual file system. GNOME Keyring – for storing encryption keys and security information. GNOME Translation Project – translate documentation and applications into different languages. GTK+ – a widget toolkit used for constructing graphical applications. The use of GTK+ as the base widget toolkit allows GNOME to benefit from certain features such as theming (the ability to change the look of an application) and smooth anti-aliased graphics. Sub-projects of GTK+ provide object-oriented programming support (GObjects), extensive support of international character sets and text layout (Pango) and accessibility (ATK). GTK+ reduces the amount of work required to port GNOME applications to other platforms such as Windows and Mac OS X. Human interface guidelines (HIG) – research and documentation on building easy-to-use GNOME applications. LibXML – an XML library. ORBit – a CORBA ORB for software componentry. A number of language bindings are available allowing applications to be written in a variety of programming languages, such as C++ (gtkmm), Java (java-gnome), Ruby (ruby-gnome2), C#, (Gtk#), Python (PyGTK), Perl (gtk2-perl) and many others. The only languages currently used in applications that are part of an official GNOME desktop release are C, C# and Python. Look and feel GNOME is designed around the traditional computing desktop metaphor. Its handling of windows, applications and files is similar to that of contemporary desktop operating systems. In its default configuration, the desktop has a launcher menu for quick access to installed programs and file locations; open windows may be accessed by a taskbar along the bottom of the screen and the top-right corner features a notification area for programs to display notices while running in the background. However these features can be moved to almost anywhere the user desires, replaced with other functions or removed altogether. GNOME uses Metacity as its default window manager. Users can change the appearance of their desktop through the use of themes, which are sets consisting of an icon set, window manager border and GTK+ theme engine and parameters. Popular GTK+ themes include Bluecurve and Clearlooks (the current default theme). GNOME puts emphasis on being easy for everyone to use. The HIG helps guide developers in producing applications which look and behave similarly, in order to provide a cohesive GNOME interface. Usability Since GNOME v2.0, a key focus of the project has been usability. As a part of this, the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines (HIG) were created, which is an extensive guide for creating high-quality, consistent, and usable GUI programs, covering everything from GUI design to recommended pixel-based layout of widgets. During the v2.0 rewrite, many settings were deemed to be of little or no value to the majority of users and were removed. For instance, the preferences section of the Panel were reduced from a dialog of six tabs to one with two tabs. Havoc Pennington summarized the usability work in his 2002 essay "Free Software UI", emphasizing the idea that all preferences have a cost, and it's better to "unbreak the software" than to add a UI preference to do that: Releases Each of the parts making up the GNOME project has its own version number and release schedule. However, individual module maintainers coordinate their efforts to create a full GNOME stable release on a roughly six-month schedule. The releases listed in the table below are classed as stable. VersionDateInformationAugust 1997 GNOME development announced1.0March 1999 GNOME press release for version 1.0 First major GNOME release1.0.53October 1999 "October"1.2May 2000 GNOME press release for version 1.2 "Bongo"1.4April 2001 GNOME press release for version 1.4 "Tranquility"2.0June 2002 Major upgrade based on GTK2. Introduction of the Human Interface Guidelines.2.2February 2003 GNOME press release for version 2.2 Multimedia and file manager improvements.2.4September 2003 "Temujin": Epiphany, accessibility support.2.6March 2004 Nautilus changes to a spatial file manager, and a new GTK+ file dialog is introduced. A short-lived fork of GNOME, GoneME, is created as a response to the changes in this version.2.8September 2004 GNOME press release for version 2.8 Improved removable device support, adds Evolution.2.10March 2005 GNOME press release for version 2.10 Lower memory requirements and performance improvements. Adds: new panel applets (modem control, drive mounter and trashcan); and the Totem and Sound Juicer applications2.12September 2005 GNOME press release for version 2.12 Nautilus improvements; improvements in cut/paste between applications and freedesktop.org integration. Adds: Evince PDF viewer; New default theme: Clearlooks; menu editor; keyring manager and admin tools. Based on GTK+ 2.8 with cairo support.2.14March 2006 GNOME press release for version 2.14 Performance improvements (over 100% in some cases); usability improvements in user preferences; GStreamer 0.10 multimedia framework. Adds: Ekiga video conferencing application; Deskbar search tool; Pessulus lockdown editor; Fast user switching; Sabayon system administration tool.2.16September 2006 Performance improvements. Adds: Tomboy notetaking application; Baobab disk usage analyser; Orca screen reader; GNOME Power Manager (improving laptop battery life); improvements to Totem, Nautilus; compositing support for Metacity; new icon theme. Based on GTK+ 2.10 with new print dialog.2.18March 2007 Performance improvements. Adds: Seahorse GPG security application, allowing encryption of emails and local files; Baobab disk usage analyser improved to support ring chart view; Orca screen reader; improvements to Evince, Epiphany and GNOME Power Manager, Volume control; two new games, GNOME Sudoku and glchess. MP3 and AAC audio encoding.2.20September 2007 Tenth anniversary release. Evolution backup functionality; improvements in Epiphany, EOG, GNOME Power Manager; password keyring management in Seahorse. Adds: PDF forms editing in Evince; integrated search in the file manager dialogs; automatic multimedia codec installer.2.22March 2008 Addition of Cheese, a tool for taking photos from webcams and Remote Desktop Viewer; basic window compositing support in Metacity; introduction of GVFS; improved playback support for DVDs and YouTube, MythTV support in Totem; internationalised clock applet; Google Calendar support and message tagging in Evolution; improvements in Evince, Tomboy, Sound Juicer and Calculator.2.24September 2008 Addition of the Empathy instant messenger, Ekiga 3.0, tabbed browsing in Nautilus, better multiple screens support and improved digital TV support.2.26March 2009 New Disc Burning application Brasero, simpler file sharing, media player improvements, support for multiple monitors and fingerprint reader support. Source code GNOME releases are made to the ftp.gnome.org FTP server in the form of source code with configure scripts, which are compiled by operating system vendors and integrated with the rest of their systems before distribution. Most vendors use only stable and tested versions of GNOME, and provide it in the form of easily installed, pre-compiled packages. The source code of every stable and development version of GNOME is stored in the GNOME GIT source code repository. A number of build-scripts (such as JHBuild or GARNOME) are available to help automate the process of compiling the source code. Future developments There are many sub-projects under the umbrella of the GNOME project, and not all of them are currently included in GNOME releases. Some are considered purely experimental concepts, or for testing ideas that will one day migrate into stable GNOME applications; others are code that is being polished for direct inclusion. GNOME 3.0 The next version of the desktop environment was officially announced at the 2008 GUADEC conference held in Istanbul in July. Release has been targeted for 2010, in place of version 2.30 of the current branch. Although the desktop will undergo a major revision, changes planned so far are mostly incremental. Usage GNOME is the default desktop environment for several Linux distributions, most notably Debian, Fedora and Ubuntu. For derived and other distributions, see Comparison of Linux distributions. See also List of GNOME applications Comparison of X Window System desktop environments Desktop environment GNOME Mobile & Embedded Initiative GreenGnome References External links The GNOME website Official GNOME Live Wiki. FootNotes – a news site and discussion forum GNOME Journal – an online magazine devoted to the GNOME Desktop | GNOME |@lemmatized gnome:71 desktop:23 environment:8 graphical:2 user:7 interface:5 run:2 top:4 computer:1 operate:4 system:10 compose:1 entirely:2 free:11 software:18 international:2 project:25 include:5 create:7 development:5 framework:4 select:1 application:22 work:4 program:7 manage:2 launching:1 file:10 handling:2 window:8 task:2 management:2 part:7 gnu:6 use:13 various:1 unix:1 like:1 notably:2 build:4 linux:3 kernel:1 java:3 solaris:1 name:5 originally:1 stand:1 network:2 object:5 model:2 aim:2 put:2 heavy:1 emphasis:2 simplicity:1 usability:5 make:6 thing:1 freedom:2 always:1 source:7 code:7 available:4 license:8 accessibility:3 ensure:3 anyone:2 regardless:1 technical:2 skill:1 physical:1 disability:1 internationalization:1 localization:1 many:4 language:6 moment:1 translate:2 developer:4 friendliness:1 easy:3 write:3 integrate:3 smoothly:1 allow:7 choice:1 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3,781 | Autocorrelation | A plot showing 100 random numbers with a "hidden" sine function, and an autocorrelation (correlogram) of the series on the bottom. Autocorrelation is the cross-correlation of a signal with itself. It is a mathematical tool for finding repeating patterns, such as the presence of a periodic signal which has been buried under noise, or identifying the missing fundamental frequency in a signal implied by its harmonic frequencies. It is used frequently in signal processing for analyzing functions or series of values, such as time domain signals. Informally, it is the similarity between observations as a function of the time separation between them. Definitions Different definitions of autocorrelation are in use depending on the field of study which is being considered and not all of them are equivalent. In some fields, the term is used interchangeably with autocovariance. Statistics In statistics, the autocorrelation of a random process describes the correlation between values of the process at different points in time, as a function of the two times or of the time difference. Let Xt be the value of the process at time t (where t may be an integer for a discrete-time process or a real number for a continuous-time process). If Xt has mean μt and variance σt2 then the definition of the autocorrelation is where "E" is the expected value operator. Note that this expression is not well-defined for all time series or processes, since the variance σt2 may be zero (for a constant process) or infinite. If the function R is well-defined, its value must lie in the range [−1, 1], with 1 indicating perfect correlation and −1 indicating perfect anti-correlation. If Xt is second-order stationary then this means firstly that the mean μ and the variance σ2 are time-independent and secondly that the autocorrelation depends only on the difference between t and s: the correlation depends only on the time-distance between the pair of values but not on their position in time. This further implies that the autocorrelation can be expressed as a function of the time-lag, and that this would be an even function of the lag τ = t − s. This gives the more familiar form and the fact that this is an even function can be stated as It is common practice in some disciplines, other than statistics and time series analysis, to drop the normalization by σ2 and use the term "autocorrelation" interchangeably with "autocovariance". However, the normalisation is important both because the interpretation of the autocorrelation as a correlation provide a scale-free measure of the strength of statistical dependence, and because the normalisation has an effect on the statistical properties of the estimated autocorrelations. Signal processing In signal processing, the above definition is often used without the normalization, that is, without subtracting the mean and dividing by the variance. When the autocorrelation function is normalized by mean and variance, it is sometimes referred to as the autocorrelation coefficient. Patrick F. Dunn, Measurement and Data Analysis for Engineering and Science, New York: McGraw–Hill, 2005 ISBN 0-07-282538-3 Given a signal f(t), the continuous autocorrelation Rff(τ) is most often defined as the continuous cross-correlation integral of f(t) with itself, at lag τ. where represents the complex conjugate and represents convolution. For a real function, . The discrete autocorrelation R at lag j for a discrete signal xn is The above definitions work for signals that are square integrable, or square summable, that is, of finite energy. Signals that "last forever" are treated instead as random processes, in which case different definitions are needed, based on expected values. For wide-sense-stationary random processes, the autocorrelations are defined as For processes that are not stationary, these will also be functions of t, or n. For processes that are also ergodic, the expectation can be replaced by the limit of a time average. The autocorrelation of an ergodic process is sometimes defined as or equated to These definitions have the advantage that they give sensible well-defined single-parameter results for periodic functions, even when those functions are not the output of stationary ergodic processes. Alternatively, signals that last forever can be treated by a short-time autocorrelation function analysis, using finite time integrals. (See short-time Fourier transform for a related process.) Multi-dimensional autocorrelation is defined similarly. For example, in three dimensions the autocorrelation of a square-summable discrete signal would be When mean values are subtracted from signals before computing an autocorrelation function, the resulting function is usually called an auto-covariance function. Properties In the following, we will describe properties of one-dimensional autocorrelations only, since most properties are easily transferred from the one-dimensional case to the multi-dimensional cases. A fundamental property of the autocorrelation is symmetry, R(i) = R(−i), which is easy to prove from the definition. In the continuous case, the autocorrelation is an even function when f is a real function and the autocorrelation is a Hermitian function when f is a complex function. The continuous autocorrelation function reaches its peak at the origin, where it takes a real value, i.e. for any delay τ, . This is a consequence of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality. The same result holds in the discrete case. The autocorrelation of a periodic function is, itself, periodic with the very same period. The autocorrelation of the sum of two completely uncorrelated functions (the cross-correlation is zero for all τ) is the sum of the autocorrelations of each function separately. Since autocorrelation is a specific type of cross-correlation, it maintains all the properties of cross-correlation. The autocorrelation of a continuous-time white noise signal will have a strong peak (represented by a Dirac delta function) at τ = 0 and will be absolutely 0 for all other τ. The Wiener–Khinchin theorem relates the autocorrelation function to the power spectral density via the Fourier transform: For real-valued functions, the symmetric autocorrelation function has a real symmetric transform, so the Wiener–Khinchin theorem can be re-expressed in terms of real cosines only: Estimation For a discrete process of length n {X1, X2, … Xn} with known mean and variance, an estimate of the autocorrelation may be obtained as for any positive integer k < n. When the true mean μ and variance σ are known, this estimate is unbiased. If the true mean and variance of the process are not known there are a several possibilities: If μ and σ2 are replaced by the standard formulae for sample mean and sample variance, then this is a biased estimate. A periodogram-based estimate replaces n-k in the above formula with n. This estimate is always biased; however, it usually has a smaller mean square error. Spectral analysis and time series, M.B. Priestley (London, New York : Academic Press, 1982) Other possibilities derive from treating the two portions of data {X1, X2, … Xn-k} and {Xk+1, X2, … Xn} separately and calculating separate sample means and/or sample variances for use in defining the estimate. The advantage of estimates of the last type is that the set of estimated autocorrelations, as a function of k, then form a function which is a valid autocorrelation in the sense that it is possible to define a theoretical process having exactly that autocorrelation. Other estimates can suffer from the problem that, if they are used to calculate the variance of a linear combination of the X'''s, the variance calculated may turn out to be negative. Regression analysis In regression analysis using time series data, autocorrelation of the residuals ("error terms", in econometrics) is a problem. Autocorrelation violates the ordinary least squares (OLS) assumption that the error terms are uncorrelated. While it does not bias the OLS coefficient estimates, the standard errors tend to be underestimated (and the t-scores overestimated) when the autocorrelations of the errors at low lags are positive. The traditional test for the presence of first-order autocorrelation is the Durbin–Watson statistic or, if the explanatory variables include a lagged dependent variable, Durbin's h statistic. A more flexible test, covering autocorrelation of higher orders and applicable whether or not the regressors include lags of the dependent variable, is the Breusch–Godfrey test. This involves an auxiliary regression, wherein the residuals obtained from estimating the model of interest are regressed on (a) the original regressors and (b) k lags of the residuals, where k is the order of the test. The simplest version of the test statistic from this auxiliary regression is TR2, where T is the sample size and R2 is the coefficient of determination. Under the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation, this statistic is asymptotically distributed as with k'' degrees of freedom. Responses to nonzero autocorrelation include generalized least squares and the Newey–West HAC estimator (Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent). Applications One application of autocorrelation is the measurement of optical spectra and the measurement of very-short-duration light pulses produced by lasers, both using optical autocorrelators. In optics, normalized autocorrelations and cross-correlations give the degree of coherence of an electromagnetic field. In signal processing, autocorrelation can give information about repeating events like musical beats (for example, to determine tempo) or pulsar frequencies, though it cannot tell the position in time of the beat. It can also be used to estimate the pitch of a musical tone. In music recording, autocorrelation is used as a pitch correction technique by software (e.g. Auto-Tune) to process vocals, as a distortion effect or to eliminate undesired mistakes and inaccuracies. Autocorrelation in space rather than time, via the Patterson function, is used by X-ray diffractionists to help recover the "Fourier phase information" on atom positions not available through diffraction alone. In statistics, spatial autocorrelation between sample locations also helps one estimate mean value uncertainties when sampling a heterogeneous population. The SEQUEST algorithm for analyzing mass spectra makes use of autocorrelation in conjunction with cross-correlation to score the similarity of an observed spectrum to an idealized spectrum representing a peptide. See also Correlation function Correlogram Cross-correlation Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy Optical autocorrelation Pitch detection algorithm Variance CUSUM References External links Autocorrelation articles in Comp.DSP (DSP usenet group). | Autocorrelation |@lemmatized plot:1 show:1 random:4 number:2 hidden:1 sine:1 function:33 autocorrelation:46 correlogram:2 series:6 bottom:1 cross:8 correlation:15 signal:16 mathematical:1 tool:1 find:1 repeat:2 pattern:1 presence:2 periodic:4 bury:1 noise:2 identify:1 miss:1 fundamental:2 frequency:3 imply:1 harmonic:1 use:14 frequently:1 processing:4 analyze:2 value:11 time:23 domain:1 informally:1 similarity:2 observation:1 separation:1 definition:8 different:3 depend:3 field:3 study:1 consider:1 equivalent:1 term:5 interchangeably:2 autocovariance:2 statistic:8 process:18 describe:2 point:1 two:3 difference:2 let:1 xt:3 may:4 integer:2 discrete:6 real:7 continuous:6 mean:13 μt:1 variance:13 e:3 expected:1 operator:1 note:1 expression:1 well:3 define:9 since:3 zero:2 constant:1 infinite:1 r:4 must:1 lie:1 range:1 indicate:2 perfect:2 anti:1 second:1 order:4 stationary:4 firstly:1 μ:3 independent:1 secondly:1 distance:1 pair:1 position:3 implies:1 express:2 lag:7 would:2 even:4 τ:7 give:5 familiar:1 form:2 fact:1 state:1 common:1 practice:1 discipline:1 analysis:6 drop:1 normalization:2 however:2 normalisation:2 important:1 interpretation:1 provide:1 scale:1 free:1 measure:1 strength:1 statistical:2 dependence:1 effect:2 property:6 estimated:1 autocorrelations:7 often:2 without:2 subtract:2 dividing:1 normalize:1 sometimes:2 refer:1 coefficient:3 patrick:1 f:5 dunn:1 measurement:3 data:3 engineering:1 science:1 new:2 york:2 mcgraw:1 hill:1 isbn:1 rff:1 integral:2 represent:4 complex:2 conjugate:1 convolution:1 j:1 xn:4 work:1 square:6 integrable:1 summable:2 finite:2 energy:1 last:3 forever:2 treat:3 instead:1 case:5 need:1 base:2 expect:1 wide:1 sense:2 also:5 n:5 ergodic:3 expectation:1 replace:2 limit:1 average:1 equate:1 advantage:2 sensible:1 single:1 parameter:1 result:3 output:1 alternatively:1 short:3 see:2 fourier:3 transform:3 related:1 multi:2 dimensional:4 similarly:1 example:2 three:1 dimension:1 compute:1 usually:2 call:1 auto:2 covariance:1 following:1 one:4 easily:1 transfer:1 symmetry:1 easy:1 prove:1 hermitian:1 reach:1 peak:2 origin:1 take:1 delay:1 consequence:1 cauchy:1 schwarz:1 inequality:1 hold:1 period:1 sum:2 completely:1 uncorrelated:2 separately:2 specific:1 type:2 maintain:1 white:1 strong:1 dirac:1 delta:1 absolutely:1 wiener:2 khinchin:2 theorem:2 relate:1 power:1 spectral:2 density:1 via:2 symmetric:2 cosine:1 estimation:1 length:1 known:1 estimate:13 obtain:2 positive:2 k:7 true:2 σ:1 know:2 unbiased:1 several:1 possibility:2 standard:2 formula:2 sample:7 biased:1 periodogram:1 replaces:1 always:1 bias:2 small:1 error:5 b:2 priestley:1 london:1 academic:1 press:1 derive:1 portion:1 xk:1 calculate:3 separate:1 set:1 valid:1 possible:1 theoretical:1 exactly:1 suffer:1 problem:2 linear:1 combination:1 x:2 turn:1 negative:1 regression:4 residual:3 econometrics:1 violate:1 ordinary:1 least:2 ols:2 assumption:1 tend:1 underestimate:1 score:2 overestimate:1 low:1 traditional:1 test:5 first:1 durbin:2 watson:1 explanatory:1 variable:3 include:3 lagged:1 dependent:2 h:1 flexible:1 cover:1 high:1 applicable:1 whether:1 regressors:2 breusch:1 godfrey:1 involve:1 auxiliary:2 wherein:1 model:1 interest:1 regress:1 original:1 simple:1 version:1 size:1 determination:1 null:1 hypothesis:1 asymptotically:1 distribute:1 degree:2 freedom:1 response:1 nonzero:1 generalize:1 newey:1 west:1 hac:1 estimator:1 heteroskedasticity:1 consistent:1 application:2 optical:3 spectrum:4 duration:1 light:1 pulse:1 produce:1 laser:1 autocorrelators:1 optic:1 normalized:1 coherence:1 electromagnetic:1 information:2 event:1 like:1 musical:2 beat:2 determine:1 tempo:1 pulsar:1 though:1 cannot:1 tell:1 pitch:3 tone:1 music:1 recording:1 correction:1 technique:1 software:1 g:1 tune:1 vocal:1 distortion:1 eliminate:1 undesired:1 mistake:1 inaccuracy:1 space:1 rather:1 patterson:1 ray:1 diffractionists:1 help:2 recover:1 phase:1 atom:1 available:1 diffraction:1 alone:1 spatial:1 location:1 uncertainty:1 heterogeneous:1 population:1 sequest:1 algorithm:2 mass:1 make:1 conjunction:1 observed:1 idealized:1 peptide:1 fluorescence:1 spectroscopy:1 detection:1 cusum:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 comp:1 dsp:2 usenet:1 group:1 |@bigram signal_processing:4 expected_value:1 μ_variance:2 mcgraw_hill:1 fourier_transform:2 cauchy_schwarz:1 schwarz_inequality:1 dirac_delta:1 regression_analysis:2 external_link:1 |
3,782 | Longest_word_in_English | The identity of the longest word in English depends upon the definition of what constitutes a "word" in the English language, as well as how "length" should be compared. In addition to words derived naturally from the language's roots (without any known intentional invention), English allows new words to be formed by coinage and construction; place names may be considered words; technical terms may be arbitrarily long. Length may be understood in terms of orthography and number of written letters, or (less commonly) phonology and the number of phonemes. Word Letters Characteristics DisputeMethionylthreonylthreonyl...isoleucine189,819Chemical name of the largest known proteinTechnical; not in dictionary; disputed whether it is a wordLopado...pterygon183Longest word coined by a major author see separate article Lopado...pterygon Coined; not in dictionary; Greek transliterationPneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis45Longest word in a major dictionaryTechnical; coined to be the longest wordPseudopseudohypoparathyroidism30Longest non-coined word in a major dictionary AskOxford: What is the longest English word? TechnicalFloccinaucinihilipilification29Longest nontechnical wordCoinedAntidisestablishmentarianism28Longest non-coined and nontechnical wordHonorificabilitudinitatibus27Longest word in Shakespeare's works Major dictionaries The longest word in any of the major English language dictionaries is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis, a word which refers to a lung disease contracted from the inhalation of very fine silica particles, specifically from a volcano. Research has discovered that this word was originally a hoax. It has since been used in a close approximation of its originally intended meaning, lending at least some degree of validity to its claim. See the separate article pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis for details. The Oxford English Dictionary contains pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism (30 letters). The longest non-technical word in major dictionaries is floccinaucinihilipilification at 29 letters. Consisting of a series of Latin words meaning "nothing" and defined as "the act of estimating something as worthless", its usage has been recorded as far back as 1741. "Floccinaucinihilipilification" by Michael Quinion World Wide Words; "Floccinaucinihilipilification" Dr. Goodword Alpha Dictionary The Guinness Book of Records, in its 1992 and previous editions, declared the "longest real word" in the English language to be floccinaucinihilipilification. More recent editions of the book have acknowledged pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis. In recent times its usage has been recorded in the proceedings of the United States Senate by Senator Robert Byrd Discussion between Sen. Moynihan and Sen. Byrd "Mr. President, may I say to the distinguished Senator from New York, I used that word on the Senate floor myself 2 or 3 years ago. I cannot remember just when or what the occasion was, but I used it on that occasion to indicate that whatever it was I was discussing it was something like a mere trifle or nothing really being of moment." Congressional Record June 17, 1991, p. S7887, and at the White House by Bill Clinton's press secretary Mike McCurry, albeit sarcastically. December 6, 1995, White House Press Briefing in discussing Congressional Budget Office estimates and assumptions: "But if you -- as a practical matter of estimating the economy, the difference is not great. There's a little bit of floccinaucinihilipilification going on here." Coinages In his play Assemblywomen (Ecclesiazousae), the ancient Greek comedic playwright Aristophanes created a word of 183 letters which describes a dish by stringing together its ingredients: Lopadotemakhoselakhogameokranioleipsanodrimypotrimmatosilphiokarabomelitokatakekhymenokikhlepikossyphophattoperister-alektryonoptokephalliokigklopeleiolagōiosiraiobaphētraganopterýgōn, Henry Carey's farce Chrononhotonthologos (1743) holds the opening line: "Aldiborontiphoscophornio! Where left you Chrononhotonthologos?" James Joyce made up nine 101-letter words in his novel Finnegans Wake, the most famous of which is Bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonnerronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthurnuk. Appearing on the first page, it allegedly represents the symbolic thunderclap associated with the fall of Adam and Eve. As it appears nowhere else except in reference to this passage, it is generally not accepted as a real word. Sylvia Plath made mention of it in her semi-autobiographical novel The Bell Jar, when the protagonist was reading Finnegans Wake. "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious", the 34-letter title of a song from the movie Mary Poppins, does appear in several dictionaries, but only as a proper noun defined in reference to the song title. The attributed meaning is "a word that you say when you don't know what to say." The idea and invention of the word is credited to songwriters Robert and Richard Sherman. Advertising coinages In 1973, Pepsi's advertising agency Boase Massimi Pollitt used a 100-letter but several-word term "Lipsmackinthirstquenchinacetastinmotivatingoodbuzzincooltalkinhighwalkinfastlivinevergivincoolfizzin" in TV and film advertising. Pepsi Lip-Smackin advert In 1975, the 71-letter (but several-word) advertising jingle Twoallbeefpattiesspecialsaucelettucecheesepicklesonionsonasesameseedbun (read: two all-beef patties, special sauce, lettuce, cheese, pickles, onions on a sesame seed bun) was first used in a McDonald's Restaurant advertisement to describe the Big Mac sandwich. McDonald's Advertising Themes Constructions English is a language which permits the legitimate extension of existing words to serve new purposes by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. This is sometimes referred to as agglutinative construction. This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes pseudo (false, spurious) and anti (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired. A word like anti-aircraft (pertaining to the defense against aircraft) is easily extended to anti-anti-aircraft (pertaining to counteracting the defense against aircraft, a legitimate concept) and can from there be prefixed with an endless stream of "anti-"s, each time creating a new level of counteraction. More familiarly, the addition of numerous "great"s to a relative, e.g. great-great-great-grandfather, can produce words of arbitrary length. "Antidisestablishmentarianism" is the longest common example of a word formed by agglutinative construction, as follows (the numbers succeeding the word refer to the number of letters in the word): establish (9) to set up, put in place, or institute (originally from the Latin stare, to stand) dis-establish (12) to end the established status of a body, in particular a church, given such status by law, such as the Church of England disestablish-ment (16) the separation of church and state (specifically in this context it is the political movement of the 1860s in Britain) anti-disestablishment (20) opposition to disestablishment antidisestablishment-ary (23) of or pertaining to opposition to disestablishment antidisestablishmentari-an (25) an opponent of disestablishment antidisestablishmentarian-ism (28) the movement or ideology that opposes disestablishment The use of additional suffixes could stretch the word to 'antidisestablishmentarianisticalized,' with 36 letters. Of course, the process need not stop there: prefixes like neo- and contra- can be added. Technical terms A number of scientific naming schemes can be used to generate arbitrarily long words. Gammaracanthuskytodermogammarus loricatobaicalensis is sometimes cited as the longest binomial name—it is a kind of amphipod. However, this name, proposed by B. Dybowski, was invalidated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Aequeosalinocalcalinoceraceoaluminosocupreovitriolic, at 52 letters, describing the spa waters at Bath, England, is attributed to Dr. Edward Strother (1675-1737). cited in some editions of the Guinness Book of Records as the longest word in English, see Askoxford.com on the longest English word The word is composed of the following elements: Aequeo: equal (Latin, aequo http://perseus.uchicago.edu/hopper/morph.jsp?l=aequo&la=la ) Salino: containing salt (Latin, salinus) Calcalino: calcium (Latin, calx) Ceraceo: waxy (Latin, cera) Aluminoso: alumina (Latin) Cupreo: from "copper" Vitriolic: resembling vitriol John Horton Conway and Landon Curt Noll developed an open-ended system for naming powers of 10, in which one sexmilliaquingentsexagintillion, coming from the Latin name for 6560, is the name for 103(6560+1) = 1019683. Under the long number scale, it would be 106(6560) = 1039360. Names of chemical compounds can be extremely long if written as one word, as is sometimes done. An example of this is sodiummetadiaminoparadioxyarsenobenzoemethylenesulphoxylate, an arsenic-containing drug. There are also other chemical naming systems, using numbers instead of "meta", "para" etc. as descriptive dividers, breaking up the name, which then no longer can be considered a single long word. The IUPAC nomenclature for organic chemical compounds is open-ended, giving rise to the 189,819-letter chemical name Methionylthreonylthreonyl...isoleucine, the shortened version of a protein also known as titin, or sometimes connectin, which is involved in striated muscle formation. Its empirical formula is C132983H211861N36149O40883S693. A 1,185-letter example, Acetylseryltyrosylseryliso...serine, refers to the coat protein of a certain strain of tobacco mosaic virus and was published in the American Chemical Society's Chemical Abstracts in 1972. Place names TaumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateapokaiwhenuakitanatahuThere is some debate as to whether a place name is a legitimate word. The longest officially recognized place name in an English-speaking country is Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateapokaiwhenuakitanatahu (85 letters) which is a hill in New Zealand. However, this is written in the Māori language, and therefore does not qualify under the heading of this article, "Longest word in English". The longest place name in the United States (45 letters) is Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg, a lake in Webster, Massachusetts. It means "Englishmen at Manchaug at the Fishing Place at the Boundary" and is sometimes facetiously translated as "you fish your side of the water, I fish my side of the water, nobody fishes the middle". The lake is also known as Lake Webster. The longest hyphenated names in the U.S. are Winchester-on-the-Severn, a town in Maryland, and Washington-on-the-Brazos, a notable place in Texas history. The station sign at Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch in North Wales The 58-character name Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch is the famous name of a town on Anglesey, an island of Wales. This place's name is actually 51 letters long, as certain character groups in Welsh are considered as one letter, for instance ll, ng and ch. It is generally agreed, however, that this invented name, adopted in the mid-19th century, was contrived solely to be the longest name of any town in Britain. The official name of the place is Llanfairpwllgwyngyll, commonly abbreviated to Llanfairpwll or the somewhat jocular Llanfair PG. The longest official geographical name in Australia is Mamungkukumpurangkuntjunya Hill. It has 26 letters and is a Pitjantjatjara word meaning "where the Devil urinates". In Ireland, the longest English placename at 22 letters is Muckanaghederdauhaulia (from the Irish language, Muiceanach Idir Dhá Sháile, meaning "pig-marsh between two saltwater inlets") in County Galway. If this is disallowed for being derived from Irish, or not a town, the longest at 19 letters is Newtownmountkennedy in County Wicklow. It is questionable whether any of the above are properly considered English words, being derived from Maori, Nipmuck, Welsh, Aboriginal and Irish words respectively, or being a conjunction of individual English words. Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon Rattanakosin Mahinthara Yuthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani Burirom Udomratchaniwet Mahasathan Amon Piman Awatan Sathit Sakkathattiya Witsanukam Prasit is the ceremonial name of Bangkok, Thailand; it has the Guinness World record for longest place name in the world, not in English however. Scrabble Words with certain characteristics of notable length Strengths is the longest word in the English language containing only one vowel. Rhythms is the longest word in the English language containing none of the five recognised vowels. Schmaltzed and strengthed appear to be the longest monosyllabic words recorded in OED; but if squirrelled is pronounced as one syllable only (as permitted in SOED for squirrel), it is the longest. Euouae, a medieval musical term, is the longest English word consisting only of vowels, and the word with the most consecutive vowels. However, the "word" itself is simply a mnemonic consisting of the vowels to be sung in the phrase "seculorum Amen" at the end of the lesser doxology. (Although u was often used interchangeably with v, and the variant "Evovae" is occasionally used, the v in these cases would still be a vowel.) The longest words with no repeated letters are dermatoglyphics, misconjugatedly and uncopyrightables. Fun With Words: Word Oddities The longest word whose letters are in alphabetical order is the eight-letter Aegilops, a grass genus. The longest words recorded in OED with each vowel only once, and in order, are abstemiously, affectiously, and tragediously (OED). Fracedinously and gravedinously (constructed from adjectives in OED) have thirteen letters; Gadspreciously, constructed from Gadsprecious (in OED), has fourteen letters. Facetiously is among the few other words directly attested in OED with single occurrences of all five vowels and the semivowel y. The longest agglutinative construction employed in a title, Pseudomultiquattuorquinquagintaquadringentillionaires (53 letters), appeared in an article entitled: How to Avoid Pseudomultiquattuorquinquagintaquadringentillionaires in early 2009. The term was used to describe a group of individuals attempting to appear richer than they actually were, with the intention of alluring others into investment schemes, or Ponzi schemes, such as the one perpetrated by financial criminal Bernard Madoff. Although the agglutinative construction makes logical sense due to its utilization of the natural number one quattuorquinquagintaquadringentillion (a 1 with 1365 zeroes after it), there are no actual multiquattuorquinquagintaquadringentillionaires in the world, and therefore, the term is only recognized as a hypothetical construction. Typed words The longest words typable with only the left hand using conventional hand placement on a QWERTY keyboard are tesseradecades, aftercataracts, Science Links Japan | Two Unique Aftercataracts Requiring Surgical Removal and the more common but sometimes hyphenated sweaterdresses. Typewriter Words Using the right hand alone, the longest word that can be typed is johnny-jump-up, or, excluding hyphens, hypolimnion. The longest English word typable using only the top row of letters has 11 letters: rupturewort. Similar words with 10 letters include: pepperwort, perpetuity, proprietor, typewriter, requietory, repertoire, tripertite and pourriture. The word teetertotter (used in North American English) is longer at 12 letters, although it is usually spelled with a hyphen. The longest words typable by alternating left and right hands are antiskepticism and leucocytozoans respectively. On a Dvorak keyboard, the longest "left-handed" words are papaya, Kikuyu, opaque, and upkeep. The Dvorak Keyboard and You Kikuyu is typed entirely with the index finger, and so the longest one-fingered word on the Dvorak keyboard. There are no vowels on the right-hand side, and so the longest "right-handed" word is crwth. Common words in general text Ross Eckler has noted that most of the longest English words are not likely to occur in general text, meaning non-technical present-day text seen by casual readers, in which the author did not specifically intend to use an unusually long word. According to Eckler, the longest words likely to be encountered in general text are deinstitutionalization and counterrevolutionaries, with 22 letters each. Eckler, R. Making the Alphabet Dance, p 252, 1996. A computer study of over a million samples of normal English prose found that the longest word one is likely to encounter on an everyday basis is uncharacteristically, at 20 letters. http://www.maltron.com/words/words-longest-modern.html Humour Smiles, according to an old riddle, may be considered the longest word in English, as there is a mile between the two s'''s. A retort asserts that beleaguered is longer still, since it contains a league. The riddle and both jocular answers date from the 19th century. For example, Wayside Gleanings for Leisure Moments (Cambridge: University Press - John Wilson and Son, 1882), p. 122. Even "longer" words exist (e.g., gigaparsecs, with a gigaparsec before the final s), according to the logic implicit in the jokes. See also English words with uncommon properties List of the longest English words with one syllable Longest English sentence Longest published word in German Number of words in English Scriptio continua Lipogram Longest word in Spanish Longest words References External links A Collection of Word Oddities and Trivia - Long words Long words (chemical names) Long words (place names) What is the longest English word?, AskOxford.com "Ask the Experts" [http://www.fun-with-words.com/word_longest.html What is the Longest Word?]'', Fun-With-Words.com | Longest_word_in_English |@lemmatized identity:1 long:60 word:93 english:29 depends:1 upon:1 definition:1 constitute:1 language:9 well:1 length:4 compare:1 addition:3 derive:3 naturally:1 root:1 without:1 known:2 intentional:1 invention:2 allow:1 new:5 form:2 coinage:3 construction:7 place:12 name:27 may:5 consider:5 technical:4 term:7 arbitrarily:3 understand:1 orthography:1 number:9 write:3 letter:33 less:2 commonly:2 phonology:1 phoneme:1 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3,783 | Jinn | In Islam and pre-Islamic Arabian folklore, a genie (also jinn, djinn, from Arabic جني jinnī) is a supernatural creature which possesses free will. Genies are mentioned in the Qur'an, wherein a whole Sura is named after them (Al-Jinn). They can be either good or evil. In some cases, evil genies are said to lead humans astray. In Islam, Satan, known in Arabic as Iblis, is the iconic genie that refused to bow down to Adam when ordered to by Allah. Etymology and definitions Genie is the English transliteration of the Arabic term jinn. The first recorded use of the word Genie in the English language was in 1655 as geny, with the Latin meaning (see Genius (mythology)). The French translators of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights later used the word génie as a translation of jinni because it was similar to the Arabic word both in sound and in meaning; this meaning was also picked up in English and has since become dominant. The plural, according to Sir Richard Francis Burton, is Jann. The French génie, in turn, came from the Latin genius, which meant a sort of tutelary or guardian spirit thought to be assigned to each person at their birth. The Latin word predates the Arabic word jinni in this context, and may have been introduced in the Arabian civilization through the Nabataeans. The root, and its concept of being "hidden" or "concealed", comes from and the Arabic word 'Jánna' which means "to hide" or "to conceal" (This is not to be confused with the Arabic word 'Jannah', which means 'paradise'), and the Semitic root "JNN". "GaN - Garden," Ancient Hebrew Lexicon. Arnold Yasin Mol. "Jinn As Found In The Quran" 19.org The World of the Jinn Arabic lexicons, such as William Lane's lexicon provide the rendered meaning of jinn not only for spirits, but also for anything concealed through time, status and even physical darkness. Edward William Lane’s Arabic Lexicon In other cultures, as in the Mythology Guanche (Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain), also existed the belief in beings that qualify as geniuses, such as the so-called Gods paredros or maxios (domestic spirits and nature), the Tibicenas (evil genius) and also demon Guayota (aboriginal god of evil) that, like the Arabic Iblis, is sometimes identified with a genius. The Guanches were of Berber origin in northern Africa which further strengthens this hypothesis. Jinn in the pre-Islamic era Amongst archaeologists dealing with ancient Middle Eastern cultures, any spirit lesser than angels is often referred to as a djinn, especially when describing stone carvings or other forms of art. The pre-Islamic Zoroastrian culture of ancient Persia believed in jaini/jahi, evil female spirits thought to spread diseases to people. Inscriptions found in Northwestern Arabia seem to indicate the worship of djinn, or at least their tributary status. For instance, an inscription from Beth Fasi'el near Palmyra pays tribute to the "Ginnaye", the "good and rewarding gods" Hoyland, R. G., Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. providing a sharp resemblance to the Latin Genius and Juno: The Guardian Spirits. Types of djinn include the Shaitan, the Ghul, the Marid, the Ifrit and the Jinn. According to the information in The Arabian Nights, Ifrit seem to be the strongest form of djinn, followed by Marid, and then the rest of the djinn forms. Jinn in the Bible In several verses in Old Arabic and Old Persian Bible translations, the words: Jinn(جن) Jaann(الجان) Majnoon(مجنون) and Iblees(ابلیس) are mentioned as translations of familiar spirit or אוב(obe) for Jaann and the devil or δαιμόνιον daimonion for Iblees. In Cornelius Van Allen Van Dyck's Arabic translation of the Bible these words are mentioned in Lev 19:31, Lev 20:6, 1Sa 28:3, 1Sa 28:7, 1Sa 28:9, 1Ch 10:13, Mat 4:1, Mat 12:22, Luk 4:5, Luk 8:12, Joh 8:44 and other verses as well. Jinn in Islam In Islamic theology jinn are said to be creatures with free will, made from 'smokeless fire' by Allah in the same way humans were made of earth. According to the Qur'an, Djinn have free will, and Iblis used this freedom in front of Allah by refusing to bow to Adam when Allah told Iblis to do so. By disobeying Allah, he was thrown out of Paradise and called “Shaitan”. Djinn are frequently mentioned in the Qur'an, Sura 72 of the Qur'an (named Al-Jinn) is entirely about them. Another Sura (Al-Nas) mentions Djinn in the last verse. The Qur’an also mentions that Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both “humanity and the Djinn”. Ṭabarī, Toḥfat al-ḡārāeb, I, pp. 68; Abu’l-Fotūḥ Rāzī, Rawż al-jenān wa rawḥ al-janān. pp. 193, 341 Similar to humans, jinns have free will allowing them to follow any religion they choose. Jinns have significantly lower intelligence than humans but are physically stronger. They are usually invisible to humans and humans do not appear clear to them. However, non-Muslim jinn often harass and even possess humans (Muslim jinn are forbidden from doing so), for various reasons, such as infatuation (with a girl), revenge, or because of a deal made with a practitioner of black magic. Jinns have the power to travel large distances extremely quickly and live in remote areas, mountains, seas, trees, and the air, in their own communities. Like humans, jinns will also be judged on The Day of Judgment and will be sent to Heaven or Hell according to their deeds. Tafsīr; Baḵš-ī az tafsīr-ī kohan, p. 181; Loeffler, p. 46 Since humans usually cannot see them and humans do not appear clear to them, the human "world" and that of the jinn is considered separate, and only practitioners of "black magic" contact them deliberately. Ibn Taymiyyah's Essay on the Jinn describes Jinn in detail. Ibn Taymiyah,Al-Furqaan Bayna Awliyaa ar-Rahmaan wa Awliyaa ash-Shaytaan Of course, as it is written that Solomon caused Djinn to serve him and could call upon their services, it is not always true that black magic is necessary. Assuredly, it is also written that the Djinn may be found by very holy men, fakirs, and sufis or any who might be granted wisdom in Barakah. Every person is assigned a special jinn to them, also called a qareen, the jinns that whisper into your soul and tell you to give into your evil desires. The Prophet Muhammad's jinn turned into a Muslim jinn, on the recitation of the Qur'an, as the jinn found it very beautiful. Sahih Muslim, No. 2714 However, the notion of a qareen is not universally accepted amongst all Muslims. Is it permissible to pray that my qareen becomes Muslim Classifications and Characteristics The social organization of the jinn community resembles that of humans - such as they have kings, courts of law, weddings, and mourning rituals. Ṭūsī, p. 484; Fozūnī, p. 527 The Prophet Muhammad reportedly divided jinn into three classes: those who have wings and fly in the air, those who resemble snakes and dogs, and those who travel about ceaselessly. Fozūnī, p. 526 Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud (d. 652), who was accompanying the prophet when the jinn came to hear his recitation of the Quran, described them as creatures of different forms; some resembling vultures and snakes, others tall black men in white garbs. Fozūnī, pp. 525-26 They may even appear as dragons, onagers, or a number of other animals. Kolaynī, I, p. 396; Solṭān-Moḥammad, p. 62 In addition to their animal forms, the jinn occasionally assume human form to mislead and destroy their human victims. One such jinni who had assumed the form of a beautiful woman was identified because of her beastly feet by her human victim, who killed her by throwing a rope around her neck and dragging her behind his camel. Fozūnī, p. 527 This type of jinn is called mardāzmā, (tester of men) among the Baluch people. Mīhandūst, p. 44 The prophet is also said to have told the jinn that they may subsist on bones, which will grow flesh again as soon as they touch them, and that their animals may live on dung, which will revert back to grain or grass for the use of the jinn flocks. Abu’l-Fotūḥ, XVII, pp. 280-81 Islamic Concept of King Solomon and Djinn Main article Islamic view of Solomon See also Biblical narratives and the Qur'an The Quran states that King Solomon (Sulayman) is said to have compelled the jinn into his service and given them dominion over 25 parasangs of his realm. In his court, the jinn stood behind the learned humans, who in turn, sat behind the prophets. Solomon’s wife, the Queen of Sheba, was reportedly born of the marriage between a jinni and a human. However, it is not clear whether it was her mother or father who was a jinni. Those authorities who believe that her mother was a jinni further tell us that her name was Rayḥāna. It was this connection of her with the jinn that made people apprehensive about Solomon’s marriage to her. They feared that if their master Solomon married a half-jinni, they would be forced to remain in the service of the offspring of that marriage forever. Thus, to make Solomon fall out of love with her, they told him that she was insane, and that her feet were hairy and resembled those of a donkey. Abu’l-Fotūḥ, 15, 21-22, 29-32, 40-42, 45, 47-50, XVI; Ṭūsī, pp. 486, 495 The jinn remained in the service of Solomon, who had placed them in bondage, and had ordered their king, Zūba’a, to perform a number of tasks throughout his life. Upon Solomon’s death, however, Zūbaa went to the places where his subjects were toiling, and called out to them to stop working. They happily obeyed, and one of them carved a message in stone, enumerating what they had built during their servitude. Jinn in post-Islamic Arabic fiction The evil "Ifrit" are called “the seed of Iblees” in One Thousand and One Nights. The Spirit of the Lamp in the story of Aladdin, a familiar djinn to the Western world, was such a jinni, having been bound to an oil lamp. Ways of summoning jinn were told in The Thousand and One Nights: by writing the name of God in Hebrew characters on a knife and drawing a diagram, with strange symbols and incantations around it. The jinn’s power of possession was also addressed in the fictional Nights. It is said that by taking seven hairs out of the tail of a cat that was all black except for a white spot on the end of its tail, and then burning the hairs in a small closed room with the possessed filling their nose with the scent, this would release them from the spell of the jinn inside them. See also Genie in popular culture Aladdin Christian demonology Ifrit Notes References Al-Ashqar, Dr. Umar Sulaiman (1998). The World of the Jinn and Devils. Boulder, CO: Al-Basheer Company for Publications and Translations. Barnhart, Robert K. The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. 