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3,500 | Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola | Gnaeus Julius Agricola (June 13, 40–August 23, 93) was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain. His biography, the De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae, was the first published work of his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, and is the source for most of what is known about him. Tacitus, Agricola; Dio Cassius (Roman History 66.20) and three inscriptions found in Britain (including the Verulamium Forum inscription) also make reference to Agricola. Early life Agricola was born in the colonia of Forum Julii, Gallia Narbonensis (modern southern France). Agricola’s parents were from families of senatorial rank. Both of his grandfathers served as Imperial Governors. His father Julius Graecinus was a praetor and had become a member of the Roman Senate in the year of his birth. Graecinus had become distinguished in his interest for philosophy. Between August 40-January 41, the Roman Emperor Caligula ordered his death because he refused to prosecute the Emperor's second cousin Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus. His mother was Julia Procilla. The Roman historian Tacitus describes her as "a lady of singular virtue". Tacitus states that Procilla had a fond affection for her son. Agricola was educated in Massilia (Marseille), and showed what was considered an unhealthy interest in philosophy. Political career He began his career in Roman public life as a military tribune, serving in Britain under Gaius Suetonius Paulinus from 58 to 62. He was probably attached to the Legio II Augusta, but was chosen to serve on Suetonius's staff Agricola 5 and thus almost certainly participated in the suppression of Boudica's uprising in 61. Returning from Britain to Rome in 62, he married Domitia Decidiana, a woman of noble birth. Their first child was a son. Agricola was appointed to the quaestorship for 64, which he served in Asia under the corrupt proconsul Salvius Titianus. While he was there his daughter, Julia Agricola, was born, but his son died shortly afterwards. He was tribune of the plebs in 66 and praetor in 68, during which time he was ordered by Galba to take an inventory of the temple treasures. In June of 68 the emperor Nero was deposed and committed suicide, and the period of civil war known as the year of four emperors began. Galba succeeded Nero, but was murdered in early 69 by Otho, who took the throne. Agricola's mother was murdered on her estate in Liguria by Otho's marauding fleet. Hearing of Vespasian's bid for the empire, Agricola immediately gave him his support. After Vespasian had established himself as emperor, Agricola was appointed to the command of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix, stationed in Britain, in place of Marcus Roscius Coelius, who had stirred up a mutiny against the governor, Marcus Vettius Bolanus. Britain had suffered revolt during the year of civil war, and Bolanus was a mild governor. Agricola reimposed discipline on the legion and helped to consolidate Roman rule. In 71 Bolanus was replaced by a more aggressive governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis, and Agricola was able to display his talents as a commander in campaigns against the Brigantes. When his command ended in 75, Agricola was enrolled as a patrician and appointed to govern Gallia Aquitania. In 77 he was recalled to Rome and appointed suffect consul, and betrothed his daughter to Tacitus. The following year Tacitus and Julia married; Agricola was appointed to the College of Pontiffs, and returned to Britain for a third time as its governor. Governor of Britain Arriving in mid-summer of 78, Agricola found that the Ordovices of north Wales had virtually destroyed the Roman cavalry stationed in their territory. He immediately moved against them and defeated them. He then moved north to the island of Mona (Anglesey), which had previously been reduced by Suetonius Paulinus in 61 but must have been regained by the Britons in the meantime, and forced its inhabitants to sue for peace. He established a good reputation as an administrator as well as a commander by reforming the widely corrupt corn levy. He introduced Romanising measures, encouraging communities to build towns on the Roman model and educating the sons of the native nobility in the Roman manner. He also expanded Roman rule north into Caledonia (modern Scotland). In the summer of 80 he pushed his armies to the estuary of the river Taus, virtually unchallenged, and established forts there. This is often interpreted as the Firth of Tay, but this would appear to be anomalous as it is further north than the Firths of Clyde and Forth, which Agricola did not reach until the following year. Others suggest the Taus was the Solway Firth. Agricola in Ireland? In 82 Agricola "crossed in the first ship" and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. Tacitus, in Chapter 24 of Agricola, Agricola 24 does not tell us what body of water he crossed, although most scholars believe it was the Clyde or Forth, and some translators even add the name of their preferred river to the text; however, the rest of the chapter exclusively concerns Ireland. Agricola fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and auxiliaries. He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. Vittorio di Martino (2003), Roman Ireland, The Collins Press Irish legend provides a striking parallel. Tuathal Teachtmhar, a legendary High King, is said to have been exiled from Ireland as a boy, and to have returned from Britain at the head of an army to claim the throne. The traditional date of his return is 76-80, and archaeology has found Roman or Romano-British artefacts in several sites associated with Tuathal. R. B. Warner (1995), "Tuathal Techtmar: a myth or ancient literary evidence for a Roman invasion?", Emania 13 The invasion of Caledonia (Scotland) The following year Agricola raised a fleet and encircled the tribes beyond the Forth, and the Caledonians rose in great numbers against him. They attacked the camp of the Legio IX Hispana at night, but Agricola sent in his cavalry and they were put to flight. The Romans responded by pushing further north. Another son was born to Agricola this year, but he died before his first birthday. In the summer of 84 Agricola faced the massed armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Tacitus estimates their numbers at more than 30,000. Tacitus, Agricola 29 Agricola put his auxiliaries in the front line, keeping the legions in reserve, and relied on close-quarters fighting to make the Caledonians' unpointed slashing swords useless. Even though the Caledonians were put to rout and therefore lost this battle, two thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish Highlands or the "trackless wilds" as Tacitus calls them. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be about 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. A number of authors have reckoned the battle to have occurred in the Grampian Mounth within sight of the North Sea. In particular, Roy, William Roy, The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain, 1793 Surenne, Watt, Hogan C. Michael Hogan, Elsick Mounth, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham and others have advanced notions that the site of the battle may have been Kempstone Hill, Megray Hill or other knolls near the Raedykes Roman Camp. In addition these points of high ground are proximate to the Elsick Mounth, an ancient trackway used by Romans and Caledonians for military maneuvers. Satisfied with his victory, Agricola extracted hostages from the Caledonian tribes. He may have marched his army to the northern coast of Britain. Stan Wolfson 2002. http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/fartherlands/appendix.html THE BORESTI : THE CREATION OF A MYTH In the manuscript of Agricola 38.2: "In finis Borestorum exercitum deducit - He led his army down into the territory of the Boresti" may be emended to: in finis boreos totum exercitum deducit - He led his entire army down into the northern extremities" He also instructed the prefect of the fleet to sail around the north coast, confirming for the first time that Britain was in fact an island. Later years Agricola was recalled from Britain in 85, after an unusually long tenure as governor. Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germany. The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue (the highest military honours apart from an actual triumph); on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post, in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa, but declined it, whether due to ill health or (as Tacitus claims) the machinations of Domitian. In 93 Agricola died on his family estates in Gallia Narbonensis aged fifty-three. See also History of Northumberland Agricola is a character in the Cambridge Latin Course, Book 3. Literature Anthony Birley (1996), “Iulius Agricola, Cn.”, in Hornblower, Simon, Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press "Agricola's Campaigns", special issue of Ancient Warfare, 1/1 (2007) References External links Gnaeus Julius Agricola at Roman-Britain.org Germania and Agricola at Project Gutenberg | Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola |@lemmatized gnaeus:2 julius:3 agricola:42 june:2 august:2 roman:22 general:1 responsible:1 much:1 conquest:3 britain:14 biography:1 de:1 vita:1 et:1 moribus:1 iulii:1 agricolae:1 first:5 publish:1 work:1 son:6 law:2 historian:3 tacitus:14 source:1 know:2 dio:1 cassius:1 history:2 three:2 inscription:2 find:3 include:1 verulamium:1 forum:2 also:4 make:2 reference:2 early:2 life:2 bear:3 colonia:1 julii:1 gallia:3 narbonensis:2 modern:2 southern:1 france:1 parent:1 family:2 senatorial:1 rank:1 grandfather:1 serve:4 imperial:1 governor:7 father:2 graecinus:2 praetor:2 become:2 member:1 senate:1 year:8 birth:2 distinguish:1 interest:2 philosophy:2 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3,501 | Politics_of_Guatemala | Politics of Guatemala takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Guatemala is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Congress of the Republic. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Guatemala's 1985 Constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The 1993 constitutional reforms included an increase in the number of Supreme Court justices from 9 to 13. The terms of office for president, vice president, and congressional deputies were reduced from five years to four years; for Supreme Court justices from six years to five years, and increased the terms of mayors and city councils from 30 months to four years. Executive branch The president and vice president are directly elected through universal suffrage and limited to one term. A vice president can run for president after four years out of office. |President |Álvaro Colom |UNE |14 January 2008 |- |Vice President |José Rafael Espada |UNE |14 January 2008 |} Legislative branch The Congress of the Republic (Congreso de la República) has 158 members, elected for a four-year term, partially in departmental constituencies and partially by nationwide proportional representation. Political parties and elections Political parties in Guatemala are generally numerous and unstable. No party has won the presidency more than once and in every election period the majority of the parties are small and newly-formed. Even the longer-lived parties, such as the Christian Democrats (DC) or the URNG, tend to last less than a decade as significant forces in Guatemalan politics. Judicial branch The Constitutional Court (Corte de Constitucionalidad) is Guatemala's highest court. It is composed of five judges, elected for concurrent five-year terms each with a supplent, each serving one year as president of the Court: one is elected by Congress, one elected by the Supreme Court of Justice, one is appointed by the President, one is elected by Superior Council of the Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala, and one by the Bar Association (Colegio de Abogados); The Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justicia) comprises thirteen members, who serve concurrent five-year terms and elect a president of the Court each year from among their number. The president of the Supreme Court of Justice also supervises trial judges around the country, who are named to five-year terms). The Supreme Court has an Appeal Court formed by 43 members. When one of the Supreme Court is absent or cannot participates in a cause, one of the Appeal Curt thakes its place. Political conditions The 1999 presidential and legislative elections were considered by international observers to have been free and fair. Participation by women and indigenous voters was higher than in the recent past, although concerns remained regarding the accessibility of polling places in rural areas. Alfonso Portillo's landslide victory combined with a Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) majority in congress suggested possibilities for rapid legislative action. However, under the Guatemalan Constitution of 1985, passage of many kinds of legislation requires a two-thirds vote. Passage of such legislation is not possible, therefore, with FRG votes alone. The political balance was disrupted in 2000 when allegations surfaced that the FRG had illegally altered legislation. Following an investigation, the Supreme Court stripped those involved, including President of Congress and FRG chief Ríos Montt, of their legislative immunity to face charges in the case. At roughly the same time, the PAN opposition suffered an internal split and broke into factions; the same occurred in the ANN. As a result, reforms essential to peace implementation await legislative action. New cases of human rights abuse continued to decline, although violent harassment of human rights workers presented a serious challenge to government authority. Common crime, aggravated by a legacy of violence and vigilante justice, presents another serious challenge. Impunity remains a major problem, primarily because democratic institutions, including those responsible for the administration of justice, have developed only a limited capacity to cope with this legacy. The government has stated it will require until 2002 to meet the target of increasing its tax burden (at about 10% of GDP, currently the lowest in the region) to 12% of GDP. During the Presidential race the FRG organized what will later be known as Black Tuesday. The FRG organized its partisans from the country and brought them to the city. The FRG gave them transport, food, a shelter for the night, and meter long sticks. With these sticks the participants ran through the streets wreaking havoc on the public infrastructure. During this day a journalist of Prensa Libre (a leading newspaper) was killed. The media (which have a tradition of being independent and free) took it very personally and for the next month every headline was about these events, and the participation of the ruling party in this day of terror. The FRG was protesting the ruling of the TSE (supreme electoral tribunal) to ban the FRG candidate Efrain Rios Mont from the race. The TSE argued that as a formal putschist, he was banned by the constitution from ever becoming president. The FRG argued that since the events in which the former general participated predate the constitution, he was eligible for presidential office. Common sense argued that if such a clause was not retroactive by nature it would have no point. Since 2004 Oscar Berger of the GANA (an alliance of political parties rather than a single one) won the elections, it is important to note that this was the first government in the history of democratic Guatemala that did not have an overwhelming majority in congress. After he took office in January 2004 it was made public that the FRG had wildly ransacked the government going to the extremes of stealing computer equipment and objects of historic importance. Alfonso Portillo fled to Mexico with an impressive amount of money stolen from military funds, the national hospital, and the revenue service. Guatemala made a formal request for the deportation of Portillo to face charges of embezzlement, however Mexico has never revoked diplomatic asylum once it is granted to a person. It is interesting to note that though the constitution says nothing about it, the vice president runs the government like a prime minister while the president deals with foreign affairs, this can be seen regularly as the VP stands in for the president in many events that are traditionally presided by the President of the Republic. Criminality has reached staggering proportions: about 200 murders per month and it is starting to affect the economy as many companies prefer to leave the country than face the growing corruption and insecurity. The greatest problem seems to be the gang warfare between the M18 (mara dieciocho) and the MS (mara salvatrucha), these are highly organized terrorist organizations who wield a power similar to that of the US mafia of the 1930s and are for the moment above and beyond the grasp of the law. They hold territory under their control and extort “taxes” from it. Something interesting is that these gangs started with criminals deported from the United States, where this gangs originated. There is a zone of Guatemala City, “El Gallito” which is recognized as being outside of Government control, it belongs to the drug lords that inhabit it. Barrio "El Gallito" is located in Zone 3, 2 miles away from the National Palace where the Government's offices are located. The country is plagued by lynchings which severely blemish the country's humans rights record as a violation of due process of law. The Berger administration has been hailed in some circles for its work in devolution. Guatemala has always been a strongly centralized state and the administration sought to take halt the growing pre-eminence of the Capital. For example the administration has engaged in mobile cabinets where the President and all his ministers will go into the country and change the seat of power every so often, to be “closer to the people”. The administration is facing growing financial difficulties, potentially in part due to 60% of the population being considered “poor” and therefore ineligible for taxation. The SAT (superintendence of tributary administration), the revenue service, is therefore obligated to tax the middle class which is starting to suffer under the burden. The SAT has become stringent in its application of the law seeking the full penalties of incarceration for tax evasion. In September 2006 the PNC (civil national police), in a joint action with the national military took by storm the Pavon detention center, a prison with 1,500 inmates which until that date hadn't been requisitioned for 10 years and which was a hub of criminal activity. Some inmates, the guard of the chief of the mafiosi what ran the prison and the leader himself resisted the onslaught of forces of law with AK47 and handguns, they were massacred. Around 3,000 infantry and 4 tanks participated in the action. This was a milestone of the history of Guatemala and made national headlines. 2006 saw the dismemberment of the GANA in the face of the 2007 elections. It fractured into many parties, damaging the ability of the government to get legislation through congress. In the November 2007 second round presidential elections, Alvaro Colom of the UNE was elected president, defeating ex general Otto Perez Molina of the PP. Administrative divisions Guatemala is divided into 22 departments, administered by governors appointed by the president. Guatemala City and 333 other municipalities are governed by popularly elected mayors or councils. The departments are Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, Chimaltenango, Chiquimula, Escuintla, Guatemala, Huehuetenango, Izabal, Jalapa, Jutiapa, Petén, El Progreso, Quetzaltenango, Quiché, Retalhuleu, Sacatepéquez, San Marcos, Santa Rosa, Sololá, Suchitepequez, Totonicapán, and Zacapa. International organization participation BCIE, CACM, FAO, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MIGA, MINUSTAH, NAM, OAS, ONUB, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOCI, UPU, WB, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO See also Central American Parliament External links Students Criticize Government in Traditional Parade by Summer Harlow, Miami Herald, April 4 2009 | Politics_of_Guatemala |@lemmatized politics:2 guatemala:14 take:5 place:3 framework:1 presidential:5 representative:1 democratic:3 republic:4 whereby:1 president:22 head:2 state:4 government:13 multi:1 party:9 system:1 executive:4 power:5 exercise:1 legislative:7 vest:1 congress:7 judiciary:1 independent:2 legislature:1 constitution:5 provide:1 separation:1 among:2 judicial:2 branch:4 constitutional:2 reform:2 include:3 increase:3 number:2 supreme:9 court:13 justice:7 term:7 office:5 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3,502 | Amitabh_Bachchan | Amitabh Bachchan ( , born Amitabh Harivansh Bachchan on October 11, 1942), is an Indian film actor. Also called Big B and Shahenshah. He first gained popularity in the early 1970s as the "angry young man" of Bollywood cinema, Amitabh Bachchan: the Angry Young Man Film legend promotes Bollywood and has since become one of the most prominent figures in the history of Indian cinema. Bachchan has won numerous major awards in his career, including three National Film Awards and twelve Filmfare Awards. He holds the record for most number of Best Actor nominations at the Filmfare Awards. In addition to acting, Bachchan has worked as a playback singer, film producer and television presenter, and was an elected member of the Indian Parliament from 1984 to 1987. Bachchan is married to actress Jaya Bhaduri. They have two children, Shweta Nanda and Abhishek Bachchan. Abhishek is also an actor and is married to actress Aishwarya Rai. Early life Born in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, Amitabh Bachchan hails from a Hindu Kayastha family. His father, Dr. Harivansh Rai Bachchan was a well-known Hindi poet, while his mother, Teji Bachchan was a Sikh from Faisalabad (now in Pakistan). Bachchan was initially named Inquilab, inspired from the phrase Inquilab Zindabad, during the Indian independence struggle, but was re-christened Amitabh which means, "the light that would never go off." Though his surname was Shrivastava, his father had adopted the pen-name Bachchan, under which he published all his works. It is with this last name that Amitabh debuted in films, and, for all public purposes, it has become the surname of all members of his current family. Amitabh is the elder of Harivansh Rai Bachchan's two sons, the second being Ajitabh. His mother had a keen interest in theatre and had been offered a role in a film, but preferred her domestic duties. She had some degree of influence in Bachchan's choice of career because she always insisted that he should take the centre stage. He attended Allahabad's Jnana Prabodhini and Boys' High School (BHS), followed by Nainital's Sherwood College, where he majored in the art stream. He later went on to study at Kirori Mal College of the University of Delhi and completed a Bachelor of Science degree. In his twenties, Bachchan gave up a job as freight broker for the shipping firm, Bird and Co., based in Calcutta now known as Kolkata, to pursue a career in acting. He married actress Jaya Bhaduri on June 3, 1973, according to Bengali rites. The couple has two children: daughter Shweta and son Abhishek. Career Early work 1969-1972 Amitabh Bachchan in Anand (1970)| Bachchan made his film debut in 1969 as one of the seven protagonists in Saat Hindustani, a film directed by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and featuring Utpal Dutt, Madhu and Jalal Agha. Though the film was not a financial success, Bachchan won his first National Film Award for Best Newcomer. The critically acclaimed and commercially successful Anand (1971) followed, where he starred alongside Rajesh Khanna. Bachchan's role as a doctor with a cynical view of life garned him a Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award. Amitabh then played the role of an infatuated lover in Parwaana (1971) opposite Navin Nischol, Yogeeta Bali and Om Prakash and was a rare instance of him portraying the villain. This was followed by several films which were not particularly successful at the box office including Reshma Aur Shera (1971). During this time, he made a guest appearance in the film Guddi which starred his future wife Jaya Bhaduri opposite Dharmendra. Noted for his deep baritone voice early on in his career, he narrated part of the film Bawarchi. In 1972, he made an appearance in the road action comedy Bombay to Goa, directed by S. Ramanathan. He starred alongside actors such as Aruna Irani, Mehmood, Anwar Ali and Nasir Hussain. Rise to Stardom 1973-1983 1973 saw significant development in Bachchan's career when director Prakash Mehra cast him in the leading role for the film Zanjeer (1973) as Inspector Vijay Khanna. The film was a sharp contrast to the romantically themed films that had generally preceded it and established Amitabh in a new persona — the "angry young man" of Bollywood cinema, a reputation he was to acquire in pictures that followed it. It was his first film as the leading protagonist to achieve box office success and earned him a Filmfare Nomination for Best Actor. 1973 was also the year he married Jaya and around this time they appeared in several films together, not only in Zanjeer but in films such as Abhimaan which followed and was released only a month after their marriage. Later, Bachchan played the role of Vikram in the film Namak Haraam, a social drama directed by Hrishikesh Mukherjee and scripted by Biresh Chatterjee addressing themes of friendship. His supporting role opposite Rajesh Khanna and Rekha was praised and won him the Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award. In 1974, Bachchan made several guest appearances in films such as Kunwara Baap and Dost, before playing a supporting role in the highest grossing film of that year, Roti Kapda Aur Makaan. The film, directed and written by Manoj Kumar, addressed themes of honesty in the face of oppression and financial and emotional hardship was a critical and commercial success, placing Amitabh opposite Kumar himself, Shashi Kapoor and Zeenat Aman. Bachchan then played the leading role in film Majboor, released on December 6, 1974, which was a remake of the Hollywood film Zigzag starring George Kennedy. The film was only a moderate success at the box office Box Office India. In 1975, he starred in a variety of film genres from the comedy Chupke Chupke, the crime drama Faraar to the romantic drama Mili. However 1975 was the year when he appeared in two films which are regarded as important in Hindi cinematic history. He starred in the Yash Chopra directed film Deewar, opposite Shashi Kapoor, Nirupa Roy, and Neetu Singh, which earned him a Filmfare Nomination for Best Actor. The film became a major hit at the box office in 1975, ranking in at number 4. Indiatimes Movies ranks Deewaar amongst the Top 25 Must See Bollywood Films. Released on August 15, 1975 was Sholay (meaning flames), which became the highest grossing film of all time in India, earning Rs. 2,36,45,00,000 equivalent to US$ 60 million, after adjusting for inflation. Bachchan played the role of Jaidev opposite a cast which included some of the top names in the industry including Dharmendra, Hema Malini, Sanjeev Kumar, Jaya Bhaduri and Amjad Khan. In 1999, BBC India declared it the "Film of the Millennium" and like Deewar, has been cited by Indiatimes movies as amongst the Top 25 Must See Bollywood Films. In that same year, the judges of the 50th annual Filmfare awards awarded it with the special distinction award called Filmfare Best Film of 50 Years. After the success of films such as Sholay at the box office, Bachchan had now consolidated his position in the industry and from 1976 through to 1984 would receive an unprecedented number of Filmfare Best Actor Award Awards and nominations. Although films such as Sholay cemented his status as Bollywood's pre-eminent action hero, Bachchan illustrated that he was flexible in other roles, successfully playing the romantic lead, in films such as Kabhie Kabhie (1976) and comic timing in comedies such as Amar Akbar Anthony (1977) and earlier, in Chupke Chupke (1975). In 1976, he was once again cast by director Yash Chopra in his second film, Kabhi Kabhie, a romantic tale in which Bachchan starred as a young poet named Amit Malhotra who falls deeply in love with a beautiful young girl named Pooja played by actress Rakhee Gulzar. The emotional eclectic of the dialogue and softness of the subject matter proved a direct contrast to some of Amitabh's earlier grittier action pictures and those he would later go on to play. The film saw him again nominated for the Filmfare Best Actor Award and was a box office success. In 1977, he won the Filmfare Best Actor Award for his performance in Amar Akbar Anthony where he played the third lead opposite Vinod Khanna and Rishi Kapoor as Anthony Gonsalves. 1978 was possibly the most accoladed year of his career and he starred in all four of the highest grossing films of India in that year. He once again resumed double roles in films such as Kasme Vaade as Amit and Shankar and Don playing the characters of Don, a leader of an underworld gang and his look alike Vijay. His performance won him the Filmfare Best Actor Award and considerable critical acclaim as with his performances in Trishul and Muqaddar Ka Sikander which both earned him further Filmfare Best Actor nominations. On account of this unprecedented run and success he encountered at this stage in his career, he was billed a "one-man industry" by the French director François Truffaut. In 1979, for the first time, Amitabh was required to use his singing voice for the film Mr. Natwarlal in which he starred alongside Rekha. His performance in the film saw him nominated for both the Filmfare Best Actor Award and the Filmfare Best Male Playback Awards. In 1979, he also received Best Actor nomination for Kaala Patthar (1979) and then went on to be nominated again in 1980 for the Raj Khosla directed film Dostana, in which he starred opposite Shatrughan Sinha and Zeenat Aman. Dostana proved to be the top grossing film of 1980. BoxOffice India.com In 1981, he starred in Yash Chopra's melodrama film Silsila, where he starred alongside his wife Jaya and rumoured lover Rekha. Other films of this period include Ram Balram (1980), Shaan (1980), Lawaaris (1981), and Shakti (1982) which pitted him against legendary actor Dilip Kumar. Rekha with Amitabh Bachchan in Silsila in 1981| 1982 injury during filming Coolie While filming Coolie in 1982, Bachchan suffered a near fatal intestinal injury during the filming of a fight scene with co-actor Puneet Issar. Bachchan was performing his own stunts in the film and one scene required him to fall onto a table and then on the ground. However as he jumped towards the table, the corner of the table struck his abdomen, resulting in a splenic rupture from which he lost a significant amount of blood. He required an emergency splenectomy and remained critically ill in hospital for many months, at times close to death. The public response included prayers in temples and offers to sacrifice limbs to save him, while later, there were long queues of well-wishing fans outside the hospital where he was recuperating. Nevertheless, he spent many months recovering and resumed filming later that year after a long period of recuperation. The film was released in 1983, and partly due to the huge publicity of Bachchan's accident, the film was a box office success. The director, Manmohan Desai, altered the ending of Coolie after Bachchan's accident. Bachchan's character was originally intended to have been killed off but after the change of script, the character lived in the end. It would have been inappropriate, said Desai, for the man who had just fended off death in real life to be killed on screen. Also, in the released film the footage of the fight scene is frozen at the critical moment, and a caption appears onscreen marking this as the instant of the actor's injury and the ensuing publicity of the accident. Later, he was diagnosed with Myasthenia gravis. His illness made him feel weak both mentally and physically and he decided to quit films and venture into politics. At this time he became pessimistic, expressing concern with how a new film would be received. Before every release he would negatively state, "Yeh film to flop hogi!" ("This film will flop"). Politics: 1984-1987 In 1984, Amitabh took a break from acting and briefly entered politics in support of long-time family friend, Rajiv Gandhi. He contested Allahabad's Lok Sabha seat against H. N. Bahuguna, former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh and won by the highest victory margin in general election history (68.2% of the vote). His political career, however, was short-lived: He resigned after three years and said it is a cesspool. The resignation followed the implication of Bachchan and his brother in the "Bofors scandal" by a newspaper, which he vowed to take to court. Bachchan was eventually found not guilty of involvement in the ordeal. His old friend, Amar Singh, helped him during a financial crisis due to the failure of his company ABCL. Therefore Bachchan started to support Amar Singh's political party, the Samajwadi party. Jaya Bachchan joined the Samajwadi Party and became a Rajya Sabha member. "Bachchan has no plans for election." hindu.com. Bachchan has continued to do favors for the Samajwadi party, including advertisements and political campaigns. These activities have recently gotten him into trouble again in the Indian courts for false claims after a previous incident of submission of legal papers by him, stating that he is a farmer. A 15 year press ban against Bachchan was imposed during his peak acting years by Stardust and some of the other film magazines. In his own defense, Bachchan claimed to have banned the press from entering his sets almost till the end of 1989. "The 15-year ban on Bachchan!" IndiaFM News Bureau. January 27, 2007. Slump and retirement: 1988-1992 In 1988, Bachchan returned to films, playing the title role in Shahenshah, which was a box office success due to the hype of Bachchan's comeback. After the success of his comeback film however, his star power began to wane as all of his subsequent films failed at the box office. The 1991 hit film, Hum, looked like it might reverse this trend, but the momentum was short-lived as his string of box office failures continued. Notably, despite the lack of hits, it was during this period that Bachchan won his second National Film Award, for his performance as a Mafia don in the 1990 film Agneepath. These years would be the last he would be seen on screen for some time. After the release of Khuda Gawah in 1992, Bachchan went into semi-retirement for five years. In 1994, one of his delayed films Insaniyat was released but was also a box office failure. Producer and acting comeback 1996-1999 Bachchan turned producer during his temporary retirement period, setting up Amitabh Bachchan Corporation, Ltd. (A.B.C.L.) in 1996, with the vision of becoming a 10 billion rupees (approx 250 million $US) premier entertainment company by the year 2000. ABCL's strategy was to introduce products and services covering the entire section of the India's entertainment industry. Its operations were mainstream commercial film production and distribution, audio cassettes and video discs, production and marketing of television software, celebrity and event management. Soon after the company was launched in 1996, the first film was produced by the company. Tere Mere Sapne failed to do well at the box office but launched the careers of actors such as Arshad Warsi and South films star Simran. ABCL produced a few other films, none of which did well. In 1997, Bachchan attempted to make his acting comeback with the film Mrityudaata, produced by ABCL. Though Mrityudaata attempted to reprise Bachchan's earlier success as an action hero, the film was a failure both financially and critically. ABCL was the main sponsor of the The 1996 Miss World beauty pageant, Bangalore but lost millions. The fiasco and the consequent legal battles surrounding ABCL and various entities after the event, coupled with the fact that ABCL was reported to have overpaid most of its top level managers, eventually led to its financial and operational collapse in 1997. The company went into administration and was later declared a failed company by Indian Industries board. The Bombay high court, in April 1999, restrained Bachchan from selling off his Bombay bungalow 'Prateeksha' and two flats till the pending loan recovery cases of Canara Bank were disposed of. Bachchan had, however, pleaded that he had mortgaged his bungalow to Sahara India Finance for raising funds for his company. Bachchan attempted to revive his acting career and had average success with Bade Miyan Chote Miyan (1998), and received positive reviews for Sooryavansham (1999) but other films such as Lal Baadshah (1999) and Hindustan Ki Kasam (1999) were box office failures. Television career In the year 2000, Bachchan stepped up to host India's adaptation of the British television game show, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? entitled, Kaun Banega Crorepati. As it did in most other countries where it was adopted, the program found immediate success. The Canara Bank withdrew its law suit against Bachchan in November 2000. Bachchan hosted KBC till November 2005, and its success set the stage for his return to film popularity. In 2009 Oscar winning movie Slumdog Millionaire in the first question of Who Wants to be a Millionaire? contest Amitabh Bachchan was the correct answer to the question "Who was the star of Zanjeer?. Feroz Abbas Khan performed as Amitabh Bachchan in a scene in the movie while Anil Kapoor performed as the host of the contest. Return to prominence: 2000-present In 2000, Amitabh Bachchan appeared in Yash Chopra's box-office hit, Mohabbatein, directed by Aditya Chopra. He played a stern, older figure that rivalled the character of Shahrukh Khan. Other hits followed, with Bachchan appearing as an older family patriarch in Ek Rishtaa: The Bond of Love (2001), Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham (2001) and Baghban (2003). As an actor, he continued to perform in a range of characters, receiving critical praise for his performances in Aks (2001), Aankhen (2002), Khakee (2004), Dev (2004) and Black (2005). Taking advantage of this resurgence, Amitabh began endorsing a variety of products and services, appearing in many television and billboard advertisements. In 2005 and 2006, he starred with his son Abhishek in the hit films Bunty Aur Babli (2005), the Godfather tribute Sarkar (2005), and Kabhi Alvida Na Kehna (2006). All of them were successful at the box office. His later releases in 2006 and early 2007 were Baabul (2006), Eklavya and Nishabd (2007), which failed to do well at the box office but his performances in each of them were praised by critics. He also made a guest-appearance as himself in the Kannada movie Amruthadaare, directed by Nagathihalli Chandrashekhar. Pratibha Devisingh Patil presenting the Best Film Actor Award for the year 2005 to Amitabh Bachchan for his role in the Hindi film Black. In May 2007, two of his films Cheeni Kum and the multi-starrer Shootout at Lokhandwala were released. Shootout at Lokhandwala did very well at the box office and was declared a hit in India, while Cheeni Kum picked up after a slow start and was declared an overall average hit. In August 2007, a remake of his biggest hit, Sholay (1975), entitled Ram Gopal Varma Ki Aag, proved to be a disaster at the box office and was also poorly received by critics. His first English language film, Rituparno Ghosh's The Last Lear, premiered at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2007. He received positive reviews from critics who hailed his performance as his best ever since Black. Bachchan is slated to play a supporting role in his first international film, Shantaram, directed by Mira Nair and starring Hollywood actor Johnny Depp in the lead. The film was due to begin filming in February 2008 but due to the writer's strike, was pushed to September 2008 Bhoothnath, in which he plays the title role as a ghost, was released on May 9, 2008. Sarkar Raj, released in June 2008, was a sequel to his 2005 film Sarkar. Sarkar Raj received a positive response at the box-office. Bachchan was scheduled to co-host the second Live Earth event, Live Earth India 2008, with Jon Bon Jovi, in Mumbai India on December 8, 2008. On January 26th 2009, Amitabh was the chief guest for the opening of Kokilaben Dhirubhai Ambani Hospital in Andheri, Mumbai. Health 2005 Hospitalisation In November 2005, Amitabh Bachchan was admitted to Lilavati Hospital's ICU once more, to undergo surgery for diverticulitis of the small intestine. This occurred after Bachchan complained of pains in his abdomen some days prior. During the period and that following his recovery, most of his projects were put on hold, including the television show he was in the process of hosting, Kaun Banega Crorepati. Amitabh returned to work in March 2006. Voice Bachchan is known for his deep, baritone voice. He has been a narrator, a playback singer and presenter for numerous programmes. Renowned film director Satyajit Ray was so impressed with Bachchan's voice, that he decided to use his voice as commentary in Shatranj Ke Khiladi since he could not find a suitable role for him. hindustantimes.in "Amitabh voice for Shatranj Ke Khiladi." Hindustan Times. Before entering the film industry, Bachchan applied for an announcer's job with All India Radio, although he was rejected. Controversies and criticism Barabanki land case In the runup to the Uttar Pradesh state assembly elections, 2007, Bachchan made a film extolling the virtues of the Mulayam Singh government. His Samajwadi Party was routed, and Mayawati came to power. On June 2, 2007 a Faizabad court ruled that he had illegally acquired agricultural land designated specifically for landless Dalit farmers. It was speculated that he might be investigated on related charges of forgery, as he has allegedly claimed he was a farmer. On July 19, 2007, after the scandal broke out, Bachchan surrendered the land acquired in Barabanki in Uttar Pradesh and Pune. He wrote to the chief minister of Maharashtra, Vilasrao Deshmukh, to donate the lands that were allegedly acquired illegally in Pune. However, the Lucknow Court has put a stay on the land donation and said that the status quo on the land be maintained. On October 12, 2007, Bachchan abandoned his claim in respect of the land at Daulatpur village in Barabanki district. On December 11, 2007, the Lucknow bench of the Allahabad High Court gave a clean chit to Bachchan in a case pertaining to alleged fraudulent allotment of government land to him in Barabanki district. A single Lucknow bench of Justice said there was no finding that the actor "himself committed any fraud or manipulated any surreptitious entry in the revenue records". "HC gives clean chit to Amitabh Bachchan in land dispute case." Happenings News : ApunKaChoice.Com. December 12, 2007. "Amitabh Bachchan gets clean chit in UP land scam." AllBollywood.com. December 11, 2007. After receiving a positive verdict in Barabanki case, Amitabh Bachchan intimated to Maharashtra government that he did not wish to surrender his land in Maval tehsil of Pune district. Raj Thackeray's criticism Bachchan featured on an advert in shopping mall in India In January 2008 at political rallies, Raj Thackeray, the chief of Maharashtra Navnirman Sena, targeted Amitabh Bachchan, asserting that the actor was "more inclined" towards his native state than Maharashtra. He expressed his disapproval of Amitabh's inaugurating a girls' school named after his daughter-in-law, actor Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, at Barabanki in Uttar Pradesh, rather than in Maharashtra. According to media reports, Raj's censure of Amitabh, whom he admires, stemmed out of his disappointment of not being invited to Amitabh's son Abhishek's marriage to Aishwarya, despite invitations to his estranged uncle Bal and cousin Uddhav. Responding to Raj's accusations, the actor's wife, SP MP Jaya Bachchan, said that the Bachchans were willing to start a school in Mumbai, provided the MNS leader donated the land to build it. She told the media, "I heard that Raj Thackeray owns huge properties in Maharashtra, in Mumbai—Kohinoor Mills. If he is willing to donate land, we can start a school in the name of Aishwarya here." However, Amitabh abstained from commenting on the issue. Bal Thackeray refuted the allegations, stating, "Amitabh Bachchan is an open-minded person, he has great love for Maharashtra, and this is evident on many occasions. The actor has often said that Maharashtra and specially Mumbai has given him great fame and affection. He has also said that what he is today is because of the love people have given him. The people of Mumbai have always acknowledged him as an artiste. It was utter foolishness to make these parochial allegations against him. Amitabh is a global superstar. People all over the world respect him. This cannot be forgotten by anyone. Amitabh should ignore these silly accusations and concentrate on his acting." On March 23, 2008, more than a month and half after Raj's remarks, Amitabh finally spoke out in an interview to a local tabloid saying, "Random charges are random; they do not deserve the kind of attention you wish me to give." Later, on March 28, at a press conference for the International Indian Film Academy, when asked what his take was on the anti-migrant issue, Amitabh said that it is one's fundamental right to live anywhere in the country and the constitution entitles so. He also stated that he was not affected by Raj's comments. Awards, honours and recognitions Filmography Latest films Year Film Role Other Notes2006 Family Viren Sahi Darna Zaroori Hai Professor Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna Samarjit Singh Talwar (aka. Sexy Sam) Nominated, Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award Baabul Balraj Kapoor 2007 Eklavya: The Royal Guard Eklavya Nishabd Vijay Cheeni Kum Buddhadev Gupta Shootout at Lokhandwala Dingra Special appearance Jhoom Barabar Jhoom Sutradhar Special appearance Ram Gopal Varma Ki Aag Babban Singh Om Shanti Om Himself Special appearance2008 Jodhaa Akbar Narrator Bhoothnath Bhoothnath (Kailash Nath) Sarkar Raj Subhash Nagre/"Sarkar" God Tussi Great Ho God Almighty The Last Lear Harish 'Harry' Mishra Winner, Stardust Best Actor Award 2009 Delhi-6 Dadaji Special appearance Aladin Jin Post-production Johnny Mastana John Periera Post-production Zamaanat Shiv Shankar Delayed Talismaan Filming Teen Patti Pre-production Shantaram Khader Bhai Postponed Producer Year Film 1996 Tere Mere Sapne 1997 Ullasam Mrityudaata 1998 Major Saab 2001 Aks 2005 Viruddh 2006 Family - Ties of Blood Playback singer Year Film 1979 The Great Gambler Mr. Natwarlal 1981 Lawaaris Naseeb Silsila 1983 Mahaan Pukar 1984 Sharaabi 1989 Toofan Jaadugar 1992 Khuda Gawah 1998 Major Saab 1999 Sooryavansham 2001 Aks Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham 2002 Aankhen 2003 Armaan Baghban 2004 Dev Aetbaar 2006 Baabul 2007 Nishabd Cheeni Kum 2008 Bhoothnath Further reading Dwyer, Rachel. "Amitabh Bachchan: the Angry Young Man." British Academy of Film and Television Arts, November 16, 2007. Mazumdar, Ranjani. Bombay Cinema: An Archive of the City. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007. References External links Amitabh Bachchan's official blog | Amitabh_Bachchan |@lemmatized amitabh:40 bachchan:82 bear:2 harivansh:3 october:2 indian:7 film:94 actor:29 also:10 call:2 big:2 b:2 shahenshah:2 first:8 gain:1 popularity:2 early:6 angry:4 young:6 man:6 bollywood:6 cinema:4 legend:1 promotes:1 since:3 become:7 one:6 prominent:1 figure:2 history:3 win:8 numerous:2 major:5 award:22 career:12 include:8 three:2 national:3 twelve:1 filmfare:16 hold:2 record:2 number:3 best:19 nomination:6 addition:1 act:7 work:4 playback:4 singer:3 producer:4 television:7 presenter:2 elected:1 member:3 parliament:1 marry:4 actress:4 jaya:8 bhaduri:4 two:6 child:2 shweta:2 nanda:1 abhishek:5 aishwarya:4 rai:4 life:3 allahabad:4 uttar:5 pradesh:5 hail:2 hindu:2 kayastha:1 family:6 father:2 dr:1 well:6 know:3 hindi:3 poet:2 mother:2 teji:1 sikh:1 faisalabad:1 pakistan:1 initially:1 name:8 inquilab:2 inspire:1 phrase:1 zindabad:1 independence:1 struggle:1 christen:1 mean:2 light:1 would:8 never:1 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3,503 | Double_planet | Since the barycenter of the Earth-Moon system lies beneath the surface of the Earth, these two bodies are informally referred to as a planet-satellite system. "Double planet" is an informal term used to describe a planet with a moon that may be large enough to be considered a planet in its own right; a common definition is that the objects orbit a centre of gravity that is above their surfaces. The formal term is "binary system". Similarly, there are also double asteroid (or double minor planet) systems such as 90 Antiope and (79360) 1997 CS29. Definition of a double planet There has been some debate in the past on precisely where to draw the line between a double-planet and a planet-moon system. In most cases, this is not an issue because the satellite has a small mass relative to its host planet. In particular, with the exception of the Earth-Moon and Pluto-Charon systems, all satellites in our Solar System have masses less than 0.00025 (1/4000) the mass of the host planet or dwarf planet. On the other hand, the Earth and Moon have a mass ratio of 0.01230 (≈ 1/81), and Pluto and its moon Charon have a mass ratio of 0.147 (≈ 1/7). A commonly accepted cutoff point for deciding between a planet-satellite or double-planet system is based on the location of the center of mass of the two objects (that is, the barycenter). If the barycenter is not located under the surface of either body, then one may refer to the system as a double-planet system. In this case, both bodies in their entirety orbit about a point in the free space between the two. By this definition, Pluto and Charon would be seen as a "double" (dwarf) planet system, whereas the Earth and Moon would not. In 2006 the International Astronomical Union briefly considered a formal definition of the term double planet which could have formally included Pluto and Charon, but this definition was not ratified. Though not accepted for official usage by the IAU, astronomer Alan Stern of the New Horizons mission to Pluto and the Kuiper belt refers to the Pluto-Charon system as a double planet. http://www.oneworldblueportals.com/bernardsstar/index.php?page=blog Tug-of-war definition The late Isaac Asimov suggested a distinction between planet-moon and double-planet systems based on what he called a "tug-of-war" value. Asimov, Isaac (1975). Just Mooning Around, In: Of time and space, and other things. Avon. This quantity is simply the ratio of the gravitational force between the planet and satellite, and the satellite and Sun. In the case of the Moon, the Sun "wins" the "tug of war," and the Earth and Moon form a double-planet system. The opposite is true for most (but not all) of the other satellite systems in our Solar System, including the Pluto-Charon system, which would be classified as planet-satellite systems. See also 2006 definition of planet Definition of a planet Hill sphere Natural satellite Orbit of the Moon 3753 Cruithne References "Clyde Tombaugh (1906-97) Astronomer who discovered the Solar System's ninth planet", Nature 385 (1997) 778 (Pluto and Charon are "the only known example of a true double planet".) "It's not easy to make the Moon", Nature 389 (1997) 327 (comparing double planet theory of Moon formation and Pluto-Charon as double planet) | Double_planet |@lemmatized since:1 barycenter:3 earth:6 moon:14 system:19 lie:1 beneath:1 surface:3 two:3 body:3 informally:1 refer:2 planet:28 satellite:9 double:15 informal:1 term:3 use:1 describe:1 may:2 large:1 enough:1 consider:2 right:1 common:1 definition:8 object:2 orbit:3 centre:1 gravity:1 formal:2 binary:1 similarly:1 also:2 asteroid:1 minor:1 antiope:1 debate:1 past:1 precisely:1 draw:1 line:1 case:3 issue:1 small:1 mass:6 relative:1 host:2 particular:1 exception:1 pluto:9 charon:8 solar:3 less:1 dwarf:2 hand:1 ratio:3 commonly:1 accept:2 cutoff:1 point:2 decide:1 base:2 location:1 center:1 locate:1 either:1 one:1 entirety:1 free:1 space:2 would:3 see:2 whereas:1 international:1 astronomical:1 union:1 briefly:1 could:1 formally:1 include:2 ratify:1 though:1 official:1 usage:1 iau:1 astronomer:2 alan:1 stern:1 new:1 horizon:1 mission:1 kuiper:1 belt:1 refers:1 http:1 www:1 oneworldblueportals:1 com:1 bernardsstar:1 index:1 php:1 page:1 blog:1 tug:3 war:3 late:1 isaac:2 asimov:2 suggest:1 distinction:1 call:1 value:1 around:1 time:1 thing:1 avon:1 quantity:1 simply:1 gravitational:1 force:1 sun:2 win:1 form:1 opposite:1 true:2 classify:1 hill:1 sphere:1 natural:1 cruithne:1 reference:1 clyde:1 tombaugh:1 discover:1 ninth:1 nature:2 known:1 example:1 easy:1 make:1 compare:1 theory:1 formation:1 |@bigram pluto_charon:7 dwarf_planet:2 kuiper_belt:1 http_www:1 index_php:1 isaac_asimov:1 clyde_tombaugh:1 |
3,504 | Martina_Hingis | Martina Hingis (born September 30, 1980 in Košice, Czechoslovakia) is a retired professional tennis player who spent a total of 209 weeks as World No. 1. Weeks at No. 1 She won five Grand Slam singles titles (three Australian Open, one Wimbledon, and one US Open). She also won nine Grand Slam women's doubles titles, winning a calendar year doubles Grand Slam in 1998, and one Grand Slam mixed doubles title. Hingis set a series of "youngest-ever" records before ligament injuries in both ankles forced her to withdraw temporarily from professional tennis in 2002 at the age of 22. After several surgeries and long recuperations, Hingis returned to the WTA tour in 2006. She then climbed to World No. 6 and won three singles titles. On November 1, 2007,Hingis announced her retirement from tennis while admitting she had tested positive for cocaine during Wimbledon in 2007. She denied using the drug. On January 4, 2008, she was banned from tennis for two years for due to the two positive cocaine tests (samples A and B). She has stated that she will not return to professional tennis when this ban expires. Childhood and early career Hingis was born to accomplished tennis players: a Czech mother, Melanie Molitorova, and a Hungarian father living in Košice (Slovakia), Károly Hingis. Molitorova was a professional tennis player, who was once ranked tenth among women in Czechoslovakia, and was determined to develop Hingis into a top player as early as pregnancy. Her father was ranked as high as nineteenth in the Czechoslovakian tennis rankings. She was named after tennis legend Martina Navratilova. Hingis's parents divorced when she was six, and she and her mother relocated around a year later to Trübbach in Switzerland. Her father, who continued to live in Košice as a tennis coach, said in 1997 that he had seen little of his daughter after the split. Hingis began playing tennis when she was two years old and entered her first tournament at age four. In 1993, 12-year-old Hingis became the youngest player to win a Grand Slam junior title: the girls' singles at the French Open. In 1994, she retained her French Open junior title, won the girls' singles title at Wimbledon, and reached the final of the US Open. She made her professional debut in October 1994, two weeks after her 14th birthday. She ended the year ranked World No. 87, and in January 1995, she became the youngest player to win a match at a Grand Slam tournament when she advanced to the second round of the Australian Open. Grand Slam success and period of dominance In 1996, Hingis became the youngest Wimbledon champion when she teamed with Helena Suková to win the women's doubles title at age 15 years and 9 months. She also won her first professional singles title that year at Filderstadt, Germany. She reached the singles quarterfinals at the 1996 Australian Open and the singles semifinals of the 1996 US Open. Following her win at Filderstadt, Hingis defeated the reigning Australian Open champion and co-top ranked (with Steffi Graf) Monica Seles 6–2, 6–0 in the final at Oakland. Hingis then lost to Graf 6–3, 4–6, 6–0, 4–6, 6–0 at the year-end WTA Tour Championships. In 1997, Hingis became the undisputed World No. 1 women's tennis player. She started the year by winning the warm-up tournament in Sydney. She then became the youngest Grand Slam singles winner in the 20th century by winning the Australian Open at age 16 years and 3 months (beating former champion Mary Pierce in the final). In March, she became the youngest top ranked player in history. In July, she became the youngest singles champion at Wimbledon since Lottie Dod in 1887 by beating Jana Novotná in the final. She then defeated another up-and-coming player, Venus Williams, in the final of the US Open. The only Grand Slam singles title that Hingis failed to win in 1997 was the French Open, where she lost in the final to Iva Majoli. In 1998, Hingis won all four of the Grand Slam women's doubles titles, only the fourth in women's tennis history to do so, Martina Hingis News and Trivias at CelebrityWonder.com (the Australian Open with Mirjana Lučić and the other three events with Novotná), and she became only the third woman to simultaneously hold the No. 1 ranking in both singles and doubles. She also retained her Australian Open singles title by beating Conchita Martínez in straight sets in the final. Hingis, however, lost in the final of the US Open to Lindsay Davenport. Davenport ended an 80-week stretch Hingis had enjoyed as the No. 1 singles player in October 1998, but Hingis finished the year by beating Davenport in the final of the WTA Tour Championships. 1999 saw Hingis win her third successive Australian Open singles crown as well as the doubles title (with teammate Anna Kournikova). She then reached the French Open final and was three points away from victory in the second set against Steffi Graf, but ended up losing 4–6, 7–5, 6–2. During the match, Hingis had infuriated an already partisan crowd by arguing with the umpire over several line calls (crossing the net in one instance), taking a bathroom break early in the final set, and twice delivering a rare underhand serve on match point. In tears after the match, Hingis was comforted by her mother as she returned to the court for the trophy ceremony. After a shock first-round 6–2, 6–0 loss to Jelena Dokić at Wimbledon, Hingis bounced back to reach her third consecutive US Open final, where she lost to Serena Williams. Hingis won a total of seven singles titles that year and reclaimed the No. 1 singles ranking. She also reached the final of the WTA Tour Championships, where she lost to Davenport 6–4, 6–2. In 2000, Hingis again found herself in both the singles and doubles finals at the Australian Open. This time, however, she lost both. Her three-year hold on the singles championship ended when she lost to Davenport 6–1, 7–5. Later, Hingis and Pierce, her new doubles partner, lost to Lisa Raymond and Rennae Stubbs. Hingis captured the French Open women's doubles title with Pierce and produced consistent results in singles tournaments throughout the year. She reached the quarter final at Wimbledon and played great tennis but was beaten by Venus Williams in a thrilling match. Although she did not win a Grand Slam singles tournament, she kept the year end No. 1 ranking because of nine tournament championships, including the WTA Tour Championships where she won the singles and doubles titles. Injuries and hiatus from tennis In 2001, Switzerland, with Hingis and Roger Federer on its team, won the Hopman Cup. Hingis was undefeated in singles during the event, defeating Tamarine Tanasugarn, Nicole Pratt, Amanda Coetzer, and Monica Seles. Hingis reached her fifth consecutive Australian Open final in 2001, where she lost to Jennifer Capriati 6–4, 6–3. She briefly ended her coaching relationships with her mother Melanie early in the year but had a change of heart two months later just before the French Open. Hingis underwent surgery on her right ankle in October 2001. Coming back from injury, Hingis won the Australian Open doubles final at the start of 2002 (again teaming with Anna Kournikova) and reached a sixth straight Australian Open final in singles, again facing Capriati. Hingis led by a set and 4–0 and had four match points but lost 4–6, 7–6, 6–2. In May 2002, she needed another ankle ligament operation, this time on her left ankle. After that, she continued to struggle with injuries and was not able to recapture her best form. In 2003, at the age of 22, Hingis announced her retirement from tennis. In several interviews, she indicated she wanted to go back to her country and coach full time. During this segment of her tennis career, Hingis won 40 singles titles and 36 doubles events. She held the World No. 1 singles ranking for a total of 209 weeks (fourth most following Steffi Graf, Martina Navratilova, and Chris Evert). In 2005, Tennis magazine put her in 22nd place in its list of 40 Greatest Players of the TENNIS era. Return to the game 2005 In February 2005, Hingis made an unsuccessful return to competition at an event in Pattaya, Thailand, where she lost to Germany's Marlene Weingartner in the first round. After the loss, she claimed that she had no further plans for a comeback. Hingis, however, resurfaced in July, playing singles, doubles, and mixed doubles in World Team Tennis and notching up singles victories over two top 100 players and shutting out Martina Navratilova in singles on July 7. With these promising results behind her, Hingis announced on November 29 her return to the WTA Tour in 2006. Martina Hingis in the Australian Open, 2006. 2006 At the Australian Open, Hingis lost in the quarterfinals to second-seeded Kim Clijsters. However, Hingis won the mixed doubles title with Mahesh Bhupathi of India. This was her first career Grand Slam mixed doubles title and fifteenth overall (5 singles, 9 women's doubles, 1 mixed doubles). The week after the Australian Open, Hingis defeated World No. 4 Maria Sharapova 6–3, 6–1 in the semifinals of the Tier I Toray Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo before losing in the final to World No. 9 Elena Dementieva. At the Tier I Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, California, Hingis defeated World No. 4 Lindsay Davenport in the fourth round 6–3, 1–6, 6–2 before losing to Sharapova in the semifinals. On clay at the Tier II tournament in Warsaw, Poland, Hingis and Venus Williams reignited a rivalry in the second round that had been dormant since 2002. Williams won the match 4–6, 7–5, 6–4. At the Tier I Qatar Telecom German Open in Berlin, Hingis defeated Dementieva in the fourth round but lost in the quarterfinals to World No. 1 Amélie Mauresmo. At the Tier I Internazionali BNL d'Italia in Rome, Hingis posted her 500th career singles match victory in the quarterfinals, beating World No. 18 Flavia Pennetta, and subsequently won the tournament with wins over Venus Williams in the semifinals and Dinara Safina in the final. This was her 41st Women's Tennis Association tour singles title and first in more than four years. Hingis then reached the quarterfinals of the French Open, losing to Clijsters 7–6(5), 6–1. At Wimbledon, Hingis lost in the third round to Ai Sugiyama 7–5, 3–6, 6–4. Hingis played three tournaments during the North American summer hard court season. At the Tier I Acura Classic in San Diego, Hingis lost in the quarterfinals to World No. 2 Clijsters 7–5, 6–2. Hingis then defeated World No. 7 Svetlana Kuznetsova in the quarterfinals of the Tier I Rogers Cup in Montreal before losing the final to Ana Ivanović. Hingis's return to the US Open was short lived, however, as she lost in the second round to World No. 112 Virginie Razzano of France 6–2, 6–4. In her first tournament since the US Open, Hingis won the second title of her comeback at the Tier III Sunfeast Open in Kolkata, India. She defeated unseeded Russian Olga Poutchkova in the final. The following week in Seoul, Hingis notched her 50th match win of the year before losing in the second round to Sania Mirza 4–6, 6–0, 6–4. At the Tier I Zurich Open three weeks later, Hingis lost to Kuznetsova in the quarterfinals 6–1, 1–6, 6–3. Hingis qualified for the year-ending WTA Tour Championships in Madrid as the eighth seed. In her round robin matches, she lost in three sets to both Justine Henin and Mauresmo but defeated Petrova 6–4, 3–6, 6–3. Hingis ended the year ranked World No. 7. She also finished eighth in prize money earnings (U.S.$1,159,537). 2007 Hingis started the year by reaching the final of the Tier III Mondial Australian Women's Hardcourts in Gold Coast, Australia, losing to Dinara Safina of Russia 6–3, 3–6, 7–5. The next week at the Medibank International in Sydney, Hingis lost her first round match to Jelena Janković in three sets. At the Australian Open, Hingis won her first three rounds without losing a set before defeating China's Na Li in the fourth round 4–6, 6–3, 6–0. Hingis then lost a quarterfinal match to Kim Clijsters 3–6, 6–4, 6–3. This was the second consecutive year that Hingis had lost to Clijsters in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open and the third time in the last five Grand Slam tournaments that Clijsters had eliminated Hingis in the quarterfinals. Hingis won her next tournament, the Tier I Toray Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo, defeating Ana Ivanović in the final. This was Hingis's record fifth singles title at this event. Three weeks later, Hingis lost for the second time that year to Janković in the quarterfinals of the Dubai Duty Free Women's Open. At the Qatar Total Open in Doha, Hingis lost to Daniela Hantuchová 1–6, 6–4, 6–4 in the quarterfinals after being up a set and 4–1 (40–0) in the second set. In women's doubles, Hingis teamed with Maria Kirilenko to win the title, defeating Ágnes Szávay and Vladimíra Uhlířov in the final 6–1, 6–1. At the Tier I Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, California, Hingis again lost to Hantuchová, this time in the fourth round 6–4, 6–3. Hingis was up a service break in both sets but, as in Doha, could not hold her lead. At the Tier I Sony Ericsson Open in Key Biscayne, Florida, Hingis again failed to reach the quarterfinals, losing in the third round to Agnieszka Radwańska of Poland 4–6, 6–3, 6–2. Her next tournament was the Qatar Telecom German Open, where she lost in the third round to compatriot Patty Schnyder 6–4, 6–0. A hip injury that troubled her at the German Open caused her to withdraw from the Internazionali BNL d'Italia, where she was the defending champion, and the French Open, the only Grand Slam singles title that eluded her. In her first round match at Wimbledon, Hingis saved two match points to defeat British wildcard Naomi Cavaday, apparently not having fully recovered from the hip injury that prevented her from playing the French Open. In the third round, Hingis lost to Laura Granville of the United States 6–4, 6–2 and claimed afterwards she should not have entered the tournament. At the Acura Classic in San Diego, Hingis defeated Michaella Krajicek before falling to Schnyder 6–1, 6–7(4), 6–3. Hingis was leading 3–1 in the final set before losing five consecutive games. Hingis then lost to Sania Mirza in a second round match of the East West Bank Classic in Los Angeles. Hingis's next tournament was the last Grand Slam tournament of the year, the US Open, which she had won exactly ten years ago for the first time. Hingis lost in the third round to Belarussian teenager Victoria Azarenka 3–6, 6–1, 6–0. In her last career singles match in September, Hingis lost in the second round of the China Open in Beijing to Chinese player Shuai Peng 7–5, 6–1. Retirement Hingis did not play any tournaments after the China Open, as she was beset by injuries for the rest of the year. However, on November 1, 2007, Hingis said at a press conference in Glattbrugg near Zürich that she was retiring permanently from competitive tennis. She admitted that she had tested positive for cocaine during Wimbledon in 2007. But Hingis maintained her innocence, saying, "I have tested positive but I have never taken drugs and I feel 100 percent innocent." She also said, "I would personally be terrified of taking drugs. When I was informed [about the test] I was shocked and appalled." She is not planning to contest the positive drug test because it could take years. "Because of my age and my health problems, I have also decided to retire from professional tennis." The drug test results were released to Hingis after her third round loss to Laura Granville at Wimbledon, with both "A" and "B" urine samples failing the tests. Hingis then underwent a private drug test on a hair sample, which came back negative and, according to Hingis, is evidence that she did not use cocaine. Hingis played an exhibition match at the Liverpool International tournament on June 13, 2008. Although this event was a warm-up for Wimbledon, it was not part of the WTA Tour. This allowed Hingis to participate without breaching the rules of her ban. In a rematch of their 1997 Wimbledon final, Hingis defeated Jana Novotná 6–3, 6–4. Controversies Hingis is also well known for usually being outspoken. During her career, Hingis has made a number of statements about her fellow players that have subsequently become the focus of attention and the source of controversy, such as: Referring to Amélie Mauresmo's lesbianism on the eve of their 1999 Australian Open final, Hingis told reporters, "She's here with her girlfriend. She's half a man already." When asked in the late 1990s how she felt about the budding rivalry between herself and the then-up-and-coming Anna Kournikova, Hingis responded, "What rivalry? I win all the matches." AskMen.com - Martina Hingis pics After the Williams sisters (Venus and Serena) had complained of discrimination against them, Hingis told Time magazine in 2001: "Being black only helps them. Many times they get sponsors because they are black. And they have had a lot of advantages because they can always say, 'It's racism.' They can always come back and say, 'Because we are this color, things happen.'" Julianne Malveaux on Business and Economics At the peak of the Williams sisters' and Hingis' competitive and fierce rivalry, Hingis stated in a press conference during the 1999 US Open referring to the sisters' remarks, "They always have big mouths. They always talk a lot. It's happened before, so it's gonna happen again. I don't really worry about that." U. S. OPEN; Serena Williams Wins Match, Then Takes a Shot at Hingis On the long-dominant player, Steffi Graf, Hingis said, "Steffi has had some results in the past, but it's a faster, more athletic game now than when she played. She is old now. Her time has passed." (Hingis made this comment in 1998 while Graf was on an injury-related hiatus from tennis.) Graf subsequently defeated Hingis in the 1999 French Open final. Responding in a 1999 press conference on why she terminated her doubles partnership with former Wimbledon champion Jana Novotná, Hingis remarked, "She's old and slow." The International Tennis Federation (ITF) Independent Anti-Doping Tribunal announced on January 4, 2008, that Hingis was found to have committed a doping offence. The tribunal determined that a sample provided by Hingis at Wimbledon on June 29, 2007, had tested positive for cocaine. The tribunal suspended Hingis from participation in any ITF or associated event for two years, beginning on October 1, 2007. In addition, the tribunal ordered her results from the 2007 Wimbledon Championships and subsequent tennis events disqualified, with the forfeiture of the ITF ranking points and repayment of prize money, totaling US$129,481, that she won at those events. Record against other top players As of October 30, 2008, Hingis win-loss record against players who have been ranked World No. 10 or higher is as follows: Player Profiles Players who have been ranked World No. 1 are in boldface. Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 18–2 Monica Seles 15–5 Barbara Schett 11–0 Anna Kournikova 11–1 Conchita Martínez 11–3 Venus Williams 11–10 Lindsay Davenport 11–14 Amanda Coetzer 10–2 Mary Pierce 10–6 Jana Novotná 9–3 Chanda Rubin 8–2 Iva Majoli 8–2 Amélie Mauresmo 7–7 Irina Spîrlea 6–0 Ai Sugiyama 6–2 Serena Williams 6–7 Julie Halard-Decugis 5–0 Jennifer Capriati 5–4 Brenda Schultz-McCarthy 4-0 Elena Dementieva 4–3 Kim Clijsters 4–5 Mary Joe Fernandez 3–0 Jelena Dokić 3–2 Alicia Molik 2–0 Caroline Wozniacki 2-0 Dinara Safina 2–1 Nadia Petrova 2–1 Anastasia Myskina 2–1 Justine Henin 2–2 Svetlana Kuznetsova 2–2 Daniela Hantuchová 2–3 Patty Schnyder 2–3 Steffi Graf 2–7 Kimiko Date Krumm 1–0 Vera Zvonareva 1–0 Anna Chakvetadze 1–0 Nicole Vaidišová 1–0 Gabriela Sabatini 1–1 Ana Ivanović 1–1 Maria Sharapova 1–2 Agnieszka Radwańska 0–1 Victoria Azarenka 0–1 Jelena Janković 0–2 Playing style Hingis was renowned for her tactical approach to the game of tennis and for her technical skills, enabling her to produce a wide array of shots with finesse. She lacked the power possessed by many of her contemporaries; therefore, she relied on low error-rates and good shot selection to keep opponents off-balance. She often used change of direction and pace to catch opponents off guard and sharp angles to open up the court. She was also well known for her ability to break long rallies by hitting accurate drop shots and coming to the net, where she was a skilled volleyer. A signature play of Hingis was the drop shot followed by a lob, often resulting in an easy volley or overhead to finish the point. Hingis often hit the ball extremely early by standing close to the baseline (or inside it) in order to take reaction time away from her opponent. Hingis's strongest groundstroke was her two-handed backhand, which had an extremely low error-rate and great variety. Her backhand down-the-line was among her signature shots and often the shot she chose to hit with greater pace to surprise opponents during a rally. Personal life Hingis has dated Spanish golf player Sergio García and British footballer Sol Campbell. She was engaged to Czech tennis player Radek Štěpánek, but split from him in August 2007. Career statistics Grand Slam singles finals (12) Wins (5) Year |width="200"|ChampionshipSurface |width="200"|Opponent in FinalScore in Final |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" | 1997 || Australian Open || Hard || Mary Pierce || 6–2, 6–2 |-bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 1997 || Wimbledon || Grass || Jana Novotná || 2–6, 6–3, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 1997 || US Open || Hard || Venus Williams || 6–0, 6–4 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" | 1998 || Australian Open <small>(2) || Hard || Conchita Martínez || 6–3, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" | 1999 || Australian Open <small>(3) || Hard || Amélie Mauresmo || 6–2, 6–3 |} Runner-ups (7) {| class="sortable wikitable" |- |width="50"|YearChampionship |width="80"|SurfaceOpponent in Final |width="200"|Score in Final 1997 French Open Clay Iva Majoli 6–4, 6–2 1998 US Open Hard Lindsay Davenport 6–3, 7–5 1999 French Open <small>(2) Clay Steffi Graf 4–6, 7–5, 6–2 1999 US Open <small>(2) Hard Serena Williams 6–3, 7–6(4) 2000 Australian Open Hard Lindsay Davenport 6–1, 7–5 2001 Australian Open <small>(2) Hard Jennifer Capriati 6–4, 6–3 2002 Australian Open <small>(3) Hard Jennifer Capriati 4–6, 7–6(7), 6–2 Grand Slam women's doubles finals (11) Wins (9) Year |width="175"|ChampionshipPartner |width="200"|Opponents in FinalScore in Final |-bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 1996 || Wimbledon || | Helena Suková || Meredith McGrath Larisa Neiland || 5–7, 7–5, 6–1 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" | 1997 || Australian Open || | Natasha Zvereva || Lindsay Davenport Lisa Raymond || 6–2, 6–2 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" | 1998 || Australian Open <small>(2) || Mirjana Lučić || Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva || 6–4, 2–6, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#EBC2AF" | 1998 || French Open || Jana Novotná || Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva || 6–1, 7–6(4) |-bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 1998 || Wimbledon <small>(2) || Jana Novotná || Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva ||6–3, 3–6, 8–6 |-bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 1998 || US Open || Jana Novotná || Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva || 6–3, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" | 1999 || Australian Open <small>(3) || Anna Kournikova || Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva || 7–5, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#EBC2AF" | 2000 || French Open <small>(2) || Mary Pierce || Virginia Ruano Pascual Paola Suárez || 6–2, 6–4 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" | 2002 || Australian Open <small>(4) || Anna Kournikova || Daniela Hantuchová Arantxa Sánchez Vicario || 6–2, 6–7(4), 6–1 |} Runner-ups (2) {| class="sortable wikitable" |- |width="50"|YearChampionship |width="175"|PartnerOpponents in Final |width="120"|Score in Final 1999 French Open Anna Kournikova Serena Williams Venus Williams 6–3, 6–7(2), 8–6 2000 Australian Open Mary Pierce Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs 6–4, 5–7, 6–4 WTA Tour and ITF Circuit singles titles Legend (Singles) Tier I (17) Tier II (15) Tier III (4) Tier IV (0) Grand Slam Title (5) WTA Tour Championship (2) ITF Circuit (2) ITF Circuit #DateTournamentSurfaceOpponent in FinalScore in Final 1. October 24, 1993 Langenthal, Switzerland Carpet Sophie Georges 2–6, 7–5, 7–6(4) 2. March 10, 1996 Prostějov, Czech Republic Hard Indoors Barbara Paulus 6–1, 6–4 WTA Tour #DateTournament NameLocationSurfaceOpponent in FinalScore in Final 1. October 13, 1996 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix (1) Filderstadt, Germany Carpet Anke Huber 6–2, 3–6, 6–3 2. November 10, 1996 Bank of the West Classic (1) Oakland, California, U.S. Carpet Monica Seles 6–2, 6–0 3. January 12, 1997 Sydney International (1) Sydney, Australia Hard Jennifer Capriati 6–1, 5–7, 6–1 4. January 25, 1997 Australian Open (1) Melbourne Hard Mary Pierce 6–2, 6–2 5. February 2, 1997 Toray Pan Pacific Open (1) Tokyo Carpet Steffi Graf Walkover 6. February 16, 1997 Open Gaz de France Paris Carpet Anke Huber 6–3, 3–6, 6–3 7. March 30, 1997 Lipton International Players Championships (1) Key Biscayne, Florida, U.S. Hard Monica Seles 6–2, 6–1 8. April 6, 1997 Family Circle Magazine Cup (1) Hilton Head, South Carolina, U.S. Clay Monica Seles 3–6, 6–3, 7–6(5) 9. July 6, 1997 Wimbledon London Grass Jana Novotná 2–6, 6–3, 6–3 10. July 27, 1997 Bank of the West Classic (2) Stanford, California, U.S. Hard Conchita Martínez 6–0, 6–2 11. August 3, 1997 Toshiba Classic (1) San Diego, California, U.S. Hard Monica Seles 7–6(4), 6–4 12. September 7, 1997 US Open New York City Hard Venus Williams 6–0, 6–4 13. October 12, 1997 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix (2) Filderstadt, Germany Carpet Lisa Raymond 6–2, 6–4 14. November 16, 1997 Advanta Championships Philadelphia, U.S. Carpet Lindsay Davenport 7–5, 6–7(7), 7–6(4) 15. January 31, 1998 Australian Open (2) Melbourne Hard Conchita Martínez 6–3, 6–3 16. March 15, 1998 State Farm Evert Cup Indian Wells, California, U.S. Hard Lindsay Davenport 6–3, 6–4 17. May 4, 1998 Intersport Damen Grand Prix (1) Hamburg, Germany Clay Jana Novotná 6–3, 7–5 18. May 17, 1998 Italian Open (1) Rome Clay Venus Williams 6–3, 2–6, 6–3 19. November 22, 1998 Chase Championships (1) New York City Carpet Lindsay Davenport 7–5, 4–6, 6–4, 6–2 20. January 30, 1999 Australian Open (3) Melbourne Hard Amélie Mauresmo 6–2, 6–3 21. February 7, 1999 Toray Pan Pacific Open (2) Tokyo Carpet Amanda Coetzer 6–2, 6–1 22. April 4, 1999 Family Circle Cup (2) Hilton Head, South Carolina, U.S. Clay Anna Kournikova 6–4, 6–3 23. May 16, 1999 German Open Berlin Clay Julie Halard-Decugis 6–0, 6–1 24. August 8, 1999 TIG Tennis Classic (2) San Diego, California, U.S. Hard Venus Williams 6–4, 6–0 25. August 22, 1999 du Maurier Open Toronto, Canada Hard Monica Seles 6–4, 6–4 26. October 10, 1999 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix (3) Filderstadt, Germany Carpet Mary Pierce 6–4, 6–1 27. February 6, 2000 Toray Pan Pacific Open (3) Tokyo Carpet Sandrine Testud 6–3, 7–5 28. April 2, 2000 Ericsson Open (2) Key Biscayne, Florida, U.S. Hard Lindsay Davenport 6–3, 6–2 29. May 7, 2000 Betty Barclay Cup (2) Hamburg, Germany Clay Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–3, 6–3 30. June 25, 2000 Heineken Trophy 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands Grass Ruxandra Dragomir 6–2, 3–0 retired 31. August 20, 2000 du Maurier Open Montreal, Canada Hard Serena Williams 0–6, 6–3, 3–0 retired 32. October 8, 2000 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix (4) Filderstadt, Germany Carpet Kim Clijsters 6–0, 6–3 33. October 15, 2000 Swisscom Challenge Zürich, Switzerland Hard Lindsay Davenport 6–4, 4–6, 7–5 34. October 29, 2000 Kremlin Cup Moscow, Russia Carpet Anna Kournikova 6–3, 6–1 35. November 19, 2000 Chase Championships (2) New York City Carpet Monica Seles 6–7(5), 6–4, 6–4 36. January 8, 2001 adidas International (2) Sydney, Australia Hard Lindsay Davenport 6–3, 4–6, 7–5 37. February 18, 2001 Qatar Total FinaElf Open Doha Hard Sandrine Testud 6–3, 6–2 38. February 25, 2001 Dubai Duty Free Women's Open Dubai, United Arab Emirates Hard Nathalie Tauziat 6–4, 6–4 39. January 13, 2002 adidas International (3) Sydney, Australia Hard Meghann Shaughnessy 6–2, 6–3 40. February 3, 2002 Toray Pan Pacific Open (4) Tokyo Carpet Monica Seles 7–6(6), 4–6, 6–3 41. May 21, 2006 Internazionali d'Italia (2) Rome Clay Dinara Safina 6–2, 7–5 42. September 24, 2006 Sunfeast Open Kolkata, India Carpet Olga Poutchkova 6–0, 6–4 43. February 4, 2007 Toray Pan Pacific Open (5) Tokyo Carpet Ana Ivanović 6–4, 6–2 WTA Tour and ITF Circuit doubles titles Legend (Doubles) Tier I (13) Tier II (13) Tier III (0) Tier IV (0) Grand Slam Title (9) WTA Tour Championship (2) ITF Circuit (1) #DateTournamentSurfacePartnerOpponents in FinalScore in Final 1. March 5, 1995Prostějov, Czech RepublicHard (i) Petra Langrová Eva Melicharova Katarzyna Teodorowicz7–6, 6–2 2. May 7, 1995Hamburg, GermanyClay Gigi Fernández Conchita Martínez Patricia Tarabini6–2, 6–3 3. July 7, 1996Wimbledon, United KingdomGrass Helena Suková Meredith McGrath Larisa Neiland5–7, 7–5, 6–1 4. October 20, 1996Zürich, SwitzerlandCarpet Helena Suková Nicole Arendt Natasha Zvereva7–5, 6–4 5. January 26, 1997Australian Open, MelbourneHard Natasha Zvereva Lindsay Davenport Lisa Raymond6–2, 6–2 6. February 16, 1997Paris, FranceCarpet Helena Suková Alexandra Fusai Rita Grande6–3, 6–0 7. April 6, 1997Hilton Head, U.S.Clay Mary Joe Fernandez Lindsay Davenport Jana Novotná7–5, 4–6, 6–1 8. July 27, 1997Stanford, U.S.Hard Lindsay Davenport Conchita Martínez Patricia Tarabini6–1, 6–3 9. August 3, 1997San Diego, U.S.Hard Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Amy Frazier Kimberly Po6–3, 7–5 10. September 28, 1997Leipzig, GermanyCarpet Jana Novotná Yayuk Basuki Helena Suková6–2, 6–2 11. October 12, 1997Filderstadt, GermanyHard (i) Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Lindsay Davenport Jana Novotná7–6, 3–6, 7–6 12. October 19, 1997Zürich, SwitzerlandCarpet Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Larisa Neiland Helena Suková4–6, 6–4, 6–1 13. January 18, 1998Sydney, AustraliaHard Helena Suková Katrina Adams Meredith McGrath6–1, 6–2 14. February 1, 1998Australian Open, MelbourneHard Mirjana Lučić Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva6–4, 2–6, 6–3 15. February 8, 1998Tokyo, JapanCarpet Mirjana Lučić Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva7–5, 6–4 16. March 29, 1998Miami, U.S.Hard Jana Novotná Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Natasha Zvereva6–2, 3–6, 6–3 17. June 7, 1998French Open, ParisClay Jana Novotná Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva6–1, 7–6 18. July 5, 1998Wimbledon, United KingdomGrass Jana Novotná Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva6–3, 3–6, 8–6 19. August 16, 1998Los AngelesHard Helena Suková Tamarine Tanasugarn Elena Tatarkova6–4, 6–2 20. August 23, 1998Montreal, CanadaHard Jana Novotná Yayuk Basuki Caroline Vis6–3, 6–4 21. September 13, 1998US Open, New York CityHard Jana Novotná Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva6–3, 6–3 22. January 31, 1999Australian Open, MelbourneHard Anna Kournikova Lindsay Davenport Natasha Zvereva7–5, 6–3 23. March 14, 1999Indian Wells, U.S.Hard Anna Kournikova Mary Joe Fernandez Jana Novotná6–2, 6–2 24. March 28, 1999Miami, U.S.Hard Jana Novotná Mary Joe Fernandez Monica Seles6–0, 4–6, 7–6 25. May 9, 1999Rome, ItalyClay Anna Kournikova Alexandra Fusai Nathalie Tauziat6–2, 6–2 26. June 20, 1999Eastbourne, United KingdomGrass Anna Kournikova Jana Novotná Natasha Zvereva6–4, retired 27. November 21, 1999New York CityCarpet Anna Kournikova Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Larisa Neiland6–4, 6–4 28. February 6, 2000Tokyo, JapanCarpet Mary Pierce Alexandra Fusai Nathalie Tauziat6–4, 6–1 29. June 11, 2000French Open, ParisClay Mary Pierce Virginia Ruano Pascual Paola Suárez6–2, 6–4 30. August 20, 2000Montreal, CanadaHard Nathalie Tauziat Julie Halard-Decugis Ai Sugiyama6–3, 3–6, 6–4 31. October 8, 2000Filderstadt, GermanyHard (i) Anna Kournikova Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Barbara Schett6–4, 6–2 32. October 15, 2000Zürich, SwitzerlandCarpet Anna Kournikova Kimberly Po Anne-Gaëlle Sidot6–3, 6–4 33. November 12, 2000Philadelphia, U.S.Carpet Anna Kournikova Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs6–2, 7–5 34. November 19, 2000New York CityCarpet Anna Kournikova Nicole Arendt Manon Bollegraf6–2, 6–3 35. October 7, 2001Moscow, RussiaCarpet Anna Kournikova Elena Dementieva Lina Krasnoroutskaya7–6, 6–3 36. January 27, 2002Australian Open, MelbourneHard Anna Kournikova Daniela Hantuchová Arantxa Sánchez Vicario6–2, 6–7, 6–1 37. May 5, 2002Hamburg, GermanyClay Barbara Schett Daniela Hantuchová Arantxa Sánchez Vicario6–1, 6–1 38. March 3, 2007Doha, QatarHard Maria Kirilenko Ágnes Szávay Vladimíra Uhlířová6–1, 6–1 Singles runner-ups (26) 1995: Prostějov (lost to Karina Habšudová) 1995: Hamburg (lost to Conchita Martínez) 1996: Italian Open (lost to Martínez) 1996: Zürich (lost to Jana Novotná) 1996: Chase Championships (lost to Steffi Graf) 1997: French Open (lost to Iva Majoli) 1998: Tokyo (lost to Lindsay Davenport) 1998: Los Angeles (lost to Davenport) 1998: US Open (lost to Davenport) 1999: Sydney (lost to Davenport) 1999: French Open (lost to Graf) 1999: US Open (lost to Serena Williams) 1999: Zürich (lost to Venus Williams) 1999: Philadelphia (lost to Davenport) 1999: Chase Championships (lost to Davenport) 2000: Australian Open (lost to Davenport) 2000: Indian Wells (lost to Davenport) 2000: Philadelphia (lost to Davenport) 2001: Australian Open (lost to Jennifer Capriati) 2001: Tokyo (lost to Davenport) 2001: Charleston (lost to Capriati) 2002: Australian Open (lost to Capriati) 2002: Indian Wells (lost to Daniela Hantuchová) 2006: Tokyo (lost to Elena Dementieva) 2006: Montreal (lost to Ana Ivanović) 2007: Gold Coast (lost to Dinara Safina) Doubles runner-ups (14) 1995: Toronto with Iva Majoli (lost to Gabriela Sabatini and Brenda Schultz-McCarthy) 1996: Hamburg with Majoli (lost to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario and Schultz-McCarthy) 1996: Italian Open with Majoli (lost to Sánchez Vicario and Irina Spîrlea) 1996: German Open with Helena Suková (lost to Meredith McGrath and Larisa Neiland) 1996: Filderstadt with Suková (lost to Nicole Arendt and Jana Novotná) 1997: Tokyo with Gigi Fernández (lost to Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva) 1998: Hamburg with Novotná (lost to Barbara Schett and Patty Schnyder) 1999: Tokyo with Novotná (lost to Davenport and Zvereva) 1999: French Open with Anna Kournikova (lost to Venus Williams and Serena Williams) 2000: Sydney with Mary Pierce (lost to Julie Halard-Decugis and Ai Sugiyama) 2000: Australian Open with Pierce (lost to Lisa Raymond and Rennae Stubbs) 2000: Moscow with Kournikova (lost to Halard-Decugis and Sugiyama) 2001: San Diego with Kournikova (lost to Cara Black and Elena Likhovtseva) 2002: Sydney with Kournikova (lost to Raymond and Stubbs) Mixed doubles title 2006 Australian Open (with Mahesh Bhupathi) Team competition 2001 Hopman Cup (with Roger Federer) Singles performance timeline To prevent confusion and double counting, information in this table is updated only once a tournament or the player's participation in the tournament has concluded. This table is current through the end of 2007 WTA Tour. Tournament 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Career SR Career Win-Loss Australian OpenA2RQFWWWFFFAAAQFQF3 / 1052–7 French OpenA3R3RFSFFSFSFAAAAQFA0 / 835–8 WimbledonA1R4RWSF1RQF1RAAAA3R3R1 / 923–8 US OpenA4RSFWFFSFSF4RAAA2R3R1 / 1043–9Grand Slam SR0 / 00 / 40 / 43 / 41 / 41 / 40 / 40 / 40 / 20 / 00 / 00 / 00 / 40 / 35 / 37N/AGrand Slam Win-Loss0–06–414-427-123-319-320-416-49–20–00–00–011-48–3N/A153-32 WTA Tour ChampionshipsAAFQFWFWAAAAARRA2 / 616-5 TokyoAASFWFWWFWAAAFW5 / 932-4 Indian Wells Not Tier IAAWQFFSFFAAASF4R1 / 727-6 Key BiscayneAA2RWSFSFWSFQFAAA3R3R2 / 929-7 CharlestonAA2RWAWAFAAAAAA2 / 415-2 BerlinA2R2RAQFWSFSFAAAAQF3R1 / 819-7 RomeAAFAWSFASFAAAAWA2 / 521-3 San Diego Not Tier IAAQF3R0 / 23–2 Montreal / TorontoA3RAASFWWAQFAAAFA2 / 621-4 Moscow Not Tier IAAAWQF1RAAAAA1 / 35–2 Zürich2R2RFQFAFWAAAAAQFA1 / 716-6 PhiladelphiaA2R Not Tier I Not Held Not Tier I Not Held0 / 11–1Tournaments played413181718202018120012014N/A175Finals reached01513713136400042N/A68Tournaments Won002125793200021N/A43Hardcourt Win-Loss2–17–515-538-132-841-743-639-728-80–00–00–128-1417-11N/A290-74Clay Win-Loss0–07–310-511-116-219-212-217-52–10–00–00–014-31–1N/A109-25Grass Win-Loss0–00–13–17–05–10–17–10–10–00–00–00–02–12–1N/A26-8Carpet Win-Loss3–24–318-515-38–211-315-14–24–10–00–00–09–14–0N/A95-23Overall Win-Loss5–318–1246–1671–561–1371–1377–1060–1534–100–00–00–153–1924–13N/A520–1302 Win %63%60%74%93%82%85%89%80%77%--0%74%65%N/A80%Year End Ranking871641211410--None719N/AN/A A = did not participate in the tournament SR = the ratio of the number of singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played 2If ITF women's circuit (Hardcourt: 12–2; Carpet: 6–1) and Fed Cup (10–0) participations are included, overall win-loss record stands at 548–133. Grand Slam women's doubles performance timeline Tournament 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Career Australian Open1R1RWWWFSFW A A A A2R 34-5 French Open AQFSFWFW A A A A A A A 24-3 Wimbledon2RWQFW A2R A A A A A A A 17–3 US Open3RSFSFW A3RQFQF A A A A3R 25-6 WTA Tour career earnings Year Majors WTA wins Total wins Earnings ($) Money list rank1995000186,5673219960221,330,9964199739123,400,196119981452,760,960119991672,936,425120000993,457,049120010331,765,116520020221,467,58452003Did Not Play2004Did Not Play2005Did Not Play20060221,159,53782007011618,06523Career5384320,130,6576 Awards and accolades 1994 ITF Junior Girls Singles World Champion. Won Wimbledon junior singles title (youngest junior champion there at 13 years, 276 days). Won French Open junior singles and doubles titles. Runner-up at US Open junior singles tournament. 1995 Tennis magazine. Female Rookie of the Year. 1996 Women's Tennis Association (WTA) Tour Most Improved Player. WTA Tour Most Impressive Newcomer Award. 1997 Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year. Selected as the Player of the Year by the WTA Tour, the International Tennis Federation, and Tennis magazine. BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year. 1998 First female athlete to be on the cover of the American men's magazine GQ in June 1998. WTA Tour Doubles Team of the Year with Jana Novotná. 1999 WTA Tour Doubles Team of the Year with Anna Kournikova. 2000 One of five female tennis players named to the 2000 Forbes magazine Power 100 in Fame and Fortune list at No. 51. WTA Tour Diamond ACES Award. 2002 Elected to Tour Players' Council. 2006 World Comeback of the Year Award at the 2006 Laureus World Sports Awards. 2007 Surpassed U.S.$20 million in career earnings at the Sony Ericsson Open in Key Biscayne, Florida, the fourth female player to do so (after Steffi Graf, Martina Navratilova, and Lindsay Davenport). She was fourth in the all-time money list at $20,033,600 after the tournament. Meredith Inspiration Award for inspiring women around the world - Family Circle Cup/Family Circle magazine Others Except for the French Open, has won every major WTA Tour singles title at least once during her career (Grand Slam tournaments, WTA Tour Championships, and Tier I tournaments). Except for Berlin, has won every major WTA Tour doubles title at least once during her career (Grand Slam tournaments, WTA Tour Championships, and Tier I tournaments). 1999 French Open final (Graf d. Hingis 4–6, 7–5, 6–2) was voted by worldwide fans as the Greatest Match in 30-Year History of the Tour (online voting spanned two months and included a ballot of 16 memorable matches). To celebrate the WTA Tour's 30th Anniversary, attended on-court ceremony at 2003 season-ending WTA Tour Championships that honored 13 world No. 1 champions (past and present), and founding members of the tour. See also List of sportspeople sanctioned for doping offences References External links | Martina_Hingis |@lemmatized martina:8 hingis:112 born:1 september:6 košice:3 czechoslovakia:2 retired:1 professional:7 tennis:38 player:28 spend:1 total:7 week:10 world:22 win:53 five:4 grand:27 slam:24 single:44 title:33 three:11 australian:40 open:118 one:5 wimbledon:21 u:41 also:10 nine:2 woman:19 double:32 calendar:1 year:42 mixed:6 set:12 series:1 young:8 ever:1 record:5 ligament:2 injury:8 ankle:4 force:1 withdraw:2 temporarily:1 age:6 several:3 surgery:2 long:3 recuperation:1 return:7 wta:29 tour:32 climb:1 november:10 announce:4 retirement:3 admit:2 test:10 positive:6 cocaine:5 deny:1 use:3 drug:6 january:13 ban:3 two:10 due:1 sample:4 b:2 state:4 expire:1 childhood:1 early:5 career:14 bear:1 accomplish:1 czech:4 mother:4 melanie:2 molitorova:2 hungarian:1 father:3 living:1 slovakia:1 károly:1 ranked:1 tenth:1 among:2 determine:2 develop:1 top:5 pregnancy:1 rank:10 high:2 nineteenth:1 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3,505 | Nuvistor | RCA 6DS4 "Nuvistor" triode vacuum tube, ca. 20 mm high and 11 mm in diameter. The nuvistor is a type of vacuum tube announced by RCA in 1959. Most nuvistors are basically thimble-shaped, but somewhat smaller than a thimble. Triodes and tetrodes were made, although tetrode nuvistors are rare. The tube is made entirely of metal and ceramic. Making nuvistors requires special equipment, since there is no intubation to pump gases out of the envelope. Instead, the entire structure is assembled, inserted into its metal envelope, sealed and processed in a large vacuum chamber with simple robotic devices. Nuvistors are among the highest performing small signal receiving tubes. They feature excellent VHF and UHF performance plus low noise figures, and were widely used throughout the 1960s in televisions (beginning with RCA's "New Vista" line of color sets in 1961 with the CTC-11 chassis), radio equipment and high-fidelity equipment, primarily in RF sections. They competed with the solid state revolution, and along with GE's Compactron, probably held it at bay for a few years. RCA discontinued their use in television tuners for its product line in late 1971. One famous application was in the Ampex MR-70, a costly studio tape recorder whose entire electronics section was based on nuvistors. Example Nuvistor types: 7586 - First one released, medium mu triode 7587 - Sharp cutoff tetrode 8056 - triode for low plate voltages 8058 - triode, with plate cap & grid on shell, for UHF performance 7895 - 7586 with higher mu 2CW4 - Same as type 6CW4, but with a 2.1 volt / 450 milliampere heater. Used in television receivers with series heater strings 6CW4 - high mu triode, most common one in consumer electronics 6DS4 - remote cutoff 6CW4 6DV4 - medium mu, intended as UHF oscillator, shell sometimes gold plated Nuvistor with U.S. dime for scale | Nuvistor |@lemmatized rca:4 nuvistor:4 triode:6 vacuum:3 tube:4 ca:1 mm:2 high:5 diameter:1 type:3 announce:1 nuvistors:5 basically:1 thimble:2 shaped:1 somewhat:1 small:2 tetrode:3 make:3 although:1 rare:1 entirely:1 metal:2 ceramic:1 require:1 special:1 equipment:3 since:1 intubation:1 pump:1 gas:1 envelope:2 instead:1 entire:2 structure:1 assemble:1 insert:1 seal:1 process:1 large:1 chamber:1 simple:1 robotic:1 device:1 among:1 perform:1 signal:1 receiving:1 feature:1 excellent:1 vhf:1 uhf:3 performance:2 plus:1 low:2 noise:1 figure:1 widely:1 use:3 throughout:1 television:3 begin:1 new:1 vista:1 line:2 color:1 set:1 ctc:1 chassis:1 radio:1 fidelity:1 primarily:1 rf:1 section:2 compete:1 solid:1 state:1 revolution:1 along:1 ge:1 compactron:1 probably:1 hold:1 bay:1 year:1 discontinue:1 tuner:1 product:1 late:1 one:3 famous:1 application:1 ampex:1 mr:1 costly:1 studio:1 tape:1 recorder:1 whose:1 electronics:2 base:1 example:1 first:1 release:1 medium:2 mu:4 sharp:1 cutoff:2 plate:2 voltage:1 cap:1 grid:1 shell:2 volt:1 milliampere:1 heater:2 receiver:1 series:1 string:1 common:1 consumer:1 remote:1 intend:1 oscillator:1 sometimes:1 gold:1 plated:1 u:1 dime:1 scale:1 |@bigram vacuum_tube:2 tape_recorder:1 consumer_electronics:1 |