1995. “Genie”. The Oxford English Dictionary. Second edition, 1989. Abu’l-Fotūḥ Rāzī, Rawż al-jenān wa rawḥ al-janān IX-XVII (pub. so far), Tehran, 1988. Moḥammad Ayyūb Ṭabarī, Toḥfat al-ḡārāeb, ed. J. Matīnī, Tehran, 1971. A. Aarne and S. Thompson, The Types of the Folktale, 2nd rev. ed., Folklore Fellows Communications 184, Helsinky, 1973. Abu’l-Moayyad Balḵī, Ajāeb al-donyā, ed. L. P. Smynova, Moscow, 1993. A. Christensen, Essai sur la Demonologie Iranien, Det. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser, 1941. R. Dozy, Supplément aux Dictionnaries Arabes, 3rd ed., Leyden, 1967. H. El-Shamy, Folk Traditions of the Arab World: A Guide to Motif Classification, 2 vols., Bloomington, 1995. Abū Bakr Moṭahhar Jamālī Yazdī, Farroḵ-nāma, ed. Ī. Afšār, Tehran, 1967. Abū Jaʿfar Moḥammad Kolaynī, Ketāb al-kāfī, ed. A. Ḡaffārī, 8 vols., Tehran, 1988. W. Lane, An Arabic-English Lexicon, Beirut, 1968. L. Loeffler, Islam in Practice: Religious Beliefs in a Persian Village, New York, 1988. U. Marzolph, Typologie des persischen Volksmärchens, Beirut, 1984. Massé, Croyances. M. Mīhandūst, Padīdahā-ye wahmī-e dīrsāl dar janūb-e Ḵorāsān, Honar o mordom, 1976, pp. 44-51. T. Nöldeke “Arabs (Ancient),” in J. Hastings, ed., Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics I, Edinburgh, 1913, pp. 659-73. S. Thompson, Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, rev. ed., 6 vols., Bloomington, 1955. S. Thompson and W. Roberts, Types of Indic Oral Tales, Folklore Fellows Communications 180, Helsinki, 1960. Solṭān-Moḥammad b. Tāj-al-Dīn Ḥasan Esterābādī, Toḥfat al-majāles, Tehran, Moḥammad b. Maḥmūd Ṭūsī, Ajāyeb al-maḵlūqāt wa ḡārāb al-mawjūdāt, ed. M. Sotūda, Tehran, 1966. External links Etymology of “genie” Visions of the Jinn – a Muslim scholar’s experience with Jinn Satan is a jinn Sura Al-Jinn from the Qur'an Jinn Possession: Between Facts and Illusions online Fatwa from islamonline.net The World of Jinn and Its Secrets online Fatwa from islamonline.net A Jinn Paralyses Me At Night – though such symptoms are now compatible with a recently discovered condition known as Sleep Paralysis. 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3,784 | Lee_Harvey_Oswald | Lee Harvey Oswald (October 18, 1939 – November 24, 1963) was, according to three United States government investigations, Federal Bureau of Investigation (1963), Warren Commission (1964), House Select Committee on Assassinations (1979). the assassin of U.S. President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas. A former United States Marine who defected to the Soviet Union and later returned, Oswald, age 24, was arrested on suspicion of killing Dallas police officer J. D. Tippit and later connected to the assassination of President Kennedy. Oswald denied any responsibility for the murders. Two days later—before he could be brought to trial for the crimes, while being transferred under police custody from the city jail to the county jail—Oswald was shot and mortally wounded by Jack Ruby on live television. In 1964 the Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated President John F. Kennedy single-handedly, a conclusion also reached by prior investigations of the FBI and the Dallas Police Department. In 1979, the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) concluded, based on disputed acoustic evidence, that Oswald assassinated Kennedy "probably as a result of a conspiracy." Findings of the Select Committee on Assassinations HSCA Final Report, pp. 3-4. Biography Childhood Lee Harvey Oswald was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 23, p. 799, CE 1963, Schedule showing known addresses of Lee Harvey Oswald from the time of his birth. and was of English, German, French and Irish ancestry. His father, Robert Edward Lee Oswald, Sr. (New Orleans, March 4, 1896 – New Orleans, August 19, 1939), who had previously been married before marrying Oswald's mother on July 20, 1933, died two months before Lee was born. His mother, Marguerite Frances Claverie (New Orleans, July 19, 1907 – Fort Worth, Texas, January 17, 1981), largely raised Lee on her own along with two older siblings: his brother Robert, Jr. and his half-brother, John Pic (1932–2000), Marguerite's son from a previous marriage. Oswald had a stepfather, Edwin Adolph Ekdahl (1888–1965), from 1945 to 1948. Lee's youth was characterized by extreme mobility; before the age of 18, Oswald had lived in 22 different homes. Because of the short-lived stay in each location, he had attended 12 different schools, mostly around New Orleans, Covington, Louisiana Peggy Caserta "Going Down With Janis", pages 85-86 She was in LHO's 7th grade class in Covington, La. and Dallas, but also in New York City. His mother placed him in a foster home for 13 months in 1942–1943 when she was too poor to take care of him and his brothers. As a child, Oswald was withdrawn and temperamental. After moving in with his half-brother, who had joined the Coast Guard and was stationed in New York City, Oswald and Pic were asked to leave after an incident in which Oswald allegedly threatened Pic's wife with a knife, and struck his mother. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of John Edward Pic. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 22, p. 687, CE 1382, Interview with Mrs. John Edward Pic. Following charges of truancy, he was put under a three week court-ordered stay for psychiatric assessment in a juvenile reformatory called Youth House. Dr. Renatus Hartogs described Oswald as having a "vivid fantasy life, turning around the topics of omnipotence and power, through which he tries to compensate for his present shortcomings and frustrations," and diagnosed the 14-year-old Oswald as having a "personality pattern disturbance with schizoid features and passive-aggressive tendencies" and recommended continued psychiatric intervention. Report of Renatus Hartogs, May 1, 1953 at Acorn.net. Oswald's behavior at school appeared to improve during his last months in New York. Carro Exhibit No. 1 Continued at Kennedy Assassination Home Page. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of John Carro. In January 1954, his mother Marguerite decided to return to New Orleans with Lee, which prevented him from receiving the care the psychiatrist had recommended. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 25, p. 123, CE 2223, Big Brothers of New York, Inc., Case file of Lee Harvey Oswald. There was still an open question pending before a New York judge whether or not he should be taken from the care of his mother to finish his schooling. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Mrs. Marguerite Oswald. Oswald left school after the ninth grade, dropping out of Arlington Heights High School in Fort Worth, Texas. He never received a high school diploma. A dyslexic, he had trouble with spelling and writing coherently. Warren Commission Report, Chapt. 7, p. 383. Yet Oswald read voraciously and, by age 15, claimed to be a Marxist from his reading on the topic. He wrote in his diary, "I was looking for a key to my environment, and then I discovered socialist literature. I had to dig for my books in the back dusty shelves of libraries." At 16, Oswald wrote to the Socialist Party of America, stating that he was a Marxist who had been studying socialist principles for "well over fifteen months," and asked for information about their youth league. Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, FBI transcript of letter from Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America, October 3, 1956. However, Edward Voebel, "whom the Warren Commission had established was Oswald's closest friend during his teenage years in New Orleans ... said that reports that Oswald was already 'studying Communism' were a 'lot of baloney.'" Voebel said that "Oswald commonly read 'paperback trash.'" Oswald, David Ferrie and the Civil Air Patrol, House Select Committee on Assassinations, Volume 9, 4, p. 107. Testimony of Edward Voebel, Warren Commission Hearings, Volume 8, pp. 10, 12. <ref> Lee Oswald's brother, Harvey Oswald by His Brother, (New York: Coward-McCann, 1967), pp. 71-2. ISBN 0-88184-648-1 </ref> Military service David Ferrie (second from left) with Lee Harvey Oswald (far right) in the New Orleans Civil Air Patrol in 1957. Despite his avowed Marxist sympathies, Oswald enlisted in the US Marine Corps on October 24, 1956, one week after his seventeenth birthday. He idolized his older brother, Robert, and wore Robert's U.S. Marines ring. Joining the Marines may have also been a way to escape from his overbearing mother. Warren Commission Report, Chapter 7: Lee Harvey Oswald: Background and Possible Motives, Return to New Orleans and Joining the Marine Corps. While in the Marines, Oswald was trained in the use of the M1 Garand rifle. Following that training, he was tested in December 1956, and obtained a score of 212, which was 2 points above the minimum for qualifications as a sharpshooter. In May 1959, on another range, Oswald scored 191, which was 1 point over the minimum for ranking as a marksman. Warren Commission Report, Chapter 4: The Assassin, Oswald's Marine Training. Oswald, however, was trained primarily as a radar operator, a job that required a security clearance. A May 1957 document states that he was "granted FINAL clearance to handle classified matter up to and including CONFIDENTIAL after careful check of local records had disclosed no derogatory data." Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 19, Folsom Exhibit No. 1, p. 665, Administrative Remarks. Oswald took the Aircraft Control and Warning Operator Course and finished seventh in a class of thirty. The course "...included instruction in aircraft surveillance and the use of radar." Marines Warren Commission Report, Appendix 13, page 682-683. He was assigned first to Marine Corps Air Station El Toro in Irvine, California in July 1957, Warren Commission Hearings, Marine Corps service record of Lee Harvey Oswald. then to Naval Air Facility Atsugi in Japan in September 1957. Although Atsugi was a base for the top-secret CIA U-2 spy planes that flew over the Soviet Union, there is no evidence Oswald was involved in that operation. Oswald was court-martialled twice: initially because of accidentally shooting himself in the elbow with an unauthorized handgun, and then later for starting a fight with a sergeant he thought responsible for the punishment he received from his first court-martial. He was demoted from private first class to private, and briefly served time in the brig. Later, he was punished for another incident: While on sentry duty one night in the Philippines, he inexplicably fired his rifle into the jungle. It might have been caused by a breakdown; from Oswald's frustration with the Marine Corps. Posner,Gerald "Case Closed" Random House, New York, 1993 pg. 28 Small compared with some other Marines, Oswald was nicknamed Ozzie Rabbit after the cartoon character. For his steadfast beliefs, he was also nicknamed Oswaldskovich. In December 1958, he transferred back to the Marine Corps Air Station El Toro. The function of Oswald's unit at El Toro "...was to serveil for aircraft, but basically to train both enlisted men and officers for later assignment overseas." One of Oswald's officers, Lieutenant John Donovan, said that Oswald was a "very competent" crew chief. Testimony of John E. Donovan, Warren Commission Hearings, Volume 8, pp. 290, 298. Oswald subscribed to the Communist Party newspaper, The Worker, and claimed to have taught himself rudimentary Russian. At the El Toro base, in February 1959, he took the Marine proficiency exam in written and spoken Russian and his test results were rated "poor." Summers, Anthony. Not in Your Lifetime, (New York: Marlowe & Company, 1998), pp. 94, 99. ISBN 1-56924-739-0 Life in the Soviet Union Photo of Oswald taken in October 1959 shortly after his arrival in the Soviet Union. In October 1959, Oswald emigrated to the Soviet Union. He was 19, and the trip was planned well in advance. Along with having taught himself rudimentary Russian, he had saved $1,500 of his Marine Corps salary, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 22, p. 705, CE 1385, Notes of interview of Lee Harvey Oswald conducted by Aline Mosby in Moscow in November 1959. Oswald: "When I was working in the middle of the night on guard duty, I would think how long it would be and how much money I would have to save. It would be like being out of prison. I saved about $1500." During Oswald's 2 years and 10 months of service in the Marine Corps he received $3,452.20, after all taxes, allotments and other deductions. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 26, p. 709, CE 3099, Certified military pay records for Lee Harvey Oswald for the period October 24, 1956, to September 11, 1959. got an early "hardship" discharge by (falsely) claiming he needed to care for his injured mother, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 19, Folsom Exhibit No. 1, p. 85, Request for Dependency Discharge. got a passport, and submitted several fictional applications to foreign universities in order to obtain a student visa. After spending three days with his mother in Fort Worth, Oswald departed by ship from New Orleans on September 20, 1959, to Le Havre, France. He left for England that same day, and arrived on October 9. He told customs officials in Southampton that he had $700 and planned to remain in the United Kingdom for one week before proceeding to a school in Switzerland. But on the same day, he flew on a Finnair flight to Helsinki, Finland, where he stayed until October 15. Oswald probably applied for a visa at the Soviet consulate on October 12. The visa was issued on October 14. He left Helsinki by train on the following day, crossed the Finnish-Soviet border at Vainikkala, and arrived in Moscow on October 16. Lee Harvey Oswald in Russia, The Journey From USA to USSR at Russian Books He almost immediately announced to his Intourist guide his intention to become a citizen of the Soviet Union. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 16, p. 94, CE 24, Lee Harvey Oswald's "Historic Diary", entry of October 16, 1959. But when he was informed on October 21 that his application for citizenship had been refused, Oswald made a bloody but minor cut to his left wrist in his hotel room bathtub. After bandaging his superficial injury, the cautious Soviets kept him under psychiatric observation at a hospital. Lee Harvey Oswald in Russia, Moscow Part 2 at Russian Books Lee Harvey Oswald in Russia, Moscow Part 3 at Russian Books When Oswald showed up unexpectedly at the United States embassy in Moscow on October 31, he said he wanted to renounce his U.S. citizenship. Lee Harvey Oswald in Russia, Moscow Part 1 at Russian Books Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 18, p. 108, CE 912, Declaration of Lee Harvey Oswald, dated November 3, 1959, requesting that his U.S. citizenship be revoked. He told Soviet officials "...that he had been a radar operator in the Marine Corps and that he ... would make known to them such information concerning the Marine Corps and his speciality as he possessed. He intimated that he might know something of special interest." Foreign Service Despatch from the American Embassy in Moscow to the Department of State, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 18, p. 98, CE 908 When the Navy Department learned of this, it changed Oswald's Marine Corps discharge from "hardship/honorable" to "undesirable". Warren Commission Hearings, CE 780, Documents from Lee Harvey Oswald's Marine Corps file. John McVickar, one of the American consular officials at the Moscow embassy who was in contact with Oswald, said he felt Oswald, "...was following a pattern of behavior in which he had been tutored by [a] person or persons unknown ... seemed to be using words which he had learned but did not fully understand ... in short, it seemed to me that there was a possibility that he had been in contact with others before or during his Marine Corps tour who had guided him and encouraged him in his actions." State Department Memorandum from John A. McVickar to Thomas Ehrlich, dated November 27, 1963, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 18, p. 155, CE 941 Marina Prusakova, Minsk 1959 Although Oswald had wanted to remain in Moscow and attend Moscow University, he was sent to Minsk, now the capital of Belarus. He was given a job as a metal lathe operator at the Gorizont (Horizon) Electronics Factory in Minsk, a huge facility that produced radios and televisions along with military and space electronic components. He was given a rent-subsidized, fully furnished studio apartment in a prestigious building under Gorizont's administration and in addition to his factory pay received monetary subsidies from the Russian Red Cross Society. This represented an idyllic existence by Soviet-era working-class standards. Lee Harvey Oswald in Russia, Minsk Part 3 at Russian Books Oswald was under constant surveillance by the KGB during his thirty-month stay in Minsk. Lee Harvey Oswald in Russia, Minsk Part 2 at Russian Books Oswald gradually grew bored with the limited recreation available in Minsk. Warren Commission Report, Chapter 7 He wrote in his diary in January 1961: "I am starting to reconsider my desire about staying. The work is drab, the money I get has nowhere to be spent. No nightclubs or bowling alleys, no places of recreation except the trade union dances. I have had enough." Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 16, p. 102, CE 24, Lee Harvey Oswald's "Historic Diary", entry of January 4–31, 1961. Shortly afterwards, Oswald opened negotiations with the U.S. Embassy in Moscow over his proposed return to the United States. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 18, p. 131, CE 931, Undated letter from Lee Harvey Oswald to the American Embassy in Moscow. At a dance in early 1961 Oswald met Marina Prusakova, a troubled 19-year-old pharmacology student from a broken family in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) who was then living with her aunt and uncle in Minsk. While later reports described her uncle as a colonel in the KGB, he was actually a lumber industry expert in the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) with a bureaucratic rank equivalent to colonel. Priscilla Johnson McMillan, Marina and Lee, Harper & Row, 1977, pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0060129538. Hearings of the House Select Committee on Assassinations, vol. 2, p. 207, Testimony of Marina Oswald Porter, September 13, 1978. Lee and Marina married on April 30, 1961, less than six weeks after they met. Their first child, June, was born on February 15, 1962. After nearly a year of paperwork and waiting, on June 1, 1962 the young family left the Soviet Union for the United States. Even before November 22, 1963, Oswald received a small measure of national notoriety in the U.S. press as an American who had defected to the U.S.S.R. and returned. "Young Ex-Marine Asks To Be Russian Citizen", Oakland Tribune, October 31, 1959, p. 1. "Ex-Marine Requests Citizenship", New York Times, November 1, 1959, p. 3. "Texan in Russia: He Wants to Stay", Dallas Morning News, November 1, 1959, sec. 1, p. 9. "Brother Tries to Telephone, Halt Defector", Oakland Tribune November 2, 1959, p. 8. "U.S. Boy Prefers Russia", Syracuse Herald-Journal, December 11, 1959, p. 46. "Third Yank Said Quitting Soviet Union, San Mateo Times, June 8, 1962, p. 8. "Marine Returning", The Lima News, June 9, 1962, p. 1. In 1964, Oswald's mother, Marguerite, recorded and released an album on Folkways Records reading and commenting on his letters from his time in Soviet Union. It was entitled, The Oswald Case: Mrs. Marguerite Oswald Reads Lee Harvey Oswald's Letters from Russia. Oswald Letters at Smithsonian Folkways Dallas Back in the United States, the Oswalds settled in the Dallas/Fort Worth area, where his mother and brother lived, and Lee attempted to write his memoir and commentary on Soviet life, a small manuscript called The Collective. He soon gave up the idea but his search for literary feedback put him in touch with the area's close-knit community of anti-Communist Russian émigrés. While merely tolerating the belligerent and arrogant Lee Oswald, they sympathized with Marina, partly because she was in a foreign country with no knowledge of English (which her husband refused to teach her, saying he didn't want to forget Russian) and because Oswald had begun to beat her. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 11, p. 123, Affidavit of Alexander Kleinlerer: "Anna Meller, Mrs. Hall, George Bouhe, and the deMohrenschildts, and all that group had pity for Marina and her child. None of us cared for Oswald because of his political philosophy, his criticism of the United States, his apparent lack of interest in anyone but himself, and because of his treatment of Marina. Although the Russian émigrés eventually abandoned Marina when she made no sign of leaving him, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 11, p. 298, Testimony of Mrs. Lee Harvey Oswald. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 2, p. 307, Testimony of Mrs. Katherine Ford. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 9, p. 252, Testimony of George de Mohrenschildt. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 9, p. 238, Testimony of George de Mohrenschildt. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 9, p. 266, Testiony of George de Mohrenschildt. Oswald had found an unlikely friend in the well-educated and worldly petroleum geologist George de Mohrenschildt, George de Mohrenschildt. Staff Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations, 1979. A native Russian-speaker himself, de Mohrenschildt wrote that Oswald spoke Russian "very well, with only a little accent." George DeMorenschildt, "I'm a Patsy". Marina meanwhile befriended a married couple: Ruth Paine, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 2, p. 435, Testmony of Ruth Hyde Paine. who was trying to learn Russian, and her husband Michael. In Dallas in July 1962, Oswald got a job with the Leslie Welding Company, but disliked the work and quit after three months. He then found a position in October 1962 at the graphic arts firm of Jaggars-Chiles-Stovall as a photoprint trainee. The company has been cited as doing classified work for the US government but this was limited to typesetting for maps and produced in a section to which Oswald had no access. He may have used photographic and typesetting equipment in the unsecured area to create falsified identification documents, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 19, p. 288, Photograph of the face sides of a Selective Service System Notice of Classification. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 10, p. 201, Testimony of Dennis Hyman Ofstein. including some in the name of an alias he created, Alek James Hidell. His co-workers and supervisors eventually grew frustrated with his inefficiency, lack of precision, inattention, and rudeness to others, to the point where fights had threatened to break out. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Dennis Hyman Ofstein: 'I would say he didn't get along with people and that several people had words with him at times about the way he barged around the plant, and one of the fellows back in the photosetter department almost got in a fight with him one day, and I believe it was Mr. Graef that stepped in and broke it up before it got started…' He had also been seen reading a Russian publication, Krokodil (Russian: 'Крокодил', 'crocodile'), in the cafeteria. This magazine was largely a satire of the performance of the Soviet system, not of the West; by this time Oswald had long become dissatisfied with the U.S.S.R., as noted. On April 1, 1963, after six months of work, Oswald's supervisor terminated Oswald's employment at Jaggars-Chiles-Stovall. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of John G. Graef. Attempted assassination of General Walker General Walker The Warren Commission concluded that on April 10, 1963, ten days after being fired, Oswald attempted to assassinate retired Major General Edwin Walker, and that Oswald probably used the rifle shown in his backyard pose photos of March 31. (The House Select Committee on Assassinations stated that the "evidence strongly suggested" that Oswald did the shooting.) Findings of the Select Committee on Assassinations, HSCA Final Report, p. 61. General Edwin Walker was an outspoken anti-communist, segregationist and member of the John Birch Society who had been commanding officer of the Army's 24th Infantry Division based in West Germany under NATO supreme command until he was relieved of his command in 1961 by JFK for distributing right-wing literature to his troops. Walker resigned from the service and returned to his native Texas. He became involved in the movement to resist the use of federal troops for securing racial integration at the University of Mississippi, resistance that led to a riot on October 1, 1962 in which two people were killed. He was arrested for insurrection, seditious conspiracy, and other charges, but a local federal grand jury refused to indict Walker. Oswald considered Walker a "fascist" and the leader of a "fascist organization." Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 1, p. 16, Testimony of Mrs. Lee Harvey Oswald. In March 1963, Oswald purchased a 6.5 mm caliber Carcano rifle (also commonly but improperly called Mannlicher-Carcano) by mail order, using the alias "A. Hidell." The Assassin, Warren Commission Report, p. 118-119. He also purchased a revolver by the same method. Questioned Documents, Warren Commission Report, Appendix 10, p. 567-571. The Warren Commission concluded that Oswald attempted to shoot General Walker with his rifle, while Walker was sitting at a desk in his dining room. Oswald fired at him from less than one hundred feet (30 m) away. Walker survived only because the bullet struck the wooden frame of the window, which deflected its path, but was injured in the forearm by bullet fragments. Oswald returned home and told Marina what he had just done. General Walker's brush with death was reported nationwide. The Dallas police had no suspects in the shooting. HSCA Final Report: I. Findings - A. Lee Harvey Oswald Fired Three Shots Oswald's involvement in the attempt on Walker's life was suspected within hours of his arrest on November 22, 1963, following the Kennedy assassination. "Officials Recall Sniper Shooting at Walker Home", Dallas Morning News, November 23, 1963, sec. 1, p. 15. But a note Oswald left for Marina on the night of the attempt, telling her what to do if he did not return, was not found until early December 1963, after which Marina told authorities about Oswald and Walker. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 23, p. 392–393, CE 1785, Secret Service report dated December 5, 1963, on questioning of Marina Oswald about note Oswald wrote before he attempted to kill General Walker. Testimony of Ruth Hyde Paine, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 9, p. 393–394. "Oswald Notes Reported Left Before Walker Was Shot At", Dallas Morning News, December 31, 1963, sec. 1, p. 6. The bullet was too badly damaged to run conclusive ballistics studies on it, "FBI Unable to Link Walker Slug, Rifle", Dallas Moring News, December 20, 1963, sec. 1, p. 7. though neutron activation tests later showed that it was "extremely likely" that the Walker bullet was from the same cartridge manufacturer and for the same rifle make as the two bullets which later struck Kennedy. House Select Committee on Assassinations, Testimony of Dr. Vincent P. Guinn: Mr. WOLF. In your professional opinion, Dr. Guinn, is the fragment removed from General Walker's house a fragment from a WCC [Western Cartridge Company] Mannlicher-Carcano bullet? Dr. GUINN. I would say that it is extremely likely that it is, because there are very few, very few other ammunitions that would be in this range. I don't know of any that are specifically this close as these numbers indicate, but somewhere near them there are a few others, but essentially this is in the range that is rather characteristic of WCC Mannlicher-Carcano bullet lead. New Orleans Oswald's mugshot following his arrest in New Orleans Oswald returned to New Orleans on April 25, 1963 and got a job as a machinery greaser with the Reily Coffee Company in May. Oswald's wife, Marina, joined him in New Orleans, after being driven there by family friend Ruth Paine. In July, Oswald was fired from Reily for malingering. On May 26, 1963, Oswald, without any previous contact with the FPCC, and with no membership in the Communist Party USA, wrote a letter to the New York City headquarters of the Fair Play for Cuba Committee, a pro-Castro organization, and proposed "...renting a small office at my own expense for the purpose of forming a FPCC branch here in New Orleans." The FPCC Chairman replied, rejecting Oswald's proposal and later commented on its suspicious nature. In that letter, Oswald also claimed to have had a public brawl with a Cuban refugee, although that fight would not occur for two weeks. On August 5 and 6, according to Carlos Bringuier, Oswald visited him at a store he owned in New Orleans. Bringuier was the New Orleans delegate for the anti-Castro Cuban Student Directorate. Bringuier told the Warren Commission that he believed Oswald's visits were an attempt by Oswald to infiltrate his anti-Castro group. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 10, pp. 34–37, Testimony of Carlos Bringuier. Three days later, on August 9, Oswald turned up in downtown New Orleans handing out pro-Castro fliers. Bringuier confronted Oswald, claiming he was tipped off about Oswald's leafleting by a friend. During an ensuing scuffle, Oswald, along with Bringuier and two of his friends, was arrested and charged with disturbing the peace. Summers, Anthony. Not in Your Lifetime, (New York: Marlowe & Company, 1998), p. 211. ISBN 1-56924-739-0 The arrest got news media attention and Oswald was interviewed afterwards. He was also filmed passing out fliers in front of the International Trade Mart with two 'volunteers' he had hired (hired, because Oswald was not a member of the Communist Party USA so he had no regular volunteers). Oswald's political work in New Orleans came to an end after a WDSU radio debate between Bringuier and Oswald arranged by journalist Bill Stuckey. During the course of the debate, Oswald was confronted with accusations about his past in the Soviet Union and his activities in New Orleans. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 21, p. 633, Stuckey Exhibit 3, Literal transcript of an audio-tape recording of a debate among Lee Harvey Oswald, Carlos Bringuier, and Ed Butler on August 21, 1963, Radio station WDSU, New Orleans. Oswald's activities in New Orleans in mid-1963 were investigated by New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison during his prosecution of Clay Shaw in 1969. Garrison was particularly interested in investigating David Ferrie's connections to Oswald, which Ferrie himself denied. Ferrie died before he could be brought to trial. In 1993, the PBS television program Frontline obtained a group photograph, taken eight years before the assassination, that showed Oswald and Ferrie at a cookout with other Civil Air Patrol cadets. PBS Frontline "Who Was Lee Harvey Oswald", broadcast on PBS stations, November 1993 (various dates). Ron Lewis claimed that he briefly met David Ferrie and Guy Banister, and Lewis could have substantiated many claims proposed by Jim Garrison, but Lewis decided not to risk personal danger by coming forward with his testimony during the trial of Clay Shaw. Mexico While Ruth Paine drove Marina back to Dallas in late September 1963, Oswald lingered in New Orleans for two more days waiting to collect a $33 unemployment check. It has never been conclusively established precisely when Oswald left New Orleans, or what mode of transportation he took. He is next known to have boarded a bus in Houston, but instead of heading north to Dallas, he took a bus southwest towards Laredo and the U.S.-Mexico border. Once in Mexico he hoped to continue to Cuba, a plan he openly shared with other passengers on the bus. Warren Commission Hearings, volume 11, pp. 214-215, Affidavit of John Bryan McFarland and Meryl McFarland. Arriving in Mexico City, he completed a transit visa application at the Cuban Embassy, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 25, p. 418, CE 2564, Cuban visa application of Lee Harvey Oswald, September 27, 1963. claiming he wanted to visit the country on his way back to the Soviet Union. The Cubans insisted the Soviet Union would have to approve his journey to the USSR before he could get a Cuban visa, but he was unable to get speedy co-operation from the Soviet embassy. After shuttling back and forth between consulates for five days, getting into a heated argument with the Cuban consul, making impassioned pleas to KGB agents, and coming under at least some CIA interest, (undated) Oswald's Foreign Activities (Coleman and Slawson to Rankin) (page 94) at The Assassination Archives and Research Center the Cuban consul told Oswald that "as far as [he] was concerned [he] would not give him a visa" and that "a person like him [Oswald] in place of aiding the Cuban Revolution, was doing it harm." Warren Commission Report, p. 413 However, less than three weeks later, on October 18 the Cuban embassy in Mexico City finally approved the visa, and 11 days before the assassination Oswald wrote a letter to the Soviet embassy in Washington, D.C., which said, "Had I been able to reach the Soviet Embassy in Havana as planned, the embassy there would have had time to complete our business." Oswald: Myth, Mystery, and Meaning, FRONTLINE, November 20, 2003 HSCA Appendix to Hearings, vol. 8, p. 358, Letter from Lee Oswald to Embassy of the U.S.S.R., Washington, D.C., November 9, 1963. CIA Report on Oswald's Stay in Mexico, December 13, 1963. (page 19) at The Assassination Archives and Research Center. Return to Dallas Oswald left Mexico City on October 3, and returned by bus to Dallas, where he looked for employment. Through Ruth Paine he found a job filling book orders at the Texas School Book Depository, where he started work on October 16. During the week, he lived in a rooming house on Beckley Street in Dallas (under the pseudonym O.H. Lee), and spent the weekends with his wife at the Paine home in Irving, Texas, about 15 miles (24 km) from central Dallas. On October 20, the Oswalds' second daughter was born. During this period, the FBI was aware of Oswald's whereabouts in Texas, and agents from the Dallas office twice visited the Paine home in early November when Oswald was not present, hoping to get more information about Marina Oswald, whom the FBI suspected of being a Soviet agent. Warren Commission Report, p. 739. On November 16, a local newspaper reported that President Kennedy's motorcade would be going through central Dallas on November 22, "probably on Main Street" one block from the Texas School Book Depository, which it would have to pass to get onto the freeway to the President's luncheon site. This was confirmed by exact descriptions of the motorcade route published on November 19. Dallas Morning News, November 19, 1963. Dallas Times Herald, November 19, 1963, p. A-13. On Thursday, November 21, Oswald asked Buell Wesley Frazier, a co-worker, for a ride to Irving, saying he had to pick up some curtain rods. The next morning, after leaving $170 and his wedding ring, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. I, p. 72-73, Testimony of Marina Oswald. he returned to Dallas with Frazier, carrying a long paper bag with him. Magen Knuth, The Long Brown Bag. Oswald was last seen by a co-worker alone on the sixth floor of the depository about 30 minutes before the assassination. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Charles Givens. An FBI report from November 26, 1963 said that Depository employee Carolyn Arnold, as she left the building to watch the motorcade, thought she caught a fleeting glimpse of Oswald standing in the first floor hallway of the building, a few minutes before 12:15 pm. In 1978, she told author Anthony Summers that the FBI report misquoted her, and that she "clearly" saw Oswald sitting in the second floor lunchroom at 12:15 pm or slightly after. In either case, no other depository employee reported seeing Oswald on the first or second floors between 12 noon and 12:30 pm (e.g., Mrs. Pauline Sanders, who left the second floor lunchroom at "approximately 12:20 pm," did not see Oswald any time that day). The two Depository employees with whom Oswald said he ate lunch on the first floor both denied it. Assassination of JFK Bullets struck John F. Kennedy and other people at 12:30 pm on November 22, 1963, resulting in the death of Kennedy. The 1964 Warren Commission report on the John F. Kennedy assassination concluded that those bullets came from a 6.5 millimeter Italian carbine with a four-power scope that Oswald fired from a window on the sixth floor of the book depository warehouse as the President's motorcade passed through Dallas's Dealey Plaza. Texas Governor John Connally was also seriously wounded along with assassination witness James Tague who received a minor facial injury. Shortly after midnight on November 23, in an impromptu news conference, Oswald denied shooting and killing either President Kennedy or Officer J. D. Tippit. Oswald's flight and the murder of Officer J. D. Tippit Dallas PD color mugshot November 23, 1963 According to the Warren Commission report, immediately after he shot President Kennedy, Oswald hid the rifle behind some boxes and descended via the depository's rear stairwell. On the second floor he encountered Dallas police officer Marion Baker who had driven his motorcycle to the door of the depository and sprinted up the stairs in search of the shooter. With Baker was Oswald's supervisor Roy Truly, who identified Oswald as an employee, which caused Baker, who had his pistol in hand, to let Oswald pass. This encounter occurred in the second floor lunch room approximately 90 seconds after the shooting. Subsequently, Oswald crossed the floor to the front staircase, descended and left the building through the front entrance on Elm Street, just before the police sealed the building off. Oswald was the only employee who left the building after the assassination; his supervisor later noticed Oswald missing, Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Roy Sansom Truly. and reported his name and address to the Dallas police in the building. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of J.W. Fritz. At about 12:40 p.m. (CST), Oswald boarded a city bus when heavy traffic had slowed the bus to a halt about two blocks later, he requested a bus transfer from the driver and exited the bus. Bus transfer (.gif) at Kennedy Assassination Home Page He took a taxicab to a few blocks beyond his rooming house and walked back to his rooming house. On the bus was Oswald's former landlady, who recognized him. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. VI, p. 400, Testimony of Mary E. Bledsoe. At about 1:00 p.m., he went into his room briefly, and came out zipping up a jacket. His housekeeper, Earlene Roberts, testified that "he was walking pretty fast — he was all but running." Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Earlene Roberts. Oswald left the house and was last seen by Roberts standing by a bus stop across the street. Warren Commission Report, Chapter 4: The Assassin, Oswald's Movements After Leaving Depository Building. Oswald's bus transfer, found in his shirt pocket after his arrest, was good at only one stop in the Oak Cliff neighborhood, at Marsalis and Jefferson, three blocks from the Tippit shooting. He was next seen walking about four-fifths of a mile (about 1.3 km) away. Patrolman J. D. Tippit encountered Oswald on a residential street in the neighborhood of Oak Cliff, and pulled up behind him to talk to him through his patrol car window. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 19, p. 113, Barnes Exhibit A, Right side of Tippit squad car, showing open wing vent window. Tippit then got out of his car and Oswald fired at the police officer with his .38 caliber revolver. Four of the shots hit Tippit, killing him, in view of two eyewitnesses. Warren Commission Report, Chapter 4: The Assassin, The Killing of Patrolman J.D. Tippit. Seven other witnesses heard the shots and saw the gunman flee the scene with the revolver in his hand. Three other witnesses identified Oswald as fleeing the scene. Warren Commission Report, Chaper 4: The Assassin, Description of Shooting. By the evening of November 22, five of them (Helen Markham, Barbara Jeanette Davis, Virginia Davis, Ted Callaway, Sam Guinyard) had identified Lee Harvey Oswald in police lineups as the man they saw. A sixth (William Scoggins) did so the next day. Three others (Harold Russell, Pat Patterson, Warren Reynolds) subsequently identified Oswald from a photograph. Two witnesses (Domingo Benavides, William Arthur Smith) testified that Oswald resembled the man they had seen. One witness (L.J. Lewis) felt he was too distant from the gunman to make a positive identification. Warren Commission Hearings, CE 1968, Location of Eyewitnesses to the Movements of Lee Harvey Oswald in the Vicinity of the Tippit Killing. Four cartridge cases were found at the scene by eyewitnesses. It was the unanimous testimony of expert witnesses before the Warren Commission that these used cartridge cases were fired from the revolver in Oswald's possession to the exclusion of all other weapons. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 3, pp. 466–473, Testimony of Cortlandt Cunningham. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 3, p. 511, Testimony of Jospeh D. Nicol. Oswald's Seat In The Texas Theater A few minutes later, Oswald ducked into the entrance alcove of a shoe store to avoid passing police cars, then slipped into the nearby Texas Theater without paying. The films being shown were War Is Hell, narrated by Audie Murphy, and Cry of Battle. Johnny Calvin Brewer, the shoe store's manager, had been listening to the day's events on the radio and felt that Oswald was acting suspicious. Brewer followed Oswald into the theater, where he alerted the ticket clerk, who phoned the police. The police quickly arrived en masse and entered the theater as the lights were turned on. Officer Maurice N. McDonald approached Oswald sitting near the rear and ordered him to stand up. As Oswald said "Well, it is all over now" and appeared to raise his hands in surrender, he struck the officer. A scuffle ensued where McDonald reported that Oswald pulled the trigger on his revolver, but the hammer came down on the web of skin between the thumb and forefinger of the officer's hand, which prevented the revolver from firing. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of M. N. McDonald. Oswald was eventually subdued. As he was led past an angry group of people who had gathered outside the theater, Oswald shouted that he was a victim of police brutality. Oswald was held on suspicion of the shooting of Officer Tippit and was questioned by Detective Jim Leavelle. Shortly afterward Oswald was also booked on suspicion of murdering both President Kennedy and Officer Tippit. By the end of the night he had been arraigned before Justice of the Peace David L. Johnston for both murders. Warren Commission Report, Chapter 5: Detention and Death of Oswald, Chronology. Tippit murder affidavit: text, cover. Kennedy murder affidavit: text, cover. While in custody, Oswald had an impromptu, face-to-face brush with reporters and photographers in the hallway of the police station. A reporter asked him, "Did you shoot the President?" and Oswald answered, "I have not been accused of that." The reporters answered that he had been. "In fact, I didn't even know about it until a reporter in the hall asked me that question," Oswald added. Later Oswald said to reporters, "I didn't shoot anyone," and "They're taking me in because of the fact I lived in the Soviet Union. I'm just a patsy!" Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 20, p. 366, Kantor Exhibit No. 3 — Handwritten notes made by Seth Kantor concerning events surrounding the assassination. Lee Oswald claiming innocence (film), YouTube.com. Lee Oswald's Midnight Press Conference, YouTube.com. Police interrogation Oswald was interrogated several times during his two days of detention at Dallas Police Headquarters. He denied killing President Kennedy or Officer Tippit, denied owning a rifle, said two photographs of him holding a rifle and a pistol were fakes, denied knowing anything about the forged Selective Service card with the name "Alek J. Hidell" in his wallet, denied telling his co-worker he wanted a ride to Irving to get curtain rods for his apartment, and denied he had been seen carrying a long heavy package to work the morning of the assassination. Warren Commission Report, pp. 180-182. During his first interrogation on November 22, Oswald was asked to account for himself at the time the President was shot. Oswald said that he ate lunch in the first-floor lunchroom of the Texas School Book Depository and then went up to the second floor for a Coke, during which he encountered the police officer. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 4, Testimony of James P. Hosty, Jr., p. 467-468; Testimony of J.W. Fritz, p. 213-214; Commission Exhibit 2003, Dallas Police Department file on investigation of the assassination of the President, "Interrogation of Lee Harvey Oswald", vol. 4, p. 265. During his last interrogation on November 24, Oswald was asked again where he was at the time of the shooting. Oswald said he was working on one of the upper floors of the Depository when it occurred, and that he then went downstairs, where he encountered the police officer. Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Harry D. Holmes, vol. 7, p. 302. Oswald's murder Oswald is shot by Jack Ruby. At 11:21 am Sunday, November 24 1963, while he was handcuffed to Detective Leavelle and as he was about to be taken to the Dallas County Jail, Oswald was shot and fatally wounded before live television cameras in the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub operator who said, when accused, he had been distraught over the Kennedy assassination. He was thought to have said, "You killed the President, you rat!" Unconscious, Oswald was put into an ambulance and rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, the same hospital where JFK had died two days earlier. Doctors operated on Oswald, but Ruby's single bullet had severed major abdominal blood vessels, and the doctors were unable to repair the massive trauma. At 48 hours and 7 minutes after the President's death, Oswald was pronounced dead at 1:07 pm. After a full autopsy, Oswald's body was returned to his family. Oswald's grave is in Rose Hill Memorial Burial Park in Fort Worth. Directions to Lee Harvey Oswald's Grave at Kennedy Assassination Home Page Photos of Gravesite The original tombstone, which included Oswald's full name and dates of birth and death, was stolen; today, the grave is marked by a stone which reads simply, Oswald. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/oswald/cron/ His wife Marina was sequestered by federal agents the day after the assassination and later released. Investigations The Warren Commission created by President Lyndon B. Johnson on November 29, 1963 to investigate the assassination concluded that Oswald assassinated Kennedy and that he acted alone (also known as the lone gunman theory). The proceedings of the commission were closed, but not secret, and about 3% of its files have yet to be released to the public, which has continued to provoke speculation among researchers. "Two misconceptions about the Warren Commission hearing need to be clarified...hearings were closed to the public unless the witness appearing before the Commission requested an open hearing. No witness except one...requested an open hearing...Second, although the hearings (except one) were conducted in private, they were not secret. In a secret hearing, the witness is instructed not to disclose his testimony to any third party, and the hearing testimony is not published for public consumption. The witnesses who appeared before the Commission were free to repeat what they said to anyone they pleased, and all of their testimony was subsequently published in the first fifteen volumes put out by the Warren Commission." (Bugliosi, p. 332) In 1968 The Ramsey Clark Panel met in Washington, DC to examine various photographs, X-ray films, documents, and other evidence pertaining to the death of President Kennedy. It concluded that President Kennedy was struck by two bullets fired from above and behind him, one of which traversed the base of the neck on the right side without striking bone and the other of which entered the skull from behind and destroyed its right side. 1968 Panel Review of Photographs, X-Ray Films, Documents and Other Evidence Pertaining to the Fatal Wounding of President John E Kennedy on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas (.txt) at Kennedy Assassination Home Page *In 1979, an investigation by the House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded that Oswald assassinated President Kennedy "probably...as the result of a conspiracy." The HSCA prepared an initial report concluding that Oswald acted alone until a Dictabelt recording purportedly of the assassination surfaced and the Committee revised their conclusion. This acoustic evidence has itself been called into question and some believe it is not a recording of the assassination at all. Holland, Max. The JFK Lawyers' Conspiracy Published in The Nation on unknown date, reposted by George Mason University's History News Network, February 6, 2006 Staff director and chief counsel for the House Select Committee on Assassinations, G. Robert Blakey, told ABC News that there were 20 people, at least, who heard a shot from the grassy knoll, and that the conclusion that a conspiracy existed in the assassination was established by both the witness testimony and acoustic evidence. In 2004, he expressed less confidence in the acoustic evidence. Officer McLain, whose motorcycle the Dictabelt evidence comes from, has repeatedly stated that he was not yet in Dealey Plaza at the time of the assassination. Greg Jaynes, The Scene of the Crime, Afterward. The HSCA was unable to identify the other gunman or the extent of the conspiracy. It also had insufficient evidence to identify any group responsible. In 1982, a group of twelve scientists appointed by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), led by Professor Norman Ramsey of Harvard, concluded that the acoustic evidence and the team behind its submission to the HSCA was "seriously flawed." While the NAS said that the HSCA acoustical evidence was flawed, a 2001 peer-reviewed article in Science and Justice, the journal of Britain's Forensic Science Society, said that the NAS investigation was itself flawed. The article's author, Dr. Donald B. Thomas, a government scientist and JFK assassination researcher, concluded, with a 96.3 percent certainty, that there were at least two gunmen firing at President Kennedy and that one of the shots came from the grassy knoll in front of Kennedy. Donald B. Thomas, "Echo Correlation Analysis and the Acoustic Evidence in the Kennedy Assassination Revisited", Science and Justice, Volume 41(1), 2001 Commenting on the British study, House Select Committee on Assassinations staff director and chief counsel G. Robert Blakey said: "This is an honest, careful scientific examination of everything we did, with all the appropriate statistical checks." George Lardner Jr., "Study Backs Theory of 'Grassy Knoll'", Washington Post, March 26, 2001 Possible motives The Warren Commission could not ascribe any one motive or group of motives to Oswald's actions: 1981 exhumation The grave of Lee Harvey Oswald In October 1981 Oswald's body was exhumed at the behest of British writer Michael Eddowes, with Marina Oswald Porter's support. He sought to prove a thesis developed in a 1975 book, Khrushchev Killed Kennedy (re-published in 1976, in Britain as November 22: How They Killed Kennedy and in America a year later as The Oswald File). Eddowes' theory was that during Oswald's stay in the Soviet Union he was replaced with a Soviet double named Alek, who was a member of a KGB assassination squad. Eddowes' claim is that it was this look-alike who killed Kennedy, and not Oswald. Eddowes's support for his thesis was a claim that the corpse buried in 1963 in the Shannon Rose Hill Memorial Park cemetery in Fort Worth, Texas did not have a scar that resulted from surgery conducted on Oswald years before. When Oswald's body was exhumed it was found that the plain, mole skin-covered pine coffin had ruptured and was filled with water, leaving the body in an advanced state of decomposition with partial skeletonization. The examination positively identified Oswald's corpse through dental records, and also detected a mastoid scar from a childhood operation. W. Tracy Parnell, The Exhumation of Lee Harvey Oswald. Contrary to reports, the skull of Oswald had been autopsied and this was confirmed at the exhumation. W. Tracy Parnell, My Interview With Dr. Vincent J.M. Di Maio. Kennedy assassination theories Critics have not accepted the conclusions of the Warren Commission and have proposed a number of alternative theories which assert that Oswald conspired with others or Oswald was not involved at all and was framed. One government investigation, the HSCA, ruled out many of these theories but concluded that, while Oswald was the assassin, that Kennedy was "probably" killed as the result of a conspiracy. However, the HSCA report did not identify any probable co-conspirators and its conclusion has been criticised for its reliance upon acoustic evidence that has been called into question. James W. Douglass has recently argued that when Oswald defected to the USSR, he was working for U.S. intelligence; when he returned to the U.S. and joined the Fair Play for Cuba Commmittee he seems to have been working both for the CIA and the FBI. Oswald's connection to the CIA was revealed by Jim and Elsie Wilcott. At the time of the assassination and before, there are problems with multiple Oswall sightings, which the Warren Commission was obliged to cover up. Moreover, there is evidence that at the time he was murdered, "Lee Harvey Oswald was a questioning, dissenting CIA operative, who had become a security risk." James W. Douglass, JFK and the Unspeakable: Why He Died and Why It Matters (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008), 37-41, 61-66, 143-48, 291-98, 335-38, 363-68 Fictional trials Several films have fictionalized a trial of Oswald, including The Trial of Lee Harvey Oswald in 1964, another movie of the same name in 1977, and On Trial: Lee Harvey Oswald in 1986. In 1986, London Weekend Television hosted a 21 hour television special in which an unscripted trial was held with an actual judge and lawyers. U.S. prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi described the event in his book Reclaiming History. Real eyewitnesses from the assassination testified as to what they saw and the mock jury returned a verdict of guilty. Author Gerald Posner (whose book Case Closed surmises that the Warren Commission reached the correct conclusions) also participated in a shorter (5 hour) televised mock trial of Oswald which made use of actors rather than witnesses. Carcano rifle Lee Harvey Oswald's Carcano rifle, in the US National Archives In March 1963, Oswald used his alias "Alek James Hidell" Posner,Gerald "Case Closed" Random House, New York, 1993 (which he would later use for the Fair Play for Cuba Committee, and for which he was carrying an I.D. card when arrested after the Kennedy murder) to purchase the rifle later linked to the November 22, 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy. The surplus Italian military rifle was purchased from Klein's Sporting Goods in Chicago, with a coupon taken from an ad in the February issue of American Rifleman. FBI and Treasury Department experts later matched the handwriting on the coupon and the envelope to Oswald. The rifle was purchased under "A. Hidell" but sent to a Dallas post office box rented by Oswald under his own name. Backyard photos The "backyard photos," which were taken by Marina Oswald, probably around Sunday, March 31, 1963, show Oswald dressed all in black and holding two Marxist newspapers—The Militant and The Worker—in one hand, a rifle in the other, and carrying a pistol in its holster. The backyard photos were shot using a camera belonging to Oswald, an Imperial Reflex Duo-Lens 620. Warren Commission Report, Chapter 4: The Assassin, Photograph of Oswald With Rifle When shown the pictures at Dallas Police headquarters after his arrest, Oswald insisted they were fakes. Warren Commission Report, Chapter 4: The Assassin, Denial of Rifle Ownership. However, Marina Oswald testified in 1964, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 1, p. 15, Testimony of Mrs. Lee Harvey Oswald. 1977, House Select Committee on Assassinations, Deposition of Marina Oswald Porter: Q. I want to mark these two photographs. On the back of the first one, which I would ask be marked JFK committee exhibit No. 1, it says in the bottom right-hand corner copy from the National Archives, records group No. 272, under that it says CE-133B. I will ask that be marked JFK exhibit No. 1. (The above referred to photograph was marked JFK committee exhibit No. 1 for identification.) Q. New, this second picture that I will ask to be marked says copy from the National Archives, record group No. 272, CE-133. I would ask that this be marked JFK committee exhibit No. 2. (The above referred to photograph was marked JFK committee exhibit No. 2 for identification.) By Mr. KLEIN: Q. I will show you those two photographs which are marked JFK exhibit No. 1 and exhibit No. 2, do you recognize those two photographs? A. I sure do. I have seen them many times. Q. What are they? A. That is the pictures that I took. and 1978, House Select Committee on Assassinations Hearings, vol. 2, p. 239, Testimony of Marina Oswald Porter: Mr. McDONALD. Mrs. Porter, I have got two exhibits to show you, if the clerk would procure them from the representatives of the National Archives. We have two photographs to show you. They are Warren Commission Exhibits C-133-A and B, which have been given JFK Nos. F-378 and F-379. If the clerk would please hand them to you, and also if we could now have for display purposes JFK Exhibit F-179, which is a blowup of the two photographs placed in front of you. Mrs. Porter, do you recognize the photographs placed in front of you? Mrs. PORTER. Yes, I do. Mr. McDONALD. And how do you recognize them? Mrs. PORTER. That is the photograph that I made of Lee on his persistent request of taking a picture of him dressed like that with rifle. and reaffirmed in 2000 Marina Oswald Porter, interview with author Vincent Bugliosi and lawyer Jack Duffy, Dallas, Texas, November 30, 2000, reported in Bugliosi, Reclaiming History, p. 794. that she took the photographs at Oswald's request. These photos were labelled CE 133-A and CE 133-B. CE 133-A shows the rifle in Oswald's left hand and newsletters in front of his chest in the other, while the rifle is held with the right hand in CE 133-B. Oswald's mother testified that on the day after the assassination she and Marina destroyed another photograph with Oswald holding the rifle with both hands over his head, with "To my daughter June" written on it. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 1, p. 146, Testimony of Mrs. Marguerite Oswald. The HSCA obtained another first generation print (from CE 133-A) on April 1, 1977 from the widow of George de Mohrenschildt. The words "Hunter of fascists — ha ha ha!" written in block Russian were on the back. Also in English were added in script: "To my friend George, Lee Oswald, 5/IV/63 [April 5, 1963]" HSCA Appendix to Hearings, vol. 6, p. 151, Figure IV-21. Handwriting experts consulted by the HSCA concluded the English inscription and signature were written by Lee Oswald. After two original photos, one negative and one first-generation copy had been found, the Senate Intelligence Committee located (in 1976) a third photograph of Oswald with a backyard pose that was different (CE 133-C, with newspapers held in his right hand away from his body). A test photo by the Dallas Police in the identical pose was released with the Warren Commission evidence in 1964, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 17, p. 497, CE 712, Photographs taken by the Dallas Police Department on November 29, 1963, showing backyard of home on Neely Street in Dallas, where Oswald once lived. but it is not known why the photo itself was not publicly acknowledged until a print was found in 1975 amongst the belongings of deceased Dallas police officer Roscoe White. House Select Committee on Assassinations, Appendix to Hearings, p. 141, The Oswald Backyard Photographs. These photos have been subjected to rigorous analysis. HSCA Appendix to Hearings, vol. 6, "The Oswald Backyard Photographs". A panel of twenty-two photographic experts consulted by the HSCA examined the photographs and answered twenty-one points of contention raised by critics. The panel concluded the photographs were genuine. Marina Oswald has always maintained she took the photos herself, and the 1963 de Mohrenschildt print with Oswald's own signature clearly indicate they existed before the assassination. However, despite such evidence, some critics continue to contest the authenticity of the photographs. House Select Committee on Assassinations, Hearings, Testimony of Jack D. White. References Further reading Bugliosi, Vincent. Reclaiming History: The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Norton, 2007, 1632 p. ISBN 0393045250. Eddowes, Michael. Khrushchev Killed Kennedy, self-published, (1975), paperback (republished as November 22, How They Killed Kennedy, Neville Spearman (1976), hardback, ISBN 0-85978-019-8 and as The Oswald File, Potter (1977), hardcover, ISBN 0-517-53055-4) Groden, Robert J.. The Search of Lee Harvey Oswald: A Comprehensive Photographic Record, New York: Penguin Studio Books, 1995. ISBN 0-670-85867-6 La Fontaine, Ray and Mary, "Oswald Talked: The New Evidence in the JFK Assassination", Gretna: Pelican Publishing Co., 1996. ISBN 1-56554-029-8 Lambert, Patricia. False Witness: The Real Story of Jim Garrison's Investigation and Oliver Stone's Film JFK, New York: M. Evans & Company, 1998, ISBN 0-87131-920-9 Lifton, David S., Best Evidence: Disguise and Deception in the. Assassination of John F. Kennedy, Carroll & Graf Publishers, NYC, 1988, softcover, ISBN 0-88184-438-1 Mailer, Norman. Oswald's Tale: An American Mystery, New York: Ballantine Books, (1995) ISBN 0-345-40437-8 Marrs, Jim. Crossfire: The Plot That Killed Kennedy, New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1990, ISBN 0-88184-648-1 McMillan, Priscilla Johnson. Marina and Lee, New York: Harper & Row, 1977. Melanson, Philip H. Spy Saga: Lee Harvey Oswald And U. S. Intelligence, Praeger Publishing, 1990, ISBN 0-275-93571-X Newman, John. Oswald and the CIA, New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1995, ISBN 0-7867-0131-5 Nechiporenko, Oleg M. Passport to Assassination: The Never-Before Told Story of Lee Harvey Oswald by the KGB Colonel Who Knew Him, New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1993, ISBN 1-559-72210-X Posner, Gerald. Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK, Random House, 1993, hardcover, ISBN 0-679-41825-3 Smith, Matthew. JFK: Say Goodbye to America, Mainstream Publishing, 2004. Smith, Matthew, JFK: The Second Plot. Mainstream Publishing.Edinburgh and London. 2000. ISBN 1-84018-501-5 Summers, Anthony. Conspiracy, London: Fontana Books, 1980. Summers, Anthony. Not in Your Lifetime'', New York: Marlowe & Company, 1998, ISBN 1-56924-739-0 External links Frontline: Who Was Lee Harvey Oswald? Historical TV Footage from Dallas TV Station KDFW Exclusive television coverage—most from the KRLD -TV/KDFW Collection at the Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza American Experience: Oswald's Ghost Lee Harvey Oswald's journey from Minsk to the US, travelling through Holland by Perry Vermeulen Kennedy Assassination Home Page by John McAdams Lasting Questions about the Murder of President Kennedy by Rex Bradford Lee Harvey Oswald: Lone Assassin or Patsy Lee Harvey Oswald Chronology Crime Library: Lee Harvey Oswald Lee Harvey Oswald In Russia Various photos of Oswald taken post mortem CTKA: Citizens for Truth about the Kennedy Assassination Retrieved on 2009-02-13 | Lee_Harvey_Oswald |@lemmatized lee:68 harvey:50 oswald:285 october:22 november:36 accord:3 three:10 united:8 state:14 government:4 investigation:9 federal:4 bureau:1 warren:91 commission:94 house:22 select:16 committee:24 assassination:58 assassin:10 u:21 president:23 john:22 f:10 kennedy:43 dallas:41 texas:15 former:2 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3,785 | Aberavon_(UK_Parliament_constituency) | Aberavon is a constituency in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was created for the 1918 general election and returns one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system. The seat has been held by the Labour Party since its creation, and for seven years was held by Ramsay MacDonald, the Prime Minister in 1924 and from 1929 to 1935. Boundaries The constituency is in south Wales, situated on the right bank of the River Afan, near its mouth in Swansea Bay. The constituency includes the wards of Aberavon, Baglan, Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Bryn and Cwmavon, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, Coedffranc West, Cymmer, Glyncorrwg, Gwynfi, Margam, Port Talbot, Sandfields East, Sandfields West and Tai-bach. History The owners of Aberavon's castle established a chartered town, which in 1372 received a further charter from Edward le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer. In modern times these charters were not acted upon, the town being deemed a borough by prescription, but in 1861 it was incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act. From 1832 it belonged to the Swansea District constituency, uniting with Kenfig, Loughor, Neath and Swansea to return one member; later it acquired its own MP. Members of Parliament Constituency created (1918) ElectionMemberParty 1918 John Edwards Liberal 1922 Ramsay MacDonald Labour 1929 William Cove Labour 1959 John Morris Labour 2001 Hywel Francis Labour Elections 2000s 1990s 1980s 1970s 1960s 1950s 1940s References | Aberavon_(UK_Parliament_constituency) |@lemmatized aberavon:3 constituency:5 parliament:3 united:1 kingdom:1 create:2 general:1 election:2 return:2 one:2 member:3 mp:2 first:1 past:1 post:1 system:1 seat:1 hold:2 labour:5 party:1 since:1 creation:1 seven:1 year:1 ramsay:2 macdonald:2 prime:1 minister:1 boundaries:1 south:1 wale:1 situate:1 right:1 bank:1 river:1 afan:1 near:1 mouth:1 swansea:3 bay:1 include:1 ward:1 baglan:1 briton:2 ferry:2 east:2 west:3 bryn:1 cwmavon:1 coedffranc:3 central:1 north:1 cymmer:1 glyncorrwg:1 gwynfi:1 margam:1 port:1 talbot:1 sandfields:2 tai:1 bach:1 history:1 owner:1 castle:1 establish:1 chartered:1 town:2 receive:1 charter:2 edward:2 le:2 despencer:2 baron:1 modern:1 time:1 act:2 upon:1 deem:1 borough:1 prescription:1 incorporate:1 municipal:1 corporation:1 belong:1 district:1 unite:1 kenfig:1 loughor:1 neath:1 later:1 acquire:1 electionmemberparty:1 john:2 liberal:1 william:1 cove:1 morris:1 hywel:1 francis:1 reference:1 |@bigram ramsay_macdonald:2 prime_minister:1 |
3,786 | Gautama_Buddha | Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent who founded Buddhism. The Buddha He is generally seen by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha (Sammāsambuddha) of our age. The time of his birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians date his lifetime from c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE; more recently, however, at a specialist symposium on this question, The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article the majority of those scholars who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death, with others supporting earlier or later dates. Gautama, also known as Śākyamuni or Shakyamuni ("sage of the Shakyas"), is the key figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to Gautama were passed down by oral tradition, and first committed to writing about 400 years later. Early Western scholarship tended to accept the biography of the Buddha presented in the Buddhist scriptures as largely historical, but currently "scholars are increasingly reluctant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life and teachings." Life The primary sources of information regarding Siddhārtha Gautama's life are the Buddhist texts. The Buddha and his monks spent four months each year discussing and rehearsing his teachings, and after his death his monks set about preserving them. A council was held shortly after his death, and another was held a century later. At these councils the monks attempted to establish and authenticate the extant accounts of the life and teachings of the Buddha following systematic rules. They divided the teachings into distinct but overlapping bodies of material, and assigned specific monks to preserve each one. From then on, the teachings were transmitted orally. From internal evidence it seems clear that the oldest texts crystallized into their current form by the time of the second council or shortly after it. The scriptures were not written down until three or four hundred years after the Buddha's death. By this point, the monks had added or altered some material themselves, in particular magnifying the figure of the Buddha. Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pages 13, 14. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986. The ancient Indians were generally not concerned with chronologies, being far more focused on philosophy. The Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Shakyamuni may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which substantial accounts exist. Carrithers, page 15. According to Michael Carrithers, there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, though the outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true. Carrithers, page 10. Conception and birth Maya Devi Temple in Lumbini, Nepal. Birth of Buddha at Lumbini. Picture of a painting in a Laotian Temple. Siddhartha was born in Lumbini http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lumbini.htm and raised in the small kingdom or principality of Kapilvastu, both of which are in modern day Nepal. At the time of the Buddha's birth, the area was at or beyond the boundary of Vedic civilization; it is even possible that his mother tongue was not an Indo-Aryan language. Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 49. His community does not seem to have had a caste system, and their society was not structured according to Brahminical theory. It was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, pages 49-50. According to the traditional biography, however, his father was King Suddhodana, the chief of the Shakya nation, one of several ancient tribes in the growing state of Kosala; Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. On the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/lob/lob04.htm , and ten lunar months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, she gave birth on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Turpie, D. 2001. Wesak And The Re-Creation of Buddhist Tradition. Master's Thesis. Montreal, Quebec: McGill University. (p. 3). Available from: http://www.mrsp.mcgill.ca/reports/pdfs/Wesak.pdf. Accessed 17 November 2006. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhatta), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man. This occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodarna held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kaundinya (Pali: Kondanna), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant, was the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha. Narada (1992), p11-12 While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars believe that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy. Early life and marriage Siddhartha, destined to a luxurious life as a prince, had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) especially built for him. His father, King Śuddhodana, wishing for Siddhartha to be a great king, shielded his son from religious teachings or knowledge of human suffering. Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. Narada (1992), p14 As the boy reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā), a cousin of the same age. According to the traditional account, in time, she gave birth to a son, Rahula. Siddhartha spent 29 years as a Prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Siddhartha felt that material wealth was not the ultimate goal of life. Narada (1992), p14 Departure and Ascetic Life The Great Departure. Gandhara, 2nd century CE. At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace in order to meet his subjects. Despite his father's effort to remove the sick, aged and suffering from the public view, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. Disturbed by this, when told that all people would eventually grow old by his charioteer Channa, the prince went on further trips where he encountered, variously, a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. Deeply depressed by these sights, he sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic. Siddhartha escaped his palace, accompanied by Channa aboard his horse Kanthaka, leaving behind this royal life to become a mendicant. It is said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" Narada (1992), pp15-16 to prevent guards from knowing the Bodhisatta's departure. This event is traditionally called "The Great Departure". The Buddha as an ascetic. Gandhara, 2-3rd century CE. British Museum.Siddhartha initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. Having been recognised by the men of King Bimbisara, Bimbisara offered him the throne after hearing of Siddhartha's quest. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment. Siddhartha left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), Siddhartha was asked by Kalama to succeed him, but moved on after being unsatisfied with his practices. He then became a student of Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra), but although he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness and was asked to succeed Ramaputta, he was still not satisfied with his path, and moved on. Narada (1992), pp19-20 Gandhara Buddha. 1st–2nd century CE, Tokyo National Museum. Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kondanna then set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through near total deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhana. Enlightenment Prince Siddhartha Gautama or Supreme Buddha. After asceticism and concentrating on meditation and Anapana-sati (awareness of breathing in and out), Siddhartha is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata, who wrongly believed him to be the spirit that had granted her a wish, such was his emaciated appearance. Then, sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India, he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. Kaundinya and the other four companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After 49 days meditating, at the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment; according to some traditions, this occurred approximately in the fifth lunar month, and according to others in the twelfth. Gautama, from then on, was known as the Buddha or "Awakened One." Buddha is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One." Often, he is referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha or "The Awakened One of the Shakya Clan." At this point, he is believed to have realized complete awakening and insight into the nature and cause of human suffering which was ignorance, along with steps necessary to eliminate it. This was then categorized into 'Four Noble Truths'; the state of supreme liberation—possible for any being—was called Nirvana. He then allegedly came to possess the Nine Characteristics, which are said to belong to every Buddha. According to one of the stories in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1), a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons, immediately after his Enlightenment, the Buddha was wondering whether or not he should teach the Dharma to human beings. He was concerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they would not be able to see the true dharma, which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. However, Brahmā Sahampati, interceded and asked that he teach the dharma to the world, as "there will be those who will understand the Dharma". With his great compassion to all beings in the universe, the Buddha agreed to become a teacher. Formation of the sangha Painting of the first sermon depicted at Wat Chedi Liem in Thailand. After becoming enlightened, two merchants whom the Buddha met, named Tapussa and Bhallika became the first lay disciples. They are given some hairs from the Buddha's head, which are believed to now be enshrined in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta to explain his findings, but they had already died. The Buddha thus journeyed to Deer Park near (Benares) in northern India, he set in motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first , the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) was completed, with Kaundinya becoming the first stream-enterer. All five soon become arahants, and with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of arahants swelled to 60 within the first two months. The conversion of the three Kassapa brothers and their 200, 300 and 500 disciples swelled the sangha over 1000, and they were dispatched to explain the dharma to the populace. It is unknown what language the Buddha spoke, and no conclusive documentation has been made at this point. However, some modern scholars, primarily philologists, believe it is most likely that the Buddha spoke a vulgate then current in eastern India, Mâgadhî Prakrit. Travels and teaching Gautama Buddha with his protector Vajrapani (here holding a flywisk). Gandhara, 2nd century CE. For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people— from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, mass murderers such as Angulimala and cannibals such as Alavaka. This extended to many adherents of rival philosophies and religions. The Buddha founded the community of Buddhist monks and nuns (the Sangha) to continue the dispensation after his Parinirvāna (Pāli: Parinibbāna) or "complete Nirvāna", and made thousands of converts. His religion was open to all races and classes and had no caste structure. He was also subject to attack from opposition religious groups, including attempted murders and framings. A Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) Chinese silk landscape painting depicting the young Sakyamuni shaving his head. This is one of the earliest visual presentations of the Gautama Buddha in the history of painting The sangha travelled from place to place in India, expounding the dharma. This occurred throughout the year, except during the four months of the vassana rainy season. Due to the heavy amount of flooding, travelling was difficult, and ascetics of all religions in that time did not travel, since it was more difficult to do so without stepping on submerged animal life, unwittingly killing them. During this period, the sangha would retreat to a monastery, public park or a forest and people would come to them. The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was first formed. After this, he travelled to Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha to visit King Bimbisara, in accordance with his promise after enlightenment. It was during this visit that Sariputta and Mahamoggallana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples; they were to become the Buddha's two foremost disciples. The Buddha then spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha. The monastery, which was of a moderate distance from the city centre was donated by Bimbisara. Upon hearing of the enlightenment, Suddhodana dispatched royal delegations to ask the Buddha to return to Kapilavastu. Nine delegations were sent in all, but the delegates joined the sangha and became arahants. Neglecting worldly matters, they did not convey their message. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend, resulted in the message being successfully conveyed as well as becoming an arahant. Since it was not the vassana, the Buddha agreed, and two years after his enlightenment, took a two month journey to Kapilavastu by foot, preaching the dharma along the way. Upon his return, the royal palace had prepared the midday meal, but since no specific invitation had come, the sangha went for an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana hastened to approach the Buddha, stating "Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms", to which the Buddha replied Suddhodana invited the sangha back to the royal palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk, after which he became a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. His cousins Ananda and Anuruddha were to become two of his five chief disciples. His son Rahula also joined the sangha at the age of seven, and was one of the ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined the sangha and became an arahant. Another cousin Devadatta also became a monk although he later became an enemy and tried to kill the Buddha on multiple occasions. Of his disciples, Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha comprised the five chief disciples. His ten foremost disciples were completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna. In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali. Hearing of the impending death of Suddhodana, the Buddha went to his father and preached the dharma, and Suddhodana became an arahant prior to death. The death and cremation led to the creation of the order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that he was reluctant to ordain women as nuns. His foster mother Maha Pajapati approached him asking to join the sangha, but the Buddha refused, and began the journey from Kapilavastu back to Rajagaha. Maha Pajapati was so intent on renouncing the world that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, following the sangha to Rajagaha. The Buddha eventually accepted them five years after the formation of the Sangha on the grounds that their capacity for enlightenment was equal to that of men, but he gave them certain additional rules (Vinaya) to follow. This occurred after Ananda interceded on their behalf. Yasodhara also became a nun, with both becoming arahants. During his ministry, Devadatta (who was not an arahant) frequently tried to undermine the Buddha. At one point Devadatta asked the Buddha to stand aside to let him lead the sangha. The Buddha declined, and stated that Devadatta's actions did not reflect on the Triple Gem, but on him alone. Devadatta conspired with Prince Ajatasattu, son of Bimbisara, so that they would kill and usurp the Buddha and Bimbisara respectively. Devadatta attempted three times to kill the Buddha. The first attempt involved the hiring of a group of archers, whom upon meeting the Buddha became disciples. A second attempt followed when Devadatta attempted to roll a large boulder down a hill. It hit another rock and splintered, only grazing the Buddha in the foot. A final attempt by plying an elephant with alcohol and setting it loose again failed. Failing this, Devadatta attempted to cause a schism in the sangha, by proposing extra restrictions on the vinaya. When the Buddha declined, Devadatta started a breakaway order, criticising the Buddha's laxity. At first, he managed to convert some of the bhikkhus, but Sariputta and Mahamoggallana expounded the dharma to them and succeeded in winning them back. When the Buddha reached the age of 55, he made Ananda his chief attendant. Death / Mahaparinirvana An artist`s portrayal of Buddha's entry into Parinirvana. According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana or the final deathless state abandoning the earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Maha-parinibbana Sutta (DN 16), verse 56 Mettanando and von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning. Mettanando Bhikkhu and Oskar von Hinueber, "The Cause of the Buddha's Death"; Vol. XXVI of the Journal of the Pali Text Society, 2000. See also this article by Mettanando saying the same thing: . The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. The Mahayana Vimalakirti Sutra claims, in Chapter 3, that the Buddha doesn't really become ill or old but purposely presents such an appearance only to teach those born into samsara about the impermanence and pain of defiled worlds and to encourage them to strive for Nirvana. Ananda protested Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. Buddha, however, reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy: The sharing of the relics of the Buddha. Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikshus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. He then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words were, "All composite things pass away. Strive for your own liberation with diligence." The Buddha's body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present. According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the and , the coronation of Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to one Mahayana record in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Aśoka is 116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 543 BCE, because the reign of Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. At his death, the Buddha told his disciples to follow no leader, but to follow his teachings (dharma). However, at the First Buddhist Council, Mahakasyapa was held by the sangha as their leader, with the two chief disciples Mahamoggallana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha. Physical characteristics Gandhara Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE, Musée Guimet. Buddha is perhaps one of the few sages for whom we have mention of his rather impressive physical characteristics. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man". The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive."(D,I:115). "It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A,I:181) A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an Arahant, was so obsessed by Buddha's physical presence that Buddha had to tell him to stop and reminded Vakkali to know Buddha through the Dhamma and not physical appearances. Although the Buddha was not represented in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), the physical characteristics of fully-enlightened Buddhas are described by the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's (D,I:142). Maurice Walshe, The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya, 1995, Boston: Wisdom Publications, "[DN] 30: : The Marks of a Great Man," pp. 441-60. In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men"). Ven. Elgiriye Indaratana Maha Thera, Vandana: The Album of Pali Devotional Chanting and Hymns, 2002, pp. 49-52, retrieved 2007-11-08 from "BuddhaNet" at http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/vandana02.pdf. Teachings Seated Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd century CE. Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pali Canon and the Agamas could contain the actual substance of the historical teachings (and possibly even the words) of the Buddha. It is therefore possible that much of what is found in the Suttapitaka is earlier than c.250 B.C., perhaps even more than 100 years older than this. If some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words. How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, p.22 (this article is available on the website of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies: [www.ocbs.org/research/Wynne.pdf] It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism ... the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. J.W. De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25 This is not the case for the later Mahayana sutras. The Mahayana movement claims to have been founded by the Buddha himself. The consensus of the evidence, however, is that it originated in South India in the 1st century CE–Indian Buddhism, AK Warder, 3rd edition, 1999, p. 335. The scriptural works of Early Buddhism precede the Mahayana works chronologically, and are treated by many Western scholars as the main credible source for information regarding the actual historical teachings of Gautama Buddha. Some of the fundamentals of the teachings of Gautama Buddha are: The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an inherent part of existence; that the origin of suffering is ignorance and the main symptoms of that ignorance are attachment and craving; that attachment and craving can be ceased; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path will lead to the cessation of attachment and craving and therefore suffering. The Noble Eightfold Path: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Dependent origination: that any phenomenon 'exists' only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect covering time past, present and future. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient (anicca), they have no real independent identity (anatta). Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: Teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experience and are praised by the wise. See the Kalama Sutta for details. Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things are impermanent. Anatta (Sanskrit: anātman): That the perception of a constant "self" is an illusion. Dukkha (Sanskrit: ): That all beings suffer from all situations due to unclear mind. However, in some Mahayana schools, these points have come to be regarded as more or less subsidiary. There is some disagreement amongst various schools of Buddhism over more esoteric aspects of Buddha's teachings, and also over some of the disciplinary rules for monks. According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding. He questioned the average person's notions of divinity and salvation. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is solely a guide and teacher for the sentient beings who must tread the path of (Pāli: Nibbāna) themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and see truth and reality as it is. The Buddhist system of insight and meditation practice is not believed to have been revealed divinely, but by the understanding of the true nature of the mind, which must be discovered by personally treading a spiritual path guided by the Buddha's teachings. See also Iconography of the Buddha Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu Buddha as viewed in other religions Buddhahood List of the 28 Buddhas Maitreya Buddha (Future Buddha) History of Buddhism References Further reading Armstrong, Karen. Buddha. (New York: Penguin Books, 2001). Bechert, Heinz (ed.) (1996) When Did the Buddha Live? The Controversy on the Dating of the Historical Buddha. Delhi: Sri Satguru. Sathe, Shriram: Dates of the Buddha. Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samiti, Hyderabad 1987. External links A sketch of the Buddha's Life Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism What Was The Buddha Like? by Ven S. 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3,787 | Demographics_of_Niger | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Niger, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The largest ethnic groups in Niger are the Hausa, who also constitute the major ethnic group in northern Nigeria, and the Zarma Songhay (also spelled Djerma-Songhai), who also are found in parts of Mali. Both groups are sedentary farmers who live in the arable, southern tier. The Kanouri (including Beri Beri, Manga) make up the majority of sedentary population in the far southeast of the nation. The remainder of the Nigerien people are nomadic or seminomadic livestock-raising peoples--Tuareg, Fulani, Toubou and Diffa Arabs. With rapidly growing populations and the consequent competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of these two types of peoples have come increasingly into conflict in Niger in recent years. Niger's high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is exceptionally high (274 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. Niger's very high fertility rate (7.4), nonetheless, means that nearly half (49%) of the Nigerien population is under age 15. School attendance is very low (34%), including 38% of males and only 27% of females. Additional education occurs through Koranic schools. Core health indicators World Health Organisation 2007 statistics: Core Health Indicators for Niger World Health Organisation 2007 statistics: Core Health Indicators for Niger. Indicator Value (year)Life expectancy at birth (years) males 42.0 (2005)Life expectancy at birth (years) females 41.0(2005)Healthy life expectancy (HALE) at birth (years) males36.0(2002)Healthy life expectancy (HALE) at birth (years) females35.0(2002)Probability of dying (per 1 000 population) between 15 and 60 years (adult mortality rate) males 502(2005)Probability of dying (per 1 000 population) between 15 and 60 years (adult mortality rate) females478(2005)Total expenditure on health as percentage of gross domestic product4.2(2004)Per capita total expenditure on health at international dollar rate25.9(2004)Population (in thousands) total 13957 (2005) CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Niger, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 10,075,511 (July 2000 est.) The population is projected to double by 2026. Age structure 0-19 years: 57.4% (male 3,561,300; female 3,413,841) 20-64 years: 40.3% (male 2,516,092; female 2,378,398) 65 years and over: 2% (male 121,570; female 109,725) (2000 est.) Population growth rate 2.898% (2007 est.) Birth rate 50.16 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Death rate 20.51 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) Net migration rate -0.58 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.11 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 124.9 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 41.27 years male: 41.43 years female: 41.11 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 7.61 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality noun: Nigerien(s) adjective: Nigerien Ethnic groups Hausa 56%, Djerma 22%, Tuareg 8.5%, Fulani 8%, Beri (Kanouri) 4.3%, Arab, Toubou, and Gourmantche 1.2%, about 10,000 French expatriates Religions Muslim 80%, remainder indigenous beliefs and Christians (see Religion in Niger) Languages French (official), Hausa, Djerma, Tamajaq, Fulfulde. Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 28.7% (2004 est.; source: UNDP 2006; NB- this figure is given without reference to which languages are considered) Male: 42.9% Female: 15.1% See also Languages of Niger References UNDP. 2006. Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis. Human Development Report 2006. New York: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). UNDP The Human Development Index reports: Niger. Health Organisation Niger overview. Includes links to statistics, programs and news on health and demography in Niger. WHO "Country Logbook" for Niger. Providing Surveys, Censuses, Monitoring of vital events, Health services & surveillance, Health situation & trend analysis, and Planning & strategic documents . ethnologue.com: Ethnic and linguistic breakdown for Niger. OECD/ AEO 2007 Niger country study. The AGRHYMET Regional Centre (ARC), Niamey Office. Institute of the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) composed of nine member States, including Niger. 