3,506 | Equivalence_class | In mathematics, given a set X and an equivalence relation ~ on X, the equivalence class of an element a in X is the subset of all elements in X which are equivalent to a: The notion of equivalence classes is useful for constructing sets out of already constructed ones. The set of all equivalence classes in X given an equivalence relation ~ is usually denoted as X / ~ and called the quotient set of X by ~. This operation can be thought of (very informally) as the act of "dividing" the input set by the equivalence relation, hence both the name "quotient", and the notation, which are both reminiscent of division. One way in which the quotient set resembles division is that if X is finite and the equivalence classes are all equinumerous, then the order of X/~ is the quotient of the order of X by the order of an equivalence class. The quotient set is to be thought of as the set X with all the equivalent points identified. For any equivalence relation, there is a canonical projection map π from X to X/~ given by π(x) = [x]. This map is always surjective. In cases where X has some additional structure, one considers equivalence relations which preserve that structure. Then one says that that structure is well-defined, and the quotient set inherits the structure to become an object of the same category in a natural fashion; the map that sends a to [a] is then an epimorphism in that category. See congruence relation. The alternative notation [a]R can be used to denote that we mean the equivalence class of the element a specifically with respect to the equivalence relation R. This is said to be the R-equivalence class of a. Examples If X is the set of all cars, and ~ is the equivalence relation "has the same color as", then one particular equivalence class consists of all green cars. X / ~ could be naturally identified with the set of all car colors. Consider the "modulo 2" equivalence relation on the set Z of integers: x~y if and only if x-y is even. This relation gives rise to exactly two equivalence classes: [0] consisting of all even numbers, and [1] consisting of all odd numbers. Under this relation [7] [9] and [1] all represent the same element of Z / ~. The rational numbers can be constructed as the set of equivalence classes of ordered pairs of integers (a,b) with b not zero, where the equivalence relation is defined by (a,b) ~ (c,d) if and only if ad = bc. Here the equivalence class of the pair (a,b) can be identified with rational number a/b. Any function f : X → Y defines an equivalence relation on X by x1 ~ x2 if and only if f(x1) = f(x2). The equivalence class of x is the set of all elements in X which get mapped to f(x), i.e. the class [x] is the inverse image of f(x). This equivalence relation is known as the kernel of f. Given a group G and a subgroup H, we can define an equivalence relation on G by x ~ y if and only if xy -1 ∈ H. The equivalence classes are known as right cosets of H in G; one of them is H itself. They all have the same number of elements (or cardinality in the case of an infinite H). If H is a normal subgroup, then the set of all cosets is itself a group in a natural way. Every group can be partitioned into equivalence classes called conjugacy classes. The homotopy class of a continuous map f is the equivalence class of all maps homotopic to f. In natural language processing, an equivalence class is a set of all references to a single person, place, thing, or event, either real or conceptual. For example, in the sentence "GE shareholders will vote for a successor to the company's outgoing CEO Jack Welch", GE and the company are synonymous, and thus constitute one equivalence class. There are separate equivalence classes for GE shareholders and Jack Welch. Properties Because of the properties of an equivalence relation it holds that a is in [a] and that any two equivalence classes are either equal or disjoint. It follows that the set of all equivalence classes of X forms a partition of X: every element of X belongs to one and only one equivalence class. Conversely every partition of X also defines an equivalence relation over X. It also follows from the properties of an equivalence relation that a ~ b if and only if [a] = [b]. If ~ is an equivalence relation on X, and P(x) is a property of elements of x, such that whenever x ~ y, P(x) is true if P(y) is true, then the property P is said to be well-defined or a class invariant under the relation ~. A frequent particular case occurs when f is a function from X to another set Y; if x1 ~ x2 implies f(x1) = f(x2) then f is said to be a class invariant under ~, or simply invariant under ~. This occurs, e.g. in the character theory of finite groups. The latter case with the function f can be expressed by a commutative triangle. See also invariant. Some authors use "compatible with ~" or just "respects ~" instead of "invariant under ~". See also First Isomorphism Theorem In music see octave equivalency, transpositional equivalency, inversional equivalency, enharmonic equivalency. Musical set theory takes advantage of all of these, to varying degrees, while other theories take more or less advantage of a selection. In computing a form of testing is based on equivalence partitions, which are based on equivalence classes. | Equivalence_class |@lemmatized mathematics:1 give:5 set:19 x:39 equivalence:39 relation:20 class:27 element:8 subset:1 equivalent:2 notion:1 useful:1 construct:3 already:1 one:9 usually:1 denote:2 call:2 quotient:6 operation:1 think:2 informally:1 act:1 divide:1 input:1 hence:1 name:1 notation:2 reminiscent:1 division:2 way:2 resembles:1 finite:2 equinumerous:1 order:3 point:1 identify:3 canonical:1 projection:1 map:6 π:2 always:1 surjective:1 case:4 additional:1 structure:4 considers:1 preserve:1 say:4 well:2 define:6 inherit:1 become:1 object:1 category:2 natural:3 fashion:1 send:1 epimorphism:1 see:4 congruence:1 alternative:1 r:3 use:2 mean:1 specifically:1 respect:2 example:2 car:3 color:2 particular:2 consist:1 green:1 could:1 naturally:1 consider:1 modulo:1 z:2 integer:2 even:2 rise:1 exactly:1 two:2 consisting:2 number:5 odd:1 represent:1 rational:2 ordered:1 pair:2 b:7 zero:1 c:1 ad:1 bc:1 function:3 f:13 get:1 e:2 inverse:1 image:1 know:2 kernel:1 group:4 g:4 subgroup:2 h:6 xy:1 right:1 cosets:2 cardinality:1 infinite:1 normal:1 every:3 partition:4 conjugacy:1 homotopy:1 continuous:1 homotopic:1 language:1 processing:1 reference:1 single:1 person:1 place:1 thing:1 event:1 either:2 real:1 conceptual:1 sentence:1 ge:3 shareholder:2 vote:1 successor:1 company:2 outgo:1 ceo:1 jack:2 welch:2 synonymous:1 thus:1 constitute:1 separate:1 property:5 hold:1 equal:1 disjoint:1 follow:2 form:2 belongs:1 conversely:1 also:4 p:4 whenever:1 true:2 invariant:5 frequent:1 occur:2 another:1 imply:1 simply:1 character:1 theory:3 latter:1 express:1 commutative:1 triangle:1 author:1 compatible:1 instead:1 first:1 isomorphism:1 theorem:1 music:1 octave:1 equivalency:4 transpositional:1 inversional:1 enharmonic:1 musical:1 take:2 advantage:2 vary:1 degree:1 less:1 selection:1 compute:1 test:1 base:2 |@bigram equivalence_relation:16 ordered_pair:1 normal_subgroup:1 conjugacy_class:1 homotopy_class:1 |
3,507 | Michael_Foot | Michael Mackintosh Foot (born 23 July 1913) is an British politician and writer. He was leader of the Labour Party from 1980 to 1983. Family Foot's father, Isaac Foot, was a solicitor and founder of the Plymouth law firm, Foot and Bowden. Isaac Foot was an active member of the Liberal Party and was Liberal Member of Parliament for Bodmin in Cornwall 1922–1924 and 1929–1935 and a Lord Mayor of Plymouth. Michael Foot is the younger brother of the late Sir Dingle Foot MP, and also of the Liberal politician Lord Foot (previously John Foot), and of the late Lord Caradon (previously Hugh Foot), a Governor of Cyprus and a former representative of the United Kingdom at the United Nations from 1964-1970, whose late son was the campaigning journalist Paul Foot. Early life Michael Foot was born in Plymouth, Devon, and educated at Plymouth College Preparatory School and Leighton Park School in Reading. He then went on to read Philosophy, Politics and Economics at Wadham College, Oxford. Foot was president of the Oxford Union. He also took part in the ESU USA Tour (the debating tour of the USA run by the English-Speaking Union). On graduating in 1934, he took a job as a shipping clerk in Liverpool. Foot was profoundly influenced by the poverty and unemployment that he witnessed in Liverpool, on a different scale from anything he had seen in Plymouth. A Liberal up to this time, Foot was converted to Socialism by Oxford University Labour Club president David Lewis and others: "... I knew him [at Oxford] when I was a Liberal [and Lewis] played a part in converting me to socialism." Foot in an interview with the author in 1985 Foot joined the Labour Party and first stood for parliament at the age of 22 in the 1935 general election when he contested Monmouth. During this election Foot criticised the Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, for seeking rearmament. In his election address Foot contended that "the armaments race in Europe must be stopped now". Mervyn Jones, Michael Foot (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1994), p. 43. Foot also supported unilateral disarmament, after multilateral disarmament talks at Geneva had broken down in 1933. Ibid, p. 30. He became a journalist, working briefly on the New Statesman before joining the left-wing weekly Tribune when it was set up in early 1937 to support the Unity Campaign, an attempt to secure an anti-fascist United Front between Labour and the parties to its left. The campaign's members were Stafford Cripps's (Labour-affiliated) Socialist League, the Independent Labour Party and the Communist Party of Great Britain (CP). Foot resigned in 1938 after the paper's first editor, William Mellor, was fired for refusing to adopt a new CP policy of backing a Popular Front, including non-socialist parties, against fascism and appeasement. Journalist On the recommendation of Aneurin Bevan, Foot was soon hired by Lord Beaverbrook to work as a writer on his Evening Standard. (Bevan is supposed to have told Beaverbrook on the phone: "I've got a young bloody knight-errant here. They sacked his boss, so he resigned. Have a look at him.") At the outbreak of the second world war, Foot volunteered for military service, but was rejected due to his chronic asthma. In 1940, under the pen-name "Cato" he and two other Beaverbrook journalists (Frank Owen, editor of the Standard, and Peter Howard of the Daily Express) published Guilty Men, a Left Book Club book attacking the appeasement policy of the Chamberlain government that became a run-away best-seller. Beaverbrook made Foot editor of the Evening Standard in 1942 at the age of 28. During the war he made a speech that was later featured during The World at War TV series of the early 1970s. Foot was speaking in defence of the Daily Mirror, which had criticised the conduct of the war by the Churchill Government. He mocked the notion that the Government would have no more territorial demands of other newspapers if they allowed the Mirror to be censored. Foot left the Standard in 1945 to join the Daily Herald as a columnist. The Daily Herald was jointly owned by the TUC and Odhams Press, and was effectively an official Labour Party paper. He rejoined Tribune as editor from 1948 to 1952, and was again the paper's editor from 1955 to 1960. Throughout his political career he railed against the increasing corporate domination of the press, entertaining a special loathing for Rupert Murdoch. Member of Parliament Foot fought the Plymouth Devonport constituency in the 1945 general election. He won the seat for Labour for the first time, holding it until his surprise defeat by Dame Joan Vickers at the 1955 general election. Until 1957, he was the most prominent ally of Aneurin Bevan, who had taken Cripps's place as leader of the Labour left, though Foot and Bevan fell out after Bevan renounced unilateral nuclear disarmament at the 1957 Labour Party conference. Before the cold war began in the late 1940s, Foot favoured a 'third way' foreign policy for Europe (he was joint author with Richard Crossman and Ian Mikardo of the pamphlet Keep Left in 1947), but in the wake of the communist seizure of power in Hungary and Czechoslovakia he and Tribune took a strongly anti-communist position, eventually embracing NATO. Foot was however a critic of the west's handling of the Korean war, an opponent of West German rearmament in the early 1950s and a founder member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Under his editorship, Tribune opposed both the British government's Suez adventure and the Soviet crushing of the Hungarian revolution in 1956. Foot returned to parliament in 1960 at a by-election for Ebbw Vale in Monmouthshire, left vacant by Bevan's death. He had the Labour whip withdrawn in March 1961 after rebelling against the Labour leadership over air force estimates. He only returned to the Parliamentary Labour Group in 1963 when Harold Wilson replaced Hugh Gaitskell as Labour leader. Harold Wilson – the subject of an enthusiastic campaign biography by Foot published by Robert Maxwell's Pergamon Press in 1964 – offered Foot a place in his first government, but Foot turned it down. Instead he became the leader of Labour's left opposition from the back benches, dazzling the Commons with his command of rhetoric. He opposed the government's moves to restrict immigration, join the Common Market and reform the trade unions, was against the Vietnam war and Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence, and denounced the Soviet suppression of "socialism with a human face" in Czechoslovakia in 1968. He also famously allied with the Tory right-winger Enoch Powell to scupper the government's plan to abolish the voting rights of hereditary peers and create a House of Lords comprising only life peers – a "seraglio of eunuchs" as Foot put it. In 1967, Foot challenged James Callaghan but failed to win the post of Treasurer of the Labour Party. In government After 1970, Labour moved to the left and Wilson came to an accommodation with Foot. In April 1972, he stood for the Deputy Leadership of the party, along with Edward Short and Anthony Crosland. Short defeated Foot in the second ballot after Crosland had been eliminated in the first.. When, in 1974, Labour returned to office under Harold Wilson, Foot became Secretary of State for Employment. In this role, he played the major part in the government's efforts to maintain the trade unions' support. He was also responsible for the Health and Safety at Work Act. Foot was one of the mainstays of the "no" campaign in the 1975 referendum on British membership of the European Economic Community. When Wilson retired in 1976, Foot contested the party leadership, leading in the first ballot, but was ultimately defeated by James Callaghan. Later that year, he was elected Deputy Leader and served as Leader of the House of Commons, which gave him the unenviable task of trying to maintain the survival of the Callaghan government as its majority evaporated. In 1975, Foot, along with Jennie Lee and others, courted controversy when they supported Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India, after she prompted the declaration of a state of emergency. Labour Leadership Following Labour's 1979 general election defeat by Margaret Thatcher, Foot was elected Labour leader in 1980, beating the right's candidate Denis Healey in the second round of the leadership election (the last leadership contest to involve only Labour MPs). Foot presented himself as a compromise candidate capable, unlike Healey, of uniting the party, which at the time was riven by the grassroots left-wing insurgency centred on Tony Benn. The Bennites demanded revenge for the betrayals, as they saw them, of the Callaghan government, and pushed the case for replacement of MPs who had acquiesced in them by left-wingers who would support the causes of unilateral nuclear disarmament, withdrawal from the Common Market and widespread nationalisation. (Benn did not stand for the leadership: apart from Foot and Healey, the other candidates – both eliminated in the first round – were John Silkin, like Foot a Tribunite, and Peter Shore, an anti-European right-winger.) When he became leader, Foot was already 67 and frail – and almost immediately after his election as leader was faced with a massive crisis: the creation in early 1981 of a breakaway party by four senior Labour right-wingers, Roy Jenkins, Shirley Williams, David Owen and William Rodgers (the so-called "Gang of Four"), the Social Democratic Party. The SDP won the support of large sections of the media, and for more than a year its opinion poll ratings suggested that it could at least overtake Labour and possibly win a general election. With the Labour left still strong – in 1981 Benn decided to challenge Healey for the deputy leadership of the party, a contest Healey won by the narrowest of margins – Foot struggled to make an impact and was widely criticised for it, though his performances in the Commons, most notably on the Falklands crisis of 1982, won him widespread respect from other parliamentarians. (He was however criticised by some on the left who felt that he should not have supported the Thatcher government's immediate resort to military action.) The right-wing newspapers nevertheless lambasted him consistently for what they saw as his bohemian eccentricity, attacking him for wearing what they described as a "donkey jacket" at the wreath-laying ceremony at the Cenotaph on Remembrance Day. Foot didn't make it generally known that HM the Queen Mother had complimented him on it. Through late 1982 and early 1983, there was constant speculation that Labour MPs would replace Foot with Healey as leader – speculation that increased after Labour lost the 1983 Bermondsey by-election, in which the gay rights activist Peter Tatchell was its candidate – standing against a Tory, a Liberal and the right wing John O'Grady, who had declared himself the "real" Labour candidate and fought an openly homophobic campaign against Tatchell; but, critically, Labour held on in a subsequent by-election in Darlington and Foot remained leader for the 1983 general election. Resignation The 1983 Labour manifesto, strongly socialist in tone, advocated unilateral nuclear disarmament, higher personal taxation and a return to a more interventionist industrial policy. The manifesto also pledged that a Labour government would abolish the House of Lords, nationalise banks and leave the EEC. Among the Labour MPs newly-elected in 1983 in support of this manifesto were Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. Foot's Labour Party lost to the Conservatives in a landslide. Foot resigned and was succeeded by Neil Kinnock as leader. Gerald Kaufman, once Harold Wilson's press officer and during the 1980s a key player on the Labour right, described the 1983 Labour manifesto as "the longest suicide note in history". This wasn't just through the orientation of the policies however, it also included the marketing aspect. As a statement on internal democracy, Foot passed the edict that the manifesto would consist of all resolutions arrived at conference, making the manifesto over 700 pages long. The party also failed to master the medium of television, while Foot addressed public meetings around the country, and made some radio broadcasts, in the same manner as Clement Attlee in 1945. Members joked that they hadn't expected Foot to allow the slogan "Think positive, Act positive, Vote Labour" on grammatical grounds. The irony of the 1983 manifesto has not been lost on recent Labour politicians such as Geoffrey Robinson, who remarked when talking of the 2008 credit crunch and the banking crisis, where part nationalisation of the banks has been proposed, that the 1983 manifesto has come into effect twenty five years later. Hardline left-wing Labour Party commentators believe this has given Foot some vindication. Backbenches and Retirement Foot took a back seat in Labour politics after 1983 and retired from the House of Commons in 1992 but remained politically active. From 1987 to 1992, he was the oldest sitting British MP (preceding former Prime Minister Sir Edward Heath). He defended Salman Rushdie, the novelist who was subject to a fatwa by Ayatollah Khomeini, and took a strongly pro-interventionist position against Slobodan Milošević over Croatia and Bosnia. In addition he is among the Patrons of the British-Croatian Society. The British Croatian Society Registered Charity No. 1086139 Info and CV's of the members, retrieved 2009-01-29 In 1995, an article in The Sunday Times, under the headline "KGB: Michael Foot was our agent", alleged that the Soviet intelligence services regarded Foot as an 'agent of influence', named as 'Agent Boot'. Foot denied he had been any such thing, successfully sued The Sunday Times and handed over a large part of his damages to Tribune. The article was based on the paper's serialisation of KGB defector Oleg Gordievsky's memoirs. Foot has remained a high-profile member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament to this day. He is the author of several books, including highly regarded biographies of Aneurin Bevan and H. G. Wells. Indeed, he is a distinguished Vice-president of the H. G. Wells Society. Many of his friends have said publicly that they regret that he ever gave up literature for politics. Foot is an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society and a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association. In a poll of Labour party activists he was voted the worst post-war Labour party leader http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/newsnight/michaelcrick/2008/09/place_that_labour_face.html . Though Foot is considered by many a failure as Labour leader, his biographer Mervyn Jones strongly makes the case that no one else could have held Labour together at the time. Foot is remembered with affection in Westminster as a great parliamentarian. He was widely liked, and admired for his integrity and generosity of spirit, by both his colleagues and opponents. Personal life Foot was married to the film-maker, author and feminist historian Jill Craigie from 1949 until her death in 1999. In 2007, it was revealed that he had engaged in an extramarital affair in the early 1970s which had put a considerable strain on his marriage, not least because he spent a substantial amount of money paying the woman's bills. Craigie's suspicion was said to have been raised when Foot, not known for his sartorial elegance, began taking inordinate care over his appearance. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article1434627.ece Michael Foot had a young black mistress - Times Online In 2003 Foot turned 90. He has been a passionate supporter of Plymouth Argyle Football Club since childhood, and served for several years as a director of the club. For his 90th birthday present, the club registered him as a player and gave him the shirt number, 90. This made him the oldest registered player in the history of football. He has stated that he would not 'conk out' until he had seen his team play in the Premiership. On 23 July 2006, his 93rd birthday, Michael Foot became the longest lived leader of a British political party, beating Lord Callaghan's record of 92 years, 364 days. A staunch republican (though well liked by Royalty), and proponent of an elected upper house, Foot had always rejected honours from the Queen and the government, including a knighthood and a peerage on more than one occasion. In popular culture Foot was portrayed by Patrick Godfrey in the 2002 BBC production of Ian Curteis's controversial The Falklands Play. The Polish military officer and diplomat, Michael W. Zwierzanski, became a politician in Poland during the 1980s. In his second collection of memoirs, published in 1999 under the title of Under Auspices of a Saffron Tree: Life Through a Detached Ambiguity, Zwierzanski wrote how he was in "semi-frequent contact" with Foot's office and that the Labour leader "inspired me greatly, especially with his stance towards nationalistion and social policy...[my] proposal to reclassify travelling peoples as those not protected by domestic law...[in order to] channel extra monies to the native Polish populations in and around Krakow...was directly influenced by the ideals of Mr Foot." Notes Bibliography "Cato". Guilty Men. Left Book Club. 1940. "Brendan and Beverley" (as "Cassius"). Victor Gollancz. 1940. Foot, Michael: The Pen and the Sword. MacGibbon and Kee. 1957. ISBN 0-261-61989-6 Foot, Michael: Aneurin Bevan. MacGibbon and Kee. 1962 (vol 1); 1973 (vol 2) ISBN 0-261-61508-4 Foot, Michael: Debts of Honour. Harper and Row. 1981. ISBN 0-06-039001-8 Foot, Michael: Another Heart and Other Pulses. Collins. 1984. Foot, Michael: H. G.: The History of Mr Wells. Doubleday. 1985. Foot, Michael: Loyalists and Loners. Collins. 1986. Foot, Michael: Politics of Paradise. HarperCollins. 1989. ISBN 0-06-039091-3 Foot, Michael: 'Introduction' in Swift, Jonathan. Gulliver's Travels. Penguin (Penguin Classics), 1967 & 1985. Foot, Michael: 'Introduction' in Russell, Bertrand: Autobiography (Routledge, 1998) Foot, Michael: Dr Strangelove, I Presume (Gollancz, 1999) Foot, Michael: The Uncollected Michael Foot (ed Brian Brivati, Politicos Publishing, 2003) Foot, Michael: 'Foreword' in Rosen, Greg: Old Labour to New (Methuen Publishing, 2005) Foot, Michael: Isaac Foot: A West Country Boy - Apostle of England. (Politicos, 2006) Biographies Hoggart, Simon; & Leigh, David. Michael Foot: a Portrait. Hodder. 1981. ISBN 0-340-27040-3 Jones, Mervyn. Michael Foot. Gollancz. 1993. ISBN 0-575-05933-8 Morgan, Kenneth O. Michael Foot: A Life. HarperPress (HarperCollins) 2007. ISBN 978 0 00 717826 1 External links In-depth biographical interview marking Foot's 90th birthday The Labour History Archive and Study Centre hold Michael Foot's archive see: http://www.phm.org.uk/ | Michael_Foot |@lemmatized michael:26 mackintosh:1 foot:95 born:1 july:2 british:8 politician:4 writer:2 leader:16 labour:46 party:22 family:1 father:1 isaac:3 solicitor:1 founder:2 plymouth:7 law:2 firm:1 bowden:1 active:2 member:8 liberal:6 parliament:4 bodmin:1 cornwall:1 lord:7 mayor:1 young:3 brother:1 late:5 sir:2 dingle:1 mp:5 also:8 previously:2 john:3 caradon:1 hugh:2 governor:1 cyprus:1 former:2 representative:1 united:3 kingdom:1 nation:1 whose:1 son:1 campaigning:1 journalist:4 paul:1 early:7 life:5 bear:1 devon:1 educate:1 college:2 preparatory:1 school:2 leighton:1 park:1 reading:1 go:1 read:1 philosophy:1 politics:5 economics:1 wadham:1 oxford:4 president:3 union:4 take:7 part:5 esu:1 usa:2 tour:2 debate:1 run:2 english:1 speak:2 graduate:1 job:1 shipping:1 clerk:1 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3,508 | Joseph_Gurney_Cannon | For other people named Joseph Cannon see Joseph Cannon (disambiguation) Joseph Gurney Cannon (May 7, 1836 – November 12, 1926) was a United States politician from Illinois and leader of the Republican Party. Cannon served as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1903 to 1911, and historians generally consider him to be the most dominant Speaker in United States history, with such control over the House that he could often control debate. Cannon is the second longest-serving Republican Speaker in history, having been surpassed by fellow Illinoisan Dennis Hastert, who passed him on June 1, 2006. He was also the first Congressman to surpass 40 years of service (non-consecutive), ending his career with 48 years of cumulative congressional service, a record that held until 1958. He was the subject of the first Time cover. Early life He was born in Guilford, Guilford County, North Carolina, and in 1840 moved with his parents to Annapolis, Indiana, about 30 miles north of Terre Haute, Indiana. He was the elder of two sons of Horace Cannon, a country doctor. Horace Cannon drowned when Joseph was ten years old as he tried to reach a sick patient by crossing Sugar Creek. Young Cannon took charge of the family farm. Gulielma (Hollingsworth) was his mother; his brother William would become a successful banker and realtor. Joseph G. Cannon as a younger congressman. Asked by Terre Haute politician and lawyer John Palmer Usher, future Secretary of the Interior under President Abraham Lincoln, to testify in a slander case, Cannon became fascinated with the law. Eventually, he asked Usher if he could study law under him and moved to Terre Haute. At age 19 he traveled to Cincinnati, Ohio to attend a semester of law school at the University of Cincinnati law school. Speaker Cannon presides over the House of Representatives during the 59th Congress, 1906. He was admitted to the bar in 1858 and commenced practice in Terre Haute, Indiana, in 1858, but was disappointed when Usher refused to offer him a place in his office. That year he relocated to Tuscola, Illinois. His choice of a new hometown was somewhat involuntary, taking place whilst he was travelling from Shelbyville, Illinois, to Chicago to find more clients for his law firm. During the trip, he ran out of money. He boarded a Chicago-bound train in Mattoon, Illinois; after the train had started, he was asked for his ticket. Because Cannon did not have a ticket, he was removed from the train in Tuscola. "Joseph G. Cannon's Tuscola, Illinois, Connection", Illinois History, April 1994. There, he became State's attorney for the twenty-seventh judicial district of Illinois, holding the position from March 1861 to December 1868. In 1876 moved to Danville, Illinois, where he resided the rest of his life. He and his wife Mary P. Reed, whom he married in 1862, had two daughters. Political career Joseph G. Cannon at the 1904 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Illinois. He became a follower of Abraham Lincoln during the Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. After Lincoln was elected President in 1860, Cannon received an appointment as a regional prosecutor. Cannon, a member of the Republican Party, was elected as to the United States House of Representatives from Illinois to the Forty-second and to the eight succeeding Congresses (March 4, 1873–March 4, 1891), and was the chairman, Committee on Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Forty-seventh Congress), Committee on Appropriations (Fifty-first Congress). He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1890 to the Fifty-second Congress, but was elected to the Fifty-third and to the nine succeeding Congresses that sat between 1893 and 1913. He attempted to gain the Speakership four times before succeeding. His antic speaking style, diminutive stature and pugnacious manner were his trademarks. The newspapers frequently lampooned him as a colorful rube. "Uncle Joe", as he was known, often clashed with fellow Republican Theodore Roosevelt, who Cannon remarked had "no more use for the Constitution than a tomcat has for a marriage license". Speaker Cannon on Time Magazine's first cover in 1923. Joseph was chairman to the Committee on Appropriations (Fifty-fourth through Fifty-seventh Congresses), Committee on Rules (Fifty-eighth through Sixty-first Congresses), and Speaker of the House of Representatives (Fifty-eighth through Sixty-first Congresses). He received fifty-eight votes for the presidential nomination at the Republican National Convention at Chicago in 1908. Cannon's residence in Danville, Illinois In 1910 an Insurgent revolt flared in the House as both Democrats and dissatisfied Republicans stripped the Speaker of some of his powers, such as heading the House Rules Committee and ability to appoint members of other House committees. Cannon was defeated in 1912 but returned in 1914 and was re-elected through 1922. He was a critic of President Woodrow Wilson and US entry into World War I. He was also an outspoken critic of Wilson's League of Nations. Cannon retired in 1922; he was featured on the cover of the first issue of Time magazine on the last day of his term in office. Born a Quaker, he became a Methodist after leaving Congress. However, he may have been effectively a Methodist long before this. After marrying Mary Reed in a Methodist service 1862, a Quaker encouraged him to express regret for this, to which Cannon replied, "If you mean that I am to get up in meeting and say that I am sorry I married Mary, I won't do it. I'm damned if I'm sorry and I'm damned if I will say I am." Joseph Cannon died in his residence in Danville, Vermilion County, Illinois. He had a weakened heart and also suffered from the general effects of old age. Cannon expired at noon on November 12, 1926 while in a deep sleep. "'Joe' Cannon Dies in Danville at 90; 46 Years in House", The New York Times, November 13, 1926. He was buried in Spring Hill Cemetery. Legacy Cannon brought a federal Veterans Administration Hospital to Danville; it continues to serve military veterans. The first building of offices for congressmen outside of the United States Capitol building was named after Cannon. Cannon was the first person to be featured on the cover of Time magazine, appearing in its first issue (1923). Cannon signed the 16th Amendment which established Congress' right to impose a Federal income tax. External links Notes Further reading Bolles, Blair. Tyrant from Illinois: Uncle Joe Cannon's Experiment with Personal Power (1951) Busbey, L. White. Uncle Joe Cannon, The Story of a Pioneer American (1927) His autobiography, Uncle Joe Cannon, (1927) Roger, Scott William. "Uncle Joe Cannon: The Brakeman of the House of Representatives, 1903–1911" in Raymond W Smock and Susan W Hammond, eds. 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3,509 | Negotiation | For Wikipedia's negotiation policy, see Wikipedia:Negotiation. For other uses, see Negotiation (disambiguation). Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called negotiation theory. Those who work in negotiation professionally are called negotiators. Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators, or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers. Etymology The word "negotiation" is from the Latin expression, "nec-otium". This expression means "non"(nec) or the opposite of "otium" that originated in the current vocabulary of Latin languages the word leisure. The literal combination of these words translates, roughly, to "non leisure time". Approaches to negotiation Negotiation typically manifests itself with a trained negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organization or position. It can be compared to mediation where a disinterested third party listens to each sides' arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It is also related to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding, both sides make an argument as to the merits of their "case" and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for both parties. Negotiation involves three basic elements: process, behavior and substance. The process refers to how the parties negotiate: the context of the negotiations, the parties to the negotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and the sequence and stages in which all of these play out. Behavior refers to the relationships among these parties, the communication between them and the styles they adopt. The substance refers to what the parties negotiate over: the agenda, the issues (positions and - more helpfully - interests), the options, and the agreement(s) reached at the end. Skilled negotiators may use a variety of tactics ranging from negotiation hypnosis, to a straight forward presentation of demands or setting of preconditions to more deceptive approaches such as cherry picking. Intimidation and salami tactics may also play a part in swaying the outcome of negotiations. Another negotiation tactic is bad guy/good guy. Bad guy/good guy tactic is when one negotiator acts as a bad guy by using anger and threats. The other negotiator acts as a good guy by being considerate and understanding. The good guy blames the bad guy for all the difficulties while trying to get concessions and agreement from the opponent. Churchman, David. 1993. Negotiation Tactics. Maryland: University Press of America. Pg 13. The advocate's approach In the advocacy approach, a skilled negotiator usually serves as advocate for one party to the negotiation and attempts to obtain the most favorable outcomes possible for that party. In this process the negotiator attempts to determine the minimum outcome(s) the other party is (or parties are) willing to accept, then adjusts their demands accordingly. A "successful" negotiation in the advocacy approach is when the negotiator is able to obtain all or most of the outcomes their party desires, but without driving the other party to permanently break off negotiations, unless the best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) is acceptable. Traditional negotiating is sometimes called win-lose because of the assumption of a fixed "pie", that one person's gain results in another person's loss. This is only true, however, if only a single issue needs to be resolved, such as a price in a simple sales negotiation. The "win/win" negotiator's approach During the early part of the twentieth century, academics such as Mary Parker Follett developed ideas suggesting that agreement often can be reached if parties look not at their stated positions but rather at their underlying interests and requirements to reach a decision that benefits both parties. During the 1960s, Gerard I. Nierenberg recognized the role of negotiation in resolving disputes in personal, business and international relations. He published The Art of Negotiating, where he states that the philosophies of the negotiators determine the direction a negotiation takes. His Everybody Wins philosophy assures that all parties benefit from the negotiation process which also produces more successful outcomes than the adversarial “winner takes all” approach. In the 1970s, practitioners and researchers began to develop win-win approaches to negotiation. Win-win is taken from Economic Game Theory, and has been adopted by North American negotiation academics loosely to mean Principled Negotiation. Getting to YES was published by Roger Fisher and William Ury as part of the Harvard negotiation project. The book's approach, referred to as Principled Negotiation, is also sometimes called mutual gains bargaining. The mutual gains approach has been effectively applied in environmental situations (see Lawrence Susskind and Adil Najam) as well as labor relations where the parties (e.g. management and a labor union) frame the negotiation as "problem solving". If multiple issues are discussed, differences in the parties' preferences make win-win negotiation possible. For example, in a labor negotiation, the union might prefer job security over wage gains. If the employers have opposite preferences, a trade is possible that is beneficial to both parties. Such a negotiation is therefore not an adversarial zero-sum game. There are a tremendous number of other scholars who have contributed to the field of negotiation, including Holly Schroth at UC Berkeley, Gerard E. Watzke at Tulane University, Sara Cobb at George Mason University, Len Riskin at the University of Missouri, Howard Raiffa at Harvard, Robert McKersie and Lawrence Susskind at MIT, and Adil Najam and Jeswald Salacuse at The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. The new creative approach Copyright (c) 2009 John L. Graham. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". Perhaps the most famous negotiation parable involves an argument over an orange. The most obvious approach was to simply cut it in half, each person getting a fair share. But, when the negotiators began talking to each other, exchanging information about their interests, a better solution to the problem became obvious. The person wanting the orange for juice for breakfast took that part and the person wanting the rind for making marmalade took that part. Both sides ended up with more. Neither agreement is particularly creative. The parable of the orange becomes a story about creativity when both parties decide to cooperate in planting an orange tree or even an orchard. In a similar way, Boeing buys composite plastic wings for its new 787 Dreamliner designed and manufactured by Japanese suppliers, and then sells the completed 787s back to Japanese airlines, all with a nice subsidy from the Japanese government. This is what is meant by creativity in negotiations. At business schools these days much is being learned about creative processes. Courses are offered and dissertations proffered with “innovation” as the key buzz word at academic conferences and in corporate boardrooms. And, the more heard about innovation and creative processes the greater is the appreciation that the Japanese approach to negotiations, by nature, uses many of the techniques commonly emphasized in any discussion of creative processes. Indeed, there appears to be a deeply fundamental explanation why the Japanese have been able to build such a successful society despite their lack of natural resources and relative isolation. While Japanese society does have its own obstacles to creativity – hierarchy and collectivism are two – they have developed a negotiation style that in many ways obviates such disadvantages. Indeed, the ten new rules for global negotiations advocated by Hernandez and Graham William Hernandez Requejo and John L. Graham, Global Negotiation: The New Rules, Palgrave Macmillan: New York, 2008; also see nicely coincide with an approach that comes naturally to the Japanese: Accept only creative outcomes Understand cultures, especially your own. Don’t just adjust to cultural differences, exploit them. Gather intelligence and reconnoiter the terrain. Design the information flow and process of meetings. Invest in personal relationships. Persuade with questions. Seek information and understanding. Make no concessions until the end. Use techniques of creativity Continue creativity after negotiations. Beyond the practices of the Japanese, credit must also be given to the luminaries in field that have long advocated creativity in negotiations. Howard Raiffa Howard Raiffa with John Richardson and David Metcalfe, Negotiation Analysis, Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2002 and his colleagues recommend: …the teams should think and plan together informally and do some joint brainstorming, which can be thought of as “dialoguing” or “prenegotiating.” The two sides make no tradeoffs, commitments, or arguments about how to divide the pie at this early stage. Roger Fisher and William Ury title their Chapter 4 in Getting to Yes, Roger Fisher and William Ury, Getting to Yes, New York: Penguin, 1981 “Invent[ing] Options for Mutual Gain.” David Lax and James Sebenius, in their important new book, 3D-Negotiations, David J. Lax and James K. Sebenius, 3-D Negotiations, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2006 go past getting to yes, and talk about “creative agreements” and “great agreements.” Lawrence Susskind Lawrence Susskind, Sarah McKearnan, and Jennifer Thomas-Larmer, The Consensus-Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement, Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage, 1999 and his associates recommend “parallel informal negotiations” toward building creative negotiation outcomes. These ideas must be pushed to the forefront in thinking about negotiations. The field generally is still stuck in the past, talking about “making deals” and “solving problems” as above. Even the use of terms like “win-win” expose the vestiges of the old competitive thinking. The point is that a negotiation is not something that can be won or lost, and the competitive metaphor limits creativity. The problem-solving metaphor does as well. Thus, the first rule of negotiations is: Accept only creative outcomes! Lynda Lawrence at IdeaWorks, a Newport Beach consulting firm () has developed a most useful list of ways to generate more ideas during negotiations: 10 Ways to Generate More Ideas William Hernandez Requejo and John L. Graham, Global Negotiation: The New Rules, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008 Establish common goals of what this "collaboration" would create. A more workable deal? Some common long term goals? A closer partnership? Establish the rules of engagement. The purpose of the exercise is to resolve differences in creative ways that work better for both parties. All ideas are possibilities, and research shows that combining ideas from different cultures can result in better outcomes than those from a single culture. Trust is key, and difficult to establish in many cultures. Certain techniques might speed that process a little. Being offsite, for example. Establishing physical proximity that unconsciously signals intimacy. Add diversity (gender, culture, extroverts, different work specialties, experts, outsiders) to the group. Indeed, the diversity associated with international teams and alliances is the real goldmine of creativity in negotiations. Use storytelling. This both helps establish who you are and what point of view you are bringing to this collaboration. Work in small groups. Add physical movement. Tell the participants to relax, play, sing, have fun, and silence is ok. Work holistically and using visuals. If, for example, there are three sticking points where neither side is happy, agree to work on those points by spending a short time – 10 minutes – on each point where both sides offer "crazy" suggestions. Use techniques of improvisation. Neither side should be offended by the crazy ideas. No one should criticize. Explain that by exploring crazy ideas that better ideas are often generated. Sleep on it. This enables the unconscious to work on the problems, and gives negotiators time to collect opinions before meeting again the next day. Other kinds of breaks, coffee, etc. are also helpful. The overnight part is particularly important. Anthropologist and consumer expert Clotaire Rapaille Clotaire Rapaille, The Culture Code, New York: Broadway Books, 2006 suggests that the transitions between wakefulness and sleep allow new kinds of thinking “…calming their brainwaves, getting them to that tranquil point just before sleep” (page 8). Doing this process over several sessions allows both sides to feel that progress is being made, and actually generates better and more polished ideas that both sides can invest in. It is the process of creating something together, rather than the specific proposals, which creates bonding around a shared task and establishes new ways of working together. Each side feels honored and all can feel that something is being accomplished. For the Japanese reader, some of these will be quite familiar. It’s easy to get Japanese in close physical proximity (#3), they’ve been living that way for millennia. In Japanese companies there are not so much marketing specialists as different from engineers as different from finance analysts. Each executive may have worked in several functional areas, limiting the “chimney effect” often associated disparagingly with American firms (#4). Physical movement (#6) – picture the start of the day at the typical Japanese factory. The Japanese also seem to work best in small groups (#6). Silence is definitely ok (part of #6). The Japanese invented karaoke (#6 and singing). The Japanese have difficulty criticizing others, especially foreigners (#7). The use of visuals and holistic thinking are natural for Japanese (#7). Breaks are also a common procedure for Japanese (#8). Japanese will work better with people with whom they are familiar (#9). It should also be noted that some of these techniques will seem foreign to Japanese negotiators. For example, diversity is not a strong suit for Japanese – purposefully adding women and other elements of diversity (#4) to their groups would seem odd. However, the two key things the Japanese do in negotiation that others can and should learn are: First, the Japanese are the absolute champion information vacuums on the planet. They keep their mouths shut and let everyone else do the talking. Thus, they use the diversity of their international colleagues (customers, suppliers, competitors, scientists, etc.) to a greater extent than any other society. Often this is denigrated as copying and borrowing, but in fact being open to everyone’s ideas has always been the key to creativity and human progress. While the Japanese, like everyone else around the world, are ethnocentric, they still very much respect foreign ideas. Second, the Japanese will only work with dolphins (cooperative negotiators), that is, when they have a choice. Trust and creativity go hand-in-hand. And, they will work to train their foreign counterparts to behave more cooperatively for the latter’s own good. Witness the 25-year joint venture between Toyota and General Motors for manufacturing small cars in Fremont, CA as a prominent example. Application of principles of creativity will be appropriate in at least three points during negotiations. Above noted was Howard Raiffa’s suggestion that they be used in pre-negotiation meetings. Second, others advocate their use when impasses are reached. For example, in the negotiations regarding the Rio Urubamba natural gas project in Peru, the involved firms and environmentalist groups reached what at the time seemed to be an irreconcilable difference -- roads and a huge pipeline through the pristine forest would be an ecological disaster. The creative solution? Think of the remote gas field as an offshore platform, run the pipeline underground, and fly in personnel and equipment as needed. Finally, even when negotiators have arrived at “yes,” a scheduled review of the agreement may actually move the relationship past “yes” to truly creative outcomes. Perhaps such a review might be scheduled six months after implementation of the agreement has begun. But, the point is time must be set aside for a creative discussion of how to improve on the agreed to relationship? The emphasis of such a session should always be putting new ideas on the table – the answers to the question “what haven’t we thought of?” Other Negotiation Styles Shell identified five styles/responses to negotiation Shell, R.G. (2006). Bargaining for advantage. New York, NY: Penguin Books. . Individuals can often have strong dispositions towards numerous styles; the style used during a negotiation depends on the context and the interests of the other party, among other factors. In addition, styles can change over time. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other party’s problems and preserving personal relationships. Accommodators are sensitive to the emotional states, body language, and verbal signals of the other parties. They can, however, feel taken advantage of in situations when the other party places little emphasis on the relationship. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and don’t do it unless warranted. When negotiating, avoiders tend to defer and dodge the confrontational aspects of negotiating; however, they may be perceived as tactful and diplomatic. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving tough problems in creative ways. Collaborators are good at using negotiations to understand the concerns and interests of the other parties. They can, however, create problems by transforming simple situations into more complex ones. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an opportunity to win something. Competitive negotiators have strong instincts for all aspects of negotiating and are often strategic. Because their style can dominate the bargaining process, competitive negotiators often neglect the importance of relationships. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what is fair and equal for all parties involved in the negotiation. Compromisers can be useful when there is limited time to complete the deal; however, compromisers often unnecessarily rush the negotiation process and make concessions too quickly. Emotion in negotiation Emotions play an important part in the negotiation process, although it is only in recent years that their effect is being studied. Emotions have the potential to play either a positive or negative role in negotiation. During negotiations, the decision as to whether or not to settle, rests in part on emotional factors. Negative emotions can cause intense and even irrational behavior, and can cause conflicts to escalate and negotiations to break down, while positive emotions facilitate reaching an agreement and help to maximize joint gains. Affect effect: Dispositional affects affect the various stages of the negotiation process: which strategies are planned to be used, which strategies are actually chosen, Forgas, J. P. (1998) "On feeling good and getting your way: Mood effects on negotiator cognition and behavior". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 565–577. the way the other party and its intentions are perceived, Van Kleef, G.A., De Dreu, C.KW., & Manstead, A.S.R. (2006) "Supplication and Appeasement in Conflict and Negotiation: The Interpersonal Effects of Disappointment, Worry, Guilt, and Regret". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1), 124–142 the willingness to reach an agreement and the final outcomes. Butt AN, Choi JN, Jaeger A (2005) "The effects of self-emotion, counterpart emotion, and counterpart behavior on negotiator behavior: a comparison of individual-level and dyad-level dynamics". Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(6), 681 - 704 Positive affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA) of one or more of the negotiating sides can lead to very different outcomes. Positive affect in negotiation Even before the negotiation process starts, people in a positive mood have more confidence, Kramer, R. M., Newton, E. & Pommerenke, P. L. (1993) "Self-enhancement biases and negotiator judgment: Effects of self-esteem and mood". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 56, 110-133. and higher tendencies to plan to use a cooperative strategy. During the negotiation, negotiators who are in a positive mood tend to enjoy the interaction more, show less contentious behavior, use less aggressive tactics Maiese, Michelle "Emotions" Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: July 2005 downloaded: 30.08.2007 and more cooperative strategies. This in turn increases the likelihood that parties will reach their instrumental goals, and enhance the ability to find integrative gains. Carnevale, P. J. D. & Isen, A. M. (1986) "The influence of positive affect and visual access on the discovery of integrative solutions in bilateral negotiation". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37, 1-13. Indeed, compared with negotiators with negative or natural affectivity, negotiators with positive affectivity reached more agreements and tended to honor those agreements more. Those favorable outcomes are due to better decision making processes, such as flexible thinking, creative problem solving, respect for others' perspectives, willingness to take risks and higher confidence. Barry, B., Fulmer, I. S., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2004) I laughed, I cried, I settled: The role of emotion in negotiation. In M. J. Gelfand & J. M. Brett (Eds.), The handbook of negotiation and culture (pp. 71–94). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Post negotiation positive affect has beneficial consequences as well. It increases satisfaction with achieved outcome and influences one’s desire for future interactions. The PA aroused by reaching an agreement facilitates the dyadic relationship, which result in affective commitment that sets the stage for subsequent interactions. PA also has its drawbacks: it distorts perception of self performance, such that performance is judged to be relatively better than it actually is. Thus, studies involving self reports on achieved outcomes might be biased. Negative affect in negotiation Negative affect has detrimental effects on various stages in the negotiation process. Although various negative emotions affect negotiation outcomes, by far the most researched is anger. Angry negotiators plan to use more competitive strategies and to cooperate less, even before the negotiation starts. These competitive strategies are related to reduced joint outcomes. During negotiations, anger disrupts the process by reducing the level of trust, clouding parties' judgment, narrowing parties' focus of attention and changing their central goal from reaching agreement to retaliating against the other side. Angry negotiators pay less attention to opponent’s interests and are less accurate in judging their interests, thus achieve lower joint gains. Allred, K. G., Mallozzi, J. S., Matsui, F., & Raia, C. P. (1997) "The influence of anger and compassion on negotiation performance". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 70, 175–187. Moreover, because anger makes negotiators more self-centered in their preferences, it increases the likelihood that they will reject profitable offers. Anger doesn’t help in achieving negotiation goals either: it reduces joint gains and does not help to boost personal gains, as angry negotiators don’t succeed in claiming more for themselves. Moreover, negative emotions lead to acceptance of settlements that are not in the positive utility function but rather have a negative utility. Davidson, M. N., & Greenhalgh, L. (1999) "The role of emotion in negotiation: The impact of anger and race". Research on Negotiation in Organizations, 7, 3–26. However, expression of negative emotions during negotiation can sometimes be beneficial: legitimately expressed anger can be an effective way to show one's commitment, sincerity, and needs. Moreover, although NA reduces gains in integrative tasks, it is a better strategy than PA in distributive tasks (such as zero-sum). Conditions for emotion effect in negotiation Research indicates that negotiator’s emotions do not necessarily affect the negotiation process. Albarracın et al. (2003) suggested that there are two conditions for emotional effect, both related to the ability (presence of environmental or cognitive disturbances) and the motivation: Identification of the affect: requires high motivation, high ability or both. Determination that the affect is relevant and important for the judgment: requires that either the motivation, the ability or both are low. According to this model, emotions are expected to affect negotiations only when one is high and the other is low. When both ability and motivation are low the affect will not be identified, and when both are high the affect will be identify but discounted as irrelevant for judgment. Albarracin D. & Kumkale, G.T. (2003) "Affect as Information in Persuasion: A Model of Affect Identification and Discounting". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(3) 453-469. A possible implication of this model is, for example, that the positive effects PA has on negotiations (as described above) will be seen only when either motivation or ability are low. The effect of the partner’s emotions Most studies on emotion in negotiations focus on the effect of the negotiator’s own emotions on the process. However, what the other party feels might be just as important, as group emotions are known to affect processes both at the group and the personal levels. When it comes to negotiations, trust in the other party is a necessary condition for its emotion to affect, and visibility enhances the effect. Emotions contribute to negotiation processes by signaling what one feels and thinks and can thus prevent the other party from engaging in destructive behaviors and to indicate what steps should be taken next: PA signals to keep in the same way, while NA points that mental or behavioral adjustments are needed. Partner’s emotions can have two basic effects on negotiator’s emotions and behavior: mimetic/ reciprocal or complementary. For example, disappointment or sadness might lead to compassion and more cooperation. In a study by Butt et al. (2005) which simulated real multi-phase negotiation, most people reacted to the partner’s emotions in reciprocal, rather than complementary, manner. Specific emotions were found to have different effects on the opponent’s feelings and strategies chosen: Anger caused the opponents to place lower demands and to concede more in a zero-sum negotiation, but also to evaluate the negotiation less favorably. Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004). "The interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 57–76. It provoked both dominating and yielding behaviors of the opponent.. Pride led to more integrative and compromise strategies by the partner. Guilt or regret expressed by the negotiator led to better impression of him by the opponent, however it also led the opponent to place higher demands.. On the other hand, personal guilt was related to more satisfaction with what one achieved. Worry or disappointment left bad impression on the opponent, but led to relatively lower demands by the opponent. Problems with lab negotiation studies Negotiation is a rather complex interaction. Capturing all its complexity is a very difficult task, let alone isolating and controlling only certain aspects of it. For this reason most negotiation studies are done under laboratory conditions, and focus only on some aspects. Although lab studies have their advantages, they do have major drawbacks when studying emotions: Emotions in lab studies are usually manipulated and are therefore relatively ‘cold’ (not intense). Although those ‘cold’ emotions might be enough to show effects, they are qualitatively different from the ‘hot’ emotions often experienced during negotiations. Bazerman, M. H., Curhan, J. R., Moore, D. A., & Valley, K. L. (2000) "Negotiation". Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 279–314. In real life there is self-selection to which negotiation one gets into, which effects the emotional commitment, motivation and interests. However this is not the case in lab studies. Lab studies tend to focus on relatively few well defined emotions. Real life scenarios provoke a much wider scale of emotions. Coding the emotions has a double catch: if done by a third side, some emotions might not be detected as the negotiator sublimates them for strategic reasons. Self report measures might overcome this, but they are usually filled only before or after the process, and if filled during the process might interfere with it. The pervasive impact of culture on international negotiations Copyright (c) 2009 John L. Graham. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the last section below entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". The primary purpose of this section is to demonstrate the extent of cultural differences in negotiation styles and how these differences can cause problems in international business negotiations. The reader will note that national culture does not determine negotiation behavior. Rather, national culture is one of many factors that influence behavior at the negotiation table, albeit an important one. For example, gender, organizational culture, international experience, industry or regional background can all be important influences as well. See William Hernandez Requejo and John L. Graham, Global Negotiation: The New Rules, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, Chapter 5 for an extensive discussion of such factors; also see Of course, stereotypes of all kinds are dangerous, and international negotiators must get to know the people they are working with, not just their culture, country, or company. The material here is based on systematic study of international negotiation behavior over the last three decades in which the negotiation styles of more than 1,500 businesspeople in 17 countries (21 cultures) were considered. John L. Graham, “The Japanese Negotiation Style: Characteristics of a Distinct Approach,” Negotiation Journal, April 1993, 123-140 The work involved interviews with experienced executives and participant observations in the field, as well as behavioral science laboratory work including surveys and analyses of videotaped negotiations. The countries studied were Japan, S. Korea, China (Tianjin, Guangzhou, Taiwan, and Hong Kong), Vietnam, the Philippines, Russia, Israel, Norway, the Czech Republic, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Spain, Brazil, Mexico, Canada (English-speakers and French-speakers), and the United States. The countries were chosen because they constitute America’s most important present and future trading partners. William Hernandez Requejo and John L. Graham, Global Negotiation: The New Rules, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008 Looking broadly across the several cultures, two important lessons stand out. The first is that regional generalizations very often are not correct. For example, Japanese and Korean negotiation styles are quite similar in some ways, but in other ways they could not be more different. The second lesson learned from the research is that Japan is an exceptional place: On almost every dimension of negotiation style considered, the Japanese are on or near the end of the scale. For example, the Japanese use the lowest amount of eye contact of the cultures studied. Sometimes, Americans are on the other end. But actually, most of the time Americans are somewhere in the middle. The reader will see this evinced in the data presented in this section. The Japanese approach, however, is most distinct, even sui generis. Cultural differences cause four kinds of problems in international business negotiations, at the levels of: John L. Graham, Cross-Cultural Sales Negotiations: A Multilevel Analysis, dissertation University of California, Berkeley, 1980 Language Nonverbal behaviors Values Thinking and decision-making processes The order is important; the problems lower on the list are more serious because they are more subtle. For example, two negotiators would notice immediately if one were speaking Japanese and the other German. The solution to the problem may be as simple as hiring an interpreter or talking in a common third language, or it may be as difficult as learning a language. Regardless of the solution, the problem is obvious. Cultural differences in nonverbal behaviors, on the other hand, are almost always hidden below our awareness. That is to say, in a face-to-face negotiation participants nonverbally—and more subtly—give off and take in a great deal of information. Some experts argue that this information is more important than verbal information. Almost all this signaling goes on below our levels of consciousness. When the nonverbal signals from foreign partners are different, negotiators are most apt to misinterpret them without even being conscious of the mistake. For example, when a French client consistently interrupts, Americans tend to feel uncomfortable without noticing exactly why. In this manner, interpersonal friction often colors business relationships, goes undetected, and, consequently, goes uncorrected. Differences in values and thinking and decision-making processes are hidden even deeper and therefore are even harder to diagnose and therefore cure. These differences are discussed below, starting with language and nonverbal behaviors. Differences at the level of language Translation problems are often substantial in international negotiations. And, when languages are linguistically distant, For a complete discussion of the concept of “linguistic distance” please see Joel West and John L. Graham, “A Linguistics-Based Measure of Cultural Distance and Its Relationship to Managerial Values,” Management International Review, 2004, 4(3), 239-260. greater problems should be anticipated. Particularly daunting can be work in global negotiation. Often the language used is English, but it may be spoken as a second language by most executives at the table. Indeed, native speakers from England, India, and the United States often have trouble understanding one another. Exact translations in international interactions are a goal almost never attained. Moreover, language differences are sometimes exploited in interesting ways. Many senior executives in foreign countries speak and understand some English, but prefer to speak in their “stronger” native language and use an interpreter. Thus, we've see a senior Russian negotiator asking questions in Russian. The interpreter then translated the question for his American counterpart. While the interpreter spoke, the American’s attention (gaze direction) was given to the interpreter. However, the Russian’s gaze direction was at the American. Therefore, the Russian could carefully and unobtrusively observe the American's facial expressions and nonverbal responses. Additionally, when the American spoke, the senior Russian had twice the response time. Because he understood English, he could formulate his responses during the translation process. What’s this extra response time worth in a strategic conversation? What’s it worth to be carefully able to observe the nonverbal responses of your top-level counterpart in a high-stakes business negotiation? Simply stated, bilingualism is not a common characteristic for Americans, and therefore competitors with greater language skills are afforded a natural advantage in international commerce. Additionally, a common complaint heard from American managers regards foreign clients and partners breaking into side conversations in their native languages. At best, it is seen as impolite, and quite often American negotiators are likely to attribute something sinister to the content of the foreign talk—“They’re plotting or telling secrets.” This is a frequent American mistake. The usual purpose of such side conversations is to straighten out a translation problem. For instance, one Korean may lean over to another and ask, “What’d he say?” Or, the side conversation can regard a disagreement among the foreign team members. Both circumstances should be seen as positive signs by Americans—that is, getting translations straight enhances the efficiency of the interactions, and concessions often follow internal disagreements. But because most Americans speak only one language, neither circumstance is appreciated. By the way, people from other countries are advised to give Americans a brief explanation of the content of their first few side conversations to assuage the sinister attributions. But, there are problems at the level of language beyond translations and interpreters. Data from simulated negotiations are informative. In the study, the verbal behaviors of negotiators in 15 of the cultures (six negotiators in each of the 15 groups) were videotaped. Graham and his colleagues have completed similar sorts of content analyses with 60 Americans and 52 Russian negotiators and the correspondence of the findings between the larger and smaller sample sizes is great (r > 0.9, p < 0.05), see C. Roemer, J. Neu, P. Garb, and J.L. Graham, “A Comparison of Russian and American Negotiation Behaviors,” Journal of International Negotiation, 1999(4), pages 1-25. The numbers in the body of Exhibit 1 represent the percentages of statements that were classified into each category listed. That is, 7 percent of the statements made by Japanese negotiators were classified as promises, 4 percent as threats, 7 percent as recommendations, and so on. The verbal bargaining behaviors used by the negotiators during the simulations proved to be surprisingly similar across cultures. Negotiations in all 15 cultures were composed primarily of information-exchange tactics—questions and self-disclosures. Note that the Israelis are on the low end of the continuum of self-disclosures. Their 30 percent (near the Japanese, Spaniards, and the English-speaking Canadians at 34 percent) was the lowest across all 15 groups, suggesting that they are the most reticent about giving (that is, communicating) information. Overall, however, the patterns of verbal tactics used were surprisingly similar across the diverse cultures. Go to Exhibit 1, Verbal Negotiation Tactics, (the “what” of communications) across 15 Cultures: Nonverbal behaviors Anthropologist Ray L. Birdwhistell demonstrated that less than 35% of the message in conversations is conveyed by the spoken word while the other 65% is communicated nonverbally. Roger O. Crockett, “The 21st Century Meeting,” BusinessWeek, February 26, 2007, pages 72-80. Albert Mehrabian, Albert Mehrabian, Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes (2nd edition, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1980). a UCLA psychologist, also parsed where meaning comes from in face-to-face interactions. He reports: 7% of the meaning is derived from the words spoken 38% from paralinguistic channels, that is, tone of voice, loudness, and other aspects of how things are said 55% from facial expressions Of course, some might quibble with the exact percentages (and many have), but our work also supports the notion that nonverbal behaviors are crucial – how things are said is often more important than what is said. Exhibit 2 provides analyses of some linguistic aspects and nonverbal behaviors for the 15 videotaped groups, that is, how things are said. Although these efforts merely scratch the surface of these kinds of behavioral analyses, they still provide indications of substantial cultural differences. Note that, once again, the Japanese are at or next to the end of the continuum on almost every dimension of the behaviors listed. Their facial gazing and touching are the least among the 15 groups. Only the Northern Chinese used the word no less frequently, and only the Russians used more silent periods than did the Japanese. Go to Exhibit 2, Linguistic Aspects of Language and Nonverbal Behaviors (“how” things are said) across 15 Cultures: A broader examination of the data in Exhibits 1 and 2 reveals a more meaningful conclusion: The variation across cultures is greater when comparing linguistic aspects of language and nonverbal behaviors than when the verbal content of negotiations is considered. For example, notice the great differences between the Japanese and Brazilians in Exhibit 1 vis-à-vis Exhibit 2. Distinctive negotiation behaviors of 15 cultural groups Following are further descriptions of the distinctive aspects of each of the 15 cultural groups videotaped. Certainly, conclusions of statistical significant differences between individual cultures cannot be drawn without larger sample sizes. But, the suggested cultural differences are worthwhile to consider briefly. Japan. Consistent with most descriptions of Japanese negotiation behavior, the results of this analysis suggest their style of interaction is among the least aggressive (or most polite). Threats, commands, and warnings appear to be de-emphasized in favor of the more positive promises, recommendations, and commitments. Particularly indicative of their polite conversational style was their infrequent use of no and you and facial gazing, as well as more frequent silent periods. Korea. Perhaps one of the more interesting aspects of the analysis is the contrast of the Asian styles of negotiations. Non-Asians often generalize about the Orient; the findings demonstrate, however, that this is a mistake. Korean negotiators used considerably more punishments and commands than did the Japanese. Koreans used the word no and interrupted more than three times as frequently as the Japanese. Moreover, no silent periods occurred between Korean negotiators. China (Northern). The behaviors of the negotiators from Northern China (i.e., in and around Tianjin) were most remarkable in the emphasis on asking questions (34 percent). Indeed, 70 percent of the statements made by the Chinese negotiators were classified as information-exchange tactics. Other aspects of their behavior were quite similar to the Japanese, particularly the use of no and you and silent periods. Taiwan. The behavior of the businesspeople in Taiwan was quite different from that in China and Japan but similar to that in Korea. The Chinese on Taiwan were exceptional in the time of facial gazing—on the average, almost 20 of 30 minutes. They asked fewer questions and provided more information (self-disclosures) than did any of the other Asian groups. Russia. The Russians’ style was quite different from that of any other European group, and, indeed, was quite similar in many respects to the style of the Japanese. They used no and you infrequently and used the most silent periods of any group. Only the Japanese did less facial gazing, and only the Chinese asked a greater percentage of questions. Israel. The behaviors of the Israeli negotiators were distinctive in three respects. As mentioned above, they used the lowest percentage of self-disclosures, apparently holding their cards relatively closely. Alternatively, they used by far the highest percentages of promises and recommendations, using these persuasive strategies unusually heavily. They were also at the end of the scale on the percentage of normative appeals at 5 percent with the most frequent reference to competitors’ offers. Perhaps most importantly the Israeli negotiators interrupted one another much more frequently than negotiators from any other group. Indeed, this important nonverbal behavior is most likely to blame for the “pushy” stereotype often used by Americans to describe their Israeli negotiation partners. Germany. The behaviors of the Germans are difficult to characterize because they fell toward the center of almost all the continua. However, the Germans were exceptional in the high percentage of self-disclosures (47 percent) and the low percentage of questions (11 percent). United Kingdom. The behaviors of the British negotiators were remarkably similar to those of the Americans in all respects. Spain. Diga is perhaps a good metaphor for the Spanish approach to negotiations evinced in our data. When you make a phone call in Madrid, the usual greeting on the other end is not hola (“hello”) but is, instead, diga (“speak”). It is not surprising, then, that the Spaniards in the videotaped negotiations likewise used the highest percentage of commands (17 percent) of any of the groups and gave comparatively little information (self-disclosures, only 34 percent). Moreover, they interrupted one another more frequently than any other group, and they used the terms no and you very frequently. France. The style of the French negotiators was perhaps the most aggressive of all the groups. In particular, they used the highest percentage of threats and warnings (together, 8 percent). They also used interruptions, facial gazing, and no and you very frequently compared with the other groups, and one of the French negotiators touched his partner on the arm during the simulation. Brazil. The Brazilian businesspeople, like the French and Spanish, were quite aggressive. They used the second-highest percentage of commands of all the groups. On average, the Brazilians said the word no 42 times, you 90 times, and touched one another on the arm about 5 times during 30 minutes of negotiation. Facial gazing was also high. Mexico. The patterns of Mexican behavior in our negotiations are good reminders of the dangers of regional or language-group generalizations. Both verbal and nonverbal behaviors were quite different than those of their Latin American (Brazilian) or continental (Spanish) cousins. Indeed, Mexicans answer the telephone with the much less demanding bueno (short for “good day”). In many respects, the Mexican behavior was very similar to that of the negotiators from the United States. French-Speaking Canada. The French-speaking Canadians behaved quite similarly to their continental cousins. Like the negotiators from France, they too used high percentages of threats and warnings, and even more interruptions and eye contact. Such an aggressive interaction style would not mix well with some of the more low-key styles of some of the Asian groups or with English speakers, including English-speaking Canadians. English-Speaking Canada. The Canadians who speak English as their first language used the lowest percentage of aggressive persuasive tactics (threats, warnings, and punishments totaled only 1 percent) of all 15 groups. Perhaps, as communications researchers suggest, such stylistic differences are the seeds of interethnic discord as witnessed in Canada over the years. With respect to international negotiations, the English-speaking Canadians used noticeably more interruptions and no’s than negotiators from either of Canada’s major trading partners, the United States and Japan. United States. Like the Germans and the British, the Americans fell in the middle of most continua. They did interrupt one another less frequently than all