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3,788 | Microkernel | Structure of monolithic and microkernel-based operating systems, respectively In computer science, a microkernel is a computer kernel that provides the mechanisms needed to implement an operating system, such as low-level address space management, thread management, and inter-process communication. If the hardware provides multiple privilege levels, then the microkernel is the only software executing at the most privileged level (generally referred to as supervisor or kernel mode). Actual operating system services, such as device drivers, protocol stacks, file systems and user interface code are contained in user space. Microkernels are closely related to exokernels. They also have much in common with hypervisors, but the latter make no claim to minimality, and are specialized to supporting virtual machines. The L4 microkernel is frequently used as a hypervisor, which indicates that a microkernel is a possible implementation of a hypervisor. The term nanokernel is historically used to differentiate from earlier microkernels which contained actual system services, but the minimality principle used by Jochen Liedtke in the design of the L4 microkernel implies that these terms have the same meaning; microkernel is the modern terminology. Introduction Early operating system kernels were rather small, partly because computer memory was limited. As the capability of computers grew, the number of devices the kernel had to control also grew. Through the early history of Unix, kernels were generally small, even though those kernels contained device drivers and file system managers. When address spaces increased from 16 to 32 bits, kernel design was no longer cramped by the hardware architecture, and kernels began to grow. Berkeley UNIX (BSD) began the era of big kernels. In addition to operating a basic system consisting of the CPU, disks and printers, BSD started adding additional file systems, a complete TCP/IP networking system, and a number of "virtual" devices that allowed the existing programs to work invisibly over the network. This growth continued for several decades, resulting in kernels with millions of lines of source code. As a result of this growth, kernels were more prone to bugs and became increasingly difficult to maintain. The microkernel was designed to address the increasing growth of kernels and the difficulties that came with them. In theory, the microkernel design allows for easier management of code due to its division into user space services. This also allows for increased security and stability resulting from the reduced amount of code running in kernel mode. For example, if a networking service crashed due to buffer overflow, only the networking service's memory would be corrupted, leaving the rest of the system still functional. Inter-process communication Inter-process communication (IPC) is any mechanism which allows separate processes to communicate with each other, usually by sending messages. Shared memory is strictly speaking also an inter-process communication mechanism, but the acronym IPC usually only refers to message passing, and it is the latter that is particularly relevant to microkernels. IPC allows the operating system to be built from a number of small programs called servers, which are used by other programs on the system, invoked via IPC. Most or all support for peripheral hardware is handled in this fashion, with servers for device drivers, network protocol stacks, file systems, graphics, etc. IPC can be synchronous or asynchronous. Asynchronous IPC is analogous to network communication: the sender dispatches a message and continues executing. The receiver checks (polls) for the availability of the message by attempting a receive, or is alerted to it via some notification mechanism. Asynchronous IPC requires that the kernel maintains buffers and queues for messages, and deals with buffer overflows; it also requires double copying of messages (sender to kernel and kernel to receiver). In synchronous IPC, the first party (sender or receiver) blocks until the other party is ready to perform the IPC. It does not require buffering or multiple copies, but the implicit rendezvous can make programming tricky. Most programmers prefer asynchronous send and synchronous receive. First-generation microkernels typically supported synchronous as well as asynchronous IPC, and suffered from poor IPC performance. Jochen Liedtke identified the design and implementation of the IPC mechanisms as the underlying reason for this poor performance. In his L4 microkernel he pioneered techniques that lead to an order-of-magnitude reduction of IPC costs. These include an IPC system call that supports a send as well as a receive operation, making all IPC synchronous, and passing as much data as possible in registers. Furthermore, Liedtke introduced the concept of the direct process switch, where during an IPC execution an (incomplete) context switch is performed from the sender directly to the receiver. If, as in L4, part or all of the message is passed in registers, this transfers the in-register part of the message without any copying at all. Furthermore, the overhead of invoking the scheduler is avoided; this is especially beneficial in the common case where IPC is used in an RPC-type fashion by a client invoking a server. Another optimization, called lazy scheduling, avoids traversing scheduling queues during IPC by leaving threads that block during IPC in the ready queue. Once the scheduler is invoked, it moves such threads to the appropriate waiting queue. As in many cases a thread gets unblocked before the next scheduler invocation, this approach saves significant work. Similar approaches have since been adopted by QNX and MINIX 3. In a client-server system, most communication is essentially synchronous, even if using asynchronous primitives, as the typical operation is a client invoking a server and then waiting for a reply. As it also lends itself to more efficient implementation, modern microkernels generally follow L4's lead and only provide a synchronous IPC primitive. Asynchronous IPC can be implemented on top by using helper threads. However, versions of L4 deployed in commercial products have found it necessary to add an asynchronous notification mechanism to better support asynchronous communication. This signal-like mechanism does not carry data and therefore does not require buffering by the kernel. As synchronous IPC blocks the first party until the other is ready, unrestricted use could easily lead to deadlocks. Furthermore, a client could easily mount a denial-of-service attack on a server by sending a request and never attempting to receive the reply. Therefore synchronous IPC must provide a means to prevent indefinite blocking. Many microkernels provide timeouts on IPC calls, which limit the blocking time. In practice, choosing sensible timeout values is difficult, and systems almost inevitably use infinite timeouts for clients and zero timeouts for servers. As a consequence, the trend is towards not providing arbitrary timeouts, but only a flag which indicates that the IPC should fail immediately if the partner is not ready. This approach effectively provides a choice of the two timeout values of zero and infinity. Recent versions of L4 and MINIX have gone down this path (older versions of L4 used timeouts, as does QNX). Servers Microkernel servers are essentially daemon programs like any others, except that the kernel grants some of them privileges to interact with parts of physical memory that are otherwise off limits to most programs. This allows some servers, particularly device drivers, to interact directly with hardware. A basic set of servers for a general-purpose microkernel includes file system servers, device driver servers, networking servers, display servers, and user interface device servers. This set of servers (drawn from QNX) provides roughly the set of services offered by a monolithic UNIX kernel. The necessary servers are started at system startup and provide services, such as file, network, and device access, to ordinary application programs. With such servers running in the environment of a user application, server development is similar to ordinary application development, rather than the build-and-boot process needed for kernel development. Additionally, many "crashes" can be corrected for by simply stopping and restarting the server. However, part of the system state is lost with the failing server, hence this approach requires applications to cope with failure. A good example is a server responsible for TCP/IP connections: If this server is restarted, applications will experience a "lost" connection, a normal occurrence in networked system. For other services, failure is less expected and may require changes to application code. For QNX, restart capability is offered as the QNX High Availability Toolkit. QNX High Availability Toolkit In order to make all servers restartable, some microkernels have concentrated on adding various database-like techniques like transactions, replication and checkpointing in order to preserve essential state across single server restarts. An example is ChorusOS, which was targeted at high-availability applications in the telecommunications world. Chorus included features to allow any "properly written" server to be restarted at any time, with clients using those servers being paused while the server brought itself back into its original state. However, such kernel features are incompatible with the minimality principle, and are therefore not provided in modern microkernels, which instead rely on appropriate user-level protocols. Device drivers Device drivers frequently perform direct memory access (DMA), and therefore can write to arbitrary locations of physical memory, including over kernel data structures. Such drivers must therefore be trusted. It is a common misconception that this means that they must be part of the kernel. In fact, a driver is not inherently more or less trustworthy by being part of the kernel. While running a device driver in user space does not necessarily reduce the damage a misbehaving driver can cause, in practice it is beneficial for system stability in the presence of buggy (rather than malicious) drivers: memory-access violations by the driver code itself (as opposed to the device) may still be caught by the memory-management hardware. Furthermore, many devices are not DMA-capable, their drivers can be made untrusted by running them in user space. Recently, an increasing number of computers feature IOMMUs, many of which can be used to restrict a device's access to physical memory. (IBM mainframes have had IO MMUs since the IBM System/360 Model 67 and System/370.) This also allows user-mode drivers to become untrusted. User-mode drivers actually predate microkernels. The Michigan Terminal System (MTS), in 1967, supported user space drivers, the first operating system to be designed with that capability. Historically, drivers were less of a problem, as the number of devices was small and trusted anyway, so having them in the kernel simplified the design and avoided potential performance problems. This led to the traditional driver-in-the-kernel style of UNIX, Linux, and Windows. With the proliferation of various kinds of peripherals, the amount of driver code escalated and in modern operating systems dominates the kernel in terms of code size. Essential components & minimality As a microkernel must allow building arbitrary operating-system services on top, it must provide some core functionality. At the least this includes: some mechanisms for dealing with address spaces — this is required for managing memory protection; some execution abstraction to manage CPU allocation — typically threads or scheduler activations; and inter-process communication — required to invoke servers running in their own address spaces. This minimal design was pioneered by Brinch Hansen's Nucleus and the hypervisor of IBM's VM. It has since been formalised in Liedtke's minimality principle: A concept is tolerated inside the microkernel only if moving it outside the kernel, i.e., permitting competing implementations, would prevent the implementation of the system's required functionality. Everything else can be done in a usermode program, although device drivers implemented as user programs may on some processor architectures require special privileges to access I/O hardware. Related to the minimality principle, and equally important for microkernel design, is the separation of mechanism and policy, it is what enables the construction of arbitrary systems on top of a minimal kernel. Any policy built into the kernel cannot be overwritten at user level and therefore limits the generality of the microkernel. Previously cited Policy implemented in user-level servers can be changed by replacing the servers (or letting the application choose between competing servers offering similar services). For efficiency, most microkernels contain schedulers and manage timers, in violation of the minimality principle and the principle of policy-mechanism separation. Start up (booting) of a microkernel-based system requires device drivers, which are not part of the kernel. Typically this means that they are packaged with the kernel in the boot image, and the kernel supports a bootstrap protocol that defines how the drivers are located and started; this is the traditional bootstrap procedure of L4 Microkernels. Some microkernels simplify this by placing some key drivers inside the kernel (in violation of the minimality principle), LynxOS and the original Minix are examples. Some even include a file system in the kernel to simplify booting. On other cases microkernel-based system may boot via multiboot compatible boot loader, GNU GRUB for example, such systems usually load statically-linked servers to make an initial bootstrap or mount an OS image to continue bootstrapping; Jari OS is example of this boot type. A key component of a microkernel is a good IPC system and virtual-memory-manager design that allows implementing page-fault handling and swapping in usermode servers in a safe way. Since all services are performed by usermode programs, efficient means of communication between programs are essential, far more so than in monolithic kernels. The design of the IPC system makes or breaks a microkernel. To be effective, the IPC system must not only have low overhead, but also interact well with CPU scheduling. Performance Obtaining a service is inherently more expensive in a microkernel-based system than a monolithic system. Previously cited In the monolithic system, the service is obtained by a single system call, which requires two mode switches (changes of the processor's privilege level). In the microkernel-based system, the service is obtained by sending an IPC message to a server, and obtaining the result in another IPC message from the server. This requires a context switch if the drivers are implemented as processes, or a function call if they are implemented as procedures. In addition, passing actual data to the server and back may incur extra copying overhead, while in a monolithic system the kernel can directly access the data in the client's buffers. Performance is therefore a potential issue in microkernel systems. Indeed, the experience of first-generation microkernels such as Mach and Chorus showed that systems based on them performed very poorly. However, Jochen Liedtke showed that Mach's performance problems were the result of poor design and implementation, and specifically Mach's excessive cache footprint. Previously cited Liedtke demonstrated with his own L4 microkernel that through careful design and implementation, and especially by following the minimality principle, IPC costs could be reduced by more than an order of magnitude compared to Mach. L4's IPC performance is still unbeaten across a range of architectures. While these results demonstrate that the poor performance of systems based on first-generation microkernels is not representative for second-generation kernels such as L4, this constitutes no proof that microkernel-based systems can be built with good performance. It has been shown that a monolithic Linux server ported to L4 exhibits only a few percent overhead over native Linux. However, such a single-server system exhibits few, if any, of the advantages microkernels are supposed to provide by structuring operating-system functionality into separate servers. A number of commercial multi-server systems exist, in particular the real-time systems QNX and Integrity. No comprehensive comparison of performance relative to monolithic systems has been published for those multiserver systems. Furthermore, performance does not seem to be the overriding concern for those commercial systems, which instead emphasize reliably quick interrupt handling response times (QNX) and simplicity for the sake of robustness. An attempt to build a high-performance multiserver operating system was the IBM Sawmill Linux project. However, this project was never completed. It has been shown in the meantime that user-level device drivers can come close to the performance of in-kernel drivers even for such high-throughput, high-interrupt devices as Gigabit Ethernet. This seems to imply that high-performance multi-server systems are possible. Security The security benefits of microkernels have been frequently discussed. Tanenbaum, Andrew S., Tanenbaum-Torvalds debate, part II Tanenbaum, A., Herder, J. and Bos, H. (May 2006). In the context of security the minimality principle of microkernels is a direct consequence of the principle of least privilege, according to which all code should have only the privileges needed to provide required functionality. Minimality requires that a system's trusted computing base (TCB) should be kept minimal. As the kernel (the code that executes in the privileged mode of the hardware) is always part of the TCB, minimizing it is natural in a security-driven design. Consequently, microkernel designs have been used for systems designed for high-security applications, including KeyKOS, EROS and military systems. In fact common criteria (CC) at the highest assurance level (EAL7) has an explicit requirement that the target of evaluation be “simple”, an acknowledgment of the practical impossibility of establishing true trustworthiness for a complex system. Recent work on microkernels is focusing on formal specifications of the kernel API, and formal proofs of security properties of the API. The first example of this is a mathematical proof of the confinement mechanisms in EROS, based on a simplified model of the EROS API. More recently, a comprehensive set of machine-checked proofs has been performed of the properties of the protection model of the seL4 version of L4. Some projects go even further, aiming at complete formal verification, i.e. a mathematical proof that the kernel's implementation is consistent with its specification, which then provides a guarantee that the properties proved about the API actually hold for the real kernel. This degree of assurance goes beyond even CC EAL7. Such proofs are being attempted for Coyotos and seL4. Nanokernel In computer science, the term nanokernel or picokernel historically referred to: A kernel where the total amount of kernel code, i.e. code executing in the privileged mode of the hardware, is very small. The term picokernel was sometimes used to further emphasize small size. The term nanokernel was coined by Jonathan S. Shapiro in the paper The KeyKOS NanoKernel Architecture. It was a sardonic response to Mach, which claimed to be a microkernel while being monolithic, essentially unstructured, and slower than the systems it sought to replace. Subsequent reuse of and response to the term, including the picokernel coinage, suggest that the point was largely missed. Both nanokernel and picokernel have subsequently come to have the same meaning expressed by the term microkernel. A virtualization layer underneath an operating system; this is more correctly referred to as a hypervisor. A hardware abstraction layer that forms the lowest-level part of a kernel, sometimes used to provide real-time functionality to normal OS's, like Adeos. There is also at least one case where the term nanokernel is used to refer not to a small kernel, but one that supports a nanosecond clock resolution. See also Kernel (computer science) Exokernel, a research kernel architecture with a more minimalist approach to kernel technology. Hybrid kernel Monolithic kernel Loadable kernel module Trusted computing base References Further reading scientific articles about microkernels (on CiteSeer), including: - the basic QNX reference. -the basic reliable reference. - the basic Mach reference. MicroKernel page from the Portland Pattern Repository The Tanenbaum-Torvalds debate The Tanenbaum-Torvalds Debate, 1992.01.29 Tanenbaum, A. S. "Can We Make Operating Systems Reliable and Secure?". Torvalds, L. Linus Torvalds about the microkernels again, 2006.05.09 Shapiro, J. "Debunking Linus's Latest". Tanenbaum, A. S. 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3,789 | Old_Testament | In Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. These works correspond to the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), with some variations and additions. In the Eastern Orthodox Church the comparable texts are known as the Septuagint, from the original Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures. In the Syriac Orthodox church, they are known as the Peshitta. The term "Old Testament" itself is credited to Melito of Sardis. http://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&pg=PA316&lpg=PA316&dq=melito+%22old+testament%22+%22first+used%22&source=bl&ots=9_tprGuiPx&sig=sygOITuaZ7Dok0yZK2aBmqe7iOk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result Tertullian also used the Latin vetus testamentum. The Old Testament in the Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Greek Orthodox Bibles have 39 books in common. http://www.bible.ca/b-canon-orthodox-catholic-christian-bible-books.htm Scholars believe much of the Old Testament was written in Mesopotamia. http://hnn.us/readcomment.php?id=8803 "scholars believe much of the Old Testament was written in Mesopotamia" It is believed the Old Testament was composed and compiled between the 12th and the 2nd century BC. Encyclopaedia Britannica: "Written almost entirely in the Hebrew language between 1200 and 100 BC"; Columbia Encyclopedia: "In the 10th century BC the first of a series of editors collected materials from earlier traditional folkloric and historical records (i.e., both oral and written sources) to compose a narrative of the history of the Israelites who now found themselves united under David and Solomon." Jesus and his disciples referenced it when discussing Jesus's newer teachings, referring to it as "the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms ... the scriptures". () The accounts of Jesus and his disciples are recorded in the New Testament. History The early Christian Church used the Septuagint, the oldest Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, as its religious text until at least the mid-fourth century. Until that time Greek was a major language of the Roman Empire and the language of the Church (except Syrian Orthodoxy which used the Syriac Peshitta and Ethiopian Orthodoxy which used the Geez). Also, the Church Fathers tended to accept Philo's account of the Septuagint's miraculous and inspired origin, and Christ and the Apostles in the New Testament quoted extensively from the text. H. B. Swete, An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, revised by R.R. Ottley, 1914; reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1989. Occasions where the Septuagint is Quoted in the New Testament When Jerome undertook the revision of the Old Latin translations of the Septuagint in about 400 AD, he checked the Septuagint against the Hebrew text that was then available. He came to believe that the Hebrew text better testified to Christ than the Septuagint. Jerome's Prologue to Genesis He broke with church tradition and translated most of the Old Testament of his Vulgate from Hebrew rather than Greek. His choice was severely criticized by Augustine, his contemporary, and others who regarded Jerome as a forger. But with the passage of time, acceptance of Jerome's version gradually increased in the West until it displaced the Old Latin translations of the Septuagint. Ernst Würthwein, The Text of the Old Testament, trans. Errol F. Rhodes, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1995. The Hebrew text differs in some passages that Christians hold to prophesy Christ, and the Eastern Orthodox Church still prefers to use the Septuagint as the basis for translating the Old Testament into other languages. The Orthodox Church of Constantinople, the Church of Greece and the Cypriot Orthodox Church continue to use it in their liturgy today, untranslated. Many modern critical translations of the Old Testament, while using the Hebrew text as their basis, consult the Septuagint as well as other versions in an attempt to reconstruct the meaning of the Hebrew text whenever the latter is unclear, undeniably corrupt, or ambiguous. Many of the oldest Biblical verses among the Dead Sea Scrolls, particularly those in Aramaic, correspond more closely with the Septuagint than with the Hebrew text (although the majority of these variations are extremely minor, e.g. grammatical changes, spelling differences or missing words, and do not affect the meaning of sentences and paragraphs).<ref name="Jobes and Silva"> Karen Jobes and Moises Silva, Invitation to the Septuagint ISBN 1-84227-061-3, (Paternoster Press, 2001). - The current standard for Introductory works on the Septuagint. </ref> Timothy McLay, The Use of the Septuagint in New Testament Research ISBN 0-8028-6091-5. - The current standard introduction on the NT & Septuagint. V.S. Herrell, The History of the Bible, "Qumran: Dead Sea Scrolls." This confirms the scholarly consensus that the Septuagint represents a separate Hebrew text tradition from that which was later standardized as the Hebrew text (called the Masoretic Text). William Priestly, "The Dead Sea Scrolls." - A detailed explanation with scholarly apparatus. Of the fuller quotations in the New Testament of the Old, nearly one hundred agree with the modern form of the Septuagint Jones, Table: "Instances where the New Testament agrees with the Septuagint." and six agree with the Hebrew text. Jones, Table: "Instance where the New Testament agrees with the meaning of the Hebrew texts." The principal differences concern presumed Biblical prophecies relating to Christ. Books of the Old TestamentSee also: Septuagint: Table of books The Septuagint In early Christianity the Septuagint was universally used among Greek speakers, while Aramaic Targums were used in the Syriac Church. To this day the Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint, in an untranslated form. Some scripture of ancient origin is found in the Septuagint but are not in the Hebrew. These include additions to Daniel and Esther. For more information regarding these books, see the articles Biblical apocrypha, Biblical canon, Books of the Bible, and Deuterocanonical books. Some books that are set apart in the Hebrew text are grouped together. For example the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the Septuagint one book in four parts called "Of Reigns" (Βασιλειῶν). Scholars believe that this is the original arrangement before the book was divided for readability. In the Septuagint, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and are called Paraleipoménon (Παραλειπομένων—things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve. All the books of western canons of the Old Testament are found in the Septuagint, although the order does not always coincide with the modern ordering of the books. The Septuagint order for the Old Testament is evident in the earliest Christian Bibles (5th century). Jennifer M. Dines, The Septuagint, Michael A. Knibb, Ed., London: T&T Clark, 2004 The New Testament makes a number of allusions to and may quote the additional books (as Orthodox Christians aver). The books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus Seirach, Baruch, Epistle of Jeremy (sometimes considered part of Baruch), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Sosanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasses, and Psalm 151. Latin translations Jerome's Vulgate Latin translation dates to between 382 and 420 AD. Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as Vetus Latina texts. Origen's Hexapla placed side by side six versions of the Old Testament, including the 2nd century Greek translations of Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite. Canonical Christian Bibles were formally established by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem in 350 and confirmed by the Council of Laodicea in 363, and later established by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367. The Council of Laodicea restricted readings in church to only the canonical books of the Old and New Testaments. The books listed were the 22 books of the Hebrew Bible plus the Book of Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremy, together with the New Testament containing 26 books, omitting the Book of Revelation. The Council of Carthage, called the third by Denzinger, Denzinger 186 on 28 August 397 issued a canon of the Bible restricted to: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Josue, Judges, Ruth, 4 books of Kingdoms, 2 books of Paralipomenon, Job, Psalter of David, 5 books of Solomon, 12 books of Prophets, Isaias, Jeremias, Daniel, Ezechiel, Tobias, Judith, Esther, 2 books of Esdras, 2 books of Machabees, and in the New Testament: 4 books of Gospels, 1 book of Acts of the Apostles, 13 letters of the Apostle Paul, 1 of him to the Hebrews, 2 of Peter, 3 of John, 1 of James, 1 of Judas, and the Apocalypse of John. Other traditions The canonical acceptance of these books varies among different Christian traditions, and there are canonical books not derived from the Septuagint. For a discussion see the article on Biblical apocrypha. The exact canon of the Old Testament differs between the various branches of Christianity. All include the books of the Hebrew Bible, while most traditions also recognise several Deuterocanonical books. The Protestant Old Testament is, for the most part, identical with the Hebrew Bible; the differences are minor, dealing only with the arrangement and number of the books. For example, while the Hebrew Bible considers Kings to be a unified text, and Ezra and Nehemiah as a single book, the Protestant Old Testament divides each of these into two books. Translations of the Old Testament were discouraged in medieval Christendom. An exception was the translation of the Pentateuch ordered by Alfred the Great around 900, and Wyclif's Bible of 1383. Numerous vernacular translations appeared with the Protestant Reformation. The differences between the Hebrew Bible and other versions of the Old Testament such as the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Syriac, Greek, Latin and other canons, are greater. Many of these canons include whole books and additional sections of books that the others do not. The translations of various words from the original Hebrew may also give rise to significant differences of interpretation. Relationship between Old and New Testament Christian views on Mosaic Law There are differences of opinion among Christian denominations as to what and how Biblical law applies in a Christian context. There are diverse views of the issues involved. Although Christianity by tradition affirms that the Five Books of Moses (the Pentateuch or Torah) is the inspired word of God, Christian tradition denies that all Mosaic Law applies directly to Christians. There are differences of opinion within Christianity as to which laws, if any, still apply. Rabbinic Judaism Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentiles: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah asserts that the Laws of the Jewish Bible were presented to the Jewish people and converts to Judaism and that none of them apply to gentiles, including Christians, with the notable exception of Noahide Law which applies to all people. Rabbi Emden of the 18th century was of the opinion that Jesus's original objective, and especially Paul's, was only to convert gentiles to Noahide Law while allowing Jews to follow full Mosaic Law. The New Testament indicates that Jesus Christ mediates a New Covenant relationship between his disciples and God (; ; ). Christianity, almost without exception, teaches that this New Covenant is the instrument through which God offers mercy and atonement to mankind. However, there are differences of opinion as to how the New Covenant affects the validity of biblical law. The differences are mainly as a result of attempts to harmonize biblical statements to the effect that the biblical law is eternal (for example , ) with New Testament statements that suggest that it does not now apply at all, or at least does not fully apply. Most biblical scholars admit the issue of the Law can be confusing and the topic of Paul and the Law is still frequently debated among New Testament scholars Gundry, ed., Five Views on Law and Gospel. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993). (for example, see New Perspective on Paul, Pauline Christianity); hence the various views. Some conclude that none is applicable, some conclude that only parts are applicable, and some conclude that all is still applicable to believers in Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant. Depicted is his famous Sermon on the Mount in which he commented on the Law. Painting by Carl Heinrich Bloch. Although there are a number of views, there is basic agreement among the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and mainline Protestant churches that a large part of the Old Testament law, usually that regarded as not part of universal morality, is not applicable to Christianity. Roman Catholic view The Roman Catholic view is summarised in The Catechism of the Catholic Church: Part 3, Life in Christ: Section 2, The Ten Commandments: "Teacher, what must I do ...?" as follows: 2068 The Council of Trent teaches that the Ten Commandments are obligatory for Christians and that the justified man is still bound to keep them; the Second Vatican Council confirms: 'The bishops, successors of the apostles, receive from the Lord ... the mission of teaching all peoples, and of preaching the Gospel to every creature, so that all men may attain salvation through faith, Baptism and the observance of the Commandments.' 2076 By his life and by his preaching Jesus attested to the permanent validity of the Decalogue. Catechism of the Catholic Church At the same time, the Roman Catholic Church teaches that the Apostles Apostolic Letter Dies Domini of the Holy Father John Paul II The Catechism of the Council of Trent instituted the observance of Sunday instead of Saturday, and applies the Third Commandment to Sunday as the day to be kept holy as the Lord's Day. Lutheran view The view of the Lutheran Church is summarised in the Formula of Concord which declared (Article V): "We believe, teach, and confess that the distinction between the Law and the Gospel is to be maintained in the Church with great diligence..." Triglot Concordia, FC Epitome V, (II).1, p. 503ff Martin Luther wrote: "Hence, whoever knows well this art of distinguishing between Law and Gospel, him place at the head and call him a doctor of Holy Scripture." Martin Luther, Dr. Martin Luthers Sämmtliche Schriften, St. Louis ed. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, N.D.), vol. 9, col. 802. The distinction between Law and Gospel in the Lutheran view is that Law demands obedience to God's will, while Gospel refers to the promise of forgiveness of sins in the light of the person and work of Jesus Christ. Reformed church view (Covenant Theology) The Reformed, or Covenant Theology view is similar to the Roman Catholic view. It holds that under the new covenant, the Mosaic Law fundamentally continues, but that parts of it have "expired" and are no longer applicable. Bahnsen, et al., Five Views on Law and Gospel. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993). The Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) divides the Mosaic laws into three categories: moral, civil, and ceremonial. In the view of the Westminster divines, only the moral laws of the Mosaic Law, which include the Ten Commandments and the commands repeated in the New Testament, directly apply to Christians today. WCF: Chapter XIX Ceremonial laws, in this view, include the regulations pertaining to ceremonial cleanliness, festivals, diet, and the Levitical priesthood. While the view affirms Sabbath like the Roman Catholic view, some advocates hold that the Commandment concerning Sabbath was redefined by Jesus (, ). Vangemeren, et al., Five Views on Law and Gospel. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993). In a revival of ideas established in the Puritan period, starting in the 1970s and 1980s, a branch of Reformed theology known as Christian Reconstructionism argued that the civil laws as well as the moral laws should be applied in today's society (a position called Theonomy) as part of establishing a modern theonomic state. Bahnsen, et al., Five Views on Law and Gospel. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993). Advocates of this Reformed view hold that, while not always easy to do and overlap between categories does occur, the divisions they make are possible and supported based on information contained in the commands themselves; specifically to whom they are addressed, whom or what they speak about, and their content. For example, a ceremonial law might be addressed to the Levites, speak of purification or holiness and have content which could be considered as a foreshadowing of some aspect of Christ's life or ministry. In keeping with this, most advocates also hold that when the Law is spoken of as everlasting, it is in reference to certain divisions of the Law. Some advocates, usually Theonomists, go further and embrace that idea that the whole Law continues to function, contending that the way in which Christians observe some commands has changed but not the content or meaning of the commands. (For example, they would say that the commands regarding Passover were looking forward to Christ's sacrificial death and the Communion mandate is looking back on it, the former is given to the Levitical priesthood and the latter is given to the priesthood of all believers, but both have the same content and meaning.) Rousas John Rushdoony, The Institutes of Biblical Law. (Nutley, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed Pub. Co., 1973). Greg L. Bahnsen, Theonomy in Christian Ethics. (Nacogdoches, TX: Covenant Media Press, 1977). Gary North, Gary DeMar, Christian Reconstruction: What It Is, What It Isn't. (Tyler, TX: Institute for Christian Economics, 1991). Greg L. Bahnsen, No Other Standard: Theonomy and Its Critics. (Tyler, TX: Institute for Christian Economics, 1991). Those in disagreement with this view claim that nowhere is a division of the Law mentioned in the Bible, but rather there is evidence that it is indivisible, and it would be practically impossible to sort commands by these types. Others in disagreement claim that the Law is described in various places as "everlasting" and none of it can terminate or expire. The Anglican view The Anglican view is essentially the same as the Roman Catholic, and is neatly summarized in Article 7 of the Articles of Religion (the Thirty-Nine Articles: "Although the law given from God by Moses, as touching ceremonies and rites, do not bind Christian men, nor the civil precepts thereof ought of necessity to be received in any commonwealth; yet, notwithstanding, no Christian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the commandments which are called moral." The Dispensational view The Dispensational view holds that under the new covenant, the Mosaic Law has fundamentally been terminated, or abolished, because, in this view, Scripture never describes the Law as divisible — it is one unit (James 2:10–11). Therefore, because portions of New Testament Scripture (such as Heb. 8:13) are understood in this view to annul at least parts of the Law, then the whole Law must be terminated. Strickland, et al., Five Views on Law and Gospel. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993). Furthermore, this view holds that the Mosaic laws and the penalties attached to the laws were limited to the particular historical and theological setting of the Old Testament, described in this view as a different "dispensation"; a stage of time in which God dealt with humanity in a fundamentally different way than he does now. We are now living in the "dispensation" of the church/grace, which is a "parenthesis" or "intercalation" in history that is outside of God’s over-arching plan for Israel, and thus the Law given to Israel doesn’t now apply. Replacing the Mosaic Law is The Law of Christ (), which holds definite similarities with the Mosaic Law in moral concerns, but is new and different, replacing the first Law. Despite this difference, Dispensationalists may seek to find moral and religious principles applicable for today in all parts of the Mosaic Law. Those in disagreement with the Dispensational view point out that nowhere does the Bible define a series of "dispensations" that this theology proposes, and point out that God said that he does not change. Furthermore, opponents point out that the Mosaic Law is described in various places as "everlasting" and must fundamentally continue in some form. Others hold that, for this same reason, none at all can terminate or expire. The New Covenant Theology view New Covenant Theology refers to a Christian theological view of redemptive history primarily found in Baptist circles and contrasted with Covenant Theology and Dispensationalism. New Covenant Theology believes that God has maintained one eternal purpose in Christ which has been expressed through a multiplicity of distinct historical covenants; that prominent among these are those designated the Old Covenant (also known as the Mosaic or First Covenant) and the New Covenant; that the former, confined to the people of Israel alone, was established while that nation was assembled before Mt. Sinai and was later made obsolete through its fulfillment by the life and death of Jesus the Messiah; that it was comprised largely of shadows pointing ultimately to Jesus and His body, the Church; and that, therefore, the age in which it remained operative was at all times a period of immaturity as compared to the age of fulfillment which was inaugurated with Christ's first advent. The Old Covenant, containing a single, unified law code, was a legal, conditional covenant requiring perfect and complete obedience of all those under it; that, on the one hand, it promised life to all who obeyed it, and, on the other hand, it pronounced a curse upon all its transgressors; that it, therefore, inescapably brought death to all who sought to be justified by it—not because of a deficiency in the law (itself "holy, just, and good"), but because of the sinful inability of those under its charge; and that, for this reason, it is variously described as a "killing letter", a "ministry of death", and a "ministry of condemnation"—its distinct purpose being to illumine sin so as to make manifest the Israelites' and, by implication, all men's need for a redeemer. In contrast to the Old Covenant, the New Covenant (by virtue of Christ's perfect obedience to the law, as well as His bearing of its curse) promises only blessing to all those who belong to it; and that this second covenant, the "everlasting covenant" enacted upon better promises, has thus brought to realization all that was anticipated in the covenants made with Abraham, Moses, and David. Under the New Covenant, God's people, having entered the age of fulfillment, now stand as mature sons; that having been set free from the tutelage and bondage of the law code written upon tablets of stone, they have subsequently been placed under the Spirit's management—having the new and greater Lawgiver's own law now written upon their hearts. As a result, though many of the individual commandments given in the Decalogue and the eternal principles upon which the Mosaic Covenant was founded still apply to those under the New Covenant, God's people are now totally free from the Old Covenant as a covenant; that the usefulness of the Mosaic commands is not therefore to be denied, only that these are now understood to come to us through Christ, the mediator of the New Covenant; and that, in particular, with the obsolescence of the Old Covenant, the fourth commandment, seventh-day Sabbath observance, is no longer obligatory—its relevance now pointing to that rest enjoyed by all those in Christ. The Torah-submissive view The Torah-submissive view, holds that the entire Torah is an indivisible whole and fundamentally continues to apply to all followers of God under the new covenant. Proponents emphasize the Biblical passages in both Old and New Testaments describing God's entire Law as both "everlasting" E.g. ; ; ; ; and "good." E.g. ; ; In addition, this view holds that, rather than negating the Torah, part of the new covenant is to have this same Torah written upon the hearts of believers by the Holy Spirit. ; In this view, Jesus, as the sinless son of God and Messiah, could not possibly have transgressed or taught anyone to transgress this God-given Law, but rather Jesus and the New Testament writers reaffirmed all the commands of the Law as a whole (interpreting , , , etc. to support this stance). In light of these contexts and other Biblical evidence such as prophecy, this view holds different interpretations of the New Testament passages that have traditionally been understood to invalidate parts of the Law. These interpretations are also considered to be based on literary and historical context and examination of the original languages. Lancaster, D. Thomas. Restoration. Littleton: First Fruits of Zion, 2005. Berkowitz, Ariel and D'vorah. Torah Rediscovered. 4th ed. Shoreshim Publishing, 2004. Because of the belief that the Torah is applicable, commands such as dietary laws (not necessarily "kashrut" standards), seventh-day Sabbath, and Biblical festival days such as Passover are honored in some way within such segments of Christianity. Not only are they seen as valid commands, but also as valuable teaching tools about Jesus himself and God’s prophetic plan. As with Orthodox Judaism, capital punishment and sacrifice are not practiced because there are strict Biblical conditions on how these are to be properly practiced that are not in place today (although they are supported in principle). This view affirms that spiritual salvation is by grace through faith in Jesus. It does not hold that any works are a way to achieve justification and hence salvation, but are rather a way of more fully obeying and imitating God as He intended; the same reason for obeying other, traditionally accepted, commands. Those in disagreement with this view point out the various New Testament scripture passages that seem to negate some or all of the Mosaic Law, suggesting that its "everlasting" nature is subject to modification in some way under the new covenant and that portions of the Mosaic Law were only applicable in a given time and place, for a specific people, or for a limited purpose. Other views As far as the Ten Commandments, some believe Jesus rejected four of the Ten Commandments and endorsed only Six, http://www.beliefnet.com/story/117/story_11719_2.html citing and the parallels and . (cf. Cafeteria Christianity) While some Christians from time to time have deduced from statements about the law in the writings of the Apostle Paul that Christians are under grace to the exclusion of all law (see antinomianism, hyperdispensationalism, Christian anarchism), this is not the usual viewpoint of Christians. Law-related passages with disputed interpretation The Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament describes a conflict among the first Christians as to the necessity of following all the laws of the Torah to the letter, see Council of Jerusalem. Some have interpreted Mark's statement: "Thus he declared all foods clean" ( NRSV) to mean that Jesus taught that the pentateuchal food laws were no longer applicable to his followers, see also Antinomianism in the New Testament. However, the statement is not found in the Matthean parallel and is also a disputed translation: the Scholars Version Miller, Robert J. Editor The Complete Gospels Polebridge Press 1994 ISBN 0-06-065587-9 has: "This is how everything we eat is purified", Gaus' Unvarnished New Testament Gaus, Andy. The Unvarnished New Testament 1991 ISBN 0-933999-99-2 has: "purging all that is eaten." See also Strong's G2511. The Ten Commandments on a monument on the grounds of the Texas State Capitol. The third non-indented commandment listed is "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy". Others note that Peter had never eaten anything that was not kosher many years after Acts 2 (Pentecost). To the heavenly vision he announced: "Not so, Lord; for I have never eaten any thing that is common or unclean." () Therefore, Peter was unaware that Jesus had changed the Mosaic food laws. In Mark 7, Jesus may have been just referring to a tradition of the Pharisees about eating with unwashed hands. For example, the insertion found in many translations concerning his declaration that all foods were clean is not found in the King James Version: . The expression "purging all meats" may have meant the digestion and elimination of food from the body rather than the declaration that all foods were kosher. The confusion primarily centers around the participle used in the original Greek for "purging". Some scholars believe it agrees with the word for Jesus, which is nearly 40 words away from the participle. If this is the case, then it would mean that Jesus himself is the one doing the purifying. In New Testament Greek, however, the participle is rarely that far away from the noun it modifies, and many scholars agree that it is far more likely that the participle is modifying the digestive process (literally: the latrine), which is only two words away. The writer of Hebrews indicates that the sacrifices and the Levitical priesthood foreshadowed Jesus Christ's offering of himself as the sacrifice for sin on the Cross, and many have interpreted this to mean that once the reality of Christ has come, the shadows of the ritual laws cease to be obligatory (Heb 8:5; 9:23–26; 10:1). On the other hand, the New Testament repeats and applies to Christians a number of Old Testament laws, including "Love your neighbor as yourself" (; cf. Golden Rule, ), "Love the LORD your God with all your heart, soul and strength" (, the Shema, ). Still others believe a partial list of the commandments was merely an abbreviation that stood for all the commandments because Jesus prefaced his statement to the rich young ruler with the statement: "If you want to enter life, obey the commandments." Some people claim that since Jesus did not qualify his pronouncement, that he meant all the commandments. The rich young ruler asked "which" commandments. Jesus gave him a partial list from the second table. The first set of commandments deal with a relationship to God. The second set of commandments deal with a relationship to men. No doubt Jesus considered the relationship to God important, but Jesus may have considered that the young man was perhaps lacking in this second set, which made him obligated to men. (This is inferred by his statement that to be perfect he should sell his goods, give them to the poor and come and follow Jesus—thereby opening to him a place in the coming Kingdom.) Several times Paul mentioned adhering to "the Law", such as , , , , , , and preached about Ten Commandment topics such as idolatry (, , , , , , , , ). Many Christians believe that the Sermon on the Mount is a form of commentary on the Ten Commandments. In the Expounding of the Law, Jesus said that he did not come to abolish the Law, but to fulfill it; while in Marcion's version of Luke 23:2 we find the extension: "We found this fellow perverting the nation and destroying the law and the prophets". Ante-Nicene Fathers: Tertullian: Against Marcion: Dr. Holmes' Note: "In [Luke 23:2], after the words "perverting the nation," Marcion added, "and destroying the law and the prophets; Gospel of Marcion: Jesus Before Pilate and Herod See also Adherence to the Law and Antithesis of the Law. Historicity of the Old Testament narratives Current debate concerning the historicity of the various Old Testament narratives can be divided into several camps. One group has been labeled "biblical minimalists" by its critics. Minimalists (e.g., Philip Davies, Thomas L. Thompson, John Van Seters) see very little reliable history in any of the Old Testament. Conservative Old Testament scholars, "biblical maximalists", generally accept the historicity of most Old Testament narratives on confessional grounds, and some Egyptologists (e.g. Kenneth Kitchen) admit that such a belief is not incompatible with the external evidence. Other scholars (e.g. William Dever) are somewhere in between: they see clear signs of evidence for the monarchy and much of Israel's later history, though they doubt the Exodus and Conquest. The vast majority of scholars at American universities are somewhere between biblical minimalism and maximalism. Notably, both Kitchen and archaeologist Israel Finkelstein of Tel Aviv University are not the only scholars from the maximalist and minimalist camps who are sufficiently trained to address these questions with the necessary sophistication but both are experts in their fields—and both come to different conclusions. Some contemporary Israeli archaeologists have now rejected much of the Deuteronomistic history of the Old Testament. Notably, Finkelstein and Neal Asher Silberman have written popular books detailing their view that many of the best-known Biblical stories are incompatible with the archaeology of the region. Conversely, in 2003 Kenneth A. Kitchen published the 662 page book On the Reliability of the Old Testament, which defended the Bible's reliability throughout. Although some archaeologists have argued that many Biblical accounts should be rejected due to a lack of corroborating archaeological evidence, opponents point out that this is a return to the 19th century idea that anything not confirmed by current archaeology should be dismissed, a methodology that had once led some to question the existence of major empires such as Assyria. Because the composition of the Pentateuch according to Wellhausen was so much later than the events it described, some who accept Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis tend to regard the narratives of the Pentateuch as largely fictional, while others argue that Wellhausen's method is not valid given that so many of our surviving copies of historical documents date from a much later time period: e.g., the earliest extant copies of Julius Caesar's famous "Commentaries on the Gallic War" are medieval copies dating from the 9th century, nearly a thousand years after Caesar wrote the original. The most important issue would seem to be the length of the period between the actual events and the setting of them down in writing. Internal evidence in the books themselves suggests that events of the Hebrew monarchies period were set down by royal scribes soon after they happened, and the writer(s) of the Book of Kings had direct access to these writings and quoted extensively from them—whereas earlier events, such as the Exodus and the Conquest, might have spent centuries as oral traditions before a written account of them was set down, which might make the written account considerably different from any actual events that gave the original basis to the tradition. Umberto Cassuto wrote The Documentary Hypothesis, challenging Wellhausen's theory. For various archaeological finds dating from the relevant era which purportedly confirm the accuracy of Biblical accounts, see Cyrus Cylinder and Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet. See also Dead Sea scrolls in which a copy of the book of Isaiah has been radiocarbon dated by the University of Arizona Department of Physics to between 335 BC and 122 BC. http://www.physics.arizona.edu/physics/public/dead-sea.html References See also Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture Lost books of the Old Testament Quotations from the Old Testament in the New Testament Covenant (biblical) Law and Gospel Expounding of the Law Antinomianism Old Testament: Timeline The Bible—the Old Testament According to Spike Milligan Further reading Bahnsen, Greg, et al., Five Views on Law and Gospel. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993). Rouvière, Jean-Marc. Brèves méditations sur la Création du monde Ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2006 Berkowitz, Ariel and D'vorah. Torah Rediscovered. 4th ed. Shoreshim Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-9752914-0-8 Anderson, Bernhard. Understanding the Old Testament. (ISBN 0-13-948399-3 ) Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites? William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8 Hill, Andrew and John Walton. A Survey of the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. ISBN 0-310-22903-0 . Kuntz, John Kenneth. The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought, Harper and Row, 1974. ISBN 0-06-043822-3 Lancaster, D. Thomas. Restoration: Returning the Torah of God to the Disciples of Jesus. Littleton: First Fruits of Zion, 2005. Silberman, Neil A., et al. The Bible Unearthed. Simon and Schuster, New York, 2003. ISBN 0-684-86913-6 (paperback) and ISBN 0-684-86912-8 (hardback) Sprinkle, Joe M. Biblical Law and Its Relevance: A Christian Understanding and Ethical Application for Today of the Mosaic Regulations. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2006. ISBN 0-7618-3371-4 (clothbound) and ISBN 0-7618-3372-2 (paperback) Gerhard von Rad: Theologie des Alten Testaments. Band 1–2, München, 8. Auflage 1982/1984, ISBN External links Full Text of the OT Full text of the Old (and New) Testaments in 42 different languages. Old Testament Reading Room Extensive online OT resources (incl. commentaries), Tyndale Seminary Old Testament Video Lectures from Yale University Scholarly articles on the Old Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library Barry L. Bandstra, "Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible" John J. 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3,790 | Motala_Municipality | Motala Municipality (Motala kommun) is a municipality in Östergötland County in southeast Sweden. Its seat is located in the city of Motala. In 1971 Motala Municipality was formed by the amalgamation of the City of Motala with some of the adjacent rural municipalities. Three years later more entities were added, among them the former City of Vadstena. In 1980 a new Vadstena Municipality was split off. Geographically, Motala is situated where lake Vättern drains into the river system of Motala ström, which became its claim for fame during the Industrialization in the 19th century. Sights and museums Charlottenborg Castle Godegård (manorhouse) Göta Canal Medevi (17th century spa) Motala Church Motala Fire Arm Museum Motala Motor Museum The Museum of Motala Industrial History Nubbekullen (birthplace of August Malmström) The Swedish Broadcasting Museum Ulvåsa (castle and medieval ruins of St Bridget's home) Varamon (beach) Övralid (home of author Verner von Heidenstam) Localities Figures as of 2000, from Statistics Sweden. Motala 30,136 (seat) Borensberg 2,667 Tjällmo 562 Fornåsa 446 Nykyrka 434 Fågelsta 334 Österstad 329 Klockrike 275 Godegård 200 The population decreased with about 2% in almost all of the towns between the earlier census 1995 and the one in 2000. Industry The largest employer is the municipality itself, employing circa 3,400 people. There after follows the county council with 1,775. Of the private employers, Electrolux and Dometic have a total of 1,400; Autoliv 425; Hycop 325; Saab-Bofors Dynamics circa 300; And Motala Verkstad some 180. (source ) Sister cities Motala has four sister cities whereof three are in Nordic countries with origin in the 1950s. Eigersund, Norway Hyvinkää, Finland Korsør, Denmark Daugavpils, Latvia (Source: ) External links Motala Municipality - Official site Article Motala From Nordisk familjebok, 1913 | Motala_Municipality |@lemmatized motala:16 municipality:7 kommun:1 östergötland:1 county:2 southeast:1 sweden:2 seat:2 locate:1 city:5 form:1 amalgamation:1 adjacent:1 rural:1 three:2 year:1 later:1 entity:1 add:1 among:1 former:1 vadstena:2 new:1 split:1 geographically:1 situate:1 lake:1 vättern:1 drain:1 river:1 system:1 ström:1 become:1 claim:1 fame:1 industrialization:1 century:2 sight:1 museum:5 charlottenborg:1 castle:2 godegård:2 manorhouse:1 göta:1 canal:1 medevi:1 spa:1 church:1 fire:1 arm:1 motor:1 industrial:1 history:1 nubbekullen:1 birthplace:1 august:1 malmström:1 swedish:1 broadcasting:1 ulvåsa:1 medieval:1 ruin:1 st:1 bridget:1 home:2 varamon:1 beach:1 övralid:1 author:1 verner:1 von:1 heidenstam:1 localities:1 figure:1 statistic:1 borensberg:1 tjällmo:1 fornåsa:1 nykyrka:1 fågelsta:1 österstad:1 klockrike:1 population:1 decrease:1 almost:1 town:1 early:1 census:1 one:1 industry:1 large:1 employer:2 employ:1 circa:2 people:1 follow:1 council:1 private:1 electrolux:1 dometic:1 total:1 autoliv:1 hycop:1 saab:1 bofors:1 dynamic:1 verkstad:1 source:2 sister:2 four:1 whereof:1 nordic:1 country:1 origin:1 eigersund:1 norway:1 hyvinkää:1 finland:1 korsør:1 denmark:1 daugavpils:1 latvia:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 article:1 nordisk:1 familjebok:1 |@bigram external_link:1 nordisk_familjebok:1 |
3,791 | Transport_in_Ivory_Coast | Railways total: 660 km narrow gauge: 660 km, 1000 mm gauge; 25 km double track (1995 est.) Railway links with adjacent countries Burkina Faso - yes - 1000 mm Ghana - no - break of gauge 1000 mm/1067 mm Mali - no - same gauge Guinea - no - same gauge Liberia - no - break of gauge Maps UN Map Towns served by rail Abidjan - former national capital and port Agboville Bouaké Katiola Tafire Wangolodougou Ferkessédougou - near Burkina Faso border. Towns proposed to be served by rail San Pedro - port Mount Nimba - iron ore Highways total: 50,400 km paved: 4,889 km unpaved: 45,511 km (1996 est.) The Trans-West African Coastal Highway provides a paved link to Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, with paved highways to landlocked Mali and Burkina Faso feeding into the coastal highway. When construction of roads and bridges in Liberia and Sierra Leone is complete, the highway will link to another 7 ECOWAS nations to the west and north-west. Waterways 980 km navigable rivers, canals, and numerous coastal lagoons Ports and harbors Abidjan, Aboisso, Dabou, San-Pedro Merchant marine total: 1 ship (with a volume of or over) totaling / ships by type: petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.) Airports 36 (1999 est.) Nouvelle Air Ivoire is the national carrier of Côte d'Ivoire. Recently formed from the failed Air Ivoire, the airline operates an aging fleet of Western-built aircraft. It is owned by Air France and the U.S. Finance company AIG. Air Ivoire was forced to cease operations a number of times due to technical and financial difficulties. Security/Safety Concerns There is rampant corruption among airport officials in Côte d'Ivoire. Immigration officials have been known to ask for bribes to 'expedite' processing the forms, or to offer to fill out the customs forms prior to demanding a 'fee' for doing so. The anti-French sentiment, peaking in early 2003, spilled over onto airports when 1,500 French nationals were trapped in Abidjan's airport by an anti-French mob. Airports - with paved runways total: 7 10,000 ft (3,048 m) and over: 1 8,000 to 9,999 ft (2,438 to 3,047 m): 2 5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m): 4 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 29 5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m): 8 3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m): 12 under 3,000 ft (914 m): 9 (1999 est.) See also Côte d'Ivoire References | Transport_in_Ivory_Coast |@lemmatized railway:2 total:6 km:7 narrow:1 gauge:6 mm:4 double:1 track:1 est:6 link:3 adjacent:1 country:1 burkina:3 faso:3 yes:1 ghana:2 break:2 mali:2 guinea:1 liberia:2 map:2 un:1 town:2 serve:2 rail:2 abidjan:3 former:1 national:3 capital:1 port:3 agboville:1 bouaké:1 katiola:1 tafire:1 wangolodougou:1 ferkessédougou:1 near:1 border:1 propose:1 san:2 pedro:2 mount:1 nimba:1 iron:1 ore:1 highway:5 pave:2 unpaved:2 trans:1 west:3 african:1 coastal:3 provide:1 paved:2 togo:1 benin:1 nigeria:1 landlocked:1 feed:1 construction:1 road:1 bridge:1 sierra:1 leone:1 complete:1 another:1 ecowas:1 nation:1 north:1 waterways:1 navigable:1 river:1 canal:1 numerous:1 lagoon:1 harbor:1 aboisso:1 dabou:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:2 volume:1 type:1 petroleum:1 tanker:1 airport:6 nouvelle:1 air:4 ivoire:6 carrier:1 côte:3 recently:1 form:3 failed:1 airline:1 operate:1 age:1 fleet:1 western:1 build:1 aircraft:1 france:1 u:1 finance:1 company:1 aig:1 force:1 cease:1 operation:1 number:1 time:1 due:1 technical:1 financial:1 difficulty:1 security:1 safety:1 concern:1 rampant:1 corruption:1 among:1 official:2 immigration:1 know:1 ask:1 bribe:1 expedite:1 process:1 offer:1 fill:1 custom:1 prior:1 demand:1 fee:1 anti:2 french:3 sentiment:1 peak:1 early:1 spill:1 onto:1 trap:1 mob:1 runway:2 ft:6 see:1 also:1 reference:1 |@bigram narrow_gauge:1 burkina_faso:3 mm_mm:1 san_pedro:2 iron_ore:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 togo_benin:1 benin_nigeria:1 paved_highway:1 liberia_sierra:1 sierra_leone:1 waterways_km:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 côte_ivoire:3 rampant_corruption:1 pave_runway:1 ft_ft:4 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 |
3,792 | Antisemitism_in_the_Arab_world | Antisemitism in the Arab world refers to discrimination against Jews. While Arabs are also a Semitic people, the modern meaning of the English term "antisemitism" refers exclusively to discrimination against Jews (see Antisemitism: Etymology and usage). Arab antisemitism is believed to have expanded since the 19th century. Jews, like other minority groups within the Muslim world, were subject to various restrictions long before that (see Dhimmi). Antisemitism in the Arab world has increased greatly in modern times, for many reasons: the breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and traditional Islamic society; European influence, brought about by Western imperialism and Christian Arabs; Lewis (1986), pg. 132 and the rise of Arab nationalism. In addition, there was resentment of disproportionate influence Jews had gained under colonialism, and of the Zionist movement. For most of the past fourteen hundred years, writes Bernard Lewis, Arabs have not been antisemitic as the word is used in the West. In his view this is because, for the most part, Arabs are not Christians brought up in stories of Jewish deicide. In Islam, such stories are rejected by the Qur'an as a blasphemous absurdity. Since Muslims do not consider themselves as the "true Israel", they do not feel threatened by the survival of Jews. Because Islam did not retain the Old Testament, no clash of interpretations between the two faiths can therefore arise. There is no Muslim theological dispute between their religious institutions and the Jews. Lewis (1986), pg. 117-8 While there were antisemitic incidents in the early twentieth century, antisemitism has certainly been heightened by the Arab-Israeli conflict. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Palestinian exodus, the creation of the state of Israel, Israeli victories during the wars of 1956 and 1967 served a severe shock to the Arabs. Lewis (1986), pg. 204 The readiness of Arab regimes to scapegoat Jews for political purposes deteriorated the situation of the Jews and almost all emigrated (some voluntarily, others under threat). By the 1980s, according to Bernard Lewis, the volume of antisemitic literature published in the Arab world, and the authority of its sponsors, seemed to suggest classical antisemitism to be an essential part of Arab intellectual life, considerably more than in late nineteenth and early twentieth century France, and in amounts that have been compared to Nazi Germany. Bernard Lewis, Semites and Antisemites New York/London: Norton, 1986, p. 256. Medieval times Jews, along with Christians and Zoroastrians, typically had the legal status of dhimmi (protected minority) in the lands conquered by Muslim Arabs, generally applied to non-Muslim minorities. Jews were generally seen as a religious group (not a separate race) thus being a part of the "Arab family". Lewis (1999), pg. 131 Dhimmi were subjected to a number of restrictions, the application and severity of which varied with time and place. Restrictions included residency in segregated quarters, obligation to wear distinctive clothing, public subservience to Muslims, prohibitions against proselytizing, against marrying Muslim women, and limited access to the legal system (the testimony of a Jew didn't count if contradicted by that of a Muslim). Dhimmis had to pay a special poll tax (the "jizya"), which exempted them from military service, and also from payment of the Zakat alms tax required of Muslims. In return, dhimmis were granted limited rights including a degree of tolerance, community autonomy in personal matters, and protection from being killed out-right. Jewish communities, like Christian ones, were typically constituted as semi-autonomous entities managed by their own laws and leadership, who carried the responsibility for the community towards the Muslim rulers. By medieval standards, conditions for Jews under Islam was generally more formalized and better than those of Jews in Christian lands, in part due to the sharing of minority status with Christians in these lands. We can find evidence for this claim in that the status of Jews in lands with no Christian minority was usually worse than their status in lands with one. For example, there were numerous incidents of massacres and ethnic cleansing of Jews in North Africa, The Forgotten Refugees especially in Morocco, Libya and Algeria where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos. Maurice Roumani, The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue, 1977, pp. 26-27. Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in the Middle Ages in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen. The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries At certain times in Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death. Bat Ye'or, The Dhimmi, 1985, p.61 The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times, but were widely persecuted at other times, was summarised by G.E. Von Grunebaum: It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms. G.E. Von Grunebaum, Eastern Jewry Under Islam, 1971, p.369. Views in Modernity Some scholars hold that Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose in the nineteenth century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized"), Mark Cohen states. The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, p.208 According to Bernard Lewis: Nineteenth century The Damascus affair was an accusation of ritual murder and a blood libel against Jews in Damascus in 1840. On February 5, 1840, Franciscan Capuchin friar Father Thomas and his Greek servant were reported missing, never to be seen again. The Turkish governor and the French consul Ratti-Menton believed accusations of ritual murder and blood libel, as the alleged murder occurred before the Jewish Passover. An investigation was staged, and Solomon Negrin, a Jewish barber, confessed under torture and accused other Jews. Two other Jews died under torture, and one (Moses Abulafia) converted to Islam to escape torture. More arrests and atrocities followed, culminating in 63 Jewish children being held hostage and mob attacks on Jewish communities throughout the Middle East. International outrage led to Ibrahim Pasha in Egypt ordering an investigation. Negotiations in Alexandria eventually secured the unconditional release and recognition of innocence of the nine prisoners still remaining alive (out of thirteen). Later in Constantinople, Moses Montefiore (leader of the British Jewish community) persuaded Sultan Abdülmecid I to issue a firman (edict) intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire: "... and for the love we bear to our subjects, we cannot permit the Jewish nation, whose innocence for the crime alleged against them is evident, to be worried and tormented as a consequence of accusations which have not the least foundation in truth...". Nevertheless, pogroms spread through the Middle East and North Africa: Aleppo (1850, 1875), Damascus (1840, 1848, 1890), Beirut (1862, 1874), Dayr al-Qamar (1847), Jerusalem (1847), Cairo (1844, 1890, 1901-02), Mansura (1877), Alexandria (1870, 1882, 1901-07), Port Said (1903, 1908), and Damanhur (1871, 1873, 1877, 1891). Yossef Bodansky. "Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument" Co-Produced by The Ariel Center for Policy Research and The Freeman Center for Strategic Studies, 1999. ISBN 0967139104, ISBN 978-0967139104 The Dreyfus affair of the late nineteenth century had consequences in the Arab world. Passionate outbursts of antisemitism in France were echoed in areas of French influence, especially Maronite Lebanon. The Muslim Arab press, however, was sympathetic to the falsely accused Captain Dreyfus, and criticized the persecution of Jews in France. Lewis (1986), pg. 133 Growth in the twentieth century Antisemitism in the Arab world increased in the twentieth century, as anti-Semitic propaganda and blood libels were imported from Europe and as resentment against Zionist efforts in British Mandate of Palestine spread. British troops stationed in Palestine arrived fresh from deployment in the Russian civil war, fighting alongside the genocidal antisemitic White Movement. The British forces are credited with introducing the Protocols of the Elders of Zion to Palestine. In March, 1921, Musa Khazem El Husseini, the Mayor of Jerusalem told Winston Churchill"The Jews have been amongst the most active advocates of destruction in many lands... It is well known that the disintegration of Russia was wholly or in great part brought about by the Jews, and a large proportion of the defeat of Germany and Austria must also be put at their door." quoted in Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, Knopf 1999 Page 99 In December 1929 the Mufti of Jerusalem was interviewed by a British commission investigating riots in Palestine. Throughout the interview he held a copy of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Palestine Commission on the Disturbances of August 1929, Minutes of Evidence Volume II page 527, paragraph 13,107. The Mufti also compared himself to Jesus: see page 539. Matthias Küntzel has suggested that the decisive transfer of Jewish Conspiracy theory took places between 1937 and 1945 under the impact of Nazi propaganda targeted at the Arab world. Jewish Political Studies Review 17:1-2 (Spring 2005) "National Socialism and Anti-Semitism in the Arab World", Matthias Küntzel According to Kuntzel, the Nazi Arabic radio service had a staff of 80 and broadcast everyday in Arabic, stressing the similarities between Islam and Nazism and supported by the activities of the Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husayni. The Nazi regime also provided funding to the Egyptian Moslem Brotherhood which began calling for boycotts of Jewish businesses in 1936. Bernard Lewis also describes Nazi influence in the Arab world, including its impact on Michel Aflaq, founder of the Ba'ath movement (which later dominated Syria and Iraq). After the promulgation of the Nuremberg Laws, Hitler received telegrams of congratulation from all over the Arab and Muslim world, especially from Morocco and Palestine, where the Nazi propaganda had been most active... ... Before long political parties of the Nazi and Facsist type began to appear, complete with paramilitary youth organizations, colored shirts, strict discipline and more or less charismatic leaders. Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W.W. Norton & Company, 1999. ISBN 0393308397, p. 148 While anti-Semitism was certainly heightened by the Arab-Israeli conflict, there were pogroms against Jews prior to the foundation of Israel, including Nazi-inspired pogroms in Algeria in the 1930s, and attacks on the Jews in Iraq and Libya in the 1940s (see Farhud). George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the Arab world to several factors including: The breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and traditional Islamic society; domination by Western colonial powers under which Jews gained a disproportionately large role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of Arab nationalism, whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish nationalism and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular regimes to scapegoat local Jews for political purposes. The Other Refugees: Jews of the Arab World by George E. Gruen (Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs) After the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Palestinian exodus, the creation of the state of Israel, and the independence of Arab countries from European control, conditions for Jews in the Arab world deteriorated. Over the next few decades, almost all would flee the Arab world, some willingly, and some under threat (see Jewish exodus from Arab lands). In 1945 there were between 758,000 and 866,000 Jews (see table below) living in communities throughout the Arab world. Today, there are fewer than 8,000. In some Arab states, such as Libya (which was once around 3% Jewish), the Jewish community no longer exists; in other Arab countries, only a few hundred Jews remain. Modern examples Arab League On December 2, 1945, the newly formed Arab League Council declared a formal boycott against Jewish products. "Jewish products and manufactured goods shall be considered undesirable to the Arab countries." All Arab "institutions, organizations, merchants, commission agents and individuals" were called upon "to refuse to deal in, distribute, or consume Zionist products or manufactured goods." The Arab Boycott by Mitchell Bard (JVL) The boycott began to wane only in the 1970s. Saudi Arabia A Saudi government website initially stated that Jews would not be granted tourist visas to enter the country. Official Saudi Arabia Tourism Website: No Jews Allowed. “Jewish People” May Not Receive Travel Visas Required To Travel Into The Kingdom by Congressman Anthony D. Weiner (D-Queens & Brooklyn) February 26, 2004 Jews barred in Saudi tourist drive (BBC) February 27, 2004. It has since removed this statement, and apologized for posting "erroneous information". Members of religions other than Islam, including Jews, are not permitted to practice their religion publicly in Saudi Arabia; according to the U.S. State Department, United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. Countries of Particular Concern. Saudi Arabia religious freedom "does not exist" in Saudi Arabia. Islam is the official religion of Saudi Arabia, and the tenets of that religion are enforced by law. Saudi Arabian media often attacks Jews in books, news articles, at their Mosques 'Friday Sermons in Saudi Mosques: Review and Analysis', September 26, 2002 (MEMRI) and with what some describe as antisemitic satire. 'Antisemitic Satire on a Saudi TV Channel (MBC)', April 19, 2007 (VIDEO) (memritv.org) Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that Jews are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as factual. CMIP report: The Jews in World History according to the Saudi textbooks. The Danger of World Jewry, by Abdullah al-Tall, pp. 140–141 (Arabic). Hadith and Islamic Culture, Grade 10, (2001) pp. 103–104. 2006 Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerance, Report by Center for Religious Freedom of Freedom House. 2006 One Saudi Arabian government newspaper suggested that hatred of all Jews is justifiable. "Why are they (the Jews) hated by all the people which hosted them, such as Iraq and Egypt thousands years ago, and Germany, Spain, France and the UK, up to the days they gained of power over the capital and the press, in order to rewrite the history?" Al-Riyadh, Saudi government daily, April 15, 2002, Turki 'Abdallah as-Sudayri, All of History is against Them Saudi textbooks vilify Jews (and Christians and non-Wahabi Muslims): according to the May 21, 2006 issue of The Washington Post, Saudi textbooks claimed by them to have been sanitized of anti-Semitism still call Jews apes (and Christians swine); demand that students avoid and not befriend Jews; claim that Jews worship the devil; and encourage Muslims to engage in Jihad to vanquish Jews. Shea, Nina. "This is a Saudi textbook. (After the intolerance was removed.)", The Washington Post, May 21, 2006, p. B01. Palestinian Authority The Hamas, an offshoot of the Egyptian Moslem Brotherhood, has a foundational statement of principles, or "covenant" which claims that the French revolution, the Russian revolution, colonialism and both world wars were created by the Zionists. It also claims the Freemasons and Rotary clubs are Zionist fronts and refers to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Hamas Covenant articles 22 and 32 Hamas Covenant 1988 Claims that Jews and Freemasons were behind the French Revolution originated in Germany in the mid-19th century. Warrant for Genocide, The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, Norman Cohn chapter 1. Mahmoud Abbas, leader of the PLO, published a Ph.D. thesis (at Moscow University) in 1982, called The Secret Connection between the Nazis and the Leaders of the Zionist Movement. Was Abu Mazen a Holocaust Denier? By Brynn Malone (History News Network) Abu Mazen: A Political Profile. Zionism and Holocaust Denial by Yael Yehoshua (MEMRI) April 29, 2003 His doctoral thesis later became a book, The Other Side: the Secret Relationship Between Nazism and Zionism, which, following his appointment as Palestinian Prime Minister in 2003, was heavily criticized as an example of Holocaust denial. In his book, Abbas wrote: "It seems that the interest of the Zionist movement, however, is to inflate this figure [of Holocaust deaths] so that their gains will be greater. This led them to emphasize this figure [six million] in order to gain the solidarity of international public opinion with Zionism. Many scholars have debated the figure of six million and reached stunning conclusions—fixing the number of Jewish victims at only a few hundred thousand." A Holocaust-Denier as Prime Minister of "Palestine"? by Dr. Rafael Medoff (The David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies) Abu Mazen and the Holocaust by Tom Gross PA Holocaust Denial by Itamar Marcus (Palestinian Media Watch) According to Palestinian Authority religious law, selling a home or other property to Jews is a crime that carries the death penalty. The penalty also applies to real estate agents and middlemen involved in such transactions. There is a separate ban on renting out property to Jewish individuals and organizations. Khaled Abu Toameh, PA: Death penalty for those who sell land to Jews, Jerusalem Post 01-04-2009 Palestinians warned against Jewish trade, UPI 01-04-2009 (See also Palestinian Land Laws.) Egypt Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood leader Mohammed Mahdi Akef has denounced what he called "the myth of the Holocaust" in defending Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's denial of it. Egyptian Islamists deny Holocaust, 23 December 2005. The Egyptian government run newspaper, Al-Akhbar, on 29 April 2002, published an editorial denying the Holocaust as a fraud. The next paragraph decries the failure of the Holocaust to eliminate all of the Jews: With regard to the fraud of the Holocaust… Many French studies have proven that this is no more than a fabrication, a lie, and a fraud!! That is, it is a 'scenario' the plot of which was carefully tailored, using several faked photos completely unconnected to the truth. Yes, it is a film, no more and no less. Hitler himself, whom they accuse of Nazism, is in my eyes no more than a modest 'pupil' in the world of murder and bloodshed. He is completely innocent of the charge of frying them in the hell of his false Holocaust!! The entire matter, as many French and British scientists and researchers have proven, is nothing more than a huge Israeli plot aimed at extorting the German government in particular and the European countries in general. But I, personally and in light of this imaginary tale, complain to Hitler, even saying to him from the bottom of my heart, 'If only you had done it, brother, if only it had really happened, so that the world could sigh in relief [without] their evil and sin.' Columnist for Egyptian Government Daily to Hitler:'If Only You Had Done It, Brother' (MEMRI bulletin No.375. May 3, 2002 Cartoons appearing in the daily Al-Wafd in 2003 depict Jews as Satanic figures with hooked noses and equates them with Nazis. In an article in October 2000 columnist Adel Hammoda alleged in the state-owned Egyptian newspaper al-Ahram that Jews made Matza from the blood of (non-Jewish) children. Al-Ahram (Egypt), October 28, 2000 . Mohammed Salmawy, editor of Al-Ahram Hebdo, "defended the use of old European myths like the blood libel" in his newspapers. Clark, Kate. "Interpreting Egypt's anti-semitic cartoons." [[BBC News]]. 10 August 2003. 28 April 2008. Arab newspapers Many Arab newspapers, such as Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah, the Palestinian Authority's official newspaper, often write that "the Jews" control all the world's governments, and that "the Jews" plan genocide on all the Arabs in the West Bank. Others write less sensational stories, and state that Jews have too much of an influence in the US government. Often the leaders of other nations are said to be controlled by Jews. Articles in many official Arab government newspapers claim that The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, reflects actual facts, and thus points to an international Jewish conspiracy to take over the world. "Netanyahu's Plan completely matches the foundations of the greater Zionist plan which is organized according to specific stages that were determined when the Protocols of the Elders of Zion was composed and when Herzl along with Weizmann traveled around the world in order to determine the appropriate location for the implementation of this conspiracy," (official Palestinian Authority newspaper, Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah, November 30, 1997) "The Jews seek to conquer the world...We must expose the Zionist-Colonialist plot and its goals, which destroy not only our people but the entire world" (PA Minister of Agriculture, Abdel Jawad Saleh, quoted in Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah, November 6, 1997) Palestinian Authority Anti-Semitism Since the Hebron Accord (Jewish Virtual Library) Syria Former Ku Klux Klan leader David Duke visited Syria in November 2005 and made a speech which was broadcast live on Syrian television. See his website In 1984 Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass published a book called 'The Matzah of Zion' which claimed that Jews had killed Christian children in Damascus to make Matzas (see Damascus affair). His book inspired the Egyptian TV series Horseman without a Horse (see below) and a spinoff,The Diaspora, which led to Hezbollah's al-Manar being banned in Europe for broadcasting it. Hizbullah's Al-Manar TV channel Hizbullah's Al-Manar TV channel has often been accused of airing antisemitic broadcasts, blaming the Jews for a Zionist conspiracy against the Arab world, and often airing excerpts from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which the Encyclopædia Britannica describes as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century." Al-Manar recently aired a drama series, called The Diaspora, which is based on historical anti-Semitic allegations. BBC reporters who watched the series said that: Correspondents who have viewed The Diaspora note that it quotes extensively from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a notorious 19th century publication used by the Nazis among others to fuel race hatred. BBC NEWS | World | Europe | France offers 'hate TV' reprieve In another incident, an Al-Manar commentator recently referred to "Zionist attempts to transmit AIDS to Arab countries". Al-Manar officials deny broadcasting anti-Semitic incitement and state that their position is anti-Israeli, not anti-Semitic. Due to protests by the CRIF umbrella group of French Jews regarding allegations of anti-Semitic content, French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin called for a ban on Al-Manar broadcasting in France on December 2, 2004; just two weeks after al-Manar was authorised to continue broadcasting in Europe by France's media watchdog agency. (BBC) On December 13, 2004, France's highest administrative court banned Hizbullah's Al-Manar TV station on the grounds that it consistently incites racial hatred and antisemitism. (BBC) "Horseman Without a Horse" In 2001-2002, Arab Radio and Television produced a 30-part television miniseries entitled "Horseman Without a Horse", which contains dramatizations of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. "MEMRI: Special Dispatch Series No. 309." MEMRI: The Middle East Media Research Institute. 7 December 2001. 28 April 2008. The United States and Israel criticized Egypt for airing the program, which includes racist falsehoods that have a history of being used "as a pretext for persecuting Jews." "Egypt criticised for 'anti-Semitic' film." BBC News. 1 November 2002. 28 April 2008. Tunisia For a personal account of the discrimination and physical attacks experienced by Jews in Tunisia see the Jewish-Arab anti-colonialist writer Albert Memmi's account in http://www.jimena.org/faq/memmi.htm . At each crisis, with every incident of the slightest importance, the mob would go wild, setting fire to Jewish shops. This even happened during the Yom Kippur War. Tunisia's President, Habib Bourguiba, has in all probability never been hostile to the Jews, but there was always that notorious "delay", which meant that the police arrived on the scene only after the shops had been pillaged and burnt. Is it any wonder that the exodus to France and Israel continued and even increased? See also Dhimmi Pact of Umar Jizya Mellah Qutbism Notes References Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8 Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and anti-Semites. ISBN 0393318397 Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7 Laqueur, Walter. The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530429-2 Poliakov, Leon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8 Segev, Tom. One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate''. Trans. Haim Watzman. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2001. External links The Holocaust in Arab Public Discourse: Historicized Politics and Politicized History Arab Anti-Semitism in 1998/99 - summary of Arab anti-Semitism, by the University of Tel Aviv Anti-Semitism in the Arab World - a collection of materials updated regularly S.RES.366 Urging the Government of Egypt and other Arab governments not to allow their government-controlled television stations to broadcast any program that lends legitimacy to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and for other purposes. 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3,793 | Mathematical_logic | Mathematical logic is a subfield of mathematics with close connections to computer science and philosophical logic. Undergraduate texts include Boolos, Burgess, and Jeffrey (2002), Enderton (2002), and Mendelson (1997). A classic graduate text by Shoenfield (2001) first appeared in 1967. The field includes the mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to other areas of mathematics. The unifying themes in mathematical logic include the study of the expressive power of formal systems and the deductive power of formal proof systems. Mathematical logic is often divided into the subfields of set theory, model theory, recursion theory, and proof theory and constructive mathematics. These areas share basic results on logic, particularly first-order logic, and definability. Since its inception, mathematical logic has contributed to, and has been motivated by, the study of foundations of mathematics. This study began in the late 19th century with the development of axiomatic frameworks for geometry, arithmetic, and analysis. In the early 20th century it was shaped by David Hilbert's program to prove the consistency of foundational theories. Results of Kurt Gödel, Gerhard Gentzen, and others provided partial resolution to the program, and clarified the issues involved in proving consistency. Work in set theory showed that almost all ordinary mathematics can be formalized in terms of sets, although there are some theorems that cannot be proven in common axiom systems for set theory. Contemporary work in the foundations of mathematics often focuses on establishing which parts of mathematics can be formalized in particular formal systems, rather than trying to find theories in which all of mathematics can be developed. History Mathematical logic emerged in the mid-19th century as a subfield of mathematics independent of the traditional study of logic (Ferreirós 2001, p. 443). Before this emergence, logic was studied with rhetoric, through the syllogism, and with philosophy. The first half of the 20th century saw an explosion of fundamental results, accompanied by vigorous debate over the foundations of mathematics. Early history Sophisticated theories of logic were developed in many cultures, including China, India, Greece and the Islamic world. In the 18th century, attempts to treat the operations of formal logic in a symbolic or algebraic way had been made by philosophical mathematicians including Leibniz and Lambert, but their labors remained isolated and little known. 19th century In the middle of the nineteenth century, George Boole and then Augustus De Morgan presented systematic mathematical treatments of logic. Their work, building on work by algebraists such as George Peacock, extended the traditional Aristotelian doctrine of logic into a sufficient framework for the study of foundations of mathematics (Katz 1998, p. 686). Charles Sanders Peirce built upon the work of Boole to develop a logical system for relations and quantifiers, which he published in several papers from 1870 to 1885. Gottlob Frege presented an independent development of logic with quantifiers in his Begriffsschrift, published in 1879. Frege's work remained obscure, however, until Bertrand Russell began to promote it near the turn of the century. The two-dimensional notation Frege developed was never widely adopted and is unused in contemporary texts. From 1890 to 1905, Ernst Schröder published Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik in three volumes. This work summarized and extended the work of Boole, De Morgan, and Peirce, and was a comprehensive reference to symbolic logic as it was understood at the end of the 19th century. Foundational theories Some concerns that mathematics had not been built on a proper foundation led to the development of axiomatic systems for fundamental areas of mathematics such as arithmetic, analysis, and geometry. In logic, the term arithmetic refers to the theory of the natural numbers. Giuseppe Peano (1888) published a set of axioms for arithmetic that came to bear his name, using a variation of the logical system of Boole and Schröder but adding quantifiers. Peano was unaware of Frege's work at the time. Around the same time Richard Dedekind showed that the natural numbers are uniquely characterized by their induction properties. Dedekind (1888) proposed a different characterization, which lacked the formal logical character of Peano's axioms. Dedekind's work, however, proved theorems inaccessible in Peano's system, including the uniqueness of the set of natural numbers (up to isomorphism) and the recursive definitions of addition and multiplication from the successor function and mathematical induction. In the mid-19th century, flaws in Euclid's axioms for geometry became known (Katz 1998, p. 774). In addition to the independence of the parallel postulate, established by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1826 (Lobachevsky 1840), mathematicians discovered that certain theorems taken for granted by Euclid were not in fact provable from his axioms. Among these is the theorem that a line contains at least two points, or that circles of the same radius whose centers are separated by that radius must intersect. Hilbert (1899) developed a complete set of axioms for geometry, building on previous work by Pasch (1882). The success in axiomatizing geometry motivated Hilbert to seek complete axiomatizations of other areas of mathematics, such as the natural numbers and the real line. This would prove to be a major area of research in the first half of the 20th century. The 19th century saw great advances in the theory of real analysis, including theories of convergence of functions and Fourier series. Mathematicians such as Karl Weierstrass began to construct functions that stretched intuition, such as nowhere-differentiable continuous functions. Previous conceptions of a function as a rule for computation, or a smooth graph, were no longer adequate. Weierstrass began to advocate the arithmetization of analysis, which sought to axiomatize analysis using properties of the natural numbers. The modern "ε-δ" definition of limits and continuous functions was developed by Bolzano and Cauchy between 1817 and 1823 (Felscher 2000). In 1858, Dedekind proposed a definition of the real numbers in terms of Dedekind cuts of rational numbers (Dedekind 1872), a definition still employed in contemporary texts. Georg Cantor developed the fundamental concepts of infinite set theory. His early results developed the theory of cardinality and proved that the reals and the natural numbers have different cardinalities (Cantor 1874). Over the next twenty years, Cantor developed a theory of transfinite numbers in a series of publications. In 1891, he published a new proof of the uncountability of the real numbers that introduced the diagonal argument, and used this method to prove Cantor's theorem that no set can have the same cardinality as its powerset. Cantor believed that every set could be well-ordered, but was unable to produce a proof for this result, leaving it as an open problem in 1895 (Katz 1998, p. 807). 20th century In the early decades of the 20th century, the main areas of study were set theory and formal logic. The discovery of paradoxes in informal set theory caused some to wonder whether mathematics itself is inconsistent, and to look for proofs of consistency. In 1900, Hilbert posed a famous list of 23 problems for the next century. The first two of these were to resolve the continuum hypothesis and prove the consistency of elementary arithmetic, respectively; the tenth was to produce a method that could decide whether a multivariate polynomial equation over the integers has a solution. Subsequent work to resolve these problems shaped the direction of mathematical logic, as did the effort to resolve Hilbert's Entscheidungsproblem, posed in 1928. This problem asked for a procedure that would decide, given a formalized mathematical statement, whether the statement is true or false. Set theory and paradoxes Ernst Zermelo (1904) gave a proof that every set could be well-ordered, a result Georg Cantor had been unable to obtain. To achieve the proof, Zermelo introduced the axiom of choice, which drew heated debate and research among mathematicians and the pioneers of set theory. The immediate criticism of the method led Zermelo to publish a second exposition of his result, directly addressing criticisms of his proof (Zermelo 1908). This paper led to the general acceptance of the axiom of choice in the mathematics community. Skepticism about the axiom of choice was reinforced by recently discovered paradoxes in naive set theory. Cesare Burali-Forti (1897) was the first to state a paradox: the Burali-Forti paradox shows that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot form a set. Very soon thereafter, Bertrand Russell discovered Russell's paradox in 1901, and Jules Richard (1905) discovered Richard's paradox. Zermelo (1908) provided the first set of axioms for set theory. These axioms, together with the additional axiom of replacement proposed by Abraham Fraenkel, are now called Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF). Zermelo's axioms incorporated the principle of limitation of size to avoid Russell's paradox. In 1910, the first volume of Principia Mathematica by Russell and Alfred North Whitehead was published. This seminal work developed the theory of functions and cardinality in a completely formal framework of type theory, which Russell and Whitehead developed in an effort to avoid the paradoxes. Principia Mathematica is considered one of the most influential works of the 20th century, although the framework of type theory did not prove popular as a foundational theory for mathematics (Ferreirós 2001, p. 445). Fraenkel (1922) proved that the axiom of choice cannot be proved from the remaining axioms of Zermelo's set theory with urelements. Later work by Paul Cohen (1966) showed that the addition of urelements is not needed, and the axiom of choice is unprovable in ZF. Cohen's proof developed the method of forcing, which is now an important tool for establishing independence results in set theory. Symbolic logic Leopold Löwenheim (1918) and Thoralf Skolem (1919) obtained the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, which says that first-order logic cannot control the cardinalities of infinite structures. Skolem realized that this theorem would apply to first-order formalizations of set theory, and that it implies any such formalization has a countable model. This counterintuitive fact became known as Skolem's paradox. In his doctoral thesis, Kurt Gödel (1929) proved the completeness theorem, which establishes a correspondence between syntax and semantics in first-order logic. Gödel used the completeness theorem to prove the compactness theorem, demonstrating the finitary nature of first-order logical consequence. These results helped establish first-order logic as the dominant logic used by mathematicians. In 1931, Gödel published On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems, which proved the incompleteness (in a different meaning of the word) of all sufficiently strong, effective first-order theories. This result, known as Gödel's incompleteness theorem, establishes severe limitations on axiomatic foundations for mathematics, striking a strong blow to Hilbert's program. It showed the impossibility of providing a consistency proof of arithmetic within any formal theory of arithmetic. Hilbert, however, did not acknowledge the importance of the incompleteness theorem for some time. Gödel's theorem shows that a consistency proof of any sufficiently strong, effective axiom system cannot be obtained in the system itself, if the system is consistent, nor in any weaker system. This leaves open the possibility of consistency proofs that cannot be formalized within the system they consider. Gentzen (1936) proved the consistency of arithmetic using a finitistic system together with a principle of transfinite induction. Gentzen's result introduced the ideas of cut elimination and proof-theoretic ordinals, which became key tools in proof theory. Gödel (1958) gave a different consistency proof, which reduces the consistency of classical arithmetic to that of intutitionistic arithmetic in higher types. Beginnings of the other branches Alfred Tarski developed the basics of model theory. Beginning in 1935, a group of prominent mathematicians collaborated under the pseudonym Nicolas Bourbaki to publish a series of encyclopedic mathematics texts. These texts, written in an austere and axiomatic style, emphasized rigorous presentation and set-theoretic foundations. Terminology coined by these texts, such as the words bijection, injection, and surjection, and the set-theoretic foundations the texts employed, were widely adopted throughout mathematics. The study of computability came to be known as recursion theory, because early formalizations by Gödel and Kleene relied on recursive definitions of functions. A detailed study of this terminology is given by Soare (1996). When these definitions were shown equivalent to Turing's formalization involving Turing machines, it became clear that a new concept – the computable function – had been discovered, and that this definition was robust enough to admit numerous independent characterizations. In his work on the incompleteness theorems in 1931, Gödel lacked a rigorous concept of an effective formal system; he immediately realized that the new definitions of computability could be used for this purpose, allowing him to state the incompleteness theorems in generality that could only be implied in the original paper. Numerous results in recursion theory were obtained in the 1940s by Stephen Cole Kleene and Emil Leon Post. Kleene (1943) introduced the concepts of relative computability, foreshadowed by Turing (1939), and the arithmetical hierarchy. Kleene later generalized recursion theory to higher-order functionals. Kleene and Kreisel studied formal versions of intuitionistic mathematics, particularly in the context of proof theory. Subfields and scope Contemporary mathematical logic is roughly divided into four areas: set theory, model theory, recursion theory, and proof theory and constructive mathematics. Each area has a distinct focus, although many techniques and results are shared between multiple areas. The border lines between these fields, and the lines between mathematical logic and other fields of mathematics, are not always sharp. Gödel's incompleteness theorem marks not only a milestone in recursion theory and proof theory, but has also led to Loeb's theorem in modal logic. The method of forcing is employed in set theory, model theory, and recursion theory, as well as in the study of intuitionistic mathematics. The mathematical field of category theory uses many formal axiomatic methods, but category theory is not ordinarily considered a subfield of mathematical logic. Because of its applicability in diverse fields of mathematics, mathematicians including Saunders Mac Lane have proposed category theory as a foundational system for mathematics, independent of set theory. These foundations use toposes, which resemble generalized models of set theory that may employ classical or nonclassical logic. Formal logic At its core, mathematical logic deals with mathematical concepts expressed using formal logical systems. These systems, though they differ in many details, share the common property of considering only expressions in a fixed formal language, or signature. The system of first-order logic is the most widely studied today, because of its applicability to foundations of mathematics and because of its desirable proof-theoretic properties. Ferreirós (2001) surveys the rise of first-order logic over other formal logics in the early 20th century. Stronger classical logics such as second-order logic or infinitary logic are also studied, along with nonclassical logics such as intuitionistic logic. First-order logic First-order logic is a particular formal system of logic. Its syntax involves only finite expressions as well-formed formulas, while its semantics are characterized by the limitation of all quantifiers to a fixed domain of discourse. Early results about formal logic established limitations of first-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem (1919) showed that if a set of sentences in a countable first-order language has an infinite model then it has at least one model of each infinite cardinality. This shows that it is impossible for a set of first-order axioms to characterize the natural numbers, the real numbers, or any other infinite structure up to isomorphism. As the goal of early foundational studies was to produce axiomatic theories for all parts of mathematics, this limitation was particularly stark. Gödel's completeness theorem (Gödel 1929) established the equivalence between semantic and syntactic definitions of logical consequence in first-order logic. It shows that if a particular sentence is true in every model that satisfies a particular set of axioms, then there must be a finite deduction of the sentence from the axioms. The compactness theorem first appeared as a lemma in Gödel's proof of the completeness theorem, and it took many years before logicians grasped its significance and began to apply it routinely. It says that a set of sentences has a model if and only if every finite subset has a model, or in other words that an inconsistent set of formulas must have a finite inconsistent subset. The completeness and compactness theorems allow for sophisticated analysis of logical consequence in first-order logic and the development of model theory, and they are a key reason for the prominence of first-order logic in mathematics. Gödel's incompleteness theorems (Gödel 1931) establish additional limits on first-order axiomatizations. The first incompleteness theorem states that no sufficiently strong, effectively given logical system can prove its own consistency unless it is actually inconsistent. Here a logical system is effectively given if it is possible to decide, given any formula in the language of the system, whether the formula is an axiom. When applied to first-order logic, the first incompleteness theorem implies that any sufficiently strong, consistent, effective first-order theory has models that are not elementarily equivalent, a stronger limitation than the one established by the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem. The second incompleteness theorem states that no sufficiently strong, consistent, effective axiom system for arithmetic can prove its own consistency, which has been interpreted to show that Hilbert's program cannot be completed. Other classical logics Many logics besides first-order logic are studied. These include infinitary logics, which allow for formulas to provide an infinite amount of information, and higher-order logics, which include a portion of set theory directly