the others, but that was their sole distinction. These differences across the cultures are quite complex, and this material by itself should not be used to predict the behaviors of foreign counterparts. Instead, great care should be taken with respect to the aforementioned dangers of stereotypes. The key here is to be aware of these kinds of differences so that the Japanese silence, the Brazilian “no, no, no…,” or the French threat are not misinterpreted. Differences in managerial values as pertinent to negotiations Four managerial values—objectivity, competitiveness, equality, and punctuality—that are held strongly and deeply by most Americans seem to frequently cause misunderstandings and bad feelings in international business negotiations. Objectivity “Americans make decisions based upon the bottom line and on cold, hard facts.” “Americans don’t play favorites.” “Economics and performance count, not people.” “Business is business.” Such statements well reflect American notions of the importance of objectivity. The single most successful book on the topic of negotiation, Getting to Yes, Roger Fisher, William Ury, and Bruce Patton, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In (New York: Penguin, 1991). is highly recommended for both American and foreign readers. The latter will learn not only about negotiations but, perhaps more important, about how Americans think about negotiations. The authors are quite emphatic about “separating the people from the problem,” and they state, “Every negotiator has two kinds of interests: in the substance and in the relationship.” This advice is probably quite worthwhile in the United States or perhaps in Germany, but in most places in the world such advice is nonsense. In most places in the world, particularly in collectivistic, high-context cultures, personalities and substance are not separate issues and cannot be made so. For example, consider how important nepotism is in Chinese or Hispanic cultures. Experts tell us that businesses don’t grow beyond the bounds and bonds of tight family control in the burgeoning “Chinese commonwealth.” Things work the same way in Spain, Mexico, and the Philippines. And, naturally, negotiators from such countries not only will take things personally but will be personally affected by negotiation outcomes. What happens to them at the negotiation table will affect the business relationship regardless of the economics involved. Competitiveness and Equality Simulated negotiations can be viewed as a kind of experimental economics wherein the values of each participating cultural group are roughly reflected in the economic outcomes. The simple simulation used in this part of our work represents the essence of commercial negotiations—it has both competitive and cooperative aspects. At least 40 businesspeople from each culture played the same buyer-seller game, negotiating over the prices of three products. Depending on the agreement reached, the “negotiation pie” could be made larger through cooperation (as high as $10,400 in joint profits) before it was divided between the buyer and seller. The results are summarized in Exhibit 3 John L. Graham, Alma Mintu-Wimsatt, and Wayne Rodgers, “Explorations of Negotiation Behaviors in Ten Foreign Cultures Using a Model Developed in the United States,” Management Science, January 1994, 72-95. . Go to Exhibit 3, Cultural Differences in Competitiveness and Equality in Negotiation Outcomes across 20 Cultures: The Japanese were the champions at making the pie big. Their joint profits in the simulation were the highest (at $9,590) among the 21 cultural groups involved. The Chinese in Hong Kong and the British businesspeople also behaved cooperatively in our negotiation game. The Czechs and the Germans behaved more competitively. The American pie was more average sized (at $9,030), but at least it was divided relatively equitably (51.8 percent of the profits went to the buyers). Conversely, the Japanese, and particularly the South Korean, Mexican businesspeople split their pies in strange (perhaps even unfair) ways, with buyers making higher percentages of the profits (53.8 percent, 55.0 percent, and 56.7 percent, respectively). The implications of these simulated business negotiations are completely consistent with the comments of other authors and the adage that in Japan (and apparently in Korea and Mexco as well) the buyer is “kinger”. Americans have little understanding of the Japanese practice of granting complete deference to the needs and wishes of buyers. That is not the way things work in America. American sellers tend to treat American buyers more as equals, and the egalitarian values of American society support this behavior. The American emphasis on competition and individualism represented in these findings is quite consistent with the work of Geert Hofstede, Geert Hofstede, Cultures Consequences (2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001). which indicated that Americans scored the highest among all the cultural groups on the individualism (versus collectivism) scale. Moreover, values for individualism/collectivism have been shown to directly influence negotiation behaviors in several other countries. Finally, not only do Japanese buyers achieve higher results than American buyers, but compared with American sellers ($4,350), Japanese sellers also get more of the commercial pie ($4,430) as well. Interestingly, when shown these results, Americans in executive seminars still often prefer the American seller's role. In other words, even though the American sellers make lower profits than the Japanese, many American managers apparently prefer lower profits if those profits are yielded from a more equal split of the joint profits. Time “Just make them wait.” Everyone else in the world knows that no negotiation tactic is more useful with Americans, because no one places more value on time, no one has less patience when things slow down, and no one looks at their wristwatches more than Americans do. Edward T. Hall in his seminal writing Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language (New York: Doubleday, 1959), The Hidden Dimension (New York: Doubleday, 1966), and Beyond Culture (New York: Anchor, 1981). is best at explaining how the passage of time is viewed differently across cultures and how these differences most often hurt Americans. Even Americans try to manipulate time to their advantage, however. As a case in point, Solar Turbines Incorporated (a division of Caterpillar) once sold $34 million worth of industrial gas turbines and compressors for a Russian natural gas pipeline project. Both parties agreed that final negotiations would be held in a neutral location, the south of France. In previous negotiations, the Russians had been tough but reasonable. But in Nice, the Russians were not nice. They became tougher and, in fact, completely unreasonable, according to the Solar executives involved. It took a couple of discouraging days before the Americans diagnosed the problem, but once they did, a crucial call was made back to headquarters in San Diego. Why had the Russians turned so cold? They were enjoying the warm weather in Nice and weren’t interested in making a quick deal and heading back to Moscow! The call to California was the key event in this negotiation. Solar’s headquarters people in San Diego were sophisticated enough to allow their negotiators to take their time. From that point on, the routine of the negotiations changed to brief, 45-minute meetings in the mornings, with afternoons at the golf course, beach, or hotel, making calls and doing paperwork. Finally, during the fourth week, the Russians began to make concessions and to ask for longer meetings. Why? They could not go back to Moscow after four weeks on the Mediterranean without a signed contract. This strategic reversal of the time pressure yielded a wonderful contract for Solar. Differences in thinking and decision-making processes When faced with a complex negotiation task, most Westerners (notice the generalization here) divide the large task up into a series of smaller tasks. N. Mark Lam and John L. Graham, China Now: Doing Business in the World’s Most Dynamic Market, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007 Issues such as prices, delivery, warranty, and service contracts may be settled one issue at a time, with the final agreement being the sum of the sequence of smaller agreements. In Asia, however, a different approach is more often taken wherein all the issues are discussed at once, in no apparent order, and concessions are made on all issues at the end of the discussion. The Western sequential approach and the Eastern holistic approach do not mix well. That is, American managers often report great difficulties in measuring progress in negotiations, particularly in Asian countries. After all, in America, you are half done when half the issues are settled. But in China, Japan, or Korea nothing seems to get settled. Then, surprise, you are done. Often, Americans make unnecessary concessions right before agreements are announced by the other side. For example, one American department store executive traveling to Japan to buy six different consumer products for her chain lamented that negotiations for the first product took an entire week. In the United States, such a purchase would be consummated in an afternoon. So, by her calculations, she expected to have to spend six weeks in Japan to complete her purchases. She considered raising her purchase prices to try to move things along faster. But before she was able to make such a concession, the Japanese quickly agreed on the other five products in just three days. This particular manager was, by her own admission, lucky in her first encounter with Japanese bargainers. James Day Hodgson, Yoshihiro Sano, and John L. Graham, Doing Business in the New Japan, Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlfield, 2008. This American executive’s near blunder reflects more than just a difference in decision-making style. To Americans, a business negotiation is a problem-solving activity, the best deal for both parties being the solution. To a Japanese businessperson, on the other hand, a business negotiation is a time to develop a business relationship with the goal of long-term mutual benefit. The economic issues are the context, not the content, of the talks. Thus, settling any one issue really is not that important. Such details will take care of themselves once a viable, harmonious business relationship is established. And, as happened in the case of the retail goods buyer above, once the relationship was established—signaled by the first agreement—the other “details” were settled quickly. American bargainers should anticipate such a holistic approach to be common in Asian cultures and be prepared to discuss all issues simultaneously and in an apparently haphazard order. Progress in the talks should not be measured by how many issues have been settled. Rather, Americans must try to gauge the quality of the business relationship. Important signals of progress can be the following: Higher-level executives from the other side being included in the discussions Their questions beginning to focus on specific areas of the deal A softening of their attitudes and position on some of the issues—“Let us take some time to study this issue” At the negotiation table, increased talk among themselves in their own language, which may often mean they’re trying to decide something Increased bargaining and use of the lower-level, informal, and other channels of communication Implications for managers and negotiators Considering all the potential problems in cross-cultural negotiations, particularly when you mix managers from relationship-oriented See Philip R. Cateora, Mary C. Gilly, and John L. Graham, International Marketing (14th edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009), Chapter 5 for a description of the distinction between information-oriented and relationship-oriented cultures. cultures with those from information-oriented ones, it is a wonder that any international business gets done at all. Obviously, the economic imperatives of global trade make much of it happen despite the potential pitfalls. But an appreciation of cultural differences can lead to even better international commercial transactions—it is not just business deals but creative and highly profitable business relationships that are the real goal of international business negotiations. See for information about negotiation styles in 50 countries. Several excellent books have been published on the topic of international business negotiations. Among them are Lothar Katz, Negotiating International Business and Principles of Negotiating International Business (both Charleston, SC: Booksurge LLC, 2008); Camille Schuster and Michael Copeland, Global Business, Planning for Sales and Negotiations (Fort Worth, TX: Dryden, 1996); Robert T. Moran and William G. Stripp, Dynamics of Successful International Business Negotiations (Houston: Gulf, 1991); Pervez Ghauri and Jean-Claude Usunier (eds.), International Business Negotiations (Oxford: Pergamon, 1996); Donald W. Hendon, Rebecca Angeles Hendon, and Paul Herbig, Cross-Cultural Business Negotiations (Westport, CT: Quorum, 1996); Sheida Hodge, Global Smarts (New York: Wiley, 2000); Jeswald W. Salacuse, Making, Managing, and Mending Deals around the World in the 21st Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Michelle Gelfand and Jeanne Brett (eds.), The Handbook of Negotiation and Culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books, 2004); and Jeanne M. Brett, Negotiating Globally (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001). In addition, Roy J. Lewicki, David M. Saunders, and John W. Minton’s, Negotiation: Readings, Exercises, and Cases, 3rd ed. (New York: Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1999), is an important book on the broader topic of business negotiations. The material from this chapter draws extensively on William Hernandez Requejo and John L. Graham, Global Negotiation: The New Rules (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); James Day Hodgson, Yoshihiro Sano, and John L. Graham, Doing Business with the New Japan (Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008); N. Mark Lam and John L. Graham, China Now: Doing Business in the World’s Most Dynamic Market (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007); and Philip R. Cateora, Mary C. Gilly, and John L. Graham, International Marketing (14th edition, Burr Ridge, IL: McGraw-Hill, 2009). See also Alternative Dispute Resolution Arbitration Bargaining Best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) Collective bargaining Collective action Conciliation Conflict resolution research Consistency Contract Cross-cultural Decision making Diplomacy Dispute resolution Expert determination Flipism Game theory Group Emotion Impasse Leadership Mediation Nash equilibrium Negotiation theory Prisoner's dilemma Win-win game Notes References and further reading Schroth, Holly, UC Berkeley Lecturer Negotiation blog: For information on negotiation styles in 50 countries go to Gil Allouche's article on Negotiations Negotiations - The Art of Bargaining William Hernandez Requejo & John L. Graham, Global Negotiation: The New Rules, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, ISBN 1-4039-8493-X Ronald M. Shapiro and Mark A. Jankowski, The Power of Nice: How to Negotiate So Everyone Wins - Especially You!, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998, ISBN 0-471-08072-1 David Lax and James Sebenius, 3D Negotiation, Harvard Business School Press, 2006. Roger Fisher and Daniel Shapiro, Beyond Reason: Using Emotions as You Negotiate, Viking/Penguin, 2005. Douglas Stone, Bruce Patton, and Sheila Heen, foreword by Roger Fisher, Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most, Penguin, 1999, ISBN 0-14-028852-X Catherine Morris, ed. Negotiation in Conflict Transformation and Peacebuilding: A Selected Bibliography. Victoria, Canada: Peacemakers Trust. Howard Raiffa, The Art and Science of Negotiation, Belknap Press 1982, ISBN 0-674-04812-1 William Ury, Getting Past No: Negotiating Your Way from Confrontation to Cooperation, revised second edition, Bantam, January 1, 1993, trade paperback, ISBN 0-553-37131-2; 1st edition under the title, Getting Past No: Negotiating with Difficult People, Bantam, September, 1991, hardcover, 161 pages, ISBN 0-553-07274-9 William Ury, Roger Fisher and Bruce Patton, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving in, Revised 2nd edition, Penguin USA, 1991, trade paperback, ISBN 0-14-015735-2; Houghton Mifflin, April, 1992, hardcover, 200 pages, ISBN 0-395-63124-6. The first edition, unrevised, Houghton Mifflin, 1981, hardcover, ISBN 0-395-31757-6 Principled Negotiation definition, together with a business view on whether Principled Negotiation is used in Business. The political philosopher Charles Blattberg has advanced a distinction between negotiation and conversation and criticized those methods of conflict-resolution which give too much weight to the former. See his From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-19-829688-6, a work of political philosophy; and his Shall We Dance? A Patriotic Politics for Canada, Montreal and Kingston: McGill Queen's University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-7735-2596-3, which applies that philosophy to the Canadian case. Leigh L. Thompson, The Mind and Heart of the Negotiator 3rd Ed., Prentice Hall 0ct.2005. Nicolas Iynedjian, Négociation - Guide pratique, CEDIDAC 62, Lausanne 2005, ISBN 2-88197-061-3 Michele J. Gelfand and Jeanne M. Brett, ed. ‘’Handbook of negotiation and culture’’, 2004. ISBN 0804745862 Emotion and conflict from the ‘’Beyond Intractability’’ Database Gerard I. Nierenberg, The Art of Negotiating: Psychological Strategies for Gaining Advantageous Bargains, Barnes and Noble, (1995), hardcover, 195 pages, ISBN 1-56619-816-X Andrea Schneider & Christopher Honeyman, eds., The Negotiator's Fieldbook, American Bar Association (2006). ISBN 1590315456 A Professor Explains How to Negotiate, Negoatiating tips from Adam Galinsky. Dr. Chester Karrass Effective Negotiating Tips Charles Arthur Willard Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy. University of Chicago Press. 1996. Charles Arthur Willard, A Theory of Argumentation. University of Alabama Press. 1989. Charles Arthur Willard, Argumentation and the Social Grounds of KnowledgeUniversity of Alabama Press. 1982. 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3,510 | Emperor_Go-En'yū | Emperor Go-En'yū (後円融天皇 Go-En'yū-tennō) (January 11, 1359 – June 6, 1393) was the fifth of the Ashikaga Pretenders during the period of two courts. According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1371 through 1382. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 310-316. This Nanboku-chō "sovereign" was named after the 10th century Emperor En'yū and go- (後), translates literally as "later;" and thus, he may be called the "Later Emperor En'yū". The Japanese word "go" has also been translated to mean the "second one;" and in some older sources, this would-be emperor may be identified as "En'yū, the second," or as "En'yū II." Genealogy His personal name was Ohito (緒仁). He was the second son of the fourth Northern Pretender Emperor Go-Kōgon. His mother was Fujiwara Nakako (藤原仲子), daughter of Hirohashi Kanetsuna (広橋兼綱). Consort: Itsuko (厳子), daughter of Sanjō Kimitada (三条公忠) First son: Imperial Prince Motohito (幹仁親王) (Emperor Go-Komatsu) First daughter: Imperial Princess Keiko (珪子内親王) Lady-in-waiting Fujiwara Imako (藤原今子) Second son: Imperial Prince ?? (道朝親王) Events of Emperor Go-En'yū's life He claimed the throne from April 9, 1371 to May 24, 1382 In 1371, by Imperial Proclamation, he received the rank of shinnō (親王), or Imperial Prince (and potential heir). Immediately afterwards, he became emperor upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Go-Kōgon. There was said to be a disagreement between Go-Kōgon and the retired Northern Emperor Emperor Sukō over the Crown Prince. With the support of Hosokawa Yoriyuki, who controlled the Bakufu, Go-Kōgon's son became the Northern Emperor. Until 1374, Go-Kōgon ruled as cloistered emperor. In 1368, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was named Shōgun, and with his guardianship, the Imperial Court was stabilized. In 1382, upon abdicating to Emperor Go-Komatsu, his cloistered rule began. Having no actual power, he rebelled, attempting suicide and accusing Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his consort Itsuko of adultery. In 1392, peace with the Southern Court being concluded, the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts came to an end. On June 6, 1393, Go-En'yū died. Eras Emperor Go-En'yū's reign The years of Go-En'yū's Nanboku-chō reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Nanboku-chō Southern court Eras as reckoned by legitimate Court (as determined by Meiji rescript) Kentoku (1370-1372) Benchū (1372-1375) Tenju (1375-1381) Kōwa (1381-1384) Nanboku-chō Northern court Eras as reckoned by pretender Court (as determined by Meiji rescript) Ōan (1368-1375 Eiwa (1375-1379) Kōryaku (1379-1381) Eitoku (1381-1384) Southern Court Rivals Emperor Chōkei Notes References Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], ''Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon.'' Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. 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3,511 | Latin_alphabet | The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. It evolved from the western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, and was initially developed by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language. During the Middle Ages, it was adapted to the Romance languages, the direct descendants of Latin, as well as to the Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and some Slavic languages, and finally to most of the languages of Europe. With the age of colonialism and Christian proselytism, the Latin alphabet was spread overseas, and applied to Amerindian, Indigenous Australian, Austronesian, East Asian, and African languages. More recently, western linguists have also tended to prefer the Latin alphabet or the International Phonetic Alphabet (itself largely based on the Latin alphabet) when transcribing or devising written standards for non-European languages, such as the African reference alphabet. In modern usage, the term "Latin alphabet" is used for any straightforward derivation of the alphabet first used to write Latin. These variants may discard letters from the classical Roman script (like the Rotokas alphabet) or add new letters to it (like the Danish and Norwegian alphabet). Letter shapes have changed over the centuries, including the creation of entirely new lower case forms. History Origins It is generally held that the Latins adopted the Cumae alphabet, a variant of the Greek alphabet, in the 7th century B.C. from Cumae, a Greek colony in Southern Italy. Roman legend credited the introduction to one Evander, son of the Cimmerian Sibyl, supposedly 60 years before the Trojan War, but there is no historically sound basis to this tale. The Ancient Greek alphabet was in turn based upon the Phoenician alphabet. From the Cumae alphabet, the Etruscan alphabet was derived and the Latins eventually adopted 21 of the original 26 Etruscan letters: + Archaic Latin alphabet A B C D E F Z H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X The letter C was the western form of the Greek gamma, but it was used for the sounds and alike, possibly under the influence of Etruscan, which lacked any voiced plosives. Later, probably during the 3rd century BC, the letter Z — unneeded to write Latin proper — was replaced with the new letter G, a C modified with a small horizontal stroke, which took its place in the alphabet. From then on, G represented the voiced plosive , while C was generally reserved for the voiceless plosive . The letter K was used only rarely, in a small number of loanwords such as Kalendae, often interchangeably with C. After the Roman conquest of Greece in the first century BC, Latin adopted the Greek letters Y and Z (or rather readopted, in the latter case) to write Greek loanwords, placing them at the end of the alphabet. An attempt by the emperor Claudius to introduce three additional letters did not last. Thus it was that during the classical Latin period the Latin alphabet contained 23 letters: + Classical Latin alphabet Letter A B C D E F G H Name ā bē cē dē ē ef gē hā Pronunciation (IPA) /aː/ /beː/ /keː/ /deː/ /eː/ /ef/ /geː/ /haː/ Letter I K L M N O P Q Name ī kā el em en ō pē qū Pronunciation (IPA) /iː/ /kaː/ /el/ /em/ /en/ /oː/ /peː/ /kʷuː/ Letter R S T V X Y Z Name er es tē ū ex ī Graeca zēta Pronunciation (IPA) /er/ /es/ /teː/ /uː/ /eks/ /iː ˈgraika/ /ˈzeːta/ The Duenos inscription, dated to the 6th century BC, shows the earliest known forms of the Old Latin alphabet. The Latin names of some of these letters are disputed. In general, however, the Romans did not use the traditional (Semitic-derived) names as in Greek: the names of the plosives were formed by adding to their sound (except for K and Q, which needed different vowels to be distinguished from C) and the names of the continuants consisted either of the bare sound, or the sound preceded by . The letter Y when introduced was probably called hy as in Greek, the name upsilon not being in use yet, but this was changed to i Graeca (Greek i) as Latin speakers had difficulty distinguishing its foreign sound from . Z was given its Greek name, zeta. For the Latin sounds represented by the various letters see Latin spelling and pronunciation; for the names of the letters in English see English alphabet. The modern language that has been most conservative in preserving the ancient Roman names of the letters appears to be German. Old Roman cursive script, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even emperors issuing commands. A more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals, but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing. It was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century, but it probably existed earlier than that. It led to Uncial, a majuscule script commonly used from the 3rd to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes. New Roman cursive script, also known as minuscule cursive, was in use from the 3rd century to the 7th century, and uses letter forms that are more recognizable to modern eyes; a, b, d, and e had taken a more familiar shape, and the other letters were proportionate to each other. This script evolved into the medieval scripts known as Merovingian and Carolingian minuscule. Medieval and later developments It was not until the Middle Ages that the letter W (originally a ligature of V and V) was added to the Latin alphabet, to represent sounds from the Germanic languages which did not exist in medieval Latin, and only after the Renaissance did the convention of treating I and U as vowels, and J and V as consonants, become established. Prior to that, the former had been merely glyph variants of the latter. With the fragmentation of political power, the style of writing changed and varied greatly throughout the Middle Ages, and even after the invention of the printing press. Early deviations from the classical forms were the uncial script, a development of the Old Roman cursive, and various so-called minuscule scripts that developed from New Roman cursive, of which the Carolingian minuscule was the most influential, introducing the lower case forms of the letters, as well as other writing conventions that have since become standard. The languages that use the Latin alphabet today generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and proper nouns. The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. Old English, for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalised; whereas Modern English of the 18th century had frequently all nouns capitalised, in the same way that Modern German is today, e.g. "All the Sisters of the old Town had seen the Birds". Spread of the Latin alphabet The Latin alphabet spread, along with the Latin language, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The eastern half of the Empire, including Greece, Asia Minor, the Levant, and Egypt, continued to use Greek as a lingua franca, but Latin was widely spoken in the western half, and as the western Romance languages evolved out of Latin, they continued to use and adapt the Latin alphabet. With the spread of Western Christianity during the Middle Ages, the alphabet was gradually adopted by the peoples of northern Europe who spoke Celtic languages (displacing the Ogham alphabet) or Germanic languages (displacing their earlier Runic alphabets), Baltic languages, as well as by the speakers of several Finno-Ugric languages, most notably Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian. The alphabet also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, as the people who spoke them adopted Roman Catholicism. The speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted the Cyrillic alphabet along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both alphabets, with Latin being the predominant alphabet in the province of Vojvodina. As late as 1492, the Latin alphabet was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, and Central Europe. The Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used the Cyrillic alphabet, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic alphabet was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples. Most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. Latin alphabet world distribution. The dark green areas shows the countries where this alphabet is the sole main script. The light green shows the countries where the alphabet co-exists with other scripts. Over the past 500 years, the alphabet has spread around the world, to the Americas, Oceania, and parts of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific with European colonization, along with the Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, Swedish and Dutch languages. The Latin alphabet is also used for many Austronesian languages, including Tagalog and the other languages of the Philippines, and the official Malaysian and Indonesian languages, replacing earlier Arabic and indigenous Brahmic alphabets. Some glyph forms from the Latin alphabet served as the basis for the forms of the symbols in the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah; however, the sounds of the final syllabary were completely different. L. L. Zamenhof used the Latin alphabet as the basis for the alphabet of Esperanto. In the late nineteenth century, the Romanians adopted the Latin alphabet, primarily because Romanian is a Romance language. The Romanians were predominantly Orthodox Christians, and their Church had promoted the Cyrillic alphabet prior to that. Under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, the Latin alphabet was adapted for writing the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese-like characters. In 1928, as part of Kemal Atatürk's reforms, Turkey adopted the Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, replacing the Arabic alphabet. Most of Turkic-speaking peoples of the former USSR, including Tatars, Bashkirs, Azeri, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and others, used the Latin-based Uniform Turkic alphabet in the 1930s, but in the 1940s all those alphabets were replaced by Cyrillic. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, several of the newly-independent Turkic-speaking republics, namely Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, as well as Romanian-speaking Moldova, have officially adopted the Latin alphabet for Azeri, Uzbek, Turkmen, Kazakh, Tatar, and Romanian respectively. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the same periods during the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds throughout the Kurdistan region replaced their use of the Arabic alphabet for writing in the Kurdish language by adopting two forms of the Latin alphabet. Although today the only official Kurdish government located in Iraq uses the Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. Extensions In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were already written with the Roman characters. To represent these new sounds, extensions were therefore created, be it by adding diacritics to existing letters, by joining multiple letters together to make ligatures, by creating completely new forms, or by assigning a special function to pairs or triplets of letters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, which can vary with the particular language. Ligatures A ligature is a fusion of two or more ordinary letters into a new glyph or character. Examples are Æ/æ (from AE, called "ash"), Œ/œ (from OE, sometimes called "oethel"), the abbreviation & (from Latin et "and"), and the German symbol ß ("sharp S" or eszet, from ſz or ſs, the archaic medial form of s, followed by a z or s). Wholly new letters Examples are the Runic letters wynn () and thorn (Þ/þ), and the Irish letter eth (Ð/ð), which were added to the alphabet of Old English. Another Irish letter, the insular g, developed into yogh (Ȝ/ȝ), used in Middle English. Wynn was later replaced with the new letter w, eth and thorn with th, and yogh with gh. Although the four are no longer part of the English alphabet, eth and thorn are still used in the modern Icelandic alphabet. The Azerbaijani alphabet has adopted the letter schwa from the International Phonetic Alphabet, using it to represent the sound . Some West, Central and Southern African languages use a few additional letters which have a similar sound value to their equivalents in the IPA. For example, Adangme uses the letters and , and Ga uses , Ŋ/ŋ and . Hausa uses and for implosives, and for an ejective. Africanists have standardized these into the African reference alphabet. Digraphs and trigraphs Main articles: Digraph and Trigraph A digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ch, rh, sh in English, or the Dutch ij (note that ij is capitalised as IJ or the ligature IJ and sometimes as the single letter Y despite it is a different letter, but never as Ij, and that it often takes the appearance of a ligature ij very similar to the letter ÿ in handwriting). A trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German sch, the Breton c’h or the Milanese oeu. In the orthographies of some languages, digraphs and trigraphs are regarded as independent letters of the alphabet in their own right. The capitalization of digraphs and trigraphs is language-dependant, as only on the first letter may be capitalized, or all component letters simultaneously even for words written in titlecase only where the other non-initial letters after the digraph or trigraph are left in lowercase. Diacritics A diacritic, in some cases also called an accent, is a small symbol which can appear above or below a letter, or in some other position, such as the umlaut sign used in the German characters Ä, Ö, Ü. Its main function is to change the phonetic value of the letter to which it is added, but it may also modify the pronunciation of a whole syllable or word, or distinguish between homographs. As with letters, the value of diacritics is language-dependent. Collation Modified letters such as the symbols Å, Ä, and Ö may be regarded as new individual letters in themselves, and assigned a specific place in the alphabet for collation purposes, separate from that of the letter on which they are based, as is done in Swedish. In other cases, such as with Ä, Ö, Ü in German, this is not done, letter-diacritic combinations being identified with their base letter. The same applies to digraphs and trigraphs. Different diacritics may be treated differently in collation within a single language. For example, in Spanish the character Ñ is considered a letter in its own, and sorted between N and O in dictionaries, but the accented vowels Á, É, Í, Ó, Ú are not separated from the unaccented vowels A, E, I, O, U. Romanisation Words from languages natively written with other scripts, such as Arabic or Chinese, are usually transliterated or transcribed when embedded in Latin text or in multilingual international communication, a process termed romanisation. Whilst the romanisation of such languages is used mostly at unofficial levels, it has been especially prominent in computer messaging where only the limited 7-bit ASCII code is available on older systems. However, with the introduction of Unicode, romanization is now becoming less necessary. Note that keyboards used to enter such text may still restrict users to romanised text, as only ASCII or Latin-alphabet characters may be available. The English alphabet As used in modern English, the Latin alphabet consists of the following characters Majuscule Forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ Minuscule Forms (also called lowercase or small letters)abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz In addition, the ligatures Æ of A with E (e.g. "encyclopædia"), and Œ of O with E (e.g. "cœlacanth") may be used, optionally, in words derived from Latin or Greek, and the diaeresis mark is sometimes placed for example on the letters o and e (e.g. "coöperate" or "preëxisting") to indicate the pronunciation of oo or ee as two distinct vowels, rather than a long one. Hyphenation may also be used, to avoid having to type accented characters: "co-operate" or "pre-existing". Outside of professional papers on specific subjects that traditionally use ligatures in loanwords, however, ligatures and diaereses are seldom used in modern English. Note, however, that some fonts for typesetting English contain commonly used ligatures, such as for tt, fi, fl, ffi, and ffl. These are not part of the language, per se, but rather typographic convention. Latin alphabet and international standards By the 1960s it became apparent to the computer and telecommunications industries in the First World that a non-proprietary method of encoding characters was needed. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) encapsulated the Latin alphabet in their (ISO/IEC 646) standard. To achieve widespread acceptance, this encapsulation was based on popular usage. As the United States held a preeminent position in both industries during the 1960s the standard was based on the already published American Standard Code for Information Interchange, better known as ASCII, which included in the character set the 26 x 2 letters of the English alphabet. Later standards issued by the ISO, for example ISO/IEC 10646 (Unicode Latin), have continued to define the 26 x 2 letters of the English alphabet as the basic Latin alphabet with extensions to handle other letters in other languages. See also Latin-derived alphabet Roman letters used in mathematics Legacy of the Roman Empire Beghilos (Calculator spelling) Calligraphy Collation Keyboard layout List of Latin letters Palaeography Penmanship Phoenician alphabet Typography :Category:Latin-derived alphabets Further reading . Transl. of , as revised by the author : Peter Lang. 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3,512 | Chinese_historiography | Chinese historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. History of Chinese Historians Record of Chinese history dated back to the Shang Dynasty. The Classic of History, one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts is one of the earliest narratives of China. The Spring and Autumn Annals, the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 BCE to 481 BCE, is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged on annalistic principles. It is believed to be compiled by Confucius. The Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BC, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 BCE to 468 BCE. Zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work and compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States Period compiled between 3rd century to 1st century BCE. Its author is unknown. The first systematic Chinese historical text, Shiji or Records of the Grand Historian, was written by Sima Qian. The book covers the period from the time of the Yellow Emperor until the author's own time. Due to his highly praised work, Sima Qian is often regarded as the father of Chinese historiography. Records of the Grand Historian is the first among Twenty-Four Histories, a collection of Chinese historical books covering a period of history from 3000 BC to the Ming Dynasty in the 17th century. Shitong is the first Chinese work about historiography compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710. The book describes the general pattern of the past official dynastic historiography on structure, method, order of arrangement, sequence, caption and commentary back to the pre-Qin era. Zizhi Tongjian, literally "Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government", was a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography. Emperor Yingzong of Song ordered Sima Guang and other scholars to begin compiling this universal history of China in 1065 and they presented it to his successor Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1084. It contains 294 volumes and about 3 million words (or Chinese characters). The book chronologically narrates the history of China from the Warring States period in 403 BCE to the beginning of the Song Dynasty in 959 CE. Zizhi Tongjian changed a tradition dating back almost 1,000 years to the Shiji; standard Chinese dynastic histories (collectively the Twenty-Four Histories) primarily divided chapters between annals (紀) of rulers and biographies (傳) of officials. In Chinese terms, the book changed the format of histories from biographical style (紀傳體) to chronological style (編年體), which is better suited for analysis and criticism. As a tradition, rulers initiating new dynasties would order the scholars of the previous dynasty to compile its final history. Narratives and Interpretations of Chinese history Dynastic Cycle China's traditionalist view of history sees the rise and fall of dynasties as passing the "Mandate of Heaven". In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a moral uprighteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. The immorality of the dynasty is reflected in natural disasters, rebellions, and foreign invasions. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty. This theory became popular during the Zhou dynasty. It is not entirely cyclical because it claims the golden age has passed and history is gradually descending towards decadence. This theory also claims there can be only one rightful sovereign ruling all under heaven at a time but throughout Chinese history there have been many contentious and long periods of disunity where the question of legitimacy is moot; see also Imperial Seal of China. In fact, less than a third of China's history was the country under the rule of a single state. Another problem arises if the dynasty falls even if it was virtuous. The last ruler of a dynasty is always castigated as evil even if that was not the case. The greatest weakness was the end of the cycle itself with the birth of the Republic of China. Notions of the Mandate of Heaven and divine monarchy were discarded, as shown in two unpopular and failed attempts to restore the imperial system by Yuan Shikai and Zhang Xun. Marxist Interpretations of Chinese history Most Chinese history that is published in the People's Republic of China is based on a Marxist interpretation of history. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are slave society feudal society capitalist society socialist society world communist society The official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history as well as making some subdivisions. slave society - Xia to Shang feudal society - decentralized feudalism - Zhou to Sui feudal society - bureaucratic feudalism - Tang to Opium War feudal society - semicolonial era - Opium War to end of Qing dynasty capitalist society - Republican era socialist society - PRC 1949 to ??? socialist society - primary stage of socialism - 1978 to 2050 (?) world communist society - ? Because of the strength of the Communist Party of China and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it is difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history. There are several problems associated with Marxist interpretation. First, slavery existed throughout China's history and has never been the primary mode of production. While the Zhou can be labelled as feudal, others were centralized states. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term "bureaucratic feudalism", which is an oxymoron. The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the imperial examination system which finally overcame the nine-rank system; prior to this both systems were in use. Some World-systems analysts contend capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China by following Kondratiev waves to their source. There has been a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation from the 1980s onwards, which was accelerated after the Tiananmen Square protest of 1989 and Revolutions of 1989 have damaged Marxism's ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese people. In general, the modern scholarship emphasizes nationalism in the context of a Third World oppressed nation seeking modernization, mixed with a focus on present-life lite form of Confucian perspective. The traditional Confucian or Taoist concept of mandate of Heaven is still considered taboo due to the still official Communist atheistic ideology. Orthodox Marxist perspectives in historical researches are very rarely encountered in China these days apart from retired elderly Marxist historians. Three Stages of Revolution The Kuomintang issued their own theory of political stages based on Sun Yatsen's proposal though it is limited only to recent history. military unification - 1923 to 1928 (Northern Expedition) political tutelage - 1928 to 1947 constitutional democracy - 1947 onward (Constitution of the Republic of China) The most obvious criticism is the near identical nature of "political tutelage" and "constitutional democracy" which consisted of one party rule until the 1990s. Chen Shui-bian proposed his own Four-Stage Theory of the Republic of China. Ethnic Inclusiveness Also sponsored by the PRC is the view that Chinese history should include all of China's ethnic groups past and present (Zhonghua Minzu), not just the history of the Han Chinese. China (including its internal vassals/tributaries) is viewed as a coherent state formed since time immemorial and exists as one legal entity even in periods of political disunity. The benefit of this theory is to show the contributions of non-Han to Chinese history. It allows once "foreign" dynasties like the Mongol Yuan and the Manchu Qing as well as the Khitan Liao, Jurchen Jin to be appreciated as part of the Chinese tapestry, allegedly helping reduce the alienation of ethnic minorities living in China. This theory also avoids "Han centered" analyses. For example, it denies Yue Fei, a "Han Chinese" who fought for China against the Jurchens, a place as a "hero of China". But the theory has led to criticism and international disputes. It has been identified as a smokescreen for China's hold on Tibet and Xinjiang. China's claims on Taiwan are also criticized by those who think, ideologically, that the PRC does not have legitimate claims on these territories. Mongolia and Vietnam have concerns that it will be used against them in future since they could be labeled "Chinese" under the theory. Korean historians dispute the labeling of ethnic Korean archeological sites in China as Chinese. The theory has also been accused of giving rise to controversial characterizations such as the identification of Genghis Khan as "Chinese", while there exists a modern Mongolian nation-state. Apologists for the "ethnical inclusiveness" theory cite the fact that there are more ethnic Mongols living in the Chinese-controlled Inner Mongolia than the nation-state of Mongolia to assert that China actually has a stronger claim to the Mongolian heritage than Mongolia does. The Chinese tradition since the Jin Dynasty (3rd century AD) that emperors of one dynasty would sponsor the writing of the official history of the immediately preceding dynasty has been cited in favor of an ethnically inclusive interpretation of history. The compilation of official histories usually involved monumental intellectual labor. The Yuan and Qing Dynasties, which might be thought "foreign" as their imperial families were not of the Han people, faithfully carried out the tradition, writing the official histories of Han-ruled Song and Ming Dynasties respectively. Had the two "non-Han" imperial families not thought themselves as continuing the "Mandate of Heaven" of the Middle Kingdom—the cosmological center of their known world—it would be hard to explain why they retained the costly tradition. Thus, every non-Han dynasty saw itself as the legitimate holder of the "Mandate of Heaven", which legitimized the dynastic cycle regardless of social or ethnic background as it was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that had been validating the "Mandate of Heaven." By assuming the mantle of the legitimate dynasty, the ethnic groups that established such non-Han dynasties are thus regarded as having forfeited their right to remain politically distinct from China. The ethnic inclusiveness theory is not limited to the PRC alone. The Tongmenghui initially regarded the Manchus as non-Chinese occupiers. They quickly realized that ethnic inclusiveness was needed if the new republic was to maintain control over the territories bequeathed by the Qing dynasty. "Han independence" was therefore scrapped in favor of the Five Races Under One Union principle, which later developed into the theory of Zhonghua minzu. The Republic of China regime on Taiwan continues to claim a much larger territory encompassing Mongolia and Tannu Uriankhai. Anti-Imperialist Narratives Closely related are anti-imperialist narratives. While some anti-imperialist narratives notably those of historians within the People's Republic of China as well as Western Marxist histories incorporate anti-imperialist narratives in their histories, many anti-imperialist narratives are non-Marxist or as in the case of the Kuomintang in the 1960s, actively anti-Marxist. Modernist Interpretations of Chinese history This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society in the 20th century as a traditional society seeking to become modern, usually with the implicit assumption that Western society is the definition of modern society. This view of Chinese history has its roots with British views of the orient of the early 19th century. In this viewpoint, the societies of India, China, and the Middle East were societies with glorious pasts but that they have become trapped in a static past (see Orientalism). This view provided an implicit justification of British colonialism with Britain assuming the "white man's burden" of breaking these societies from their static past and bringing them into the modern world. By the mid 20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that the notion of "changeless China" was untenable. A new concept, popularized by John Fairbank was the notion of "change within tradition" which argued that although China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change existed within certain cultural traditions. There are a number of criticisms of the modernist critique. One centers on the definition of "traditional society." The criticism is that the idea of "traditional society" is simply a catch all term for early non-Western society and implies that all such societies are similar. To use an analogy, one could classify all animals into "fish" and "non-fish" but that classification would be hardly useful, and would imply that spiders are similar to mountain goats. The notion of "change within tradition" also been subject to criticism. The criticism is that the statement that "China has not changed fundamentally" is tautological, that one looks for things that have not changed and then define those as fundamental. The trouble with doing this is that when one can do this with anything that has lasted for an extended period of time resulting in absurd statements such as "England has not changed fundamentally in the past thousand years because the institution of the monarchy has existed for this long." In the opposite vein, Naito Torajiro argued that China reached "modernity" during its mid-Imperial period, centuries before Europe. He believed that the reform of the civil service into a meritocratic system and the disappearance of the ancient Chinese nobility from the bureaucracy constituted a modern society. As noted above, some world-systems analysts such as Janet Abu-Lughod thought China invented capitalism during this period with the rise of a monied economy and the invention of paper currency. The problems associated with this approach is the subjective use of "modern" and "capitalist". The old nobility had been in decline since the Qin dynasty. While the exams were meritocratic, most examinees were of the gentry background. Expertise in the Confucian classics did not guarantee competent bureaucrats who could manage public works or prepare a budget. The early capitalists theory is also unsound in that merchants were at the bottom of the four occupations due to Confucianism's hostility to commerce. The social goal was to invest in land and enter the gentry, ideas more similar to the physiocrats than that of Adam Smith. Hydraulic Theory Derived from Marx and Max Weber, Karl August Wittfogel argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems. Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals, dikes, and waterways to increase agriculture. Yu the Great, one of China's legendary founders, is mostly known for his control of the flood. The hydraulic empire produces wealth from its stability and while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers. Critics of Wittfogel's oriental despotism theory point out that water management was not a high priority when compared to taxes, rituals, and fighting off bandits. The theory also has a strong orientalist bent which regards all Asian states as generally the same. Convergence Theory Convergence theory is a broad term which includes a viewpoint popular among non-Marxist Chinese intellectuals of the mid 20th century. This includes Hu Shih and Ray Huang's involution theory. This view was that the past 150 years was a period in which Chinese and Western civilization were in the process of convergence into a world civilization. This view is heavily influenced by modernization theory, but is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of "shijie datong" or the Great Unity. It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians. Among Western historians, it conflicts with the postmodern impulse which is skeptical of great narratives. Among Chinese historians, convergence theory is in conflict with Chinese nationalism which includes a strong element of China as being unique. European conflict interpretations of Chinese history European conflict interpretations focus on interaction with Europe as the driving force behind recent Chinese history. There are two variants, one focuses on Europe as the driving force behind China's quest for modernity, the other focuses on the effects of European colonialism. One criticism of this view is that it ignores historical forces that do not involve Europe, such as indigenous economic forces. One example of a blind spot which is provided by this viewpoint is the influence of central Asian policies on interactions with Europe in the Qing dynasty. Post-modern interpretations of Chinese history Post-modern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject the grand narratives of other interpretations of history. Instead of seeking a grand pattern of history, post-modern interpretations tend to focus on a small subset of Chinese history. In attention rather than focusing on the political elites of China, post-modern historians look also at the daily lives of ordinary people. Issues in the study of Chinese history Recent trends in Chinese historical scholarship The late 20th century and early 21st century has seen a large amount of studies of Chinese history, quite a bit of it 'revisionist' in that it seeks to challenge traditional paradigms. The field is rapidly evolving with much new scholarship. Much of this new scholarship comes from the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial. To give one such controversy, it is an active topic of discussion whether the typical Chinese peasant in 1900 was seeing his life improve or decline. In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous amounts of primary source material that has not yet been analyzed. Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by postmodernism. For example, current scholars of China tend to question the question, and look heavily at the assumptions within a question before attempting to answer it. For example, one begins to answer the question "Why did China not develop modern science and capitalism?" by asking the question "Why are we assuming that what China did develop was not modern science and capitalism?" This then brings up the question of what are the essential characteristics of modern science and capitalism, and whether it makes any sense at all to apply European concepts to Chinese history. One example of the fruitfulness of questioning assumption comes from questioning the assumption that "China was weak in the 19th century" and pointing out the fact that at the time in which China was supposedly weak, it managed to extend its borders to record sizes in Central Asia. This in turn has caused scholars to be more interested in Chinese policies and actions in Central Asia and has led to the realization that Central Asia affected Chinese policies toward Europe in a deep way. Another trend in Western scholarship of China has been to move away from "grand theories" of history toward understanding of a narrow part of China. A survey of papers on Chinese history in the early 21st century would reveal relatively little attempt to fit Chinese history into a master paradigm of history as was common in the 1950s. Instead, early 21st century papers on Chinese history tend to be empirical studies of a small part of China which aim to reach a deep understanding of the socio-economics, political, or cultural dynamics of a small region such as a province or a village with little effort made to create a master narrative which would be generalizable to all of China. Also, such current scholars attempt to assess source material more critically. For example, for a long period it was assumed that Imperial China had no system of civil law because the law codes did not have explicit provisions for civil lawsuits. However, more recent studies which use the records of civil magistrates suggest that China did in fact have a very well developed system of civil law in which provisions of the criminal code were interpreted to allow civil causes of action. Another example of the more critical view taken toward source material has been anti-merchant statements made by intellectuals in the mid-Qing dynasty. Traditionally these have been interpreted as examples of government hostility toward commerce, but more result studies which use source material such as magistrate diaries and genealogical records, suggest that merchants in fact had a powerful impact on government policies and that the division between the world of the merchant and the world of the official was far more porous than traditionally believed. In fact there is a growing consensus that anti-merchant statements in the mid-Qing dynasty should be taken as evidence of a substantial erosion in the power and freedom of action of officials. Finally, current scholars have taken an increasing interest in the lives of common people and to tap documentary and historical evidence that was previously not analyzed. Examples of these records include a large mass of governmental and family archives which have not yet been processed, economic records such as census records, price records, land surveys, and tax records. In addition there are large numbers of cultural artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to books, and children's books, which are in the process of being analyzed for clues as to how the average Chinese (if there was such as thing) lived. In contrast, just as postmodernism has so far failed to take root in ethnic Chinese circles as opposed to a general sense of Chinese nationalist moral certainty, much of ethnic Chinese scholarship of Chinese history remains largely modernist or even outright traditionalist in outlook. The legacies of modernist school such as historian Lo Hsiang-lin (1906-1978) and traditionalist school as represented by historian Chien Mu (1895-1990) remain strong in Chinese circles. The more modernist works focus on imperial systems in China and deploys scientific method to analyze epochs of Chinese dynasties from geographical, genealogical, and cultural artifacts, for example, from Carbon-14 dating and geographical records to correlate climates with cycles of calm and calamity in Chinese history. The traditionalist school of scholarship resorts to official imperial records and colloquial history works and analyze the different dynasties' rises and falls using a Confucian philosophies albeit modified by an institutional administration perspective. The scholarship in mainland China itself is largely modernist courtesy of the state nominal Communist ideology being highly modernist, and much of the studies focus on archeological findings and using scientific method to reconstruct epochs of history not found on official records. From the beginning of Communist rule in 1949 until the 1980s when China was in the early years of economic reforms, the interests were largely about the peasant life as interpreted from the officially sanctioned Marxist theory of class struggles. From the time of Deng Xiaoping onwards, there has been a drift of focus towards a Marxist-inspired, moderated by Conficianism, nationalist perspective and consideration of China's contemporary international status became paramount importance in historical studies. The current focus tends to be on specifics of civilization in ancient China, and the general paradigm of how China has responded to the dual challenges of interactions with the outside world and modernization in the post-1700 eras. Long abandoned as a research focus among most Western scholars due to postmodernism's influence, it remains the primary interest for most historians inside China. 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3,513 | International_English | International English is the concept of the English language as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and also the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is also referred to as Global English, World English, Common English, or General English. Sometimes these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world. Sometimes "international English" and the related terms above refer to a desired standardisation, i.e. Standard English; however, there is no consensus on the path to this goal. Historical context The modern concept of International English does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language. The English language evolved from a set of West Germanic dialects spoken by the Angles and Saxons, who arrived from the Continent in the 5th Century. Those dialects came to be known as Englisc (literally "Anglish"), the language today referred to as Anglo-Saxon or Old English (the language of the poem Beowulf). English is thus more closely related to West Frisian than to any other modern language, although less than a quarter of the vocabulary of Modern English is shared with West Frisian or other West Germanic languages because of extensive borrowings from Norse, Norman, Latin, and other languages. It was during the Viking invasions of the Anglo-Saxon period that Old English was influenced by contact with Norse, a group of North Germanic dialects spoken by the Vikings, who came to control a large region in the North of England known as the Danelaw. Vocabulary items entering English from Norse (including the pronouns she, they, and them) are thus attributable to the on-again-off-again Viking occupation of Northern England during the centuries prior to the Norman Conquest (see, e.g., Canute the Great). Soon after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the Englisc language ceased being a literary language (see, e.g., Ormulum) and was replaced by Anglo-Norman as the written language of England. During the Norman Period, English absorbed a significant component of French vocabulary (approximately one-third of the vocabulary of Modern English) With this new vocabulary, additional vocabulary borrowed from Latin (with Greek, another approximately one-third of Modern English vocabulary, though some borrowings from Latin and Greek date from later periods), a simplified grammar, and use of the orthographic conventions of French instead of Old English orthography, the language became Middle English (the language of Chaucer). The "difficulty" of English as a written language thus began in the High Middle Ages, when French orthographic conventions were used to spell a language whose original, more suitable orthography had been forgotten after centuries of nonuse. During the late medieval period, King Henry V of England (lived 1387-1422) ordered the use of the English of his day in proceedings before him and before the government bureaucracies. That led to the development of Chancery English, a standardized form used in the government bureaucracy. (The use of so-called Law French in English courts continued through the Renaissance, however.) The emergence of English as a language of Wales results from the incorporation of Wales into England and also dates from approximately this time period. Soon afterward, the development of printing by Caxton and others accelerated the development of a standardised form of English. Following a change in vowel pronunciation that marks the transition of English from the medieval to the Renaissance period, the language of the Chancery and Caxton became Early Modern English (the language of Shakespeare's day) and with relatively moderate changes eventually developed into the English language of today. Scots, as spoken in the lowlands and along the east coast of Scotland, developed independently from Modern English and is based on the Northern dialects of Anglo-Saxon, particularly Northumbrian, which also serve as the basis of Northern English dialects such as those of Yorkshire and Newcastle upon Tyne. Northumbria was within the Danelaw and therefore experienced greater influence from Norse than did the Southern dialects. As the political influence of London grew, the Chancery version of the language developed into a written standard across Great Britain, further progressing in the modern period as Scotland became united with England as a result of the Acts of Union of 1707. There have been two introductions of English to Ireland, a medieval introduction that led to the development of the now-extinct Yola dialect and a modern introduction in which Hibernian English largely replaced Irish as the most widely spoken language during the 19th century, following the Act of Union of 1800. Received Pronunciation (RP) is generally viewed as a 19th century development and is not reflected in North American English dialects, which are based on 18th Century English. The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in North America in 1607 was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. British English was only partially standardised when the American colonies were established. Isolated from each other by the Atlantic Ocean, the dialects in England and the colonies began evolving independently. In the 19th century, the standardisation of British English was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this relatively well-established English was brought to Africa, Asia and Oceania. It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of the British Empire. The first form can be seen in New Zealand English, and the latter in Indian English. In Europe English received a more central role particularly since 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was composed not only in French, the common language of diplomacy at the time, but also in English. The English-speaking regions of Canada and the Caribbean are caught between historical connections with the UK and the Commonwealth, and geographical and economic connections with the U.S. In some things, and more formally, they tend to follow British standards, whereas in others they follow the U.S. standard. Methods of promotion Unlike proponents of constructed languages, International English proponents face on the one hand the belief that English already is a world language (and as such, nothing needs to be done to promote it further) and, on the other, the belief that an international language would inherently need to be a constructed one (e.g. Esperanto). In such an environment, at least four basic approaches have been proposed or employed toward the further expansion or consolidation of International English, some in contrast with, and others in opposition to, methods used to advance constructed international auxiliary languages. Laissez-faire approach. This approach is taken either out of ignorance of the other approaches or out of a belief that English will more quickly (or with fewer objections) become a more fully international language without any specific global legislation. Institutional sponsorship and grass-roots promotion of language programs. Some governments have promoted the spread of the English language through sponsorship of English language programs abroad, without any attempt to gain formal international endorsement, as have grass-roots individuals and organizations supporting English (whether through instruction, marketing, etc.). National legislation. This approach encourages countries to enshrine English as having at least some kind of official status, in the belief that this would further its spread and could include more countries over time. International legislation. This approach involves promotion of the future holding of a binding international convention (perhaps to be under the auspices of such international organizations as the United Nations or Inter-Parliamentary Union) to formally agree upon an official international auxiliary language which would then be taught in all schools around the world, beginning at the primary level. While this approach allows for the possibility of an alternative to English being chosen (due to its necessarily democratic approach), the approach also allows for the eventuality that English would be chosen by a sufficient majority of the proposed convention's delegates so as to put international opinion and law behind the language and thus to consolidate it as a full official world language. Modern global language Braj Kachru divides the use of English into three concentric circles. The inner circle is the traditional base of English and includes countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland and the United States, and, loosely, the (historically mainly white) former colonies: Australia, New Zealand, some islands of the Caribbean, and the anglophone population of Canada. (South Africa is regarded as a special case). English is the native language or mother tongue of most people in these countries. In the outer circle are those countries where English has official or historical importance ("special significance"). This means most of the Commonwealth of Nations (the former British Empire), including populous countries such as India, Pakistan and Nigeria, and others under the American sphere of influence, such as the Philippines. Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in English. The expanding circle refers to those countries where English has no official role, but nonetheless is important for certain functions, notably international business. This use of English as a lingua franca by now includes most of the rest of the world not categorised above. A recent development is the role of English as a lingua franca between speakers of the mutually intelligible Scandinavian languages (Danish, Norwegian and Swedish). Older generations of Scandinavians would use and understand each others' mother tongue without problems. However today's younger generations lack the same understanding and some have started using English as the language of choice. Nordisk språkfellesskap på vei ut Research on English as a Lingua Franca in the sense of "English in the Expanding Circle" is comparatively recent. Linguists who have been active in this field are Jennifer Jenkins, Barbara Seidlhofer, Christiane Meierkord and Joachim Grzega. English as a lingua franca in foreign language teaching English as an additional language (EAL) usually is based on the standards of either American English or British English. English as an international language (EIL) is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to communicate internationally. Roger Nunn considers different types of competence in relation to the teaching of English as an International Language, arguing that linguistic competence has yet to be adequately addressed in recent considerations of EIL. Competence and Teaching English as an International Language. Asian EFL Journal, Volume 7. Issue 3 Article 6. Several models of "simplified English" have been suggested for teaching English as a foreign language: Basic English, developed by Charles Kay Ogden (and later also I. A. Richards) in the 1930s, a recent revival has been initiated by Bill Templer Threshold Level English, developed by van Ek and Alexander Globish, developed by Jean-Paul Nerrière Basic Global English, developed by Joachim Grzega Furthermore, Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein thought about a Nuclear English, which, however, has never been fully developed. Varying concepts Universality and flexibility International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers, but by all those who come to use it. Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language'), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with British English, American English, South African English, and the like. — McArthur (2002, p. 444–445) It especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The importance of non-native English language skills can be recognized behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science and technology is broken English. Neutrality International English reaches towards cultural neutrality. This has a practical use: "What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets! Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea — both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without American or British or Canadian or Australian coloring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard' forms." — Peters (2004, International English) According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimizes the aspects defined by either the colonial imperialism of Victorian Britain or the so-called "cultural imperialism" of the 20th century United States. While British colonialism laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence. The development of International English often centers on academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general. Opposition The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by many as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms. Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his Linguistic Imperialism (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes (namely Australian and Canadian). Edward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become "dependent on the language skills of others" by placing their faith in international English. Appropriation theory There are also some who reject both linguistic imperialism and David Crystal's theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the phenomenon of the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of appropriation (e.g. Spichtinger 2000), that is, English used for local purposes around the world. Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the globe, for instance. In English language teaching Bobda shows how Cameroon has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a Cameroonian context. Non Western-topics treated are, for instance, the rule of Emirs, traditional medicine or polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture. The Pakistani textbook "Primary Stage English" includes lessons such as "Pakistan My Country", "Our Flag", or "Our Great Leader" (Malik 1993: 5,6,7) which might well sound jingoistic to Western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and Muslim faith is seen as one of the aims of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The board...takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands" (Punjab Text Book Board 1997). Many Englishes There are many difficult choices that have to be made if there is to be further standardisation of English in the future. These include the choice over whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would generally replace all these varieties of English. We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard Englishes—the one which gives us our national and local identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own language. — David Crystal (1988: p. 265) This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess a 'non-standard' dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect. Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without great difficulty. As far as spelling is concerned, the differences between American and British usage became noticeable due to the first influential lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic. Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755 greatly favoured Norman-influenced spellings such as centre and colour; on the other hand, Noah Webster's first guide to American spelling, published in 1783, preferred spellings like center and the Latinate color. The difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are largely responsible for the main division in English spelling that exists today. However, these differences are extremely minor. Spelling is but a small part of the differences between dialects of English, and may not even reflect dialect differences at all (except in phonetically spelled dialogue). International English refers to much more than an agreed spelling pattern. Dual standard Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach. The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions) and to accept the validity of differences. The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter. The new dialect approach appears in The Cambridge Guide to English Usage (Peters, 2004) which attempts to avoid any language bias and accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed American and British forms (but tending to prefer the more phonetic American English spellings). References Acar, A. (2006). "Models, Norms and Goals for English as an International Language Pedagogy and Task Based Language Teaching and Learning.", The Asian EFL Journal, Volume 8. Issue 3, Article 9. Albu, Rodica (2005). "Using English(es). Introduction to the Study of Present-day English Varieties & Terminological Glossary", 3rd edition. Iasi: Demiurg. ISBN 973-7603-07-9 Biber, Douglas; Johansson, Stig; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, Susan; Finnegan, Edward (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-23725-4. Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997) "Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon." In: Pütz, Martin (ed.) The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. 221-240. Crystal, David (1988). The English Language. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-013532-4. ————— (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59247-X. Erling, Elizabeth J. (2000). "International/Global/World English: Is a Consensus Possible?", Postgraduate Conference Proceedings, The University of Edinburgh, Department of Applied Linguistics. (Postscript.) Grzega, Joachim (2005), "Reflection on Concepts of English for Europe: British English, American English, Euro-English, Global English", Journal for EuroLinguistiX 2: 44-64 Grzega, Joachim (2005), “Towards Global English via Basic Global English (BGE): Socioeconomic and Pedagogic Ideas for a European and Global Language (with Didactic Examples for Native Speakers of German), Journal for EuroLinguistiX 2: 65-164. On Basic Global English cf. also the press releases accessible at the Basic Global English website House, Juliane (2002), “Pragmatic Competence in Lingua Franca English”, in: Knapp, Karlfried / Meierkord, Christiane (eds.), Lingua Franca Communication, 245-267, Frankfurt (Main): Peter Lang. Jenkins, Jennifer (2003), World Englishes, London: Routledge. Kachru, Braj (1985), "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism", in: Quirk, Randolph (ed.), English in the World, 11-34, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kachru, Braj (1986). The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-native Englishes. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06172-1. Klaire Kramsch and Particia Sullivan (1996) "Appropriate Pedagogy". ELT Journal 50/3 199-212. Malik, S.A. Primary Stage English (1993). Lahore: Tario Brothers. McArthur, T. (Oxford, 1992) "The Oxford Companion to the English Language," Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-214183-X ————— (2001). "World English and World Englishes: Trends, tensions, varieties, and standards", Language Teaching Vol. 34, issue 1. Available in PDF format at Cambridge: Language Teaching: Sample article and Learning and Teacher Support Centre: McArthur. ————— (2002). Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866248-3 hardback, ISBN 0-19-860771-7 paperback. Meierkord, Christiane (1996), Englisch als Medium der interkulturellen Kommunikation: Untersuchungen zum non-native/non-native-speakers-Diskurs, Frankfurt (Main) etc.: Lang. Ogden, Charles K. (1934), The System of Basic English, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co. Paredes, Xoán M. and da Silva Mendes, S. (2002). "The Geography of Languages: a strictly geopolitical issue? The case of 'international English'", Chimera 17:104-112, University College Cork, Ireland (PDF) Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62181-X. Phillipson, Robert (1992). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-437146-8. Quirk, Randolph (1981), “International Communication and the Concept of Nuclear English”, in: Smith, Larry E. (ed.), English for Cross-Cultural Communication, 151-165, London: Macmillan. Seidlhofer, Barbara (2004), “Research Perspectives on Teaching English as a Lingua Franca”, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24: 209-239. Spichtinger, David (2000). "The Spread of English and its Appropriation." Diplomarbeit zur Erlangung des Magistergrades der Philosophie eingereicht an der Geisteswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Wien. (PDF.) Retrieved June 6, 2007. Stein, Gabriele (1979), “Nuclear English: Reflections on the Structure of Its Vocabulary”, Poetica (Tokyo) 10: 64-76. van Ek, J.A. / Alexander, L.G. (1980), Threshold Level English, Oxford: Pergamon. Templer, Bill (2005), “Towards a People’s English: Back to BASIC in EIL”, Humanising Language Teaching September 2005. Notes See also English language learning and teaching | International_English |@lemmatized international:39 english:183 concept:6 language:76 global:14 mean:3 communication:6 numerous:1 dialect:18 also:15 movement:1 towards:6 standard:19 refer:4 world:18 common:2 general:3 sometimes:3 term:2 simply:1 array:1 variety:8 speak:7 throughout:2 related:1 desired:1 standardisation:3 e:6 however:6 consensus:2 path:1 goal:2 historical:3 context:3 modern:10 exist:2 isolation:1 product:2 century:10 development:8 evolve:2 set:2 west:4 germanic:3 angle:1 saxon:4 arrive:1 continent:1 come:3 know:3 englisc:2 literally:1 anglish:1 today:4 anglo:5 old:4 poem:1 beowulf:1 thus:4 closely:1 relate:1 frisian:2 although:1 less:2 quarter:1 vocabulary:8 share:1 extensive:1 borrowing:2 norse:4 norman:6 latin:3 viking:3 invasion:1 period:7 influence:7 contact:1 group:2 north:4 control:3 large:2 region:2 england:7 danelaw:2 item:1 enter:1 include:7 pronoun:1 attributable:2 occupation:1 northern:3 prior:1 conquest:2 see:7 g:5 canute:1 great:6 soon:2 cease:1 literary:1 ormulum:1 replace:2 write:7 absorb:1 significant:1 component:1 french:5 approximately:3 one:9 third:2 new:6 additional:2 borrow:1 greek:2 another:1 though:1 date:2 late:2 simplified:1 grammar:3 use:21 orthographic:2 convention:6 instead:1 orthography:2 become:7 middle:2 chaucer:1 difficulty:2 begin:3 high:2 age:1 spell:4 whose:1 original:1 suitable:1 forget:1 nonuse:1 medieval:3 king:1 henry:1 v:1 lived:1 order:1 day:3 proceeding:2 government:3 bureaucracy:2 lead:2 chancery:3 standardized:1 form:8 call:3 law:2 court:1 continue:1 renaissance:2 emergence:1 wale:2 result:2 incorporation:1 time:3 afterward:1 printing:1 caxton:2 others:6 accelerate:1 standardised:1 follow:5 change:3 vowel:1 pronunciation:2 mark:1 transition:1 early:1 shakespeare:1 relatively:2 moderate:1 eventually:1 develop:10 scot:1 lowland:1 along:1 east:1 coast:1 scotland:2 independently:2 base:6 particularly:2 northumbrian:1 serve:2 basis:1 yorkshire:1 newcastle:1 upon:2 tyne:1 northumbria:1 within:3 therefore:1 experience:1 southern:1 political:2 london:4 grow:1 version:2 across:1 britain:3 progressing:1 united:6 act:2 union:3 two:4 introduction:4 ireland:4 extinct:1 yola:1 hibernian:1 largely:2 replaced:1 irish:1 widely:1 spoken:3 receive:2 rp:1 generally:3 view:1 reflect:2 american:15 establishment:1 first:4 permanent:1 speaking:3 colony:4 america:1 major:2 step:1 globalisation:1 british:17 partially:1 standardise:1 establish:3 isolate:1 atlantic:2 ocean:1 settled:1 previous:1 well:4 bring:1 africa:2 asia:1 oceania:1 settler:1 administrative:1 impose:1 speaker:7 various:1 part:2 empire:2 zealand:2 latter:1 indian:1 europe:2 central:1 role:3 since:1 treaty:1 versailles:1 compose:1 diplomacy:1 canada:2 caribbean:2 catch:1 connection:4 uk:1 commonwealth:2 geographical:1 economic:1 u:5 thing:1 formally:2 tend:3 whereas:1 method:2 promotion:3 unlike:1 proponent:2 constructed:2 face:3 hand:2 belief:4 already:1 nothing:1 need:5 promote:2 far:3 would:7 inherently:1 esperanto:1 environment:1 least:2 four:1 basic:9 approach:14 propose:2 employ:1 toward:1 expansion:1 consolidation:1 contrast:2 opposition:2 advance:1 construct:1 auxiliary:2 laissez:1 faire:1 take:2 either:3 ignorance:1 quickly:1 objection:1 fully:2 without:5 specific:1 legislation:3 institutional:1 sponsorship:2 grass:2 roots:2 program:2 spread:5 abroad:1 attempt:2 gain:1 formal:3 endorsement:1 individual:4 organization:2 support:2 whether:3 instruction:1 marketing:1 etc:2 national:3 encourage:1 country:9 enshrine:1 kind:2 official:5 status:1 could:2 involve:1 future:2 holding:1 binding:1 perhaps:2 auspex:1 nation:2 inter:1 parliamentary:1 agree:1 teach:11 school:1 around:3 primary:3 level:3 allow:2 possibility:2 alternative:1 choose:2 due:3 necessarily:2 democratic:1 eventuality:1 sufficient:1 majority:1 delegate:1 put:2 opinion:1 behind:2 consolidate:1 full:1 braj:3 kachru:3 divide:1 three:1 concentric:1 circle:5 inner:1 traditional:2 kingdom:1 state:4 loosely:1 historically:1 mainly:1 white:1 former:2 australia:1 island:1 anglophone:1 population:1 south:2 regard:1 special:2 case:2 native:10 mother:2 tongue:3 people:2 outer:1 importance:2 significance:1 populous:1 india:1 pakistan:2 nigeria:1 sphere:1 philippine:1 may:5 useful:1 lingua:9 franca:9 ethnic:1 education:2 legislature:1 judiciary:1 commerce:1 carry:1 predominantly:1 expand:2 refers:3 nonetheless:1 important:1 certain:1 function:2 notably:1 business:2 rest:2 categorise:1 recent:4 mutually:1 intelligible:1 scandinavian:2 danish:1 norwegian:1 swedish:1 generation:2 understand:2 problem:1 young:1 lack:1 understanding:1 start:1 choice:3 nordisk:1 språkfellesskap:1 på:1 vei:1 ut:1 research:2 sense:1 comparatively:1 linguist:1 active:1 field:1 jennifer:2 jenkins:2 barbara:2 seidlhofer:2 christiane:3 meierkord:3 joachim:4 grzega:4 foreign:4 eal:2 usually:1 eil:3 emphasis:1 learn:4 different:4 particular:1 aim:2 equip:1 student:3 linguistic:6 tool:2 communicate:2 internationally:1 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sullivan:2 describe:1 methodology:1 textbook:3 suit:1 vietnamese:1 pakistani:1 stage:2 lesson:1 flag:1 leader:1 malik:2 might:2 sound:1 jingoistic:1 ear:1 elt:3 patriotism:1 muslim:1 chairman:1 punjab:2 board:3 openly:1 care:1 book:2 inoculate:1 love:1 islamic:1 awareness:1 guard:1 ideological:1 frontier:1 home:1 land:1 text:1 difficult:1 make:1 adopt:1 current:2 artificial:1 true:1 supplant:1 leave:1 rise:1 merger:1 admixture:1 course:1 give:2 identity:1 touch:1 human:1 race:1 effect:1 bilingual:1 user:1 possess:1 birth:1 publish:3 require:1 style:1 spelling:10 necessary:1 difference:6 noticeable:1 influential:1 lexicographer:1 dictionary:2 writer:1 side:1 samuel:1 johnson:2 greatly:1 favour:1 influenced:1 centre:2 colour:1 noah:1 webster:2 guide:4 prefer:2 latinate:1 color:1 strategy:1 philosophy:1 responsible:1 main:4 division:1 extremely:1 minor:1 small:1 except:1 phonetically:1 dialogue:1 agreed:1 pattern:1 individualistic:2 inclusive:1 purport:1 accept:1 validity:1 longman:2 descriptive:1 chapter:2 preference:1 editor:1 appear:1 cambridge:9 avoid:1 bias:1 accordingly:1 idiosyncratic:1 system:2 mixed:1 phonetic:1 reference:1 acar:1 norm:1 pedagogy:2 task:1 albu:1 rodica:1 es:1 present:1 terminological:1 glossary:1 edition:1 iasi:1 demiurg:1 isbn:10 biber:1 douglas:1 johansson:1 stig:1 leech:1 geoffrey:1 conrad:1 susan:1 finnegan:1 harlow:1 essex:1 pearson:1 augustin:1 simo:1 sociocultural:1 constraint:1 pütz:1 martin:1 ed:3 frankfurt:3 lang:3 penguin:1 university:9 press:8 x:3 erling:1 elizabeth:1 j:2 possible:1 postgraduate:1 conference:1 edinburgh:1 department:1 applied:2 linguistics:2 postscript:1 reflection:2 euro:1 eurolinguistix:2 via:1 bge:1 socioeconomic:1 pedagogic:1 european:1 didactic:1 example:1 german:1 cf:1 release:1 accessible:1 website:1 house:1 juliane:1 pragmatic:1 knapp:1 karlfried:1 eds:1 routledge:1 codification:1 sociolinguistic:1 realism:1 alchemy:1 chicago:1 illinois:1 klaire:1 particia:1 lahore:1 tario:1 brother:1 oxford:9 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3,514 | Disjunctive_syllogism | A disjunctive syllogism, historically known as modus tollendo ponens, Sanford, David Hawley. 2003. If P, Then Q: Conditionals and the Foundations of Reasoning. London, UK: Routledge: 39 is a classically valid, simple argument form: A is B or C or D A is not C or D Therefore, A is B In logical operator notation: ¬ where represents the logical assertion. Roughly speaking, we are told that at least one of two statements is true; then we are told that it is not the former that is true; so we infer that it has to be the latter that is true. The reason this is called "disjunctive syllogism" is that, first, it is a syllogism--a three-step argument--and second, it contains a disjunction, which means simply an "or" statement. "Either P or Q" is a disjunction; P and Q are called the statement's disjuncts. Note that the disjunctive syllogism works whether 'or' is considered 'exclusive' or 'inclusive' disjunction. See below for the definitions of these terms. Here is an example: Either I will choose soup or I will choose salad. I will not choose soup. Therefore, I will choose salad. Here is another example: It is either red, green, yellow or blue. It is not green, yellow or blue. Therefore, it is red. Inclusive versus exclusive disjunction There are two kinds of logical disjunction: inclusive means "and/or" where at least one term must be true or they can both be true. exclusive ("xor") means one must be true and the other must be false. Both terms cannot be true and both cannot be false. The widely used English language concept of or is often ambiguous between these two meanings, but the difference is pivotal in evaluating disjunctive arguments. This argument: Either P or Q. Not P. Therefore, Q. is valid and indifferent between both meanings. However, only in the exclusive meaning is the following form valid: Either P or Q (exclusive). P. Therefore, not Q. With the inclusive meaning you could draw no conclusion from the first two premises of that argument. See affirming a disjunct. Related argument forms Unlike modus ponendo ponens and modus ponendo tollens, with which it should not be confused, disjunctive syllogism is often not made an explicit rule or axiom of logical systems, as the above arguments can be proven with a (slightly devious) combination of reductio ad absurdum and disjunction elimination. Other forms of syllogism: hypothetical syllogism categorical syllogism References | Disjunctive_syllogism |@lemmatized disjunctive:5 syllogism:8 historically:1 know:1 modus:3 tollendo:1 ponens:2 sanford:1 david:1 hawley:1 p:7 q:7 conditionals:1 foundation:1 reason:2 london:1 uk:1 routledge:1 classically:1 valid:3 simple:1 argument:7 form:4 b:2 c:2 therefore:5 logical:4 operator:1 notation:1 represent:1 assertion:1 roughly:1 speak:1 tell:2 least:2 one:3 two:4 statement:3 true:7 former:1 infer:1 latter:1 call:2 first:2 three:1 step:1 second:1 contain:1 disjunction:6 mean:3 simply:1 either:5 disjuncts:1 note:1 work:1 whether:1 consider:1 exclusive:5 inclusive:4 see:2 definition:1 term:3 example:2 choose:4 soup:2 salad:2 another:1 red:2 green:2 yellow:2 blue:2 versus:1 kind:1 must:3 xor:1 false:2 cannot:2 widely:1 use:1 english:1 language:1 concept:1 often:2 ambiguous:1 meaning:4 difference:1 pivotal:1 evaluate:1 indifferent:1 however:1 following:1 could:1 draw:1 conclusion:1 premise:1 affirm:1 disjunct:1 relate:1 unlike:1 ponendo:2 tollens:1 confuse:1 make:1 explicit:1 rule:1 axiom:1 system:1 prove:1 slightly:1 devious:1 combination:1 reductio:1 ad:1 absurdum:1 elimination:1 hypothetical:1 categorical:1 reference:1 |@bigram disjunctive_syllogism:4 exclusive_disjunction:1 logical_disjunction:1 exclusive_xor:1 reductio_ad:1 ad_absurdum:1 categorical_syllogism:1 |