in their semantics. The most well studied infinitary logic is . In this logic, quantifiers may only be nested to finite depths, as in first order logic, but formulas may have finite or countably infinite conjunctions and disjunctions within them. Thus, for example, it is possible to say that an object is a natural number using a formula of such as . Higher-order logics allow for quantification not only of elements of the domain of discourse, but subsets of the domain of discourse, sets of such subsets, and other objects of higher type. The semantics are defined so that, rather than having a separate domain for each higher-type quantifier to range over, the quantifiers instead range over all objects of the appropriate type. The logics studied before the development of first-order logic, for example Frege's logic, had similar set-theoretic aspects. Although higher-order logics are more expressive, allowing complete axiomatizations of structures such as the natural numbers, they do not satisfy analogues of the completeness and compactness theorems from first-order logic, and are thus less amenable to proof-theoretic analysis. Nonclassical and modal logic Modal logics include additional modal operators, such as an operator which states that a particular formula is not only true, but necessarily true. Although modal logic is not often used to axiomatize mathematics, it has been used to study the properties of first-order provability (Solovay 1976) and set-theoretic forcing (Hamkins and Löwe 2007). Intuitionistic logic was developed by Heyting to study Brouwer's program of intuitionism, in which Brouwer himself avoided formalization. Intuitionistic logic specifically does not include the law of the excluded middle, which states that each sentence is either true or its negation is true. Kleene's work with the proof theory of intuitionistic logic showed that constructive information can be recovered from intuitionistic proofs. For example, any provably total function in intuitionistic arithmetic is computable; this is not true in classical theories of arithmetic such as Peano arithmetic. Set theory Set theory is the study of sets, which are abstract collections of objects. Many of the basic notions, such as ordinal and cardinal numbers, were developed informally by Cantor before formal axiomatizations of set theory were developed. The first such axiomatization, due to Zermelo (1908), was extended slightly to become Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF), which is now the most widely-used foundational theory for mathematics. Other formalizations of set theory have been proposed, including von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG), Morse–Kelley set theory (MK), and New Foundations (NF). Of these, ZF, NBG, and MK are similar in describing a cumulative hierarchy of sets. New Foundations takes a different approach; it allows objects such as the set of all sets at the cost of restrictions on its set-existence axioms. The system of Kripke-Platek set theory is closely related to generalized recursion theory. Two famous statements in set theory are the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis. The axiom of choice, first stated by Zermelo (1904), was proved independent of ZF by Fraenkel (1922), but has come to be widely accepted by mathematicians. It states that given a collection of nonempty sets there is a single set C that contains exactly one element from each set in the collection. The set C is said to "choose" one element from each set in the collection. While the ability to make such a choice is considered obvious by some, since each set in the collection is nonempty, the lack of a general, concrete rule by which the choice can be made renders the axiom nonconstructive. Stefan Banach and Alfred Tarski (1924) showed that the axiom of choice can be used to decompose a solid ball into a finite number of pieces which can then be rearranged, with no scaling, to make two solid balls of the original size. This theorem, known as the Banach-Tarski paradox, is one of many counterintuitive results of the axiom of choice. The continuum hypothesis, first proposed as a conjecture by Cantor, was listed by David Hilbert as one of his 23 problems in 1900. Gödel showed that the continuum hypothesis cannot be disproven from the axioms of Zermelo-Frankel set theory (with or without the axiom of choice), by developing the constructible universe of set theory in which the continuum hypothesis must hold. In 1963, Paul Cohen showed that the continuum hypothesis cannot be proven from the axioms of Zermelo-Frankel set theory (Cohen 1966). This independence result did not completely settle Hilbert's question, however, as it is possible that new axioms for set theory could resolve the hypothesis. Recent work along these lines has been conducted by W. Hugh Woodin, although its importance is not yet clear (Woodin 2001). Contemporary research in set theory includes the study of large cardinals and determinacy. Large cardinals are cardinal numbers with particular properties so strong that the existence of such cardinals cannot be proved in ZFC. The existence of the smallest large cardinal typically studied, an inaccessible cardinal, already implies the consistency of ZFC. Despite the fact that large cardinals have extremely high cardinality, their existence has many ramifications for the structure of the real line. Determinacy refers to the possible existence of winning strategies for certain two-player games (the games are said to be determined). The existence of these strategies implies structural properties of the real line and other Polish spaces. Model theory Model theory studies the models of various formal theories. Here a theory is a set of formulas in a particular formal logic and signature, while a model is a structure that gives a concrete interpretation of the theory. Model theory is closely related to universal algebra and algebraic geometry, although the methods of model theory focus more on logical considerations than those fields. The set of all models of a particular theory is called an elementary class; classical model theory seeks to determine the properties of models in a particular elementary class, or determine whether certain classes of structures form elementary classes. The method of quantifier elimination can be used to show that definable sets in particular theories cannot be too complicated. Tarski (1948) established quantifier elimination for real-closed fields, a result which also shows the theory of the field of real numbers is decidable. (He also noted that his methods were equally applicable to algebraically closed fields of arbitrary characteristic.) A modern subfield developing from this is concerned with o-minimal structures. Morley's categoricity theorem, proved by Michael D. Morley (1965), states that if a first-order theory in a countable language is categorical in some uncountable cardinality, i.e. all models of this cardinality are isomorphic, then it is categorical in all uncountable cardinalities. A trivial consequence of the continuum hypothesis is that a complete theory with less than continuum many nonisomorphic countable models can have only countably many. Vaught's conjecture, named after Robert Lawson Vaught, says that this is true even independently of the continuum hypothesis. Many special cases of this conjecture have been established. Recursion theory Recursion theory, also called computability theory, studies the properties of computable functions and the Turing degrees, which divide the uncomputable functions into sets which have the same level of uncomputability. Recursion theory also includes the study of generalized computability and definability. Recursion theory grew from of the work of Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in the 1930s, which was greatly extended by Kleene and Post in the 1940s. Classical recursion theory focuses on the computability of functions from the natural numbers to the natural numbers. The fundamental results establish a robust, canonical class of computable functions with numerous independent, equivalent characterizations using Turing machines, λ calculus, and other systems. More advanced results concern the structure of the Turing degrees and the lattice of recursively enumerable sets. Generalized recursion theory extends the ideas of recursion theory to computations that are no longer necessarily finite. It includes the study of computability in higher types as well as areas such as hyperarithmetical theory and α-recursion theory. Contemporary research in recursion theory includes the study of applications such as algorithmic randomness and computable model theory as well as new results in pure recursion theory. Algorithmically unsolvable problems An important subfield of recursion theory studies algorithmic unsolvability; a problem is algorithmically unsolvable if there is no computable function which, given any [code for an] instance of the problem, returns the correct answer. The first results about unsolvability, obtained independently by Church and Turing in 1936, showed that the Entscheidungsproblem is algorithmically unsolvable. Turing proved this by establishing the unsolvability of the halting problem, a result with far-ranging implications in both recursion theory and computer science. There are many known examples of undecidable problems from ordinary mathematics. The word problem for groups was proved algorithmically unsolvable by Pyotr Sergeyevich Novikov in 1955 and independently by W. Boone in 1959. The busy beaver problem, developed by Tibor Radó in 1962, is another well-known example. Hilbert's tenth problem asked for an algorithm to determine whether a multivariate polynomial equation with integer coefficients has a solution in the integers. Partial progress was made by Julia Robinson, Martin Davis, and Hilary Putnam. The algorithmic unsolvability of the problem was proved by Yuri Matiyasevich in 1970 (Davis 1973). Proof theory and constructive mathematics Proof theory is the study of formal proofs in various logical deduction systems. These proofs are represented as formal mathematical objects, facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniques. Several deduction systems are commonly considered, including Hilbert-style deduction systems, systems of natural deduction, and the sequent calculus developed by Gentzen. The study of constructive mathematics, in the context of mathematical logic, includes the study of systems in non-classical logic such as intuitionistic logic, as well as the study of predicative systems. An early proponent of predicativism was Hermann Weyl, who showed it is possible to develop a large part of real analysis using only predicative methods (Weyl 1918). Because proofs are entirely finitary, whereas truth in a structure is not, it is common for work in constructive mathematics to emphasize provability. The relationship between provability in classical (or nonconstructive) systems and provability in intuitionistic (or constructive, respectively) systems is of particular interest. Results such as the Gödel–Gentzen negative translation show that it is possible to embed (or translate) classical logic into intuitionistic logic, allowing some properties about intuitionistic proofs to be transferred back to classical proofs. Recent developments in proof theory include the study of proof mining by Ulrich Kohlenbach and the study of proof-theoretic ordinals by Michael Rathjen. Connections with computer science The study of computability theory in computer science is closely related to the study of computability in mathematical logic. There is a difference of emphasis, however. Computer scientists often focus on concrete programming languages and feasible computability, while researchers in mathematical logic often focus on computability as a theoretical concept and on noncomputability. The study of programming language semantics is related to model theory, as is program verification (in particular, model checking). The Curry-Howard isomorphism between proofs and programs relates to proof theory, especially intuitionistic logic. Formal calculi such as the lambda calculus and combinatory logic are now studied as idealized programming languages. Computer science also contributes to mathematics by developing techniques for the automatic checking or even finding of proofs, such as automated theorem proving and logic programming. Foundations of mathematics In the 19th century, mathematicians became aware of logical gaps and inconsistencies in their field. It was shown that Euclid's axioms for geometry, which had been taught for centuries as an example of the axiomatic method, were incomplete. The use of infinitesimals, and the very definition of function, came into question in analysis, as pathological examples such as Weierstrass' nowhere-differentiable continuous function were discovered. Cantor's study of arbitrary infinite sets also drew criticism. Leopold Kronecker famously stated "God made the integers; all else is the work of man," endorsing a return to the study of finite, concrete objects in mathematics. Although Kronecker's argument was carried forward by constructivists in the 20th century, the mathematical community as a whole rejected them. David Hilbert argued in favor of the study of the infinite, saying "No one shall expel us from the Paradise that Cantor has created." Mathematicians began to search for axiom systems that could be used to formalize large parts of mathematics. In addition to removing ambiguity from previously-naive terms such as function, it was hoped that this axiomatization would allow for consistency proofs. In the 19th century, the main method of proving the consistency of a set of axioms was to provide a model for it. Thus, for example, non-Euclidean geometry can be proved consistent by defining point to mean a point on a fixed sphere and line to mean a great circle on the sphere. The resulting structure, a model of elliptic geometry, satisfies the axioms of plane geometry except the parallel postulate. With the development of formal logic, Hilbert asked whether it would be possible to prove that an axiom system is consistent by analyzing the structure of possible proofs in the system, and showing through this analysis that it is impossible to prove a contradiction. This idea led to the study of proof theory. Moreover, Hilbert proposed that the analysis should be entirely concrete, using the term finitary to refer to the methods he would allow but not precisely defining them. This project, known as Hilbert's program, was seriously affected by Gödel's incompleteness theorems, which show that the consistency of formal theories of arithmetic cannot be established using methods formalizable in those theories. Gentzen showed that it is possible to produce a proof of the consistency of arithmetic in a finitary system augmented with axioms of transfinite induction, and the techniques he developed to so do were seminal in proof theory. A second thread in the history of foundations of mathematics involves nonclassical logics and constructive mathematics. The study of constructive mathematics includes many different programs with various definitions of constructive. At the most accommodating end, proofs in ZF set theory that do not use the axiom of choice are called constructive by many mathematicians. More limited versions of constructivism limit themselves to natural numbers, number-theoretic functions, and sets of natural numbers (which can be used to represent real numbers, facilitating the study of mathematical analysis). A common idea is that in order to assert that a number-theoretic function exists, a concrete means of computing the values of the function must be known. In the early 20th century, Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer founded intuitionism as a philosophy of mathematics. This philosophy, poorly understood at first, stated that in order for a mathematical statement to be true to a mathematician, that person must be able to intuit the statement, to not only believe its truth but understand the reason for its truth. A consequence of this definition of truth was the rejection of the law of the excluded middle, for there are statements that, according to Brouwer, could not be claimed to be true while their negations also could not be claimed true. Brouwer's philosophy was influential, and the cause of bitter disputes among prominent mathematicians. Later, Kleene and Kreisel would study formalized versions of intuitionistic logic (Brouwer rejected formalization, and presented his work in unformalized natural language). With the advent of the BHK interpretation and Kripke models, intuitionism became easier to reconcile with classical mathematics. See also List of mathematical logic topics List of computability and complexity topics List of set theory topics List of first-order theories Knowledge representation Metalogic Notes References Undergraduate texts . . . . . . Graduate texts . . . . . . Research papers, monographs, texts, and surveys . , reprinted as an appendix in Martin Davis, Computability and Unsolvability, Dover reprint 1982. JStor . JSTOR . JStor , to appear. Electronic posting by the journal . . . . . PDF Classical papers, texts, and collections , reprinted in van Heijenoort 1976, pp. 104–111. . English translation of title: "Consistency and irrational numbers". {{Citation | first1=Richard | last1=Dedekind | year=1888 | title=Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen? }} Two English translations: 1963 (1901). Essays on the Theory of Numbers. Beman, W. W., ed. and trans. Dover. 1996. In From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, 2 vols, Ewald, William B., ed., Oxford University Press: 787–832. (German), reprinted in English translation as "The notion of 'definite' and the independence of the axiom of choice", van Heijenoort 1976, pp. 284–289. , reprinted in English translation in Gentzen's Collected works, M. E. Szabo, ed., North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1969. . English translation of title: "Completeness of the logical calculus". . English translation of title: "The completeness of the axioms of the calculus of logical functions". , see On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems for details on English translations. , reprinted in English translation in Gödel's Collected Works, vol II, Soloman Feferman et al., eds. Oxford University Press, 1990. , republished 1980, Open Court, Chicago. . Lecture given at the International Congress of Mathematicians, 3 September 1928. Published in English translation as "The Grounding of Elementary Number Theory", in Mancosu 1998, pp. 266–273. . (German), reprinted in English translation as "Geometric Investigations on the Theory of Parallel Lines" in Non-Euclidean Geometry, Robert Bonola (ed.), Dover, 1955. ISBN 0486600270 Leopold Löwenheim (1918) . (Italian), excerpt reprinted in English stranslation as "The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method", van Heijenoort 1976, pp. 83 97. (French), reprinted in English translation as "The principles of mathematics and the problems of sets", van Heijenoort 1976, pp. 142–144. Thoralf Skolem (1919) (German), reprinted in English translation as "Proof that every set can be well-ordered", van Heijenoort 1976, pp. 139–141. (German), reprinted in English translation as "A new proof of the possibility of a well-ordering", van Heijenoort 1976, pp. 183–198. External links Mathematical Logic around the world Polyvalued logic forall x: an introduction to formal logic, by P.D. Magnus, is a free textbook. A Problem Course in Mathematical Logic, by Stefan Bilaniuk, is another free textbook. Detlovs, Vilnis, and Podnieks, Karlis (University of Latvia) Introduction to Mathematical Logic.'' A hyper-textbook. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Classical Logic -- by Stewart Shapiro. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: First-order Model Theory -- by Wilfrid Hodges. 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3,794 | Haiku | , plural haiku, is a form of Japanese poetry, consisting of 17 moras (or on), in three metrical phrases of 5, 7, and 5 moras respectively Lanoue, David G. Issa, Cup-of-tea Poems: Selected Haiku of Kobayashi Issa, Asian Humanities Press, 1991, ISBN 0895818744 p.8 . Haiku typically contain a kigo, or seasonal reference, and a kireji or verbal caesura. In Japanese, haiku are traditionally printed in a single vertical line, while haiku in English usually appear in three lines, to parallel the three metrical phrases of Japanese haiku van den Heuvel, Cor. The Haiku Anthology, 2nd edition, Simon & Schuster, 1986, ISBN 0671628372 p.11 . Previously called hokku, haiku was given its current name by the Japanese writer Masaoka Shiki at the end of the 19th century. Kireji and kigo In Japanese haiku a kireji, or cutting word, typically appears at the end of one of the verse's three metrical phrases. While difficult to precisely define its function, a kireji lends the verse structural support, Brief Notes on "Kire-ji", Association of Japanese Classical Haiku, retrieved 2008-10-16 effectively allowing it to stand as an independent poem. Depending on which cutting word is chosen, and its position within the verse, it may briefly cut the stream of thought, suggesting a parallel between the preceding and following phrases, or it may provide a dignified ending, concluding the verse with a heightened sense of closure. Haruo Shirane. Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900, Columbia University Press, 2004, ISBN 9780231109918, p.521 In English, since kireji has no direct equivalent, poets sometimes use punctuation such as a dash or ellipse, or an implied break, to divide a haiku into two grammatical and imagistic parts. The purpose is to create a juxtaposition, prompting the reader to reflect on the relationship between the two parts. A haiku traditionally contains a kigo, a defined word or phrase which symbolizes or implies the season alluded to in the poem. Among traditionalist Japanese haiku writers, kireji and kigo are considered requirements; yet, as noted above, kireji are not used in English. Kigo are not always included by modern writers of Japanese "free-form" haiku and some non-Japanese haiku. Syllables or "on" in haiku In contrast to English verse which is typically characterized by meter, Japanese verse counts sound units (moras), known as "on". The word on is often translated as "syllable", but there are subtle differences between an "on" and an English-language "syllable". Traditional haiku consist of 17 on, in three metrical phrases of 5, 7, and 5 on respectively. The word onji (音字; "sound symbol") is sometimes used in referring to Japanese sound units in English T. Kondo, "In support of onji rather than jion," Frogpond: Journal of the Haiku Society of America', 1:4, 30-31 (1978). although this word is archaic and no longer current in Japanese. Richard Gilbert, Stalking the Wild Onji In Japanese, the on corresponds very closely to the kana character count (closely enough that moji (or "character symbol") is also sometimes used as the count unit). One on is counted for a short syllable, an additional one for an elongated vowel, diphthong, or doubled consonant, and one for an "n" at the end of a syllable. Thus, the word "haibun", though counted as two syllables in English, is counted as four on in Japanese (ha-i-bu-n). Most writers of literary haiku in English use about ten to fourteen syllables, with no formal pattern. Examples Possibly the best known Japanese haiku is Bashō's "old pond" haiku: This separates into on as: furuike ya (古池 や) (fu/ru/i/ke ya): 5 kawazu tobikomu (蛙 飛込む) (ka/wa/zu to/bi/ko/mu): 7 mizu no oto (水 の 音) (mi/zu no o/to): 5 Translated: Translated by William J. Higginson in Matsuo Bashō: Frog Haiku (Thirty Translations and One Commentary), including commentary from Robert Aitken’s A Zen Wave: Bashô’s Haiku and Zen (revised ed., Shoemaker & Hoard, 2003). old pond . . . a frog leaps in water’s sound Another example of classic hokku by Matsuo Bashō: Etsuko Yanagibori, BASHO'S HAIKU ON THE THEME OF MT. FUJI: FROM THE PERSONAL NOTEBOOK OF Etsuko Yanagibori, link fuji no kaze ya oogi ni nosete Edo miyage the wind of Mt. Fuji I've brought on my fan! a gift from Edo And yet another Bashō classic: hatsu shigure saru mo komino wo hoshige nari the first cold shower even the monkey seems to want a little coat of straw (At that time, Japanese rain-gear consisted of a large, round cap and a shaggy straw cloak.) Origin and development From renga to renku to haiku Hokku is the opening stanza of an orthodox collaborative linked poem, or renga, and of its later derivative, renku (or haikai no renga). By the time of Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694), the hokku had begun to appear as an independent poem, and was also incorporated in haibun (a combination of prose and hokku), and haiga (a combination of painting with hokku). In the late 19th century, Masaoka Shiki (1867-1902) renamed the standalone hokku to haiku Higginson, William J. The Haiku Handbook, Kodansha International, 1985, ISBN 4-7700-1430-9, p.20 . The latter term is now generally applied retrospectively to all hokku appearing independently of renku or renga, irrespective of when they were written, and the use of the term hokku to describe a standalone poem is considered obsolete van den Heuvel, 1986, p.357 , although this approach has been challenged. Coomler, David. Hokku: Writing Traditional Haiku in English: The Gift to be Simple. Springfield, Ill.: Octavo Press, 2001. ISBN 0-87243-255-6 . Bashō and the appearance of independent hokku In the 1600s, two masters arose who elevated haikai and gave it a new popularity. They were Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) and Ueshima Onitsura (1661–1738). Hokku is the first verse of the collaborative haikai or renku, but its position as the opening verse made it the most important, setting the tone for the whole composition. Even though hokku had sometimes appeared individually, they were always understood in the context of renku. The Bashō school promoted standalone hokku by including many in their anthologies, thus giving birth to what is now called 'haiku'. Bashō also used his hokku as torque points within his short prose sketches and longer travel diaries. This sub-genre of haikai is known as haibun Haibun Defined: Anthology of Haibun Definitions . His best-known book, Oku no Hosomichi, or Narrow Roads to the Interior, is counted as one of the classics of Japanese literature Yuasa, Nobuyuki. The Narrow Road to the Deep North and other travel sketches, Penguin 1966, ISBN 0-14-044185-9 p.39 and has been translated into English extensively. Bashō was deified by both the imperial government and Shinto religious headquarters one hundred years after his death because he raised the haikai genre from a playful game of wit to sublime poetry. He continues to be revered as a saint of poetry in Japan, and is the one name from classical Japanese literature that is familiar throughout the world. Rimer, J. Thomas. A Reader's Guide to Japanese Literature, Kodansha International 1988, ISBN 4-7700-1396-5 pp.69-70 Time of Buson Grave of Yosa Buson The next famous style of haikai to arise was that of Yosa Buson (1716–1783) and others such as Kitō, called the Tenmei style after the Tenmei Era (1781–1789) in which it was created. Buson attempted to revive the values of Bashō, and rescue haiku and renku from the stultified condition into which it had sunk since Bashō's day. Toshiko Yokota, What Does It Mean to Read Haikai Linked Verse? A Study of the Susuki mitsu Sequence in Kono hotori ichiya shi-kasen, in Simply Haiku v5n1 2007 Buson is recognised as one of the greatest masters of haiga (an art form where painting is combined with haiku or haikai prose). His affection for painting can be seen in the painterly style of his haiku. Ross, Bruce. Haiku Moment: An Anthology of Contemporary North American Haiku, Tuttle Publishing, 1993, ISBN 0804818207 p.xv Kobayashi Issa and a humanistic approach No new popular style followed Buson. However, a very individualistic, and at the same time humanistic, approach to writing haiku was demonstrated by the poet Kobayashi Issa (1763–1827), whose miserable childhood, poverty, sad life, and devotion to the Pure Land sect of Buddhism are evident in his poetry. Issa made the genre immediately accessible to wider audiences. Shiki's revisions Masaoka Shiki (1867–1902) was a reformer and revisionist. A prolific writer, even though chronically ill during a significant part of his life, Shiki disliked the ‘stereotype’ haikai writers of the 19th century who were known by the deprecatory term tsukinami, meaning ‘monthly’, after the monthly or twice-monthly haikai gatherings of the end of the 18th century (in regard to this period of haikai, it came to mean ‘trite’ and ‘hackneyed’). Shiki also criticized Bashō. Like the Japanese intellectual world in general at that time, Shiki was strongly influenced by Western culture. He favored the painterly style of Buson and particularly the European concept of plein-air painting, which he adapted to create a style of haiku as a kind of nature sketch in words, an approach called shasei, literally ‘sketching from life’. He popularized his views by verse columns and essays in newspapers. Hokku up to the time of Shiki, even when appearing independently, were written in the context of renku Hiroaki Sato. One Hundred Frogs, Weatherhill, 1983, ISBN 0-8348-0176-0 p.113 . Shiki formally separated his new style of verse from the context of collaborative poetry. Being agnostic Henderson, Harold G. An Introduction to Haiku: An Anthology of Poems and Poets from Basho to Shiki, Doubleday Anchor Books, 1958, p.163 , he also separated it from the influence of Buddhism, with which hokku had very often been tinged. And finally, he discarded the term "hokku" and proposed the term haiku as an abbreviation of the phrase "haikai no ku" meaning a verse of haikai Earl Miner, Japanese Linked Poetry. Princeton University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-691-01368-3 pbk. , although the term predates Shiki by some two centuries, when it was used to mean any verse of haikai Takiguchi, Susumu. A FALSE START? THEN, START AGAIN! - Reflections on Haikai, World Haiku Review, Volume 6 Issue 1, March 2008 . Since then, "haiku" has been the term usually applied in both Japanese and English to all independent haiku, irrespective of their date of composition. Shiki's revisionism dealt a severe blow to renku and surviving haikai schools. The term "hokku" is now used chiefly in its original sense of the opening verse of a renku, and rarely to distinguish haiku written before Shiki's time Book review in Modern Haiku, 2003. Retrieved 2008-09-11 . Senryū Senryū is a poem that is written in a similar form and emphasizes irony, satire, humor, and human foibles rather than seasons; it may or may not contain a kigo and kireji. Haibun Haibun () is a combination of prose and haiku, often autobiographical or written in the form of a travel journal. Haiga Haiga is a style of Japanese painting based on the aesthetics of haikai, and usually including a haiku. Haiga began as haiku added to paintings, but included the calligraphic painting of haiku via brushstrokes, with the calligraphy adding to the power of the haiku. Earlier haiku poets added haiku to their paintings, but Bashō is noted for creating haiga paintings as simple as the haiku itself. Yosa Buson, a master painter, brought a more artistic approach to haiga. It was Buson who illustrated Bashō's famous travel journal, Oku no Hosomichi (Narrow Road to the Interior). Today, haiga artists combine haiku with paintings, photographs and other art. Kuhi The carving of famous haiku on natural stone to make poem monuments known as kuhi (句碑) has been a popular practice for many centuries. The city of Matsuyama has more than two hundred kuhi. Haiku movement in the West Although there were attempts outside Japan to imitate the "hokku" in the early 1900s, there was little understanding of its principles. Early Western scholars such as Basil Hall Chamberlain (1850–1935) and William George Aston were mostly dismissive of hokku's poetic value. One of the first advocates of English-language hokku was the Japanese poet Yone Noguchi. In "A Proposal to American Poets," published in the Reader magazine in February 1904, Noguchi gave a brief outline of the hokku and some of his own English efforts, ending with the exhortation, "Pray, you try Japanese Hokku, my American poets!" At about the same time the poet Sadakichi Hartmann was publishing original English-language hokku, as well as other Japanese forms in both English and French. In France, haiku was introduced by Paul-Louis Couchoud around 1906. Couchoud's articles were read by early Imagist theoretician F. S. Flint, who passed on Couchoud's (somewhat idiosyncratic) ideas to other members of the proto-Imagist Poets' Club such as Ezra Pound. Amy Lowell made a trip to London to meet Pound and find out about haiku. She returned to the United States where she worked to interest others in this "new" form. Haiku subsequently had a considerable influence on Imagists in the 1910s, notably Pound's "In a Station of the Metro" of 1913, but, notwithstanding several efforts by Yone Noguchi to explain "the hokku spirit," there was as yet little understanding of the form and its history. An early translation of Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi to Spanish was done by the Mexican poet and Nobel Prize winner Octavio Paz in collaboration with Eikichi Hayashiya. Blyth R.H. Blyth was an Englishman who lived in Japan. He produced a series of works on Zen, haiku, senryū, and on other forms of Japanese and Asian literature. In 1949, with the publication in Japan of the first volume of Haiku, the four-volume work by Blyth, haiku were introduced to the post-war world. This four-volume series (1949-52) described haiku from the pre-modern period up to and including Shiki. Blyth's History of Haiku (1964) in two volumes is regarded as a classical study of haiku. Today Blyth is best known as a major interpreter of haiku to English speakers. His works have stimulated the writing of haiku in English. Yasuda The Japanese-American scholar and translator Kenneth Yasuda published The Japanese Haiku: Its Essential Nature, History, and Possibilities in English, with Selected Examples in 1957. The book includes both translations from Japanese and original poems of his own in English, which had previously appeared in his book titled A Pepper-Pod: Classic Japanese Poems together with Original Haiku. In these books Yasuda presented a critical theory about haiku, to which he added comments on haiku poetry by early twentieth-century poets and critics. His translations apply a 5–7–5 syllable count in English, with the first and third lines end-rhymed. Yasuda's theory includes the concept of a "haiku moment" based in personal experience, and provides the motive for writing a haiku. His notion of the haiku moment has resonated with haiku writers in North America, even though the notion is not widely promoted in Japanese haiku. Henderson In 1958, An Introduction to Haiku: An Anthology of Poems and Poets from Bashô to Shiki by Harold G. Henderson was published by Doubleday Anchor Books. This book was a revision of Henderson's earlier book titled The Bamboo Broom (Houghton Mifflin, 1934). After World War Two, Henderson and Blyth worked for the American Occupation in Japan and for the Imperial Household, respectively, and their shared appreciation of haiku helped form a bond between the two. Henderson translated every hokku and haiku into a rhymed tercet (a-b-a), whereas the Japanese originals never used rhyme. Unlike Yasuda, however, he recognized that seventeen syllables in English are generally longer than the seventeen moras of a traditional Japanese haiku. Because the normal modes of English poetry depend on accentual meter rather than on syllabics, Henderson chose to emphasize the order of events and images in the originals. Nevertheless, many of Henderson's translations were in the five-seven-five pattern. Contemporary English-language haiku Today, haiku are written in many languages, but most poets outside of Japan are concentrated in the English-speaking countries. It is impossible to single out any current style or format or subject matter as definitive. Some of the more common practices in English are: Use of three (or fewer) lines of 17 or fewer syllables; Use of a season word (kigo); Use of a cut (sometimes indicated by a punctuation mark) paralleling the Japanese use of kireji, to contrast and compare, implicitly, two events, images, or situations. While traditional Japanese haiku has focused on nature and the place of humans in it, some modern haiku poets, both in Japan and the West, consider a broader range of subject matter suitable, including urban contexts. While pre-modern haiku avoided certain topics such as sex and overt violence, contemporary haiku sometimes deal with such themes. The loosening of traditional standards has resulted in the term "haiku" being applied to brief English-language poems such as "mathemaku" and other kinds of pseudohaiku. Some sources claim that this is justified by the blurring of definitional boundaries in Japan Grumman, Bob. A Divergery of Haiku, ToxanAtomyzd in Modern Haiku 34:2, 2003, 20–26 . Worldwide In the early 21st century, there is a thriving community of haiku poets worldwide, mainly communicating through national and regional societies and journals in Japan, in the English-speaking countries (including India), in Northern Europe (mainly Sweden, Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands), in central and southeast Europe (mainly Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania), and in Russia. Some associations, like Haiku International Association, try to promote exchanges between Japanese and foreign haiku lovers. India In the early 20th century Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore composed haiku in Bengali. He also translated some from Japanese. In Gujarati, Zeenabhai Ratanji Desai 'Sneharashmi' popularized haiku Article on Sneh Rashmi on website of Gujarati Sahitya Parishad (Gujarati Literary Council). In it, we read: "જાપાની કાવ્યપ્રકાર હાઈકુને ગુજરાતીમાં સુપ્રતિષ્ઠિત કરી તેમણે ઐતિહાસિક પ્રદાન કર્યું છે" ("By pioneering and popularizing the famous form of Japanese poetry called Haiku in Gujarati, he has gained a place in history"). and remains a popular haiku composer. Ramanathan S. & Kothari R. (1998). Modern Gujarati Poetry: A Selection. Sahitya Akedami. ISBN 8126002948, 9788126002948 In February 2008, the World Haiku Festival was held in Bangalore, gathering haikuists from all over India and Bangladesh, as well as from Europe and the US. Modern haiku Summer 2008 Special feature on WHF 2008 in World Haiku Review Internet Online journals that exclusively publish haiku poetry (see the list in Haiku in English) and haiku sites owned by various haiku writers can be found online, as well as scores of pseudo-haiku (also known as zappai). Micro-blogging services' short formats encourage haiku, with over 40,000 found on Twitter alone. Twitter, Inc. promotes haiku, featuring it fifth in recommended queries on their search service, with new haiku being posted every few minutes. Famous writers Each year links to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article: Pre-Shiki period Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) Nozawa Bonchō (c. 1640–1714) Takarai Kikaku(1661–1707) Onitsura (1661–1738) Chiyo-ni (1703–1775) Yosa Buson (1716–1783) Kobayashi Issa (1763–1827) Shiki and later Masaoka Shiki (1867–1902) Kawahigashi Hekigotō (1873–1937) Takahama Kyoshi (1874–1959) Taneda Santōka (1882–1940) Ozaki Hōsai (1882–1926) Ogiwara Seisensui (1884–1976) Natsume Sōseki (1867–1916) Ryūnosuke Akutagawa (1892–1927) See also Haiku in English Hokku Japanese poetry Kigo Kireji Renku Senryū Waka List of Japanese poetry anthologies Notes References Blyth, R. H. A History of Haiku. Vol. 1, From the Beginnings up to Issa. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1963. ISBN 0-89346-066-4 Suiter, John. Poets on the Peaks. Counterpoint, 2002. ISBN 1582431485; ISBN 1-58243-294-5 (pbk) Shirane, Haruo. Traces of Dreams, Landscape, Cultural Memory, and the poetry of Bashō. Stanford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8047-3099-7 (pbk) Sato, Hiroaki. One Hundred Frogs, from renga to haiku to English. Weatherhill, 1983. ISBN 0-8348-0176-0 Higginson, William J. and Harter, Penny. The Haiku Handbook, How to Write, Share, and Teach Haiku. Kodansha, 1989. ISBN 4-7700-1430-9 Ueda, Makoto. The Master Haiku Poet, Matsuo Bashō. Kodansha, 1982. ISBN 0-87011-553-7 Lowenstein, Tom (editor). Classic Haiku. Duncan Baird, 2007. ISBN 1-84483-486-7 Lowenstein,Tom.Haiku Inspirations Duncan Baird 2006. ISBN 1-84483-296-1 Yasuda, Ken. Japanese Haiku: Its Essential Nature, History, and Possibilities in English. Tuttle, 1957. ISBN 0-8048-1096-6 Sieffert, René.Bashô et son école Haïkaï. Les éditions Textuel, 2005.ISBN 2-84597-140-0 Henderson, H G. An Introduction to Haiku. Hokuseido Press, 1948. External links Millikin University Haiku, a web site of undergraduate research on contemporary haiku Haiku for People Haiku definitions and guidelines, translations of Japanese haiku "Aha! poetry": Jane Reichhold's website with essays on and examples of haiku and related forms World Kigo Database An ample database of season words (kigo) for haiku writing Ray Rasmussen's "Haiku, haibun, haiga" A site containing definitions and examples of the genres Shiki Haikusphere and NOBO list In the moonlight a worm…: Ideas and lesson plans for teaching haiku A Summary of Japanese Short Forms and their Development: Writing Haiku (World Haiku Festival, Barbican, London) Haiku International Association | Haiku |@lemmatized plural:1 haiku:128 form:13 japanese:45 poetry:16 consist:3 moras:4 three:6 metrical:4 phrase:7 respectively:3 lanoue:1 david:2 g:4 issa:7 cup:1 tea:1 poem:12 select:2 kobayashi:4 asian:2 humanity:1 press:7 isbn:22 p:9 typically:3 contain:4 kigo:10 seasonal:1 reference:2 kireji:10 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3,795 | Chinese_classics | Chinese classic texts or Chinese canonical texts () refer to the pre-Qin Chinese texts, especially the Confucian Four Books and Five Classics (四書五經). All of these pre-Qin text were written in classical Chinese. They can be referred to as jing (經). More broadly speaking, Chinese classic texts may refer to texts, be they written in vernacular Chinese or in classical Chinese, that existed before 1912, when the last imperial Chinese dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, fell. These can include shi (史, historical works), zi (子, philosophical works belonging to schools of thought other than the Confucian, but also works of agriculture, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, divination, art criticism, and all sorts of miscellaneous writings) and ji (集, literary works) as well as jing. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics, Chinese classic texts chosen by Song dynasty Neo-Confucianist Zhu Xi, were the subject of mandatory study by those Confucian scholars who wished to become government officials. Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not be one of the literati, or even a military officer, without knowing them. Generally, children first studied the Chinese characters with rote memorization of the Three Character Classic and Hundred Family Surnames, then went on to memorize the other classics, in order to ascend in the social hierarchy. Scholarship on these texts naturally divides itself into two periods, before and after the "Qin Fire", Burning of books and burying of scholars when many of the original texts, especially those of Confucianism, were burned in a political purge. Before 221 BCE The Classics of Confucianism The Four Books The Great Learning is a chapter from the Classic of Rites. The Doctrine of the Mean is another chapter from the Classic of Rites. The Analects of Confucius, a twenty-chapter work of dialogues between Confucius and his disciples, recorded by later Confucian scholars. The Mencius, a book of conversations between Mencius and some kings of his time. The Five Classics The I Ching is a manual of divination based on the eight trigrams attributed to the mythical figure Fuxi (by the time of Confucius these eight trigrams had been multiplied to sixty-four hexagrams). The I Ching is still used by modern adherents of folk religion. The Classic of Poetry is made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities, 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. This book is traditionally credited as a compilation from Confucius. The Three Rites are the three ancient ritual texts listed among the classics of Confucianism, a record of social forms and ceremonies of the Western Zhou, and a restoration of the original copy after the burning of Confucian texts in 213 BCE The Classic of Rites The Rites of Zhou The Etiquette and Ceremonials The Classic of History is a collection of documents and speeches of the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou and period before. It contains examples of the earliest Chinese prose. The Spring and Autumn Annals is chronologically the earliest annal; consisting of about 16,000 words, it records the events of the State of Lu from 722 BCE to 481 BCE, with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc. The Zuo Zhuan (Commentary of Zuo) is a different report of the same events as the Spring and Autumn Annals with a few significant differences. It covers a longer period than the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Commentary of Gongyang, another surviving commentary on the same events (see Spring and Autumn Annals). The Commentary of Guliang, another surviving commentary on the same events (see Spring and Autumn Annals). The Classic of Music is sometimes referred to as the sixth classic; it was lost by the time of the Han Dynasty. Other Confucian classics The Classic of Filial Piety is a very small classical book on how to behave towards a senior, be it one's father, an elder brother, or the ruler. The Erya is a dictionary explaining the meaning and interpretation of words in the context of the Confucian Canon. The Classics of Taoism Tao Te Ching, attributed to Laozi. Zhuangzi, attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Zhuangzi. The Classic of the Perfect Emptiness, attributed to Liezi. The Classic of Mohism Mozi, attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Mozi. The Classics of Legalism The book of lord Shang, attributed to Shang Yang. Guanzi, attributed to Guan Zhong. Hanfeizi, attributed to Han Fei. Shenzi, attributed to Shen Buhai; all but one chapter is lost. Shenzi, attributed to Shen Dao. It originally consisted of ten volumes and forty-two chapters, of which all but seven chapters have been lost. The Book of Law, attributed to Li Kui. The Classics of Military Science The Art of War, attributed to Sunzi. The Thirty-Six Stratagems, recently recovered. The Three Strategies of Huang Shigong, attributed to Jiang Ziya. The Sima Fa, attributed to Sima Rangju. Wuzi, attributed to Wu Qi. Wei Liaozi, attributed to Wei Liao. The Classics of the History of China The Guoyu, a collection of historical records of numerous states recorded the period from Western Zhou to 453 BCE. The Shan Hai Jing, a collection of mythical tales from various locations. After 206 BCE The Twenty-Four Histories, a collection of authoritative histories of China, including the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian and the Book of Han by Ban Gu. The Strategies of the Warring States, attributed to Liu Xiang. The Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms, a historical record of the Sixteen Kingdoms, attributed to Cui Hong, is lost. The Shiming, is a dictionary compiled by Liu Xi by the end of 2nd century. The Dialogues between Li Jing and Tang Taizong, attributed to Li Jing The Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government, with Sima Guang as its main editor. The Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue, a historical record of the states of Wu and Yue during the period of Spring and Autumn, attributed to Zhao Ye. The Shiliuguo Chunqiu, compiled by Cui Hong, a history book for the Sixteen Kingdoms. The Jiaoshi Yilin, a work modelled after I Ching, attributed to Jiao Yanshou. The The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, a mathematics Chinese book composed by several generations scholars of Han Dynasty. The Thousand Character Classic, attributed to Zhou Xingsi. The Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era, compiled by Gautama Siddha, is a Chinese encyclopedia on astrology and divination. The Shitong, written by Liu Zhiji, a work on historiography. The Tongdian, written by Du You, a contemporary text focused on the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Huiyao, compiled by Wang Pu, a text based on the institutional history of the Tang Dynasty. The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, compiled by Bianji; a recount of Xuanzang's journey. The Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang, written by Duan Chengshi, records fantastic stories, anecdotes, and exotic customs. The Four Great Books of Song, a term referring to the four large compilations during the beginning of Song Dynasty. The Siku Quanshu, the largest compilation of literature in Chinese history. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a semi-fictionalised account of the fall of the Han Dynasty and the period that followed until the Jin Dynasty reunited China, attributed to Luo Guanzhong. See also Chinese literature Imperial examination List of early Chinese texts Kaicheng Stone Classics Seven Military Classics Old Texts Sinology Wade-Giles Romanization system for Chinese transliteration Thomas Wade Herbert Giles Lionel Giles Frederic H. Balfour External links Wengu text database (Classic of Poetry, Analects of Confucius, Tao Te Ching, and I Ching, in Chinese and translations) Chinese Classics (James Legge's translations of the Analects of Confucius, the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Works of Mencius and the Tao Te Ching'') Chinese Literature Classics (listed in English, with links to Chinese texts and translations in several languages) The Canonical Books of Confucianism, David K. Jordan Chinese Scripta Sinica Big classic texts database by Academia Sinica Palace Museum Chinese Text Database Database of the Center for Chinese Studies Collection 中國電子古籍世界 Classics database Research Center for Chinese Ancient Texts includes CHANT (CHinese ANcient Texts) Database Chinese Text Project (Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations) Traditional Chinese 凌云小筑 In Chinese, with articles and discussions on literature, history, and philosophy. Chinese classic text online Notes | Chinese_classics |@lemmatized chinese:33 classic:34 text:22 canonical:2 refer:5 pre:2 qin:3 especially:2 confucian:7 four:7 book:14 five:3 四書五經:1 write:5 classical:4 jing:5 經:1 broadly:1 speak:1 may:1 texts:2 vernacular:1 exist:1 last:1 imperial:2 dynasty:11 qing:2 fell:1 include:3 shi:1 史:1 historical:4 work:8 zi:1 子:1 philosophical:1 belong:1 school:1 thought:1 also:2 agriculture:1 medicine:1 mathematics:2 astronomy:1 divination:3 art:3 criticism:1 sort:1 miscellaneous:2 writing:1 ji:1 集:1 literary:1 well:1 ming:1 choose:1 song:6 neo:1 confucianist:1 zhu:1 xi:2 subject:1 mandatory:1 study:3 scholar:4 wish:1 become:1 government:2 official:1 political:2 discussion:2 full:1 reference:1 background:1 one:4 could:1 literati:1 even:1 military:3 officer:1 without:1 know:1 generally:1 child:1 first:1 character:3 rote:1 memorization:1 three:5 hundred:1 family:1 surname:1 go:1 memorize:1 order:1 ascend:1 social:2 hierarchy:1 scholarship:1 naturally:1 divide:2 two:2 period:6 fire:1 burning:2 burying:1 many:1 original:2 confucianism:4 burn:1 purge:1 bce:6 great:4 learning:2 chapter:7 rite:4 doctrine:2 mean:2 another:3 analects:3 confucius:6 twenty:2 dialogue:2 disciple:1 record:10 later:1 mencius:3 conversation:1 king:1 time:3 ching:7 manual:1 base:2 eight:2 trigram:2 attribute:23 mythical:2 figure:1 fuxi:1 multiply:1 sixty:1 hexagram:1 still:1 use:1 modern:2 adherent:1 folk:2 religion:1 poetry:2 make:1 poem:1 minor:1 festal:2 traditionally:2 sing:1 court:2 festivity:1 major:1 sung:2 solemn:1 ceremony:2 hymn:1 eulogy:1 sacrifice:1 god:1 ancestral:1 spirit:1 royal:1 house:1 credit:1 compilation:3 ancient:3 ritual:1 list:3 among:1 form:1 western:4 zhou:5 restoration:1 copy:1 rites:1 etiquette:1 ceremonial:1 history:8 collection:5 document:1 speech:1 xia:1 shang:3 contain:1 example:1 early:3 prose:1 spring:8 autumn:8 annals:7 chronologically:1 annal:1 consist:2 word:2 event:4 state:4 lu:1 implied:1 condemnation:1 usurpation:1 murder:1 incest:1 etc:1 zuo:2 zhuan:1 commentary:5 different:1 report:1 significant:1 difference:1 cover:1 longer:1 gongyang:1 survive:2 see:3 guliang:1 music:1 sometimes:1 sixth:1 lose:4 han:5 filial:1 piety:1 small:1 behave:1 towards:1 senior:1 father:1 elder:1 brother:1 ruler:1 erya:1 dictionary:2 explain:1 meaning:1 interpretation:1 context:1 canon:1 taoism:1 tao:3 te:3 laozi:1 zhuangzi:2 philosopher:2 name:2 perfect:1 emptiness:1 liezi:1 mohism:1 mozi:2 legalism:1 lord:1 yang:1 guanzi:1 guan:1 zhong:1 hanfeizi:1 fei:1 shenzi:2 shen:2 buhai:1 dao:1 originally:1 ten:1 volume:1 forty:1 seven:2 law:1 li:3 kui:1 science:1 war:1 sunzi:1 thirty:1 six:1 stratagem:1 recently:1 recover:1 strategy:2 huang:1 shigong:1 jiang:1 ziya:1 sima:4 fa:1 rangju:1 wuzi:1 wu:3 qi:1 wei:2 liaozi:1 liao:1 china:3 guoyu:1 numerous:1 hai:1 tale:1 various:1 location:1 authoritative:1 grand:1 historian:1 qian:1 ban:1 gu:1 warring:1 liu:3 xiang:1 sixteen:3 kingdom:4 cui:2 hong:2 shiming:1 compile:5 end:1 century:1 tang:5 taizong:1 comprehensive:1 mirror:1 aid:1 guang:1 main:1 editor:1 yue:2 zhao:1 ye:1 shiliuguo:1 chunqiu:1 jiaoshi:1 yilin:1 model:1 jiao:1 yanshou:1 nine:1 mathematical:1 compose:1 several:2 generation:1 thousand:1 xingsi:1 treatise:1 astrology:2 kaiyuan:1 era:1 gautama:1 siddha:1 encyclopedia:1 shitong:1 zhiji:1 historiography:1 tongdian:1 du:1 contemporary:1 focus:1 huiyao:1 wang:1 pu:1 institutional:1 region:1 bianji:1 recount:1 xuanzang:1 journey:1 morsel:1 youyang:1 duan:1 chengshi:1 fantastic:1 story:1 anecdote:1 exotic:1 custom:1 term:1 large:2 beginning:1 siku:1 quanshu:1 literature:4 romance:1 semi:1 fictionalised:1 account:1 fall:1 follow:1 jin:1 reunite:1 luo:1 guanzhong:1 examination:1 kaicheng:1 stone:1 old:1 sinology:1 wade:2 giles:3 romanization:1 system:1 transliteration:1 thomas:1 herbert:1 lionel:1 frederic:1 h:1 balfour:1 external:1 link:2 wengu:1 database:6 translation:4 james:1 legge:1 english:2 language:1 david:1 k:1 jordan:1 scripta:1 sinica:2 big:1 academia:1 palace:1 museum:1 center:2 中國電子古籍世界:1 research:1 chant:1 project:1 philosophy:2 traditional:1 凌云小筑:1 article:1 online:1 note:1 |@bigram qing_dynasty:2 zhu_xi:1 analects_confucius:3 eight_trigram:2 autumn_annals:7 han_dynasty:3 filial_piety:1 tao_te:3 te_ching:3 han_fei:1 sima_qian:1 tang_dynasty:2 fictionalised_account:1 jin_dynasty:1 wade_giles:1 giles_romanization:1 external_link:1 james_legge:1 |