3,515 | Matt_Groening | Matthew Abram Groening (, ) (born February 15, 1954 in Portland, Oregon) When and where was Matt Groening born?—Britannica Online Encyclopedia (Accessed 01/12/08) is an American cartoonist, screenwriter and producer. He is the creator of the comic strip Life in Hell and the television series The Simpsons and Futurama. Groening made his first professional cartoon sale of Life in Hell to the avant-garde Wet magazine in 1978. The cartoon is still carried in 250 weekly newspapers. Life in Hell caught the attention of James L. Brooks. In 1985, Brooks contacted Groening with the proposition of working in animation for the FOX variety show The Tracey Ullman Show. Originally, Brooks wanted Groening to adapt his Life in Hell characters for the show. Fearing the loss of ownership rights, Groening decided to create something new and came up with a cartoon family, the Simpsons, and named the members after his own parents and sisters — while Bart was an anagram of the word brat. The shorts would be spun off into their own series: The Simpsons, which has since aired over 434 episodes in 20 seasons. In 1997, Groening got together with David X. Cohen and developed Futurama, an animated series about life in the year 3000, which premiered in 1999. After four years on the air, the show was canceled by Fox in 2003, but Comedy Central commissioned 16 new episodes from four direct-to-DVD movies. Groening has won 11 Primetime Emmy Awards, ten for The Simpsons and one for Futurama as well as a British Comedy Award for "outstanding contribution to comedy" in 2004. In 2002, he won the National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award for his work on Life in Hell. Early life Groening was born on February 15, 1954 . Retrieved on February 7, 2007 in Portland, Oregon USA. He grew up in Portland, and attended Ainsworth Elementary School, and Lincoln High School. Matt Groening's Simpsons profile thesimpsons.com. Retrieved on March 4, 2007 He was the middle child of five children. His Norwegian mother, Margaret Wiggum, was once a teacher, and his German father, Homer Philip Groening, was a filmmaker, advertiser, writer and cartoonist. Homer, born in Main Centre, Saskatchewan, Canada, grew up in a Mennonite, Plattdeutsch-speaking family. Matt's grandfather Abram Groening was a professor at Tabor College, a Mennonite Brethren liberal arts college in Hillsboro, Kansas before moving to Albany College (now known as Lewis and Clark College) in Oregon in 1930. From 1972 to 1977, Groening attended The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington, a liberal school which he described as "a hippie college, with no grades or required classes, that drew every weirdo in the Northwest." He served as the editor of the campus newspaper, The Cooper Point Journal, for which he also wrote articles and drew cartoons. He befriended fellow cartoonist Lynda Barry after discovering that she had written a fan letter to Joseph Heller, one of Groening's favorite authors, and had gotten a reply back. Groening has credited Barry with being "probably [his] biggest inspiration." He has also cited the Disney animated film One Hundred and One Dalmatians as what got him interested in cartoons. Career In 1977, at the age of 23, Groening moved to Los Angeles to become a writer. He went through what he described as "a series of lousy jobs," including being an extra in the film When Everyday Was The Fourth of July, bussing tables, washing dishes at a nursing home, landscaping in a sewage treatment plant, and chauffeuring and ghostwriting for a retired Western director. Cover of Life In Hell No. 4, published in 1978. Groening described life in Los Angeles to his friends in the form of a self-published comic book entitled Life in Hell, which was loosely inspired by a chapter entitled "How to Go to Hell" in Walter Kaufmann's book Critique of Religion and Philosophy. Groening distributed the comic book in the book corner of Licorice Pizza, a record store in which he worked. He made his first professional cartoon sale to the avant-garde Wet magazine in 1978. The strip, entitled "Forbidden Words," appeared in the September/October issue of that year. Groening gained employment at the Los Angeles Reader, a newly formed alternative newspaper, delivering papers, typesetting, editing and answering phones. He showed his cartoons to the editor, James Vowell, who was impressed and eventually gave him a spot in the paper. Life in Hell made its official debut as a comic strip in the Reader on April 25, 1980. Vowell also gave Groening his own weekly music column, "Sound Mix," in 1982. However, the column would rarely actually be about music, as he would often write about his "various enthusiasms, obsessions, pet peeves and problems" instead. In an effort to add more music to the column, he "just made stuff up," concocting and reviewing fictional bands and non-existent records. In the following week's column, he would confess to fabricating everything in the previous column and swear that everything in the new column was true. Eventually, he was finally asked to give up the "music" column. Life in Hell became popular almost immediately. In November 1984, Deborah Caplan, Groening's then-girlfriend and co-worker at the Reader, offered to publish "Love is Hell", a series of relationship-themed Life in Hell strips, in book form. Released a month later, the book was an underground success, selling 22,000 copies in its first two printings. Work is Hell soon followed, also published by Caplan. Soon afterward, Caplan and Groening left and put together the Life in Hell Co., which handled merchandising for Life in Hell. Groening also started a syndicate, Acme Features Syndicate, which syndicated Life in Hell, Lynda Barry and John Callahan, but now only syndicates Life in Hell. Life in Hell is still carried in 250 weekly newspapers and has been anthologized in a series of books, including School is Hell, Childhood is Hell, The Big Book of Hell and The Huge Book of Hell. Groening has stated that he will "never give up the comic strip. It's my foundation." The Simpsons The design of the Simpson family, circa 1987. Life in Hell caught the eye of Hollywood writer-producer and Gracie Films founder James L. Brooks, who had been shown the strip by fellow producer Polly Platt. In 1985, Brooks contacted Groening with the proposition of working in animation on an undefined future project, which would turn out to be developing a series of short animated skits, called "bumpers," for the FOX variety show The Tracey Ullman Show. Originally, Brooks wanted Groening to adapt his Life in Hell characters for the show. Fearing the loss of ownership rights, Groening decided to create something new and came up with a cartoon family, The Simpsons. He allegedly designed the five members of the family in only ten minutes. Groening on the Simpsons panel at Comic Con International in San Diego. Groening storyboarded and scripted every short (now known as The Simpsons shorts), which were then animated by a team including David Silverman and Wes Archer, both of whom would later become directors on the series. The shorts premiered on The Tracey Ullman show on April 19, 1987. Although The Tracey Ullman Show was not a big hit, the popularity of the shorts led to a half-hour spin-off in 1989. The series quickly became a worldwide phenomenon, to the surprise of many. Groening said: "Nobody thought The Simpsons was going to be a big hit. It sneaked up on everybody." The Simpsons was co-developed by Groening, Brooks, and Sam Simon, a writer-producer with whom Brooks had worked on previous projects. Groening and Simon, however, did not get along and were often in conflict over the show; Groening once described their relationship as "very contentious." Simon eventually left the show in 1993 over creative differences. Although Groening has pitched a number of spin-offs from The Simpsons, those attempts have been unsuccessful. In 1994, Groening and other Simpsons producers pitched a live-action spin-off about Krusty the Clown (with Dan Castellaneta playing the lead role), but were unsuccessful in getting it off the ground. From a radio interview with Groening that aired on the April 22, 1998 edition of Fresh Air on NPR. Link to stream (13 minutes, 21 seconds in) Groening has also pitched "Young Homer" and a spin-off about the non-Simpsons citizens of Springfield. In 1995, Groening got into a major disagreement with Brooks and other Simpsons producers over "A Star Is Burns", a crossover episode with The Critic, an animated show also produced by Brooks and staffed with many former Simpsons crew members. Groening claimed that he feared viewers would "see it as nothing but a pathetic attempt to advertise The Critic at the expense of The Simpsons," and was concerned about the possible implication that he had created or produced The Critic. He requested his name be taken off the episode. Groening is credited with writing or co-writing the episodes "Some Enchanted Evening", "The Telltale Head", "Colonel Homer" and "22 Short Films About Springfield", as well as The Simpsons Movie, released in 2007. He has had several cameo appearances in the show, with a speaking role in the episode "My Big Fat Geek Wedding". He currently serves at The Simpsons as an executive producer and creative consultant. The Simpsons character names Groening famously named the main Simpson characters after members of his own family: his parents, Homer and Margaret (Marge or Marjorie in full), and his younger sisters, Lisa and Margaret (Maggie). Claiming that it was a bit too obvious to name a character after himself, he chose the name "Bart," an anagram of brat. However, he stresses that aside from some of the sibling rivalry, his family is nothing like the Simpsons. Groening also has an older brother and sister, Mark and Patty, Groening divulged that Mark "is the actual inspiration for Bart" in a 1995 interview. When it came time to give Grampa Simpson a first name, Groening says he refused to name him after his own grandfather, Abraham Groening, leaving it to other writers to choose a name. By coincidence, the writers chose the name Abraham, unaware that it was also the name of Groening's grandfather. Maggie Groening has co-written a few Simpsons books featuring her cartoon namesake. The name "Wiggum" for police chief Clancy Wiggum is Groening's mother's maiden name. The names of a few other characters were taken from major street names in Groening's hometown of Portland, Oregon, including Flanders, Lovejoy, Powell, Quimby and Kearney. Despite common fan belief that Sideshow Bob Terwilliger was named after SW Terwilliger Boulevard in Portland, he was actually named after the character Dr. Terwilliker from the film The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T. Futurama After spending a few years researching science fiction, Groening got together with Simpsons writer/producer David X. Cohen (still known as David S. Cohen at the time) in 1997 and developed Futurama, an animated series about life in the year 3000. By the time they pitched the series to Fox in April 1998, Groening and Cohen had composed many characters and storylines; Groening claimed they had gone "overboard" in their discussions. Groening described trying to get the show on the air as "by far the worst experience of [his] grown-up life." The show premiered on March 28, 1999. After four years on the air, the show was cancelled by Fox. In a similar situation as Family Guy, however, strong DVD sales and very stable ratings on Cartoon Network brought Futurama back to life, which is slated for four direct-to-DVD movies, as confirmed by Groening in an April 2006 interview. Comedy Central commissioned 16 new episodes (edited from the four movies) to be aired in 2008. Groening's sole writing credit for the show was the premiere episode, "Space Pilot 3000", co-written with Cohen. Other pursuits In 1994, Groening formed Bongo Comics Group (named after the character Bongo from Life in Hell ) with Steve Vance, Cindy Vance and Bill Morrison, which publishes comic books based on The Simpsons and Futurama (including Futurama Simpsons Infinitely Secret Crossover Crisis, a crossover between the two), as well as a few original titles. According to Groening, the goal with Bongo is to "[try] to bring humor into the fairly grim comic book market." He also formed Zongo Comics in 1995, an imprint of Bongo that published comics for more mature readers, which included three issues of Mary Fleener's Fleener Mary Fleener ~ Comic Book Covers URL accessed on September 19, 2007. and seven issues of his close friend Gary Panter's Jimbo comics. Groening is known for his eclectic taste in music. His favorite band is Captain Beefheart and his Magic Band. He guest-edited Da Capo Press's Best Music Writing 2003 Dacapo Books URL accessed on September 4, 2007. and curated the US All Tomorrow's Parties music festival in 2003. All Tomorrow's Parties - Archive URL accessed on September 4, 2007. He also plays the cowbell in the all-author rock and roll band The Rock Bottom Remainders, whose other members include Dave Barry, Ridley Pearson, Scott Turow, Amy Tan, James McBride, Mitch Albom, Roy Blount Jr., Stephen King, Kathi Goldmark, and Greg Iles. Rock Bottom Remainders Official site URL accessed on March 4, 2007 Awards Groening has been nominated for 25 Emmy awards and has won eleven: ten for The Simpsons and one for Futurama in the "Outstanding Animated Program (for programming one hour or less)" category. Emmy Awards official siteemmys.org. Retrieved on March 4, 2007 Groening received the 2002 National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award, and had been nominated for the same award in 2000. Cartoonist Of The Year reuben.org. URL retrieved from archive on March 19, 2009 He received a British Comedy Award for "outstanding contribution to comedy" in 2004. Personal life Groening and Deborah Caplan married in 1986 and had two sons together, Homer (who goes by Will) and Abe, both of whom Groening occasionally portrays as rabbits in Life in Hell. The couple divorced in 1999 after thirteen years of marriage. Following this, Groening was in a six-year relationship with dating expert Lauren Frances. Groening identifies himself as agnostic and a liberal and has often made campaign contributions to Democratic Party candidates. His first cousin, Laurie Monnes Anderson, is a member of the Oregon State Senate representing eastern Multnomah County. References External links Incomplete list of Matt Groening appearances on The Simpsons at The Simpsons Archive The Story (1969) - Matt Groening tells a story to his sisters Lisa & Maggie in this film by father, Homer The Simpsons- a Norwegian/German success (in Norwegian) | Matt_Groening |@lemmatized matthew:1 abram:2 groening:66 born:2 february:3 portland:5 oregon:5 matt:5 britannica:1 online:1 encyclopedia:1 accessed:1 american:1 cartoonist:6 screenwriter:1 producer:8 creator:1 comic:13 strip:6 life:26 hell:26 television:1 series:11 simpson:32 futurama:9 make:5 first:5 professional:2 cartoon:10 sale:3 avant:2 garde:2 wet:2 magazine:2 still:3 carry:2 weekly:3 newspaper:4 catch:2 attention:1 james:4 l:2 brook:10 contact:2 proposition:2 work:6 animation:2 fox:5 variety:2 show:19 tracey:4 ullman:4 originally:2 want:2 adapt:2 character:9 fear:3 loss:2 ownership:2 right:2 decide:2 create:3 something:2 new:5 come:3 family:8 name:17 member:6 parent:2 sister:4 bart:3 anagram:2 word:2 brat:2 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3,516 | Max_Newman | Maxwell Herman Alexander Newman (7 February 1897 – 22 February 1984) was a British mathematician and codebreaker. Pre-World War II Max Newman was born Maxwell Neumann in Chelsea, London, England, on 7 February 1897. Shaun Wylie, rev. I. J. Good, "Newman [formerly Neumann], Maxwell Herman Alexander (1897 - 1984), mathematician", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 His father was Herman Alexander Neumann, originally from the German city of Bromberg (now Bydgoszcz, Poland) who had emigrated with his family to London at the age of 15. William Newman, "Max Newman – Mathematician, Codebreaker and Computer Pioneer", p. 177 from pp. 176-188 in B. Jack Copeland, ed., Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford University Press, 2006 Herman worked as a secretary in a company, and married Sarah Ann Pike, an English schoolteacher, in 1896. The family moved to Dulwich in 1903, and Max attended Goodrich Road school, then City of London School from 1908. He won a scholarship to study mathematics at St John's College, Cambridge in 1915, and in 1916 gained a first in part I of the Mathematical Tripos. His studies were postponed by World War I. His father was interned as an enemy alien after the start of the war in 1914, and upon his release he returned to Germany. In 1916, Max changed his name using a Deed of change of name to the anglicised "Newman" and Sarah did likewise in 1920.. For national service, Max taught at Archbishop Holgate's Grammar School in York, worked in the Royal Army Pay Corps, and taught at Chigwell School. He was called up for military service in February 1918, but claimed conscientious objection due to his beliefs and his father's country of origin, and thereby avoided any direct role in the fighting. Paul Gannon, Colossus: Bletchley Park's Greatest Secret, 2006, pp. 225-226, Atlantic Books, ISBN 1-84354-330-3 He resumed his interrupted studies in October 1919, and graduated in 1921 as a wrangler (equivalent to a first) in Part II of the Mathematical Tripos, and gained distinction in Schedule B (the equivalent of Part III). On 5 November 1923 he was elected a Fellow of St John's. He worked on the foundations of combinatorial topology, and proposed that a notion of equivalence be defined using only three elementary "moves". Newman's definition avoided difficulties that had arisen from previous definitions of the concept. He also published papers on mathematical logic, and solved a special case of Hilbert's fifth problem. He was appointed a lecturer in mathematics at Cambridge in 1927, where his 1935 lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics inspired Alan Turing to embark on his pioneering work on computing machines. Newman wrote Elements of the topology of plane sets of points (1939), a definitive work on general topology, and still highly recommended as an undergraduate text. In December 1934 he married Lyn Lloyd Irvine, a writer. They had two sons, Edward (born 1935) and William (born 1939). Newman, "Max Newman", pp. 179-180 World War II Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. The part-Jewish ancestry of the Newman family was of particular concern in the face of Nazi Germany, and Lyn, Edward and William were evacuated to America in July 1940. Newman remained at Cambridge, and at first continued research and lecturing. Newman, "Max Newman", p. 180 By spring 1942, he was considering involvement in war work. He made enquiries, and was approached to work for the Government Code & Cypher School at Bletchley Park. He was cautious, concerned to ensure that the work would be sufficiently interesting and useful, and there was also the possibility that his father's German nationality would rule out any involvement in top-secret work. Gannon, 2006, p. 227-228 The potential issues were resolved by the summer, and he agreed to arrive at Bletchley Park on 31 August 1942. Newman, "Max Newman", p. 181 He was assigned to the Research Section and set to work on a German teleprinter cipher known as "Tunny". He joined the "Testery" in October Gannon, 2006, p. 228 . He disliked the work and found that it was not suited to his talents. He persuaded his superiors that codebreaking process could be mechanised, and he was assigned to develop a suitable machine in December 1942. Newman, "Max Newman", p. 182 Construction started in January 1943, and the first prototype was delivered in June 1943. Jack Copeland with Catherine Caughey, Dorothy Du Boisson, Eleanor Ireland, Ken Myers, and Norman Thurlow, "Mr Newman's Section", p. 157 of pp. 158-175 in B. Jack Copeland, ed., Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford University Press, 2006 It was operated in Newman's new section, termed the "Newmanry", was housed initially in Hut 11 and initially staffed by himself, Donald Michie, two engineers, and 16 Wrens. Jack Copeland, "Machine against Machine", p. 65 from pp. 64-77 in B. Jack Copeland, ed., Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford University Press, 2006 The Wrens nicknamed the machine the "Heath Robinson", after the cartoonist of the same name who drew humorous drawings of absurd mechanical devices. The Robinson machines were limited in speed and reliability. Tommy Flowers of the Post Office Research Station, Dollis Hill had experience of thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) and built an electronic machine, the Colossus computer which was installed in the Newmanry. This was a great success and ten were in use by the end of the war. Post-World War II Newman was appointed head of the Mathematics Department and to the Fielden Chair of Pure Mathematics at the University of Manchester in 1945 and transformed it into a centre of international renown, retiring in 1964 to live in Comberton, near Cambridge. After Lyn's death in 1973 he married Margaret Penrose, widow of Lionel Penrose. He continued to do research on combinatorial topology during a period when England was a major centre of activity notably Cambridge under the leadership of Christopher Zeeman. Newman made important contributions leading to an invitation to present his work at the 1962 International Congress of Mathematicians in Stockholm at the age of 65, and proved a Generalized Poincaré Conjecture for topological manifolds in 1966. He died in Cambridge. Honours: Fellow of the Royal Society, Elected 1939 Royal Society Sylvester Medal, Awarded 1958 London Mathematical Society, President 1949 - 1951 LMS De Morgan Medal, Awarded 1962 D.Sc. University of Hull, Awarded 1968 The Newman Building at Manchester was named in his honour. The building housed the pure mathematicians from the Victoria University of Manchester between moving out of the Mathematics Tower in 2004 and July 2007 when the School of Mathematics moved in to its new Alan Turing Building, where a lecture room is named in his honour. In 1946 Newman declined the offer of an OBE in protest against the "ludicrous treatment" of Alan Turing, who had received the same award for his vital war work. See also Newman's lemma References Obituary, The Times External links The Papers of Max Newman, St John's College Library The Newman Digital Archive, St John's College Library & The University of Portsmouth | Max_Newman |@lemmatized maxwell:3 herman:4 alexander:3 newman:27 february:4 british:1 mathematician:4 codebreaker:2 pre:1 world:4 war:9 ii:4 max:10 bear:1 neumann:3 chelsea:1 london:4 england:2 shaun:1 wylie:1 rev:1 j:1 good:1 formerly:1 oxford:5 dictionary:1 national:2 biography:1 university:8 press:4 father:4 originally:1 german:3 city:2 bromberg:1 bydgoszcz:1 poland:1 emigrate:1 family:3 age:2 william:3 computer:5 pioneer:2 p:8 pp:5 b:4 jack:5 copeland:5 ed:3 colossus:5 secret:5 bletchley:6 park:6 codebreaking:4 work:13 secretary:1 company:1 marry:3 sarah:2 ann:1 pike:1 english:1 schoolteacher:1 move:4 dulwich:1 attend:1 goodrich:1 road:1 school:6 win:1 scholarship:1 study:3 mathematics:7 st:4 john:4 college:3 cambridge:6 gain:2 first:4 part:4 mathematical:4 tripos:2 postpone:1 intern:1 enemy:1 alien:1 start:2 upon:1 release:1 return:1 germany:3 change:2 name:5 use:3 deed:1 anglicise:1 likewise:1 service:2 taught:2 archbishop:1 holgate:1 grammar:1 york:1 royal:3 army:1 pay:1 corp:1 chigwell:1 call:1 military:1 claim:1 conscientious:1 objection:1 due:1 belief:1 country:1 origin:1 thereby:1 avoid:2 direct:1 role:1 fighting:1 paul:1 gannon:3 great:2 atlantic:1 book:1 isbn:1 resume:1 interrupted:1 october:2 graduate:1 wrangler:1 equivalent:2 distinction:1 schedule:1 iii:1 november:1 elect:1 fellow:2 foundation:2 combinatorial:2 topology:4 propose:1 notion:1 equivalence:1 define:1 three:1 elementary:1 definition:2 difficulty:1 arise:1 previous:1 concept:1 also:3 publish:1 paper:2 logic:1 solve:1 special:1 case:1 hilbert:1 fifth:1 problem:1 appoint:2 lecturer:1 lecture:2 inspire:1 alan:3 turing:3 embark:1 compute:1 machine:7 write:1 element:1 plane:1 set:2 point:1 definitive:1 general:1 still:1 highly:1 recommend:1 undergraduate:1 text:1 december:2 lyn:3 lloyd:1 irvine:1 writer:1 two:2 son:1 edward:2 born:2 britain:1 declare:1 september:1 jewish:1 ancestry:1 particular:1 concern:1 face:1 nazi:1 evacuate:1 america:1 july:2 remain:1 continue:2 research:4 lecturing:1 spring:1 consider:1 involvement:2 make:2 enquiry:1 approach:1 government:1 code:1 cypher:1 cautious:1 concerned:1 ensure:1 would:2 sufficiently:1 interesting:1 useful:1 possibility:1 nationality:1 rule:1 top:1 potential:1 issue:1 resolve:1 summer:1 agree:1 arrive:1 august:1 assign:2 section:3 teleprinter:1 cipher:1 know:1 tunny:1 join:1 testery:1 dislike:1 find:1 suit:1 talent:1 persuade:1 superior:1 process:1 could:1 mechanise:1 develop:1 suitable:1 construction:1 january:1 prototype:1 deliver:1 june:1 catherine:1 caughey:1 dorothy:1 du:1 boisson:1 eleanor:1 ireland:1 ken:1 myers:1 norman:1 thurlow:1 mr:1 operate:1 new:2 term:1 newmanry:2 house:2 initially:2 hut:1 staff:1 donald:1 michie:1 engineer:1 wren:2 nickname:1 heath:1 robinson:2 cartoonist:1 draw:1 humorous:1 drawing:1 absurd:1 mechanical:1 device:1 limit:1 speed:1 reliability:1 tommy:1 flower:1 post:2 office:1 station:1 dollis:1 hill:1 experience:1 thermionic:1 valve:1 vacuum:1 tube:1 build:1 electronic:1 instal:1 success:1 ten:1 end:1 head:1 department:1 fielden:1 chair:1 pure:2 manchester:3 transform:1 centre:2 international:2 renown:1 retire:1 live:1 comberton:1 near:1 death:1 margaret:1 penrose:2 widow:1 lionel:1 period:1 major:1 activity:1 notably:1 leadership:1 christopher:1 zeeman:1 important:1 contribution:1 lead:1 invitation:1 present:1 congress:1 stockholm:1 prove:1 generalized:1 poincaré:1 conjecture:1 topological:1 manifold:1 die:1 honour:3 society:3 elected:1 sylvester:1 medal:2 award:4 president:1 lm:1 de:1 morgan:1 sc:1 hull:1 building:3 mathematicians:1 victoria:1 tower:1 room:1 decline:1 offer:1 obe:1 protest:1 ludicrous:1 treatment:1 receive:1 vital:1 see:1 lemma:1 reference:1 obituary:1 time:1 external:1 link:1 library:2 digital:1 archive:1 portsmouth:1 |@bigram max_newman:7 jack_copeland:5 bletchley_park:6 conscientious_objection:1 alan_turing:3 code_cypher:1 thermionic_valve:1 vacuum_tube:1 poincaré_conjecture:1 topological_manifold:1 external_link:1 |
3,517 | Preliminary_hearing | Within some criminal justice systems, a preliminary hearing (evidentiary hearing), often abbreviated verbally as a "prelim") is a proceeding, after a criminal complaint has been filed by the prosecutor, to determine whether, and to what extent, criminal charges and civil cause of actions will be heard (by a court), what evidence will be admitted, and what else must be done (before a case can proceed). At such a hearing, the defendant may be assisted by counsel; in many jurisdictions, there is a right to counsel at the preliminary hearing. In the United States, since a preliminary hearing is a "critical stage" of the proceeding, an indigent suspect is entitled to court-appointed counsel at the preliminary hearing. Coleman v. Alabama, 399 U.S. 1 (1970). Contrast this with some jurisdictions in the United States, where a person may be charged, instead, by seeking a "true bill of indictment" before a grand jury; where counsel is not normally permitted. The conduct of the preliminary hearing as well as the specific rules regarding the admissibility of evidence vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Should the court decide that there is probable cause, a formal charging instrument (called the Information) will issue; and the prosecution will continue. If the court should find that there is no probable cause, then typically the prosecution will cease. However, many jurisdictions allow the prosecution to seek a new preliminary hearing, or even seek a bill of indictment from a grand jury. Some important questions, generally addressed in such a hearing, are: Did the alleged crime occur within the court's jurisdiction? Is there probable cause, to believe that the defendant committed the crime? If a judge determines that there is sufficient evidence to believe that the defendant committed the crime, it is said that the defendant is "held to answer". After a defendant is held to answer, the judge will set a date for arraignment. A new pleading is filed with the court (sometimes called an "information") and the defendant can enter a plea at his or her arraignment date. Notes See also grand jury committal procedure | Preliminary_hearing |@lemmatized within:2 criminal:3 justice:1 system:1 preliminary:6 hearing:9 evidentiary:1 often:1 abbreviate:1 verbally:1 prelim:1 proceeding:2 complaint:1 file:2 prosecutor:1 determine:2 whether:1 extent:1 charge:2 civil:1 cause:4 action:1 hear:1 court:6 evidence:3 admit:1 else:1 must:1 case:1 proceed:1 defendant:6 may:2 assist:1 counsel:4 many:2 jurisdiction:6 right:1 united:2 state:2 since:1 critical:1 stage:1 indigent:1 suspect:1 entitle:1 appoint:1 coleman:1 v:1 alabama:1 u:1 contrast:1 person:1 instead:1 seek:3 true:1 bill:2 indictment:2 grand:3 jury:3 normally:1 permit:1 conduct:1 well:1 specific:1 rule:1 regard:1 admissibility:1 vary:1 decide:1 probable:3 formal:1 charging:1 instrument:1 call:2 information:2 issue:1 prosecution:3 continue:1 find:1 typically:1 cease:1 however:1 allow:1 new:2 even:1 important:1 question:1 generally:1 address:1 allege:1 crime:3 occur:1 believe:2 commit:2 judge:2 sufficient:1 say:1 hold:2 answer:2 set:1 date:2 arraignment:2 pleading:1 sometimes:1 enter:1 plea:1 note:1 see:1 also:1 committal:1 procedure:1 |@bigram preliminary_hearing:6 grand_jury:3 |
3,518 | Figured_bass | Figured bass, or thoroughbass, is a kind of integer musical notation used to indicate intervals, chords, and nonchord tones, in relation to a bass note. Figured bass is closely associated with basso continuo, an accompaniment used in almost all genres of music in the Baroque period, though rarely in modern music. Basso continuo Basso continuo parts, almost universal in the Baroque era (1600-1750), provided the harmonic structure of the music. The word is often shortened to continuo, and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part, if more than one, are called the continuo group. The titles of many Baroque works make mention of the continuo section, such as J. S. Bach's Concerto for 2 violins, strings and continuo in D minor. The makeup of the continuo group is often left to the discretion of the performers, and practice varied enormously within the Baroque period. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a harpsichord, organ, lute, theorbo, guitar, or harp. In addition, any number of instruments which play in the bass register may be included, such as cello, double bass, bass viol, viola da gamba, or bassoon. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular vocal works, such as operas, and organ for sacred music. Very rarely, however, in the Baroque period, the composer requested specifically for a certain instrument (or instruments) to play the continuo. In addition, the mere composition of certain works seems to require certain kind of instruments (for instance, Vivaldi's Stabat Mater seems to require an organ, and not a harpsichord). The keyboard (or other chording instrument) player realizes a continuo part by playing, in addition to the indicated bass notes, upper notes to complete chords, either determined ahead of time or improvised in performance. The player can also "imitate" the soprano (which is the name for the solo instrument or singer) and elaborate on themes in the soprano musical line. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are also expected to use their musical judgment and the other instruments or voices as a guide. Modern editions of music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out for the player, eliminating the need for improvisation. With the rise in historically informed performance, however, the number of performers who improvise their parts, as Baroque players would have done, has increased. Basso continuo, though an essential structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, continued to be used in many works, especially sacred choral works, of the classical period (up to around 1800). An example is C. P. E. Bach's Concerto in D minor for flute, strings and basso continuo. Examples of its use in the 19th century are rarer, but they do exist: masses by Anton Bruckner, Beethoven, and Franz Schubert, for example, have a basso continuo part for an organist to play. Figured bass notation A part notated with figured bass consists of a bass-line notated with notes on a musical staff plus added numbers and accidentals beneath the staff to indicate at what intervals above the bass notes should be played, and therefore which inversions of which chords are to be played. The phrase tasto solo indicates that only the bass line (without any upper chords) is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered. Composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious. Early composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often specified the octave by the use of compound intervals such as 10, 11, and 15. Numbers The numbers indicate the number of scale steps above the given bass-line that a note should be played. For example: Image:C with 64 figured bass.png Here, the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above it should be played, that is an F and an A. In other words, the second inversion of an F major chord is to be played. In cases where the numbers 3 or 5 would normally be indicated, these are usually (though not always) left out, owing to the frequency these intervals occur. For example: Image:CBG with - 6 7 figured bass.png In this sequence, the first note has no numbers accompanying it—both the 3 and the 5 have been omitted. This means that notes a third above and a fifth above should be played—in other words, a root position chord. The next note has a 6, indicating a note a sixth above it should be played; the 3 has been omitted—in other words, this chord is in first inversion. The third note has only a 7 accompanying it; here, as in the first note, both the 3 and the 5 have been omitted—the seven indicates the chord is a seventh chord. The whole sequence is equivalent to: Image:Chords C-B63-G7.png although the performer may choose himself or herself which octave to play the notes in and will often elaborate them in some way rather than play only chords, depending on the tempo and texture of the music. Sometimes, other numbers are omitted: a 2 on its own or 42 indicate 642, for example. Sometimes the figured bass number changes but the bass note itself does not. In these cases the new figures are written wherever in the bar they are meant to occur. In the following example, the top line is supposed to be a melody instrument and is given merely to indicate the rhythm (it is not part of the figured bass itself): Image:C with 6-5 in figured bass.png When the bass note changes but the notes in the chord above it are to be held, a line is drawn next to the figure or figures to indicate this: Image:C-B with 6-line in figured bas.png The line extends for as long as the chord is to be held. Accidentals When an accidental is shown on its own without a number, it applies to the note a third above the lowest note; most commonly, this is the third of the chord. Otherwise, if a number is shown, the accidental affects the said interval. For example, this: Image:E with sharp and C with b6b figured bass.png is equivalent to this: Image:Emaj and Abmaj chords.png Sometimes the accidental is placed after the number rather than before it. Alternatively, a cross placed next to a number indicates that the pitch of that note should be raised by a semitone (so that if it is normally a flat it becomes a natural, and if it is normally a natural it becomes a sharp). A different way to indicate this is to draw a bar through the number itself. The following three notations, therefore, all indicate the same thing: Image:Cs with natural6, 6 and barred6.png When sharps or flats are used with key signatures they may have a slightly different meaning, especially in 17th-century music. A sharp might be used to cancel a flat in the key signature, or vice versa, instead of a natural sign. Example of Figured Bass in context. Taken from Beschränkt, ihr Weisen, by J.S. Bach (R. 47/69). History The origins of basso continuo practice are somewhat unclear. Improvised organ accompaniments for choral works were common by the late 16th century, and separate organ parts showing only a bass line date back to at least 1587. In the mid-16th century, some Italian church composers began to write polychoral works. These pieces, for two or more choirs, were created in recognition of particularly festive occasions, or else to take advantage of certain architectural properties of the buildings in which they were performed. With eight or more parts to keep track of in performance, works in polychoral style required some sort of instrumental accompaniment. They were also known as cori spezzati, since the choirs were structured in musically independent or interlocking parts, and may sometimes also have been placed in physically different locations. It is important to note that the concept of allowing two or more concurrently performing choirs to be independent structurally would or could almost certainly not have arisen had there not been an already existing practice of choral accompaniment in church. Financial and administrative records indicate the presence of organs in churches dates back to the 15th century. Although their precise use is not known, it stands to reason that it was to some degree in conjunction with singers. Indeed, there exist many first-person accounts of church services from the 15th and 16th centuries that imply organ accompaniment in some portions of the liturgy, as well as indicating that the a cappella-only practice of the Vatican's Cappella Sistina was somewhat unusual. By early in the 16th century, it seems that accompaniment by organ at least in smaller churches was commonplace, and commentators of the time lamented on occasion the declining quality of church choirs. Even more tellingly, many manuscripts, especially from the middle of the century and later, feature written-out organ accompaniments. It is this last observation which leads directly to the foundations of continuo practice, in a somewhat similar one called basso seguente or "following bass." Written-out accompaniments are found most often in early polychoral works (those composed, obviously, before the onset of concerted style and its explicit instrumental lines), and generally consist of a complete reduction (to what would later be called the "grand staff") of one choir’s parts. In addition to this, however, for those parts of the music during which that choir rested was presented a single line consisting of the lowest note being sung at any given time, which could be in any vocal part. Even in early concerted works by the Gabrielis (Andrea and Giovanni), Monteverdi and others, the lowest part, that which modern performers colloquially call "continuo", is actually a basso seguente, though slightly different, since with separate instrumental parts the lowest note of the moment is often lower than any being sung. The first known published instance of a basso seguente was a book of Introits and Alleluias by the Venetian Placido Falconio from 1575. What is known as "figured" continuo, which also features a bass line that because of its structural nature may differ from the lowest note in the upper parts, developed over the next quarter-century. The composer Lodovico Viadana is often credited with the first publication of such a continuo, in a 1602 collection of motets that according to his own account had been originally written in 1594. Viadana’s continuo, however, did not actually include figures. The earliest extant part with sharp and flat signs above the staff is a motet by Giovanni Croce, also from 1594. Following and figured basses developed concurrently in secular music; such madrigal composers as Emilio de' Cavalieri and Luzzasco Luzzaschi began in the late 16th century to write works explicitly for a soloist with accompaniment, following an already standing practice of performing multi-voice madrigals this way, and also responding to the rising influence at certain courts of particularly popular individual singers. This tendency toward solo-with-accompaniment texture in secular vocal music culminated in the genre of monody, just as in sacred vocal music it resulted in the sacred concerto for various forces including few voices and even solo voices. The use of numerals to indicate accompanying sonorities began with the earliest operas, composed by Cavalieri and Giulio Caccini. These new genres, just as the polychoral one probably was, were indeed made possible by the existence of a semi- or fully independent bass line. In turn, the separate bass line, with figures added above to indicate other chordal notes, shortly became "functional," as the sonorities became "harmonies," (see harmony and tonality), and music came to be seen in terms of a melody supported by chord progressions, rather than interlocking, equally important lines as in polyphony. The figured bass, therefore, was integral to the development of the Baroque, by extension the ”classical”, and by further extension most subsequent musical styles. Many composers and theorists of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries wrote how-to guides to realizing figured bass, including Gregor Aichinger, Georg Philipp Telemann, C.P.E. Bach, and Michael Praetorius. Contemporary uses It is also sometimes used by classical musicians as a shorthand way of indicating chords (though it is not generally used in modern musical compositions, save neo-Baroque pieces). A form of figured bass is used in notation of accordion music; another simplified form is used to notate guitar chords. Today the most common use of figured bass notation is to indicate the inversion, however, often without the staff notation, using letter note names followed with the figure, for instance the bass note C in 64 figured bass would be written . The symbols can also be used with Roman numerals in analyzing functional harmony, a usage called figured Roman; see chord symbol. External links Figured Bass Symbology by Robert Kelley Chords that the (major) scale degrees (in the bass) can imply by Robert Kelley Theory and Practice of the Basso Continuo by Barry Mitchell Historical sources on the subject of basso continuo - Viadana, Agazzari etc | Figured_bass |@lemmatized figured:19 bass:38 thoroughbass:1 kind:2 integer:1 musical:6 notation:7 use:17 indicate:20 interval:5 chord:23 nonchord:1 tone:1 relation:1 note:28 closely:1 associate:1 basso:12 continuo:22 accompaniment:10 almost:3 genre:3 music:13 baroque:9 period:6 though:5 rarely:2 modern:5 part:18 universal:1 era:1 provide:1 harmonic:1 structure:2 word:4 often:8 shorten:1 instrumentalist:1 play:16 one:5 call:5 group:2 title:1 many:5 work:12 make:2 mention:1 section:1 j:2 bach:4 concerto:3 violin:1 string:2 minor:2 makeup:1 leave:2 discretion:1 performer:5 practice:7 vary:1 enormously:1 within:1 least:4 instrument:9 capable:1 must:1 include:5 harpsichord:3 organ:9 lute:1 theorbo:1 guitar:2 harp:1 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symbol:2 roman:2 analyze:1 external:1 link:1 symbology:1 robert:2 kelley:2 theory:1 barry:1 mitchell:1 historical:1 source:1 subject:1 agazzari:1 etc:1 |@bigram figured_bass:17 basso_continuo:9 concerto_violin:1 double_bass:1 viola_da:1 da_gamba:1 stabat_mater:1 anton_bruckner:1 franz_schubert:1 claudio_monteverdi:1 vice_versa:1 instrumental_accompaniment:1 chord_progression:1 georg_philipp:1 philipp_telemann:1 external_link:1 |
3,519 | Gemstone | A selection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling rough rock with abrasive grit, in a rotating drum. The biggest pebble here is 40 mm long (1.6 inches). A gemstone or gem (also called a precious or semi-precious stone) is a piece of attractive mineral, which—when cut and polished—is used to make jewelry or other adornments. The Oxford Dictionary Online and Webster Online Dictionary However certain rocks, (such as lapis-lazuli) and organic materials (such as amber or jet) are not minerals, but are still used for jewelry, and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their lustre or other physical properties that have aesthetic value. Rarity is another characteristic that lends value to a gemstone. Characteristics and classification Gemstones are identified by gemologists, who describe gems and their characteristics using technical terminology specific to the field of gemology. The first characteristic a gemologist uses to identify a gemstone is its chemical composition. For example, diamonds are made of carbon (C) and rubies of aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Next, many gems are crystals which are classified by their crystal system such as cubic or trigonal or monoclinic. Another term used is habit, the form the gem is usually found in. For example diamonds, which have a cubic crystal system, are often found as octahedrons. Gemstones are classified into different groups, species, and varieties. For example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Emerald (green), aquamarine (blue), bixbite (red), goshenite (colorless), heliodor (yellow), and morganite (pink) are all varieties of the mineral species beryl. Gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and luster. They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction. They may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum. Material or flaws within a stone may be present as inclusions. Value of gemstones Jewelry made with amber There are no universally accepted grading systems for any gemstone other than white (colorless) diamond. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) in the early 1950s. Historically all gemstones were graded using the naked eye. The GIA system included a major innovation, the introduction of 10x magnification as the standard for grading clarity. Other gemstones are still graded using the naked eye (assuming 20/20 vision). Wise, R. W., 2006, Secrets of The Gem Trade, The Connoisseur's Guide To Precious Gemstones, Brunswick House Pr, p.36 ISBN 0972822380 For the past several hundred years, gemstones have been broken down into two categories; precious and semi-precious. Though today we think primarily of diamond, ruby, sapphire, and emerald as "precious", these categories are based mainly on fashion and the composition of these two lists has changed frequently over time. Wise, R. W., 2006, Secrets Of The Gem Trade, The Connoisseur's Guide To Precious Gemstones, Brunswick House Pr, pp.3-8 ISBN 0972822380 A mnemonic device, the "four C's" (color, cut, clarity and carat), has been introduced to help the consumer understand the factors used to grade a diamond. Wise, R. W., 2006, Secrets Of The Gem Trade, The Connoisseur's Guide To Precious Gemstones, Brunswick House Pr, p. 15 With modification these categories can be useful in understanding the grading of all gemstones. The four criteria carry different weight depending upon whether they are applied to colored gemstones or to colorless diamond. In diamonds, cut is the primary determinant of value followed by clarity and color. Diamonds are meant to sparkle, to break down light into its constituent rainbow colors (dispersion) chop it up into bright little pieces (scintillation) and deliver it to the eye (brilliance). In its rough crystalline form, a diamond will do none of these things, it requires proper fashioning and this is called "cut". In gemstones that have color, including colored diamonds, it is the purity and beauty of that color that is the primary determinant of quality. Physical characteristics that make a colored stone valuable are color, clarity to a lesser extent (emeralds will always have a number of inclusions), cut, unusual optical phenomena within the stone such as color zoning, and asteria (star effects). The Greeks for example greatly valued asteria in gemstones, which were regarded as a powerful love charm, and Helen of Troy was known to have worn star-corundum. Page 251 A factor in determining the value of a gemstone is called water. Water is an archaic term that refers to the combination of color and transparency in gemstones; used hierarchically: first water (gem of the finest water), second water, third water, byewater. Historically gemstones were classified into precious stones and semi-precious stones. Because such a definition can change over time and vary with culture, it has always been a difficult matter to determine what constitutes precious stones. Chapter 1, Page 9: Definition of Precious Stones URL: Definition of Precious Stones Aside from the diamond, the ruby, sapphire, emerald, pearl (strictly speaking not a gemstone) and opal have also been considered to be precious. Up to the discoveries of bulk amethyst in Brazil in the 19th century, amethyst was considered a precious stone as well, going back to ancient Greece. Even in the last century certain stones such as aquamarine, peridot and cat's eye have been popular and hence been regarded as precious. Nowadays such a distinction is no longer made by the trade. Many gemstones are used in even the most expensive jewelry, depending on the brand name of the designer, fashion trends, market supply, treatments etc. Nevertheless, diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds still have a reputation that exceeds those of other gemstones. Rare or unusual gemstones, generally meant to include those gemstones which occur so infrequently in gem quality that they are scarcely known except to connoisseurs, include andalusite, axinite, cassiterite, clinohumite and bixbite. Gems prices can fluctuate heavily (such as those of tanzanite over the years) or can be quite stable (such as those of diamonds). In general per carat prices of larger stones are higher than those of smaller stones, but popularity of certain sizes of stone can affect prices. Typically prices can range from 1USD/carat for a normal amethyst to 20,000-50,000USD for a collector's three carat pigeon-blood almost "perfect" ruby. Grading Enamelled gold, amethyst and pearl pendant, about 1880, Pasquale Novissimo (1844 — 1914), V&A Museum number M.36-1928 In the last two decades there has been a proliferation of certification for gemstones. There are a number of Secrets of the Gem Trade; The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones Richard W Wise, Brunswick House Press, Lenox, Massachutes., 2003 laboratories which grade and provide reports on diamonds. As there is no universally accepted grading system for colored gemstones, only one laboratory, AGL (see below) grades gemstones for quality using a proprietary system developed by the lab. International Gemological Institute (IGI), independent laboratory for grading and evaluation of diamonds, jewellery and colored stones. Gemological Institute of America (GIA), the main provider of education services and diamond grading reports American Gemological Society (AGS) is not as widely recognized nor as old as the GIA. American Gem Trade Laboratory which is part of the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA) a trade organization of jewelers and dealers of colored stones. American Gemological Laboratories (AGL) which has been taken over by "Collector's Universe" a NASDAQ listed company which specializes in certification of collectables such as coins and stamps European Gemological Laboratory (EGL). Gemological Association of All Japan (GAAJ), aka Zenhokyo, Japan, active in gemological research Gemmological Institute of Thailand (GIT) is closely related to Chulalongkorn University Asian Institute of Gemmological Sciences (AIGS), the oldest gemological institute in South East Asia, involved in gemological education and gem testing Swiss Gemmological Institute (SSEF), founded by Prof. Henry Hänni, focusing on coloured gemstones and the identification of natural pearls Gübelin Gem Lab, the traditional Swiss lab founded by the famous Dr. Eduard Gübelin. Their reports are widely considered as the ultimate judgement on high-end pearls, coloured gemstones and diamonds Each laboratory has its own methodology to evaluate gemstones. Consequently a stone can be called "pink" by one lab while another lab calls it "Padparadscha". One lab can conclude a stone is untreated, while another lab concludes that it is heat treated . To minimise such differences, seven of the most respected labs, i.e. AGTA-GTL (New York), CISGEM (Milano), GAAJ (Tokyo), GIA (Carlsbad), GIT (Bangkok), Gübelin (Lucerne) and SSEF (Basel), have established the Laboratory Manual Harmonisation Committee (LMHC), aiming at the standardisation of wording on reports and certain analytical methods and interpretation of results. Country of origin has sometimes been difficult to find agreement on due to the constant discovery of new locations. Moreover determining a "country of origin" is much more difficult than determining other aspects of a gem (such as cut, clarity etc.) Rapaport report of ICA Gemstone Conferene in Dubai . Gem dealers are aware of the differences between gem laboratories and will make use of the discrepancies to obtain the best possible certificate . Cutting and polishing A few gemstones are used as gems in the crystal or other form in which they are found. Most however, are cut and polished for usage as jewelry. The two main classifications are stones cut as smooth, dome shaped stones called cabochons, and stones which are cut with a faceting machine by polishing small flat windows called facets at regular intervals at exact angles. Stones which are opaque such as opal, turquoise, variscite, etc. are commonly cut as cabochons. These gems are designed to show the stone's color or surface properties as in opal and star sapphires. Grinding wheels and polishing agents are used to grind, shape and polish the smooth dome shape of the stones. Introduction to Lapidary by Pansy D. Kraus Gems which are transparent are normally faceted, a method which shows the optical properties of the stone’s interior to its best advantage by maximizing reflected light which is perceived by the viewer as sparkle. There are many commonly used shapes for faceted stones. The facets must be cut at the proper angles, which varies depending on the optical properties of the gem. If the angles are too steep or too shallow, the light will pass through and not be reflected back toward the viewer. Special equipment, a faceting machine, is used to hold the stone onto a flat lap for cutting and polishing the flat facets. Faceting For Amateurs by Glen and Martha Vargas Rarely, some cutters use special curved laps to cut and polish curved facets. Gemstone color Color is the most obvious and attractive feature of gemstones. The color of any material is due to the nature of light itself. Daylight, often called white light, is actually a mixture of different colors of light. When light passes through a material, some of the light may be absorbed, while the rest passes through. The part that is not absorbed reaches the eye as white light minus the absorbed colors. A ruby appears red because it absorbs all the other colors of white light - blue, yellow, green, etc. - except red. The same material can exhibit different colors. For example ruby and sapphire have the same chemical composition (both are corundum) but exhibit different colors. Even the same gemstone can occur in many different colors: sapphires show different shades of blue and pink and "fancy sapphires" exhibit a whole range of other colors from yellow to orange-pink, the latter called "Padparadscha sapphire". This difference in color is based on the atomic structure of the stone. Although the different stones formally have the same chemical composition, they are not exactly the same. Every now and then an atom is replaced by a completely different atom (and this could be as few as one in a million atoms). These so called impurities are sufficient to absorb certain colors and leave the other colors unaffected. As an example: beryl, which is colorless in its pure mineral form, becomes emerald with chromium impurities. If you add manganese instead of chromium, beryl becomes pink morganite. With iron, it becomes aquamarine. Some gemstone treatments make use of the fact that these impurities can be "manipulated", thus changing the color of the gem. Treatments applied to gemstones Gemstones are often treated to enhance the color or clarity of the stone. Depending on the type and extent of treatment, they can affect the value of the stone. Some treatments are used widely because the resulting gem is stable, while others are not accepted most commonly because the gem color is unstable and may revert to the original tone. Gemstone Enhancement: History, Science and State of the Art by Kurt Nassau Heat Treble clef with gemstones Heat can improve gemstone color or clarity. Most citrine is made by heating amethyst, and partial heating with a strong gradient results in ametrine - a stone partly amethyst and partly citrine. Much aquamarine is heat treated to remove yellow tones, change the green color into the more desirable blue or enhance its existing blue color to a purer blue. Nearly all tanzanite is heated at low temperatures to remove brown undertones and give a more desirable blue/purple color. A considerable portion of all sapphire and ruby is treated with a variety of heat treatments to improve both color and clarity. When jewelry containing diamonds is heated (for repairs) the diamond should be protected with boracic acid; otherwise the diamond (which is pure carbon) could be burned on the surface or even burned completely up. When jewelry containing sapphires or rubies is heated (for repairs) it should not be coated with boracic acid or any other substance, as this can etch the surface; it does not have to be "protected" like a diamond. Radiation Most blue topaz, both the lighter and the darker blue shades such as "London" blue, has been irradiated to change the color from white to blue. Some improperly handled gems which do not pass through normal legal channels may have a slight residual radiation, though strong requirements on imported stones are in place to ensure public safety. Most greened quartz (Oro Verde) is also irradiated to achieve the yellow-green color. Waxing/oiling Emeralds containing natural fissures are sometimes filled with wax or oil to disguise them. This wax or oil is also colored to make the emerald appear of better color as well as clarity. Turquoise is also commonly treated in a similar manner. Fracture filling Fracture filling has been in use with different gemstones such as diamonds, emeralds and sapphires. In 2006 "glass filled rubies" received publicity. Rubies over 10 carat (2 g) with large fractures were filled with lead glass, thus dramatically improving the appearance (of larger rubies in particular). Such treatments are fairly easy to detect. Synthetic and artificial gemstones Some gemstones are manufactured to imitate other gemstones. For example, cubic zirconia is a synthetic diamond simulant composed of zirconium oxide. Moissanite is another example. The imitations copy the look and color of the real stone but possess neither their chemical nor physical characteristics. However, lab created gemstones are not imitations. For example, diamonds, ruby, sapphires and emeralds have been manufactured in labs to possess identical chemical and physical characteristics to the naturally occurring variety. Synthetic (lab created) corundums, including ruby and sapphire, are very common and they cost only a fraction of the natural stones. Smaller synthetic diamonds have been manufactured in large quantities as industrial abrasives. Larger synthetic diamonds of gemstone quality, especially of the colored variety, are also manufactured. Whether a gemstone is a natural stone or a lab-created (synthetic) stone, the characteristics of each are the same. Lab-created stones tend to have a more vivid color to them, as impurities are not present in a lab, so therefore do not affect the clarity or color of the stone. However, natural gemstones are still considered more valuable on average due to their relative scarcity. Birthstones The birthstones for each month are: January- Garnet February- Amethyst March- Aquamarine April- Diamond May- Emerald June- Pearl July- Ruby August- Peridot September- Sapphire October- Opal November- Topaz December- Turquoise See also List of famous gemstones Lapidary Notes External links History of Gems, Gemology and Mining Library Most of the books used as reference are found online here. 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3,520 | Nupedia | Nupedia was an English-language Web-based encyclopedia whose articles were written by experts and licensed as free content. It was founded by Jimmy Wales and underwritten by Bomis, with Larry Sanger as editor-in-chief. Nupedia lasted from March 2000 until September 2003, and is mostly known now as the predecessor of the free wiki encyclopedia, Wikipedia. Unlike Wikipedia, Nupedia was not a wiki; it was instead characterized by an extensive peer-review process, designed to make its articles of a quality comparable to that of professional encyclopedias. Nupedia wanted scholars to volunteer content for free. Before it ceased operating, Nupedia produced 24 articles that completed its review process (three articles also existed in two versions of different lengths), and 74 more articles were in progress. In June 2008, CNET hailed Nupedia as one of the greatest defunct websites in history. History Nupedia's Original HTML logo In the autumn of 1999, Wales began thinking about an online encyclopedia built by volunteers and, in January 2000, hired Sanger to oversee its development. The project officially went online on March 9, 2000. By November 2000, however, only two full-length articles had been published. Mark Frauenfelder: The next generation of online encyclopedias. The Industry Standard/CNN.com, November 21, 2000 From its beginning, Nupedia was a free content encyclopedia, with Bomis intending to generate revenue from online ads on Nupedia.com. Initially the project used a homegrown license, the Nupedia Open Content License. In January 2001, it switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urgings of Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation. GNUPedia Project Starting However, Stallman got behind Hector Facundo Arena's GNUPedia project at the same time, which led to concerns about possible competition between the projects. Also in January 2001, Nupedia started Wikipedia as a side-project to allow collaboration on articles prior to entering the peer review process. This attracted interest from both sides, as it provided the less bureaucratic structure favored by GNUPedia advocates. As a result, GNUPedia never really developed and the threat of competition between the projects was averted. As Wikipedia grew and attracted contributors, it quickly developed a life of its own and began to function largely independently of Nupedia, although Sanger initially led activity on Wikipedia by virtue of his position as Nupedia's editor-in-chief. Besides leading to discontinuation of the GNUPedia project, Wikipedia also led to the gradual demise of Nupedia. Due to the collapse of the internet economy at that time, Jimmy Wales decided to discontinue funding for a salaried editor-in-chief in December 2001 and Sanger resigned from both projects soon thereafter. After Sanger's departure, Nupedia increasingly became an afterthought to Wikipedia; of the Nupedia articles that completed the review process, only two did so after 2001. As Nupedia dwindled into inactivity, the idea of converting it into a stable version of approved Wikipedia articles was occasionally broached, but never implemented. The Nupedia website at nupedia.com was shut down on September 26, 2003, but a few pages were still available at a mirror, Nupedia, the free encyclopedia although this mirror is now inaccessible. Nupedia's (limited) content has since been assimilated into Wikipedia. Editorial process Nupedia had a seven-step editorial process, consisting of: Assignment Finding a lead reviewer Lead review Open review Lead copyediting Open copyediting Final approval and markup With the benefit of hindsight, the level of the bar to becoming a Nupedia contributor was probably unrealistically high, with the policy stating: "We wish editors to be true experts in their fields and (with few exceptions) possess PhDs". However, the reviewers evaluating drafts of an article generally would have no special expertise regarding the article's subject. Reviewers were identified by screen names, and although there was a facility that allowed reviewers to post their bios, many did not; thus, the expert who was writing the article was often obliged to modify it, based on comments from effectively anonymous reviewers, with no way of knowing their qualifications. The process was also different from Wikipedia's because the expectation was that reviewers would criticise the articles without actually editing them. As the number of participants in Nupedia was so small (many orders of magnitude smaller than the number of participants in the mature stages of Wikipedia), there was generally no dialogue between people with knowledge on the article's subject. Software development Nupedia was powered by NupeCode collaborative software. NupeCode is free/open source software (released under the GNU General Public License) designed for large peer review projects. The code was available via Nupedia's CVS repository. One of the problems experienced by Nupedia during much of its existence was that the software lacked functionality. Much of the missing functionality had been mocked-up using underlined blocks of text which appeared to be hyperlinks, but actually were not. As part of the project, a new version of the original software (called "NuNupedia") was under development. NuNupedia was implemented for testing at SourceForge, but never reached a sufficient stage of development to replace the original software. See also GNUPedia List of online encyclopedias List of wikis References External links Earlier versions of Nupedia (from the Internet Archive) Larry Sanger: The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir Part 1 and Part 2. Slashdot, April 2005 NuNupedia project page on Sourceforge (currently broken, as of July 2008) Archive of Nupedia on 8media.org (http://pedia.nu used to redirect here) be-x-old:Нупэдыя | Nupedia |@lemmatized nupedia:30 english:1 language:1 web:1 base:2 encyclopedia:7 whose:1 article:14 write:2 expert:3 license:5 free:8 content:5 found:1 jimmy:2 wale:2 underwritten:1 bomis:2 larry:2 sanger:6 editor:4 chief:3 last:1 march:2 september:2 mostly:1 know:2 predecessor:1 wiki:2 wikipedia:12 unlike:1 instead:1 characterize:1 extensive:1 peer:3 review:7 process:7 design:2 make:1 quality:1 comparable:1 professional:1 want:1 scholar:1 volunteer:2 cease:1 operating:1 produce:1 complete:2 three:1 also:5 exist:1 two:3 version:4 different:2 length:2 progress:1 june:1 cnet:1 hail:1 one:2 great:1 defunct:1 website:2 history:3 original:3 html:1 logo:1 autumn:1 wales:1 begin:2 think:1 online:5 build:1 january:3 hire:1 oversee:1 development:4 project:12 officially:1 go:1 november:2 however:3 full:1 publish:1 mark:1 frauenfelder:1 next:1 generation:1 industry:1 standard:1 cnn:1 com:3 beginning:1 intend:1 generate:1 revenue:1 ad:1 initially:2 use:3 homegrown:1 open:4 switch:1 gnu:2 documentation:1 urging:1 richard:1 stallman:2 software:7 foundation:1 gnupedia:6 start:2 get:1 behind:1 hector:1 facundo:1 arena:1 time:2 lead:7 concern:1 possible:1 competition:2 side:2 allow:2 collaboration:1 prior:1 enter:1 attracted:1 interest:1 provide:1 less:1 bureaucratic:1 structure:1 favor:1 advocate:1 result:1 never:3 really:1 developed:1 threat:1 avert:1 grow:1 attract:1 contributor:2 quickly:1 develop:1 life:1 function:1 largely:1 independently:1 although:3 activity:1 virtue:1 position:1 besides:1 discontinuation:1 gradual:1 demise:1 due:1 collapse:1 internet:2 economy:1 decide:1 discontinue:1 funding:1 salaried:1 december:1 resign:1 soon:1 thereafter:1 departure:1 increasingly:1 become:2 afterthought:1 dwindle:1 inactivity:1 idea:1 convert:1 stable:1 approved:1 occasionally:1 broach:1 implement:2 shut:1 page:2 still:1 available:2 mirror:2 inaccessible:1 limited:1 since:1 assimilate:1 editorial:2 seven:1 step:1 consist:1 assignment:1 find:1 reviewer:6 copyedit:2 final:1 approval:1 markup:1 benefit:1 hindsight:1 level:1 bar:1 probably:1 unrealistically:1 high:1 policy:1 stating:1 wish:1 true:1 field:1 exception:1 posse:1 phd:1 evaluate:1 draft:1 generally:2 would:2 special:1 expertise:1 regard:1 subject:2 identify:1 screen:1 name:1 facility:1 post:1 bios:1 many:2 thus:1 often:1 oblige:1 modify:1 comment:1 effectively:1 anonymous:1 way:1 qualification:1 expectation:1 criticise:1 without:1 actually:2 edit:1 number:2 participant:2 small:2 order:1 magnitude:1 mature:1 stage:2 dialogue:1 people:1 knowledge:1 power:1 nupecode:2 collaborative:1 source:1 release:1 general:1 public:1 large:1 code:1 via:1 cv:1 repository:1 problem:1 experience:1 much:2 existence:1 lack:1 functionality:2 miss:1 mock:1 underlined:1 block:1 text:1 appear:1 hyperlink:1 part:3 new:1 call:1 nunupedia:3 test:1 sourceforge:2 reach:1 sufficient:1 replace:1 see:1 list:2 encyclopedias:1 wikis:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 earlier:1 archive:2 early:1 memoir:1 slashdot:1 april:1 currently:1 break:1 july:1 org:1 http:1 pedia:1 nu:1 redirect:1 x:1 old:1 нупэдыя:1 |@bigram larry_sanger:2 peer_review:3 cnn_com:1 richard_stallman:1 external_link:1 nupedia_wikipedia:1 |
3,521 | Eschatology | Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, by Albrecht Dürer. Eschatology (from the Greek , Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of") is a part of theology and philosophy concerned with what is believed to be the final events in the history of the world, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to as the end of the world. While in mysticism the phrase refers metaphorically to the end of ordinary reality and reunion with the Divine, in many traditional religions it is taught as an actual future event prophesied in sacred texts or folklore. More broadly, eschatology may encompass related concepts such as the Messiah or Messianic Age, the end time, and the end of days. The Latin word aeon, (from the Greek aion) meaning "century" (connotation "age"), may be translated as "end of the age (or historical period Achtemeier, P. J., Harper & Row, P., & Society of Biblical Literature, Harper's Bible Dictionary, San Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers, 1985, ISBN, s.v. "eschatology" )" instead of "end of the world". The time distinction also has theological significance; while the end of time in mystical traditions relates to escaping confinement in the "given" reality, some religions believe and fear it to be the literal destruction of the planet (or of all living things) – with the human race surviving in some new form, ending the current "age" of existence. Most modern eschatology and apocalypticism, both religious and secular, involves the violent disruption or destruction of the world, whereas Christian and Jewish eschatologies view the end times as the consummation or perfection of God's creation of the world. For example, according to ancient Hebrew belief, life takes a linear (and not cyclical) path; the world began with God and is constantly headed toward God’s final goal for creation. Eschatology in Philosophy Eschatology has also been a belief shared, sometimes theorized on, by philosophers. Saint Augustine stressed the allegorical method of interpretation. He was greatly influenced by Origen. He was followed by Ibn al-Nafis Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi, Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World. and Hegel with their philosophy of history, and, some (such as the author Albert Camus in 'The Rebel') have argued, Karl Marx. Theodicy has gathered together most Enlightenment thinkers, among whom are Kant and Rousseau. More recently, many involved in futures studies and transhumanism have noted the accelerating rate of scientific progress and anticipate a technological singularity in the 21st century that would profoundly and unpredictably change the course of human history. "The Law of Accelerating Returns" Artist/futurist Michael E. Arth, for example, speculates about the emergence of a hive-like distributed being that would be self-conscious, integrated into a future version of the Internet, and also able to exhibit any individualized form, or speak any language. This collective intelligence, UNICE: Universal Network of Intelligent Conscious Entities, would connect everyone on the planet before it spreads outward into space. Information about UNICE Eschatology in various Religions For the eschatological beliefs of various religions, see: End Times. Judaism and Christianity in the making Judaism addresses the End times in the Book of Daniel and in the Talmud, particularly Tractate Avodah Zarah. For Christianity, in addition to the Old Testament Book of Daniel, see New Testament Book of Revelation. Islamic eschatology Islamic eschatology is documented in the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, regarding the Signs of the Day of Judgment. The Prophet's sayings on the subject have been traditionally divided into Major and Minor Signs. He spoke about several Minor Signs of the approach of the Day of Judgment, including: Abu Hurairah reported that God's Messenger (peace be upon him) said: "If you survive for a time you would certainly see people who would have whips in their hands like the tail of an ox. They would get up in the morning under the wrath of God and they would go into the evening with the anger of God." Muslim Sunan Imam Ahmed Abu Hurairah narrated that God's Apostle said, "When honesty is lost, then wait for the Day of Judgment." It was asked, "How will honesty be lost, O Apostle of God?" He said, "When authority is given to those who do not deserve it, then wait for the Day of Judgment." Bukhari 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb, in a long narration, relating to the questions of the angel Gabriel, reported: "Inform me when the Day of Judgment will be." He [the Prophet Muhammad] remarked: "The one who is being asked knows no more than the inquirer." He [the inquirer] said: "Tell me about its indications." He [the Prophet Muhammad] said: "That the slave-girl gives birth to her mistress and master, and that you would find barefooted, destitute shepherds of goats vying with one another in the construction of magnificent buildings." Bukhari Muslim "Before the Day of Judgment there will be great liars, so beware of them." Bukhari "When the most wicked member of a tribe becomes its ruler, and the most worthless member of a community becomes its leader, and a man is respected through fear of the evil he may do, and leadership is given to people who are unworthy of it, expect the Day of Judgment." Bukhari Regarding the Major Signs, a Companion of the Prophet narrated: "Once we were sitting together and talking amongst ourselves when the Prophet appeared. He asked us what it was we were discussing. We said it was the Day of Judgment. He said: "It will not be called until ten signs have appeared: Smoke, Dajjal [the Antichrist], the Animal (that will speak to the people), the rising of the sun in the West, the Second Coming of Jesus, the rising of Gog and Magog, and three sinkings (or cavings in of the earth): one in the East, another in the West and a third in the Arabian Peninsula." Hindu eschatology Contemporary Hindu eschatology is linked in the Vaishnavite tradition to the figure of Kalki, or the tenth and last avatar of Vishnu before the age draws to a close, and Shiva simultaneously dissolves and regenerates the universe. Most Hindus acknowledge as part of their cosmology that we are living in the Kali Yuga literally "age of darkness", the last of four periods (Yuga) that make up the current age. Each period has seen a successive degeneration in the moral order and character of human beings, to the point that in the Kali Yuga where quarrel and hypocrisy are prevalent. Often, the invocation of Kaliyuga denotes a certain helplessness in the face of the horrors and suffering of the human condition and a nostalgia for a golden past or a future salvation. However, Hindu conceptions of time, like those found in other non-Western traditions, is cyclical in that one age may end but another will always begin. As such, the cycle of birth, growth, decay, death, and renewal at the individual level finds its echo in the cosmic order of all things, yet affected by the vagaries of the comings and goings of divine interventions in the Vaishnavite belief. Most Hindus believe that Shiva will destroy the world at the end of the kalpa. Some Shaivites hold the view that he is incessantly destroying and creating the world. See also 2012 doomsday prediction Abomination of Desolation Amillennialism Ancient Aztec eschatology Antichrist Apocalypse Apocalypticism Armageddon Bible prophecy Christian apologetics Dispensationalism Death and Eternal Life, by John Hick The End Is Nigh, a magazine looking at the end of the world End time End of the world Eschatology (religious movement) Eschaton Götterdämmerung Global Warming Hindu eschatology Historicism Immanentize the eschaton Islamic eschatology Judgment day Millennialism Millenarianism Messianism and Messiah New Jerusalem Oracle of Damascus The Pocket Guide to the Apocalypse, by Jason Boyett Postmillennialism Premillennialism Preterism Prophecy of Seventy Weeks Ragnarök Realized eschatology Second Coming Six Ages of the World The Two Witnesses Timewave zero Universal Network of Intelligent Conscious Entities Whore of Babylon Scientific views: Futurology Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth Technological singularity Ultimate fate of the universe External links Christian Cyclopedia article on Last Things Selected bibliography General (alphabetical by author) The Prophecy That Is Shaping History: New Research on Ezekiel's Vision of the End. (2003) Jon Ruthven, PhD. The Invisible War (1965) by Donald Grey Barnhouse; Zondervan Publishing House (Ministry Resources Library). How to Recognize the Antichrist (1975) by Arthur E. Bloomfield; Bethany Fellowship The Hidden Dangers of the Rainbow (1983) by Constance Cumbey; Huntington House Inc. Number in Scripture (1967) by Ethelbert W. Bullinger; Kregel Publications, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49501 Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 67-26498; ISBN 0-8254-2204-3 A Planned Deception: The Staging of A New Age 'Messiah''' (1985) by Constance Cumbey; Pointe Publishers, Inc. Hidden Prophecies in the Psalms (1986) by J.R. Church; Prophecy Publications, Oklahoma City, OK 73153; ISBN 0-941241-00-9 Gorbachev: Has the Real Antichrist Come? (1988) by Robert W. Faid; Victory House Publishers. The Man The False Prophet and The Harlot, subtitled The Name of the Antichrist Finally Revealed (1991) by Dr. Anthony M. Giliberti; Published by This Is The Generation Library of Congress Catalog Number 90-93451 ISBN 0-9628419-0-0. Have A Nice Doomsday - Why Millions Of Americans Are Looking Forward To The End Of The World by Nicholas Guyatt. ISBN 9780091910877 Send This Message to My Church: Christ's Words to the Seven Churches of Revelation (1984) by Terence Kelshaw; Thomas Nelson Publishers. The Truth About Armageddon (1982) by William Sanford Lasor; Harper & Row Publishers. A Survey of Bible Prophecy (1951) by R. Ludwigson; (1973, 1975; The Zondervan Corporation). Thy Kingdom Come: The Eschatology of the Kingdom (2009) by Harold L. Patterson; Xulon Press, ISBN 978-1-60791-229-3. 484 Pages. 'Code'-type books The Bible Code (1997) by Michael Drosnin; Published by Simon & Schuster, 1230 Ave. of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. ISBN 0-684-81079-4. Bible Code II: The Countdown (2002) by Michael Drosnin; One Honest Man, Inc. Published by Penguin Books Ltd., Registered Offices, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0R1, England. The Book of Daniel compared to the Book of Revelation Daniel and Revelation subtitled A Study of Two Extraordinary Visions (1978) by James M. Efird; Judson Press, Valley Forge, PA 19481 ISBN 0-8170-0797-0 Daniel's Prophecy of the 70 Weeks (1940, 1969) by Alva J. McClain; Academie Books/Zondervan House. Dispensationalist school of thought (listed alphabetically by author) A Cup of Trembling (1995) by Dave Hunt; Harvest House Publishers, Eugene, Oregon 97402; ISBN 1-56507-334-7. Global Peace and the Rise of Antichrist (1990) by Dave Hunt; Harvest House Publishers Library of Congress Cataloging in Publishing Data; ISBN 0-89081-831-2. How Close Are We? (1993) by Dave Hunt; Harvest House Publishers. (NOTE: The author has a new, updated book titled When will Jesus Come?. Peace, Prosperity, and the Coming Holocaust (1983) by Dave Hunt; Harvest House Publishers. Whatever Happened to Heaven? (1988) by Dave Hunt; Harvest House Publishers. ISBN 0-89081-698-0 (pbk.) Not Wrath but Rapture! by H.A. Ironside; NO DATE; published by Loizeaux Brothers, Inc. Armageddon, Oil and the Middle East Crisis Revised (1974) by John F. Walvoord; Zondervan Publishing House, 1415 Lake Drive, S.E., Grand Rapids, Michigan 49506; ISBN 0-310-53921-8 Satan is Alive and Well on Planet Earth (1972) by Hal Lindsey with C.C. Carlson; Zondervan House. The Late, Great Planet Earth (1970) by Hal Lindsey with C.C. Carlson; Zondervan House. The Liberation of Planet Earth (1974) by Hal Lindsey; The Zondervan Corporation. There's a New World Coming (1973) by Hal Lindsey; Vision House. The Rapture (1983) by Hal Lindsey; The Aorist Corporation Bantam Books. The Terminal Generation (1976) by Hal Lindsey with C.C. Carlson; Fleming Revell. The Revelation Record (1985) by Henry M. Morris; Tyndale House Inc. and Creation Life Publishers. Things to Come (1958) by J. Dwight Pentecost; Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49506. The World's Collision (1956) by Charles E. Pont; W.A. Wilde, Boston. Dispensationalism Today (1965) by Charles C. Ryrie; The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago. Israel In Prophecy (1962) by John F. Walvoord; Zondervan Publishing House. The Church in Prophecy (1964) by John F. Walvoord; Zondervan Publishing House. The Millennial Kingdom (1959) by John F. Walvoord; Dunham Publishing Co. Academie Books published by Zondervan Publishing House, 1415 Lake Drive. S.E., Grand Rapids Michigan 49506. (NOTE: See Millennium on Wikipedia). The Nations in Prophecy (1967) by John F. Walvoord; Zondervan Publishing House. (NOTE: this book may have been combined with other similar titles by Walvoord into one new volume). The Return of the Lord (1955) by John F. Walvoord; Zondervan Publishing House Library of Congress Cat. #77-106423. The Rapture Question (1974) by John F. Walvoord (Revised & Enlarged); The Zondervan Corporation. Post-Tribulation school of thought The Church and the Tribulation (subtitled: A Biblical Examination of Post-tribulationism) (1973) by Robert H. Gundry; Zondervan Corporation. The Tribulation People (1975) by Arthur Katterjohn with Mark Faculer; Publisher - Creation House. Lord, When? (1976) by Arthur Katterjohn with Mark Faculer; Publisher - Creation House (Can be used independently or in conjunction with The Tribulation People by the same authors. The Incredible Cover-Up (1975) by Dave MacPherson; by Logos Internation. Christians Will Go Through the Tribulation (1978) by Jim McKeever; Alpha Omega Publishing Company. Now You Can Understand the Book of Revelation (1980) by Jim McKeever; Omega Publications. City of Revelation subtitled A Book of Forgotten Wisdom (1972) by John Michell; Ballantine Books (first printing: 11/73 Library of Congress Cat. No. 72-88116 SBN 345-23607-6-150. (NOTE: this book contains information on Gematria, a mathematical science). The Secret Book of Revelation (subtitled: The Last Book of the Bible) ©1979; by Gilles Quispel, Collins St. James Place, Comdon, 1979. The Pre-Wrath Rapture of The Church (1990) by Marvin Rosenthal; Thomas Nelson, Inc. ISBN 0-8407-3160-4. Amillenial school of thought 1994? (1992) by Harold Camping;; Published by Vantage Press, Inc., 516 West 34th Street, NY, NY 10001. ISBN 0-533-10368-1; Library of Congress Cat. Number is Unknown. Christ Will Come Again: Hope for the Second Coming of Jesus by Stephen Travis. 