3,796 | List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_athletics_(men) | This is the complete list of men's Olympic medalists in Track and Field from 1896 to 2008. Current program 100 meters 1896 Athens1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 200 meters 1900 Paris1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 400 meters 1896 Athens 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 Londonnone awardednone awarded1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 800 meters 1896 Athens1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 1500 meters 1896 Athens 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 5000 meters 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 10000 meters 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney2004 Athens 2008 Beijing Marathon The marathon was invented for the 1896 Olympics, and has been contested at all Olympics since. Generally, in the Summer Olympics, the women's marathon marks the midway point of the games, while the men's marathon is the final event and is incorporated into the Closing Ceremonies. The distance of the marathon at the Olympics has varied in the early years, before being standardized at 42,195 m in 1924, the distance that was run at the 1908 Olympics. In other years, the distances have been: 1896: 40,000 m (approximately) 1900: 40,260 m 1904: 40,000 m 1912: 40,200 m 1920: 42,750 m 1896 Athens 1900 Paris The IOC attributes Théato's medal to France, despite later sources finding that his nationality was Luxembourgish. 1904 St. Louis Coray is described in the 1904 Games report as a "Frenchman wearing the colors of the Chicago Athletic Association", but the IOC attributes his medal to the United States. 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin Although both Sohn Kee-Chung and Nam Sung-Yong were actually from Korea, the IOC attributes both medals to Japan due to Korea being under Japanese occupation at the time. All Korean olympians during the Japanese occupation period could only participate in the games as a representative of Japan and had to compete with Japanese names instead of their original Korean names. However Sohn Kee-Chung is still referred to as the first Korean to win an Olympic marathon today. 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 110 meter hurdles 1896 Athensnone awarded1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 400 meter hurdles 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholmnot included in the Olympic program1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 3000 meter steeplechase 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 4 x 100 meters relay 1912 StockholmDavid JacobsHenry MacintoshVictor d'ArcyWilliam ApplegarthIvan MöllerCharles LutherTure PersonKnut Lindberg none awarded1920 AntwerpCharlie PaddockJackson ScholzLoren MurchisonMorris KirkseyRené LorainRené TirardRené MourlonÉmile Ali-KhanAgne HolmströmWilliam PeterssonSven MalmNils Sandström1924 ParisLoren MurchisonLouis ClarkeFrank HusseyAlfred LeConeyHarold AbrahamsWalter RangeleyWilliam NicholLancelot RoyleJan de VriesJacob BootHarry BroosMarinus van den Berge1928 AmsterdamFrank WykoffJames QuinnCharles BorahHenry Russell Georg LammersRichard CortsHubert HoubenHelmut Körnig Cyril GillTeddy SmouhaWalter RangeleyJack London 1932 Los AngelesRobert KieselEmmett ToppinoHector DyerFrank Wykoff Helmut KörnigFriedrich HendrixErich BorchmeyerArthur Jonath Giuseppe CastelliRuggero MaregattiGabriele SalviatiEdgardo Toetti 1936 BerlinJesse OwensRalph MetcalfeFoy DraperFrank Wykoff Orazio MarianiGianni CaldanaElio RagniTullio Gonnelli Wilhelm LeichumErich BorchmeyerErwin GillmeisterGerd Hornberger 1948 LondonBarney EwellLorenzo WrightHarrison DillardMel PattonJohn ArcherJohn GregoryAlastair McCorquodaleKenneth Jones Michele TitoEnrico PerucconiAntonio SiddiCarlo Monti 1952 HelsinkiDean SmithHarrison DillardLindy RemiginoAndy Stanfield Boris TokaryevLevan KalyayevLevan SanadzeVladimir Sukharyev László ZarándiGéza VarasdiGyörgy CsányiBela Goldoványi1956 MelbourneIra MurchisonLeamon KingThane BakerBobby Joe Morrow Leonid BartenevBoris TokaryevYuri KonovalovVladimir Sukharyev Lothar KnörzerLeonhard PohlHeinz FüttererManfred Germar 1960 RomeBernd CullmannArmin HaryWalter MahlendorfMartin Lauer Gusman KosanovLeonid BartenevYuri KonovalovEdvin Ozolinš Peter RadfordDavid JonesDavid SegalNeville Whitehead1964 TokyoPaul DraytonGerald AshworthRichard StebbinsBob HayesAndrzej ZielińskiWiesław ManiakMarian FoikMarian DudziakPaul GenevayBernard LaidebeurClaude PiquemalJocelyn Delecour1968 Mexico CityCharles GreeneMelvin PenderRonnie Ray SmithJim Hines Hermes RamírezJuan MoralesPablo MontesEnrique FiguerolaGérard FénouilJocelyn DelecourClaude PiquemalRoger Bambuck1972 MunichLarry BlackRobert TaylorGerald TinkerEdward Hart Aleksandr KornelyukVladimir LovetskyJuris SilovsValeri BorzovJobst HirschtKarlheinz KlotzGerhard WuchererKlaus Ehl1976 MontrealHarvey GlanceJohn Wesley JonesMillard HamptonSteven RiddickManfred KokotJörg PfeiferKlaus-Dieter KurratAlexander ThiemeAleksandr AksininNikolay KolesnikovJuris SilovsValeri Borzov1980 MoscowVladimir MuravyovNikolay SidorovAleksandr AksininAndrey ProkofyevKrzysztof ZwolińskiZenon LicznerskiLeszek DuneckiMarian WoroninAntoine RichardPascal BarréPatrick BarréHermann Panzo1984 Los AngelesSam GraddyRon BrownCalvin SmithCarl LewisAlbert LawrenceGreg MeghooDon QuarrieRay StewartBen JohnsonTony SharpeDesai WilliamsSterling Hinds1988 SeoulViktor BryzginVladimir KrylovVladimir MuravyovVitaly SavinElliot BunneyJohn RegisMichael McFarlaneLinford ChristieBruno Marie-RoseDaniel SangoumaGilles QuenehervéMax Morinière 1992 BarcelonaMichael MarshLeroy BurrellDennis MitchellCarl LewisJames JettOluyemi KayodeChidi ImohOlapade AdenikenDavidson EzinwaOsmond EzinwaAndrés SimónJoel LamelaJoel IsasiJorge Aguilera1996 AtlantaRobert EsmieGlenroy GilbertBruny SurinDonovan BaileyCarlton ChambersJon DrummondTim HardenMichael MarshDennis MitchellTim MontgomeryArnaldo da SilvaRobson da SilvaEdson RibeiroAndré da Silva2000 SydneyJon DrummondBernard WilliamsBrian LewisMaurice GreeneTim MontgomeryKenneth BrokenburrVicente de LimaEdson RibeiroAndré da SilvaClaudinei da SilvaClaudio SouzaJosé Angel CesarLuis Alberto Pérez-RiondaIvan GarcíaFreddy Mayola2004 AthensJason GardenerDarren CampbellMarlon DevonishMark Lewis-FrancisShawn CrawfordJustin GatlinCoby MillerMaurice GreeneDarvis PattonOlusoji FasubaUchenna EmedoluAaron EgbeleDeji Aliu2008 BeijingUsain BoltAsafa PowellNesta CarterMichael FraterDwight ThomasEmmanuel CallenderRichard ThompsonAaron ArmstrongMarc BurnsKeston BledmanNaoki TsukaharaShingo SuetsuguShinji TakahiraNobuharu Asahara Note: since 1992, athletes who ran only in preliminary rounds also received medals. 4 x 400 meters relay 1912 StockholmMel SheppardEdward LindbergTed MeredithCharles Reidpath Charles LelongRobert SchurrerPierre FailliotCharles Poulenard George NicolErnest HenleyJames SoutterCyril Seedhouse1920 AntwerpCecil GriffithsRobert LindsayJohn Ainsworth-DaviesGuy Butler Harry DavelClarence OldfieldJack OosterlaakBevil Rudd Georges AndréGaston FéryMaurice DelvartJean Delvaux1924 ParisCommodore CochranAlan HelffrichOliver MacDonaldWilliam Stevenson Artur SvenssonErik ByléhnGustaf WeijnarthNils EngdahlEdward TomsGeorge RenwickRichard RipleyGuy Butler1928 AmsterdamGeorge BairdEmerson SpencerFrederick AldermanRay Barbuti Otto NeumannHarry StorzRichard KrebsHermann Engelhard Alex WilsonPhil EdwardsStanley GloverJames Ball 1932 Los AngelesIvan FuquaEdgar AblowichKarl WarnerBill Carr Crew StoneleyThomas HampsonDavid BurghleyGodfrey Rampling Ray LewisJames BallPhil EdwardsAlex Wilson 1936 BerlinFrederick WolffGodfrey RamplingWilliam RobertsGodfrey Brown Harold CagleRobert YoungEdward O’BrienAlfred Fitch Helmut HamannFriedrich von StülpnagelHarry VoigtRudolf Harbig 1948 LondonArthur HarndenClifford BourlandRoy CochranMal WhitfieldJean KerebelFrancois SchewettaRobert Chef d’HotelJacques LunisKurt LundquistLars WolfbrandtFolke AlnevikRune Larsson 1952 HelsinkiArthur WintLeslie LaingHerb McKenleyGeorge RhodenOllie MatsonGerald ColeCharles MooreMal WhitfieldHans GeisterGünther SteinesHeinz UlzheimerKarl-Friedrich Haas1956 MelbourneCharlie JenkinsLouis JonesJesse MashburnTom CourtneyGraham GipsonLeon GregoryDavid LeanKevan Gosper Francis HigginsMichael WheelerJohn SalisburyDerek Johnson 1960 RomeJack YermanEarl YoungGlenn DavisOtis DavisJoachim ReskeManfred KinderJohannes KaiserCarl KaufmannMalcolm SpenceJames WedderburnKeith GardnerGeorge Kerr1964 TokyoOllan CassellMichael LarrabeeUlis WilliamsHenry CarrTimothy GrahamAdrian MetcalfeJohn CooperRobbie Brightwell Edwin SkinnerKenneth BernardEdwin RobertsWendell Mottley1968 Mexico CityVincent MatthewsRon FreemanLarry JamesLee EvansDaniel RudishaHezahiah NyamauNaftali BonCharles AsatiHelmar MüllerManfred KinderGerhard HennigeMartin Jellinghaus1972 MunichCharles AsatiHezahiah NyamauRobert OukoJulius Sang Martin ReynoldsAlan PascoeDavid HemeryDavid Jenkins Gilles BertouldDaniel VelasquesFrancis KerbiriouJacques Carette1976 MontrealHerman FrazierBenjamin BrownFred NewhouseMaxie ParksRyszard PodlasJan WernerZbigniew JaremskiJerzy PietrzykFranz-Peter HofmeisterLothar KriegHarald SchmidBernd Herrmann1980 MoscowRemigijus ValiulisMikhail LingeNikolay ChernetskyViktor MarkinKlaus ThieleAndreas KnebelFrank SchafferVolker BeckStefano MalinverniMauro ZulianiRoberto TozziPietro Mennea1984 Los AngelesSunder NixRay ArmsteadAlonzo BabersAntonio McKayKriss AkabusiGarry CookTodd BennettPhilip BrownSunday UtiMoses UgbusienRotimi PetersInnocent Egbunike1988 SeoulDanny EverettSteve LewisKevin RobinzineButch ReynoldsHoward DavisDevon MorrisWinthrop GrahamBertland CameronNorbert DobeleitEdgar IttJörg VaihingerRalf Lübke 1992 BarcelonaAndrew ValmonQuincy WattsMichael JohnsonSteve LewisDarnell HallCharles JenkinsLazaro MartínezHector HerreraNorberto TéllezRoberto HernándezRoger BlackDavid GrindleyKriss AkabusiJohn RegisDu'aine LadejoMark Richardson 1996 AtlantaLaMont SmithAlvin HarrisonDerek MillsAnthuan MaybankJason RouserIwan ThomasJamie BaulchMark RichardsonRoger BlackDu'aine LadejoMark HyltonMichael McDonaldRoxbert MartinGreg HaughtonDavian ClarkeDennis BlakeGarth Robinson2000 Sydneyvacant On August 2, 2008, the International Olympic Committee stripped the gold medal from the U.S. men's 1,600-meter relay team for doping Clement ChukwuJude MonyeSunday BadaEnefiok Udo-ObongNduka AwazieFidelis GadzamaMichael BlackwoodGreg HaughtonChristopher WilliamsDanny McFarlaneSanjay AyreMichael McDonald2004 AthensOtis HarrisDerrick BrewJeremy WarinerDarold WilliamsonKelly WillieAndrew RockJohn SteffensenMark OrmrodPatrick DwyerClinton HillJames GoddayMusa AuduSaul WeigopwaEnefiok Udo Obong2008 BeijingLaShawn MerrittAngelo TaylorDavid NevilleJeremy WarinerKerron ClementRegi WitherspoonAndretti BainMichael MathieuAndrae WilliamsChris BrownAvard MoncurRamon MillerMaksim DyldinVladislav FrolovAnton KokorinDenis Alekseyev Note: since 1992, athletes who ran only in preliminary rounds also received medals. 20 km walk 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing 50 km walk 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montrealnot included in the Olympic program1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing High jump 1896 Athensnone awarded1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 Londonnone awarded1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing Pole vault 1896 Athens 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 Londonnone awarded1912 Stockholm1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscownone awarded1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing Long jump 1896 Athens 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing Triple jump 1896 Athens 1900 Paris1904 St. Louis 1908 London1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles1936 Berlin 1948 London1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing Shot put 1896 Athens 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis1908 London1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin1948 London 1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens 2008 Beijing Discus throw 1896 Athens 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin 1948 London 1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens 2008 Beijing Hammer throw 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis1908 London1912 Stockholm1920 Antwerp1924 Paris1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles 1936 Berlin1948 London 1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Javelin throw 1908 London1912 Stockholm1920 Antwerp1924 Paris1928 Amsterdam1932 Los Angeles1936 Berlin1948 London 1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Decathlon 1904 St. Louis1908 Londonnot included in the Olympic program1912 Stockholm1920 Antwerp1924 Paris1928 Amsterdam1932 Los Angeles1936 Berlin1948 London 1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing At St. Louis Games in 1904, the decathlon contest was entitled the All-Around competition, and consisted of: 100 yards dash, shot put, high jump, 800 yard walk, hammer throw, pole vault, 120 yards hurdles, 56 pounds weight throw, long jump, and run. Discontinued events 60 meters This event has only been held twice. Both winners, Kraenzlein and Hahn, were also successful in other events, and share a total of 7 Olympic sprint titles. 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 5 miles 1908 London 200 meter hurdles 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 2500 meter steeplechase 1900 Paris 2590 meter steeplechase 1904 St. Louis 3200 meter steeplechase 1908 London 4000 meter steeplechase 1900 Paris 1600 meter relay The first relay event to be held at the Olympics, the 1600 m relay consisted of two legs over 200 m, one over 400 m, and one over 800 m. This "medley" relay was replaced by the 4×400 m relay at subsequent Olympics. 1908 LondonWilliam HamiltonNathaniel CartmellJohn TaylorMel SheppardArthur HoffmannHans EickeOtto TrieloffHanns BraunPál SimonFrigyes WiesnerJózsef NagyÖdön Bodor 3000 meter team race 1912 StockholmTell BernaGeorge BonhagAbel KiviatLouis ScottNorman Taber Bror FockNils FrykbergThorild OlssonErnst WideJohn Zander William CottrillGeorge HutsonWilliam MooreEdward OwenCyril Porter1920 AntwerpHorace BrownIvan DresserArlie SchardtCharles BlewittAlbert HillWilliam SeagroveEric BackmanSven LundgrenEdvin Wide1924 ParisElias KatzPaavo NurmiVille Ritola Harry JohnstonBernhard McDonaldGeorge Webber William CoxEdward KirbyWillard Tibbetts 5000 meter team race 1900 Paris Henri DelogeGaston RagueneauJacques ChastaniéAndré CastanetMichel Champoudry none awarded 3 miles team race 1908 LondonJoseph DeakinArchie RobertsonWilliam Coales John EiseleGeorge BonhagHerbert TrubeLouis de FleuracJoseph DreherPaul Lizandier 4 miles team race 1904 St. LouisArthur NewtonGeorge UnderwoodPaul PilgrimHoward ValentineDavid Munson none awarded Cross country - individual 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris Cross-country - team 1912 StockholmHjalmar AnderssonJohn EkeJosef TernströmHannes KolehmainenJalmari EskolaAlbin Stenroos Frederick HibbinsErnest GloverThomas Humphreys1920 AntwerpPaavo NurmiHeikki LiimatainenTeodor KoskenniemiJames WilsonFrank HegartyAlfred NicholsEric BackmanGustaf MattssonHilding Ekman1924 ParisPaavo NurmiVille RitolaHeikki LiimatainenEarl JohnsonArthur StudenrothAugust FagerHenri LauvauxGaston HeuetMaurice Norland 3000 meter walk 1920 Antwerp 3500 meter walk 1908 London 10 km walk 1912 Stockholm 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928–1936not included in the Olympic program1948 London 1952 Helsinki 10 mile walk 1908 London Standing high jump 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 Londonnone awarded 1912 Stockholm Standing long jump 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm Standing triple jump 1900 Paris1904 St. Louis Shot put with both hands 1912 Stockholm Discus throw, Greek style 1908 London Discus throw with both hands 1912 Stockholm 56 pounds weight throw 1904 St. Louis1920 Antwerp Javelin throw, freestyle 1908 London Javelin throw, both hands This did not involve throwing with both hands. Distances recorded with each hand were added. 1912 Stockholm Triathlon Consisted of long jump, shot put, and 100 yards. 1904 St. Louis Pentathlon Consisted of long jump, javelin throw, 200 meters, discus throw, and 1500 meters. 1912 Stockholm1920 Antwerp1924 Paris See also Athletics at the 1906 Summer Olympics (these Intercalated Games are no longer regarded as official Games by the International Olympic Committee) References International Olympic Committee results database Olympic winners - Track and Field. 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3,797 | Dewey_Decimal_Classification | The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC, also called the Dewey Decimal System) is a proprietary system of library classification developed by Melvil Dewey in 1876, and has been greatly modified and expanded through 22 major revisions, the most recent in 2004. This system organizes books on library shelves in a specific and repeatable order that makes it easy to find any book and return it to its proper place. A designation such as Dewey 16 refers to the 16th edition of the DDC. How it works The DDC attempts to organize all knowledge into ten main classes. The ten main classes are each further subdivided into ten divisions, and each division into ten sections, giving ten main classes, 100 divisions and 1000 sections. DDC's advantage in using decimals for its categories allows it to be both purely numerical and infinitely hierarchical. It also uses some aspects of a faceted classification scheme, combining elements from different parts of the structure to construct a number representing the subject content (often combining two subject elements with linking numbers and geographical and temporal elements) and form of an item rather than drawing upon a list containing each class and its meaning. Except for general works and fiction, works are classified principally by subject, with extensions for subject relationships, place, time or type of material, producing classification numbers of at least three digits but otherwise of indeterminate length with a decimal point before the fourth digit, where present (e.g. 330 for economics + .9 for geographic treatment + .04 for Europe = 330.94 European economy; 973 for United States + .05 form division for periodicals = 973.05 periodicals concerning the United States generally). Books are placed on the shelf in increasing numerical order of the decimal number, e.g. 050, 220, 330, 330.973, 331. When two books have the same classification number the second line of the call number (usually the first letter or letters of the author's last name, the title if there is no identifiable author) is placed in alphabetical order. It is a common misconception that all books in the DDC are non-fiction. The DDC has a number for all books, including fiction: American fiction is classified in 813. Most libraries create a separate fiction section to allow shelving in a more generalized fashion than Dewey provides for, or to avoid the space that would be taken up in the 800s. Some parts of the classification offer options which may be adopted by different kinds of libraries. An important feature of the scheme is the possibility of assigning multiple class numbers to a bibliographical item and only using one of them for the shelving. The added numbers will then be found in the classified subject catalog (this is not the usual practice in North America). For the full benefit of the scheme the relative index and the tables which form part of every edition need to be understood and consulted when required. The structure of the schedules is such that subjects which would be close to each other in a dictionary catalog and dispersed in the Dewey schedules (e.g. architecture of Chicago quite separate from geography of Chicago). Classes The system is made up of ten main classes or categories, each divided into ten secondary classes or subcategories, each having ten subdivisions. 000 – Computer science, information, and general works 100 – Philosophy and psychology 200 – Religion 300 – Social sciences 400 – Languages 500 – Science and Mathematics 600 – Technology and applied science 700 – Arts and recreation 800 – Literature 900 – History and geography and biography Administration and publication While he lived Melvil Dewey edited each edition himself: he was followed by other editors who had been very much influenced by him. The earlier editions were printed in the peculiar spelling that Dewey had devised: the number of volumes in each edition increased to two, then three and now four. The Online Computer Library Center of Dublin, Ohio acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the DDC when it bought Forest Press in 1988. OCLC maintains the classification system and publishes new editions of the system. The editorial staff responsible for updates is based partly at the Library of Congress and partly at OCLC. Their work is reviewed by the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee (EPC), which is a ten-member international board that meets twice each year. The four-volume unabridged edition is published approximately every seven years, the most recent edition (DDC 22) in mid 2003. Latest versions - OCLC - Dewey Services The web edition is updated on an ongoing basis, with changes announced each month. Updates - OCLC - Dewey Services The work of assigning a DDC number to each newly published book is performed by a division of the Library of Congress, whose recommended assignments are either accepted or rejected by the OCLC after review by an advisory board; to date all have been accepted. In September 2003, the OCLC sued the Library Hotel for trademark infringement. The settlement was that the OCLC would allow the Library Hotel to use the system in its hotel and marketing. In exchange, the Hotel would acknowledge the Center's ownership of the trademark and make a donation to a nonprofit organization promoting reading and literacy among children. Influence DDC's numbers formed the basis of the more expressive but complex Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), which combines the basic Dewey numbers with selected punctuation marks (comma, colon, parentheses etc.). Adapatations of DDC for specific regions outside the English-speaking world include the Korean Decimal Classification, New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries and Nippon Decimal Classification (Japanese). Comparison with Library of Congress Classification Besides its frequent revision, DDC's main advantage over its chief American rival, the Library of Congress Classification system developed shortly afterward, is its simplicity. Thanks to the use of pure notation, a mnemonics system and a hierarchical decimal place system, it is generally easier to use. DDC and UDC are more flexible than Library of Congress Classification because of greater use of facets (via auxiliary tables) while Library of Congress Classification is almost totally enumerative. DDC's decimal system means that it is less hospitable to the addition of new subjects, as opposed to Library of Congress Classification, which has 21 classes at the top level. DDC notations can be much longer compared to other classification systems. Another disadvantage of DDC is that it was developed in the 19th century essentially by one man and was built on a top-down approach to classify all human knowledge, which makes it difficult to adapt to changing fields of knowledge. The Library of Congress Classification system was developed based mainly on the idea of literary warrant; classes were added (by individual experts in each area) only when needed for works owned by the Library of Congress. As a result, while the Library of Congress Classification system was able to incorporate changes and additions of new branches of knowledge, particularly in the fields of engineering and computer science (the greater hospitability of the Library of Congress Classification was also a factor), DDC has been criticized for being inadequate in covering those areas. It is asserted that, as a result, most major academic libraries in the US do not use the DDC because the classification of works in those areas is not specific enough, although there are other reasons that may truly be more weighty, such as the much lower expense of using a unique "pre-packaged" catalog number instead of having highly skilled staff members engaging in the time-consuming development of catalog numbers. The Library of Congress Classification system is not without problems. Because each area is developed by an expert according to demands of cataloging, there is little consistency. It is also highly US-centric (more so than DDC) because of the nature of the system, and it has been translated into far fewer languages than DDC and UDC. References External links OCLC's Dewey Decimal Classification summaries OCLC's Dewey Decimal website Full text of A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library (Dewey Decimal Classification) (1876) from Project Gutenberg "What's so great about the Dewey Decimal System?" at The Straight Dope, 31 January 2006 A History of the D.D.C. System and its Creator Melville Dewey by University of British Columbia's mission, the School of Library, Archival and Information Studies An annotated bibliography on Library Classification and Subject Approaches to Information by Salman Haider, Librarian (Cataloging), US Library of Congress, New Delhi Overseas Office | Dewey_Decimal_Classification |@lemmatized dewey:16 decimal:15 classification:27 ddc:20 also:4 call:2 system:18 proprietary:1 library:25 develop:5 melvil:2 greatly:1 modify:1 expand:1 major:2 revision:2 recent:2 organize:2 book:8 shelf:2 specific:3 repeatable:1 order:3 make:4 easy:2 find:2 return:1 proper:1 place:5 designation:1 refers:1 edition:9 work:8 attempt:1 knowledge:4 ten:9 main:5 class:10 far:2 subdivide:1 division:5 section:3 give:1 advantage:2 use:9 category:2 allow:3 purely:1 numerical:2 infinitely:1 hierarchical:2 aspect:1 faceted:1 scheme:4 combine:3 element:3 different:2 part:3 structure:2 construct:1 number:15 represent:1 subject:9 content:1 often:1 two:3 link:2 geographical:1 temporal:1 form:4 item:2 rather:1 draw:1 upon:1 list:1 contain:1 meaning:1 except:1 general:2 fiction:5 classify:3 principally:1 extension:1 relationship:1 time:2 type:1 material:1 produce:1 least:1 three:2 digit:2 otherwise:1 indeterminate:1 length:1 point:1 fourth:1 present:1 e:3 g:3 economics:1 geographic:1 treatment:1 europe:1 european:1 economy:1 united:2 state:2 periodical:2 concern:1 generally:2 increase:2 second:1 line:1 usually:1 first:1 letter:2 author:2 last:1 name:1 title:1 identifiable:1 alphabetical:1 common:1 misconception:1 non:1 include:2 american:2 create:1 separate:2 shelve:1 generalized:1 fashion:1 provide:1 avoid:1 space:1 would:4 take:1 offer:1 option:1 may:2 adopt:1 kind:1 important:1 feature:1 possibility:1 assign:2 multiple:1 bibliographical:1 one:2 shelving:1 added:1 classified:1 catalog:5 usual:1 practice:1 north:1 america:1 full:2 benefit:1 relative:1 index:2 table:2 every:2 need:2 understood:1 consult:1 require:1 schedule:2 close:1 dictionary:1 disperse:1 architecture:1 chicago:2 quite:1 geography:2 divide:1 secondary:1 subcategories:1 subdivision:1 computer:3 science:5 information:3 philosophy:1 psychology:1 religion:1 social:1 language:2 mathematics:1 technology:1 apply:1 art:1 recreation:1 literature:1 history:2 biography:1 administration:1 publication:1 live:1 edit:1 follow:1 editor:1 much:3 influence:2 early:1 print:1 peculiar:1 spell:1 devise:1 volume:2 four:2 online:1 center:2 dublin:1 ohio:1 acquire:1 trademark:3 copyright:1 associate:1 buy:1 forest:1 press:1 oclc:9 maintain:1 publish:3 new:5 editorial:2 staff:2 responsible:1 update:3 base:2 partly:2 congress:13 review:2 policy:1 committee:1 epc:1 member:2 international:1 board:2 meet:1 twice:1 year:2 unabridged:1 approximately:1 seven:1 mid:1 late:1 version:1 service:2 web:1 ongoing:1 basis:2 change:3 announce:1 month:1 newly:1 perform:1 whose:1 recommended:1 assignment:1 either:1 accept:2 reject:1 advisory:1 date:1 september:1 sue:1 hotel:4 infringement:1 settlement:1 marketing:1 exchange:1 acknowledge:1 ownership:1 donation:1 nonprofit:1 organization:1 promote:1 reading:1 literacy:1 among:1 child:1 expressive:1 complex:1 universal:1 udc:3 basic:1 select:1 punctuation:1 mark:1 comma:1 colon:1 parentheses:1 etc:1 adapatations:1 region:1 outside:1 english:1 speaking:1 world:1 korean:1 chinese:1 nippon:1 japanese:1 comparison:1 besides:1 frequent:1 chief:1 rival:1 shortly:1 afterward:1 simplicity:1 thanks:1 pure:1 notation:2 mnemonic:1 flexible:1 great:3 facet:1 via:1 auxiliary:1 almost:1 totally:1 enumerative:1 mean:1 less:1 hospitable:1 addition:2 oppose:1 top:2 level:1 longer:1 compare:1 another:1 disadvantage:1 century:1 essentially:1 man:1 build:1 approach:2 human:1 difficult:1 adapt:1 field:2 mainly:1 idea:1 literary:1 warrant:1 add:1 individual:1 expert:2 area:4 result:2 able:1 incorporate:1 branch:1 particularly:1 engineering:1 hospitability:1 factor:1 criticize:1 inadequate:1 cover:1 assert:1 academic:1 u:3 enough:1 although:1 reason:1 truly:1 weighty:1 low:1 expense:1 unique:1 pre:1 package:1 instead:1 highly:2 skilled:1 engage:1 consume:1 development:1 without:1 problem:1 accord:1 demand:1 cataloging:1 little:1 consistency:1 centric:1 nature:1 translate:1 reference:1 external:1 summary:1 website:1 text:1 catalogue:1 arrange:1 pamphlet:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 straight:1 dope:1 january:1 c:1 creator:1 melville:1 university:1 british:1 columbia:1 mission:1 school:1 archival:1 study:1 annotated:1 bibliography:1 salman:1 haider:1 librarian:1 delhi:1 overseas:1 office:1 |@bigram dewey_decimal:6 alphabetical_order:1 advisory_board:1 trademark_infringement:1 nonprofit_organization:1 punctuation_mark:1 shortly_afterward:1 external_link:1 project_gutenberg:1 straight_dope:1 library_archival:1 annotated_bibliography:1 |
3,798 | Nori | Nori is the Japanese name for various edible seaweed species of the red alga Porphyra including most notably P. yezoensis and P. tenera, sometimes called laver Merriam-Webster Dictionary . The term nori is also commonly used to refer to the food products created from these "sea vegetables", similar to the Korean gim. Finished products are made by a shredding and rack-drying process that resembles papermaking. Japan, Korea, and China are the current major producers of nori, with total production valued at up to US $2 billion per year. History Originally, the term nori was more generic and referred to various kinds of seaweeds including hijiki. One of the oldest descriptions about nori is dated back to around the 8th century. In the Taihō Code enacted in 701, nori was already included in the form of taxation. In Utsubo Monogatari, written around 987, nori was recognized as a common food. The original nori was formed as a paste, and the nori sheet was invented in Asakusa, Edo (contemporary Tokyo), in the Edo period through the method of Japanese paper-making. In 1867 the word "nori" first appeared in an English-language publication - "A Japanese and English Dictionary," by James C. Hepburn. The word nori started to be used widely in the United States, and the product (imported in dry form from Japan) became widely available at natural food stores and Asian-American grocery stores starting in the 1960s, due to the influence of the macrobiotic movement, and in the 1970s with the growing number of sushi bars and Japanese restaurants. Production Production and processing of nori by current methods is a highly advanced form of agriculture. The biology of Porphyra, although complicated, is well understood, and this knowledge is used to control virtually every step of the production process. Farming takes place in the sea where the Porphyra plants grow attached to nets suspended at the sea surface and where the farmers operate from boats. The plants grow rapidly, requiring about 45 days from "seeding" until the first harvest. Multiple harvests can be taken from a single seeding, typically at about ten-day intervals. Harvesting is accomplished using mechanical harvesters of a variety of configurations. Processing of raw product is mostly accomplished by highly automated machines that accurately duplicate traditional manual processing steps, but with much improved efficiency and consistency. The final product is a paper-thin, black, dried sheet of approximately 18×20 cm and 3 grams in weight. There are several grades of nori available in the United States. The most common, and least expensive, grades are imported from China, costing about six cents per sheet. At the high end, ranging up to ninety cents per sheet, are "delicate shin-nori (nori from the first of the year's several harvests) cultivated in Ariake Bay, off the island of Kyushu in Japan." Nori Steps Away From the Sushi - New York Times In Japan, over 600 square kilometres (230 sq. mi.) of Japanese coastal waters are given to producing 350,000 tonnes (344,470 tons), worth over a billion dollars. China produces about a third of this. Thiomas, D. 2002 Seaweeds. The Natural History Museum, London. ISBN 0 565 09175 1 Use Nori is commonly used as a wrap for sushi and onigiri. It is also a common garnish or flavoring in noodle preparations and soups. Nori is most typically toasted prior to consumption ("yaki-nori" in Japanese). A very common and popular secondary product is toasted and flavored nori ("ajitsuke-nori" in Japanese), in which a flavoring mixture (variable, but typically soy sauce, spices and sugar in the Japanese style or sesame oil and salt in the Korean style) is applied in combination with the toasting process. Nori is also eaten by making it into a soy sauce flavored paste noritsukudani (). In addition, nori is sometimes used as a form of food decoration. A related product, prepared from the unrelated green algae Monostroma and Enteromorpha, is called aonori ( literally "azure nori". Although dried aonori is not blue.) and is used like herbs on everyday meals like okonomiyaki and yakisoba. Nori is a source of iron, calcium, vitamin A, B, C1, iodine, protein (1/5 of milk <100ml>, 1/5 of an egg), fiber (31.2mg/100g), and carotene. It also contains a great deal of calcium and iron. For example, 100g of yaki-nori has 4.4g of protein, 280mg of calcium, and 11.4g of iron. See also Laver (seaweed) Gim (food) Mamenori External links Suria Link Seaplants Handbook http://sushi.pro/ingredients/nori.html Recipe for Vegetable Nori Rolls Description and images of cultivation and harvesting References | Nori |@lemmatized nori:28 japanese:8 name:1 various:2 edible:1 seaweed:4 specie:1 red:1 alga:1 porphyra:3 include:3 notably:1 p:2 yezoensis:1 tenera:1 sometimes:2 call:2 laver:2 merriam:1 webster:1 dictionary:2 term:2 also:5 commonly:2 use:8 refer:2 food:5 product:7 create:1 sea:3 vegetable:2 similar:1 korean:2 gim:2 finish:1 make:2 shredding:1 rack:1 dry:3 process:3 resemble:1 papermaking:1 japan:4 korea:1 china:3 current:2 major:1 producer:1 total:1 production:4 value:1 u:1 billion:2 per:3 year:2 history:2 originally:1 generic:1 kind:1 hijiki:1 one:1 old:1 description:2 date:1 back:1 around:2 century:1 taihō:1 code:1 enact:1 already:1 form:5 taxation:1 utsubo:1 monogatari:1 write:1 recognize:1 common:4 original:1 paste:2 sheet:4 invent:1 asakusa:1 edo:2 contemporary:1 tokyo:1 period:1 method:2 paper:2 making:1 word:2 first:3 appear:1 english:2 language:1 publication:1 james:1 c:1 hepburn:1 start:2 widely:2 united:2 state:2 import:2 become:1 available:2 natural:2 store:2 asian:1 american:1 grocery:1 due:1 influence:1 macrobiotic:1 movement:1 grow:3 number:1 sushi:4 bar:1 restaurant:1 processing:3 highly:2 advanced:1 agriculture:1 biology:1 although:2 complicate:1 well:1 understood:1 knowledge:1 control:1 virtually:1 every:1 step:3 farm:1 take:2 place:1 plant:2 attach:1 net:1 suspend:1 surface:1 farmer:1 operate:1 boat:1 rapidly:1 require:1 day:2 seed:1 harvest:3 multiple:1 single:1 seeding:1 typically:3 ten:1 interval:1 harvesting:2 accomplish:2 mechanical:1 harvester:1 variety:1 configuration:1 raw:1 mostly:1 automate:1 machine:1 accurately:1 duplicate:1 traditional:1 manual:1 much:1 improve:1 efficiency:1 consistency:1 final:1 thin:1 black:1 dried:1 approximately:1 cm:1 gram:1 weight:1 several:2 grade:2 least:1 expensive:1 cost:1 six:1 cent:2 high:1 end:1 range:1 ninety:1 delicate:1 shin:1 cultivate:1 ariake:1 bay:1 island:1 kyushu:1 away:1 new:1 york:1 time:1 square:1 kilometre:1 sq:1 mi:1 coastal:1 water:1 give:1 produce:2 tonne:1 ton:1 worth:1 dollar:1 third:1 thiomas:1 museum:1 london:1 isbn:1 wrap:1 onigiri:1 garnish:1 flavoring:2 noodle:1 preparation:1 soup:1 toasted:1 prior:1 consumption:1 yaki:2 popular:1 secondary:1 toast:2 flavor:2 ajitsuke:1 mixture:1 variable:1 soy:2 sauce:2 spice:1 sugar:1 style:2 sesame:1 oil:1 salt:1 apply:1 combination:1 eat:1 noritsukudani:1 addition:1 decoration:1 related:1 prepare:1 unrelated:1 green:1 algae:1 monostroma:1 enteromorpha:1 aonori:2 literally:1 azure:1 blue:1 like:2 herb:1 everyday:1 meal:1 okonomiyaki:1 yakisoba:1 source:1 iron:3 calcium:3 vitamin:1 b:1 iodine:1 protein:2 milk:1 egg:1 fiber:1 carotene:1 contain:1 great:1 deal:1 example:1 see:1 mamenori:1 external:1 link:2 suria:1 seaplants:1 handbook:1 http:1 pro:1 ingredient:1 html:1 recipe:1 roll:1 image:1 cultivation:1 reference:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 grocery_store:1 square_kilometre:1 kilometre_sq:1 sq_mi:1 tonne_ton:1 billion_dollar:1 soy_sauce:2 green_algae:1 external_link:1 |
3,799 | Ku_Klux_Klan | Ku Klux Klan (KKK), informally known as The Klan, is the name of several past and present secret militant organizations in the United States whose avowed purpose was to protect the rights of and further the interests of white Americans. They are best known for engaging in vitriolic rhetoric and committing violent acts to further white supremacy. The first such organizations originated in the Southern states and eventually grew to national scope. Their iconic white costumes consisting of robes, masks, and conical hats, and use of cross burning were designed to intimidate the targets of their hatred and, to this day, strike fear in many African-Americans. The KKK has a record of using terrorism, violence, and lynching to intimidate, murder, and oppress African Americans, Jews and other minorities and to intimidate and oppose Roman Catholics and labor unions. The first Klan was founded in 1865 by Tennessee veterans of the Confederate Army. Groups spread throughout the South. Its purpose was to restore white supremacy in the aftermath of the American Civil War. The Klan resisted Reconstruction by assaulting, murdering and intimidating freedmen and white Republicans, who were suspected of being members of the abolitionist movement. The KKK quickly adopted violent methods. The increase in murders finally resulted in a backlash among Southern elites who viewed the Klan's excesses as an excuse for federal troops to continue their occupation of the South. In 1870 and 1871 the federal government passed legislation known as the Force Acts, which were used to prosecute Klan crimes. Prosecution and enforcement suppressed Klan activity. In 1874 and later, however, newly organized and openly active paramilitary organizations such as the White League and Red Shirts started a fresh round of violence aimed at suppressing Republican voting and running Republicans out of office in certain Deep South states. These contributed to white Democrats regaining political power in the southern states. In 1915, the second Klan was founded. It grew rapidly in a period of postwar social tensions, where industrialization in the North attracted numerous waves of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and the Great Migration of Southern blacks and whites. In reaction, the second KKK preached racism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Communism, nativism, and anti-Semitism. Some local groups took part in lynchings, attacks on private houses and public property, and other violent activities. Members used ceremonial cross burning to intimidate victims. The Klan committed the most murders and violence in the South, which had a tradition of lawlessness. Jackson 1992 ed., pp. 241-242. The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4–5 million men. According to the 1920 census, the population of white males 18 years and older was about 31 million, but many of these men would have been ineligible for membership because they were immigrants, Jews, or Roman Catholics. Klan membership peaked at about 4-5 million in the mid-1920s. Internal divisions and external opposition brought about a sharp decline in membership, which had dropped to about 30, 000 by 1930, and the Klan's popularity fell further during the Great Depression and World War II. The name Ku Klux Klan has since been used by many independent groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments, as in Birmingham, Alabama; or with governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama. McWhorter 2001. Several members of KKK-affiliated groups were convicted of manslaughter and murder in the deaths of civil rights workers and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, the assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers, and the murders of three civil rights workers in Mississippi. Today, researchers estimate there may be more than 150 Klan chapters with 5, 000-8, 000 members nationwide. The U.S. government classifies them as hate groups, with operations in separated small local units. First Klan 1865–1874 Creation A cartoon threatening the KKK will lynch carpetbaggers, in the Independent Monitor, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868. Six middle-class Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee, created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, in the immediate aftermath of the American Civil War. Horn 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C. Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O. McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones They made up the name by combining the Greek (κυκλος, circle) with clan Horn 1939, p. 11, states that Reed proposed () and Kennedy added clan. Wade 1987, p. 33 says that Kennedy came up with both words, but Crowe suggested transforming into . The Ku Klux Klan was one among a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using violence, including the Southern Cross in New Orleans (1865), and the Knights of the White Camellia (1867) in Louisiana. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp.679-680 Historians generally see the KKK as part of the postwar violence related not only to the high rate of veterans in the population, but also to their effort to control the dramatically changed social situation by using extrajudicial means in order to restore white supremacy. In 1866, Mississippi Governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder, lack of control and lawlessness were widespread; in some states armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will. The Klan used public violence against blacks as intimidation. They burned houses, and attacked and killed blacks whose bodies were left on the roads. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, p. 671-675. "...There can be little doubt that the hidden Knights of the Golden Circle spawned the original KKK." Bob Brewer Shadow of the Sentinel, p. 72, Simon & Schuster, 2003 ISBN 978-0743219686 Most recruits to the KGC were in Texas and New Mexico, where private militias were formed to carry out raids in actions that people hoped would extend slave territory. While some sympathizers and recruits to the KGC were found in the southern areas of northern states bordering the Ohio River during the Civil War, the organization was considered dissolved before the end of the Civil War. A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy In an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members gathered to try to create a hierarchical organization with local chapters eventually reporting up to a national headquarters. They elected Brian A. Scates to be the Leader and President of this organization. Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they were used to the hierarchical structure of the organization, but in fact the Klan never operated under this structure. Former Confederate Brigadier General George Gordon developed the Prescript, or Klan dogma. The Prescript suggested elements of white supremacist belief. For instance, an applicant should be asked if he was in favor of "a white man's government", "the reenfranchisement and emancipation of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the Southern people to all their rights." Gordon supposedly told former slave trader and Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest in Memphis, Tennessee, about the Klan. Forrest allegedly responded, "That's a good thing; that's a damn good thing. We can use that to keep the niggers in their place." Horn 1939. Horn casts doubt on some other aspects of the story. A few weeks later, Forrest was selected as Grand Wizard, the Klan's national leader, though he always denied his leadership. Nathan Bedford Forrest In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state governments, people like Tennessee governor Brownlow and other carpetbaggers and scalawags. He argued that many southerners believed that blacks were voting for the Republican Party because they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues. Cincinnati 'Commercial', August 28, 1868, quoted in Wade 1987. One Alabama newspaper editor declared "The League is nothing more than a nigger Ku Klux Klan." Horn 1939, p. 27. Despite Gordon's and Forrest's work, local Klan units never accepted the Prescript and continued to operate autonomously. There were never hierarchical levels or state headquarters. Klan members used violence to settle old feuds and local grudges, as they worked to restore white dominance in the disrupted postwar society. Historian Elaine Frantz Parsons commented on the make up of the membership: Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of antiblack vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal agendas of their own. Indeed, all they had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen. Parsons 2005, p. 816. Historian Eric Foner observed: In effect, the Klan was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy. Its purposes were political, but political in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society. It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party's infrastructure, undermine the Reconstruction state, reestablish control of the black labor force, and restore racial subordination in every aspect of Southern life. Foner 1989, p. 425-426. To that end they worked to curb the education, economic advancement, voting rights, and right to keep and bear arms of blacks. The Ku Klux Klan soon spread into nearly every southern state, launching a "reign of terror" against Republican leaders both black and white. Those political leaders assassinated during the campaign included Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, three members of the South Carolina legislature, and several men who served in constitutional conventions." Foner 1989, p. 342. Activities Klan members adopted masks and robes that hid their identities and added to the drama of their night rides, their chosen time for attacks. Many of them operated in small towns and rural areas where people otherwise knew each other's faces, and sometimes still recognized the attackers. "The kind of thing that men are afraid or ashamed to do openly, and by day, they accomplish secretly, masked, and at night." With this method both the high and the low could be attacked. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, p. 677-678. The Ku Klux Klan night riders "sometimes claimed to be ghosts of Confederate soldiers so, as they claimed, to frighten superstitious blacks. Few freedmen took such nonsense seriously." Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877, New York: Perennial Classics, 1989; reprinted 2002, p.432 The Klan attacked black members of the Loyal Leagues and intimidated southern Republicans and Freedmen's Bureau workers. When they killed black political leaders, they also took heads of families, along with the leaders of churches and community groups, because people had many roles. Agents of the Freedmen's Bureau reported weekly assaults and murders of blacks. "Armed guerilla warfare killed thousands of Negroes; political riots were staged; their causes or occasions were always obscure, their results always certain: ten to one hundred times as many Negroes were killed as whites." Masked men shot into houses and burned them, sometimes with the occupants still inside. They drove successful black farmers off their land. Generally, it Canby reported that in North and South Carolina, in 18 months ending in June 1867, there were 197 murders and 548 cases of aggravated assault. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp.674-675 Klan violence worked to suppress black voting. As the following examples indicate, over 2, 000 persons were killed, wounded and otherwise injured in Louisiana within a few weeks prior to the Presidential election of November 1868. Although St. Landry Parish had a registered Republican majority of 1, 071, after the murders, no Republicans voted in the fall elections. White Democrats cast the full vote of the parish for Grant's opponent. The KKK killed and wounded more than 200 black Republicans, hunting and chasing them through the woods. Thirteen captives were taken from jail and shot; a half-buried pile of 25 bodies was found in the woods. The KKK made people vote Democratic and gave them certificates of the fact. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp.680-681 In the April 1868 Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast 1, 222 votes for Republican Rufus Bullock. By the November presidential election, however, Klan intimidation led to suppression of the Republican vote and only one person voted for Ulysses S. Grant. Klansmen killed more than 150 African Americans in a county in Florida, and hundreds more in other counties. Freedmen's Bureau records provided a detailed recounting of beatings and murders of freedmen and their white allies by Klansmen. The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida by Michael Newton, pp. 1-30. Newton quotes from the Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Enquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States. Vol. 13. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1872. Among historians of the Klan, this volume is also known as "The KKK testimony". Milder encounters also occurred. In Mississippi, according to the Congressional inquiry Rhodes 1920, pp. 157–158. One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was visited ... between one and two o'clock in the morning on March 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised. Each man wore a long white robe and his face was covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes. She was ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on their heads and a sort of device in front. The lieutenant had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and the porch was full. They treated her "gentlemanly and quietly" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said she must stop teaching and go away and warned her that they never gave a second notice. She heeded the warning and left the county. Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted murder of an entire family. By 1868, two years after the Klan's creation, its activity was beginning to decrease. Horn 1939, p. 375. Members were hiding behind Klan masks and robes as a way to avoid prosecution for free-lance violence. Many influential southern Democrats feared that Klan lawlessness provided an excuse for the federal government to retain its power over the South, and they began to turn against it. Wade 1987, p. 102. There were outlandish claims made, such as Georgian B. H. Hill stating "that some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by the political friends of the parties slain." Decline and suppression Although Forrest boasted that the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that he could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice, as a secret or "invisible" group, it had no membership rosters, no chapters, and no local officers. It was difficult for observers to judge its actual membership. It had created a sensation by the dramatic nature of its masked forays and because of its many murders. One Klan official complained that his, "so-called 'Chief'-ship was purely nominal, I having not the least authority over the reckless young country boys who were most active in 'night-riding,' whipping, etc., all of which was outside of the intent and constitution of the Klan..." In 1870 a federal grand jury determined that the Klan was a "terrorist organization". White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction by Allen W. Trelease (Louisiana State University Press: 1995) It issued hundreds of indictments for crimes of violence and terrorism. Klan members were prosecuted, and many fled from areas that were under federal government jurisdiction, particularly in South Carolina. Trelease 1995. Many people not formally inducted into the Klan had used the Klan's costume for anonymity, to hide their identities when carrying out acts of violence. Forrest ordered the Klan to disband in 1869, stating that it was "being perverted from its original honorable and patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of subservient to the public peace". quotes from Wade 1987. Historian Stanley Horn writes "generally speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal and decisive disbandment". Horn 1939, p. 360. A reporter in Georgia wrote in January 1870, "A true statement of the case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes call themselves Ku Klux". Horn 1939, p. 362. Gov. William Holden of North Carolina. While people used the Klan as a mask for nonpolitical crimes, state and local governments seldom acted against them. African Americans were kept off juries. In lynching cases, all-white juries almost never indicted Ku Klux Klan members. When there was a rare indictment, juries were unlikely to vote for a conviction. In part, jury members feared reprisals from local Klansmen. Others may have agreed with lynching as a way of keeping dominance over black men. In many states, officials were reluctant to use black militia against the Klan out of fear that racial tensions would be raised. When Republican Governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, it added to his unpopularity. Combined with violence and fraud at the polls, the Republicans lost their majority in the state legislature. Disaffection with Holden's actions led to white Democratic legislators' impeaching Holden and removing him from office, but their reasons were numerous. Wade 1987, p. 85. Resistance Union Army veterans in mountainous Blount County, Alabama, organized 'the anti-Ku Klux.' They put an end to violence by threatening Klansmen with reprisals unless they stopped whipping Unionists and burning black churches and schools. Armed blacks formed their own defense in Bennettsville, South Carolina and patrolled the streets to protect their homes. Foner 1989, p. 435. National sentiment gathered to crack down on the Klan, even though some Democrats at the national level questioned whether the Klan really existed or believed that it was just a creation of nervous Southern Republican governors. Wade 1987. Many southern states began to pass anti-Klan legislation. In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican Senator John Scott convened a Congressional committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities. They accumulated 12 volumes of horrifying testimony. In February, former Union General and Congressman Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts introduced the Ku Klux Klan Act. This added to the enmity that southern white Democrats bore toward him. Horn 1939, p. 373. While the bill was being considered, further violence in the South swung support for its passage. The Governor of South Carolina appealed for federal troops to assist his efforts in keeping control of the state. A riot and massacre in a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse were reported, from which a black state representative escaped only by taking to the woods. Wade 1987, p. 88. Benjamin Franklin Butler wrote the 1871 Klan Act. In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation. The Ku Klux Klan Act was used by the Federal government together with the 1870 Force Act to enforce the civil rights provisions for individuals under the constitution. Under the Klan Act, Federal troops were used for enforcement, and Klansmen were prosecuted in Federal court. More African Americans served on juries in Federal court than were selected for local or state juries, so they had a chance to participate in the process. In the crackdown, hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned. In South Carolina, habeas corpus was suspended in nine counties. The Klan was destroyed in South Carolina and decimated throughout the rest of the South, where it had already been in decline. Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman led the prosecutions. Wade 1987, p. 109, writes that by ca. 1871–1874, "For many, the lapse of the enforcement acts was justified since their reason for being — the Ku-Klux Klan — had been effectively smashed as a result of the dramatic showdown in South Carolina". Klan costumes, also called "regalia", disappeared by the early 1870s (Wade 1987, p. 109). The fact that the Klan did not exist for decades was shown when Simmons's 1915 recreation of the Klan attracted only two aging "former Reconstruction Klansmen." All other members were new.(Wade 1987, p. 144). By 1872, the Klan was broken as an organization. "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow: The Enforcement Acts, 1870–1871", Public Broadcast Service, accessed 5 April 2008 In some areas, other local paramilitary organizations such as the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs continued to intimidate and murder black voters. Wade 1987, p. 109–110. Although destroyed, the Klan achieved many of its goals, such as suppressing suffrage for Southern blacks and driving a wedge between poor whites and blacks. Despite the suppression of the Klan, violence continued against African Americans as whites struggled for power. On Easter Sunday 1873, black citizens fought a mixed political and racial battle against white militia in Colfax, Louisiana. The ostensible cause was an election contested at both the state and local levels. Each man elected sheriff claimed the local office. When black Republicans gathered at the courthouse, white militia gathered to force them to leave. Estimates of the number of African Americans killed overnight and into the next day ranged from 105 to 280. Some bodies were hidden in the woods or thrown in the river; others were buried before state and Federal troops arrived. African-American legislator John G. Lewis remarked, "They attempted (armed self-defense) in Colfax. The result was that on Easter Sunday of 1873, when the sun went down that night, it went down on the corpses of two hundred and eighty negroes." Foner 1989, p. 437, and KKK Hearings, 46th Congress, 2d Session, Senate Report 693, and Taylor 1974, p. 268-270. The Colfax Massacre had the highest fatalities of any incident of racial violence during Reconstruction. The following year, organized white paramilitary groups formed in the Deep South: the White League in Louisiana (its first chapter formed following the Colfax Massacre), and the Red Shirts in Mississippi, North and South Carolina. They campaigned openly to turn Republicans out of office, intimidated and killed black voters, tried to disrupt organizing and suppress black voting. They were out in force during the campaigns and elections of 1874 and 1876, contributing to the conservative Democrats' regaining power in 1876, against a background of electoral violence. Shortly after, in United States v. Cruikshank (1875), the Supreme Court ruled that the few convictions achieved after the Colfax Massacre were faulty. It ruled that the Force Act of 1870 did not give the Federal government power to regulate private actions, but only those by state governments. The result was that as the century went on, African Americans were at the mercy of hostile state governments that refused to intervene against private violence and paramilitary groups. Whereas the number of indictments across the South was large, the number of cases leading to prosecution and sentencing was relatively small. The overloaded federal courts were not able to meet the demands of trying such a tremendous number of cases, a situation that led to selective pardoning. By late 1873 and 1874, most of the charges against Klansmen were dropped although new cases continued to be prosecuted for several more years. Most of those sentenced had either served their terms or been pardoned by 1875. The Supreme Court of the United States eviscerated the Ku Klux Act in 1876 by ruling that the federal government could no longer prosecute individuals although states would be forced to comply with federal civil rights provisions. Republicans passed a second civil rights act (the Civil Rights Act of 1875) to grant equal access to public facilities and other housing accommodations regardless of race. Ironically, the Klan during this period served to further Northern reconstruction efforts, as Ku Klux violence provided the political climate needed to pass civil rights protections for blacks. Although the Ku Klux Act of 1871 dismantled the first Klan, Southern whites formed other, similar groups that kept blacks away from the polls through intimidation and physical violence. Reconstruction ended with the election of President Rutherford B. Hayes, who suspended the federal military occupation of the South; yet blacks still found themselves without the basic civil liberties that the period had sought to secure. "Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871." Civil Rights in the United States. 2 vols. Macmillan Reference USA, 2000. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. url=http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/HistRC/ In 1882, long after the Klan was destroyed, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Harris that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress's power under the Fourteenth Amendment did not extend to the right to regulate against private conspiracies. As 20th-century Supreme Court rulings extended federal enforcement of citizens' civil rights, the Force Act and the Klan Act were used by federal prosecutors as the basis for investigations and indictments in the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner; and the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo. They were also the basis for prosecution in 1991 in Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic. Disfranchisement and Great Migration The nadir of American race relations is often placed from the end of reconstruction to the 1910s, especially in the South. Once white Democrats regained political power in state legislatures in the 1870s, they passed bills directed at restricting voter registration by blacks and poor whites. Continued low cotton prices, agricultural depression and labor shortages in the South contributed to social tensions. According to the Tuskegee Institute, the 1890s was also the peak decade for lynchings, with most of them directed against African Americans in the South. The lynchings were a byproduct of political tensions as white Democrats tried to strip blacks from voter rolls and also sought to suppress voting. Some of the violence was directed at trying to break up interracial coalitions that came to power in state legislatures in 1894, with alliances between Populist and Republican parties. Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, p.27, accessed 10 March 2008 In 1896 the Democrats used fraud, violence and intimidation to suppress voting by poor classes, and regained power. From 1890 to 1908, ten of the eleven southern states ratified new constitutions or amendments that completed the disfranchisement of most African Americans and many poor whites. The constitutions had provisions making voter registration more complicated: such as poll taxes, residency requirements, recordkeeping, and literacy tests, which were often subjectively applied. In addition, multiple ballot boxes were sometimes used in the voting booths. The result was that blacks and poor whites in most southern states were deprived of suffrage, representation at any level of government, local elected offices, and the right to serve on juries (usually restricted to voters). Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, pp.12–13, 27, accessed 10 March 2008 In most of the South, sweeping disfranchisement and white one-party government lasted until African Americans' leadership and activism in the Civil Rights Movement gained passage of Federal civil rights legislation in 1964 and 1965. Beginning in 1910 and going through 1940, tens of thousands of African Americans decided to leave the South and its violence and segregation, in a movement known as the Great Migration. They went to northern and midwestern cities for jobs, better education for their children, a chance to vote, and the hopes of living with less violence. Northern industry recruited black workers because of a shortage of labor for expanding industries: for instance, the Pennsylvania Railroad hired 12, 000 men, all but 2, 000 of them from Florida and Georgia. Maxine D. Rogers, Larry E. Rivers, David R. Colburn, R. Tom Dye, and William W. Rogers, Documented History of the Incident Which Occurred at Rosewood, Florida in January 1923, Florida: Dec 1993, p.2, accessed 28 March 2008 Portrayal in 19th-century culture The Sherlock Holmes short story "The Five Orange Pips," by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, was first published November 1891, after the demise of the first Klan and before the formation of the second. In the story, the villains are Klan members who blame the society's collapse on the uncle of Holmes' client, a former colonel in the Confederate army. The story includes an entry from "the American Encyclopaedia" that incorrectly explains the etymology of the name "Ku Klux Klan," saying it was "derived from the fanciful resemblance to the sound produced by cocking a rifle." The second Klan 1915–1944 Movie poster for The Birth of a Nation Creation The second Klan rose in response to urbanization and industrialization, massive immigration from eastern and southern Europe, the Great Migration of African Americans to the North, and the migration of African Americans and whites from rural areas to Southern cities. The Klan grew most rapidly in cities which had high growth rates between 1910 and 1930, such as Detroit, Memphis, Dayton, Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston. Jackson 1967, p. 241. Its growth was also affected by mobilization for World War I and postwar tensions, especially in the cities where strangers came up against each other more often. Southern whites resented the arming of black soldiers. Black veterans did not want to go back to second class status.<ref>[http://mailer.fsu.edu/~mjones/rosewood/rosewood.html Maxine D. Rogers, et al., Documented History of Rosewood, Florida in January 1923, op.cit., pp.4-6], accessed 28 March 2008</ref> This Klan modeled itself after other fraternal organizations created in the early decades of the 20th century. Organizers signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and bought KKK costumes. The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses and perhaps presented a Bible to a local Protestant minister. He then left town with the money. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations and occasionally brought in speakers. Stanley Horn, a Southern historian sympathetic to the first Klan, was careful in an oral interview to distinguish it from the later "spurious Ku Klux organization which was in ill-repute — and, of course, had no connection whatsoever with the Klan of Reconstruction days". An Interview with Stanley F. Horn - Oral History Interviews of the Forest History Society An illustration from The Clansman: "Take dat f'um yo equal—" The accumulating social tensions that resulted from rapid change were sparked by events in 1915: The film The Birth of a Nation was released, mythologizing and glorifying the first Klan. Leo Frank, a Jewish man accused of the rape and murder of a young white girl named Mary Phagan, was tried, convicted and lynched near Atlanta against a backdrop of media frenzy. The second Ku Klux Klan was founded in Atlanta with a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, and anti-Semitic agenda. The bulk of the founders were from an Atlanta-area organization calling itself the Knights of Mary Phagan that had organized around the Frank trial. The new organization emulated the fictionalized version of the Klan presented in The Birth of a Nation. The Birth of a nation Director D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation glorified the original Klan. His film was based on the book and play The Clansman and the book The Leopard's Spots, both by Thomas Dixon. Dixon said his purpose was "to revolutionize northern sentiment by a presentation of history that would transform every man in my audience into a good Democrat!" The film created a nationwide Klan craze. At the official premier in Atlanta, members of the Klan rode up and down the street in front of the theater. Dray 2002. Much of the modern Klan's iconography, including the standardized white costume and the lighted cross, are derived from the film. Its imagery was based on Dixon's romanticized concept of old Scotland, as portrayed in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott. The film's influence and popularity were enhanced by a widely reported endorsement by historian and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. President WilsonThe Birth of a Nation included extensive quotations from Woodrow Wilson's History of the American People, as if to give it a stronger basis. After seeing the film in a special White House screening, Wilson allegedly said, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." Dray 2002, p. 198. Griffith quickly relayed the comment to the press, where it was widely reported. In subsequent correspondence, Wilson discussed Griffith's filmmaking in a positive tone, without challenging use of his statement. Given Wilson's views on race and the Klan, his statement was taken as supportive of the film. In later correspondence with Griffith, Wilson confirmed his enthusiasm. Wilson's remarks immediately became controversial. Wilson tried to remain aloof, but finally, on April 30, he issued a non-denial denial. Wade 1987, p. 137. Historian Arthur Link quotes Wilson's aide, Joseph Tumulty: "the President was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it." Letter from J. M. Tumulty, secretary to President Wilson, to the Boston branch of the NAACP, quoted in Link, Wilson. Leo Frank Another event that influenced the Klan was sensational coverage of the trial, conviction and lynching of a Jewish factory manager from Atlanta named Leo Frank. In lurid newspaper accounts, Frank was accused of the rape and murder of Mary Phagan, a girl employed at his factory. The lynching of Leo Frank After a trial in Georgia in which a mob daily surrounded the courtroom, Frank was convicted. Because of the presence of the armed mob, the judge asked Frank and his counsel to stay away when the verdict was announced. Frank's appeals failed. Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes dissented from other justices and condemned the mob's intimidation of the jury as the court's failing to provide due process to the defendant. After the governor commuted Frank's sentence to life imprisonment, a mob calling itself the Knights of Mary Phagan kidnapped Frank from prison and lynched him. The Frank trial was used skillfully by Georgia politician and publisher Thomas E. Watson, the editor for The Jeffersonian magazine. He was a leader in recreating the Klan and was later elected to the U.S. Senate. The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 at a meeting led by William J. Simmons on top of Stone Mountain. A few aging members of the original Klan attended, along with members of the self-named Knights of Mary Phagan. Simmons stated that he had been inspired by the original Klan's Prescripts, written in 1867 by Confederate veteran George Gordon in an attempt to create a national organization. These were never adopted by the Klan, however. The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis by Chester L Quarles, Page 219. The second Klan's constitution and preamble, reprinted in Quarles book, stated that the second Klan was indebted to the original Klan's Prescripts. The Prescript stated the Klan's purposes in idealistic terms, hiding the fact that its members committed acts of vigilante violence and murder from behind masks. Lender et al. state that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided by the temperance movement. They state that in Arkansas and elsewhere, the Klan opposed bootleggers, and in 1922, two hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County. They further state that the national Klan office was finally established in Dallas, Texas, but that Little Rock, Arkansas was the home of the Women of the Ku Klux Klan. They go on to state that the first head of this auxiliary was a former president of the Arkansas WCTU. Lender et al. 1982, p. 33. Stone Mountain, site of the founding of the second Klan in 1915. Blaine Amendments In 1921, the Klan arrived in Oregon from central California and established the state's first klavern in Medford. In a state with one of the country's highest percentages of white residents, the Klan attracted up to 14, 000 members and established 58 klaverns by the end of 1922. Given the small population of non-white minorities outside Portland, the Oregon Klan directed attention almost exclusively against Catholics, who numbered about 8% of the population. In 1922, the Masonic Grand Lodge of Oregon sponsored a bill to require all school-age children to attend public schools. With support of the Klan and Democratic Governor Walter M. Pierce, endorsed by the Klan, the Compulsory Education Law was passed with a majority of votes. Its primary purpose was to shut down Catholic schools in Oregon, but it also affected other private and military schools. Prohibition One historian contends that the KKK’s "support for Prohibition represented the single most important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation". Prendergast 1987, pp. 25-52, 27. Membership in the Klan and other prohibition groups overlapped, and they often coordinated activities. For example, Edward Young Clarke, a top leader of the Klan, raised funds for both the Klan and the Anti-Saloon League. Barr 1999, p. 370. A man with his own demons, Clarke was indicted in 1923 for violations of the Mann Act. Members William Joseph Simmons founded the second Ku Klux Klan in 1915. A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of population to cities in both the North and the South. In Michigan, for instance, 40, 000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up more than half of the state's membership. Most Klansmen were lower to middle-class whites who were trying to protect their jobs and housing from the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities: immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, who tended to be Catholic and Jewish in numbers higher than earlier groups of immigrants; and black and white migrants from the South. As new populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods created social tensions. Because of the rapid pace of population growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the Klan grew rapidly in the U.S. Midwest. The Klan also grew in booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston. Jackson, 1992. For some states, historians have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership. Big city newspapers were often hostile and ridiculed Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed analysis from Indiana showed the rural stereotype was false for that state: Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominantly as fundamentalists. In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church. Moore 1991. The Klan attracted people but most of them did not remain in the organization for long. Membership in the Klan turned over rapidly as people found out that it was not the group they wanted. Millions joined, and at its peak in the 1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population. The lessening of social tensions contributed to the Klan's decline. Activities |Cross burning is said to have been introduced by William J. Simmons, the founder of the second Klan in 1915. "The End" Referring to the end of Catholic influence in the US. Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty 1926 Photograph on Page 4, February 1923 edition of The Good Citizen In reaction to social changes, the Klan adopted anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-Communist and anti-immigrant slants. The social unrest of the postwar period included labor strikes in response to low wages and poor working conditions in many industrial cities, often led by immigrants, who also organized unions. Klan members worried about labor organizers and the socialist leanings of some of the immigrants, which added to the tensions. They also resented upwardly mobile ethnic Catholics. Maxine D. Rogers, et al., Documented History of Rosewood, Florida in January 1923, op.cit., p.6], accessed 28 March 2008</ref> At the same time, in cities Klan members were themselves working in industrial environments and often struggled with working conditions. Klan groups lynched and murdered Black soldiers returning from World War I while they were still in military uniforms. The Klan warned Blacks that they must respect the rights of the white race "in whose country they are permitted to reside". Franklin 1992, p.145 The number of lynchings escalated, and from 1918 to 1927, 416 African Americans were killed, mostly in the South.<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://mailer.fsu.edu/~mjones/rosewood/rosewood.html Maxine D. Rogers, et al., Documented History of Rosewood, Florida in January 1923, op.cit., p.7, accessed 28 March 2008 When two black men attempted to vote in November 1920 in Ocoee, Florida, the Klan attacked the black community. In the ensuing violence, six black residents and two whites were killed, and twenty five black homes, two churches, and a fraternal lodge were destroyed. Branford Clarke illustration in The Ku Klux Klan In Prophecy by Bishop Alma White published by the Pillar of Fire Church in 1925 at Zarephath, NJ Although Klan members were concentrated in the South, Midwest and west, there were some members in New England, too. Klan members torched an African American school in Scituate, Rhode Island. In the 1920s and 1930s, a violent and zealous faction of the Klan called the Black Legion was active in the Midwestern U.S.. In southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs but opposed unions. During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations(CIO), which advocated industrial unions and was open to African-American members. With access to dynamite and skills from their jobs in mining and steel, in the late 1940s some Klan members in Birmingham began using bombings to intimidate upwardly mobile blacks who moved into middle-class neighborhoods. "By mid-1949, there were so many charred house carcasses that the area [College Hills] was informally named Dynamite Hill." Independent Klan groups remained active in Birmingham and were deeply engaged in violent opposition to the Civil Rights Movement. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution, New York: Touchstone Book, 2002, p.75 Political influence Sheet music to "We Are All Loyal Klansmen", 1923 The Good Citizen July 1926 Published by Pillar of Fire Church Branford Clarke illustration in Heroes of the Fiery Cross 1928 The Klan had major political influence in several states and was influential mostly in the center of the country. The Klan spread from the South into the Midwest and Northern states, and into Canada where there was a large movement against Catholic immigrants. At its peak, Klan membership exceeded four million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, and 40% in some areas. Most of the Klan's membership resided in Midwestern states. In another well-known example from the same year, the Klan decided to turn Anaheim, California, into a model Klan city. It secretly took over the City Council, but the city conducted a special recall election and Klan members were voted out. It's been seventy years since Anaheim booted the Klan, reprinted from the Los Angeles Times Klan delegates played a significant role at the path-setting 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City, often called the "Klanbake Convention". The convention initially pitted Klan-backed candidate William Gibbs McAdoo against Catholic New York Governor Al Smith. After days of stalemates and rioting, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise. Klan delegates defeated a Democratic Party platform plank that would have condemned their organization. In some states, such as Alabama, the KKK worked for political and social reform. Feldman 1999. The state's Klansmen were among the foremost advocates of better public schools, effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other "progressive" political measures. In many ways these reforms benefited lower class white people. By 1925, the Klan was a political force in the state, as leaders like J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black manipulated the KKK membership against the power of Black Belt planters who had long dominated the state. Black was elected senator in 1926 and later became a Supreme Court Justice. In 1926, with Klan support, a former Klan chapter head named Bibb Graves won the Alabama governor's office. He pushed for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation. Because the Alabama state legislature refused to redistrict until 1972, however, even the Klan was unable to break the planters' and rural areas' hold on power. Resistance and decline Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan. In response to blunt attacks against Jewish Americans and the Klan's campaign to illegalize private schools, the Jewish Anti-Defamation League was formed after the lynching of Leo Frank. When one civic group began to publish Klan membership lists, the number of members quickly declined. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People carried on public education campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and lobbied against Klan abuses in Congress. After its peak in 1925, Klan membership began to decline rapidly in most areas of the Midwest. In the second wave of the Great Migration, from 1940-1970 another five million blacks left the South for northern, midwestern and western cities. Due to the buildup of its defense industries, California was a new destination for this migration, especially for those African Americans from Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas. They refused to tolerate for any longer the miserable conditions and economic situation in the South. In Alabama, KKK vigilantes, thinking that they had governmental protection, launched a wave of physical terror in 1927, targeting both blacks and whites who had violated racial norms and for perceived moral lapses. Rogers et al., pp. 432-433. The state's conservative elite counterattacked. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the Montgomery Advertiser, began publishing a series of editorials and articles that attacked the Klan for its "racial and religious intolerance". Hall won a Pulitzer Prize for his crusade. Rogers et al., p. 433. Other newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan, referring to the organization as violent and "un-American". Sheriffs cracked down. In the 1928 presidential election, the state voted for the Democratic candidate Al Smith, although he was Catholic. Klan membership in Alabama dropped to less than six thousand by 1930. Small independent units continued to be active in Birmingham, where in the late 1940s, members launched a reign of terror by bombing the homes of upwardly mobile African Americans. KKK activism increased as a reaction against the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. (see below.) When D.C. Stephenson, the Grand Dragon of Indiana and 22 northern states, was convicted in 1925 of the notorious rape and murder of Madge Oberholtzer, the Klan declined dramatically in Indiana. Stephenson was convicted in a sensational trial. According to historian Leonard Moore, a leadership failure caused the organization's collapse: Moore 1991, p.186. Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals. They were disinterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement. For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership. More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf. Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the organization in 1939 to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician, but they were unable to staunch the exodus of members. In 1944, the IRS filed a lien for $685, 000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott was forced to dissolve the organization in 1944. Ku Klux Klan members march down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. in 1928. After World War II, folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan and provided information to media and law enforcement agencies. He also provided secret code words to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting in episodes in which Superman took on the KKK. Kennedy's intention to strip away the Klan's mystique and trivialize the Klan's rituals and code words may have contributed to the decline in Klan recruiting and membership. In the 1950s, Kennedy wrote a bestselling book about his experiences, which further damaged the Klan. Kennedy 1990. The following table shows the change in the Klan's estimated membership over time. and (The years given in the table represent approximate time periods.) YearMembership19204, 000, 00019246, 000, 000193030, 00019805, 00020086, 000 Later Klans, 1950 through 1960s Soviet propaganda poster ("Freedom, American style") (1950, by Nikolay Dolgorukov and Boris Efimov). It shows the Ku Klux Klan lynching blacks. The name "Ku Klux Klan" began to be used by several independent groups. Beginning in the 1950s, individual Klan groups began to resist the Civil Rights Movement by bombing houses in transitional neighborhoods and the houses of activists, as well as by physical violence, intimidation and assassination. In Birmingham, Alabama, during the tenure of Bull Connor, Klan groups were closely allied with the police and operated with impunity. There were so many bombings of homes by Klan groups that the city's nickname was "Bombingham". In states such as Alabama and Mississippi, Klan members forged alliances with governors' administrations. Many murders went unreported and unprosecuted. Continuing disfranchisement of blacks meant that most could not serve on juries, which were all white. According to a report from the Southern Regional Council in Atlanta, the homes of forty black Southern families were bombed during 1951 and 1952. Some of the bombing victims were social activists whose work exposed them to danger, but most of them were either people who refused to bow to racist convention or were innocent bystanders, unsuspecting victims of random violence. Egerton 1994, p. 562-563. Among the more notorious murders by Klan members: The 1951 Christmas Eve bombing of the home of NAACP activists Harry and Harriette Moore in Mims, Florida, resulting in their deaths. "Who Was Harry T. Moore?" — The Palm Beach Post, August 16, 1999 The 1957 murder of Willie Edwards, Jr. Klansmen forced Edwards to jump to his death from a bridge into the Alabama River. The 1963 assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers in Mississippi. In 1994, former Ku Klux Klansman Byron De La Beckwith was convicted. The 1963 bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed four African-American girls. The perpetrators were Klan members Robert Chambliss, convicted in 1977, Thomas Blanton and Bobby Frank Cherry, convicted in 2001 and 2002. The fourth suspect, Herman Cash, died before he was indicted. The 1964 murders of three civil rights workers Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner in Mississippi. In June 2005, Klan member Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter. The 1964 murder of two black teenagers, Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore in Mississippi. In August 2007, based on the confession of Klansman Charles Marcus Edwards, James Ford Seale, a reputed Ku Klux Klansman, was convicted. Seale was sentenced to serve three life sentences. Seale was a former Mississippi policeman and sheriff's deputy. Violence at a Klan march in Mobile, Alabama, 1977 The 1965 Alabama murder of Viola Liuzzo. She was a Southern-raised Detroit mother of five who was visiting the state in order to attend a civil rights march. At the time of her murder Liuzzo was transporting Civil Rights Marchers. The 1966 firebombing death of NAACP leader Vernon Dahmer Sr., 58, in Mississippi. In 1998 former Ku Klux Klan wizard Sam Bowers was convicted of his murder and sentenced to life. Two other Klan members were indicted with Bowers, but one died before trial, and the other's indictment was dismissed. There was also resistance to Klan violence. In a 1958 North Carolina incident, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans who had associated with white people and threatened to return with more men. When they held a nighttime rally nearby, they found themselves surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed at what became known as the Battle of Hayes Pond. Ingalls 1979; When the Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham, Alabama, the police commissioner Bull Connor gave Klan members fifteen minutes to attack the riders before sending in the police. When local and state authorities failed to protect them, the federal government established more effective intervention. While the FBI had paid informants in the Klan, for instance in Birmingham, Alabama in the early 1960s, its relations with local law enforcement agencies and the Klan were often ambiguous. The head of the FBI J. Edgar Hoover, appeared more concerned about Communist links to civil rights activists than about controlling Klan excesses. In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights groups. Since the 1970s Once African Americans secured federal legislation to protect civil and voting rights, the Klan shifted its focus to opposing court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, affirmative action, and more open immigration. For instance, in 1971, Klansmen used bombs to destroy ten school buses in Pontiac, Michigan. Klansman David Duke was active in South Boston during the school busing crisis of 1974. Duke was leader of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan from 1974 until he resigned from the Klan in 1978. The Greensboro massacre occurred on November 3, 1979 in Greensboro, North Carolina, United States. In the shoot-out, five marchers were killed by members of the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazi Party while staging a protest. It was the culmination of attempts by the Communist Workers Party to organize industrial workers, predominantly black, in the area. Mark Hand (2004-11-18). "The Greensboro Massacre". Press Action. Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the Klan in 1979, reported that the FBI's COINTELPRO efforts were highly successful. Rival Klan factions accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants. Bill Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was revealed to have been working for the FBI. Thompson 1982. During Thompson's brief membership, his truck was shot at, he was yelled at by black children, and a Klan rally he attended turned into a riot when black soldiers on an adjacent military base taunted the Klansmen. Attempts by the Klan to march were often met with counter protests and sometimes with violence. In 1980 three Ku Klux Klansmen shot four elderly black women (Viola Ellison, Lela Evans, Opal Jackson and Katherine Johnson) in Chattanooga, Tennessee following a KKK initiation rally. (A fifth woman, Fannie Crumsey, was injured by flying glass in the incident.) None of the five victims died. Attempted murder charges were filed against the three Klansmen, two of whom - Bill Church and Larry Payne - were acquitted by an all-white jury and the other of whom - Marshall Thrash - was sentenced by the same jury to nine months on lesser charges. He was released after three months. The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!", by Betty A. Dobratz & Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile Women's Appeal for Justice in Chattanooga - US Department of Justice The Victoria Advocate: Bonds for Klan Upheld In 1982 a jury awarded the five women $535,000 in a civil rights trial. New York Times: History Around the Nation; Jury Award to 5 Blacks Hailed as Blow to Klan After Michael Donald was lynched in 1981 in Alabama, the FBI investigated his death. Two local Klansmen were convicted of having a role including Henry Hays who was sentenced to death. With the support of attorneys Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin at the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Michael's mother, Beulah Mae Donald, sued the Ku Klux Klan in civil court in Alabama. Her lawsuit against the United Klans of America was tried in February 1987. The all-white jury found the Klan responsible for the lynching of Michael Donald and ordered the Klan to pay $7 million USD. To pay the judgment, the Klan turned over all of its assets, including its national headquarters building in Tuscaloosa. After exhausting the appeals process, Henry Hayes was executed for Donald's death in Alabama on June 6, 1997. It was the first time since 1913 that a white man had been executed in Alabama for a crime against an African American. Thompson, the journalist who claimed he had infiltrated the Klan, related that Klan leaders who appeared indifferent to the threat of arrest showed great concern about a series of civil lawsuits filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center for damages in the millions of dollars. These were filed after Klansmen shot into a group of African Americans. Klansmen curtailed activities to conserve money for defense against the lawsuits. The Klan itself used lawsuits as tools. They filed a libel suit to prevent publication of a paperback edition of Thompson's book. The publisher canceled the publication. The present-day Ku Klux Klan is not one organization. Rather it is made up of small independent chapters across the United States. About the Ku Klux Klan, Anti-Defamation League, 2002. According to the report, the KKK's estimated size then was "No more than a few thousand, organized into slightly more than 100 units." The formation of independent chapters has made the KKK groups more difficult to infiltrate and researchers find it hard to estimate its numbers. KKK members have stepped up recruitment in recent years but the organization continues to grow slowly, with membership estimated at 5, 000-8, 000 across 179 chapters. These latest drives have seized upon issues such as people's anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime and same-sex marriage. The only known former member of the Klan to hold a federal office currently in the United States is Democratic Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia, who said he "deeply regrets" having joined the Klan more than half a century ago, when he was about 24 years old. Byrd joined as a young man in the 1940s, recruiting 150 friends and acquaintances from his small West Virginia town. He later said he was a Klan member for about a year, but contemporary newspapers carried stories about a letter of his recommending a friend as Klaneagle in 1946. Eric Pianin, "A Senator's Shame", Washington Post, 19 Jun 2005, accessed 4 August 2008 In 2005, when he published a memoir and was asked again about his life, Byrd said, "I know now I was wrong. Intolerance had no place in America. I apologized a thousand times ... and I don't mind apologizing over and over again. I can't erase what happened." Some of the larger KKK organizations in operation include: Bayou Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, prevalent in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana and other areas of the Southeastern U.S. Church of the American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Imperial Klans of America Knights of the White Kamelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, headed by national director and self-claimed pastor Thom Robb, and based in Zinc, Arkansas. It claims to be the biggest Klan organization in America today. Spokesmen refer to it as a "sixth era Klan", and it continues to be a racist group. Numerous smaller groups use the Klan name. Estimates are that about two-thirds of KKK members are concentrated in the South, with another third situated primarily in the lower Midwest. On November 14, 2008, an all-white jury of seven men and seven women awarded $1.5 million in compensatory damages and $1 million in punitive damages to plaintiff Jordan Gruver, represented by the Southern Poverty Law Center against the Imperial Klans of America. The ruling found that five IKA members had savagely beaten Gruver, then 16 years old, at a Kentucky county fair in July 2006. Many Klan groups have formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups like Neo-Nazis. Some Klan groups have become increasingly "Nazified" adopting the look and emblems of Nazi skinheads. Ku Klux Klan - Affiliations Anti-Defamation League. Although there are numerous KKK groups, the media and popular discourse generally refer to the Klan for expediency. The ACLU has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, and their right to field political candidates. Vocabulary Membership in the Klan is secret. Like many fraternal organizations, the Klan has signs which members can use to recognize one another. A member may use the acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential member. The response AKIA'' (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting. Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words Axelrod 1997, p. 160. beginning with "KL" including: Klabee: treasurers Klavern: local organization Kleagle: recruiter Klecktoken: initiation fee Kligrapp: secretary Klonvocation: gathering Kloran: ritual book Kloreroe: delegate Kludd: chaplain All of the above terminology was created by William Simmons, as part of his 1915 revival of the Klan. The Reconstruction-era Klan used different titles; the only titles to carry over were "Wizard" for the overall leader of the Klan, "Night Hawk" for the official in charge of security, and a few others, mostly for regional officers of the organization. See also History of the United States (1865–1918) Jim Crow laws Knights of the Golden Circle Leaders of the Ku Klux Klan Notable alleged Ku Klux Klan members in national politics Silent Brotherhood Timeline of racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Heroes of the Fiery Cross The Good Citizen Footnotes Bibliography . Winner of the Pulitzer Prize. First published in 1971 and based on massive research in primary sources, this is the most comprehensive treatment of the Klan and its relationship to post-Civil War Reconstruction. Includes narrative research on other night-riding groups. Details close link between Klan and late 19th century and early 20th century Democratic Party. An unsympathetic account of both Klans, with a dedication to "my Kentucky grandmother ... a fierce and steadfast Radical Republican from the wane of Reconstruction until her death nearly a century later". Further reading External links The Knights Party website Imperial Klans of America: "Stand for Christ, Race and Nation" Klan Tableau A film documenting William Christenberry's Klan Tableau in Washington, D.C. (Includes interview with Christenberry.) The History of the Original Ku Klux Klan — by an anonymous author sympathetic to the original Klan. The Southern Poverty Law Center Report The ADL on the KKK Proceedings of the Second Imperial Klonvocation (1924) In 1999, South Carolina town defines the KKK as terrorist A long interview with Stanley F. Horn, author of Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866-1871. Full text of the Klan Act of 1871 (simplified version) The Protestant "Kluxing" of Cañyon City, Colorado — (Cañyon City Public Library) Ku Klux Klan leader predicts Barack Obama will be assassinated - Scotsman.com August 10, 2008. KKK (Amarillo, Tex.) 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