2004 Toronto: Clements Publishing. ISBN 1-894667-33-6 In God's Time: The Bible and the Future by Craig C. Hill. 2002 Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. ISBN 0-802860-90-7 Shock Wave 2000! subtitled The Harold Camping 1994 Debacle; (1994) by Robert Sungenis, Scott Temple, and David Allen Lewis; New Leaf Press, Inc., P.O. Box 311, Green Forest AR 72638; ISBN 0-89221-269-1; Library of Congress: 94-67493. 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3,522 | German_Navy | The German Navy (Deutsche Marine () is the navy of Germany and part of the Bundeswehr (German Armed Forces). The German Navy traces its roots back to the Imperial Fleet (Reichsflotte) of the revolutionary era of 1848-1852 and more directly to the Prussian Navy, which later evolved into the Northern German Federal Navy (Norddeutsche Bundesmarine, 1866-1871) and became the Imperial Navy (Kaiserliche Marine, 1872-1918). From 1919 to 1921 it was known as the Temporary Imperial Navy (Vorläufige Reichsmarine) and then became the Reichsmarine. It was known as the War Navy (Kriegsmarine) from 1935 to 1945. From 1945 to 1956, the German Mine Sweeping Administration and its successor organisations, made up of former members of the Kriegsmarine, became something of a transition stage for the German Navy, allowing the future Bundesmarine to draw on experienced personnel upon its formation. In 1956, with West Germany's accession to NATO, a new navy was established and was referred to as the Federal Navy (Bundesmarine). With the reunification of Germany in 1990, and the take-over of units of the former East German Volksmarine ("People's Navy"), it was decided to simply use the name Deutsche Marine ("German Navy"). Mission The German Navy is part of the German armed forces (Bundeswehr), and is deeply integrated into the NATO alliance. Its mission includes the participation in peace-keeping and peace enforcement operations as well as the protection of German and Allied territories. Operations German war ships permanently participate in all four NATO Maritime Groups. The German Navy is also engaged in operations against international terrorism such as Operation Enduring Freedom and NATO Operation Active Endeavour. Presently the largest operation the German Navy is participating in is UNIFIL II off the coast of Lebanon. The German contribution to this operation is two frigates, four fast attack craft, and two auxiliary vessels. The naval component of UNIFIL is commanded by a German admiral. There has been reports of Israeli F-16s firing against German ships. Israel denied that the F-16s fired against the ships and stated that it was only overflying the ships. Organization The German Navy is commanded by the Inspekteur der Marine (Chief of Staff, Navy) in the Federal Ministry of Defence in Bonn. The major commands are the Fleet Command at Glücksburg near Flensburg and the Naval Office at Rostock. The Fleet is commanded by the Commander-in-Chief German Fleet (CINCGERFLEET) and comprises all combat vessels, aircraft, helicopters and other combat forces, while schools, naval bases and test installations are under the purview of the Naval Office. The strength of the Navy is about 19,000 men and women with another 6,000 navy personnel serving in different elements of the central military organization of the Bundeswehr. The navy as a part of the Bundeswehr is responsible for developing and providing the maritime capabilities of the German armed forces. Therefore it is operating a number of development and testing installations as part of an inter-service and international network. The Fleet Fleet Command (Flottenkommando), Glücksburg 1st Flotilla (Einsatzflottille 1), Kiel HQ 1st Flotilla Centre of Excellence for Operations in Confined and Shallow Waters (COE CSW) 1st Corvette Squadron (1. Korvettengeschwader), Warnemünde 1st Submarine Squadron (1. Unterseebootgeschwader), Eckernförde Submarine Training Centre (Ausbildungszentrum Unterseeboote), Eckernförde 3rd Mine Countermeasures Squadron (3. Minensuchgeschwader), Kiel 7th Fast Patrol Boat Squadron (7. Schnellbootgeschwader), Warnemünde 5th Mine Countermeasures Squadron (5. Minensuchgeschwader), Kiel Force Protection Group, (Marineschutzkräfte), Eckernförde one HQ & support company four Force Protection companies (Marinesicherungskompanie) Special Warfare Group, (Spezialisierte Einsatzkräfte Marine), Eckernförde HQ & support company combat diver company (Kampfschwimmerkompanie) mine clearance diver company (mine countermeasures and explosive ordnance disposal; Minentaucherkompanie) combat diver support company (KS-Unterstützungskompanie) company for special operations (e.g. boarding) support company special training center 2nd Flotilla (Einsatzflottille 2), Wilhelmshaven HQ 2nd Flotilla 2nd Frigate Squadron (2. Fregattengeschwader), Wilhelmshaven 4th Frigate Squadron (4. Fregattengeschwader), Wilhelmshaven Auxiliary Squadron (Trossgeschwader), Wilhelmshaven/Kiel Naval Air Wing 3 (Marinefliegergeschwader 3), Nordholz Naval Air Wing 5 (Marinefliegergeschwader 5), Kiel Naval Medical Institute (Schiffahrtsmedizinisches Institut), Kiel (responsible especially for diving medicine) Naval Office Naval Office (Marineamt), Rostock Department for Development of the Navy, Bremerhaven Navy Schools (Admiral Naval Training) Naval Academy (Marineschule Mürwik), Flensburg-Mürwik Petty Officer School (Marineunteroffiziersschule), Plön Engineering School (Marinetechnikschule), Parow, near Stralsund Damage Control Training Centre (Ausbildungszentrum für Schiffssicherung), Neustadt in Holstein Naval Operations School (Marineoperationsschule), Bremerhaven Supporting Installations (Admiral Naval Logistics) Naval Base Command (Marinestützpunktkommando) Wilhelmshaven Naval Base Command (Marinestützpunktkommando) Eckernförde Naval Base Command (Marinestützpunktkommando) Kiel Naval Base Command (Marinestützpunktkommando) Warnemünde Naval Service Test Command (Kommando Truppenversuche der Marine), Eckernförde Naval Command & Control Systems Command (Kommando Marineführungssysteme), Wilhelmshaven Ranks Officers Enlisted Gallery Ships and weapon systems Surface Vessels Frigates 4 × Baden-Württemberg class, support of special forces, land-attack (under construction) 3 × Sachsen class, anti-air frigates 4 × Brandenburg class, multi purpose frigates 8 × Bremen class, multi purpose frigates Corvettes 5 × Braunschweig class, multi purpose corvettes Fast Attack Craft 10 × Gepard class fast attack craft Mine Counter-Measure Vessels 5 × Ensdorf class minesweeper, drone guidance 5 × Kulmbach class, (Type 333) mine hunter 9 × Frankenthal class, (Type 332) mine hunter 1 × clearance diver support vessel M 1061 Rottweil 18 × Seehund ROV (remote controlled drones, 2 men crew only for transit) part of the TROIKA PLUS system together with the Ensdorf class minesweepers Submarines Submarines 4 × U212A class (multi-purpose submarine), 2 more under construction, replace some U206A class6 × U206A class (coastal submarine) Auxiliary vessels Landing craft 2 × Barbe class (Type 520) utility landing craft Fleet Auxiliary Squadron 2 × Berlin class (Type 702) multi-product replenishment ship, one more ordered2 × Walchensee class (Type 703) fleet oiler 2 × Rhön class (Type 704) fleet oiler 6 × Elbe class (Type 404) tender 3 × Oste class (Type 423) electronic surveillance ship 2 × Wangerooge class (Type 722B) Seeschlepper (sea-going tug) 1 × Fehmarn class (Type 720B) large sea-going tug 1 × Westerwald (Type 760A) ammunition transport Naval Base auxiliary vessels 2 × Wustrow class (Type 414) harbour tug 3 × Langeroog class (Type 754) (sea-going tug and diver training boat) 1 × Sylt class (Type 724) large harbour tug 6 × Lütje Horn class (Type 725) harbour tug 2 × Bottsand class (Type 738) oil recovery ship Other Auxiliary Vessels 3 × Helmsand class multi-purpose ship (Type 748) trial and fleet service ships 1 × Wilhelm Pullwer class (Type 741) trial boat 1 × Gorch Fock tall ship (Type 441) sail training ship 1 × Eisvogel class (Type 721) icebreaker 1 × Planet class research ship (Type 751); SWATH vessel 1 × Alliance class (Type 753) research ship (NATO vessel under German flag) Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Breguet Atlantic || || signals intelligence || BR 1150 || 3 || to be replaced by 5 Luftwaffe Eurohawk |----- | Dornier Do 228 || || environmental patrol || || 2 || |----- | Lockheed P-3 Orion || || maritime patrol || P-3C II½ CUP|| 8 || former Netherlands Navy Maritime Patrol |----- | Westland Lynx || || antisubmarine helicopter || Sea Lynx Mk 88 || 22 || |----- | Westland Sea King || || naval helicopter || Sea King Mk 41 || 21 || |----- | Camcopter S-100 || || unmanned aerial vehicle|| Camcopter S-100|| 0|| A first batch of 6 UAVs has been ordered (more being planned) |} Radio and communication stations VLF transmitter DHO38 DHJ58 DHJ59 Developments A first batch of 4 × frigates of the F125 class 7,200 tonnes (7,900 tons) 145 m/476 ft (Baden-Württemberg class) specialised for persistent stabilisation missions is planned to replace some Bremen class (8 × guided-missile frigates) ships. Each F125 will have two crews. They will enter service between 2014 and 2017. 6 × medium surface combat ships are planned under the name Korvette "K131" (corvette "K131") 2 × Joint Support Ships (JSS) 187 m (614 ft) 15,000 tonnes (16,500 tons) are planned. A new development called "Mehrzweckeinsatzschiff" (multi-mission ship) was announced in January 2009. http://www.marine.de/portal/a/marine/kcxml/04_Sj9SPykssy0xPLMnMz0vM0Y_QjzKLNzKOD_Q3BcmB2d5mIfqRcNGglFR9X4_83FR9b_0A_YLciHJHR0VFADY-nGs!/delta/base64xml/L2dJQSEvUUt3QS80SVVFLzZfMjNfUVM1?yw_contentURL=%2F01DB070000000001%2FW26WMF3P003INFODE%2Fcontent.jsp One more Berlin class replenishment ship was ordered in December 2008. 30 × MH90 frigate helicopters are planned to replace 22 Sea King helicopter of Naval Air Wing 5 and some Sea Lynx. A first batch of 6 × Camcopter S-100 UAVs for the use on the Braunschweig class corvettes has been ordered (more being planned). Deliveries will take place in 2013. http://www.marineforum.info/HEFT_5-2009/Camcopter/camcopter.html Sources References External links www.marine.de - Offizieller Internetauftritt der Deutschen Marine in German www.marine.de/en - Official Website of German Navy in English Die Flotte 2006 - official fleet listing and presentation in German and English Wikilinks Kampfschwimmer, combat divers/combat swimmers List of ships of the German navies List of ship classes of the Bundesmarine and Deutsche Marine Marineamt U-boat Volksmarine'' | German_Navy |@lemmatized german:25 navy:26 deutsche:3 marine:12 germany:3 part:5 bundeswehr:4 arm:1 force:7 trace:1 root:1 back:1 imperial:3 fleet:11 reichsflotte:1 revolutionary:1 era:1 directly:1 prussian:1 later:1 evolve:1 northern:1 federal:3 norddeutsche:1 bundesmarine:4 become:3 kaiserliche:1 know:2 temporary:1 vorläufige:1 reichsmarine:2 war:2 kriegsmarine:2 mine:8 sweeping:1 administration:1 successor:1 organisation:1 make:1 former:3 member:1 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3,523 | Nucleosome | Nucleosome (DNA in orange and histones in blue) Nucleosomes form the fundamental repeating units of eukaryotic chromatin Alberts, B., et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell, Fourth Ed., 2002, p. 207 , which is used to pack the large eukaryotic genomes into the nucleus while still ensuring appropriate access to it (in mammalian cells approximately 2 m of linear DNA have to be packed into a nucleus of roughly 10 µm diameter). Nucleosomes are folded through a series of successively higher order structures to eventually form a chromosome; this both compacts DNA and creates an added layer of regulatory control which ensures correct gene expression. Nucleosomes are thought to carry epigenetically inherited information in the form of covalent modifications of their core histones. The nucleosome hypothesis proposed by Don and Ada Olins Olins AL and Olins DE, "Spheroid Chromatin Units (nu Bodies)", Science (1974); 183: 330 - 332 and Roger Kornberg McDonald D, "Milestone 9, (1973-1974) The nucleosome hypothesis: An alternative string theory", Nature Milestones: Gene Expression. (2005) Dec 1; http://www.nature.com/milestones/geneexpression/milestones/articles/milegene09.html Kornberg, RD, structure: a repeating unit of histones and DNA", Science. (1974); 184: 868–871 in 1974, was a paradigm shift for understanding eukaryotic gene expression. The nucleosome core particle consists of approximately 147 In different crystals, values of 146 and 147 basepairs were observed base pairs of DNA wrapped in 1.67 left-handed superhelical turns around a histone octamer consisting of 2 copies each of the core histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Luger K, Mader AW, Richmond RK, Sargent DF, Richmond TJ, "Crystal Structure of the Nucleosome Core Particle at 2.8 Å Resolution", Nature. 1997 Sep 18; 389 (6648): 251-60. Linker histones such as H1 and its isoforms are involved in chromatin compaction and sit at the base of the nucleosome near the DNA entry and exit binding to the linker region of the DNA. Position and orientation of the globular domain of linker histone H5 on the nucleosome : Abstract : Nature Non-condensed nucleosomes without the linker histone resemble "beads on a string of DNA" under an electron microscope. Involvement of histone H1 in the organization of the nucleosome and of the salt-dependent superstructures of chromatin - Thoma et al. 83 (2): 403 - The Journal of Cell Biology In contrast to most eukaryotic cells mature sperm cells largely use protamines to package their genomic DNA, most likely to achieve an even higher packaging ratio. Clark, H.J. Nuclear and chromatin composition of mammalian gametes and early embryos. Biochem Cell Biol. 1992 Oct-Nov;70(10-11):856-66, PMID 1297351 Histone equivalents and a simplified chromatin structure have also been found in Archea , proving that eukaryotes are not the only organisms that use nucleosomes. Structure Structure of the core particle The crystal structure of the nucleosome core particle consisting of H2A , H2B , H3 and H4 and DNA. The view is from the top through the superhelical axis. Overview Early structural studies provided evidence that an octamer of histone proteins wraps DNA around itself in about two turns of a left-handed superhelix. In 1997 the first near atomic resolution crystal structure of the nucleosome was solved by the Richmond group showing some of the most important details of the particle. The structure of over 20 different nucleosome core particles have been solved to date , including those containing histone variants and histones from different species. The structure of the nucleosome core particle is remarkably conserved, and even a change of over 100 residues between frog and yeast histones results in electron density maps with an overall root mean square deviation (r.m.s.d) of only 1.6Å . The nucleosome core particle The nucleosome core particle (shown in the figure) consists of about 146 bp of DNA wrapped in 1.67 left-handed superhelical turns around the histone octamer, consisting of 2 copies each of the core histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Adjacent nucleosomes are joined by a stretch of free DNA termed "linker DNA" which varies from 10 - 80 bp in length depending on species and tissue type). Protein interactions within the nucleosome The core histone proteins contain a characteristic structural motif termed the "histone fold" which consists of three alpha-helices (α1-3) separated by two loops (L1-2). In solution the histones form H2A-H2B heterodimers and H3-H4 heterotetramers. Histones dimerise about their long α2 helices in an anti-parallel orientation, and in the case of H3 and H4, two such dimers form a 4-helix bundle stabilised by extensive H3-H3’ interaction. The H2A/H2B dimer binds onto the H3/H4 tetramer due to interactions between H4 and H2B which include the formation of a hydrophobic cluster. The histone octamer is formed by a central H3/H4 tetramer sandwiched between two H2A/H2B dimers. Due to the highly basic charge of all four core histones, the histone octamer is only stable in the presence of DNA or very high salt concentrations. Histone - DNA interactions The nucleosome contains over 120 direct protein-DNA interactions and several hundred water mediated ones . Direct protein - DNA interactions are not spread evenly about the octamer surface but rather located at discrete sites. These are due to the formation of two types of DNA binding sites within the octamer; the α1α1 site which uses the α1 helix from two adjacent histones and the L1L2 site formed by the L1 and L2 loops. Salt links and hydrogen bonding between both side chain basic and hydroxyl groups and main chain amides with the DNA backbone phosphates form the bulk of interactions with the DNA. This is important given that the ubiquitous distribution of nucleosomes along genomes requires it to be a non-sequence-specific DNA-binding factor. Although nucleosomes tend to prefer some DNA sequences over others Segal E. et al., "A genomic code for nucleosome positioning", Nature 442, 772-778 (17 August 2006) , they are capable of binding practically to any sequence, which is thought to be due to the flexibility in the formation of these water-mediated interactions. In addition, non-polar interactions are made between protein side chains and the deoxyribose groups, and an arginine side chain intercalates into the DNA minor groove at all 14 sites it faces the octamer surface. The distribution and strength of DNA binding sites about the octamer surface distorts the DNA within the nucleosome core. The DNA is non-uniformly bent and also contains twist defects. The twist of free B-form DNA in solution is 10.5 bp per turn, however, the overall twist of nucleosomal DNA is only 10.2 bp per turn, varying from a value of 9.4 to 10.9 bp per turn. Histone tail domains The histone tail extensions constitute up to 30% by mass of histones, but are not visible in the crystal structures of nucleosomes due to their high intrinsic flexibility and have been thought to be largely unstructured . The N-terminal tails of histones H3 and H2B pass through a channel formed by the minor grooves of the two DNA strands, protruding from the DNA every 20 bp. The N-terminal tail of histone H4 on the other hand has a region of highly basic amino acids (16-25) which, in the crystal structure, forms an interaction with the highly acidic surface region of a H2A-H2B dimer of another nucleosome, being potentially relevant for the higher-order structure of nucleosomes. This interaction is thought to occur also under physiological conditions and suggests that acetylation of the H4 tail distorts the higher order structure of chromatin. Higher order structure The current chromatin compaction model. The organization of the DNA that is achieved by the nucleosome can not fully explain the packaging of DNA observed in the cell nucleus. Further compaction of chromatin into the cell nucleus is necessary, but is not yet well understood. The current understanding Chakravarthy S, Park YJ, Chodaparambil J, Edayathumangalam RS, Luger K, and dynamic properties of nucleosome core particles", FEBS Letters. (2005) Feb 7; 579 (4): 895-898. is that repeating nucleosomes with intervening "linker" DNA form a 10-nm-fiber, known descriptively as "beads on a string", and have a packing ratio of about five to ten. A chain of nucleosomes can be arranged in a 30 nm fiber, a compacted structure with a packing ratio of ~50 and whose formation is dependent on the presence of the H1 histone. A crystal structure of a tetranucleosome has been presented and used to build up a proposed structure of the 30 nm fiber as a two-start helix. Schalch T, Duda S, Sargent DF, Richmond TJ, structure of a tetranucleosome and its implications for the chromatin fibre", Nature. (2005) Jul 7; 436: 138-141. There is still a certain amount of contention regarding this model as it is incompatible with recent electron microscopy data . Beyond this, the structure of chromatin is poorly understood, but it is classically suggested that the 30 nm fiber is arranged into loops along a central protein scaffold to form transcriptionally active euchromatin. Further compaction leads to transcriptionally inactive heterochromatin. Nucleosome dynamics Although the nucleosome is a very stable protein-DNA complex, it is not static and has been shown to undergo a number of different structural re-arrangements including nucleosome sliding and DNA site exposure. Nucleosome sliding Work performed in the Bradbury laboratory showed that nucleosomes reconstituted onto the 5S DNA positioning sequence were able to reposition themselves translationally onto adjacent sequences when incubated thermally . Later work showed that this repositioning did not require disruption of the histone octamer but was consistent with nucleosomes being able to “slide” along the DNA in cis. In 2008, It was further revealed that CTCF binding sites act as nucleosome positioning anchors so that, when used to align various genomic signals, multiple flanking nucleosomes can be readily identified . Although nucleosomes are intrinsically mobile, eukaryotes have evolved a large family of ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling enzymes to alter chromatin structure, many of which do so via nucleosome sliding. DNA site exposure Work from the Widom laboratory has shown that nucleosomal DNA is in equilibrium between a wrapped and unwrapped state. Measurements of these rates using time resolved FRET revealed that DNA within the nucleosome remains fully wrapped for only 250ms before it is unwrapped for 10-50ms and then rapidly rewrapped . This implies that DNA does not need to be actively dissociated from the nucleosome but that there is a significant fraction of time during which it is fully accessible. Indeed, this can be extended to the observation that introducing a DNA binding sequence within the nucleosome increases the accessibility of adjacent regions of DNA when bound . This propensity for DNA within the nucleosome to “breathe” is predicted to have important functional consequences for all DNA binding proteins that operate in a chromatin environment. Modulating nucleosome structure Eukaryotic genomes are ubiquitously associated into chromatin; however, cells need to spatially and temporally regulate specific loci independently of bulk chromatin. In order to achieve the high level of control required to co-ordinate nuclear processes such as DNA replication, repair and transcription, cells have developed a variety of means to locally and specifically modulate chromatin structure and function. This can involve covalent modification of histones, the incorporation of histone variants and non-covalent remodelling by ATP-dependent remodelling enzymes. Histone post-translational modifications Since they were discovered in the mid 1960’s histone modifications have been predicted to affect transcription . The fact that most of the early post-translational modifications found were concentrated within the tail extensions that protrude from the nucleosome core lead to two main theories regarding the mechanism of histone modification. The first of the theories suggested that they may affect electrostatic interactions between the histone tails and DNA to “loosen” chromatin structure. Later it was proposed that combinations of these modifications may create binding epitopes with which to recruit other proteins . Recently, given that more modifications have been found in the structured regions of histones it has been put forward that these modifications may affect histone-DNA and histone-histone interactions within the nucleosome core. Some modifications have been shown to be correlated with gene silencing, others seem to be correlated with gene activation. Common modifications include acetylation, methylation or ubiquitination of lysine; methylation of arginine and phosphorylation of serine. The information stored in this way is considered epigenetic since it is not encoded in the DNA but is still inherited to daughter cells. The maintenance of a repressed or activated status of a gene is often necessary for cellular differentiation. Histone variants Whilst histones are remarkably conserved throughout evolution, several variant forms have been identified. Interestingly, this diversification of histone function is restricted to H2A and H3, with H2B and H4 being mostly invariant. H2A can be replaced by H2AZ (which leads to reduced nucleosome stability) or H2AX (which is associated with DNA repair and T cell differentiation) whereas the inactive X chromosomes in mammals are enriched in macroH2A. H3 can be replaced by H3.3 (which correlates with activate genes) and in centromeres H3 is replaced by CENPA. ATP-dependent nucleosome remodelling A number of distinct reactions are associated with the term ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling. Remodelling enzymes have been shown to slide nucleosomes along DNA ,disrupt histone-DNA contacts to the extent of destabilising the H2A/H2B dimer and to generate negative superhelical torsion in DNA and chromatin . Recently, the Swr1 remodelling enzyme has been shown to introduce the variant histone H2A.Z into nucleosomes . At present, it is not clear if all of these represent distinct reactions or merely alternative outcomes of a common mechanism. What is shared between all, and indeed the hallmark of ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling, is that they all result in altered DNA accessibility. Studies looking at gene activation in vivo and, more astonishingly, remodelling in vitro has revealed that chromatin remodelling events and transcription-factor binding are cyclical and periodic in nature. While the consequences of this for the reaction mechanism of chromatin remodelling are not known, the dynamic nature of the system may allow it to respond faster to external stimuli. Dynamic nucleosome remodelling across the Yeast genome Studies in 2007 have catalogued nucleosome positions in yeast and shown that nucleosomes are depleted in promoter regions . About 80% of the yeast genome appears to be covered by nucleosomes and the pattern of nucleosome positioning clearly relates to DNA regions that regulate transcription and regions that are transcribed. Most recently, a new study examined ‘’dynamic changes’’ in nucleosome repositioning during a global transcriptional reprogramming event to elucidate the effects on nucleosome displacement during genome-wide transcriptional changes in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) . The results suggested that nucleosomes that were localized to promoter regions are displaced in response to stress (like heat shock). In addition, the removal of nucleosomes usually corresponded to transcriptional activation and the replacement of nucleosomes usually corresponded to transcriptional repression, presumably because transcription factor binding sites became more or less accessible, respectively. In general, only one or two nucleosomes were repositioned at the promoter to effect these transcriptional changes. However, even in chromosomal regions that were not associated with transcriptional changes, nucleosome repositioning was observed, suggesting that the covering and uncovering of transcriptional DNA does not necessarily produce a transcriptional event. Nucleosome assembly in vitro Diagram of nucleosome assembly. Nucleosomes can be assembled in vitro by either using purified native or recombinant histones. Hayes, JJ, Lee, K.-M. ''In vitro reconstitution and analysis of mononucleosomes containing defined DNAs and proteins, Methods (1997), 12: 2-9, PMID 9169189. Dyer PN, Edayathumangalam RS, White CL, Bao Y, Chakravarthy S, Muthurajan UM, Luger K, "Reconstitution of nucleosome core particles from recombinant histones and DNA", Methods in Enzymology (2004); 375: 23-44. One standard technique of loading the DNA around the histones involves the use of salt dialysis. A reaction consisting of the histone octamers and a naked DNA template can be incubated together at a salt concentration of 2 M. By steadily decreasing the salt concentration, the DNA will equilibrate to a position where it is wrapped around the histone octamers, forming nucleosomes. In appropriate conditions, this reconstitution process allows for the nucleosome positioning affinity of a given sequence to be mapped experimentally. Yenidunya A, Davey C, Clark D, Felsenfeld G, Allan J. "Nucleosome positioning on chicken and human globin gene promoters in vitro. Novel mapping techniques.", Journal of Molecular Biology (1994); 237: 401-14. References External links Nucleosomes on the group page of Timothy Richmond Nucleosome at the PDB Dynamic Remodeling of Individual Nucleosomes Across a Eukaryotic Genome in Response to Transcriptional Perturbation | Nucleosome |@lemmatized nucleosome:48 dna:62 orange:1 histone:52 blue:1 nucleosomes:28 form:15 fundamental:1 repeat:3 unit:3 eukaryotic:6 chromatin:23 albert:1 b:2 et:3 al:4 molecular:2 biology:3 cell:12 fourth:1 ed:1 p:1 use:9 pack:4 large:2 genome:7 nucleus:4 still:3 ensure:2 appropriate:2 access:1 mammalian:2 approximately:2 linear:1 roughly:1 µm:1 diameter:1 fold:2 series:1 successively:1 high:8 order:5 structure:24 eventually:1 chromosome:2 compact:1 create:2 added:1 layer:1 regulatory:1 control:2 correct:1 gene:9 expression:3 think:4 carry:1 epigenetically:1 inherited:1 information:2 covalent:3 modification:11 core:18 hypothesis:2 propose:3 ada:1 olins:3 de:1 spheroid:1 nu:1 body:1 science:2 roger:1 kornberg:2 mcdonald:1 milestone:4 alternative:2 string:3 theory:3 nature:8 dec:1 http:1 www:1 com:1 geneexpression:1 article:1 html:1 rd:1 paradigm:1 shift:1 understand:1 particle:11 consist:5 different:4 crystal:7 value:2 basepairs:1 observed:1 base:2 pair:1 wrap:5 leave:2 hand:4 superhelical:4 turn:6 around:5 octamer:10 consisting:2 copy:2 luger:3 k:4 mader:1 aw:1 richmond:5 rk:1 sargent:2 df:2 tj:2 å:1 resolution:2 sep:1 linker:6 isoforms:1 involve:3 compaction:4 sit:2 near:2 entry:1 exit:1 binding:5 region:10 position:5 orientation:2 globular:1 domain:1 abstract:1 non:5 condense:1 without:1 resemble:1 bead:2 electron:3 microscope:1 involvement:1 organization:2 salt:6 dependent:7 superstructure:1 thoma:1 journal:2 contrast:1 mature:1 sperm:1 largely:2 protamine:1 package:1 genomic:3 likely:1 achieve:3 even:3 packaging:2 ratio:3 clark:2 h:1 j:3 nuclear:2 composition:1 gamete:1 early:3 embryo:1 biochem:1 biol:1 oct:1 nov:1 pmid:2 equivalent:1 simplified:1 also:3 find:3 archea:1 prove:1 eukaryote:2 organism:1 view:1 top:1 axis:1 overview:1 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3,524 | Geography_of_Brazil | {| style="toc: 25em; font-size: 85%; lucida grande, sans-serif; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Geography of Brazil |- {{#if:Location Brazil.svg| |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Surface Area of Brazil |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Total | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 8,514,215 km² (3,287,357 sq mi) |- !align="left" valign="top"| Land |valign="top"| 8,456,510 km² (3,265,076 sq mi) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Water | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 55,455 km² (21,411 sq mi) |- !align="center" valign="top" colspan="2"|Notes: Special Note: About 60% of the Amazon Rainforest is part of Brazil. Note: Includes Archipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands. |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Boundaries |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Coastline | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 7,367 km (4578 mi) |- !align="left" valign="top"| Total land boundary |valign="top"| 15,735 km (9777 mi) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Border countries | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| Argentina 1,263 km (785 mi) Bolivia 3,126 km (1942 mi) Colombia 1,644 km (1022 mi) French Guiana 655 km (407 mi) Guyana 1,298 km (807 mi) Paraguay 1,339 km (832 mi) Peru 2,995 km (1861 mi) Suriname 593 km (368 mi) Uruguay 1,001 km (623 mi) Venezuela 1,819 km (1130 mi) |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Territories and claims |- {{#if:Brazilian Territories.PNG| |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Islands | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| Fernando de Noronha Rocas Atoll Saint Peter and Paul Rocks Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands |- !align="left" valign="top"|Informal claim |valign="top"| Brazilian Antarctica |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Maritime claims |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Contiguous zone | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 24 nautical miles (44 km) |- !align="left" valign="top"| Continental shelf |valign="top"| 200 nautical miles (370 km) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Exclusive Economic Zone | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 200 nautical miles (370 km) |- !align="left" valign="top"| Territorial sea |valign="top"| 12 nautical miles (22 km) |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Land use |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Arable land | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 5% (1993) |- !align="left" valign="top"| Permanent crops |valign="top"| 1% (1993) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Permanent pastures | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 22% (1993) |- !align="left" valign="top"| Forests and woodland |valign="top"| 58% (1993) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| Other | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 14% (1993) |- !align="left" valign="top"| Irrigated land |valign="top"| (1993) |- |} The country of Brazil occupies roughly half of South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean. Brazil covers a total area of 8,514,215 km² (3,287,357 sq mi) which includes 8,456,510 km² (3,265,076 sq mi) of land and 55,455 km² (21,411 sq mi) of water. The highest point in Brazil is Pico da Neblina at 2,994 m (9,823 ft). Brazil is bordered by the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela. By comparison, Brazil is slightly smaller in land mass than the United States. Much of the climate is tropical, with the south being relatively temperate. The largest river in Brazil, and one of the longest in the world, is the Amazon. The rainforest that covers the Amazon Basin constitutes almost half of the rainforests on Earth. Geographic coordinates: Size and Location With its expansive territory, Brazil occupies most of the eastern part of the South American continent and its geographic heartland, as well as various islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The only countries in the world that are larger are Russia, Canada, the People's Republic of China, and the United States (including Alaska). The national territory extends from north to south (5°16'20" N to 33°44'32" S latitude) and from east to west (34°47'30" W to 73°59'32" W longitude). It spans three time zones, the westernmost of which is one hour ahead of Eastern Standard Time in the United States. The time zone of the capital (Brasília) and of the most populated part of Brazil along the east coast (UTC-3) is two hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time, except when it is on its own daylight saving time, from October to February. The Atlantic islands are in the easternmost time zone. Brazil possesses the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha, located northeast of its "horn", and several small islands and atolls in the Atlantic - Abrolhos, Atol das Rocas, Penedos de São Pedro e São Paulo, Trindade, and Martim Vaz. In the early 1970s, Brazil claimed a territorial sea extending from the country's shores, including those of the islands. On Brazil's east coast, the Atlantic coastline extends . In the west, in clockwise order from the south, Brazil has of borders with Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. The only South American countries with which Brazil does not share borders are Chile and Ecuador. A few short sections are in question, but there are no major boundary controversies with any of the neighboring countries. Geology, Geomorphology, and Drainage In contrast to the Andes, which rose to elevations of nearly in a relatively recent epoch and inverted the Amazon's direction of flow from westward to eastward, Brazil's geological formation is very old. Precambrian crystalline shields cover 36% of the territory, especially its central area. The principal mountain ranges average elevations just under . The Serra do Mar Range hugs the Atlantic coast, and the Serra do Espinhaço Range, the largest in area, extends through the south-central part of the country. The highest mountains are in the Tumucumaque, Pacaraima, and Imeri ranges, among others, which traverse the northern border with the Guianas and Venezuela. In addition to mountain ranges (about 0.5% of the country is above 1,200 m), Brazil's Central Highlands include a vast central plateau (Planalto Central). The plateau's uneven terrain has an average elevation of . The rest of the territory is made up primarily of sedimentary basins, the largest of which is drained by the Amazon and its tributaries. Of the total territory, 41% averages less than in elevation. The coastal zone is noted for thousands of kilometers of tropical beaches interspersed with mangroves, lagoons, and dunes, as well as numerous coral reefs. Topograpic map of Brazil Brazil has one of the world's most extensive river systems, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic Ocean. Two of these basins--the Amazon and Tocantins-Araguaia account for more than half the total drainage area. The largest river system in Brazil is the Amazon, which originates in the Andes and receives tributaries from a basin that covers 45.7% of the country, principally the north and west. The main Amazon river system is the Amazonas-Solimões-Ucayali axis (the -long Ucayali is a Peruvian tributary), flowing from west to east. Through the Amazon Basin flows one-fifth of the world's fresh water. A total of of the Amazon are in Brazilian territory. Over this distance, the waters decline only about . The major tributaries on the southern side are, from west to east, the Javari, Juruá, Purus (all three of which flow into the western section of the Amazon called the Solimões), Madeira, Tapajós, Xingu, and Tocantins. On the northern side, the largest tributaries are the Branco, Japurá, Jari, and Rio Negro. The above-mentioned tributaries carry more water than the Mississippi (its discharge is less than one-tenth that of the Amazon). The Amazon and some of its tributaries, called "white" rivers, bear rich sediments and hydrobiological elements. The black-white and clear rivers--such as the Negro, Tapajós, and Xingu--have clear (greenish) or dark water with few nutrients and little sediment. The major river system in the Northeast is the Rio São Francisco, which flows northeast from the south-central region. Its basin covers 7.6% of the national territory. Only of the lower river are navigable for oceangoing ships. The Paraná system covers 14.5% of the country. The Paraná flows south among the Río de la Plata Basin, reaching the Atlantic between Argentina and Uruguay. The headwaters of the Paraguai, the Paraná's major eastern tributary, constitute the Pantanal, the largest contiguous wetlands in the world, covering as much as . Below their descent from the highlands, many of the tributaries of the Amazon are navigable. Upstream, they generally have rapids or waterfalls, and boats and barges also must face sandbars, trees, and other obstacles. Nevertheless, the Amazon is navigable by oceangoing vessels as far as upstream, reaching Iquitos in Peru. The Amazon river system was the principal means of access until new roads became more important hydroelectric projects are Itaipu, in Paraná, with 12,600 MW; Tucuruí, in Pará, with 7,746 MW; and Paulo Afonso, in Bahia, with 3,986 MW. Natural Resources Natural resources include: bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower and timber. Rivers and lakes Main Hydrographic Regions of Brazil According to organs of the Brazilian government there are 12 major hydrographic regions in Brazil. Seven of these are river basins named after their main rivers; the other five are groupings of various river basins in areas which have no dominant river. 7 Hydrographic Regions named after their dominant rivers: Amazonas Paraguai Paraná Parnaíba São Francisco Tocantins Uruguai 5 coastal Hydrographic Regions based on regional groupings of minor river basins (listed from north to south): Atlântico Nordeste Ocidental (Western North-east Atlantic) Atlântico Nordeste Oriental (Eastern North-east Atlantic) Atlântico Leste (Eastern Atlantic) Atlântico Sudeste (South-east Atlantic) Atlântico Sul (South Atlantic) The Amazon River is the widest and second longest river (behind the Nile) in the world. This huge river drains the greater part of the world's rainforests. Another major river, the Paraná, has its source in Brazil. It forms the border of Paraguay and Argentina, then winds its way through Argentina and into the Atlantic Ocean, along the southern coast of Uruguay. The HBV hydrology transport model has been used to analyze certain pollutant transport in Brazil's river systems. The Amazon is full of eroded soil. Soils and Vegetation The Amazon Rainforest Brazil's tropical soils produce 70 million tons of grain crops per year, but this output is attributed more to their extension than their fertility. Despite the earliest Portuguese explorers' reports that the land was exceptionally fertile and that anything planted grew well, the record in terms of sustained agricultural productivity has been generally disappointing. High initial fertility after clearing and burning usually is depleted rapidly, and acidity and aluminum content are often high. Together with the rapid growth of weeds and pests in cultivated areas, as a result of high temperatures and humidity, this loss of fertility explains the westward movement of the agricultural frontier and slash-and-burn agriculture; it takes less investment in work or money to clear new land than to continue cultivating the same land. Burning also is used traditionally to remove tall, dry, and nutrient-poor grass from pasture at the end of the dry season. Until mechanization and the use of chemical and genetic inputs increased during the agricultural intensification period of the 1970s and 1980s, coffee planting and farming in general moved constantly onward to new lands in the west and north. This pattern of horizontal or extensive expansion maintained low levels of technology and productivity and placed emphasis on quantity rather than quality of agricultural production. The largest areas of fertile soils, called terra roxa (red earth), are found in the states of Paraná and São Paulo. The least fertile areas are in the Amazon, where the dense rain forest is. Soils in the Northeast are often fertile, but they lack water, unless they are irrigated artificially. In the 1980s, investments made possible the use of irrigation, especially in the Northeast Region and in Rio Grande do Sul State, which had shifted from grazing to soy and rice production in the 1970s. Savanna soils also were made usable for soybean farming through acidity correction, fertilization, plant breeding, and in some cases spray irrigation. As agriculture underwent modernization in the 1970s and 1980s, soil fertility became less important for agricultural production than factors related to capital investment, such as infrastructure, mechanization, use of chemical inputs, breeding, and proximity to markets. Consequently, the vigor of frontier expansion weakened. The variety of climates, soils, and drainage conditions in Brazil is reflected in the range of its vegetation types. The Amazon Basin and the areas of heavy rainfall along the Atlantic coast have tropical rain forest composed of broadleaf evergreen trees. The rain forest may contain as many as 3,000 species of flora and fauna within a area. The Atlantic Forest is reputed to have even greater biological diversity than the Amazon rain forest, which, despite apparent homogeneity, contains many types of vegetation, from high canopy forest to bamboo groves. In the semiarid Northeast, Caatinga , a dry, thick, thorny vegetation, predominates. Most of central Brazil is covered with a woodland savanna, known as the Cerrado (sparse scrub trees and drought-resistant grasses), which became an area of agricultural development after the mid-1970s. In the South (Sul), needle-leaved pinewoods (Paraná pine or araucaria) cover the highlands; grassland similar to the Argentine pampa covers the sea-level plains. The Mato Grosso swamplands (Pantanal Mato-grossense) is a Florida-sized plain in the western portion of the Center-West (Centro-Oeste). It is covered with tall grasses, bushes, and widely dispersed trees similar to those of the cerrado and is partly submerged during the rainy season. Brazil, which is named after reddish dyewood (pau brasil), has long been famous for the wealth of its tropical forests. These are not, however, as important to world markets as those of Asia and Africa, which started to reach depletion only in the 1980s. By 1996 more than 90% of the original Atlantic forest had been cleared, primarily for agriculture, with little use made of the wood, except for araucaria pine in Paraná. The inverse situation existed with regard to clearing for wood in the Amazon rain forest, of which about 15% had been cleared by 1994, and part of the remainder had been disturbed by selective logging. Because the Amazon forest is highly heterogeneous, with hundreds of woody species per hectare, there is considerable distance between individual trees of economic value, such as mahogany and cerejeira. Therefore, this type of forest is not normally cleared for timber extraction but logged through high-grading, or selection of the most valuable trees. Because of vines, felling, and transportation, their removal causes destruction of many other trees, and the litter and new growth create a risk of forest fires, which are otherwise rare in rain forests. In favorable locations, such as Paragominas, in the northeastern part of Pará State, a new pattern of timber extraction has emerged: diversification and the production of plywood have led to the economic use of more than 100 tree species. Starting in the late 1980s, rapid deforestation and extensive burning in Brazil received considerable international and national attention. Satellite images have helped document and quantify deforestation as well as fires, but their use also has generated considerable controversy because of problems of defining original vegetation, cloud cover, and dealing with secondary growth and because fires, as mentioned above, may occur in old pasture rather than signifying new clearing. Public policies intended to promote sustainable management of timber extraction, as well as sustainable use of nontimber forest products (such as rubber, Brazil nuts, fruits, seeds, oils, and vines), were being discussed intensely in the mid-1990s. However, implementing the principles of sustainable development, without irreversible damage to the environment, proved to be more challenging than establishing international agreements about them. Natural vegetation map of Brazil, 1977 Climate Although 90% of the country is within the tropical zone, the climate of Brazil varies considerably from the mostly tropical North (the equator traverses the mouth of the Amazon) to temperate zones below the Tropic of Capricorn (23°27' S latitude), which crosses the country at the latitude of the city of São Paulo. Brazil has five climatic regions: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, and subtropical. Temperatures along the equator are high, averaging above , but not reaching the summer extremes of up to in the temperate zones. There is little seasonal variation near the equator, although at times it can get cool enough for wearing a jacket, especially in the rain. At the country's other extreme, there are frosts south of the Tropic of Capricorn during the winter (June-August), and in some years there is snow in the mountainous areas, such as Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. Temperatures in the cities of São Paulo, Belo Horizonte, and Brasília are moderate (usually between and ), despite their relatively low latitude, because of their elevation of approximately . Rio de Janeiro, Recife, and Salvador on the coast have warm climates, with average temperatures ranging from to , but enjoy constant trade winds. The southern cities of Porto Alegre and Curitiba have a subtropical climate similar to that in parts of the United States and Europe, and temperatures can fall below freezing in winter. Precipitation levels vary widely. Most of Brazil has moderate rainfall of between 1,000 and 1,500 millimeters (40–60 in) a year, with most of the rain falling in the summer (between December and April) south of the Equator. The Amazon region is notoriously humid, with rainfall generally more than per year and reaching as high as in parts of the western Amazon and near Belém. It is less widely known that, despite high annual precipitation, the Amazon rain forest has a three- to five-month dry season, the timing of which varies according to location north or south of the equator. High and relatively regular levels of precipitation in the Amazon contrast sharply with the dryness of the semiarid Northeast, where rainfall is scarce and there are severe droughts in cycles averaging seven years. The Northeast is the driest part of the country. The region also constitutes the hottest part of Brazil, where during the dry season between May and November, temperatures of more than have been recorded. However, the sertão, a region of semidesert vegetation used primarily for low-density ranching, turns green when there is rain. Most of the Center-West has 1,500 to 2,000 millimeters (60–79 in) of rain per year, with a pronounced dry season in the middle of the year, while the South and most of the year without a distinct dry season. Climate Map of Brazil. Geographic regions 1 • Central-West 2 • Northeast 3 • North 4 • Southeast 5 • Southern The Brazilian states. Brazil's twenty-six states and the Federal District (Distrito Federal) are divided conventionally into five regions: North (Norte), Northeast (Nordeste), Southeast (Sudeste), South (Sul), and Center-West (Centro-Oeste) - see fig. 4. In 1996 there were 5,581 municipalities (municípios), which have municipal governments. Many municipalities, which are comparable to United States counties, are in turn divided into districts (distritos), which do not have political or administrative autonomy. In 1995 there were 9,274 districts. All municipal and district seats, regardless of size, are considered officially to be urban. For purely statistical purposes, the municipalities were grouped in 1990 into 559 micro-regions, which in turn constituted 136 meso-regions. This grouping modified the previous micro-regional division established in 1968, a division that was used to present census data for 1970, 1975, 1980, and 1985. Each of the five major regions has a distinct ecosystem. Administrative boundaries do not necessarily coincide with ecological boundaries, however. In addition to differences in physical environment, patterns of economic activity and population settlement vary widely among the regions. The principal ecological characteristics of each of the five major regions, as well as their principal socioeconomic and demographic features, are summarized below. Center-west The Center-West consists of the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul (separated from Mato Grosso in 1979), as well as the Federal District, site of Brasília, the national capital. Until 1988 Goiás State included the area that then became the state of Tocantins in the North. The Center-West has and covers 18.9% of the national territory. Its main biome is the cerrado, the tropical savanna in which natural grassland is partly covered with twisted shrubs and small trees. The cerrado was used for low-density cattle-raising in the past but is now also used for soybean production. There are gallery forests along the rivers and streams and some larger areas of forest, most of which have been cleared for farming and livestock. In the north, the cerrado blends into tropical forest. It also includes the Pantanal wetlands in the west, known for their wildlife, especially aquatic birds and caymans. In the early 1980s, 33.6% of the region had been altered by anthropic activities, with a low of 9.3% in Mato Grosso and a high of 72.9% in Goiás (not including Tocantins). In 1996 the Center-West region had 10.2 million inhabitants, or 6% of Brazil's total population. The average density is low, with concentrations in and around the cities of Brasília, Goiânia, Campo Grande, and Cuiabá. Living standards are below the national average. In 1994 they were highest in the Federal District, with per capita income of US$7,089 (the highest in the nation), and lowest in Mato Grosso, with US$2,268. Northeast The nine states that make up the Northeast are Alagoas, Bahia, Ceará, Maranhão, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Piauí, Rio Grande do Norte, and Sergipe. The former federal territory of Fernando de Noronha was The Northeast, with , covers 18.3% of the national terrest concentration of rural population, and its living standards are the lowest in Brazil. In 1994 Piauí had the lowest per capita income in the region and the country, only US$835, while Sergipe had the highest average income in the region, with US$1,958. North The equatorial North, also known as the Amazon or Amazônia, includes, from west to east, the states of Rondônia, Acre, Amazonas, Roraima, Pará, Amapá, and, as of 1988, Tocantins (created from the northern part of Goiás State, which is situated in the Center-West). Rondônia, previously a federal territory, became a state in 1986. The former federal territories of Roraima and Amapá were raised to statehood in 1988. With , the North is the country's largest region, covering 45.3% of the national territory. The region's principal biome is the humid tropical forest, also known as the rain forest, home to some of the planet's richest biological diversity. The North has served as a source of forest products ranging from "backlands drugs" (such as sarsaparilla, cocoa, cinnamon, and turtle butter) in the colonial period to rubber and Brazil nuts in more recent times. In the mid-twentieth century, nonforest products from mining, farming, and livestock-raising became more important, and in the 1980s the lumber industry boomed. In 1990, 6.6% of the region's territory was considered altered by anthropic (man-made) action, with state levels varying from 0.9% in Amapá to 14.0% in Rondônia. In 1996 the North had 11.1 million inhabitants, only 7% of the national total. However, its share of Brazil's total had grown rapidly in the 1970s and early 1980s as a result of interregional migration, as well as high rates of natural increase. The largest population concentrations are in eastern Pará State and in Rondônia. The major cities are Belém and Santarém in Pará, and Manaus in Amazonas. Living standards are below the national average. The highest per capita income, US$2,888, in the region in 1994, was in Amazonas, while the lowest, US$901, was in Tocantins. Southeast The Southeast consists of the four states of Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. Its total area of corresponds to 10.9% of the national territory. The region has the largest share of the country's population, 63 million in 1991, or 39% of the national total, primarily as a result of internal migration since the mid-nineteenth century until the 1980s. In addition to a dense urban network, it contains the megacities of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, which in 1991 had 18.7 million and 11.7 million inhabitants in their metropolitan areas, respectively. The region combines the highest living standards in Brazil with pockets of urban poverty. In 1994 São Paulo boasted an average income of US$4,666, while Minas Gerais reported only US$2,833. Originally, the principal biome in the Southeast was the Atlantic Forest, but by 1990 less than 10% of the original forest cover remained as a result of clearing for farming, ranching, and charcoal making. Anthropic activity had altered 79.5% of the region, ranging from 75% in Minas Gerais to 91.1% in Espírito Santo. The region has most of Brazil's industrial production. The state of São Paulo alone accounts for half of the country's industries. Agriculture, also very strong, has diversified and now uses modern technology. South The three states in the temperate South: Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina--cover , or 6.8% of the national territory. The population of the South in 1991 was 23.1 million, or 14% of the country's total. The region is almost as densely settled as the Southeast, but the population is more concentrated along the coast. The major cities are Curitiba and Porto Alegre. The inhabitants of the South enjoy relatively high living standards. Because of its industry and agriculture, Paraná had the highest average income in 1994, US$3,674, while Santa Catarina, a land of small farmers and small industries, had slightly less, US$3,405. In addition to the Atlantic Forest and Araucaria moist forests, much of which were cleared in the post-World War II period, the southernmost portion of Brazil contains the Uruguayan savanna, which extends into Argentina and Uruguay. In 1982, 83.5% of the region had been altered by anthropic activity, with the highest level (89.7%) in Rio Grande do Sul, and the lowest (66.7%) in Santa Catarina. Agriculture--much of which, such as rice production, is carried out by small farmers--has high levels of productivity. There are also some important industries. Environmental issues The environmental problem that attracted most international attention in Brazil in the 1980s was undoubtedly deforestation in the Amazon. Of all Latin American countries, Brazil still has the largest portion (66%) of its territory covered by forests, but clearing and burning in the Amazon proceeded at alarming rates in the 1970s and 1980s. Most of the clearing resulted from the activities of ranchers, including large corporate operations, and a smaller portion resulted from slash and burn techniques used by small farmers. Technical changes involved in the transition from horizontal expansion of agriculture to increasing productivity also accounted for decreasing rates of deforestation. Desertification, another important environmental problem in Brazil, only received international attention following the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. Desertification means that the soils and vegetation of drylands are severely degraded, not necessarily that land turns into desert. In the early 1990s, it became evident that the semiarid caatinga ecosystem of the Northeast was losing its natural vegetation through clearing and that the zone was therefore running the risk of becoming even more arid, as was occurring also in some other regions. In areas where agriculture is more intense and developed, there are serious problems of soil erosion, siltation and sedimentation of streams and rivers, and pollution with pesticides. In parts of the savannas, where irrigated soybean production expanded in the 1980s, the water table has been affected. Expansion of pastures for cattle raising has reduced natural biodiversity in the savannas. Swine effluents constitute a serious environmental problem in Santa Catarina in the South. In urban areas, at least in the largest cities, levels of air pollution and congestion are typical of, or worse than, those found in cities in developed countries. At the same time, however, basic environmental problems related to the lack of sanitation, which developed countries solved long ago, persist in Brazil. These problems are sometimes worse in middle-sized and small cities than in large cities, which have more resources to deal with them. Environmental problems of cities and towns finally began to receive greater attention by society and the government in the 1990s. According to many critics, the economic crisis in the 1980s worsened environmental degradation in Brazil because it led to overexploitation of natural resources, stimulated settlement in fragile lands in both rural and urban areas, and weakened environmental protection. At the same time, however, the lower level of economic activity may have reduced pressure on the environment, such as the aforementioned decreased level of investment in large-scale clearing in the Amazon. That pressure could increase if economic growth accelerates, especially if consumption patterns remain unchanged and more sustainable forms of production are not found. In Brazil public policies regarding the environment are generally advanced, although their implementation and the enforcement of environmental laws have been far from ideal. Laws regarding forests, water, and wildlife have been in effect since the 1930s. Brazil achieved significant institutional advances in environmental policy design and implementation after the Stockholm Conference on the Environment in 1972. Specialized environmental agencies were organized at the federal level and in some states, and many national parks and reserves were established. By 1992 Brazil had established thirty-four national parks and fifty-six biological reserves. In 1981 the National Environment Policy was defined, and the National System for the Environment (Sistema Nacional do Meio Ambiente--Sisnama) was created, with the National Environmental Council (Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente--Conama) at its apex, municipal councils at its base, and state-level councils in between. In addition to government authorities, all of these councils include representatives of civil society. The 1988 constitution incorporates environmental precepts that are advanced compared with those of most other countries. At that time, the Chamber of Deputies (Câmara dos Deputados) established its permanent Commission for Defense of the Consumer, the Environment, and Minorities. In 1989 the creation of the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis--Ibama) joined together the federal environment secretariat and the federal agencies specializing in forestry, rubber, and fisheries. In 1990 the administration of Fernando Collor de Mello (president, 1990-92) appointed the well-known environmentalist José Lutzemberger as secretary of the environment and took firm positions on the environment and on Indian lands. In 1992 Brazil played a key role at the Earth Summit, not only as its host but also as negotiator on sustainable development agreements, including the conventions on climate and biodiversity. The Ministry of Environment was created in late 1992, after President Collor had left office. In August 1993, it became the Ministry of Environment and the Legal Amazon and took a more pragmatic approach than had the combative Lutzemberger. However, because of turnover in its leadership, a poorly defined mandate, and lack of funds, its role and impact were limited. In 1995 its mandate and name were expanded to include water resources--the Ministry of Environment, Hydraulic Resources, and the Legal Amazon--it began a process of restructuring to meet its mandate of "shared management of the sustainable use of natural resources." In 1997 the Commission on Policies for Sustainable Development and Agenda 21 began to function under the aegis of the Civil Household. One of its main tasks was to prepare Agenda 21 (a plan for the twenty-first century) for Brazil and to stimulate preparation of state and local agendas. Institutional development at the official level was accompanied and in part stimulated by the growth, wide diffusion, and growing professional development of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) dedicated to environmental and socio-environmental causes. The hundreds of NGOs throughout Brazil produce documents containing both useful information and passionate criticisms. Among the Brazilian environmental NGOs, the most visible are SOS Atlantic Forest (SOS Mata Atlântica), the Social-Environmental Institute (Instituto Sócio-Ambiental--ISA), the Pro-Nature Foundation (Fundação Pró-Natureza--Funatura), and the Amazon Working Group (Grupo de Trabalho Amazônico--GTA). The Brazilian Forum of NGOs and Social Movements for the Environment and Development and the Brazilian Association of Nongovernmental Organizations (Associacão Brasileira de Organizações Não-Governamentais--ABONG) are national networks, and there are various regional and thematic networks as well. The main international environmental NGOs that have offices or affiliates in Brazil are the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Conservation International (CI), and Nature Conservancy. Especially after the events of the late 1980s, international organizations and developed countries have allocated significant resources for the environmental sector in Brazil. In 1992 environmental projects worth about US$6.8 million were identified, with US$2.6 in counterpart funds (funds provided by the Brazilian government). More than 70% of the total value was for sanitation, urban pollution control, and other urban environmental projects. Thus, the allocation of resources did not accord with the common belief that funding was influenced unduly by alarmist views on deforestation in the Amazon. Among the specific environmental projects with international support, the most important was the National Environmental Plan (Plano Nacional do Meio Ambiente--PNMA), which received a US$117 million loan from the World Bank. The National Environmental Fund (Fundo Nacional do Meio Ambiente--FNMA), in addition to budgetary funds, received US$20 million from the Inter-American Development Bank to finance the environmental activities of NGOs and small municipal governments. The Pilot Program for the Conservation of the Brazilian Rain Forests (Programa Piloto para a Proteção das Florestas Tropicais do Brasil--PPG-7) was supported by the world's seven richest countries (the so-called G-7) and the European Community, which allocated US$258 million for projects in the Amazon and Atlantic Forest regions. The Global Environment Facility (GEF), created in 1990, set aside US$30 million for Brazil, part of which is managed by a national fund called Funbio. GEF also established a small grants program for NGOs, which focused on the cerrado during its pilot phase. The World Bank also made loans for environmental and natural resource management in Rondônia and Mato Grosso, in part to correct environmental and social problems that had been created by the World Bank-funded development of the northwest corridor in the 1980s. Despite favorable laws, promising institutional arrangements, and external funding, the government has not, on the whole, been effective in controlling damage to the environment. This failure is only in small measure because of the opposition of anti-environmental groups. In greater part, it can be attributed to the traditional separation between official rhetoric and actual practice in Brazil. It is also related to general problems of governance, fiscal crisis, and lingering doubts about appropriate tradeoffs between the environment and development. Some of the most effective governmental action in the environmental area has occurred at the state and local levels in the most developed states and has involved NGOs. In 1994 the PNMA began to stress decentralization and strengthening of state environmental agencies, a tendency that subsequently gained momentum. Environment - current issues: deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities note: President Cardoso in September 1999 signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines pollution and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none 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3,525 | New_Orleans_Saints | The New Orleans Saints are a professional American football team based in New Orleans, Louisiana. The Saints play in the South Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Saints were founded in 1967, as an expansion team. They went more than a decade before they managed to finish a season with a .500 record and two decades before having a winning season. The team's first successful years were from 1987–1992, when the team made the playoffs four times and had winning records in the non-playoff seasons. In the 2000 season, the Saints defeated the then-defending Super Bowl champion St. Louis Rams for the team's first playoff win. The Saints' home stadium is the Louisiana Superdome. The team has played its home games in the "dome" since 1975. Louisiana Superdome history site (accessed 2009 April 21) From 1967 to 1974 inclusive the Saints played at Tulane Saints. However, due to damage caused by Hurricane Katrina to the New Orleans area, the Saints' 2005 home opener was played at Giants Stadium against the New York Giants. The remainder of their 2005 home games were split between the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas, and LSU's Tiger Stadium in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. After a $185 million renovation of the historic stadium, the team returned to the Superdome for the 2006 season. The team played its 2006 home opener in front of a sold-out crowd and national television audience on September 25, 2006, defeating its NFC South rival, the Atlanta Falcons by a score of 23–3. The victory received a 2007 ESPY award for "Best Moment in Sports." New Orleans is one of five NFL teams that have yet to play in a Super Bowl. The club reached the NFC Championship Game in 2006, which they lost to the Chicago Bears 39-14. The Saints will conduct summer training camp at their practice facility in Metairie, La History Early history For more information, see History of the New Orleans Saints The brainchild of local sports entrepreneur David Dixon, who also founded the Louisiana Superdome and USFL, the Saints were actually secretly born in a backroom deal brought about by Congressman Hale Boggs and NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle. The NFL needed congressional approval of the proposed AFL-NFL merger. To seal the deal, Rozelle arrived in New Orleans within a week, and announced on, coincidentally, All Saints' Day -- November 1, 1966—that the NFL officially had awarded the city of New Orleans an NFL franchise; Boggs' Congressional committee in turn quickly approved the NFL merger. The team was named for the world-famous jazz anthem, "When the Saints Go Marching In," . John W. Mecom, Jr., a young oilman from Houston, became the team's first majority stockholder. The team's colors, black and gold, symbolized both Mecom's and New Orleans' strong ties to the oil ("black gold") industry. Trumpeter Al Hirt was part owner of the team, and his rendition of "When the Saints Go Marching In" was made the official fight song. That first season started with a 94 yard opening kickoff return for a touchdown by John Gilliam, but the Saints lost that game 27–13 to the Los Angeles Rams at Tulane Stadium. Their first season record was 3–11, which set an NFL record for most wins by an expansion team. However, they could not manage to finish as high as second in their division until 1979. That 1979 team and the 1983 team were the only ones to even finish at .500 until 1987. One of the franchise's shining moments came on November 8, 1970, when Tom Dempsey kicked an NFL record-breaking 63-yard field goal to defeat the Detroit Lions by a score of 19-17 in the final seconds of the game. This record, although equaled 29 years later by Jason Elam of the Denver Broncos, has yet to be broken. In 1980, the Saints lost their first 14 games, prompting local media personality Bernard "Buddy D" Diliberto to advise Saints supporters to wear paper bags over their heads at the team's home games; many bags rendered the club's name as the "'Aints" rather than the "Saints." The practice of wearing a bag over one's head then spread rapidly, first to fans of other poorly-performing teams within the NFL, and ultimately to those of other American team sports, and has become a firmly-established custom throughout the United States. After the end of the 1996 season, ironically as Diliberto had suggested before Mora's resignation, former Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka was hired to replace Mora. Although this initially generated a lot of excitement among Saints fans, Ditka's tenure ended up being a failure. The Saints went 6-10 in their first two seasons under Ditka (1997 and 1998). During the 1999 NFL Draft, Ditka traded all of his picks for that season, as well as the first-round and third-round picks for the following season, to the Washington Redskins in order to draft University of Texas Heisman Trophy running back Ricky Williams in the first round. Ditka and Williams had a mock wedding picture taken to commemorate the occasion. However, Ditka, most of his coaching staff, and general manager Bill Kuharich were fired at the end of the 1999 season due to the club's 3-13 record. Jim Haslett held the post from 2000 to 2005. In his first year, he took the team to the playoffs but lost to the Minnesota Vikings a week after beating the St. Louis Rams for the team's first ever playoff win. After winning the 2000 NFL Executive of the Year Award, General Manager Randy Mueller was fired between the 2001 and 2002 seasons without explanation by Benson. The Saints failed to make the playoffs in 2001 and 2002, although in the latter year they had the distinction of beating the eventual Super Bowl XXXVII champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers in both of their regular season meetings, only the second team to do so in NFL history (the 1995 Washington Redskins did so against the to be World Champion Dallas Cowboys). In 2003 the Saints again missed the playoffs after finishing 8-8. The 2004 season started poorly for the Saints, as they went 2-4 through their first six games and 4-8 through their first twelve games. At that point Haslett's job appeared to be in jeopardy; however, he managed to win the three straight games leading up to the season finale, leaving the Saints in playoff contention in the final week of the season. In week 17, the Saints defeated division rivals Carolina; however, the Saints needed other results to break their way and when the St. Louis Rams beat the New York Jets the Saints were eliminated despite having beaten the Rams, who finished with the same record. The Rams, Saints, and Vikings all were 8-8, with the Rams having a 7-5 conference record, Saints 6-6, and the Vikings 5-7, the Rams made the playoffs due to having the best conference record, and then they took the Vikings because of the head to head. Haslett was fired after the 2005 season, in which the Saints finished 3-13 and did not play one regular season contest in New Orleans due to Hurricane Katrina. On January 17, 2006, the Saints hired Sean Payton as their new head coach. On December 17, 2006, the Saints clinched their third division title in franchise history. For the first time in Saints' history, they clinched their NFC South title on their home field. Sean Payton became the second consecutive Saints coach to win a division title in his first season. After a loss by the Dallas Cowboys to the Philadelphia Eagles on Christmas Day 2006, the Saints clinched a first-round playoff bye for the first time in franchise history. Effect of Hurricane Katrina 2006: Homecoming and postseason On March 23, the Saints announced that the team's two 2006 preseason games were to be played at Shreveport, Louisiana and Jackson, Mississippi. On April 6 the Saints released their 2006 schedule, with all home games scheduled to be played at the Superdome. The home opener against the Atlanta Falcons was moved to September 25 and was shown on ESPN's Monday Night Football. On September 19, Saints owner Tom Benson announced that the team had sold out the Louisiana Superdome for the entire season with season tickets alone (70,001 seats), a first in franchise history. The September 25, 2006 home opener, the first home game in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, was won by the Saints 23-3 against the Atlanta Falcons, who were undefeated in the 2006 season at that time. The attendance for the game was a sellout crowd of 70,003. Meanwhile, the broadcast of the game was ESPN's highest-ever rated program to date, with an 11.8 rating, and viewership by 10,850,000 homes. It was the most-watched program for the night, broadcast or cable, and was the second-highest rated cable program of all time. U2 and Green Day performed "Wake Me Up When September Ends" and "The Saints Are Coming" before the game. After the first-round bye, the Saints beat the Philadelphia Eagles 27-24 in the Superdome in the 2006 Divisional Playoffs. No team had ever had such a poor record in the prior year and then went on to a league or conference championship game. Since the Saints' only other playoff win was in the wild card round, this is the farthest the Saints have ever advanced. The victory was only the second playoff win in team history. The season ended on January 21, 2007 when the Saints lost 39–14 to the Chicago Bears in the NFC Championship Game. 2007-Present The Saints announced that for the second year in a row, the Louisiana Superdome had sold out every ticket for the season. saintsdoggle: UPDATE: Saints sell out suites for 2007 season; Season ticket wait list 25,000 deep; San Antonio finally giving up? Additionally, all luxury boxes had been sold out for the season. Both of these statistics are particularly surprising given that the city-proper has about 300,000 people or 150,000 fewer people than July 2005 population data (though the metro area still accounts for 1.2 million people).. The first game of the season was against the defending Super Bowl XLI champion Indianapolis Colts. The Saints lost this game, 41–10, and lost their next three games. In one of these three games, against the Tennessee Titans, the Saints lost running back Deuce McAllister for the season with his second career (second time in three seasons) ACL tear. After winning their first game, against the Seattle Seahawks, two weeks later, the team went on a four-game winning streak to bring their record to an even 4–4. After reaching 7–7, the Saints lost their final two games to finish 7–9. The Saints made a move with the Super Bowl XLII champion New York Giants. They acquired Jeremy Shockey from them for second and fifth round draft picks in the 2009 NFL Draft. They also acquired linebacker Jonathan Vilma from the New York Jets, in exchange for a conditional 2009 4th round draft pick. in the 2009 NFL entry draft the saint selected Malcolm Jenkins with the 14th overall pick. Jenkins is a CB from Ohio state university. Logos and uniforms Logo (2000-present) New Orleans Saints uniform combination New Orleans Saints alternate uniform: 2002 season Except for minor modifications, the Saints' logo and uniforms have basically remained the same since the club debuted in 1967. The team's logo is a fleur-de-lis, while its uniform design consists of gold helmets, gold pants, and either black or white jerseys. Minor changes to the uniform stripes and trim have been made throughout the years. The team wore black helmets during the 1969 preseason, but NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle barred the Saints from using the helmets during the regular season, since owner John Mecom, Jr. did not notify the league office of the change. The Saints predominantly wore white at home when the club played at Tulane Stadium from 1967 through 1974 (except in 1969 and 1970), forcing opponents to wear dark colors in the subtropical climate of New Orleans. When the surface at Tulane Stadium switched from natural grass to AstroTurf in 1971, field temperatures became hotter still. In Archie Manning's first game, in the 1971 season opener against the Los Angeles Rams, temperatures on the field reached as high as 130 degrees. The heavily favored Rams wilted in the stifling heat, and the Saints claimed their first-ever victory over their NFC West rivals, 24-20, on Manning's 1-yard quarterback sneak on the last play of the game. The Saints switched to white pants in 1975, coinciding with the team's move from Tulane Stadium to the Superdome. One year later, they started to wear black pants with their white jerseys, a move influenced by coach Hank Stram, who introduced red pants to the Kansas City Chiefs' uniforms in 1968. In an October 3, 1976 home game against the Houston Oilers, Hank Stram used the Saints' road uniforms, the white jerseys and black pants. The Saints lost that game 31–26. During the 1981–82 seasons (Bum Phillips' first two seasons as coach), the team wore white jerseys with black pants at home, but reverted back to the black jerseys and white pants for 1983. They reverted back to wearing gold pants with both their black and white jerseys in 1986 under new coach Jim E. Mora. From 1986 through 1995, the sleeves of the jerseys and sides of the pants featured a logo with a fleur-de-lis inside an outline of the state of Louisiana. The logo replaced the striping pattern that had been on the uniforms since the team's inception; save for color variations, the striping pattern was similar to that used by the Washington Redskins (until 1979), Green Bay Packers (until 1997), and Cleveland Browns (still in use ), which is likely why the change was made. That logo was removed in 1996 and replaced with a fleur-de-lis on both the sleeves and sides of the pants. From 1996 through 1998, the Saints returned to gold numbers on both the white and black jerseys, but complaints about the numbers on the white jerseys being too difficult to read forced the numbers on the white jerseys to be changed to black in 1999. The Saints wore black pants with a wide gold stripe with their white jerseys in 1999, but following a 3-13 season and the dismissal of coach Mike Ditka, the black pants were mothballed by new coach Jim Haslett. In 2000, the Saints won their first playoff game as they hosted the St. Louis Rams and after having a better road record than home record, they wore their white jerseys, helping them get a 31-28 win over the defending champion Rams. The defining play of the game came with the Saints clinging to a three-point lead with minutes to play. The Saints punted to the Rams' Az-Zahir Hakim (who would play one season for the Saints in 2005), who fumbled the punt deep in Rams' territory. Brian Milne recovered for the Saints, who then ran out the clock to preserve the victory. In 2001, they wore their white jerseys in the first six home games. During that same year, they primarily wore black pants with both their white and black jerseys. They became the first NFL team to wear all-black uniforms in a week 5 road game against the Carolina Panthers, and again in weeks 16 and 17 in home games against the Washington Redskins and San Francisco 49ers. (It is notable that the all-black outfit made a comeback on December 3, 2006 in a 34-10 victory over the 49ers. The team used it the week after against the Dallas Cowboys on December 10, 2006 in a 42-17 victory.) In 2002, the Saints wore black pants with their white jerseys (except for the final road game, a 20-13 loss in Cincinnati when they went back to the gold pants), and gold pants with their black jerseys, a gold alternate jersey, and a 1967-style throwback uniform. But one season later, they stopped using the alternates and again reverted back to wearing gold pants with both their black and white jerseys. The team introduced a gold alternate jersey (worn with the black pants) during a December 15, 2002 game versus the Minnesota Vikings, a 32-31 loss, but have never worn them since then. Because of the metallic gold's bright color, the gold jerseys were considered the "light" jersey in the game, so the Vikings wore their purple home jerseys as the "dark" colored team. One team must wear "dark" and one team must wear "light". Today only the New England Patriots have a "light" jersey (their alternate, a bright metallic silver) that isn't white in which the other team would wear their colored, or "dark" jerseys against them since the third jersey rule was implemented in the NFL in 2002. The Saints also introduced a 1967-style throwback uniform in a 23-20 win in week 13 (December 1) against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. This also was never worn again but re-introduction of the jerseys in stores suggests they may make a comeback as the Saints' alternate uniform this season. In 2006, to honor their return to Louisiana, the Saints wore a patch on their uniforms with an outline of the State of Louisiana with a fleur-de-lis superimposed, similar to the logo from the 1980s. The Saints originally planned to wear white jerseys at home for the 2006 season, but during the season, the players voted to wear the black jerseys at home. Since the team had informed the NFL office that they planned to wear white jerseys at home, each of the Saints' remaining home opponents would have to agree to New Orleans' request. The Atlanta Falcons, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and Cincinnati Bengals did not agree to the switch, forcing the Saints to wear white for those games. Starting in week 13 of the 2006 season, the Saints wore white jerseys with black pants and in a Week 16 game in The Meadowlands against the New York Giants (a 30-7 Saints win), the Saints wore the black pants with their road white jerseys. The Saints have worn white jerseys for their first four home games of 2008, but chose to wear the all-black combination for the October 26 game at Wembley Stadium in London vs. the San Diego Chargers, in which New Orleans was the designated home team. The Saints have since worn their all-black combo for all home games since returning from London. Statistics Season-by-season records Record vs. Opponents (As of Week 17 of the 2008 NFL season. Includes postseason records.) |- | Tampa Bay Buccaneers || 20 || 14 || 0 || .588 || L 23-20 || November 30, 2008 || Tampa || |- | Kansas City Chiefs || 5 || 4 || 0 || .555 || W 30-20 || November 16, 2008 || Kansas City || |- | Detroit Lions || 9 || 9 || 1 || .500 || W 42-7 || December 21, 2008 || Detroit || |- | Los Angeles/Oakland Raiders || 5 || 5 || 1 || .500 || W 34-3 || October 12, 2008 || New Orleans || |- | New York Jets || 5 || 5 || 0 || .500 || W 21-19 || November 27, 2005 || East Rutherford || |- | Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts || 5 || 5 || 0 || .500 || L 41-10 || September 6, 2007 || Indianapolis || |- | Seattle Seahawks || 5 || 5 || 0 || .500 || W 28-17 || October 14, 2007 || Seattle || |- | Buffalo Bills || 4 || 4 || 0 || .500 || W 19-7 || October 2, 2005 || *San Antonio || |- | Jacksonville Jaguars || 2 || 2 || 0 || .500 || W 41-24 || November 4, 2007 || New Orleans || |- | Houston Texans || 1 || 1 || 0 || .500 || L 23-10 || November 18, 2007 || Houston || |- | St. Louis/Phoenix/Arizona Cardinals || 12 || 13 || 0 || .480 || W 31-24 || December 16, 2007 || New Orleans || |- | Pittsburgh Steelers || 6 || 7 || 0 || .462 || L 38-31 || November 12, 2006 || Pittsburgh || |- | Cincinnati Bengals || 5 || 6 || 0 || .455 || L 31-16 || November 19, 2006 || New Orleans || |- | Los Angeles/St. Louis Rams || 30 || 38 || 0 || .441 || L 37-29 || November 11, 2007 || New Orleans || 1-0 postseason |- | Atlanta Falcons || 35 ||45 || 0 || .437 || W 29-25 || December 7, 2008 || New Orleans || 0-1 postseason |- | Carolina Panthers || 12 || 16 || 0 || .429 || L 33-31 || December 28, 2008 || New Orleans || |- | Chicago Bears || 11 || 15 || 0 || .423 || L 27-24 || December 11, 2008 || Chicago || 0-2 postseason |- | New York Giants || 10 || 14 || 0 || .417 || W 30-7 || December 24, 2006 || East Rutherford || |- | Philadelphia Eagles || 10 || 16 || 0 || .385 || L 38-23 || December 23, 2007 || New Orleans || 1-1 postseason |- | Houston Oilers/Tennessee Titans || 4 || 7 || 1 || .375 || L 31-14 || September 24, 2007 || New Orleans || |- | Dallas Cowboys || 8 || 14 || 0 || .364 || W 42-17 || December 10, 2006 || Irving || |- | San Francisco 49ers || 23 || 45 || 2 || .343 || W 31-17 || September 28, 2008 || New Orleans || |- | Green Bay Packers || 7 || 14 || 0 || .333 || W 51-29 || November 24, 2008 || New Orleans || |- | Miami Dolphins || 3 || 6 || 0 || .333 || L 21-6 || October 30, 2005 || *Baton Rouge || |- | Washington Redskins || 7 || 15 || 0 || .318 || L 29-24 || September 14, 2008 || Landover || |- | San Diego Chargers || 3 || 7 || 0 || .300 || W 37-32 || October 26, 2008 || **London, England || |- | New England Patriots || 3 || 8 || 0 || .273 || L 24-17 || November 20, 2005 || Foxboro || |- | Minnesota Vikings || 7 || 20 || 0 || .259 || L 30-27 || October 6, 2008 || New Orleans || 0-2 postseason |- | Cleveland Browns || 4 || 11 || 0 || .267 || W 19-14 || September 10, 2006 || Cleveland || |- | Baltimore Ravens || 1 || 3 || 0 || .250 || L 35-22 || October 29, 2006 || New Orleans || |- | Denver Broncos || 2 || 7 || 0 || .222 || L 34-32 || September 21, 2008 || Denver || |- | Total || 264 || 426 || 5 || .380 || || || || 2-6 .250 * - Saints home game, relocated due to Hurricane Katrina ** - the Saints were designated the home team for this game Single-Game Records Passing Yards: 510 Drew Brees (November 19, 2006 vs Cincinnati Bengals) Passing Touchdowns: 6 Billy Kilmer (November 2, 1969 at St. Louis Cardinals) Rushing Yards: 206 George Rogers (September 4, 1983 vs St. Louis Cardinals) Rushing Touchdowns: 3 multiple times, last Reggie Bush (December 3, 2006 vs San Francisco 49ers) Receiving Catches: 14 Tony Galbreath (September 10, 1978 at Green Bay Packers) Receiving Yards: 205 Wes Chandler (September 2, 1979 vs Atlanta Falcons) Receiving Touchdowns: 4 Joe Horn (December 14, 2003 vs New York Giants) Punt Return Yards:: 176 Reggie Bush (October 6, 2008 vs Minnesota Vikings) Pass Interceptions, Game: 3 many times, last Sammy Knight (September 9, 2001 at Buffalo Bills) Field Goals, Game: 6 Tom Dempsey (November 16, 1969 at New York Giants) Total Touchdowns, Game: 4 two times, last Reggie Bush (December 3, 2006 vs San Francisco 49ers) Points, Game: 51 three times, last November 24, 2008 vs Green Bay Packers Margin Of Victory: 42-0, November 20, 1988 vs Denver Broncos Single-season records Passing Attempts: 652 Drew Brees (2007) Passing Completions: 440 Drew Brees (2007) - NFL Record Passing Yards: 5,069 Drew Brees (2008) - only the 2nd QB in NFL history to have 5000+ passing yards in a season Passing Touchdowns: 34 Drew Brees (2008) Passing Interceptions: 22 Aaron Brooks (2001) Passing Rating: 96.2 Drew Brees (2006, 2008) Rushing Attempts: 378 George Rogers (1981) Rushing Yards: 1,674 George Rogers (1981) Rushing Touchdowns: 13 George Rogers (1981), Dalton Hilliard (1989), and Deuce McAllister (2002) Receiving Catches: 98 Marques Colston (2007) Receiving Yards: 1,399 Joe Horn (2004) Receiving Touchdowns: 11 Joe Horn (2004), Marques Colston (2007) Quarterback Sacks: 17 Pat Swilling (1991) and La'Roi Glover (2000) Pass Interceptions: 10 Dave Whitsell (1967) Field Goals Made: 31 Morten Andersen (1985) and John Carney (2002) Points: 130 John Carney (2002) Total Touchdowns: 18 Dalton Hilliard (1989) Punt Return Yards: 625 Michael Lewis (2002) Kickoff Return Yards: 1,807 Michael Lewis (2002) Longest Punt: 81 Tom McNeill (1969) Points Scored, Season: 463 (2008) Fewest Points Allowed: 202 (1992) Offensive Yards Gained: 6,571 (2008) Fewest Quarterback Sacks Allowed: 13 (2008) Saints career records Passing Attempts: 3,335 Archie Manning (1971-75, 77-82) Passing Completions: 1,849 Archie Manning (1971-75, 77-82) Passing Yards: 21,734 Archie Manning (1971-75, 77-82), 19,156 Aaron Brooks (2000-05), 14,630 Bobby Hebert (1985-89, 91-92) Passing Touchdowns: 120 Aaron Brooks (2000-2005), 115 Archie Manning (1971-75, 77-82), 88 Drew Brees (2006-08) Passing Interceptions: 156 Archie Manning (1971-1982) Rushing Attempts: 1,298 Deuce McAllister (2001-2008) Rushing Yards: 6,096 Deuce McAllister (2001-2008), 4,267 George Rogers (1981-84), 4,164 Dalton Hilliard (1986-93) Rushing Touchdowns: 49 Deuce McAllister (2001-2008), 39 Dalton Hilliard (1986-93), 28 Chuck Muncie (1976-80) Receiving Catches: 532 Eric Martin (1985-1993), 523 Joe Horn (2000-06), 309 Danny Abramowicz (1967-73) Receiving Yards: 7,844 Eric Martin (1985-1993), 7,622 Joe Horn (2000-06), 4,875 Danny Abramowicz (1967-73) Receiving Touchdowns: 50 Joe Horn (2000-2006), 49 Eric Martin (1985-93), 37 Danny Abramowicz (1967-73) Quarterback Sacks: 123 Rickey Jackson (1981-1993), 82.5 Wayne Martin (1989-99), 76.5 Pat Swilling (1986-92) Pass Interceptions: 37 Dave Waymer (1980-1989), 36 Tommy Myers (1972-81), 28 Sammy Knight (1997-2002) Field Goals Made: 302 Morten Andersen (1982-1994), 140 John Carney (2001-06), 123 Doug Brien (1995-2000) Extra Points Made: 412 Morten Andersen (1982-1994) Points: 1,318 Morten Andersen (1982-1994), 631 John Carney (2001-06), 514 Doug Brien (1995-2000) Total Touchdowns: 55 Deuce McAllister (2001-2008), 53 Dalton Hilliard (1986-1993), 50 Joe Horn (2000-06) Punt Return Yards: 1,482 Michael Lewis (2001-06), 1,060 Tyrone Hughes (1993-96), 887 Jeff Groth (1981-85) Kickoff Return Yards: 5,903 Michael Lewis (2001-06), 5,717 Tyrone Hughes (1993-96), 2,836 Rich Mauti (1977-80, 82-83) Games: 196 Morten Andersen (1982-1994) Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers Doug Atkins DE 1967–1969 Earl Campbell RB 1984–1985 Jim Finks GM 1986–1993 Hank Stram Coach 1976–1977 Jim Taylor FB 1967 Mike Ditka Coach 1997–1999 (inducted for playing career with Chicago Bears and other teams, 1961-72) Pro Football Hall of Fame page for Mike Ditka. Tom Fears Coach 1967–1970 (inducted for playing career, 1948-1956) It should be noted that with the exception of Jim Finks, whose tenure with the Saints contributed to his induction, there are no members of the HOF who are there for their time with the team. All are in for their work with previous teams. Retired numbers 31 Jim Taylor (officially retired, but is assigned to active players) 81 Doug Atkins (officially retired, but is assigned to active players) The number 8 has not been officially retired, but has not been issued to any Saints player since Archie Manning was traded to the Houston Oilers in September 1982. New Orleans Saints Hall of Fame The Saints Hall of Fame is a non-profit organization created by and for fans of the team to protect, preserve, promote and present the history of the franchise. The Saints Hall of Fame is located at 415 Williams Boulevard in the Rivertown section of Kenner. Open from 9 am-5 pm Tuesday through Saturday, the Hall of Fame features exhibits and memorabilia covering the entire history of the Saints from their formation through the current season. Due to building damage received during Hurricane Katrina the Hall of Fame is temporarily located at Gate B in the New Orleans Superdome and can be visited for free at every Saints home game. Fans can view videotapes on Saints history and the Saints Hall of Famers as well participate in interactive exhibits throughout the Hall. The facility, which originally opened on July 16, 1988, was expanded to twice its' original size in January 2004. Busts and paintings of each of the inductees along with their career highlights are one of the focal points of the museum, which is dedicated to preserving the history of the Saints franchise. New Orleans and Green Bay are the only two NFL franchises with a team Hall of Fame facility. New Orleans Saints - Saints Hall of Fame Info 1988 QB Archie Manning, WR Danny Abramowicz 1989 S Tommy Myers, K Tom Dempsey 1990 QB Billy Kilmer 1991 NT Derland Moore, RB Tony Galbreath 1992 RB George Rogers, G Jake Kupp, C John Hill 1993 LB Joe Federspiel 1994 GM Jim Finks, TE Henry Childs 1995 DE Bob Pollard, DE Doug Atkins 1996 CB Dave Whitsell, DB Dave Waymer 1997 LB Rickey Jackson, T Stan Brock 1998 RB Dalton Hilliard, LB Sam Mills 1999 QB Bobby Hebert, WR Eric Martin 2000 LB Vaughan Johnson, LB Pat Swilling 2001 TE Hoby Brenner, DE Jim Wilks 2002 Coach Jim Mora, DE Frank Warren 2003 DE Wayne Martin, G/T Jim Dombrowski 2004 RB Rueben Mayes, Assistant Coach Steve Sidwell 2005-2006 C Joel Hilgenberg (2005 induction ceremonies postponed to October 27, 2006 due to Hurricane Katrina) 2007 DE Joe Johnson 2008 OT Willie Roaf Joe Gemelli "Fleur-De-Lis" Award (Awarded yearly to a person who has contributed to the betterment of the New Orleans Saints organization. 1989: Al Hirt 1990: Joe Gemelli 1991: Dave Dixon 1992: Charlie Kertz 1993: Wayne Mack 1994: Erby Aucoin 1995: Aaron Broussard 1996: Marie Knutson 1997: Angela Hill 1998: Joe Impastato 1999: Frank Wilson 2000: Bob Remy 2001: Peter "Champ" Clark 2002: Dean Kleinschmidt 2003: Jim Fast 2004: Bob Roesler 2005-06: Bernard "Buddy" Diliberto (2005 induction ceremonies postponed to October 27, 2006 due to Hurricane Katrina)* Notable coaches Current staff Radio and television The Saints' flagship station is WWL 870AM (FM Simulcast on WWL 105.3FM), one of the oldest radio stations in the city of New Orleans and one of the nation's most powerful as a clear-channel station with 50,000 watts of power. Jim Henderson and Hokie Gajan form the broadcast team. Most preseason games are televised on Cox Sports Television and WVUE-TV. Tim Brando and Solomon Wilcots call the preseason action. References External links New Orleans Saints official web site New Orleans Saints History | New_Orleans_Saints |@lemmatized new:50 orleans:36 saint:98 professional:1 american:2 football:6 team:48 base:1 louisiana:11 play:16 south:3 division:5 national:3 conference:4 nfc:6 league:3 nfl:24 found:2 expansion:2 go:8 decade:2 manage:3 finish:7 season:50 record:21 two:8 winning:2 first:30 successful:1 year:10 make:12 playoff:14 four:3 time:11 non:2 defeat:4 defend:3 super:5 bowl:5 champion:6 st:8 louis:8 ram:15 win:15 home:29 stadium:9 superdome:10 game:52 dome:1 since:11 history:16 site:2 accessed:1 april:2 inclusive:1 tulane:5 however:5 due:8 damage:2 cause:1 hurricane:8 katrina:8 area:2 opener:5 giant:7 york:9 remainder:1 split:1 alamodome:1 san:9 antonio:3 texas:2 lsu:1 tiger:1 baton:2 rouge:2 million:2 renovation:1 historic:1 return:10 front:1 sell:5 crowd:2 television:3 audience:1 september:16 rival:3 atlanta:6 falcon:6 score:3 victory:7 receive:9 espy:1 award:5 best:2 moment:2 sport:4 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3,526 | Industry | An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent, industrious") is the manufacturing of a good or service within a category. Although industry is a broad term for any kind of economic production, in economics and urban planning industry is a synonym for the secondary sector, which is a type of economic activity involved in the manufacturing of raw materials into goods and products. There are four key industrial economic sectors: the primary sector, largely raw material extraction industries such as mining and farming; the secondary sector, involving refining, construction, and manufacturing; the tertiary sector, which deals with services (such as law and medicine) and distribution of manufactured goods; and the quaternary sector, a relatively new type of knowledge industry focusing on technological research, design and development such as computer programming, and biochemistry. A fifth quinary sector has been proposed encompassing nonprofit activities. The economy is also broadly separated into public sector and private sector, with industry generally categorized as private. Industries are also any business or manufacturing. Industry in the sense of manufacturing became a key sector of production and labour in European and North American countries during the Industrial Revolution, which upset previous mercantile and feudal economies through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the steel and coal production. It is aided by technological advances, and has continued to develop into new types and sectors to this day. Industrial countries then assumed a capitalist economic policy. Railroads and steam-powered ships began speedily establishing links with previously unreachable world markets, enabling private companies to develop to then-unheard of size and wealth. Following the Industrial Revolution, perhaps a third of the world's economic output is derived from manufacturing industries—more than agriculture's share. Many developed countries (for example the UK, the U.S., and Canada) and many developing/semi-developed countries (People's Republic of China, India etc.) depend significantly on industry. Industries, the countries they reside in, and the economies of those countries are interlinked in a complex web of interdependence. History Proto-industry Early industries involved manufacturing goods for trade. In medieval Europe, industry became dominated by the guilds in cities and towns, who mutual support for the member's interests, and maintained standards of workmanship and ethical conduct. Industrial development The industrial revolution led to the development of factories for large-scale production, with consequent changes in society. Originally the factories were steam-powered, but later transitioned to electricity once an electrical grid was developed. The mechanized assembly line was introduced to assemble parts in a repeatable fashion, with individual workers performing specific steps during the process. This led to significant increases in efficiency, lowering the cost of the end process. Later automation was increasingly used to replace human operators. This process has accelerated with the development of the computer and the robot. Declining industries Historically certain manufacturing industries have gone into a decline due to various economic factors, including the development of replacement technology or the loss of competitive advantage. An example of the former is the decline in carriage manufacturing when the automobile was mass-produced. A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, industrialized nations toward a post-industrial society. This is manifested by an increase in the service sector at the expense of manufacturing, and the development of an information-based economy, the so-called informational revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturing is relocated to more economically-favorable locations through a process of offshoring. Industrial technology There are several branches of technology and engineering specialised for industrial application. This includes mathematical models, patented inventions and craft skills. See automation, industrial architecture, industrial design, industrial process, industrial arts and industrial applicability. Industry and society An industrial society can be defined in many ways. Today, industry is an important part of most societies and nations. A government must have some kind of industrial policy, regulating industrial placement, industrial pollution, financing and industrial labor. Industrial labor In an industrial society, industry employs a major part of the population. This occurs typically in the manufacturing sector. A labor union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages, hours, and working conditions, forming a cartel of labor. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members (rank and members) and negotiates labor contracts with employers. This movement first rose among industrial workers. Industry and war The industrial revolution changed warfare, with mass-produced weaponry and supplies, machine-powered transportation, mobilization, the total war concept and weapons of mass destruction. Early instances of industrial warfare were the Crimean War and the American Civil War, but its full potential showed during the world wars. See also military-industrial complex, arms industry, military industry and modern warfare. Industry and the environment Organization, management, and economics Economic views of industry Philosophers and economists have developed many different views of industry. See physiocrats, Adam Smith, capitalism, Marxism and Colin Clark's Sector model. Industry sectors and classification There are many other different kinds of industries, and they are usually divided into different classes or sectors. The primary sector of industry is agriculture, mining and raw material extraction. The secondary sector of industry is manufacturing - which is what is colloquially meant by the word "industry". The tertiary sector of industry is service production. Sometimes one talks about a quaternary sector of industry, consisting of intellectual services such as R&D. By product: chemical industry, petroleum industry, meatpacking industry, hospitality industry, food industry, fish industry, software industry, paper industry, entertainment industry, semiconductor industry, cultural industry, poverty industry labor-intensive industry - capital-intensive industry light industry - heavy industry ISIC ISIC (rev.4) stands for International Standard Industrial Classification of all economic activities, the most complete and systematic industrial classification made by United Nations Statistics Division. ISIC Rev.4 is a standard classification of economic activities arranged so that entities can be classified according to the activity they carry out. The categories of ISIC at the most detailed level (classes) are delineated according to what is, in most countries, the customary combination of activities described in statistical units and considers the relative importance of the activities included in these classes. While ISIC Rev.4 continues to use criteria such as input, output and use of the products produced, more emphasis has been given to the character of the production process in defining and delineating ISIC classes. Yahoo!Finance Industry Center by Yahoo!Finance is also very useful (shows trends of all industrial sectors). See also North American Industry Classification System North American Product Classification System Standard Industrial Classification References be-x-old:Прамысловасьць | Industry |@lemmatized industry:50 latin:1 industrius:1 diligent:1 industrious:1 manufacturing:9 good:4 service:5 within:1 category:2 although:1 broad:1 term:1 kind:3 economic:9 production:6 economics:2 urban:1 planning:1 synonym:1 secondary:3 sector:21 type:3 activity:7 involve:3 raw:3 material:3 product:4 four:1 key:3 industrial:30 primary:2 largely:1 extraction:2 mining:2 farming:1 refining:1 construction:1 tertiary:2 deal:1 law:1 medicine:1 distribution:1 manufactured:1 quaternary:2 relatively:1 new:2 knowledge:1 focus:1 technological:2 research:1 design:2 development:6 computer:2 programming:1 biochemistry:1 fifth:1 quinary:1 propose:1 encompass:1 nonprofit:1 economy:4 also:5 broadly:1 separate:1 public:1 private:3 generally:1 categorize:1 business:1 sense:1 become:2 labour:1 european:1 north:3 american:4 country:7 revolution:5 upset:1 previous:1 mercantile:1 feudal:1 many:6 successive:1 rapid:1 advance:2 technology:4 steel:1 coal:1 aid:1 continue:2 develop:5 day:1 assume:1 capitalist:1 policy:2 railroad:1 steam:2 power:2 ship:1 begin:1 speedily:1 establish:1 link:1 previously:1 unreachable:1 world:3 market:1 enable:1 company:1 unheard:1 size:1 wealth:1 follow:1 perhaps:1 third:1 output:2 derive:1 manufacture:4 agriculture:2 share:1 developed:2 example:2 uk:1 u:1 canada:1 semi:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 india:1 etc:1 depend:1 significantly:1 reside:1 interlink:1 complex:2 web:1 interdependence:1 history:1 proto:1 early:2 trade:2 medieval:1 europe:1 dominate:1 guild:1 city:1 town:1 mutual:1 support:1 member:3 interest:1 maintain:1 standard:4 workmanship:1 ethical:1 conduct:1 lead:2 factory:2 large:1 scale:1 consequent:1 change:2 society:7 originally:1 later:1 transition:1 electricity:1 electrical:1 grid:1 mechanized:1 assembly:1 line:1 introduce:1 assemble:1 part:3 repeatable:1 fashion:1 individual:1 worker:3 perform:1 specific:1 step:1 process:6 significant:1 increase:2 efficiency:1 lower:1 cost:1 end:1 late:1 automation:2 increasingly:1 use:3 replace:1 human:1 operator:1 accelerate:1 robot:1 decline:3 historically:1 certain:1 go:1 due:1 various:1 factor:1 include:3 replacement:1 loss:1 competitive:1 advantage:1 former:1 carriage:1 automobile:1 mass:3 produce:3 recent:1 trend:2 migration:1 prosperous:1 industrialized:1 nation:3 toward:1 post:2 manifest:1 expense:1 information:1 base:1 call:1 informational:1 relocate:1 economically:1 favorable:1 location:1 offshoring:1 several:1 branch:1 engineering:1 specialise:1 application:1 mathematical:1 model:2 patented:1 invention:1 craft:1 skill:1 see:4 architecture:1 art:1 applicability:1 define:2 way:1 today:1 important:1 government:1 must:1 regulate:1 placement:1 pollution:1 financing:1 labor:6 employ:1 major:1 population:1 occur:1 typically:1 union:3 organization:2 band:1 together:1 achieve:1 common:1 goal:1 area:1 wage:1 hour:1 work:1 condition:1 form:1 cartel:1 leadership:1 bargain:1 employer:2 behalf:1 rank:1 negotiate:1 contract:1 movement:1 first:1 rise:1 among:1 war:5 warfare:3 weaponry:1 supply:1 machine:1 powered:1 transportation:1 mobilization:1 total:1 concept:1 weapon:1 destruction:1 instance:1 crimean:1 civil:1 full:1 potential:1 show:1 military:2 arm:1 modern:1 environment:1 management:1 view:2 philosopher:1 economist:1 different:3 physiocrats:1 adam:1 smith:1 capitalism:1 marxism:1 colin:1 clark:1 classification:7 usually:1 divide:1 class:4 colloquially:1 mean:1 word:1 sometimes:1 one:1 talk:1 consist:1 intellectual:1 r:1 chemical:1 petroleum:1 meatpacking:1 hospitality:1 food:1 fish:1 software:1 paper:1 entertainment:1 semiconductor:1 cultural:1 poverty:1 intensive:2 capital:1 light:1 heavy:1 isic:6 rev:3 stand:1 international:1 complete:1 systematic:1 make:1 united:1 statistic:1 division:1 arrange:1 entity:1 classify:1 accord:2 carry:1 detailed:1 level:1 delineate:2 customary:1 combination:1 describe:1 statistical:1 unit:1 consider:1 relative:1 importance:1 criterion:1 input:1 emphasis:1 give:1 character:1 yahoo:2 finance:2 center:1 useful:1 shows:1 system:2 reference:1 x:1 old:1 прамысловасьць:1 |@bigram raw_material:3 labor_intensive:1 input_output:1 yahoo_finance:2 |
3,527 | Arbor_Day | Arbor Day is a holiday in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant trees. Arbor Day originated in Nebraska City, Nebraska, United States and is celebrated in a number of countries. Though it was founded officially by J. Sterling Morton in Nebraska in 1872, the celebration may have its original roots in Judaism in a celebration called Tu B'Shevat. By the 1920s each state in the United States had passed public laws that proclaimed a certain day to be Arbor Day or Arbor and Bird Day observance. The dates differ and were established depending on climate and suitable planting times. Arbor Day is now a holiday that has an international observance and recognition in many countries. Birdsey Northrop of Connecticut was responsible for globalizing it when he visited Japan in 1883 and delivered his Arbor Day and Village Improvement message. In that same year, the American Forestry Association made Northrup the Chairman of the committee to campaign for Arbor Day nationwide. He also brought his enthusiasm for Arbor Day to Australia, Canada and Europe. Arbor Day reached its height of popularity on its 125th anniversary in 1997, when Col. David J. Wright, noticed that a Nebraska non profit called the National Arbor Day Foundation had taken the name of the holiday and commercialized it for their own use as a trademark for their publication "Arbor Day," so he countered their efforts, launched a website, and trademarked it for "public use celebrations" and defended the matter in a federal district court in the United States to insure it was judged as property of the public domain, the case was settled in October of 1999. Today as a result of Wright's efforts anyone can use the term Arbor Day and anyone can hold their own Arbor Day celebration. Observances Algeria The national tree planting day of Algeria is on October 27. Australia July 28 is National Tree Planting Day for schools throughout Australia and 30 July is National Tree Planting Day for the rest of the Nation. Many states have Arbor Day although only Victoria has Arbor Week,which was suggested by the late Premier Dick Hamer in the 80s. Arbor Day has been observed in Australia since 20 June 1889. Belgium International Day of Treeplanting is celebrated in Flanders on or around 21 March as a theme-day/educational-day/observance, not as public holidays. Tree planting is sometimes combined with awareness campaigns of the fight against cancer: Kom Op Tegen Kanker. Brazil The Arbor Day (Dia da Árvore) is celebrated on September 21. Cambodia National Tree Planting Day is on June 1. Central African Republic National Tree Planting Day is on July 22. China Republic of China (Taiwan): Arbor Day (植樹節) has been a traditional holiday in the Republic of China since 1927. In 1914, the founder of the agricultural college at Nanking University suggested to the now-defunct Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry that China should imitate the practice in the United States of Arbor Day. The holiday would be held the same day as the Qingming Festival. However, for unknown reasons, the suggestion was not made through the formal process, so nothing came from this original request. After the successful conclusion of the Northern Expedition, the now-defunct Ministry of Agriculture and Minerals formally petitioned the Executive Yuan to establish Arbor Day to commemorate the passing of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the Father of Modern China. He had been a major advocate of afforestation in his life, because it would increase people's livelihoods. The Executive Yuan approved Arbor Day in the spirit of Dr. Sun that year and has since been celebrated on March 12 for this purpose. People's Republic of China (Mainland China): In 1981, the fourth session of the Fifth National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China adopted the "Resolution on the unfolding of a nationwide voluntary tree-planting campaign". This resolution established Arbor Day (植树日) and stipulated that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 should plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in seedling, cultivation, tree tending or other services. Supporting documentation instructs all units to report population statistics to the local afforestation committees as the basis for workload allocation. Moreover, those failing to do their duty are expected to make up planting requirements, provide funds equivalent to the value of labor required or pay heavy fines. Therefore, the tree-planting campaign is actually compulsory, or at least obligatory (that is, an obligation to the community). The "voluntary" in the title referred to the fact that the tree-planters would "volunteer" their labor. The People's Republic of China also celebrates Arbor Day on March 12. Egypt Tree planting day, arbor day, is on January 15. Germany Arbor Day is on April 25. First celebration was in 1952. Iran National Tree Planting Day is on March 5. Israel Israel celebrates Tu Bishvat, the new year for trees, on the fifteenth day of the month of Shevat, which usually falls in January or February. Originally based on the date used to calculate the age of fruit trees for tithing as mandated in Leviticus 19:23-25, the holiday now is most often observed by planting trees, or raising money to plant trees.<ref name="JEWFAQ">[http://www.jewfaq.org/holiday8.htm Judaism 101: Tu B'Shevat]. Accessed August 20, 2007.</ref> Japan Japan celebrates a similarly themed Greenery Day, held on April 29th. Although it has a similar theme to Arbor Day, its roots lay in celebration of the birthday of Emperor Hirohito. Kenya National Tree Planting Day is on April 21. Often people plant palm trees and coconut trees along the Pacific Coast that borders the East coast of Kenya. Lesotho National Tree Planting Day is on March 21. Republic of Macedonia Macedonia celebrated Tree Day on March 12, 2008. It was declared an official non-working day, and over 2 million trees were planted. The holiday was declared in honor of reforestation following the devastating Macedonian wildfires of Summer 2007. Malawi National Tree Planting Day is on the 2nd Monday of December. México National Tree Day is on the 2nd Thursday of July. Namibia Its first Arbor Day was celebrated on 2004-10-08. Netherlands Since conference and of the Food and Agriculture Organization's publication World Festival of Trees, and a resolution of the United Nations in 1954: "The Conference, recognising the need of arousing mass consciousness of the aesthetic, physical and economic value of trees, recommends a World Festival of Trees to be celebrated annually in each member country on a date suited to local conditions"; it has been adopted by the Netherlands. In 1957 the National Committee Day of Planting Trees/Foundation of National Festival of Trees (Nationale Boomplantdag/Nationale Boomfeestdag) was created. On or around 21 March (the first day of Spring) or sometimes on or around 21 September (the first day of Autumn), three quarters of city schoolchildren and others plant trees. In 2007 the 50th anniversary will be celebrated with special golden jubilee-activities. New Zealand New Zealand's first Arbor Day planting was in Greytown in the Wairarapa on 3 July 1890. The first official celebration took place in Wellington in August 1892, with the planting of pohutukawa and Norfolk pines along Thorndon Esplanade. Born in 1855, Dr Leonard Cockayne (generally recognised as the greatest botanist who has lived, worked, and died in New Zealand) worked extensively on native plants throughout New Zealand and wrote many notable botanical texts. Even as early as the 1920s he held a vision for school students of New Zealand to be involved in planting native trees and plants in their school grounds. This vision bore fruit and schools in New Zealand have long planted native trees on Arbor Day. Since 1977 New Zealand has celebrated Arbor Day on June 5, which is also World Environment Day, prior to then Arbor Day, in New Zealand, was celebrated on August 4 - which is rather late in the year for tree planting in New Zealand hence the date change. What the Department of Conservation (DOC) does for Arbor Day: Many of DOC’s Arbor Day activities focus on ecological restoration projects using native plants to restore habitats that have been damaged or destroyed by humans or invasive pests and weeds. There are great restoration projects underway around New Zealand and many organisations including community groups, landowners, conservation organisations, iwi, volunteers, schools, local businesses, nurseries and councils are involved in them. These projects are part of a vision to protect and restore the indigenous biodiversity Niger Since 1975, Niger has celebrated Arbor Day as part of its Independence Day: 3 August. On this day, aiding the fight against desertification, each Nigerien plants a tree. Philippines Arbor Day in the Philippines has been institutionalized to be observed every June 25 throughout the nation by planting trees and ornamental plants and other forms of relevant activities. The necessity to promote a healthier ecosystem for the people through the rehabilitation and regreening of the environment was stressed in Proclamation No. 643 that amended Proclamation No. 396 of June 2, 2003. Proclamation No. 396 enjoined the "active participation of all government agencies, including government-owned and controlled corporations, private sector, schools, civil society groups and the citizenry in tree planting activity and declaring June 25, 2003 as Philippines Arbor Day." Portugal Arbor Day is celebrated on March 21. It's not a national holiday but instead schools nationwide celebrate this day with environment-related activities, namely tree planting. South Africa Arbor Day was celebrated from 1983 until 1999 in South Africa, when the national government extended it to National Arbor Week, which lasts from 1-7 September. Two trees, one common and one rare, are highlighted to increase public awareness of indigenous trees, while various "greening" activities are undertaken by schools, businesses and other organizations. South Korea Arbor Day (Sikmogil, 식목일) was a public holiday in South Korea on April 5 until 2005. The day is still celebrated, though. On non-leap years, the day coincides with Hansik. Sri Lanka National Tree Planting Day is on October 15. Tanzania National Tree Planting Day is on January 1. Uganda National Tree Planting Day is on March 24. United States The national holiday is celebrated every year on the last Friday in April; it is a civic holiday in Nebraska and was founded by Julius Sterling Morton. Each state celebrates its own state holiday. The customary observance is to plant a tree. On the first Arbor Day, April 10, 1872, an estimated one million trees were planted. http://www.arborday.org/arborday/history.cfm Venezuela Venezuela recognizes "Día del Arbol" on the last Sunday of May. See also Earth Day Greenery Day National Arbor Day Foundation Oak Apple Day Timeline of environmental events Tu Bishvat In popular cultureIt's Arbor Day, Charlie Brown, an animated special featuring the Peanuts'' characters, was produced in 1976. It's Arbor Day, Charlie Brown (1976) (TV). IMDb "April 25 - When You Plant a Tree (Arbor Song)" is a solo piano piece in honor of Arbor Day, composed by jazz pianist Mark Massey. References External links International Arbor Days History of Arbor Day Arbor Day Lesson Plans for the Classroom National Arbor Day Foundation State Arbor Days and state trees | Arbor_Day |@lemmatized arbor:51 day:83 holiday:13 individual:1 group:3 encourage:1 plant:32 tree:48 originate:1 nebraska:5 city:2 united:6 state:11 celebrate:20 number:1 country:3 though:2 found:2 officially:1 j:2 sterling:2 morton:2 celebration:7 may:2 original:2 root:2 judaism:2 call:2 tu:4 b:2 shevat:3 pass:1 public:6 law:1 proclaim:1 certain:1 bird:1 observance:5 date:4 differ:1 establish:3 depend:1 climate:1 suitable:1 planting:10 time:1 international:3 recognition:1 many:5 birdsey:1 northrop:1 connecticut:1 responsible:1 globalize:1 visit:1 japan:3 deliver:1 village:1 improvement:1 message:1 year:7 american:1 forestry:2 association:1 make:3 northrup:1 chairman:1 committee:3 campaign:4 nationwide:3 also:4 bring:1 enthusiasm:1 australia:4 canada:1 europe:1 reach:1 height:1 popularity:1 anniversary:2 col:1 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3,528 | Lavr_Kornilov | General Lavr Kornilov in 1917 Lavr Georgiyevich Kornilov (Russian: Лавр Гео́ргиевич Корни́лов) (August 18, 1870–April 13, 1918) was a senior Russian army general during World War I and the ensuing Russian Civil War. He is today best remembered for the Kornilov Affair, an unsuccessful endeavor in August/September 1917 that purported to strengthen Alexander Kerensky's Provisional Government, but which led to Kerensky eventually having Kornilov arrested and charged with attempting a coup d'état. Pre-revolutionary career Originally a Cossack born in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Russian Turkestan (now Kazakhstan ) in a family of Cossack militaryman and his wife of Asian origin, Kornilov was a career intelligence officer in the Imperial Russian army. Between 1890 and 1904 he led several exploration missions in Eastern Turkestan, Afghanistan and Persia, learned several Central Asian languages, and wrote detailed reports about his observations. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 he was awarded the Cross of St. George for bravery and promoted to the rank of colonel. He served as military attache in China from 1907-11 and with a rank of major general commanded an infantry division at the start of World War I. During heavy fighting he was captured by the Austrians in April 1915, when his division became isolated from the rest of the Russian forces. After his capture, Field Marshall Conrad, the commander of the Austro-Hungarian Army, made a point of meeting him in person. Being a major general he was a high value prisoner of war, but in July 1916 Kornilov managed to escape back to Russia. Kornilov was critical of the Russian monarchy and, after the overthrow of Czar Nicholas II he was given command of the Petrograd Military District in March 1917. In July, after commanding the only successful front in the disastrous Russian offensive of June, 1917, he became Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Provisional Government's armed forces. Kornilov Affair Although critical of the Tsar, General Kornilov felt that Russia, as part of the Triple Entente, was committed to continue the war against the Central Powers, and he shared the widespread belief of some Russians that after the February Revolution the country was descending into anarchy and that military defeat would be disastrous for Russia. Lenin and his 'German spies', he announced, should be hanged, the Soviets stamped out, military discipline restored and the provisional government 'restructured'. He alleged, thanks to unclear and perhaps deliberately distorted communications from Petrograd, that Kerensky had authorized him to impose order in the capital and restructure the government, and ordered the Third Corps to Petrograd to place it under martial law. Kerensky dismissed his commander-in-chief from his post on September 9, claiming Kornilov intended to set up a military dictatorship. Kornilov, convinced that Kerensky had been taken prisoner by the Bolsheviks and was acting under duress, replied by issuing a call to all Russians to "save their dying land." Russian Civil War After the alleged coup collapsed as his troops disintegrated, Kornilov and his fellow conspirators were placed under arrest in the Bikhov jail. On 19 November, a few weeks after the proclomation of soviet power in Petrograd, they escaped from their confinement (eased by the fact that the jail was guarded by Kornilov's supporters) and made their way to the Don region, which was controlled by the Don Cossacks. Here they linked up with General Mikhail Alekseev. Kornilov became the military commander of the anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army with Alekseev as the political chief. Evan Mawdsley (2008) The Russian Civil War: 27 Even before the Red Army was formed, Lavr Kornilov promised, "the greater the terror, the greater our victories." He vowed that the goals of his forces must be fulfilled even if it was needed "to setfire to half the country and shed the blood of three-fourths of all Russians." Arno J. Mayer, The Furies, p.254 In just the village Lezhanka of the Don region, bands of Kornilov’s officers killed more than 500 people. Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution, 1972 On 24 Feb, as Rostov and the Don Cossack capital of Novocherkassk fell to the Bolsheviks, Kornilov led the Volunteer Army on the epic 'Ice March' into the empty steppe towards the Kuban. Although badly outnumbered, he escaped destruction from pursuing Bolshevik forces and laid siege to Ekaterinodar, the capital of the Kuban Soviet Republic, on 10 April. However, in the early morning of 13 April, a Soviet shell landed on his farmhouse headquarters and killed him. He was buried in a nearby village. A few days later, when the Bolsheviks gained control of the village, they unearthed Kornilov's coffin, dragged his corpse to the main square and burnt his remains on the local rubbish dump. Evan Mawdsley (2008) The Russian Civil War: 29 The Kornilov Division, one of the crack units of the White Army, was named after him. References Bibliography Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution (Knopf, 1990) Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy (Viking, 1996) Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War (Birlinn, 2008) External links Chapter 32 KORNILOV’S INSURRECTION in The History of the Russian Revolution by Leon Trotsky The Kornilov Rebellion Bolshevism: The Road to Revolution by Alan Woods | Lavr_Kornilov |@lemmatized general:6 lavr:3 kornilov:21 georgiyevich:1 russian:18 лавр:1 гео:1 ргиевич:1 корни:1 лов:1 august:2 april:4 senior:1 army:7 world:2 war:10 ensue:1 civil:5 today:1 best:1 remember:1 affair:2 unsuccessful:1 endeavor:1 september:2 purport:1 strengthen:1 alexander:1 kerensky:5 provisional:3 government:4 lead:3 eventually:1 arrest:2 charge:1 attempt:1 coup:2 état:1 pre:1 revolutionary:1 career:2 originally:1 cossack:4 bear:1 ust:1 kamenogorsk:1 turkestan:2 kazakhstan:1 family:1 militaryman:1 wife:1 asian:2 origin:1 intelligence:1 officer:2 imperial:1 several:2 exploration:1 mission:1 eastern:1 afghanistan:1 persia:1 learn:1 central:2 language:1 write:1 detail:1 report:1 observation:1 russo:1 japanese:1 award:1 cross:1 st:1 george:1 bravery:1 promote:1 rank:2 colonel:1 serve:1 military:6 attache:1 china:1 major:2 command:3 infantry:1 division:3 start:1 heavy:1 fighting:1 capture:2 austrian:1 become:3 isolate:1 rest:1 force:4 field:1 marshall:1 conrad:1 commander:4 austro:1 hungarian:1 make:2 point:1 meet:1 person:1 high:1 value:1 prisoner:2 july:2 manage:1 escape:3 back:1 russia:3 critical:2 monarchy:1 overthrow:1 czar:1 nicholas:1 ii:1 give:1 petrograd:4 district:1 march:2 successful:1 front:1 disastrous:2 offensive:1 june:1 supreme:1 chief:3 arm:1 although:2 tsar:1 felt:1 part:1 triple:1 entente:1 commit:1 continue:1 power:2 share:1 widespread:1 belief:1 february:1 revolution:5 country:2 descend:1 anarchy:1 defeat:1 would:1 lenin:1 german:1 spy:1 announce:1 hang:1 soviet:4 stamp:1 discipline:1 restore:1 restructure:2 allege:2 thanks:1 unclear:1 perhaps:1 deliberately:1 distort:1 communication:1 authorize:1 impose:1 order:2 capital:3 third:1 corp:1 place:2 martial:1 law:1 dismiss:1 post:1 claim:1 intend:1 set:1 dictatorship:1 convince:1 take:1 bolshevik:5 act:1 duress:1 reply:1 issue:1 call:1 save:1 dying:1 land:2 collapse:1 troop:1 disintegrate:1 fellow:1 conspirator:1 bikhov:1 jail:2 november:1 week:1 proclomation:1 confinement:1 ease:1 fact:1 guard:1 supporter:1 way:1 region:2 control:2 link:2 mikhail:1 alekseev:2 anti:1 volunteer:2 political:1 evan:3 mawdsley:3 even:2 red:1 form:1 promise:1 great:2 terror:1 victory:1 vow:1 goal:1 must:1 fulfil:1 need:1 setfire:1 half:1 shed:1 blood:1 three:1 fourth:1 arno:1 j:1 mayer:1 fury:1 p:1 village:3 lezhanka:1 band:1 kill:2 people:2 serge:1 year:1 one:2 feb:1 rostov:1 novocherkassk:1 fell:1 epic:1 ice:1 empty:1 steppe:1 towards:1 kuban:2 badly:1 outnumber:1 destruction:1 pursue:1 laid:1 siege:1 ekaterinodar:1 republic:1 however:1 early:1 morning:1 shell:1 farmhouse:1 headquarters:1 bury:1 nearby:1 day:1 later:1 gain:1 unearth:1 coffin:1 drag:1 corpse:1 main:1 square:1 burn:1 remains:1 local:1 rubbish:1 dump:1 crack:1 unit:1 white:1 name:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 richard:1 pipe:1 knopf:1 orlando:1 figes:1 tragedy:1 viking:1 birlinn:1 external:1 chapter:1 insurrection:1 history:1 leon:1 trotsky:1 rebellion:1 bolshevism:1 road:1 alan:1 wood:1 |@bigram coup_état:1 russo_japanese:1 austro_hungarian:1 czar_nicholas:1 commander_chief:2 triple_entente:1 laid_siege:1 orlando_figes:1 external_link:1 leon_trotsky:1 |
3,529 | Denis_Diderot | Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher and writer. He was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as chief editor of and contributor to the Encyclopédie. Diderot also contributed to literature, notably with Jacques le fataliste et son maître (Jacques the Fatalist and His Master), which emulated Laurence Sterne in challenging conventions regarding novels, their structure and content, while also examining philosophical ideas about free will. Diderot is also known as the author of the dialogue, Le Neveu de Rameau (Rameau's Nephew) upon which many articles and sermons about consumer desire have been based. His articles included many topics of the Enlightenment. Biography Denis Diderot by Jean-Honoré Fragonard Denis Diderot was born in the eastern French city of Langres and commenced his formal education in the Lycée Louis le Grand. In 1732, he earned a master of arts degree in philosophy. He abandoned the idea of entering the clergy and decided instead to study law. His study of law was short-lived; in 1734, Diderot decided instead to become a writer. Because of his refusal to enter one of the learned professions, he was disowned by his father, and for the next ten years he lived a rather bohemian existence. In 1743, he further alienated his father by marrying Antoinette Champion, a devout Roman Catholic. The match was considered inappropriate due to Champion's low social status, poor education, fatherless status, lack of a dowry, and, at thirty-two, being four years his senior. The marriage produced one surviving child, a girl. Her name was Angélique, named after Diderot's mother and his dead sister. The death of his sister, a nun, from overwork in the convent may have affected Diderot's opinion of religion. She is assumed to have been the inspiration for his novel about a nun, La Religieuse, in which he depicts a woman who is forced to enter a monastery, and suffers at the hands of the other nuns in the community. He had affairs with the writer Madame Puisieux and with Sophie Volland. His letters to Sophie Volland contain some of the most vivid of all the insights that we have of the daily life of the philosophic circle of Paris during this time period. Though his work was broad and rigorous, it did not bring him riches. He secured none of the posts that were occasionally given to needy men of letters; he could not even obtain the bare official recognition of merit which was implied by being chosen a member of the Académie française. When the time came for him to provide a dowry for his daughter, he saw no alternative than to sell his library. When Catherine II of Russia heard of his financial troubles she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library. She then requested that the philosopher retain the books in Paris until she required them, and act as her librarian with a yearly salary. In 1773 and 1774, Diderot spent some months at the empress's court in St Petersburg. Diderot died of gastro-intestinal problems in Paris on July 31, 1784, and was buried in the city's Église Saint-Roch. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia. Early works Diderot's earliest works included a translation of Stanyan's History of Greece (1743); with two colleagues, François-Vincent Toussaint and Marc-Antoine Eidous, he produced a translation of Robert James's Medical Dictionary Mark Twain, "A Majestic Literary Fossil", originally from Harper's New Monthly Magazine, vol. 80, issue 477, p. 439-444, February 1890. Online at Harper's site. Accessed September 24, 2006. (1746–1748) at about the same time he published a free rendering of Shaftesbury's Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit (1745), with some original notes of his own. In 1746, he wrote his first original work: the Pensées philosophiques Bryan Magee. The Story of Philosophy. DK Publishing, Inc., New York: 1998. page 124 , and he added to this a short complementary essay on the sufficiency of natural religion. He then composed a volume of bawdy stories, Les bijoux indiscrets (1748); in later years he repented this work. In 1747, he wrote the Promenade du sceptique, an allegory pointing first at the extravagances of Catholicism; second, at the vanity of the pleasures of the world which is the rival of the church; and third, at the desperate and unfathomable uncertainty of the philosophy which professes to be so high above both church and world. Diderot's celebrated Lettre sur les aveugles ("Letter on the Blind") (1749), introduced him to the world as a daringly original thinker. The subject is a discussion of the interrelation between man's reason and the knowledge acquired through perception (the five senses). The title, "Letter on the Blind For the Use of Those Who See" also evoked some ironic doubt about the who exactly were "the blind" under discussion. In the essay, a blind English mathematician named Saunderson argues that since knowledge derives from the senses, then mathematics is the only form of knowledge that both he and a sighted person can agree about. It is suggested that the blind could be taught to read through their sense of touch (a later essay, Lettre sur les sourds et muets, considered the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and mute). What makes the Lettre sur les aveugles so remarkable, however, is its distinct, if undeveloped, presentation of the theory of variation and natural selection. Diderot's contemporary, also a Frenchman, Pierre Louis Maupertius , who in 1745 was named Head of the Prussian Academy of Science under Frederic the Great, was developing similar ideas. These proto-evolutionary theories were by no means as thought out and systematic as those of Darwin a hundred years later. This powerful essay ... revolves around a remarkable deathbed scene in which a dying blind philosopher, Saunderson, rejects the arguments of a providential God during his last hours. Saunderson's arguments are those of a Neo-Spinozist, Naturalist, and Fatalist, using a sophisticated notion of the self-generation and natural evolution of species without Creation or supernatural intervention. The notion of "thinking matter" is upheld and the "argument from design" discarded ... as hollow and unconvincing. The work appeared anonymously ... and was vigorously suppressed by the authorities. Diderot, who had been under police surveillance since 1747, was swiftly identified as the author ... and was imprisoned for some months at Vincennes, where he was visited almost daily by Rousseau, at the time his closest and most assiduous ally. Johnathan I. Israel, Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750. (Oxford University Press. 2001, 2002), p. 710 After signing a letter of submission and promising never to write anything prejudicial against religion ever again (with the result that from then on his most controversial works were henceforth published only after his death), Diderot was released from the dungeons of the Vincennes fortress after three months. In collaboration with d'Alembert, he subsequently embarked on his greatest project, The Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. Encyclopedie Title page of the Encyclopédie. André Le Breton, a bookseller and printer, approached Diderot with a project for the publication of a translation of Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences into French, first undertaken by the Englishman John Mills, and followed by the German Gottfried Sellius. Diderot accepted the proposal. During this translation his creative mind and astute vision transformed the work. Instead of a mere reproduction of the Cyclopaedia, he persuaded Le Breton to enter upon a new work, which would collect all the active writers, ideas, and knowledge that were moving the cultivated class of the Republic of Letters to its depths; however, they were comparatively ineffective due to their lack of dispersion. His enthusiasm for the project was transmitted to the publishers; they collected a sufficient capital for a more vast enterprise than they had first planned. Jean le Rond d'Alembert was persuaded to become Diderot's colleague; the requisite permission was procured from the government. In 1750 an elaborate prospectus announced the project to a delighted public, and in 1751 the first volume was published. This work was very unorthodox and had many forward-thinking ideas for the time. Diderot stated within this work, "An encyclopedia ought to make good the failure to execute such a project hitherto, and should encompass not only the fields already covered by the academies, but each and every branch of human knowledge." Upon encompassing every branch of knowledge this will give, "the power to change men's common way of thinking." This idea was profound and intriguing, as it was one of the first works during the Enlightenment. Diderot wanted to give all people the ability to further their knowledge and, in a sense, allow every person to have any knowledge they sought of the world. The work, implementing not only the expertise of scholars and Academies in their respective fields but that of the common man in their proficiencies in their trades, sought to bring together all knowledge of the time and condense this information for all to use. These people would amalgamate and work under a society to perform such a project. They would work alone in order to shed societal conformities, and build a multitude of information on a desired subject with varying view points, methods, or philosophies. He emphasized the vast abundance of knowledge held within each subject with intricacies and details to provide the greatest amount of knowledge to be gained from the subject. All people would benefit from these insights into different subjects as a means of betterment; bettering society as a whole and individuals alike. This message under the Ancien Régime would severely dilute the regime's ability to control the people. Knowledge and power, two key items the upper class held over the lower class, were in jeopardy as knowledge would be more accessible, giving way to more power amongst the lower class. An encyclopedia would give the layman an ability to reason and use knowledge to better themselves; allowing for upward mobility and increased intellectual abundance amongst the lower class. A growth of knowledge amongst this segment of society would provide power to this group and a yearning to question the government. The numerated subjects in the folios were not just for the good of the people and society, but were for the promotion of the state as well. The state did not see any benefit in the works, instead viewing them as a contempt to contrive power and authority from the state. Diderot's work was plagued by controversy from the beginning; the project was suspended by the courts in 1752. Just as the second volume was completed accusations arose, regarding seditious content, concerning the editors entries on religion and natural law. Diderot was detained and his house was searched for manuscripts for subsequent articles. But the search proved fruitless as no manuscripts could be found. They were hidden in the house of an unlikely confederate—Chretien de Lamoignon Malesherbes, the very official who ordered the search. Although Malesherbis was a staunch absolutist-loyal to the monarchy, he was sympathetic to the literary project. Along with his support, and that of other well placed influential confederates, the project resumed. Diderot returned to his efforts only to be constantly embroiled in controversy. These twenty years were to Diderot not merely only a time of incessant drudgery, but harassing persecution and desertion of friends. The ecclesiastical party detested the Encyclopédie, in which they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophic enemies. By 1757 they could endure it no longer. The subscribers had grown from 2,000 to 4,000, a measure of the growth of the work in popular influence and power. The Encyclopédie threatened the governing social classes of France (aristocracy) because it took for granted the justice of religious tolerance, freedom of thought, and the value of science and industry. It asserted the doctrine that the main concern of the nation's government ought to be the nation's common people. It was believed that the Encyclopédie was the work of an organized band of conspirators against society, and that the dangerous ideas they held were made truly formidable by their open publication. In 1759, the Encyclopédie was formally suppressed. The decree did not stop the work, which went on, but its difficulties increased by the necessity of being clandestine. D'Alembert withdrew from the enterprise and other powerful colleagues, including Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune, declined to contribute further to a book which had acquired a bad reputation. Diderot was left to finish the task as best he could. He wrote several hundred articles, some very slight, but many of them laborious, comprehensive, and long. He damaged his eyesight correcting proofs and editing the manuscripts of less competent contributors. He spent his days at workshops, mastering manufacturing processes, and his nights writing what he had learned during the day. He was incessantly harassed by threats of police raids. The last copies of the first volume were issued in 1765. At the last moment, when his immense work was drawing to an end, he encountered a crowning mortification: he discovered that the bookseller, fearing the government's displeasure, had struck out from the proof sheets, after they had left Diderot's hands, all passages that he considered too dangerous. The monument to which Diderot had given the labor of twenty long and oppressive years was irreparably mutilated and defaced. It was twelve years, in 1772, before the subscribers received the final 27 folio volumes of the Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers since the first volume had been published. Other works Statue of Denis Diderot in the city of Langres, his birthplace. Although the Encyclopédie was Diderot's monumental piece, he was the author of many other works that sowed nearly every field of intellectual interest with new and creative ideas. He wrote sentimental plays, Le Fils naturel (1757) and Le Père de famille (1758), accompanying them with essays on theatrical theory and practice, including Les Entretiens sur Le Fils naturel (Conversations on Le Fils naturel), in which he announced the principles of a new drama—the serious, domestic, bourgeois drama of real life, in opposition to the stilted conventions of the classical French stage. His art criticism was also highly influential. Diderot's Essais sur la peinture was described by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, as "a magnificent work, which speaks even more helpfully to the poet than to the painter, though to the painter too it is as a blazing torch." Diderot's most intimate friend was the philologist Friedrich Melchior Grimm. They were brought together by their friend in common at that time Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Grimm wrote newsletters to various high personages in Germany, reporting the happenings of art and literature in Paris, then the intellectual capital of Europe. Diderot helped Grimm between 1759 and 1779, by writing an account of the annual exhibitions of paintings in the Paris Salon. These reports are highly readable pieces of art criticism. According to Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, they initiated the French into a new way of laughing, and introduced people to the mystery and purport of colour by ideas. "Before Diderot," Anne Louise Germaine de Staël wrote, "I had never seen anything in pictures except dull and lifeless colours; it was his imagination that gave them relief and life, and it is almost a new sense for which I am indebted to his genius." Jean-Baptiste Greuze was Diderot's favorite contemporary artist. Greuze's most characteristic pictures were the rendering in colour of the same sentiments of domestic virtue and the pathos of common life, which Diderot had attempted to represent upon the stage. Diderot was above all things interested in the life of individuals. He did not care about the abstract life of the race, but the incidents of individual character, the fortunes of a particular family, the relations of real and concrete motives in this or that special case. He was delighted with the enthusiasm of a born casuist in curious puzzles of right and wrong, and in devising a conflict between the generalities of ethics and the conditions of an ingeniously contrived practical dilemma. Diderot's interest expressed itself in didactic and sympathetic form. However, in two of his most remarkable pieces, this interest is not sympathetic, but ironic. Jacques le fataliste (written in 1773, but not published until 1792 in German and 1796 in French) is similar to Tristram Shandy and The Sentimental Journey. His dialogue Le Neveu de Rameau (Rameau's Nephew) is a "farce-tragedy" reminiscent of the Satires of Horace. A favorite classical author of Diderot's, Horace's words Vertumnis, quotquot sunt, natus iniquis are quoted at the top of the Nephew. Diderot's intention in writing the dialogue is disputed; whether it is merely a satire on contemporary manners, or a reduction of the theory of self-interest to an absurdity, or the application of irony to the ethics of ordinary convention, or a mere setting for a discussion about music, or a vigorous dramatic sketch of a parasite and a human original. Whatever its intent, it is a remarkable conversation, representing an era of that held the art of conversation in the highest regard. The writing and publication history of the Nephew is likewise a bit mysterious. Diderot never saw the work through to publication during his lifetime, but there is every indication it was of continual interest to him. Though the original draft was written in 1761, he made additions to it year after year until his death twenty-three years later. Goethe's translation (1805) was the first introduction of Le Neveu de Rameau to the European public. After executing it, he gave back the original French manuscript to Friedrich Schiller, from whom he had it. No authentic French copy of it appeared until the writer had been dead for forty years (1823). Diderot's miscellaneous pieces range from a graceful trifle like the Regrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre ( Regrets for my Old Dressing Gown) up to Le Rêve de d'Alembert, where he plunges into the depths of the controversy as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life. Diderot was not a coherent and systematic thinker, but rather "a philosopher in whom all the contradictions of the time struggle with one another" (Rosenkranz). He did not develop a comprehensive system of materialism, but he may have made some contributions to the atheistic materialist works of his friend Paul Henri Thiry, baron d'Holbach. Bibliography Monument to Denis Diderot in Paris Essai sur le mérite et la vertu, written by Shaftesbury French translation and annotation by Diderot (1745) Pensées philosophiques, essay (1746) La promenade du sceptique (1747) Les bijoux indiscrets, novel (1748) Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient (1749) L'Encyclopédie, (1750-1765) Lettre sur les sourds et muets (1751) Pensées sur l'interprétation de la nature, essai (1751) Le Fils naturel (1757) Entretiens sur le Fils naturel (1757) Le père de famille (1758) Paradoxe sur le comédien (1758) Discours sur la poesie dramatique (1758) Salons, critique d'art (1759–1781) La Religieuse, Roman (1760; revised in 1770 and in the early 1780s; the novel was first published as a volume posthumously in 1796). Le neveu de Rameau, dialogue (1761?) Lettre sur le commerce de la librairie (1763) Mystification ou l’histoire des portraits (1768) Entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot (1769) Le rêve de D'Alembert, dialogue (1769) Suite de l'entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot (1769) Paradoxe sur le comédien (1769?) Apologie de l'abbé Galiani (1770) Principes philosophiques sur la matière et le mouvement, essai (1770) Entretien d'un père avec ses enfants (1771) Jacques le fataliste et son maître, novel (1771-1778) Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (1772) Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes, in collaboration with Raynal (1772–1781) Voyage en Hollande (1773) Éléments de physiologie (1773–1774) Réfutation d'Helvétius (1774) Observations sur le Nakaz (1774) Essai sur les règnes de Claude et de Néron (1778) Lettre apologétique de l'abbé Raynal à Monsieur Grimm (1781) Aux insurgents d'Amérique (1782) Salons See also Contributions to liberal theory Diderot Effect Encyclopedia Encyclopedist Liberalism University of Paris VII: Denis Diderot Notes References Furbank, P. N. Diderot: A Critical Biography. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1992. ISBN 0-679-41421-5. Gregory, Mary Efrosini. Diderot and the Metamorphosis of Species (Studies in Philosophy). New York: Routledge, 2006. ISBN 0415955513. Havens, George R. The Age of Ideas. New York: Holt, 1955. ISBN 0-89197-651-5. Simon, Julia. Mass Enlightenment. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995. ISBN 0-7914-2638-6. Hoyt, Nellie and Cassirer, Thomas.Encyclopedia, Selections:Diderot, D'Alembert, and a Society of Men of Letters.'' New York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc, 1965. LCCN 65-26535. ISBN 0-672-60479-5. External links Diderot's listing at the Bibliotheque Nationale de France (in French) Denis Diderot Website (in French) The Project Gutenberg eBook of Diderot by John Morley On line version of the Encyclopédie. The articles are classified in alphabetical order (26 files). Use Mozilla Firefox rather than Internet Explorer, which doesn't open big files. Denis Diderot,“État de la Chine selon ses détracteurs,” 1781. 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3,530 | Black_people | The term black people usually refers to a racial group of humans with a dark brown skin color, but it has also been used to categorise a number of diverse populations into one common group. Some definitions of the term include only people of relatively recent Sub Saharan African descent (see African diaspora). Among the members of this group, dark skin color is typically accompanied by the expression of natural afro-hair texture. Other definitions of the term Black extend to any of the populations characterized by dark skin color, a definition that also includes certain populations in Oceania, Southeast Asia Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesians and Papuans, the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, and some other small populations of indigenous peoples. black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved April 13, 2007, from Dictionary.com website , and the southern Middle East http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter47/text47.htm . Physiological traits Dark skin A black woman and her albinistic son from Tanzania The evolution of dark skin is intrinsically linked to the loss of body hair in humans. By 1.2 million years ago, all people having descendants today had the same receptor protein of today's Africans; their skin was dark, and the intense sun killed off the progeny with any lighter skin that resulted from mutational variation in the receptor protein. This is significantly earlier than the speciation of Homo sapiens from Homo erectus some 250,000 years ago. Dark skin helps protect against skin cancer that develops as a result of ultraviolet light radiation, causing mutations in the skin. Furthermore, dark skin prevents an essential B vitamin, folate, from being destroyed. Therefore, in the absence of modern medicine and diet, a person with dark skin in the tropics would live longer, be healthier and likelier to reproduce than a person with light skin. White Australians have some of the highest rates of skin cancer as evidence of this expectation. Conversely, as dark skin prevents sunlight from penetrating the skin it hinders the production of vitamin D3. Hence when humans migrated to less sun-intensive regions in the north, low vitamin D3 levels became a problem and lighter skin colors started appearing. The people of Europe, who have low levels of melanin, naturally have an almost colorless skin pigmentation, especially when untanned. This low level of pigmentation allows the blood vessels to become visible and gives the characteristic pale pink color of white people. The primary difference in skin color between blacks and whites is however a minor genetic difference accounting for just one letter in 3.1 billion letters of DNA. "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin". Washington Post. Natural afro-hair texture Natural hair, black hair, and afro-textured hair are terms used to refer to the typical texture of Black African hair that has not been altered by hot combs, flat irons, or chemicals (by perming, relaxing, straightening, bleaching or coloring). Each strand of this hair type grows in a tiny spring-like, corkscrew shape. The overall effect is such that, despite relatively fewer actual hair shafts compared to straight hair, G. Loussouarn (2001) www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11531795?ordinalpos=8&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum natural afro-hair texture appears (and feels) denser than its straight counterparts. Due to this, it is often referred to as 'thick', 'bushy', or 'woolly'. For several reasons, possibly including its relatively flat cross section (among other factors Franbourg et al. "Influence of Ethnic Origin of Hair on Water-Keratin Interaction" In Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). page 101. Informa Healthcare. 2007 ), this hair type conveys a dry or matte appearance. Nick Arrojo, Jenny Acheson, Great Hair: Secrets to Looking Fabulous and Feeling Beautiful Every Day, (St. Martin's Press: 2008), p.184 Dale H. Johnson, Hair and hair care, (CRC Press: 1997), p.237 It is also very coarse, and its unique shape renders it very prone to breakage when combed or brushed. Adjectives such as "hard", "kinky", "nappy" or "spiraled" are used to describe natural afro-textured hair in Western societies. Not all people of sub-Saharan African descent have natural afro-textured hair although a large majority express this trait. Although it is often compared to the fur of a sub-breed of sheep that produces wool, the specific characteristics of the natural afro-hair form are actually unique among all mammals. Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). Informa Healthcare. 2007 The texture is likely a remnant of an important period in human evolutionary history in that (in likely predating the evolution of dark skin) it evolved when, as proto-humans lost most of their to enable perspiration, the need to protect the newly exposed pale skin underneath this body hair was crucial(see Iyengar, B. "The hair follicle is a specialized UV receptor in human skin?" Bio Signals Recep, 7(3), page 188-194. 1998 in light of Rogers et al., 2004 and Harding et al., 2000). The trait ceased to be essential to survival at the equator upon the evolution of hairless dark skin. Yet it has continued to be expressed vestigially among most Melanesians, Andamen Islanders, and sub-Saharan Africans. Cultural ideas of a black race In sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa is colored green, while North Africa is gray. Sub-Saharan Africa is a common if imprecise term that encompasses African countries located south of the Saharan Desert. It is commonly used to differentiate the region culturally, ecologically, politically and, more controversially, racially, from other parts of the continent. Because the indigenous people of this region are primarily dark-skinned, it is sometimes used as a euphemism for "Black Africa". Some criticize the use of the term, because, having become in many quarters synonymous with Black Africa, it can leave the mistaken impression that there are not indigenous Black populations in North Africa. Furthermore, the Sahara cuts across countries such as Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan, leaving some parts of them in North Africa and some in sub-Saharan Africa. Owen 'Alik Shahadah argues that the term sub-Saharan Africa has racist overtones: However, some Black Africans prefer to be culturally distinguished from those who live in the north of the continent. South Africa Extended Coloured family with roots in Cape Town, Kimberley and Pretoria. In South Africa during the apartheid era, the population was classified into four groups: Black, White, Asian (mostly Indian), and Coloured. The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European descent (with some Malay ancestry, especially in the Western Cape). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. Although Khoisan people like this old man inhabit Sub-Saharan Africa, many scientists now reject them as "Black African" and place in them as a separate race. The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the Population Registration Act to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether a person was to be considered Colored or Black, the "pencil test" was employed. This involved inserting a pencil in a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough for the pencil to get stuck. During the apartheid era, the Coloureds were oppressed and discriminated against. However, they did have limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than Blacks. In the post-apartheid era the government's policies of affirmative action have favored Blacks over Coloureds. Some South Africans categorized as Black openly state that Coloureds did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. The popular saying by Coloured South Africans to illustrate this dilemma is: Other than by appearance, Coloureds can be distinguished from Blacks by language. Most speak Afrikaans or English as a first language, as opposed to Bantu languages such as Zulu or Xhosa. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names. In 2008, the High Court in South Africa has ruled that Chinese South Africans are to be reclassified as Black people. We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese, The Times In the Arab world Black African and Near Eastern peoples have interacted since prehistoric times. Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance Remembering East African slave raids Some historians estimate that as many as 14 million black slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert in the Arab slave trade from 650 to 1900 CE. The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History The Afro-Asiatic languages, which include Semitic languages such as Arabic and Hebrew, are believed by some scholars to have originated in Ethiopia. The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR) This is because the region has very diverse language groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin. In more recent times, about 1000 CE, interactions between blacks and Arabs resulted in the incorporation of extensive Arabic vocabulary into Swahili, which became a useful lingua franca for merchants. Some of this linguistic exchange occurred as part of the slave trade; the history of Islam and slavery shows that the major juristic schools traditionally accepted the institution of slavery. Lewis 1994, Ch.1 As a result, Arab influence spread along the east coast of Africa and to some extent into the interior (see East Africa). Timbuktu was a trading outpost that linked west Africa with Berber, Arab, and Jewish traders throughout the Arab World. As a result of these interactions many Arab people in the Middle East have black ancestry and many blacks on the east coast of Africa and along the Sahara have Arab ancestry. Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's Universidade do Estado da Bahia, Afro-multiracials in the Arab world self-identify in ways that resemble Latin America. He claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry. Moore also claims that a film about Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had to be canceled when Sadat discovered that an African-American had been cast to play him. In fact, the 1983 television movie Sadat, starring Louis Gossett, Jr., was not canceled. The Egyptian government refused to let the drama air in Egypt, partially on the grounds of the casting of Gossett. Louis Gosset Jr. Hollywood.com The objections, however, did not come from Sadat, who had been assassinated two years earlier. Sadat's mother was a black Sudanese woman and his father was a lighter-skinned Egyptian. In response to an advertisement for an acting position he remarked, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish". Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone pages 5-7,31 ISBN 0714634875 Fathia Nkrumah was another Egyptian intimately tied with Black Africa. She was the late wife of Ghanaian revolutionary Kwame Nkrumah, whose marriage was seen as helping plant the seeds of cooperation between Egypt and other African countries as they struggled for independence from European colonization, which in turn helped advance the formation of the African Union. African Union Summit In general, Arabs had a more positive view of black women than black men, even if the women were of slave origin. More black women were enslaved than men, and, because the Qur'an was interpreted to permit sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage, See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112-113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses : Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24 many mixed race children resulted. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab captor's child, she became “umm walad” or “mother of a child”, a status that granted her privileged rights. The child would have prospered from the wealth of the father and been given rights of inheritance. Because of patrilineality, the children were born free and sometimes even became successors to their ruling fathers, as was the case with Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, (whose mother was a Fulani concubine), who ruled Morocco from 1578-1608. Such tolerance, however, was not extended to wholly black persons, even when technically "free," and the notion that to be black meant to be a slave became a common belief. The term "abd," (,) "slave," remains a common term for black people in the Middle East, often though not always derogatory. In the Ottoman Empire Black bashi-bazouk of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey Beginning several centuries ago, a number of sub-Saharan Africans were brought by slave traders during the Ottoman Empire to plantations between Antalya and Istanbul in modern-day Turkey. Ayvalık’ın renkli derneği, retrieved 28 August 2008 Some of their descendants remain, mixed with the rest of the population in these areas, and many migrated to larger cities. Some came from the island of Crete following the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Today's Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008 Cyprus During the Ottoman rule, Black African slaves (usually transferred over Egypt) were brought to Cyprus and sold to Muslim families. Many of their descendants rose to prominent positions and assimilated into the Turkish Cypriot community, creating a sizeable multiracial population today. Cyprus' Dark Secret by Alkan Chaghlar, 25 August 2006, retrieved 8 March 2009 Balkans Ulcinj in Montenegro had its own black community - descendent of the Ottoman slave trade that had flourished here. Yugoslavia - Montenegro and Kosovo - The Next Conflict? The Ottoman Army counted thousands of Black African soldiers in its ranks. The army sent to Balkans during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18 included 24,000 men from Africa. African Slave Trade in Russia, By Dieudonne Gnammankou in La Channe et le lien, Doudou Diene, (id.) Paris, Editions UNESCO, 1988 In the Americas Approximately 12 million Africans were shipped to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade from 1492 to 1888. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million, "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 , Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative, February 4, 2006 most of whom live in the United States, the Caribbean and Latin America, including Brazil. Many have a multiracial background of African, Amerindian, European and Asian ancestry. The various regions developed complex social conventions with which their multi-ethnic populations were classified. United States In the first 200 years that blacks had been in the United States, they commonly referred to themselves as Africans. In Africa, people primarily identified themselves by tribe or ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals would be Asante, Igbo, Bakongo or Wolof. But when Africans were brought to the Americas they were forced to give up their ethnic affiliations for fear of uprisings. The result was the Africans had to intermingle with other Africans from different ethnic groups. This is significant as Africans came from a vast geographic region, the West African coastline stretching from Senegal to Angola and in some cases from the south east coast such as Mozambique. A new identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various tribal groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the Black church and Black English. This new identity was now based on skin color and African ancestry rather than any one tribal group. In March 1807, Britain, which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared the trans-atlantic slave trade illegal, as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect January 1, 1808, the earliest date on which Congress had the power to do so under Article I, Section 9 of the United States Constitution.) By that time, the majority of blacks were U.S.-born, so use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared its continued use would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating blacks back to Africa. In 1835 black leaders called upon black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "Negro" or "Colored American". A few institutions however elected to keep their historical names such as African Methodist Episcopal Church. "Negro" and "colored" remained the popular terms until the late 1960s. African American Journeys to Africa page63-64 The term black was used throughout but not frequently as it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech, Martin Luther King, Jr. uses the terms Negro 15 times and black 4 times. Each time he uses black it is in parallel construction with white (e.g., black men and white men). With the successes of the civil rights movement a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of Negro, black was promoted as standing for racial pride, militancy and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "Black Power" by Kwame Toure (Stokely Carmichael) and the release of James Brown's song "Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud". In 1988 Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use the term African American because the term has a historical cultural base. Since then African American and black have essentially a coequal status. There is still much controversy over which term is more appropriate. Some strongly reject the term African American in preference for black citing that they have little connection with Africa. Others believe the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones. Surveys show that when interacting with each other African Americans prefer the term black, as it is associated with intimacy and familiarity. The term "African American" is preferred for public and formal use. The appropriateness of the term "African American" is further confused, however, by increases in black immigrants from Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America. The more recent black immigrants may sometimes view themselves, and be viewed, as culturally distinct from native descendants of African slaves. The U.S. census race definitions says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or who provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian. However, the Census Bureau notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological. 2000 US Census basics A considerable portion of the U.S. population identified as black actually have some Native American or European American ancestry. For instance, genetic studies of African American people show an ancestry that is on average 17-18% European. How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer One drop rule Historically, the United States used a colloquial term, the one-drop rule, to designate a black person as any person with any known African ancestry. Outside of the US, some other countries have adopted the practice, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one drop "rule" applies varies from country to country. The one drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves Clarence Page, A Credit to His Races, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 1, 1997. and been maintained as an attempt to keep the white race "pure". . One of the results of the one drop rule was uniting the African American community and preserving an African identity. Some of the most prominent civil rights activists were multiracial, and advocated equality for all. President Barack Obama self-identifies as black and African American interchangeably. According to a Williams Identity Survey conducted by Zogby International interactive poll conducted November 1-2, 2006, among those who voted, 55 percent of whites voters and 61 percent of Hispanics voters classified him as biracial instead of black after being told that his mother is white, and 66% of Black voters classified Obama as black. Another poll conducted by the same group returned results that forty-two percent of African-Americans voters described Tiger Woods as black, as did 7% of white voters. Blackness The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream African American culture and values. To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about skin color or tone but more about culture and behavior. Blackness can be contrasted with "acting white" where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans, with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music , and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of Black youth, academic achievement. Ogbu, J. "Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement" Erlbaum Associates Press. Mahwah, NJ. 2003. The notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people. Toni Morrison once described Bill Clinton as the first black president, because of his warm relations with African Americans, his poor upbringing and also because he is a jazz musician. Christopher Hitchens was offended by the notion of Clinton as the first black president noting "we can still define blackness by the following symptoms: alcoholic mothers, under-the-bridge habits...the tendency to sexual predation and shameless perjury about the same" No One Left to Lie to by Christopher Hitchens, 1999, pg 47 Some black activists were also offended, claiming Clinton used his knowledge of black culture to exploit black people like no other president before Find Articles 404 File not found for political gain, while not serving black interests. They note his lack of action during the Rwanda genocide and his welfare reform which led to the worst child poverty since the 1960s along with the fact that the number of blacks in jail increased during his administration. The question of blackness also arose in Democrat Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign. Commentators such as Time magazine have questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first black President of the United States, is black enough, as his mother is white American, and his father is a black Kenyan immigrant. Obama refers to himself interchangeably as black and African American. Brazil Capoeira, an Afro-Brazilian martial art. The topic of race in Brazil is a complex and diverse one. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between a pure black and a very light mulatto over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity. There is some disagreement among scholars over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that upward mobility and education results in reclassification of individuals into lighter skinned categories. The popular claim is that in Brazil poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree arguing that whitening of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, but a typically black person will consistently be identified as black regardless of wealth or social status. Statistics +Demographics of Brazil Year White Brown Black 1835 24.4% 18.2%51.4% 2000 53.7% 38.5%6.2% From the year 1500 to 1850 an estimated 3.5 million Africans were forcibly shipped to Brazil. An estimated 80 million Brazilians, almost half the population, are at least in part descendants of these Africans. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-descendants outside of Africa. In contrast to the US there were no segregation or anti-miscegenation laws in Brazil and as a result intermarriage has affected a large majority of the Brazilian population. Even much of the white population has either African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census 54% identified themselves as white, 6.2% identified themselves as black and 39.5% identified themselves as Pardo (brown)- a broad multiracial category. A philosophy of whitening emerged in Brazil in the 19th century. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835 half the population was black, one fifth was Pardo (brown) and one fourth white. By 2000 the black population had fallen to only 6.2% and the Pardo had increased to 40% and white to 55%. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multiracial category by intermarriage. A recent study found that at least 29% of the middle class white Brazilian population had some recent African ancestry. Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians Race relations Because of the ideology of miscegenation, Brazil has avoided the polarization of society into black and white. The bitter and sometimes violent racial tensions that divide the US are notably absent in Brazil. However the philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn criticism from some quarters. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line, with blacks and other non-whites accounting for 70 percent of the poor. In the US blacks earn 75% of what whites earn, in Brazil non-whites earn less than 50% of what whites earn. Some have posited that Brazil does in fact practice the one drop rule when social economic factors are considered. This because the gap income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared with the large gap between whites and non-whites. Other factors such as illiteracy and education level show the same patterns. Unlike in the US where African Americans were united in the civil rights struggle, in Brazil the philosophy of whitening has helped divide blacks from other non-whites and prevented a more active civil rights movement. Though Afro-Brazilians make up half the population there are very few black politicians. The city of Salvador, Bahia for instance is 80% Afro-Brazilian but has never had a black mayor. Critics indicate that US cities that have a black majority, such as Detroit and New Orleans, have never had white mayors since first electing black mayors in the 1970s. Charles Whitaker, "Blacks in Brazil: The Myth and the Reality," Ebony, February 1991 Non-white people also have limited media visibility. The Latin American media, in particular the Brazilian media, has been accused of hiding its black and indigenous population. For example the telenovelas or soaps are said to be a hotbed of white, largely blonde and blue/green-eyed actors who resemble Scandinavians or other northern Europeans more than they resemble the typical whites of Brazil, who are mostly of Southern European descent. Soap operas on Latin TV are lily white The Blond, Blue-Eyed Face of Spanish TV Skin tone consciousness in Asian and Latin American populations These patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some to advocate for the use of the Portuguese term 'negro' to encompass non-whites so as to renew a black consciousness and identity, in effect an African descent rule. Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White, Los Angeles Times, September 3, 2006 In Asia and Australasia Pacific Islander boy: a Melanesian from Vanuatu Naturally blonde blacks In South Asia, there are several communities of Black African descent, generally called Siddis or Sheedis. Black African slaves were sold as far away as India, or even China: there was a colony of Arab merchants in Canton. Serge Bilé cites a 12th century text which tells us that most well-to-do families in Canton had black slaves whom they regarded as savages and demons because of their physical appearance. Roland Oliver, Africa in the Iron Age: c.500 BC-1400 AD, (Cambridge University Press: 1975) Each Portuguese family in Macau had an average of five or six black male slaves (without counting those slaves' wives and children). Many slaves fled from their masters in Macau and came into China, wrote Matteo Ricci, indenturing themselves there to local Chinese military commanders. The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (p. 192), Jonathan Spence Zheng Zhilong and his son Koxinga had the "black guard" most of whom were black Africans who were former Portuguese slaves. Coxinga and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty, by Jonathan Clements (Sutton, 2005), pp. 79-80 Based on a report in the Guangzhou Daily, there might be as many as 100,000 Africans in Guangzhou, China, a number that the newspaper reports has been increasing at an annual rate of 30 to 40% since 2003. China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration. By Malia Politzer. Migration Information Source. August 2008 Guangzhou "Chocolate City": Africans Seek Their Dreams in China. 18-Dec-2008. There are several groups of dark-skinned people who live in various parts of Asia, Australia and Oceania. They include the Indigenous Australians, the Melanesians (now divided into Austronesian-speaking populations and Papuans, and including the great genetic diversity of New Guinea), the Andamanese people of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of the Indian Ocean, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, the Ati of Panay, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka Chapter 6: The Negrito Race , and various indigenous peoples sometimes collectively known as Negritos. By their external physical appearance (phenotype) such people resemble Black Africans with dark skin and sometimes tightly coiled hair. There have been suggestions of a Black African origin. However, in the case of the Andamanese people, a study conducted by the NCBI indicated that the Andamanese people possessed closer affinities with the Southeast Asian population than with the Black African population. In Europe For many centuries throughout the Age of Discovery and the colonial empires, black people came from the colonies to the "mother country", either voluntarily (sometimes for education) or under duress (sometimes as slaves). Even prior to that, the Arab slave trade brought large numbers of Africans to the furthest reaches of Europe; for example, Peter the Great took as a protégé Abram Petrovich Gannibal, whose descendants number poet Alexandr Pushkin and Hugh Grosvenor, heir apparent to Britain's wealthiest aristocrat. Sunday Times Rich List 2007 - Business Most of the black people living in Europe, however, have their origins in relatively recent waves of immigration. Since the decolonisation of the mid-twentieth century, substantial black populations have moved to certain countries in Europe; other European countries have very few black people. At present, black people have limited visibility in mainstream European society, except in a handful of roles such as sporting activities. Britain See also: Black British population, British African-Caribbean community and Black British According to National Statistics, as of the 2001 census, there are over a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population describe themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other". National Statistics Online The largest single number comes from Nigeria, just over 88,000 BBC NEWS | UK | Born Abroad | Countries of birth . Britain encouraged workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was those who came on the ship the Empire Windrush. The preferred official umbrella term is "black and minority ethnic" (BME), but sometimes the term "black" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the Southall Black Sisters, which started with a mainly British Asian constituency. Black Britons tend to live in the cities, whereas the white population is moving more to suburbs and the countryside (see white flight). The total Black British population is currently thought to be much higher with around 2 million Nigerians in the country alone. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/nigeria?profile=intRelations&pg=4 Eastern Europe As African states became independent in the 1960s, the Soviet Union offered them the chance to study in Russia; over 40 years, 400,000 African students came, and many settled there. MediaRights: Film: Black Russians Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the Eastern bloc. Russia A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in Russia. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic Russians are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (chernye), and face specific sorts of social exclusion (see Racism in Russia). Roma, Georgians, and Tatars fall into this category. The Unmaking of Soviet Life: Everyday Economies After Socialism By Caroline Humphrey Cornell University 2002 p36-37 Those referred to as "black" are from the former Soviet republics, predominantly peoples of the Caucasus, e.g. Chechens. Lisa Taylor, Emergency—Explosion of State and Popular Racism follows Moscow Blasts, International Solidarity with Workers in Russia (ISWoR), 13 September 1999. Although "Caucasian" is used in American English to mean "white people", in Russian – and most other varieties of English – it only refers to the Caucasus, not European people in general. See also: Negroid and mulatto people of Russia in Russian Wikipedia. Debates on race Hamitic race According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars. Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry, (Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 28-117 According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the Deluge and giving rise to three separate races. The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20-27, which deals with the sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Ham, but on Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative. The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define blacks, nor assign them to racial hierarchies. Historians believe that by the nineteenth century, the belief that blacks were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery. Felicia R. Lee, Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale, Racematters.org, November 1, 2003 According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College: Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such racist interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen of Alexandria, who equated blackness with darkness of the soul. Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian, Princeton University Press In Afrocentrism 1820 drawing of a fresco of the tomb of Seti I, depicting (from left): Libyan, Nubian, Asiatic, Egyptians. Biological and Ethnic Identity in New Kingdom Nubia A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the ancient Egyptians was sparked as part of the Afrocentric debate. Building bridges to Afrocentrism Afrocentrist scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop contend that ancient Egypt was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is Herodotus, who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin." However, Classical scholar Frank Snowden, Jr. cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians. Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks. Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many people, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this. According to Egyptologists, ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences. Were the Ancient Egyptians black or white Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an Africoid element was evident in ancient Egypt, which was predominant in Abydos in the First dynasty of Egypt. Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships, by S.O.Y. Keita, History in Africa, 20: 129-154 (1993) Footnotes See also Sub-Saharan Africa Africans African-American Afro-Latino African diaspora Black British Negritos Black pride, Black Power, Black nationalism, Black separatism, Black supremacy Stereotypes of black people List of topics related to Black and African people | Black_people |@lemmatized term:27 black:162 people:49 usually:2 refers:2 racial:13 group:16 human:6 dark:16 brown:5 skin:38 color:17 also:17 use:20 categorise:1 number:10 diverse:3 population:37 one:22 common:4 definition:7 include:12 relatively:5 recent:6 sub:14 saharan:15 african:81 descent:6 see:11 diaspora:2 among:6 member:1 typically:3 accompany:1 expression:1 natural:7 afro:16 hair:29 texture:6 extend:4 characterize:1 certain:5 oceania:2 southeast:3 asia:5 various:5 isolated:1 sometimes:10 classify:5 austronesian:2 papuan:2 andamanese:4 islander:3 semang:2 malay:3 peninsula:2 aeta:2 luzon:2 small:2 indigenous:6 n:1 dictionary:2 com:3 unabridged:1 v:1 retrieve:4 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3,531 | Inca_(disambiguation) | Inca, Inka, İncə or INCA may refer to: Inca civilization, centered in what is now Peru Inca, several species of hummingbirds in the genus Coeligena Inca, the first five-masted schooner built on the United States western coast, in 1896 Inca (beetle), a scarab beetle genus. Inca Empire (1438-1533) Inca Kola, a carbonated soft drink from Peru Inca, Spain, a town on the island of Majorca in the Mediterranean Sea Inca (video game), an adventure game by Coktel Vision INCA Internet, South Korean company Instituto Nacional de Câncer (National Cancer Institute of Brazil), Ministry of Health (Brazil) İncə, Goychay, Azerbaijan İncə, Shaki, Azerbaijan Inka, a Zen Buddhist term indicating that a person has been ordained or given a Master's seal of approval Sapa Inca or Inka, the main ruler of the Inca Empire SEAT Inca, a panel van | Inca_(disambiguation) |@lemmatized inca:14 inka:3 ncə:3 may:1 refer:1 civilization:1 center:1 peru:2 several:1 specie:1 hummingbird:1 genus:2 coeligena:1 first:1 five:1 masted:1 schooner:1 build:1 united:1 state:1 western:1 coast:1 beetle:2 scarab:1 empire:2 kola:1 carbonated:1 soft:1 drink:1 spain:1 town:1 island:1 majorca:1 mediterranean:1 sea:1 video:1 game:2 adventure:1 coktel:1 vision:1 internet:1 south:1 korean:1 company:1 instituto:1 nacional:1 de:1 câncer:1 national:1 cancer:1 institute:1 brazil:2 ministry:1 health:1 goychay:1 azerbaijan:2 shaki:1 zen:1 buddhist:1 term:1 indicate:1 person:1 ordain:1 give:1 master:1 seal:1 approval:1 sapa:1 main:1 ruler:1 seat:1 panel:1 van:1 |@bigram scarab_beetle:1 inca_kola:1 soft_drink:1 instituto_nacional:1 zen_buddhist:1 sapa_inca:1 |
3,532 | Earley_parser | The Earley parser is a type of chart parser mainly used for parsing in computational linguistics, named after its inventor, Jay Earley. The algorithm uses dynamic programming. Earley parsers are appealing because they can parse all context-free languages. The Earley parser executes in cubic time (O(n3), where n is the length of the parsed string) in the general case, quadratic time (O(n2)) for unambiguous grammars, and linear time for almost all LR(k) grammars. It performs particularly well when the rules are written left-recursively. The algorithm In the following descriptions, α, β, and γ represent any string of terminals/nonterminals (including the empty string), X and Y represent single nonterminals, and a represents a terminal symbol. Earley's algorithm is a top-down dynamic programming algorithm. In the following, we use Earley's dot notation: given a production X → αβ, the notation X → α • β represents a condition in which α has already been parsed and β is expected. For every input position (which represents a position between tokens), the parser generates an ordered state set. Each state is a tuple (X → α • β, i), consisting of the production currently being matched (X → α β) our current position in that production (represented by the dot) the position i in the input at which the matching of this production began: the origin position (Earley's original algorithm included a look-ahead in the state; later research showed this to have little practical effect on the parsing efficiency, and it has subsequently been dropped from most implementations.) The state set at input position k is called S(k). The parser is seeded with S(0) consisting of only the top-level rule. The parser then iteratively operates in three stages: prediction, scanning, and completion. Prediction: For every state in S(k) of the form (X → α • Y β, j) (where j is the origin position as above), add (Y → • γ, k) to S(k) for every production with Y on the left-hand side. Scanning: If a is the next symbol in the input stream, for every state in S(k) of the form (X → α • a β, j), add (X → α a • β, j) to S(k+1). Completion: For every state in S(k) of the form (X → γ •, j), find states in S(j) of the form (Y → α • X β, i) and add (Y → α X • β, i) to S(k). These steps are repeated until no more states can be added to the set. The set is generally implemented as a queue of states to process (though a given state must appear in one place only), and performing the corresponding operation depending on what kind of state it is. Example Consider the following simple grammar for arithmetic expressions: P → S # the start rule S → S + M | M M → M * T | T T → number With the input: 2 + 3 * 4 This is the sequence of state sets: (state no.) Production (Origin) # Comment --------------------------------- == S(0): • 2 + 3 * 4 == (1) P → • S (0) # start rule (2) S → • S + M (0) # predict from (1) (3) S → • M (0) # predict from (1) (4) M → • M * T (0) # predict from (3) (5) M → • T (0) # predict from (3) (6) T → • number (0) # predict from (5) == S(1): 2 • + 3 * 4 == (1) T → number • (0) # scan from S(0)(6) (2) M → T • (0) # complete from S(0)(5) (3) M → M • * T (0) # complete from S(0)(4) (4) S → M • (0) # complete from S(0)(3) (5) S → S • + M (0) # complete from S(0)(2) (6) P → S • (0) # complete from S(0)(1) == S(2): 2 + • 3 * 4 == (1) S → S + • M (0) # scan from S(1)(5) (2) M → • M * T (2) # predict from (1) (3) M → • T (2) # predict from (1) (4) T → • number (2) # predict from (3) == S(3): 2 + 3 • * 4 == (1) T → number • (2) # scan from S(2)(4) (2) M → T • (2) # complete from S(2)(3) (3) M → M • * T (2) # complete from S(2)(2) (4) S → S + M • (0) # complete from S(2)(1) (5) S → S • + M (0) # complete from S(0)(2) (6) P → S • (0) # complete from S(0)(1) == S(4): 2 + 3 * • 4 == (1) M → M * • T (2) # scan from S(3)(3) (2) T → • number (4) # predict from (1) == S(5): 2 + 3 * 4 • == (1) T → number • (4) # scan from S(4)(2) (2) M → M * T • (2) # complete from S(4)(1) (3) M → M • * T (2) # complete from S(2)(2) (4) S → S + M • (0) # complete from S(2)(1) (5) S → S • + M (0) # complete from S(0)(2) (6) P → S • (0) # complete from S(0)(1) The state (P → S •, 0) represents a completed parse. This state also appears in S(3) and S(1), which are complete sentences. See also CYK algorithm Context-free grammar Parsing Algorithms References J. Earley, "An efficient context-free parsing algorithm", Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, 13:2:94-102, 1970. J. Aycock and R.N. Horspool. Practical Earley Parsing. The Computer Journal, 45:6:620-630, 2002. External links Parse::Earley An Earley parser Perl module. Parse::Marpa Another Perl module implementing an Earley parser, this one based on the work by Aycock and Horspool. 'early' An Earley parser C -library. Spark an Object Oriented "little language framework" for Python that implements an Earley parser. NLTK a Python toolkit that has an Earley parser. Pep A Java library that implements the Earley algorithm and provides charts and parse trees as parsing artifacts. PEN A Java library that implements the Earley. | Earley_parser |@lemmatized earley:17 parser:12 type:1 chart:2 mainly:1 use:2 parse:9 computational:1 linguistics:1 name:1 inventor:1 jay:1 algorithm:8 us:1 dynamic:2 programming:2 appeal:1 context:3 free:3 language:2 execute:1 cubic:1 time:3 n:2 length:1 parsed:1 string:3 general:1 case:1 quadratic:1 unambiguous:1 grammar:3 linear:1 almost:1 lr:1 k:10 grammars:1 perform:2 particularly:1 well:1 rule:4 write:1 left:2 recursively:1 following:3 description:1 α:10 β:10 γ:3 represent:7 terminal:2 nonterminals:2 include:2 empty:1 x:11 single:1 symbol:2 top:2 dot:2 notation:2 give:2 production:6 αβ:1 condition:1 already:1 expect:1 every:5 input:5 position:7 token:1 generate:1 ordered:1 state:16 set:5 tuple:1 consist:1 currently:1 match:1 current:1 matching:1 begin:1 origin:3 original:1 look:1 ahead:1 later:1 research:1 show:1 little:2 practical:2 effect:1 parsing:3 efficiency:1 subsequently:1 drop:1 implementation:1 call:1 seed:1 consisting:1 level:1 iteratively:1 operate:1 three:1 stage:1 prediction:2 scanning:2 completion:2 form:4 j:8 add:4 hand:1 side:1 next:1 stream:1 find:1 step:1 repeat:1 generally:1 implement:5 queue:1 process:1 though:1 must:1 appear:2 one:2 place:1 corresponding:1 operation:1 depend:1 kind:1 example:1 consider:1 simple:1 arithmetic:1 expression:1 p:6 start:2 number:7 sequence:1 comment:1 predict:9 scan:5 complete:17 also:2 sentence:1 see:1 cyk:1 algorithms:1 reference:1 efficient:1 communication:1 association:1 compute:1 machinery:1 aycock:2 r:1 horspool:2 computer:1 journal:1 external:1 link:1 perl:2 module:2 marpa:1 another:1 base:1 work:1 early:1 c:1 library:3 spark:1 object:1 orient:1 framework:1 python:2 nltk:1 toolkit:1 pep:1 java:2 provide:1 tree:1 artifact:1 pen:1 |@bigram earley_parser:8 computational_linguistics:1 α_β:7 β_γ:1 terminal_nonterminals:1 compute_machinery:1 external_link:1 perl_module:2 |
3,533 | Light | A beam of white light (entering upwards from the right) is dispersed into its constituent colors by its passage through a prism. The fainter beam of white light exiting to the upper right has been reflected (without dispersion) off the first surface of the prism. Light is electromagnetic radiation, particularly radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye (about 400–700 nm), or perhaps 380–750 nm. In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not. Three primary properties of light are: Intensity Frequency or wavelength Polarization Light, which exists in tiny "packets" called photons, exhibits properties of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as the wave–particle duality. The study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics. Speed of light The speed of light in a vacuum is presently defined to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s (about 186,282.397 miles per second). This definition of the speed of light means that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. Light always travels at a constant speed, even between particles of a substance through which it is shining. Photons excite the adjoining particles that in turn transfer the energy to the neighbor. This may appear to slow the beam down through its trajectory in realtime. The time lost between entry and exit accounts to the displacement of energy through the substance between each particle that is excited. Different physicists have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer, a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope, Ole observed the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons, Io. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, Rømer calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit. Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light. Statistical Science 2000, Vol. 15, No. 3, 254–278 Unfortunately, its size was not known at that time. If Ole had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of 227,000,000 m/s. Another, more accurate, measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as 313,000,000 m/s. Léon Foucault used an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298,000,000 m/s in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mt. Wilson to Mt. San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299,796,000 m/s. Two independent teams of physicists were able to bring light to a complete standstill by passing it through a Bose-Einstein Condensate of the element rubidium, one led by Dr. Lene Vestergaard Hau of Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass., and the other by Dr. Ronald L. Walsworth and Dr. Mikhail D. Lukin of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge. Refraction Note, n = 1 in a vacuum and n > 1 in a transparent substance, where n is the index of refraction. When a beam of light crosses the boundary between a vacuum and another medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the frequency remains constant. If the beam of light is not orthogonal (or rather normal) to the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the beam. This change of direction is known as refraction. The refractive quality of lenses is frequently used to manipulate light in order to change the apparent size of images. Magnifying glasses, spectacles, contact lenses, microscopes and refracting telescopes are all examples of this manipulation. Light refraction is the main basis of measurement for gloss. Gloss is measured using a glossmeter, and an objects refractive index is what the glossmeter analyses. Optics The study of light and the interaction of light and matter is termed optics. The observation and study of optical phenomena such as rainbows and the aurora borealis offer many clues as to the nature of light as well as much enjoyment. Light sources A cloud illuminated by sunlight There are many sources of light. The most common light sources are thermal: a body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. Examples include sunlight (the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around 6,000 K peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum), incandescent light bulbs (which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared), and glowing solid particles in flames. The peak of the blackbody spectrum is in the infrared for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one, and finally a blue color as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colors can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue thermal emission is not often seen. The commonly seen blue colour in a gas flame or a welder's torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals (emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm). Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces "emission lines" in the spectrum of each atom. Emission can be spontaneous, as in light-emitting diodes, gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs, mercury-vapor lamps, etc.), and flames (light from the hot gas itself—so, for example, sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be stimulated, as in a laser or a microwave maser. Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an electron, can produce visible radiation: cyclotron radiation, synchrotron radiation, and bremsstrahlung radiation are all examples of this. Particles moving through a medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation. Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by chemoluminescence. In living things, this process is called bioluminescence. For example, fireflies produce light by this means, and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake. Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation, a process known as fluorescence. Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as phosphorescence. Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles. Cathodoluminescence is one example of this. This mechanism is used in cathode ray tube televisions. Certain other mechanisms can produce light: scintillation electroluminescence sonoluminescence triboluminescence Cherenkov radiation When the concept of light is intended to include very-high-energy photons (gamma rays), additional generation mechanisms include: Radioactive decay Particle–antiparticle annihilation Theories about light Hindu theories In ancient India, the Hindu schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th–5th century BC, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous. On the other hand, the Vaisheshika school gives an atomic theory of the physical world on the non-atomic ground of ether, space and time. (See Indian atomism.) The basic atoms are those of earth (prthivı), water (apas), fire (tejas), and air (vayu), that should not be confused with the ordinary meaning of these terms. These atoms are taken to form binary molecules that combine further to form larger molecules. Motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms and it appears that it is taken to be non-instantaneous. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century BC, the Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as the "the seven rays of the sun". Later in 499, Aryabhata, who proposed a heliocentric solar system of gravitation in his Aryabhatiya, wrote that the planets and the Moon do not have their own light but reflect the light of the Sun. The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the 7th century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, similar to the modern concept of photons, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light/energy particles. Greek and Hellenistic theories In the fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the eyes and rays from a source such as the sun. In about 300 BC, Euclid wrote Optica, in which he studied the properties of light. Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of reflection and studied them mathematically. He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's eyes, then opens them at night. Of course if the beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem. In 55 BC, Lucretius, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek atomists, wrote: "The light & heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove." - On the nature of the Universe Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted and light was still theorized as emanating from the eye. Ptolemy (c. 2nd century) wrote about the refraction of light in his book Optics, and developed a theory of vision whereby objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes. Optical theory The Muslim scientist Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040), known as Alhacen or Alhazen in the West, developed a broad theory of vision based on geometry and anatomy in his 1021 Book of Optics. Al-Haytham postulated that every point on an illuminated surface radiates light rays in all directions, but that only one ray from each point can be seen: the ray that strikes the eye perpendicularly. The other rays strike at different angles and are not seen. He described the pinhole camera and invented the camera obscura, which produces an inverted image, using it as an example to support his argument. History of Photography and the Camera This contradicted Ptolemy's theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes. Alhacen held light rays to be streams of minute energy particles : that travelled at a finite speed. Sami Hamarneh (March 1972). Review of Hakim Mohammed Said, Ibn al-Haitham, Isis 63 (1), p. 119. He improved Ptolemy's theory of the refraction of light, and went on to discover the laws of refraction. He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colors. His major work Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics) was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages, as well his book dealing with the colors of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like shadows, eclipses, the rainbow. He also attempted to explain binocular vision, and gave an explanation of the apparent increase in size of the sun and the moon when near the horizon, known as the moon illusion. Because of his extensive experimental research on optics, Ibn al-Haytham is considered the "father of modern optics". R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics. Ibn al-Haytham also correctly argued that we see objects because the sun's rays of light, which he believed to be streams of tiny energy particles travelling in straight lines, are reflected from objects into our eyes. He understood that light must travel at a large but finite velocity, and that refraction is caused by the velocity being different in different substances. He also studied spherical and parabolic mirrors, and understood how refraction by a lens will allow images to be focused and magnification to take place. He understood mathematically why a spherical mirror produces aberration. Avicenna (980–1037) agreed that the speed of light is finite, as he "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite." George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. 1, p. 710. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048) also agreed that light has a finite speed, and he was the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound. In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311) and his student Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1260–1320) continued the work of Ibn al-Haytham, and they were the first to give the correct explanations for the rainbow phenomenon. The 'plenum' René Descartes (1596–1650) held that light was a disturbance of the plenum, the continuous substance of which the universe was composed. In 1637 he published a theory of the refraction of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser medium than in a less dense medium. Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy with the behaviour of sound waves. Although Descartes was incorrect about the relative speeds, he was correct in assuming that light behaved like a wave and in concluding that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media. As a result, Descartes' theory is often regarded as the forerunner of the wave theory of light. Particle theory Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, 965–1040) proposed a particle theory of light in his Book of Optics (1021). He held light rays to be streams of minute energy particles that travel in straight lines at a finite speed. He states in his optics that "the smallest parts of light," as he calls them, "retain only properties that can be treated by geometry and verified by experiment; they lack all sensible qualities except energy." Avicenna (980–1037) also proposed that "the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source". Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s. Isaac Newton studied Gassendi's work at an early age, and preferred his view to Descartes' theory of the plenum. He stated in his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 that light was composed of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from a source. One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did, however, explain the phenomenon of the diffraction of light (which had been observed by Francesco Grimaldi) by allowing that a light particle could create a localised wave in the aether. Newton's theory could be used to predict the reflection of light, but could only explain refraction by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a denser medium because the gravitational pull was greater. Newton published the final version of his theory in his Opticks of 1704. His reputation helped the particle theory of light to hold sway during the 18th century. The particle theory of light led Laplace to argue that a body could be so massive that light could not escape from it. In other words it would become what is now called a black hole. Laplace withdrew his suggestion when the wave theory of light was firmly established. A translation of his essay appears in The large scale structure of space-time, by Stephen Hawking and George F. R. Ellis. Wave theory In the 1660s, Robert Hooke published a wave theory of light. Christiaan Huygens worked out his own wave theory of light in 1678, and published it in his Treatise on light in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the Luminiferous ether. As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium. Thomas Young's sketch of the two-slit experiment showing the diffraction of light. Young's experiments supported the theory that light consists of waves. The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by Thomas Young), and that light could be polarized, if it were a transverse wave. Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colors were caused by different wavelengths of light, and explained color vision in terms of three-colored receptors in the eye. Another supporter of the wave theory was Leonhard Euler. He argued in Nova theoria lucis et colorum (1746) that diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory. Later, Augustin-Jean Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light, and presented it to the Académie des Sciences in 1817. Simeon Denis Poisson added to Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favour of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory. The weakness of the wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission. A hypothetical substance called the luminiferous aether was proposed, but its existence was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the Michelson-Morley experiment. Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied the opposite. At that time, the speed of light could not be measured accurately enough to decide which theory was correct. The first to make a sufficiently accurate measurement was Léon Foucault, in 1850. His result supported the wave theory, and the classical particle theory was finally abandoned. Electromagnetic theory A linearly-polarized light wave frozen in time and showing the two oscillating components of light; an electric field and a magnetic field perpendicular to each other and to the direction of motion (a transverse wave). In 1845, Michael Faraday discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light is rotated when the light rays travel along the magnetic field direction in the presence of a transparent dielectric, an effect now known as Faraday rotation. Longair, Malcolm. Theoretical Concepts in Physics (2003) p. 87. This was the first evidence that light was related to electromagnetism. In 1846 he speculated that light might be some form of disturbance propagating along magnetic field lines. Longair, Malcolm. Theoretical Concepts in Physics (2003) p. 87 Faraday proposed in 1847 that light was a high-frequency electromagnetic vibration, which could propagate even in the absence of a medium such as the ether. Faraday's work inspired James Clerk Maxwell to study electromagnetic radiation and light. Maxwell discovered that self-propagating electromagnetic waves would travel through space at a constant speed, which happened to be equal to the previously measured speed of light. From this, Maxwell concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation: he first stated this result in 1862 in On Physical Lines of Force. In 1873, he published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, which contained a full mathematical description of the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields, still known as Maxwell's equations. Soon after, Heinrich Hertz confirmed Maxwell's theory experimentally by generating and detecting radio waves in the laboratory, and demonstrating that these waves behaved exactly like visible light, exhibiting properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference. Maxwell's theory and Hertz's experiments led directly to the development of modern radio, radar, television, electromagnetic imaging, and wireless communications. The special theory of relativity The wave theory was wildly successful in explaining nearly all optical and electromagnetic phenomena, and was a great triumph of nineteenth century physics. By the late nineteenth century, however, a handful of experimental anomalies remained that could not be explained by or were in direct conflict with the wave theory. One of these anomalies involved a controversy over the speed of light. The constant speed of light predicted by Maxwell's equations and confirmed by the Michelson-Morley experiment contradicted the mechanical laws of motion that had been unchallenged since the time of Galileo, which stated that all speeds were relative to the speed of the observer. In 1905, Albert Einstein resolved this paradox by revising the Galilean model of space and time to account for the constancy of the speed of light. Einstein formulated his ideas in his special theory of relativity, which radically altered humankind's understanding of space and time. Einstein also demonstrated a previously unknown fundamental equivalence between energy and mass with his famous equation where E is energy, m is rest mass, and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. Particle theory revisited Another experimental anomaly was the photoelectric effect, by which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an electric current to flow across an applied voltage. Experimental measurements demonstrated that the energy of individual ejected electrons was proportional to the frequency, rather than the intensity, of the light. Furthermore, below a certain minimum frequency, which depended on the particular metal, no current would flow regardless of the intensity. These observations clearly contradicted the wave theory, and for years physicists tried in vain to find an explanation. In 1905, Einstein solved this puzzle as well, this time by resurrecting the particle theory of light to explain the observed effect. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of the wave theory, however, Einstein's ideas were met initially by great skepticism among established physicists. But eventually Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect would triumph, and it ultimately formed the basis for wave–particle duality and much of quantum mechanics. Quantum theory A third anomaly that arose in the late 19th century involved a contradiction between the wave theory of light and measurements of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by thermal radiators, or so-called black bodies. Physicists struggled with this problem, which later became known as the ultraviolet catastrophe, unsuccessfully for many years. In 1900, Max Planck developed a new theory of black-body radiation that explained the observed spectrum correctly. Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy. These packets were called quanta, and the particle of light was given the name photon, to correspond with other particles being described around this time, such as the electron and proton. A photon has an energy, E, proportional to its frequency, f, by where h is Planck's constant, is the wavelength and c is the speed of light. Likewise, the momentum p of a photon is also proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength: As it originally stood, this theory did not explain the simultaneous wave- and particle-like natures of light, though Planck would later work on theories that did. In 1918, Planck received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in the founding of quantum theory. Wave–particle duality The modern theory that explains the nature of light includes the notion of wave–particle duality, described by Albert Einstein in the early 1900s, based on his study of the photoelectric effect and Planck's results. Einstein asserted that the energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency. More generally, the theory states that everything has both a particle nature and a wave nature, and various experiments can be done to bring out one or the other. The particle nature is more easily discerned if an object has a large mass, and it was not until a bold proposition by Louis de Broglie in 1924 that the scientific community realized that electrons also exhibited wave–particle duality. The wave nature of electrons was experimentally demonstrated by Davission and Germer in 1927. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work with the wave–particle duality on photons (especially explaining the photoelectric effect thereby), and de Broglie followed in 1929 for his extension to other particles. Quantum electrodynamics The quantum mechanical theory of light and electromagnetic radiation continued to evolve through the 1920s and 1930's, and culminated with the development during the 1940s of the theory of quantum electrodynamics, or QED. This so-called quantum field theory is among the most comprehensive and experimentally successful theories ever formulated to explain a set of natural phenomena. QED was developed primarily by physicists Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Shin-Ichiro Tomonaga. Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics for their contributions. Light pressure Light pushes on objects in its path, just as the wind would do. This pressure is most easily explainable in particle theory: photons hit and transfer their momentum. Light pressure can cause asteroids to spin faster, acting on their irregular shapes as on the vanes of a windmill. The possibility to make solar sails that would accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation. Although the motion of the Crookes radiometer was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum. P. Lebedev, Untersuchungen über die Druckkräfte des Lichtes, Ann. Phys. 6, 433 (1901). This should not be confused with the Nichols radiometer, in which the motion is directly caused by light pressure. Nichols, E.F & Hull, G.F. (1903) The Pressure due to Radiation, The Astrophysical Journal,Vol.17 No.5, p.315-351 Spirituality An intricate display for the feast of St. Thomas at Kallara Pazhayapalli in Kottayam, Kerala, India dramatically illustrates the importance of light in religion. The sensory perception of light plays a central role in spirituality (vision, enlightenment, darshan, Tabor Light). The presence of light as opposed to its absence (darkness) is a common Western metaphor of good and evil, knowledge and ignorance, and similar concepts. See also Automotive lighting Ballistic photon Color temperature Electromagnetic spectrum Huygens' principle Fermat's principle International Commission on Illumination Light beam - in particular about light beams visible from the side Light pollution Light therapy Lighting Photic sneeze reflex Photometry Rights of Light Spectrometry Spectroscopy Visible light Wave–particle duality References be-x-old:Сьвятло | Light |@lemmatized beam:13 white:4 light:155 enter:3 upwards:1 right:4 disperse:1 constituent:2 color:9 passage:1 prism:2 faint:1 exit:2 upper:1 reflect:3 without:1 dispersion:2 first:9 surface:4 electromagnetic:14 radiation:20 particularly:1 wavelength:10 visible:11 human:3 eye:14 nm:3 perhaps:1 physic:7 term:6 sometimes:1 refers:2 whether:1 three:2 primary:1 property:6 intensity:3 frequency:8 polarization:2 exist:1 tiny:2 packet:3 call:9 photon:11 exhibit:4 wave:48 particle:41 refer:1 duality:7 study:9 know:13 optic:11 important:1 research:2 area:1 modern:6 speed:35 vacuum:5 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3,534 | Dance | Modern dance Dance (from French danser, perhaps from Frankish) is a sport and art form that generally refers to movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music, britannica used as a form of expression, social interaction or presented in a spiritual or performance setting. Dance may also to regarded as a form of nonverbal communication between humans, and is also performed by other animals (bee dance, patterns of behaviour such as a mating dance). Gymnastics, figure skating and synchronized swimming are sports dance disciplines, while martial arts kata are often compared to dances. Motion in inanimate objects may also be described as dances (the leaves danced in the wind), and certain musical forms or genres. Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as folk dance) to virtuoso techniques such as ballet. Dance can be participatory, social or performed for an audience. It can also be ceremonial, competitive or erotic. Dance movements may be without significance in themselves, such as in ballet or European folk dance, or have a gestural vocabulary/symbolic system as in many Asian dances. Dance can embody or express ideas, emotions or tell a story. Dancing has evolved many styles. Breakdancing and Krumping are related to the hip hop culture. African dance is interpretive. Ballet, Ballroom, Waltz, and Tango are classical styles of dance while Square and the Electric Slide are forms of step dances. Every dance, no matter what style, has something in common. It not only involves flexibility and body movement, but also physics. If the proper physics is not taken into consideration, injuries may occur. Choreography is the art of creating dances. The person who creates (i.e., choreographs) a dance is known as the choreographer. Origins and history of dance Dance does not leave behind clearly identifiable physical artifacts such as stone tools, hunting implements or cave paintings. It is not possible to say when dance became part of human culture. Dance has certainly been an important part of ceremony, rituals, celebrations and entertainment since before the birth of the earliest human civilizations. Archeology delivers traces of dance from prehistoric times such as the 9,000 year old Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka paintings in India and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing figures from circa 3300 BC. One of the earliest structured uses of dances may have been in the performance and in the telling of myths. It was also sometimes used to show feelings for one of the opposite gender. It is also linked to the origin of "love making." Before the production of written languages, dance was one of the methods of passing these stories down from generation to generation. Nathalie Comte. "Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World". Ed. Jonathan Dewald. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004. pp 94–108. Another early use of dance may have been as a precursor to ecstatic trance states in healing rituals. Dance is still used for this purpose by many cultures from the Brazilian rainforest to the Kalahari Desert. Guenther, Mathias Georg. 'The San Trance Dance: Ritual and Revitalization Among the Farm Bushmen of the Ghanzi District, Republic of Botswana.' Journal, South West Africa Scientific Society, v30, 1975–76. Sri Lankan dances goes back to the mythological times of aboriginal yingyang twins and "yakkas" (devils). According to a Sinhalese legend, Kandyan dances originate, 250 years ago, from a magic ritual that broke the spell on a bewitched king. Many contemporary dance forms can be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, and ethnic dance. Dance classification and genres Partner dance. Dance categories by number of interacting dancers are mainly solo dance, partner dance and group dance. Dance is performed for various purposes like ceremonial dance, erotic dance, performance dance, social dance etc. Dancing and music Many early forms of music and dance were created and performed together. This paired development has continued through the ages with dance/music forms such as: jig, waltz, tango, disco, salsa, electronica and hip-hop. Some musical genres also have a parallel dance form such as baroque music and baroque dance whereas others developed separately: classical music and classical ballet. Although dance is often accompanied by music, it can also be presented independently or provide its own accompaniment (tap dance). Dance presented with music may or may not be performed in time to the music depending on the style of dance. Dance performed without music is said to be danced to its own rhythm. Ballroom dancing is an art although it may incorporates many fitness components using an artistic state of mind. Dance studies and techniques In the early 1920s, dance studies (dance practice, critical theory, Musical analysis and history) began to be considered an academic discipline. Today these studies are an integral part of many universities' arts and humanities programs. By the late 20th century the recognition of practical knowledge as equal to academic knowledge lead to the emergence of practice research and practice as research. A large range of dance courses are available including: Professional practice: performance and technical skills Practice research: choreography and performance Ethnochoreology, encompassing the dance-related aspects of anthropology, cultural studies, gender studies, area studies, postcolonial theory, ethnography, etc. Dance therapy or dance-movement therapy. Dance and technology: new media and performance technologies. Laban Movement Analysis and somatic studies Academic degrees are available from BA (Hons) to PhD and other postdoctoral fellowships, with some dance scholars taking up their studies as mature students after a professional dance career. Dance competitions An amateur dancesport competition at MIT. A dance competition is an organized event in which contestants perform dances before a judge or judges for awards and, in some cases, monetary prizes. There are several major types of dance competitions, distinguished primarily by the style or styles of dances performed. Major types of dance competitions include: Competitive dance, in which a variety of theater dance styles—such as acro, ballet, jazz, hip-hop, lyrical, and tap—are permitted. Open competitions, which permit a wide variety of dance styles. A popular example of this is the TV program So You Think You Can Dance. Dancesport, which is focused exclusively on ballroom and latin dance. Popular examples of this are TV programs Dancing with the Stars and Strictly Come Dancing. Single-style competitions, such as highland dance, dance team, and Irish dance, which only permit a single dance style. Today, there are various dances and dance show competitions on Television and the Internet. Dance occupations There are different careers connected with dancing: Dancer, dance teacher, dance sport coach, dance therapist and choreographer. Dancer Dance training differs depending on the dance form. There are university programs and schools associated with professional dance companies for specialised training in classical dance (e.g. Ballet) and modern dance. There are also smaller, privately owned dance studios where students may train in a variety of dance forms including competitive dance forms (e.g. Latin dance, ballroom dance, etc.) as well as ethnic/traditional dance forms. Professional dancers at the Tropicana Club, Havana, Cuba, in 2008 Professional dancers are usually employed on contract or for particular performances/productions. The professional life of a dancer is generally one of constantly changing work situations, strong competition pressure and low pay. Professional dancers often need to supplement their income, either in dance related roles (e.g., dance teaching, dance sport coaches, yoga) or Pilates instruction to achieve financial stability. In the U.S. many professional dancers are members of unions such as the American Guild of Musical Artists, the Screen Actors Guild and Actors' Equity Association. The unions help determine working conditions and minimum salaries for their members. Dance teachers Dance teacher and operators of dance schools rely on reputation and marketing. For dance forms without an association structure such as Salsa or Tango Argentino they may not have formal training. Most dance teachers are self employed. Dancesport coaches Dancesport coaches are tournament dancers or former dancesports people, and may be recognised by a dance sport federation. Choreographer Choreographers are generally university trained and are typically employed for particular projects or, more rarely may work on contract as the resident choreographer for a specific dance company. A choreographic work is protected intellectual property. Dancers may undertake their own choreography. Dance by ethnicity or region Dance in South Asia India During the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life. In the matter of dance, Bharata Muni's Natyashastra (literally "the text of dramaturgy") is the one of the earlier texts. Though the main theme of Natyashastra deals with drama, dance is also widely featured, and indeed the two concepts have ever since been linked in Indian culture. The text elaborates various hand-gestures or mudras and classifies movements of the various limbs of the body, gait, and so on. The Natyashastra categorised dance into four groups and into four regional varieties, naming the groups: secular, ritual, abstract, and, interpretive. However, concepts of regional geography has altered and so have regional varieties of Indian dances. Dances like "Odra Magadhi", which after decades long debate, has been traced to present day Mithila-Orissa region's dance form of Odissi, indicate influence of dances in cultural interactions between different regions. Dance: The Living Spirit of Indian Arts, by Prof. P. C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet. From these beginnings rose the various classical styles which are recognised today. Therefore, all Indian classical dances are to varying degrees rooted in the Natyashastra and therefore share common features: for example, the mudras, some body positions, and the inclusion of dramatic or expressive acting or abhinaya. The Indian classical music tradition provides the accompaniment for the dance, and as percussion is such an integral part of the tradition, the dancers of nearly all the styles wear bells around their ankles to counterpoint and complement the percussion. Bhangra in the Punjab The Punjab area overlapping India and Pakistan is the place of origin of Bhangra. It is widely known both as a style of music and a dance. It is mostly related to ancient harvest celebrations, love, patriotism or social issues. Its music is coordinated by a musical instrument called the 'Dhol'. Bhangra is not just music but a dance, a celebration of the harvest where people beat the dhol (drum), sing Boliyaan (lyrics) and dance. Dances of Sri Lanka The devil dances of Sri Lanka or "yakun natima" are a carefully crafted ritual with a history reaching far back into Sri Lanka's pre-Buddhist past. It combines ancient "Ayurvedic" concepts of disease causation with psychological manipulation. The dance combines many aspects including Sinhalese cosmology, the dances also has an impact on the classical dances of Sri Lanka. "The yakun natima — devil dance ritual of Sri Lanka" at WWW Virtual Library — Sri Lanka In Europe and North America Morris dancing in the grounds of Wells Cathedral, Wells, England Concert (or performance) dance Ballet Ballet developed first in Italy and then in France from lavish court spectacles that combined music, drama, poetry, song, costumes and dance. Members of the court nobility took part as performers. During the reign of Louis XIV, himself a dancer, dance became more codified. Professional dancers began to take the place of court amateurs, and ballet masters were licensed by the French government. The first ballet dance academy was the Académie Royale de Danse (Royal Dance Academy), opened in Paris in 1661. Shortly thereafter, the first institutionalized ballet troupe, associated with the Academy, was formed; this troupe began as an all-male ensemble but by 1681 opened to include women as well. 20th century concert dance At the beginning of the 20th century, there was an explosion of innovation in dance style characterized by an exploration of freer technique. Early pioneers of what became known as modern dance include Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Mary Wigman and Ruth St. Denis. The relationship of music to dance serves as the basis for Eurhythmics, devised by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, which was influential to the development of Modern dance and modern ballet through artists such as Marie Rambert. Eurythmy, developed by Rudolf Steiner and Marie Steiner-von Sivers, combines formal elements reminiscent of traditional dance with the new freer style, and introduced a complex new vocabulary to dance. In the 1920s, important founders of the new style such as Martha Graham and Doris Humphrey began their work. Since this time, a wide variety of dance styles have been developed; see Modern dance. The influence of African American dance African American dances are those dances which have developed within African American communities in everyday spaces, rather than in dance studios, schools or companies and its derivatives, tap dance, disco, jazz dance, swing dance, hip hop dance and breakdance. Other dances, such as the lindy hop with its relationship to rock and roll music and rock and roll dance have also had a global influence. See also Dancers in a city square Backup dancer Majorettes Cheerleading Entrainment (Biomusicology) Lists List of basic dance topics List of dance education organizations List of dance style categories List of dance topics List of dance wikibooks List of choreographers Related topics An American Ballroom Companion Ballroom dance Dance criticism Dance theory Dance costumes African American dance Further reading Adshead-Lansdale, J. (Ed) (1994) Dance History: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09030-X Carter, A. (1998) The Routledge Dance Studies Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16447-8 Cohen, S, J. (1992) Dance As a Theatre Art: Source Readings in Dance History from 1581 to the Present. Princeton Book Co. ISBN 0-87127-173-7 Charman, S. Kraus, R, G. Chapman, S. and Dixon-Stowall, B. (1990) History of the Dance in Art and Education. Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-389362-6 Daly, A. (2002) Critical Gestures: Writings on Dance and Culture. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-6566-0 Dils, A. (2001) Moving History/Dancing Cultures: A Dance History Reader. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-6413-3 Miller, James, L. (1986) Measures of Wisdom: The Cosmic Dance in Classical and Christian Antiquity, University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802025536 References External links Historic illustrations of dancing from 3300 B.C. to 1911 A.D. from Project Gutenberg United States National Museum of Dance and Hall of Fame nan:Bú-tō be-x-old:Танец | Dance |@lemmatized modern:7 dance:176 french:2 danser:1 perhaps:1 frankish:1 sport:5 art:8 form:16 generally:3 refer:1 movement:7 body:4 usually:2 rhythmic:1 music:17 britannica:1 use:5 expression:1 social:5 interaction:2 present:5 spiritual:1 performance:8 setting:1 may:14 also:14 regard:1 nonverbal:1 communication:1 human:3 perform:8 animal:1 bee:1 pattern:1 behaviour:1 mating:1 gymnastics:1 figure:2 skating:1 synchronized:1 swimming:1 discipline:2 martial:1 kata:1 often:3 compare:1 motion:1 inanimate:1 object:1 describe:1 leaf:1 wind:1 certain:1 musical:5 genre:3 definition:1 constitute:1 dependent:1 cultural:3 aesthetic:1 artistic:2 moral:1 constraint:1 range:2 functional:1 folk:2 virtuoso:1 technique:3 ballet:12 participatory:1 audience:1 ceremonial:3 competitive:3 erotic:2 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3,535 | Demographics_of_Cyprus | Age structure of the population of Cyprus. The Demographics of Cyprus is about the demographic features of the population of Cyprus, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. The people of Cyprus are broadly divided into two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, who share many customs but maintain distinct identities based on religion, language, and close ties with their respective motherlands. Before the division of 1974, the peoples of Cyprus (then 77% Greek Cypriots, 18% Turkish Cypriots, 5% other nationalities, including Armenians and Maronites) Eric Solsten, ed. Cyprus: A Country Study, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, 1991 were living dispersed over the entire island. The 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus de facto partitioned the island in two: 99.5% of Greek Cypriots now live in the south of the island, in the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus government, while 98.7% of Turkish Cypriots live in Northern Cyprus (of other nationalities, 99.2% live in the Greek Cypriot area in the south). Cyprus Facts on Worldpress.org. Retrieved 29 February 2009 Greek is predominantly spoken in the South, where the majority are Greek Cypriots, Turkish in the north, where the majority are Turkish Cypriots and immigrants from Turkey. English is widely used all over the island. The total population of Cyprus as of the end of 2006 is slightly over 1 million, comprising 778,700 in the territory controlled by the government of the Republic of Cyprus and 265,100 in Northern Cyprus (TRNC). The population of Northern Cyprus includes some 150,000-160,000 Turkish immigrants who are regarded as "illegal settlers" by the Republic of Cyprus government and are not included in the population statistics of the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service. Cyprus Government web portal: Towns and Population. Retrieved on 28 February 2009 Immigration Large-scale demographic changes have been caused since 1974 by the influx of settlers from Turkey to Northern Cyprus. The South has seen an influx of British and Arab (mostly Palestinian and Lebanese) immigration, as well as migrant workers from Poland, Russia, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, China and the Philippines. Foreign workers constituted 21.7% of the employed population in the Government controlled area in 2007, with EU citizens accounting for 8.3% (see p. 6 in Statistical Abstract 2007). The demographic changes in society have led to some racist incidents [http://www.cyprus-mail.com/news/main.php?id=43171 "My girl thought she was going to die" [http://www.cyprus-mail.com/news/main.php?id=34878&cat_id=1 "Why the Republic of Cyprus is institutionally racist" [http://www.cyprus-mail.com/news/main.php?id=44660 "Teen says beaten and mocked by police in racist incident" , and the formation of the charity KISA in response. The demographic character of Northern Cyprus changed after the Turkish invasion in 1974 and especially during the last 10-15 years. The TRNC census carried out in April 2006 showed that out of a total de jure (permanent) population of 256,644 in Northern Cyprus, 132,635, or 52%, were Turkish Cypriots in the sense that they were born in Cyprus of at least one Cyprus-born parent (for 120,007 of these both parents were Cyprus-born). In addition, 43,062 TRNC citizens (17%) had at least one non-Cypriot Turkish-born parent, 2,334 TRNC citizens (1%) had parents born in other countries, 70,525 residents (27%) had Turkish citizenship, and 8,088 (3%) were citizens of other countries (mainly UK, Bulgaria, and Iran). Based on these census data, it can be argued that 113,687 TRNC residents, or 44% of the population, are not Turkish Cypriots properly speaking, but are in fact "Turkish immigrants" or "Turkish settlers" from Anatolia. Alternative sources suggest that there are 146,122 Turkish settlers from Anatolia in TRNC (2007 figures) Çalışma Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanlığı and that the Turkish Cypriots in Northern Cyprus are today outnumbered by the Turkish settlers, The Turkish Settlers in Northern Cyprus contrary to the picture presented by the 2006 TRNC census. Almost one-third of the Turkish settlers in Northern Cyprus have been granted TRNC citizenship by the authorities of Northern Cyprus and have thus been naturalized. Today'S Zaman Settlement in Northern Cyprus, especially if accompanied by naturalization, is a violation to the Geneva Conventions Protocol of 1977, since the Turkish occupation has been declared illegal by the UN. The Republic of Cyprus government regards these Turkish immigrants as "illegal settlers" and does not include them in the population estimates for the entire island published by the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service. In the areas controlled by the Republic of Cyprus government, out of a total population of 789,300 there are 124,077 immigrants, of which 70.56% come from EU countries, 13.09% from the rest of Europe, 6.96% come from Asian countries, 2.21% from the Americas, 1.63% from Africa, 0.84% from Oceania, and 9.13% are people of unknown origin. Religion The Greek Cypriot community adheres to the Autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the Turkish Cypriot community adheres to Islam. The religious groups of Armenians, Maronites and Latins (about 9,000 people in total) opted, in accordance with the 1960 constitution, to belong to the Greek Cypriot community. According to the 2001 census carried out in the Government controlled area, 94.8% of the population are Christian Orthodox, 0.9% Armenians and Maronites, 1.5% Roman Catholics, 1.0% Church of England, and 0.6% Muslims. The remaining 1.3% adhere to other religious denominations or did not state their religion. Education Cyprus has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education. The majority of Cypriots earn their higher education at Greek, Turkish, British, or American universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the United Kingdom and Australia. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities. Demographic statistics Population 789,300 in Government controlled area (end 2007 est.) Population of Cyprus: end of 2007, Statistical Service of the Republic of Cyprus, Press Release 06/10/2008. Retrieved 26 February 2009. 265,100 in Northern Cyprus (2006 population census). TRNC General Population and Housing Unit Census 2006 1,054,400 total population of Cyprus (sum of population in Government controlled area and Northern Cyprus, 2006-2007 data) Population by citizenship Republic of Cyprus government controlled area: Statistical Service of Cyprus: Population and Social Statistics, Main Results of the 2001 Census. Retrieved on 29 February 2009 1992 census: 95.8% Cypriot, 4.2% Non-Cypriot 2001 census: 90.6% Cypriot, 9.4% Non-Cypriot Northern Cyprus: 2006 census (de facto population): 66.7% TRNC, 29.3% Turkey, 4.0% other The data in subsections Age structure through Divorce rate are for the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus government only. The estimates are for 2007 from the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Abstract 2007 (pp. 63-88) Statistical Abstract of the Republic of Cyprus 2007, Statistical Service of Cyprus, pp. 63-88 unless indicated otherwise. Age structure 0-14 years: 17.47% or 137,900 ( 70,700 males/67,200 females) 15-64 years: 70.07% or 553,100 ( 274,300 males/278,800 females) 65 years and over: 12.46% or 98,300 ( 44,600 males/53,700 females) Population growth rate 1.4% Birth rate 10.9 births/1,000 population Death rate Death rate: 6.8 deaths/1,000 population Male/female death ratio: 1,095 male deaths/1,000 female deaths Net migration rate Total immigrants: 19,142 Total emigrants: 11,752 Net migration: +7,390 Net migration rate: 9.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population Sex ratio At birth: 1.087 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female Total population: 0.97 male(s)/female Infant mortality rate Total male IMR at birth: 3.6 deaths/1,000 live births Total female IMR at birth: 2.7 deaths/1,000 live births Total IMR at birth: 3.1 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth Estimates for 2004/05Total population: 79.35 years Males: 77.00 years Females: 81.7 years Total fertility rate 1.39 children born/woman Marriage ratesEstimates for 2006Number of marriages: Marriages of residents of Cyprus: 5,252 Total marriages (including tourists): 12,617 Marriage rates: Residents of Cyprus: 6.8/1,000 population Total marriages (including tourists): 16.4/1,000 population Mean age at marriage: Groom 33.7 Bride 30.5 Divorce rates Total Divorces: 1,753 Divorce Rate: 2.27/1,000 population Nationality Noun: Cypriot(s) Adjective: Cypriot HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 0.1% (2003 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: fewer than 1,000 (1999 est.); 518 cases reported between 1986 and 2006 (58% Cypriots, 42% foreigners/visitors); Deaths: 85 reported between 1986 and 2006.<ref name=who>[http://www.euro.who.int/aids/ctryinfo/overview/20060118_10 Cyprus: Sexually transmitted infections/HIV/AIDS], World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, June 2008.</ref> Ethnic groups Greek 77%, Turkish 18%, other 5% (2001 est., entire island) CIA World Factbook: Cyprus. Retrieved on 29 February 2009 Religions Amongst total population incl. immigrants: Greek Orthodox 80%, Sunni Muslim 11%, Other Eastern Orthodox 2%, Other 7% (includes Maronite, Armenian Apostolic, Catholic, Protestant, Aglican) Languages Greek and Turkish are the official languages according to Article 3 of the Constitution of Cyprus. In Northern Cyprus, the official language is Turkish (Article 2 of the 1983 Constitution of Northern Cyprus). English is widely spoken on the island, and Russian has become fairly widespread in recent years due to the influx of immigrants and investors from CIS countries. Literacy From 2001 population census of the Republic of Cyprus Definition: Age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 97% Male: 99% Female: 95% See also Aging of Europe References EU27 population projections 2008-2060, Eurostat Newsrelease 119/2008, 26 August 2008. | Demographics_of_Cyprus |@lemmatized age:6 structure:3 population:37 cyprus:57 demographic:6 feature:1 include:8 growth:2 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:4 level:1 health:2 economic:1 status:1 religious:3 affiliation:1 aspect:1 people:5 broadly:1 divide:1 two:2 main:5 ethnic:2 community:6 greek:14 cypriot:24 turkish:27 share:1 many:1 custom:1 maintain:1 distinct:1 identity:1 base:2 religion:4 language:3 close:1 tie:1 respective:1 motherland:1 division:1 nationality:3 armenian:4 maronites:3 eric:1 solsten:1 ed:1 country:6 study:1 library:1 congress:1 washington:1 dc:1 live:8 disperse:1 entire:3 island:7 invasion:2 de:3 facto:2 partition:1 south:4 area:9 control:9 republic:14 government:12 northern:16 fact:2 worldpress:1 org:1 retrieve:5 february:5 predominantly:1 speak:3 majority:3 north:1 immigrant:8 turkey:3 english:2 widely:2 use:1 total:17 end:3 slightly:1 million:1 comprise:1 territory:1 trnc:10 regard:2 illegal:3 settler:8 statistic:3 statistical:8 service:5 web:1 portal:1 town:1 immigration:2 large:1 scale:1 change:3 cause:1 since:2 influx:3 see:3 british:2 arab:1 mostly:1 palestinian:1 lebanese:1 well:2 migrant:2 worker:2 poland:1 russia:1 sri:1 lanka:1 nigeria:1 china:1 philippine:1 foreign:1 constitute:1 employed:1 eu:2 citizen:4 account:1 p:1 abstract:3 society:1 lead:1 racist:3 incident:2 http:4 www:4 mail:3 com:3 news:3 php:3 id:3 girl:1 think:1 go:1 die:1 institutionally:1 teen:1 say:1 beaten:1 mock:1 police:1 formation:1 charity:1 kisa:1 response:1 character:1 especially:2 last:1 year:11 census:11 carry:2 april:1 show:1 jure:1 permanent:1 sense:1 bear:3 least:2 one:3 born:3 parent:4 addition:1 non:3 resident:4 citizenship:3 mainly:1 uk:1 bulgaria:1 iran:1 data:3 argue:1 properly:1 anatolia:2 alternative:1 source:1 suggest:1 figure:1 çalışma:1 sosyal:1 güvenlik:1 bakanlığı:1 today:2 outnumber:1 contrary:1 picture:1 present:1 almost:1 third:1 grant:1 authority:1 thus:1 naturalize:1 zaman:1 settlement:1 accompany:1 naturalization:1 violation:1 geneva:1 convention:1 protocol:1 occupation:1 declare:1 un:1 estimate:3 publish:1 come:2 rest:1 europe:3 asian:1 america:1 africa:1 oceania:1 unknown:1 origin:1 adhere:3 autocephalous:1 orthodox:4 church:2 islam:1 group:2 latin:1 opt:1 accordance:1 constitution:3 belong:1 accord:2 christian:1 roman:1 catholic:2 england:1 muslim:2 remain:1 denomination:1 state:2 developed:1 system:1 primary:1 secondary:1 earn:1 high:1 american:1 university:2 also:2 sizeable:1 emigrant:2 united:1 kingdom:1 australia:1 private:1 college:1 supported:1 develop:1 est:4 press:1 release:1 general:1 housing:1 unit:1 sum:1 social:1 result:1 subsection:1 divorce:4 rate:13 pp:2 unless:1 indicate:1 otherwise:1 male:13 female:13 birth:10 death:10 ratio:2 net:3 migration:3 sex:1 infant:1 mortality:1 imr:3 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 woman:1 marriage:7 ratesestimates:1 tourist:2 mean:1 groom:1 bride:1 noun:1 adjective:1 hiv:3 aid:4 adult:1 prevalence:1 case:1 report:2 foreigner:1 visitor:1 ref:2 name:1 euro:1 int:1 ctryinfo:1 overview:1 sexually:1 transmit:1 infection:1 world:2 organization:1 regional:1 office:1 june:1 cia:1 factbook:1 amongst:1 incl:1 sunni:1 eastern:1 maronite:1 apostolic:1 protestant:1 aglican:1 languages:1 official:2 article:2 russian:1 become:1 fairly:1 widespread:1 recent:1 due:1 investor:1 cis:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 projection:1 eurostat:1 newsrelease:1 august:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 turkish_cypriot:8 washington_dc:1 de_facto:2 sri_lanka:1 http_www:4 php_id:3 de_jure:1 today_zaman:1 geneva_convention:1 demographic_statistic:1 male_female:10 net_migration:3 rate_migrant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 groom_bride:1 nationality_noun:1 hiv_aid:3 adult_prevalence:1 sexually_transmit:1 sunni_muslim:1 eastern_orthodox:1 armenian_apostolic:1 influx_immigrant:1 |
3,536 | McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle | The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15 Eagle is a twin-engine, all-weather tactical fighter designed to gain and maintain air superiority in aerial combat. It was developed for the United States Air Force, and first flew in July 1972. It is one of the most recognized fighters of the modern day. The F-15E Strike Eagle derivative is an all-weather strike fighter that entered service in 1989. The U.S Air Force plans to keep the F-15 in service until 2025. Tirpak, John A. "Making the Best of the Fighter Force". Air Force magazine, March 2007. Development Origins In 1967 U.S. intelligence was surprised "In July 1967 at the Domodedovo airfield near Moscow, the Soviet Union unveiled a new generation of combat aircraft.. condenamed Foxbat by NATO.": "Development" in Modern Fighting Aircraft, 1983 to find that the Soviet Union was building a large fighter aircraft, known as the MiG-25 'Foxbat'. Davies 2002, pp. 9–11. It was not known in the West at the time that the MiG-25 was designed as a high-speed interceptor, (not an air superiority fighter), Bowman 1980, p. 193. so its primary asset was speed, not maneuverability. The MiG-25's huge tailplanes and vertical stabilizers (tail fins) hinted at a very maneuverable aircraft, which worried the Air Force that its performance might be higher than its American counterparts. In reality, the MiG's large fins and stabilators were necessary to prevent the aircraft from encountering inertia coupling in high-speed, high-altitude flight. The F-4 Phantom II of the USAF and U.S. Navy was the only fighter with enough power, range, and maneuverability to be given the primary task of dealing with the threat of Soviet fighters while flying with visual engagement rules. As a matter of policy, the Phantoms could not engage targets without positive visual identification, so they could not engage targets at long ranges, as designed. Medium-range AIM-7 Sparrow missiles, and to a lesser degree even the AIM-9 Sidewinder, were often unreliable and ineffective at close ranges where it was found that guns were often the only effective weapon. Davies 2002, pp. 7–9. The Phantom did not originally have a gun, but experience in Vietnam led to the addition of a gun. An external gun pod was tried and later the M61 Vulcan was integrated internally on the F-4E. F-X program There was a clear need for a new fighter that overcame the close-range limitation of the Phantom while retaining long-range air superiority. After rejecting the U.S. Navy VFX program (which led to the F-14 Tomcat) as being unsuited to its needs, the U.S. Air Force issued its own requirements for the Fighter Experimental (F-X), a specification for a relatively lightweight air superiority fighter. Eden and Moeng 2002, p. 944. The requirements called for single-seat fighter having a maximum take-off weight of 40,000 lb (18,100 kg) for the air-to-air role with a maximum speed of Mach 2.5 and a thrust to weight ratio of nearly 1 at mission weight. Jenkins 1998, p. 10. Four companies submitted proposals, with the Air Force eliminating General Dynamics and awarded contracts to Fairchild Republic, North American Rockwell, and McDonnell Douglas for the definition phase in December 1968. The companies submitted technical proposals by June 1969. The Air Force announced the selection of McDonnell Douglas on 23 December 1969. Jenkins 1998, pp. 9–11. The winning design resembled the twin-tailed F-14, but with fixed wings. It would not be significantly lighter or smaller than the F-4 that it would replace. F-15A cockpit. The Eagle's initial versions were designated F-15A for the single-seat configuration and F-15B (originally TF-15A, but this designation was quickly deprecated, as the F-15B is fully combat-capable) for the twin-seat. These versions would be powered by new Pratt & Whitney F100 engines to achieve a combat thrust-to-weight ratio in excess of 1 to 1. A proposed 25 mm Ford-Philco GAU-7 cannon with caseless ammunition was dropped in favor of the standard M61 Vulcan gun due to development problems. The F-15 retained conformal carriage of four Sparrow missiles like the Phantom. The fixed wing was put onto a flat, wide fuselage that also provided an effective lifting surface. Some questioned if the zoom performance of the F-15 with Sparrow missiles was enough to deal with the new threat of the high-flying MiG-25 "Foxbat", but its capability was eventually demonstrated in combat. McDonnell Douglas F-15A (S/N 71-0280) first flight. The first F-15A flight was made in July 1972 with the first flight of the two-seat F-15B (formerly TF-15A) following in July 1973. Spick 2000, pp. 130–131. The F-15 has a "look-down/shoot-down" radar that can distinguish low-flying moving targets from ground clutter. The F-15 would use computer technology with new controls and displays to lower pilot workload and require only one pilot to save weight. Unlike the F-14 or F-4, the F-15 has only a single canopy frame with clear vision forward. The USAF introduced the F-15 as "the first dedicated USAF air superiority fighter since the F-86 Sabre." "Return of the Air Superiority Fighter"RAND report. The F-15 would be favored by customers such as the Israel Air Force and Japan Air Self-Defense Force, and the development of the F-15E Strike Eagle would produce a strike fighter that would replace the F-111. However, criticism from the fighter mafia that the F-15 was too large to be a dedicated dogfighter, and too expensive to procure in large numbers to replace the F-4 and A-7, led to the Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program, which led to the USAF F-16 Fighting Falcon and the middle-weight Navy F/A-18 Hornet. Further development USAF F-15C taxiing for takeoff. The single-seat F-15C and two-seat F-15D models entered production in 1978 with the models' first flights in February and June of that year. Jenkins 1998, pp. 33–34. These new models have Production Eagle Package (PEP 2000) improvements, including 2,000 lb (900 kg) of additional internal fuel, provision for carrying exterior conformal fuel tanks and increased maximum takeoff weight of up to 68,000 lb (30,700 kg). The F-15 Multistage Improvement Program (MSIP) was initiated in February 1983 with the first production MSIP F-15C produced in 1985. Improvements included an upgraded central computer; a Programmable Armament Control Set, allowing for advanced versions of the AIM-7, AIM-9, and AIM-120A missiles; and an expanded Tactical Electronic Warfare System that provides improvements to the ALR-56C radar warning receiver and ALQ-135 countermeasure set. The final 43 included the enhanced-capability Hughes APG-70 radar, which was carried forward into the F-15E. The earlier MSIP F-15Cs with the APG-63 were later upgraded to the APG-63(V)1, which significantly improves reliability and maintainability while providing performance similar to the APG-70. The improvements were retrofitted to existing F-15s. Davies 2002, pp. 56–57. Recent upgrades include retrofiting 178 F-15C fighters with the AN/APG-63(V)3 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar with delivery beginning in early 2009. "Boeing Awarded $70 Million Contract for Enhanced F-15C Radar", Boeing, 9 October 2007. Additionally, the Air Force also plans to upgrade other F-15s with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS). Air Force Will Get New Bomber, Upgrades To Fighters, Spacewar.com, 5 October 2006. Design F-15C performing a maximum performance takeoff. The F-15 has an all-metal semi-monocoque fuselage with a large cantilever shoulder-mounted wing. The empennage is all-metal twin fins and rudders with all-moving composite horizontal tail surfaces outboard of the fins. The F-15 has a spine-mounted air brake and retractable tricycle landing gear. It is powered by two Pratt & Whitney F100 axial-flow turbofan engines with afterburners mounted side-by-side in the fuselage. The cockpit is mounted high in the forward fuselage with a one-piece windscreen and large canopy to increase visibility. The F-15's maneuverability is derived from low wing loading (weight to wing area ratio) with a high thrust-to-weight ratio enabling the aircraft to turn tightly without losing airspeed. The F-15 can climb to 30,000 ft (10,000 m) in around 60 seconds. The thrust output of the dual engines is greater than the aircraft's weight, thus giving it the ability to accelerate in a vertical climb. The weapons and flight control systems are designed so that one person can safely and effectively perform air-to-air combat. The "A" and "C" models are single-seat variants that make up the bulk of F-15 production. "B" and "D" models add a second seat behind the pilot for training. "E" models use the second seat for a bombardier/navigator. A multi-mission avionics system includes a head-up display (HUD), advanced radar, inertial guidance system (INS), flight instruments, ultra high frequency (UHF) communications, and Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) and Instrument Landing System (ILS) receivers. It also has an internally mounted, tactical electronic-warfare system, "identification friend or foe" system, electronic countermeasures suite and a central digital computer. Gunston 1986, p. 194. A wing over maneuver displays the clean lines and high-wing design of an F-15E from Elmendorf AFB, AK. The heads-up display projects, through a combiner, all essential flight information gathered by the integrated avionics system. This display, visible in any light condition, provides the pilot information necessary to track and destroy an enemy aircraft without having to look down at cockpit instruments. Huenecke 1987, pp. 227–230. The F-15's versatile APG-63/70 Pulse-Doppler radar system can look up at high-flying targets and down at low-flying targets without being confused by ground clutter. It can detect and track aircraft and small high-speed targets at distances beyond visual range (the maximum being 120 nautical miles (220 km) away) down to close range, and at altitudes down to treetop level. The radar feeds target information into the central computer for effective weapons delivery. The capability of locking onto targets as far as 50 nautical miles (90 km) with an AIM-120 AMRAAM enables true beyond visual range (BVR) engagement of targets. For close-in dogfights, the radar automatically acquires enemy aircraft, and this information is projected on the head-up display. The F-15's electronic warfare system provides both threat warning and automatic countermeasures against selected threats. Jenkins 1998, pp. 97–104. F-15E with speed brake deployed and conformal tanks fitted. A variety of air-to-air weaponry can be carried by the F-15. An automated weapon system enables the pilot to perform aerial combat safely and effectively, using the head-up display and the avionics and weapons controls located on the engine throttles or control stick. When the pilot changes from one weapon system to another, visual guidance for the required weapon automatically appears on the head-up display. Huenecke 1987, pp. 232–236. The Eagle can be armed with combinations of four different air-to-air weapons: AIM-7F/M Sparrow missiles or AIM-120 AMRAAM advanced medium range air-to-air missiles on its lower fuselage corners, AIM-9L/M Sidewinder or AIM-120 missiles on two pylons under the wings, and an internal M61A-1 20 mm Gatling gun in the right wing root. Lambert 1993, p. 521. Low-drag conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) were developed for the F-15C and D models. They can be attached to the sides of the engine air intake trunks under each wing and are designed to the same load factors and airspeed limits as the basic aircraft. However, they degrade performance by increasing drag and cannot be jettisoned in-flight (unlike conventional external tanks). Each conformal fuel tank can hold 750 U.S. gallons (2,840 L) of fuel. Jenkins 1998, p. 111. These tanks increase range thus reducing the need for in-flight refueling. All external stations for munitions remain available with the tanks in use. Moreover, Sparrow or AMRAAM missiles can be attached to the corners of the conformal fuel tanks. Green and Swanborough 1998, p. 371. The 57 FIS based at Keflavik NAS, Iceland was the only C-model squadron to utilize CFT's on a regular basis due to its extended operations over the North Atlantic. With the closure of the 57 FIS the F-15E is the only U.S. variant to carry them on a routine basis. The American CFTs were also provided to Israel and Saudi Arabia but only Israel uses them (as needed) on their entire fleet. M61 Vulcan mounted on the side of right engine intake. The F-15E Strike Eagle is a two-seat, dual-role, totally integrated fighter for all-weather, air-to-air and deep interdiction missions. The rear cockpit is upgraded to include four multi-purpose CRT displays for aircraft systems and weapons management. The digital, triple-redundant Lear Siegler flight control system permits coupled automatic terrain following, enhanced by a ring-laser gyro inertial navigation system. Lambert 1993, p. 523. For low-altitude, high-speed penetration and precision attack on tactical targets at night or in adverse weather, the F-15E carries a high-resolution APG-70 radar and LANTIRN pods to provide thermal imagery. The APG-63(V)2 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar has been retrofitted to 18 U.S. Air Force F-15C aircraft. 18 APG-63(V)2 This upgrade includes most of the new hardware from the APG-63(V)1, but adds an AESA to provide increased pilot situational awareness. The AESA radar has an exceptionally agile beam, providing nearly instantaneous track updates and enhanced multi-target tracking capability. The APG-63(V)2 is compatible with current F-15C weapon loads and enables pilots to take full advantage of AIM-120 AMRAAM capabilities, simultaneously guiding multiple missiles to several targets widely spaced in azimuth, elevation, or range. Operational history F-15D from the 325 Fighter Wing based in Tyndall AFB, releasing flares The largest operator of the F-15 is the United States Air Force. The first Eagle (F-15B) was delivered November 14, 1974. Scutts 1989, p. 47. In January 1976, the first Eagle destined for a combat squadron, the 555th TFS, was delivered. These initial aircraft carried the Hughes Aircraft (now Raytheon) APG-63 radar. The first kill in an F-15 was by IAF ace Moshe Melnik in 1979. "An Eagle evolves", Boeing, January 2004. In 1979–81 during Israeli-Lebanese border disputes, F-15As downed 13 Syrian MiG-21 "Fishbeds" and two Syrian MiG-25 "Foxbats", the latter being the aircraft the F-15 was designed to kill. F-15A and B models were used by Israel during the Bekaa Valley operation. During the 1982 Lebanon War, the Israeli F-15s shot down 40 Syrian jet fighters (23 MiG-21 "Fishbeds" and 17 MiG-23 "Floggers") and one Syrian SA.342L Gazelle helicopter. "Israeli Air-to-Air Victories since 1974", ACIG.org, September 24, 2003. Later on, in 1985, IAF Eagles, in Operation Wooden Leg, bombed the PLO headquarters in Tunisia. McDonnell Douglas(now Boeing)F-15 Eagle Air Superiority Fighter This was one of the few times air superiority F-15s (A/B/C/D models) were used in tactical strike missions. Royal Saudi Air Force F-15C pilots shot down two F-4E Phantom IIs flown by the Iranian Air Force in a skirmish in June 1984, and shot down two Iraqi Mirage F1s during the Gulf War. Smith, William E., Pushing the Saudis Too Far, Time, 18 June 1984. Retrieved 26 January 2008. Halloran, Richard, 2 Iranian Fighters Reported Downed by Saudi Air Force New York Times, 6 June 1984, p. 1. Retrieved 26 January 2008. F-15 in Saudi Service A Royal Saudi Air Force F-15 approaches a KC-135 for refueling during Operation Desert Shield. The USAF deployed F-15C, D and E models to the Persian Gulf in 1991 in support of Operation Desert Storm where they accounted for 36 of the 39 Air Force air-to-air victories. F-15Es were operated mainly at night, hunting modified SCUD missile launchers and artillery sites using the LANTIRN system. Davies 2002, pp. 31–40. According to the USAF, its F-15Cs had 34 confirmed kills of Iraqi aircraft during the 1991 Gulf War, mostly by missile fire: five MiG-29 "Fulcrums", two MiG-25 "Foxbats", eight MiG-23 "Floggers", two MiG-21 "Fishbeds", two Su-25 "Frogfoots", four Su-22 "Fitters", one Su-7, six Mirage F1s, one Il-76 cargo plane, one Pilatus PC-9 trainer, and two Mi-8 helicopters. After air superiority was achieved in the first three days of the conflict, many of the later kills were reportedly of Iraqi aircraft fleeing to Iran, rather than actively trying to engage U.S. aircraft. The single-seat F-15C was used for air superiority, and the F-15E was heavily used in air-to-ground attacks. An F-15E achieved an aerial kill of another Iraqi Mi-8 helicopter using a laser-guided bomb during the air war. The F-15E sustained two losses to ground fire in the Gulf War in 1991. U.S. Air Force Historical Research Agency. Another one was damaged on the ground by a SCUD strike on Dhahran air base. 1st. Fighter Wing timeline They have since been deployed to support Operation Southern Watch, the patrolling of the No-Fly Zone in Southern Iraq; Operation Provide Comfort in Turkey; in support of NATO operations in Bosnia, and recent air expeditionary force deployments. In 1994, two U.S. Army UH-60 Black Hawks were downed by USAF F-15Cs who thought they were Iraq Hinds in the Northern no-fly zone of Iraq in a friendly fire incident. Patrolling Iraq's Northern Skies. USAF F-15Cs shot down four Yugoslav MiG-29s using AIM-120 missiles during NATO's 1999 intervention in Kosovo, Operation Allied Force. The F-15 in all air forces had an air-to-air combined record of 104 kills to 0 losses in air combat as of February 2008. John Correll, "The Reformers", Air Force Magazine, February 2008, Vol. 91 Number 2, p. 44. To date, no air superiority versions of the F-15 (A/B/C/D models) have ever been shot down by enemy forces. Over half of the F-15's kills were made by Israeli Air Force pilots. Satellite killer ASM-135 ASAT test launch From January 1984 to September 1986, two F-15As were used as launch platforms for the ASM-135 anti-satellite (ASAT) missile. The F-15As (76-0086 and 77-0084) were modified to carry one ASM-135 on the centerline station with extra equipment within a special centerline pylon. Jenkins 1998, p. 31. The launch aircraft executed a Mach 1.22, 3.8 g climb at 65° to release the ASAT missile at an altitude of . Grier, Peter. "The Flying Tomato Can". Air Force magazine, February 2009. The flight computer was updated to control the zoom-climb and missile release. The third test flight involved a retired communications satellite in a 345-mile (555 km) orbit, which was successfully destroyed by kinetic energy. Karambelas, Gregory and Sven Grahn, ed. The F-15 ASAT story. svengrahn.pp.se The pilot, USAF Major Wilbert D. "Doug" Pearson, became the only pilot to destroy a satellite. Biographies: Major General Wilbert D. "Doug" Pearson Jr. USAF, 2 August 2006. The ASAT missile was designed to be a standoff anti-satellite weapon, with the F-15A acting as a first stage. The Soviet Union could correlate a U.S. rocket launch with a spy satellite loss, but an F-15 carrying an ASAT would blend in among hundreds of F-15 flights. The ASAT program involved five test launches. The program was officially terminated in 1988. Structural defects All F-15 aircraft were grounded by the U.S. Air Force after a Missouri Air National Guard F-15C came apart in flight and crashed on 2 November 2007. The newer F-15E fleet was later cleared for continued operations. The U.S. Air Force reported on 28 November 2007 that a critical location in the upper longerons on the F-15C model was suspected of causing the failure, causing the fuselage forward of the air intakes, including the cockpit and radome, to separate from the airframe. Animated image Air Force Magazine February 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2008. Frames from an animated image by Boeing recreating the breakup are here. F-15A through D-model aircraft were ordered grounded until the location received more detailed inspections and repairs as needed. "F-15 A-D models ordered to stand down for additional inspections", U.S. Air Force, November 28, 2007. The grounding of F-15s received media attention as it began to place strains on the nation's air defense efforts. Lindlaw, Scott (for Associated Press). "F-15 grounding strains U.S. air defenses", ABC News, December 26, 2007. The grounding forced some states to rely on their neighbors' fighter jets for air defense protection, and Alaska to depend on Canadian Forces' support. On 8 January 2008, the USAF Air Combat Command (ACC) cleared a portion of its F-15A through D-model fleet for return to flying status. It also recommended a limited return to flight for units worldwide using the affected models. "Air Combat Command clears selected F-15s for flight", Air Force, January 9, 2008. The accident review board report was released on January 10, 2008. The report stated that analysis of the F-15C wreckage determined that the longeron did not meet drawing specifications, which led to fatigue cracks and finally a catastrophic failure of the remaining support structures and breakup of the aircraft in flight. "F-15 Eagle accident report released", US Air Force, 10 January 2008. Retrieved 26 January 2008. In a report released on 10 January 2008, nine other F-15s were identified to have similar problems in the longeron. As a result of these problems, General John D. W. Corley stated that "the long-term future of the F-15 is in question." Buzanowski, J.G. Air Force leaders discuss F-15 accident, future US Air Force, January 10, 2008. Retrieved 26 January 2008. On 15 February 2008, ACC cleared all its grounded F-15A-D fighters for flight pending inspections, engineering reviews and any needed repairs. ACC also recommended release of other U.S. F-15A-D aircraft. "ACC issues latest release from stand down for F-15s", Air Force, 15 February 2008. Future F-15C fires AIM-7 Sparrow in 2005. The F-15C/D model is being supplanted in U.S. service by the F-22 Raptor. The F-15E, however, will remain in service for years to come because of their different air-to-ground role and the lower number of hours on their airframes. The USAF will upgrade 178 F-15Cs with the AN/APG-63(V)3 AESA radar, and upgrade other F-15s with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System. The Air Force will keep 178 F-15Cs as well as the 224 F-15Es in service beyond 2025. Variants Basic models USAF F-15C over Florida F-15A Single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version, 384 built 1972-79. F-15B Two-seat training version, formerly designated TF-15A, 61 built 1972-79. F-15C Improved single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version, 483 built 1979-85. F-15D Two-seat training version, 92 built 1979-85. A view of an F-15E cockpit from an aerial refueling tanker. F-15J Single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force 139 built under license in Japan by Mitsubishi 1981-97, 2 built in St. Louis. F-15DJ Two-seat training version for the Japan Air Self-Defence Force. 25 Built under license in Japan by Mitsubishi 1981-97, 12 built in St. Louis. F-15N Sea Eagle The F-15N was a carrier-capable variant proposed in the early 1970s to the U.S. Navy as an alternative to the heavier and, at the time, considered as "riskier" technology program: F-14 Tomcat. The F-15N-PHX was another proposed naval version capable of carrying the AIM-54 Phoenix missile. These featured folding wingtips, reinforced landing gear and a stronger tail hook for shipboard operation. Jenkins 1998, pp. 71–72. F-15E Strike Eagle See F-15E Strike Eagle for F-15E, F-15I, F-15S, F-15K, F-15SG, F-15SE and other F-15E-based variants. Research and test NASA's F-15B Research Testbed, aircraft #836 (74-0141), with the Quiet Spike attachment designed to reduce and control a sonic boom. F-15 Streak Eagle (72-0119) One stripped and unpainted F-15A, demonstrated the fighter's acceleration – broke eight time-to-climb world records between 16 January and 1 February 1975. It was delivered to the National Museum of the United States Air Force in December 1980. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Streak Eagle fact sheet, National Museum of the United States Air Force. F-15 S/MTD (71-0290) The first F-15B was converted into a short takeoff and landing, maneuver technology demonstrator aircraft. Jenkins 1998, pp. 65–70. In the late 1980s it received canard flight surfaces in addition to its usual horizontal tail, along with square thrust-vectoring nozzles. It was used as a short-takeoff/maneuver-technology (SMTD) demonstrator. "Sonic Solutions". Aviation Week & Space Technology, 5 January 2009, p. 53. (online version, subscription required) F-15 ACTIVE (71-0290) The F-15 S/MTD was later converted into an advanced flight control technology research aircraft with thrust vectoring nozzles. F-15 IFCS (71-0290) The F-15 ACTIVE was then converted into an intelligent flight control systems research aircraft. F-15B 71-0290 is the oldest F-15 still flying as of January 2009. F-15 MANX Concept name for a tailless variant of the F-15 ACTIVE, but the NASA ACTIVE experimental aircraft was never modified to be tailless. F-15 Flight Research Facility (71-0281 and 71-0287) Two F-15A aircraft were acquired in 1976 for use by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center for numerous experiments such as: Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control (HiDEC), Adaptive Engine Control System (ADECS), Self-Repairing and Self-Diagnostic Flight Control System (SRFCS) and Propulsion Controlled Aircraft System (PCA). F-15 Flight Research Facility fact sheet. Dryden Flight Research Center. 71-0281 was returned to the Air Force and became a static display at Langley AFB in 1983. F-15B Research Testbed (74-0141) Current operators of the F-15 in light blue, F-15E in red, both in dark blue Acquired in 1993, it was an F-15B modified and used by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center for flight tests. F-15B Research Testbed fact sheet. Dryden Flight Research Center. Operators for operators of F-15E-based variants. Israeli Air Force has operated F-15s since 1977, received under Peace Fox I, II and III. These aircraft are currently organized into two squadrons of F-15A/B and one squadron of F-15C/Ds. The first 25 F-15A/B were early USAF production airframes, equipping IDFAF squadron 133rd. The second batch was temporarily embargoed as a result of the 1982 Lebanon War. Gething 1983 Two F-15J Eagles of the 202nd TFS, Japan Air Self-Defense Force, take off in formation during a joint USA/Japan exercise. Japan Air Self-Defence Force acquired 203 F-15Js and 20 F-15DJs from 1981, of which 2 F-15Js and 12 F-15DJs were made in U.S. and the rest by Mitsubishi under license. These aircraft are currently operated by 2 Hikotai (squadron) of 2. Kokudan (Air Wing), Chitose Air Base, 1 Hikotai of 5. Kokudan, Nyutabaru AB, 1 Hikotai of 6. Kokudan, Komatsu AB, 2 Hikotais of 7. Kokudan, Hyakuri AB and 1 Hikotai of 8. Kokudan, Tsuiki AB. In June 2007, the Air Self-Defense Force decided to upgrade certain F-15 aircraft with synthetic aperture radar pods; these aircraft will replace RF-4 aircraft currently in service. "Lockheed Martin to Upgrade Radar for Reconnaissance Version of Japan's F-15", Lockheed Martin press release, June 19, 2007. Royal Saudi Air Force has operated 4 squadrons of F-15C/D (55/19) since 1981, received under Peace Sun. They are based at Dhahran, Khamis Mushayt and Taif air bases. A stipulation in the Camp David Peace Agreement limited the number of Saudi F-15 to 60, holding surplus air frames in Luke AFB for RSAF pilot training. This limitation was later abandoned. United States Air Force operated 630 F-15 aircraft (499 in active duty and 131 in ANG, all variants) as of September 2008. Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. 2009 USAF Almanac, Fact and Figures. Air Force Magazine, May 2009. The F-15 is being replaced by the newer F-22 Raptor. Active Duty Air Force Historical Research Agency Air Combat Command 1st Fighter Wing - Langley AFB, Virginia 71st Fighter Squadron 33d Fighter Wing - Eglin AFB, Florida 58th Fighter Squadron 53d Wing - Eglin Air Force Base, Florida 85th Test and Evaluation Squadron 422d Test and Evaluation Squadron, Nellis AFB, Nevada 57th Wing - Nellis AFB, Nevada 65th Aggressor Squadron 366th Fighter Wing - Mountain Home AFB, Idaho 390th Fighter Squadron Air Education and Training Command 325th Fighter Wing - Tyndall AFB, Florida 2d Fighter Squadron 95th Fighter Squadron Pacific Air Forces 3d Wing - Elmendorf AFB, Alaska 19th Fighter Squadron 18th Wing - Kadena AB, Japan 44th Fighter Squadron 67th Fighter Squadron United States Air Forces in Europe 48th Fighter Wing - RAF Lakenheath, England 493d Fighter Squadron Air National Guard Florida Air National Guard 125th Fighter Wing - Jacksonville International Airport 159th Fighter Squadron Hawaii Air National Guard 154th Wing - Hickam AFB 199th Fighter Squadron Louisiana Air National Guard 159th Fighter Wing - NAS/JRB New Orleans 122d Fighter Squadron Massachusetts Air National Guard 104th Fighter Wing - Barnes Municipal Airport 131st Fighter Squadron Missouri Air National Guard 131st Fighter Wing - Lambert St. Louis Airport (currently converting to B-2 Spirit) 110th Fighter Squadron Montana Air National Guard 120th Fighter Wing - Great Falls International Airport 186th Fighter Squadron Oregon Air National Guard 142d Fighter Wing - Portland International Airport 123d Fighter Squadron 173d Fighter Wing http://www.173fw.ang.af.mil/ - Kingsley Field 114th Fighter Squadron Notable accidents and incidents On 1 May 1983, during an Israeli Air Force training dogfight, an F-15D collided with an A-4 Skyhawk. Unknown to pilot Zivi Nedivi and his copilot, the right wing of the Eagle was sheared off roughly two feet (60 cm) from the fuselage. The F-15 entered an uncontrollable spin after the collision. Zivi decided to attempt recovery and engaged afterburner to increase speed, allowing him to regain control of the aircraft. The pilot was able to prevent stalling and maintain control because of the lift generated by the large horizontal surface area of the fuselage, the stabilators and remaining wing areas. The F-15 landed at twice the normal speed to maintain the necessary lift, and its tailhook was torn off completely during the landing. Zivi managed to bring his F-15 to a complete stop approximately 20 ft (6 m) from the end of the runway. He was later quoted as saying "(I) probably would have ejected if I knew what had happened." No Wing F15 - crew stories - USS Bennington Retrieved 31 July 2006. F-15 flying with one wing by an Israeli pilot On 19 March 1990, an F-15 from the 3rd Wing stationed at Elmendorf AFB, AK accidentally fired an AIM-9M Sidewinder missile at another F-15. The damaged aircraft was able to make an emergency landing; it was subsequently repaired and returned to service. Jet Pilot Accidentally Fired Live Missile, Air Force Says. New York Times On 22 November 1995, during air-intercept training over the Sea of Japan, a Japanese F-15J flown by Lt. Tatsumi Higuchi was shot down by a AIM-9L Sidewinder missile accidentally fired by his wingman in an incident similar to the one that occurred on 19 March 1990. The pilot ejected safely. Both F-15Js involved were from JASDF 303rd Squadron, Komatsu AFB. F-15 Eagle Losses and Ejections Retrieved: 2 March 2008. On 23 March 2001, during a low flying training exercise over the Scottish Highlands, two US Air Force F-15Cs crashed near the summit of Ben Macdui in the Cairngorms. body found at F-15 crash site Retrieved 8 March 2009. Both, Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth John Hyvonen and Captain Kirk Jones died in the accident which would later result in a court martial for an RAF air traffic controller, who was however found not guilty. controller found not guilty Retrieved 8 March 2009. On 2 November 2007, a 27-year-old F-15C (s/n 80-0034 of the 131st Fighter Wing) crashed during air combat maneuvering training near St. Louis, Missouri. The pilot, Maj. Stephen W. Stilwell, ejected but suffered serious injuries. The crash was the result of an in-flight breakup due to structural failure. On 3 November 2007, all non-mission critical models of the F-15 were grounded pending the outcome of the crash investigation, Air Force suspends some F-15 operations, U.S. Air Force, 4 November 2007. and on the following day, grounded non-mission critical F-15s engaged in combat missions in the Middle East. "Air Force grounds F-15s in Afghanistan after Missouri crash", CNN, 5 November 2007. By 13 November 2007 over 1,100 were grounded worldwide after Israel, Japan and Saudi Arabia grounded their aircraft as well. Warwick, Graham. "F-15 operators follow USAF grounding after crash." Flight International, 14 November 2007. F-15Es were cleared on 15 November 2007 pending aircraft passing inspections. "Officials begin to clear F-15Es to full-mission status", U.S. Air Force, 15 November 2007. On 8 January 2008, the USAF cleared 60 percent of the F-15A-D fleet for return to flight. On 10 January 2008, the accident review board released its report stating the 2 November crash was related to the longeron not meeting drawing specifications. The Air Force cleared all its grounded F-15A-D fighters for flight on 15 February 2008 pending inspections, reviews and any needed repairs. In March 2008, Stilwell, the injured pilot, filed a lawsuit against Boeing, the F-15's manufacturer. Lawsuit Specifications (F-15C Eagle) Three view diagram of the F-15 Eagle. Popular culture The F-15 was the subject of the IMAX movie Fighter Pilot: Operation Red Flag, about the RED FLAG exercises. In Tom Clancy's nonfiction Fighter Wing (1995), a detailed analysis of the Air Force's premier fighter aircraft, the F-15 Eagle and its capabilities are showcased. Clancy, Tom. Fighter Wing: A Guided Tour of an Air Force Combat Wing. New York: Berkley Books, 1995. ISBN 0-425-14957-9. See also References Notes Bibliography Bowman, Martin W. US Military Aircraft. London: Bison Books Ltd., 1980. ISBN 0-89009-292-3. Braybrook, Roy. F-15 Eagle. London: Osprey Aerospace, 1991. ISBN 1-85532-149-1. Crickmore, Paul. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle (Classic Warplanes series). New York: Smithmark Books, 1992. ISBN 0-8317-1408-5. Davies, Steve. Combat Legend, F-15 Eagle and Strike Eagle. London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 2002. ISBN 1-84037-377-6. Davies, Steve and Doug Dildy. F-15 Eagle Engaged, The World's Most Successful Jet Fighter. Osprey Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84603-169-4. Drendel, Lou. Eagle (Modern Military Aircraft Series). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1985. ISBN 0-89747-168-1 Drendel, Lou and Don Carson. F-15 Eagle in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1976. ISBN 0-89747-023-0. Eden, Paul and Soph Moeng, eds. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2002. ISBN 0-7607-3432-1. Fitzsimons, Bernard. Modern Fighting Aircraft, F-15 Eagle. London: Salamander Books Ltd., 1983. ISBN 0-86101-182-1. Gething, Michael J. F-15 Eagle (Modern Fighting Aircraft). New York: Arco, 1983. ISBN 0-66805-902-8. Gething, Michael J. and Paul Crickmore. F-15 (Combat Aircraft series). New York: Crescent Books, 1992. ISBN 0-517-06734-X. Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The Complete Book of Fighters. New York: Barnes & Noble Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-07607-0904-1. Gunston, Bill. American Warplanes. New York: Crescent Books. 1986. ISBN 0-517-61351-4. Huenecke, Klaus. Modern Combat Aircraft Design. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87021-426-8. Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-081-8. Kinzey, Bert. The F-15 Eagle in Detail & Scale (Part 1, Series II). El Paso, Texas: Detail & Scale, Inc., 1978. ISBN 0-81685-028-3. Lambert, Mark, ed. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1993-94. Alexandria, Virginia: Jane's Information Group Inc., 1993. ISBN 0-7106-1066-1. Scutts, Jerry. Supersonic Aircraft of USAF. New York: Mallard Press, 1989. ISBN 0-792-450-13-2. Spick, Mike. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul Minnesota: MBI, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4. External links F-15 Eagle USAF Fact Sheet F-15 Eagle history page on Boeing.com F-15 page on NASA Langley site McDonnell Douglas F-15A, F-15C, and F-15 Streak Eagle on USAF National Museum web site F-15 Eagle in service with Israel F-15 Tactical Electronic Warfare System (TEWS) and F-15 page on GlobalSecurity.org The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle page on Vectorsite.net AN/ALQ to AN/ALT Avionics definitions | McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle |@lemmatized mcdonnell:10 douglas:10 boeing:8 f:226 eagle:40 twin:4 engine:8 weather:7 tactical:7 fighter:69 design:12 gain:1 maintain:3 air:124 superiority:14 aerial:4 combat:18 develop:2 united:6 state:10 force:65 first:14 flew:1 july:5 one:16 recognized:1 modern:7 day:3 strike:10 derivative:1 enter:3 service:9 u:26 plan:2 keep:2 tirpak:1 john:4 make:6 best:1 magazine:5 march:8 development:5 origin:1 intelligence:1 surprised:1 domodedovo:1 airfield:1 near:3 moscow:1 soviet:4 union:3 unveil:1 new:20 generation:1 aircraft:51 condenamed:1 foxbat:3 nato:3 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3,537 | Adventure | Activities such as hiking and exploring can be seen as adventurous. An adventure is an activity that comprises risky, dangerous or uncertain experiences. The term is more popularly used in reference to physical activities that have some potential for danger, such as skydiving, mountain climbing, and extreme sports. The term is broad enough to refer to any enterprise that is potentially fraught with risk, such as a business venture or a major life undertaking. An adventurer is a person who bases their lifestyle or their fortunes on adventurous acts. Adventurous experiences create psychological and physiological arousal, which can be interpreted as negative (e.g. fear) or positive (e.g. flow), and which can become a detriment as per the Yerkes-Dodson law. For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself. Adventurous activities are typically undertaken for the purposes of recreation or excitement, such as multi-sport adventure racing or a traveler's adventure tourism. However, an adventurous activity can lead to gains in knowledge, such as in the case of the numerous pioneers who have explored and charted the Earth and, in recent times, traveled into space and to the Moon. As a more modern example, adventure education makes use of challenging experiences for learning. Moreover, adventure can be describing an unusual experience or participating in exciting undertakings. An adventure action can be involving risky undertaking or an action without concerning outcome. In addition, taking an adventure can be illustrating taking the chance or to adventure an opinion. The best sort of adventures are ones that take in south park on bikes, since there are tons of trails and a whole other side of corrigan to explore. | Adventure |@lemmatized activity:5 hiking:1 exploring:1 see:1 adventurous:5 adventure:10 comprise:1 risky:2 dangerous:1 uncertain:1 experience:4 term:2 popularly:1 use:2 reference:1 physical:1 potential:1 danger:1 skydiving:1 mountain:1 climbing:1 extreme:1 sport:2 broad:1 enough:1 refer:1 enterprise:1 potentially:1 fraught:1 risk:1 business:1 venture:1 major:2 life:1 undertaking:3 adventurer:1 person:1 base:1 lifestyle:1 fortune:1 act:1 create:1 psychological:1 physiological:1 arousal:1 interpret:1 negative:1 e:2 g:2 fear:1 positive:1 flow:1 become:2 detriment:1 per:1 yerkes:1 dodson:1 law:1 people:1 pursuit:1 typically:1 undertaken:1 purpose:1 recreation:1 excitement:1 multi:1 racing:1 traveler:1 tourism:1 however:1 lead:1 gain:1 knowledge:1 case:1 numerous:1 pioneer:1 explore:2 chart:1 earth:1 recent:1 time:1 travel:1 space:1 moon:1 modern:1 example:1 education:1 make:1 challenge:1 learn:1 moreover:1 describe:1 unusual:1 participate:1 exciting:1 action:2 involve:1 without:1 concern:1 outcome:1 addition:1 take:3 illustrate:1 chance:1 opinion:1 best:1 sort:1 one:1 south:1 park:1 bike:1 since:1 ton:1 trail:1 whole:1 side:1 corrigan:1 |@bigram mountain_climbing:1 psychological_physiological:1 |
3,538 | Postmaster | Postmaster (or Postmistress) refers to the head of an individual post office. When a postmaster is responsible for an entire mail distribution organization (usually sponsored by a national government), the title of Postmaster General is commonly used. Responsibilities of a postmaster typically include management of a centralized mail distribution facility, establishment of letter carrier routes, supervision of letter carriers and clerks, and enforcement of the organization's rules and procedures. The level of pay is based on deliveries and revenue of the post office. Levels are from EAS (Executive and Administrative Service) 11 through 26. Smaller part time post offices are EP levels 51-55. Larger metropolitan post offices are PCES (Postal Career Executive Service). In the United States, many Postmasters are members of a management organization which consults with USPS for compensation and policy. The two management organizations are NAPUS (National Association of Postmasters of the United States) http://www.napus.org which has approximately 80% of Postmasters as members and The League of Postmasters http://www.postmasters.org, which is a smaller group. Some Postmasters are members of both organizations. Each post office facility has a Postmaster, whether there are hundreds of employees or if there is just one (the postmaster himself or herself). In the United States, women have served as postmasters since the Revolutionary War and even earlier, under British rule. "Postmaster," regardless of the person's sex, has always been the official title for this position. Use in coaching In the days of horse-drawn carriages, a postmaster was an individual from whom horses and/or riders (known as postilions or "post-boys") could be hired. The postmaster would reside in a "post house". See also Postmaster General United Kingdom Postmaster General United States Postmaster General Mail carrier References | Postmaster |@lemmatized postmaster:19 postmistress:1 refers:1 head:1 individual:2 post:7 office:5 responsible:1 entire:1 mail:3 distribution:2 organization:5 usually:1 sponsor:1 national:2 government:1 title:2 general:4 commonly:1 use:2 responsibility:1 typically:1 include:1 management:3 centralized:1 facility:2 establishment:1 letter:2 carrier:3 route:1 supervision:1 clerk:1 enforcement:1 rule:2 procedure:1 level:3 pay:1 base:1 delivery:1 revenue:1 ea:1 executive:2 administrative:1 service:2 small:2 part:1 time:1 ep:1 large:1 metropolitan:1 pces:1 postal:1 career:1 united:5 state:4 many:1 member:3 consults:1 usps:1 compensation:1 policy:1 two:1 napus:1 association:1 http:2 www:2 napu:1 org:2 approximately:1 league:1 group:1 whether:1 hundred:1 employee:1 one:1 woman:1 serve:1 since:1 revolutionary:1 war:1 even:1 earlier:1 british:1 regardless:1 person:1 sex:1 always:1 official:1 position:1 coach:1 day:1 horse:2 drawn:1 carriage:1 rider:1 know:1 postilion:1 boy:1 could:1 hire:1 would:1 reside:1 house:1 see:1 also:1 kingdom:1 reference:1 |@bigram http_www:2 horse_drawn:1 drawn_carriage:1 |
3,539 | Gnosticism | Gnosticism ( gnōsis, knowledge) refers to diverse, syncretistic religious movements in antiquity consisting of various belief systems generally united in the teaching that humans are divine souls trapped in a material world created by an imperfect god, the demiurge; this being is frequently identified with the Abrahamic God, and is contrasted with a superior entity, referred to by several terms including Pleroma and Godhead . Depictions of the demiurge - the term originates with Plato's Timaeus - vary from being as an embodiment of evil, to being merely imperfect and as benevolent as its inadequacy permits. Thus, broadly speaking, Gnosticism was a dualistic religion, influenced by and influencing Hellenic philosophy, Judaism (see Notzrim), and Christianity; however, by contrast, later strands of the movement, such as the Valentinians, held a monistic world-view . This, along with the varying treatments of the demiurge, may be seen as indicative of the variety of positions held within the category. The gnōsis referred to in the term is a form of revealed, esoteric knowledge through which the spiritual elements of humanity are reminded of their true origins within the superior Godhead, being thus permitted to escape materiality Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Gospels, Vintage Press, 1989, pgs. 18, 37, 42. . Consequently, within the sects of gnosticism only the pneumatics or psychics obtain gnōsis; the hylic or Somatics, though human, being incapable of perceiving the higher reality, are unlikely to attain the gnōsis deemed by gnostic movements as necessary for salvation . Jesus of Nazareth is identified by some Gnostic sects as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnōsis to the earth . In others (e.g. the Notzrim and Mandaeans) he is considered a mšiha kdaba or "false messiah" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist . Still other traditions identify Mani and Seth, third son of Adam and Eve, as salvific figures . Whereas formerly Gnosticism was considered by some a heretical branch of Christianity, it now seems clear that traces of Gnostic systems can be discerned some centuries before the Christian Era. Gnostic sects may have existed earlier than the First Century BCE, thus predating the birth of Jesus. Bart D. Ehrman Lost Christianities. Oxford University press, 2003, p.188-202 The movement spread in areas controlled by the Roman Empire and Arian Goths (see Huneric), and the Persian Empire; it continued to develop in the Mediterranean and Middle East before and during the Second Century and Third Centuries. Conversion to Islam and the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though a few isolated communities continue to exist to the present. Gnostic ideas became influential in the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the late 19th and 20th Centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups. Nature and structure of Gnosticism The main features of gnosticism Gnostic systems are typically marked out by: "And the Sophia of the Epinoia [...] brought forth. And [...] something came out of her which was imperfect and different from her appearance, because she had created it without her consort. And it was dissimilar to the likeness of its mother, for it has another form. "And when she saw (the consequences of) her desire, it changed into a form of a lion-faced serpent. And its eyes were like lightning fires which flash. She cast it away from her, outside that place, that no one of the immortal ones might see it, for she had created it in ignorance." From The Secret Book of John (long version), Nag Hammadi Library, Codex II, trans. Frederik Wisse.. The notion of a remote, supreme monadic divinity - this figure is known under a variety of names, including 'Pleroma' and 'Bythos' (Greek: Βυθός, "deep"); The introduction by emanation of further divine beings, which are nevertheless identifiable as aspects of the God from which they proceeded; the progressive emanations are often conceived metaphorically as a gradual and progressive distancing from the ultimate source, which brings about an instability in the fabric of the divine nature; The subsequent identification of the Fall of Man as an occurrence with its ultimate foundations within divinity itself, rather than as occurring either entirely or indeed partially through human agency; this stage in the divine emanation is usually enacted through the recurrent Gnostic figure of Sophia (Greek, "wisdom"), whose presence in a wide variety of Gnostic texts is indicative of her central importance; The introduction of a distinct creator god. This creator god is commonly referred to as the demiourgós (a technical term literally denoting a public worker the Latinized form of Greek dēmiourgos, δημιουργός, hence "public or skilled worker"), used in the Platonist tradition .The gnostic demiurge bears resemblance to figures in Plato's Timaeus and Republic. In the former the demiourgós is a central figure, as benevolent creator of the universe who works to make the universe as benevolent as the limitations of matter will allow; in the latter, the description of the leontomorphic 'desire' in Socrates' model of the psyche bears a resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being in the shape of the lion; the relevant passage of The Republic was found within a major gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi , wherein a text existed describing the demiurge as a 'lion-faced serpent'. Elsewhere this figure is called 'Ialdabaoth', 'Samael' (Aramaic: sæmʕa-ʔel, 'blind god') or 'Saklas' (Syriac: sækla, 'the foolish one'), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior God, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent.The demiurge typically creates a group of coactors named 'Archons', who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it; [The demiurge] is blind; because of his power and his ignorance and his arrogance he said, with his power, "It is I who am God; there is none apart from me." When he said this, he sinned against the entirety. And this speech got up to incorruptibility; then there was a voice that came forth from incorruptibility, saying, "You are mistaken, Samael" - which is, "god of the blind." From The Hypostasis of the Archons or The Reality of the Rulers, Nag Hammadi Library, Codex II, trans. Bentley Layton. .The estimation of the world, owing to the above, as flawed or a production of 'error' but nevertheless as good as its constituent material might allow. This world is typically an inferior simulacrum of a higher-level reality or consciousness. The inferiority may be compared to the technical inferiority of a painting, sculpture, or other handicraft to the thing(s) of which those crafts are supposed to be a representation. In certain other cases this tendency to view matter negatively becomes more extreme; materiality, and the human body, is perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants; The explanation of this state through the use of a complex mythological-cosmological drama in which a divine element 'falls' into the material realm and lodges itself within certain human beings; from here, it may be returned to the divine realm through a process of awakening (leading towards salvation). The salvation of the individual thus mirrors a concurrent restoration of the divine nature; a central Gnostic innovation was to elevate individual redemption to the level of a cosmically significant event; Knowledge of a specific kind as a central factor in this process of restoration, achieved through the mediation of a redeemer figure (Christ, or, in other cases, Seth or Sophia). The model limits itself to describing characteristics of the Syrian-Egyptian school of Gnosticism. This is for the reason that the greatest expressions of the Persian gnostic school - Manicheanism and Mandaeanism - are typically conceived of as religious traditions in their own right; indeed, the typical usage of 'Gnosticism' is to refer to the Syrian-Egyptian schools alone, while 'Manichean' describes the movements of the Persia school. This conception of Gnosticism has in recent times come to be challenged. Despite this, the understanding presented above remains the most common and is useful in aiding meaningful discussion of the phenomena that compose Gnosticism. Above all, the central idea of gnōsis, a knowledge superior to and independent of faith made it welcome to many who were half-converted from paganism to Christianity. The Valentinians, for example, considered pistis (Greek: "faith") as consisting of accepting a body of teaching as true, being principally intellectual or emotional in character . The age of the Gnostics was highly diverse, and due to there being no fixed church authority, syncretism with pre-existing belief systems as well as new religions were often embraced. The relationship between Gnosticism and orthodox Christianity during the early first and the whole of the second century is vital in helping us to further understand the main doctrines of Gnosticism; due in part to the fact that, prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library (discussed below) much of what we know today about gnosticism has only been preserved in the summaries and assessments of early church fathers. Irenaeus declares in his treatise "Against Heresies" that Gnostic movements subjected all morality to the caprice of the individual, and made any fixed rule of faith impossible. According to Irenaeus, a certain sect known as the "Cainites" professed to impart a knowledge "greater and more sublime" than the ordinary doctrine of Christians, and believed that Cain derived his power from the superior Godhead . Although a Gnostic Christian himself, Clement of Alexandria, a 2nd century church father and the first notable member of the Church of Alexandria, raised a criticism against the followers of Basilides and Valentinus in his Stromata: in his view it annulled the efficacy of baptism, in that it held no value faith, the gift conferred in that sacrament . Dualism and monism Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as being 'dualistic' in nature, meaning they had the view the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities. Hans Jonas writes: "The cardinal feature of gnostic thought is the radical dualism that governs the relation of God and world, and correspondingly that of man and world." Hans Jonas The Gnostic Religion, p. 42, Beacon Press, 1963 ISBN 0-8070-5799-1; 1st ed. 1958 Within this definition, they run the gamut from the 'radical dualist' systems of Manicheanism to the 'mitigated dualism' of classic gnostic movements; Valentinian developments arguably approach a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner. Radical Dualism - or absolute Dualism which posits two co-equal divine forces. Manichaeism conceives of two previously coexistent realms of light and darkness which become embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter. Subsequently, certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism likely inherits this dualistic mythology from Zoroastrianism, in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant.The Mandaean creation myth witnesses the progressive emanations of Supreme Being of Light, with each emanation bringing about a progressive corruption resulting in the eventual emergence of Ptahil, the god of darkness who had a hand in creating and henceforward rules the material realm.Additionally, general Gnostic thought (specifically to be found in Iranian sects; for instance, see 'The Hymn of the Pearl') commonly included the belief that the material world corresponds to some sort of malevolent intoxication brought about by the powers of darkness to keep elements of the light trapped inside it, or literally to keep them 'in the dark', or ignorant; in a state of drunken distraction. Mitigated Dualism - where one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other. Such classical Gnostic movements as the Sethians conceived of the material world as being created by a lesser divinity than the true God that was the object of their devotion. The spiritual world is conceived of as being radically different from the material world, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home of certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute alienation within the world, and their resultant aim was to allow the soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical realm. Qualified Monism - where it is arguable whether or not the second entity is divine or semi-divine. Elements of Valentinian versions of Gnostic myth suggest to some that its understanding of the universe may have been monistic rather than a dualistic one. Elaine Pagels states that 'Valentinian gnosticism [...] differs essentially from dualism' ; while, according to Schoedel'a standard element in the interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally monistic' . In these myths, the malevolence of the demiurge is mitigated; his creation of a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing on his part, but due to his imperfection by contrast to the superior entities of which he is unaware. As such, Valentinians already have less cause to treat physical reality with contempt than might a Sethian GnosticThe Valentinian tradition conceives of materiality, rather than as being a separate substance from the divine, as attributable to an error of perception, which become symbolized mythopoetically as the act of material creation. Moral and ritual practice The question of Gnostic morality can only be resolved by reading the claims of their contemporaries. Numerous Christian writers accused some Gnostic teachers of claiming to eschew the physical realm, while simultaneously freely indulging their physical appetites; however there is reason to question the accuracy of these claims. Evidence in the source texts indicates Gnostic moral behaviour as being generally ascetic in basis, expressed most fluently in their sexual and dietary practice. Layton, Bentley (1987). The Gnostic Scriptures. SCM Press - Introduction to "Against Heresies" by St. Irenaeus Many monks would deprive themselves of food, water, or necessary needs for living. This presented a problem for the heresiologists writing on gnostic movements: this mode of behavior was one which they themselves favoured and supported, so the Church Fathers, some modern-day Gnostic apologist presume, would be required perforce to offer support to the practices of their theological opponents. In order to avoid this, a common heresiological approach was to avoid the issue completely by resorting to slanderous (and, in some cases, excessive) allegations of libertinism (see the Cainites), or to explain Gnostic asceticism as being based on incorrect interpretations of scripture, or simply duplicitous in nature. Epiphanius provides an example when he writes of the 'Archontics' 'Some of them ruin their bodies by dissipation, but others feign ostensible fasts and deceive simple people while they pride themselves with a sort of abstinence, under the disguise of monks' (Panarion, 40.1.4). In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct behaviour. Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora lays out a project of general asceticism in which the basis of action is the moral inclination of the individual: This extract marks a definite shift away from the position of orthodoxy, that the correct behaviour for Christians is best administered and prescribed by the central authority of the Church, as transmitted through the Apostles to the Church's bishops. Instead, the internalised inclination of the individual assumes paramount importance; there is the recognition that ritualistic behaviour, though well-intentioned, possesses no significance or effectiveness unless its external prescription is matched by a personal, internal motivation. This line of Gnostic thought is echoed in Protestantism's emphasis on private interpretation of Scripture, and on its individualist emphasis. Charges of Gnostic libertinism find their source in the works of Irenaeus. According to this writer, Simon Magus (whom he has identified as the prototypical source of Gnosticism, and who had previously tried to buy sacramental authority of ordination from St. Peter the Apostle) founded the school of moral freedom ('amoralism'). Irenaeus reports that Simon's argument was that those who put their trust in him and his consort Helen need trouble themselves no further with the biblical prophets or their moral exhortations and are free 'to do what they wish', as men are saved by his (Simon's) grace and not by their 'righteous works' (Adversus Haereses ). Simon is not known for any libertinistic practice, save for his curious attachment to Helen, typically reputed to be a prostitute. There is, however, clear evidence in the Testimony of Truth that followers of Simon did, in fact, get married and beget children, so a general tendency to asceticism can likewise be ruled out. Irenaeus reports of the Valentinians, whom he characterizes as eventual inheritors of Simon, that they are lax in their dietary habits (eating food that has been 'offered to idols'), sexually promiscuous ('immoderately given over to the desires of the flesh') and guilty of taking wives under the pretence of living with them as adopted 'sisters'. In the latter case, Michael Allen Williams has argued plausibly that Irenaeus was here broadly correct in the behaviour described, but not in his apprehension of its causes. Williams argues that members of a cult might live together as 'brother' and 'sister': intimate, yet not sexually active. Over time, however, the self-denial required of such an endeavour becomes harder and harder to maintain, leading to the state of affairs Irenaeus criticizes. Irenaeus also makes reference to the Valentinian practise of the Bridal Chamber, a ritualistic sacrament in which sexual union is seen as analogous to the activities of the paired syzygies that constitute the Valentinian Pleroma. Though it is known that Valentinus had a more relaxed approach to sexuality than much of the Catholic Church (he allowed women to hold positions of ordination in his community), it is not known whether the Bridal Chamber was a ritual involving actual intercourse, or whether human sexuality is here simply being used in a metaphorical sense. Of the Carpocratians Irenaeus makes much the same report: they 'are so abandoned in their recklessness that they claim to have in their power and be able to practise anything whatsoever that is ungodly (irreligious) and impious ... they say that conduct is only good or evil in the eyes of man' . Once again a differentiation might be detected between a man's actions and the grace he has received through his adherence to a system of gnosis; whether this is due to a common sharing of such an attitude amongst Gnostic circles, or whether this is simply a blanket-charge used by Irenaeus is open to conjecture. On the whole, it would seem that Gnostic behavior tended towards the ascetic. This said, the heresiological accusation of duplicity in such practises should not be taken at face value; nor should similar accusations of amoral libertinism. The Nag Hammadi library itself is full of passages which appear to encourage abstinence over indulgence. Fundamentally, however, gnostic movements appear to take the 'ancient schema of the two ways, which leaves the decision to do what is right to human endeavour and promises a reward for those who make the effort, and punishment for those who are negligent' (Kurt Rudolph, Gnosis:The Nature and History of Gnosticism, 262). Major Gnostic movements and their texts As noted above, schools of Gnosticism can be defined according to one classification system as being a member of two broad categories. These are the 'Eastern'/'Persian' school, and a 'Syrian-Egyptic' school. The former possesses more demonstrably dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zoroastrians. Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view. Notable exceptions include relatively modern movements which seem to include elements of both categories, namely: the Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians which are included in their own section. Persian Gnosticism The Persian Schools, which appeared in the western Persian province of Babylon, and whose writings were originally produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylon at the time, are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are not emanations from Christianity or Judaism. Mandaeanism is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan. The name of the group derives from the term Mandā d-Heyyi, which roughly means "Knowledge of Life." Although the exact chronological origins of this movement are not known, John the Baptist eventually would come to be a key figure in the religion, as an emphasis on baptism is part of their core beliefs. As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with Christianity, Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus, or Mohammed. Their beliefs and practices likewise have little overlap with the religions that manifested from those religious figures and the two should not be confused. Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture survive in the modern era. The primary source text is known as the Genzā Rabbā and has portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early as the 2nd century CE. There is also the Qolastā, or Canonical Book of Prayer and The Book of John the Baptist (sidra ḏ-iahia). Manichaeism which represented an entire independent religious heritage, but is now mostly extinct was founded by the Prophet Mani (210-276 CE). Although most of the literature/scripture of the Manichaeans was believed lost, the discovery of an original series of documents have helped to shed new light on the subject. Now housed in Cologne Germany, the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis contains mainly biographical information on the prophet and details on his claims and teachings. Despite connections with Jesus Christ, it is not believed that the Manichaeans in any way practiced a religion with identifiable overlap with any of the various Jewish or Christian sects. As Mani stated, "The true God has nothing to do with the material world or cosmos", and, "It is the Prince of Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their priests. Thus the Christians, the Jews, and the Pagans are involved in the same error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts he taught them." Classical Texts:Acta Archelai Now, he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests he says is the archont of Darkness, and the Christians, Jews, and pagans (ethnic) are one and the same, as they revere the same god. For in his aspirations he seduces them, as he is not the god of truth. And so therefore all those who put their hope in the god who spoke with Moses and the prophets have (this in store for themselves, namely) to be bound with him, because they did not put their hope in the god of truth. For that one spoke with them (only) according to their own aspirations. [www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Manicheism/Manicheism_II_Texts.pdf] Page 76 Likewise, Manichaeism, being another Gnostic sect, preached a similar doctrine of positioning God against matter. This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light. Thus, to Mani, the devil god which created the world was the Jewish Jehovah. Mani said, "It is the Prince of Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their priests. Thus the Christians, the Jews, and the Pagans are involved in the same error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts he taught them." Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism The Syrian-Egyptian school derives much of its outlook from Platonist influences. Typically, it depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe. As a result, there is a tendency in these schools to view evil in terms of matter which is markedly inferior to goodness, evil as lacking spiritual insight and goodness, rather than to emphasize portrayals of evil as an equal force. These schools of gnosticism may be said to use the terms 'evil' and 'good' as being relative descriptive terms, as they refer to the relative plight of human existence caught between such realities and confused in its orientation, with 'evil' indicating the extremes of distance from the principle and source of goodness, without necessarily emphasizing an inherent negativity. As can be seen below, many of these movements included source material related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian (albeit quite different from the so-called Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms). Syrian-Egyptic scripture Most of the literature from this category is known/confirmed to us in the modern age through the Library discovered at Nag Hammadi. Sethian works are named after the third son of Adam and Eve, believed to be a possessor and disseminator of gnosis. These typically include: The Apocryphon of John The Apocalypse of Adam The Reality of the Rulers, Also known as The hypostasis of the Archons The Thunder-Perfect Mind The Three-fold First Thought (Trimorphic Protennoia) The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit (also known as the (Coptic) Gospel of the Egyptians) Zostrianos Allogenes The Three Steles of Seth Thomasine works are so-named after the School of St. Thomas the Apostle. The texts commonly attributed to this school are: The Hymn of the Pearl, or, the Hymn of Jude Thomas the Apostle in the Country of Indians The Gospel of Thomas The Book of Thomas: The Contender Writing to the Perfect Valentinian works are named in reference to the Bishop and teacher Valentinius, also spelled Valentinus. ca. 153 AD/CE, Valentinius developed a complex Cosmology outside of the Sethian tradition. At one point he was close to being appointed the Bishop of Rome of what is now the Roman Catholic Church. Works attributed to his school are listed below, and fragmentary pieces directly linked to him are noted with an asterisk: The Divine Word Present in the Infant (Fragment A) * On the Three Natures (Fragment B) * Adam's Faculty of Speech (Fragment C) * To Agathopous: Jesus' Digestive System (Fragment D) * Annihilation of the Realm of Death (Fragment F) * On Friends: The Source of Common Wisdom (Fragment G) * Epistle on Attachments (Fragment H) * Summer Harvest* The Gospel of Truth* Ptolemy's Version of the Gnostic Myth The Prayer of the Apostle Paul Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora Treatise on Resurrection (Epistle to Rheginus) Gospel of Philip Basilidian works are named for the founder of their school, Basilides (132–? CE/AD). These works are mainly known to us through the criticisms of one of his opponents, Irenaeus in his work Adversus Haereses. The other pieces are known through the work of Clement of Alexandria: The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A) The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B) Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue (Fragment C) The State of Virtue (Fragment D) The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E) Reincarnation (Fragment F) Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G) Forgivable Sins (Fragment H) The Gospel of Judas is the most recently discovered Gnostic text. National Geographic has published an English translation of it, bringing it into mainstream awareness. It portrays Judas Iscariot as the most enlightened disciple, who acted at Jesus' request when he handed Jesus over to the authorities. Its reference to Barbelo and inclusion of material similar to the Apocryphon of John and other such texts, connects the text to Barbeloite and/or Sethian Gnosticism. Later Gnosticism and Gnostic-influenced groups Other schools and related movements; these are presented in chronological order:The circular, harmonic cross was an emblem used most notably by the Cathars, a medieval group that related to Gnosticism. Simon Magus and Marcion of Sinope both had Gnostic tendencies, but such familiar ideas as they presented were as-yet unformed; they might thus be described as pseudo- or proto-Gnostics. Both developed a sizable following. Simon Magus' pupil Menander of Antioch could potentially be included within this grouping. Marcion is popularly labelled a gnostic, however most scholars do not consider him a gnostic at all, for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica article on Marcion clearly states: "In Marcion's own view, therefore, the founding of his church — to which he was first driven by opposition — amounts to a reformation of Christendom through a return to the gospel of Christ and to Paul; nothing was to be accepted beyond that. This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. A dualist he certainly was, but he was not a Gnostic - Depending of course on one's definition of 'Gnostic'." Cerinthus (c. 100 AD), the founder of a heretical school with gnostic elements. Like a Gnostic, Cerinthus depicted Christ as a heavenly spirit separate from the man Jesus, and he cited the demiurge as creating the material world. Unlike the Gnostics, Cerinthus taught Christians to observe the Jewish law; his demiurge was holy, not lowly; and he taught the Second Coming. His gnosis was a secret teaching attributed to an apostle. Some scholars believe that the First Epistle of John was written as a response to Cerinthus. González, Justo L.(1970). A History of Christian Thought, Vol. I. Abingdon. pp. 132-3 The Ophites, so-named because they worshiped the serpent of Genesis as the bestower of knowledge. The Cainites, as the term implies, worshiped Cain, as well as Esau, Korah, and the Sodomites. There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group; however, it is surmisable that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see libertinism). The name Cainite is used as the name of a religious movement, and not in the usual Biblical sense of people descended from Cain. According to Biblical text, which is our only source of knowledge about the man Cain, all descendants of Cain perished in Noah's Flood, as only Noah's family survived, deriving from the line of Seth. The Carpocratians The Borborites The Bogomils The Paulicans The Cathars (Cathari, Albigenses or Albigensians) are typically seen as being imitative of Gnosticism; whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed. Though the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, Satanic, creator god), they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (gnosis) as an effective salvific force. For the relationship between these medieval heresies and earlier Gnostic forms, see historical discussion above. Kabbalah Gnostic ideas found a Jewish variation in the mystical study of Kabbalah. The Kabbalists took many core Gnostic ideas and used them to dramatically reinterpret earlier Jewish sources according to this new influence. See Gershom Scholem's Origins of the Kabbalah for further discussion. The Kabbalists originated in Provence which was at that time also the center of the Gnostic Cathars. It is thus believed that Cathar Gnostics persuaded Jews to Gnostic ideas, leading to the development of Kabbalah. Another influence on Kabbalah was probably that of the Muslim Ismailis. By contrast, however, followers of Kabbalah date its origins as early as the Garden of Eden. Kabbalah, however, does not employ the terminology or labels of gentile Gnosticism, but grounds the same or similar concepts in the language of the Torah (first five books of the Hebrew Bible). Nevertheless, during the time periods when Gnosticism was drawing large numbers of followers from various religions, creating Gnostic versions of those religions, many Jews also developed a mystical version of Judaism remarkably similar to Gnostic beliefs. While Kabbalah shares several themes with Gnosticism, such as a multiplicity of heavenly levels and archetypes and the importance of mystical knowledge of these, it does not reflect the distinctive Gnostic belief that the material world and the Hebrew Bible are the work of an inferior and malevolent deity. Rather than describing Kabbalah as a form of Gnosticism, it would be more accurate to describe both Kabbalah and Gnosticism as members of a family of Neoplatonic/Neopythagorean Oriental mystical traditions, which would also include Sufism. Gershom Scholem once described Gnosticism as "the Greatest case of metaphysical anti-Semitism." Understanding Jewish History: Texts and Commentaries by Steven Bayme Publisher: Ktav Publishing House ISBN-10: 0881255548 ISBN-13: 978-0881255546 Important terms and concepts Please note that the following are only summaries of various Gnostic interpretations that exist. The roles of familiar beings such as Jesus Christ, Sophia, and the Demiurge usually share the same general themes between systems but may have somewhat different functions or identities ascribed to them. Æon In many Gnostic systems, the æons are the various emanations of the superior God, who is also known by such names as the One, the Monad, Aion teleos (Greek: "The Complete Æon"), Bythos (Greek: Βυθος, 'Depth' or 'profundity'), Proarkhe (Greek: προαρχη, "Before the Beginning'), E Arkhe (Greek: ἡ ἀρχή, 'The Beginning'), Ennoia (Greek: "Thought") of the Light or Sige (Greek: Σιγη, "Silence") . From this first being, also an æon, a series of different emanations occur, beginning in certain Gnostic texts with the hermaphroditic Barbelo , from which successive pairs of aeons emanate, often in male-female pairings called syzygies ; the numbers of these pairings varied from text to text, though some identify their number as being thirty . The aeons as a totality constitute the pleroma, the "region of light". The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world. Two of the most commonly paired æons were Jesus and Sophia (Greek: "Wisdom"); the latter refers to Jesus as her 'consort' in A Valentinian Exposition . Sophia, emanating without her partner, resulting in the production of the Demiurge (Greek: lit. "public builder") , who is also referred to as Yaldabaoth and variations thereof in some Gnostic texts. This creature is concealed outside the Pleroma; in isolation, and thinking itself alone, it creates materiality and a host of co-actors, referred to as archons. The demiurge is responsible for the creation of mankind, by create he traps elements of the Pleroma stolen from Sophia in human bodies. In response, the Godhead emanates two savior æons, Christ and the Holy Spirit; Christ then embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be able to teach man how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return to the Pleroma. Archon In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term Archon to refer to several servants of the Demiurge. In this context they may be seen as having the roles of the angels and demons of the Old Testament. According to Origen's Contra Celsum, a sect called the Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created the six that folllow: Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos and Horaios . Similarly to the Mithraic Kronos and Vedic Narasimha, a form of Vishnu, Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion . Abraxas/Abrasax Engraving from an Abraxas stone. The Egyptian Gnostic Basilideans referred to a figure called Abraxas who was at the head of 365 spiritual beings (Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, I.24); it is unclear what to make of Irenaeus' use of the term 'Archon', which may simply mean 'ruler' in this context. The role and function of Abraxas for Basilideans is not clear. The word Abraxas was engraved on certain antique stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which may have been used as amulets or charms by Gnostic sects. In popular culture, Abraxas is sometimes considered the name of a god who incorporated both Good and Evil (God and Demiurge) in one entity, and therefore representing the monotheistic God, singular, but (unlike, for example, the Christian God) not omni-benevolent (See Hesse's Demian, and Jung's Seven Sermons to the Dead). Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in recent centuries has been claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon, sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of Satan/Lucifer. The word abracadabra may be related to Abraxas. The above information relates to interpretations of ancient amulets and to reports of Christian heresy hunters which are not always clear. Actual ancient Gnostic texts from the Nag Hammadi Library, such as the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians, refer to Abrasax as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Spiritual Fullness in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge and Archon's rule of this world, and the salvage effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth, including Abrasax, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer border of the Divine Fullness that encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the world of materiality. Words like or similar to Abraxas or Abrasax also appear in the Greek Magical Papyri. There are similarities and differences between such figures in reports about Basiledes' teaching, in the larger magical traditions of the Graeco-Roman world, in the classic ancient Gnostic texts such as the Gospel of the Egyptians, and in later magical and esoteric writings. The Swiss Psychologist Carl Jung wrote a short Gnostic treatise in 1916 called The Seven Sermons to the Dead, which called Abraxas a God higher than the Christian God and Devil, that combines all opposites into one Being. Demiurge A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge; however, cf. Mithraic Zervan Akarana Campbell, Joseph: Occidental Mythology, page 262. Penguin Arkana, 1991. The term Demiurge derives from the Latinized form of the Greek term dēmiourgos, δημιουργός, (literally "public or skilled worker") and refers to an entity responsible for the creation of the physical universe and the physical aspect of humanity. The term dēmiourgos occurs in a number of other religious and philosophical systems, most notably Platonism. Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within the broad category of gnosticism - such judgements usually correspond to each group's judgement of the status of materiality as being inherently evil, or else merely flawed and as good as its passive constituent matter will allow. Like Plato, Gnosticism presents a distinction between a supranatural, unknowable reality and the sensible materiality of which the demiurge is creator. However, in contrast to Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the Supreme God: his act of creation either in unconscious and fundamentally flawed imitation of the divine model, or else formed with the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine in materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge acts as a solution to the problem of evil. In the Apocryphon of John (several versions of which are found in the Nag Hammadi library), the Demiurge has the name "Yaltabaoth", and proclaims himself as God: "Now the archon who is weak has three names. The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Saklas, and the third is Samael. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come." "Samael", in the Judeo-Christian tradition, refers to the evil Angel of Death, and corresponds to the Christian demon of that name, one second only to Satan. Literally, it can mean "blind god" or "god of the blind" in Aramaic (Syriac sæmʕa-ʔel); another alternative title is "Saklas", Aramaic for "fool" (Syriac sækla "the foolish one"). Gnostic myth recounts that Sophia (Greek, literally meaning "wisdom"), the Demiurge's mother and a partial aspect of the divine Pleroma or "Fullness", desired to create something apart from the divine totality, and without the receipt of divine assent. In this abortive act of separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he himself existed, being ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were his birth-place. The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the divine into human form; this process occurs through the agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Thus Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the material forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the material universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a return by the subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its primal source. (See Sethian Gnosticism.) Some Gnostic philosophers identify the Demiurge with Yahweh, the God of the Old Testament, in opposition and contrast to the God of the New Testament. Still others equated the being with Satan. Catharism apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world directly or indirectly from Gnosticism. Gnosis The word 'Gnosticism' is a modern construction, though based on an antiquated linguistic expression: it comes from the Greek word meaning 'knowledge', gnosis (γνῶσις). However, gnosis itself refers to a very specialised form of knowledge, deriving both from the exact meaning of the original Greek term and its usage in Platonist philosophy. Unlike modern English, ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several different forms of knowing. These different forms may be described in English as being propositional knowledge, indicative of knowledge acquired indirectly through the reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as "I know of George Bush" or "I know Berlin is in Germany"), and empirical knowledge acquired by direct participation or acquaintance (such as "I know George Bush personally" or "I know Berlin, having visited"). Gnosis (γνῶσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind. Therefore, in a religious context, to be 'Gnostic' should be understood as being reliant not on knowledge in a general sense, but as being specially receptive to mystical or esoteric experiences of direct participation with the divine. Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this 'knowledge of' ('acquaintance with') the divine. This is commonly identified with a process of inward 'knowing' or self-exploration, comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus (ca. 205–270 AD). However, as may be seen, the term 'gnostic' also had precedent usage in several ancient philosophical traditions, which must also be weighed in considering the very subtle implications of its appellation to a set of ancient religious groups. Monad (apophatic theology) In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies), God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute, Aion teleos (The Perfect Æon), Bythos (Depth or Profundity, Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, προαρχη), and E Arkhe (The Beginning, η αρχη). God is the high source of the pleroma, the region of light. The various emanations of God are called æons. Within certain variations of Gnosticism, especially those inspired by Monoimus, the Monad was the highest God which created lesser gods, or elements (similar to æons). According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into existence the Monad, which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc. This was also clarified in the writings of Plato, Aristotle and Plotinus. This teaching being largely Neopythagorean via Numenius as well. This Monad is the spiritual source of everything which emanates the pleroma, and could be contrasted to the dark Demiurge (Yaldabaoth) that controls matter. The Sethian cosmogony as most famously contained in the Apocryphon ('Secret book') of John describes an unknown God, very similar to the orthodox apophatic theology, although very different from the orthodox credal teachings that there is one such god who is identified also as creator of heaven and earth. In describing the nature of a creator god associated with Biblical texts, orthodox theologians often attempt to define God through a series of explicit positive statements, themselves universal but in the divine taken to their superlative degrees: he is omniscient, omnipotent and truly benevolent. The Sethian conception of the most hidden transcendent God is, by contrast, defined through negative theology: he is immovable, invisible, intangible, ineffable; commonly, 'he' is seen as being hermaphroditic, a potent symbol for being, as it were, 'all-containing'. In the Apocryphon of John, this god is good in that it bestows goodness. After the apophatic statements, the process of the Divine in action are used to describe the effect of such a god. An apophatic approach to discussing the Divine is found throughout gnosticism, Vedanta, and Platonic and Aristotelian theology as well. It is also found in some Judaic sources. Pleroma Pleroma (Greek πληρωμα) generally refers to the totality of God's powers. The term means fullness, and is used in Christian theological contexts: both in Gnosticism generally, and in Colossians 2.9. Gnosticism holds that the world is controlled by evil archons, one of whom is the demiurge, the deity of the Old Testament who holds the human spirit captive. The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of light "above" (the term is not to be understood spatially) our world, occupied by spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal beings) and sometimes archons. Jesus is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the divine origins of humanity. The term is thus a central element of Gnostic cosmology. Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form since the word appears under the book of Colossians. Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels of Princeton University, view the reference in Colossians as something that was to be interpreted in the gnostic sense. Sophia In Gnostic tradition, the term Sophia (Σoφíα, Greek for "wisdom") refers to the final and lowest emanation of God. In most if not all versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. The positive or negative depiction of materiality thus resides a great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's actions. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90. Almost all gnostic systems of the Syrian or Egyptian type taught that the universe began with an original, unknowable God, referred to as the Parent or Bythos, as the Monad by Monoimus, or the first Aeon by still other traditions. From this initial unitary beginning, the One spontaneously emanated further Aeons, pairs of progressively 'lesser' beings in sequence. The lowest of these pairs were Sophia and Christ. The Aeons together made up the Pleroma, or fullness, of God, and thus should not be seen as distinct from the divine, but symbolic abstractions of the divine nature. History The development of the Syrian-Egyptian school Bentley Layton has sketched out a relationship between the various gnostic movements in his introduction to The Gnostic Scriptures (SCM Press, London, 1987). In this model, 'Classical Gnosticism' and 'The School of Thomas' antedated and influenced the development of Valentinus, who was to found his own school of Gnosticism in both Alexandria and Rome, whom Layton called 'the great [Gnostic] reformer' and 'the focal point' of Gnostic development. While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher Basilides, and may have been influenced by him. Valentinianism flourished throughout the early centuries of the common era: while Valentinus himself lived from ca. 100–180 AD/CE, a list of sectarians or heretics, composed in 388 AD/CE, against whom Emperor Constantine intended legislation includes Valentinus (and, presumably, his inheritors). The school is also known to have been extremely popular: several varieties of their central myth are known, and we know of 'reports from outsiders from which the intellectual liveliness of the group is evident' (Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, 94). It is known that Valentinus' students, in further evidence of their intellectual activity, elaborated upon the teachings and materials they received from him (though the exact extent of their changes remains unknown), for example, in the version of the Valentinian myth brought to us through Ptolemy. Valentinianism might be described as the most elaborate and philosophically 'dense' form of the Syrian-Egyptian schools of Gnosticism, though it should be acknowledged that this in no way debarred other schools from attracting followers: Basilides' own school was popular also, and survived in Egypt until the 4th century. Simone Petrement, in A Separate God, in arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians. It is her assertion that Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded to be a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil. (See below.) Manichean priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in Sogdian. Manuscript from Khocho, Tarim Basin. The development of the Persian school An alternate heritage is offered by Kurt Rudolph in his book Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism (Koehler and Amelang, Leipzig, 1977), to explain the lineage of Persian Gnostic schools. The decline of Manicheism that occurred in Persia in the 5th century AD was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west. In the west, the teachings of the school moved into Syria, Northern Arabia, Egypt and North Africa (where Augustine was a member of the school from 373-382); from Syria it progressed still farther, into Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia. There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and Dalmatia in the 4th century, and also in Gaul and Spain. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of the Paulicians, Bogomils and Cathari in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out as a heresy by the Catholic Church. In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, given that the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam. In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in Central Asia, to which it had spread through Iran. Here, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Empire. Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Historical relations between antique Greek Philosophy and Gnosticism The earliest origins of Gnosticism are still obscure and disputed, but they probably include influence from Plato, Middle Platonism and Neo-Pythagoreanism academies or schools of thought, and this seems to be true both of the more Sethian Gnostics, and of the Valentinian Gnostics. Further, if we compare different Sethian texts to each other in an attempted chronology of the development of Sethianism during the first few centuries, it seems that later texts are continuing to interact with Platonism. Earlier texts such as Apocalypse of Adam show signs of being pre-Christian and focus on the Seth, third son of Adam and Eve. These early Sethians may be identical to or related to the Notzrim, Ophites or to the sectarian group called the Minuth by Philo. Later Sethian texts such as Zostrianos and Allogenes draw on the imagery of older Sethian texts, but utilize "a large fund of philosophical conceptuality derived from contemporary Platonism, (that is late middle Platonism) with no traces of Christian content." Turner, John. "Sethian Gnosticism: A Literary History" in Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and Early Christianity, 1986 p. 59 Indeed the doctrine of the "triple-powered one" found in the text Allogenes, as discovered in the Nag Hammadi Library, is "the same doctrine as found in the anonymous Parmenides commentary (Fragment XIV) ascribed by Hadot to Porphyry [...] and is also found in Plotinus' Ennead6.7, 17, 13-26." Rejection by antique Greek Philosophy However, by the 3rd century Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus, Porphyry and Amelius are all attacking the Sethians. It looks as if Sethianism began as a pre-Christian tradition, possibly a syncretic Hebrew That incorporated elements of Christianity and Platonism as it grew, only to have both Christianity and Platonism reject and turn against it. Professor John D Turner believes that this double attack led to Sethianism fragmentation into numerous smaller groups (Audians, Borborites, Archontics and perhaps Phibionites, Stratiotici, and Secundians). Turner, John. "Sethian Gnosticism: A Literary History" in Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and Early Christianity, 1986 p. 59 Scholarship on Gnosticism has been greatly advanced by the discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi texts, which shed light on some of the more puzzling comments by Plotinus and Porphyry regarding the Gnostics. More importantly, the texts help to distinguish different kinds of early Gnostics. It now seems clear that "Sethian" and "Valentinian" This is what the scholar A. H. Armstrong wrote as a footnote in his translation of Plotinus' Enneads in the tract named against the Gnostics. Footnote from Page 264 1. From this point to the end of ch.12 Plotinus is attacking a Gnostic myth known to us best at present in the form it took in the system of Valentinus. The Mother, Sophia-Achamoth, produced as a result of the complicated sequence of events which followed the fall of the higher Sophia, and her offspring the Demiurge, the inferier and ignorant maker of the material universe, are Valentinian figures: cp. Irenaues adv. Haer 1.4 and 5. Valentinius had been in Rome, and there is nothing improbable in the presence of Valentinians there in the time of Plotinus. But the evidence in the Life ch.16 suggests that the Gnostics in Plotinus's circle belonged rather to the other group called Sethians on Archonties, related to the Ophites or Barbelognostics: they probably called themselves simply "Gnostics." Gnostic sects borrowed freely from each other, and it is likely that Valentinius took some of his ideas about Sophia from older Gnostic sources, and that his ideas in turn influenced other Gnostics. The probably Sethian Gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi included Valentinian treatise: ep. Puech, Le pp. 162-163 and 179-180. gnostics attempted "an effort towards conciliation, even affiliation" with late antique philosophy Schenke, Hans Martin. "The Phenomenon and Significance of Gnostic Sethianism" in The Rediscovery of Gnosticism. E. J. Brill 1978 , and were rebuffed by some Neoplatonists, including Plotinus. Philosophical relations between Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Gnostics borrow a lot of ideas and terms from Platonism. They exhibit a keen understanding of Greek philosophical terms and the Greek Koine language in general, and use Greek philosophical concepts throughout their text, including such concepts as hypostasis (reality, existence), ousia (essence, substance, being), and demiurge (creator God). Good examples include texts such as the Hypostasis of the Archons (Reality of the Rulers) or Trimorphic Protennoia (The first thought in three forms). Criticism of gnosticism by antique Greek Philosophy Plotinus considered his opponents heretics Introductory Note This treatise (No.33 in Porphyry's chronological order) is in fact the concluding section of a single long treatise which Porphyry, in order to carry out the design of grouping his master's works more or less according to subject into six sets of nine treatise, hacked roughly into four parts which he put into different Enneads, the other three being III. 8 (30) V. 8 (31) and V .5 (32). Porphyry says (Life ch. 16.11) that he gave the treatise the Title "Against the Gnostics" (he is presumably also responsible for the titles of the other sections of the cut-up treatise). There is an alternative title in Life. ch. 24 56-57 which runs "Against those who say that the maker of the universe is evil and the universe is evil. The treatise as it stands in the Enneads is a most powerful protest on behalf of Hellenic philosophy against the un-Hellenic heresy (as it was from the Platonist as well as the orthodox Christian point of view) of Gnosticism. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220-222 and blasphemers, They claimed to be a privileged caste of beings, in whom God alone was interested, and who were saved not by their own efforts but by some dramatic and arbitrary divine proceeding; and this, Plotinus claimed, led to immorality. Worst of all, they despised and hated the material universe and denied it's goodness and the goodness of its maker. For a Platonist, this is utter blasphemy -- and all the worse because it obviously derives to some extent from the sharply other-worldly side of Plato's own teaching (e.g. in the Phaedo). At this point in his attack Plotinus comes very close in some ways to the orthodox Christian opponents of Gnosticism, who also insist that this world is the work of God in his goodness. But, here as on the question of salvation, the doctrine which Plotinus is defending is as sharply opposed in other ways to orthodox Christianity as to Gnosticism: for he maintains not only the goodness of the material universe but also it's eternity and it's divinity. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220-222 arriving at misotheism as the solution to the problem of evil, taking all their truths over from Plato, The teaching of the Gnostics seems to him untraditional, irrational and immoral. They despise and revile the ancient Platonic teachings and claim to have a new and superior wisdom of their own: but in fact anything that is true in their teaching comes from Plato, and all they have done themselves is to add senseless complications and pervert the true traditional doctrine into a melodramatic, superstitious fantasy designed to feed their own delusions of grandeur. They reject the only true way of salvation through wisdom and virtue, the slow patient study of truth and pursuit of perfection by men who respect the wisdom of the ancients and know their place in the universe. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220-222 coupled with the idea expressed by Plotinus that the approach to the infinite force which is the One or Monad cannot be through knowing or not knowing (i.e., dualist, which is of the dyad or demiurge) Faith and Philosophy By David G. Leahy Enneads VI 9.6 . Although there has been dispute as to which Gnostics Plotinus was referring to it appears they were indeed Sethian. This is what the scholar A. H. Armstrong wrote as a footnote in his translation of Plotinus' Enneads in the tract named against the Gnostics. Footnote from Page 264 1. From this point to the end of ch.12 Plotinus is attacking a Gnostic myth known to us best at present in the form it took in the system of Valentinus. The Mother, Sophia-Achamoth, produced as a result of the complicated sequence of events which followed the fall of the higher Sophia, and her offspring the Demiurge, the inferior and ignorant maker of the material universe, are Valentinian figures: cp. Irenaues adv. Haer 1.4 and 5. Valentinius had been in Rome, and there is nothing improbable in the presence of Valentinians there in the time of Plotinus. But the evidence in the Life ch.16 suggests that the Gnostics in Plotinus's circle belonged rather to the other group called Sethians on Archonties, related to the Ophites or Barbelognostics: they probably called themselves simply "Gnostics." Gnostic sects borrowed freely from each other, and it is likely that Valentinius took some of his ideas about Sophia from older Gnostic sources, and that his ideas in turn influenced other Gnostics. The probably Sethian Gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi included Valentinian treatise: ep. Puech, Le pp. 162-163 and 179-180. Plotinus' main objection to the Gnostics he was familiar with, however, was their rejection of the goodness of the demiurge and the material world. He attacks the Gnostics as vilifying Plato's ontology of the universe as contained in the Timaeus. He accused Gnosticism of vilifying the Demiurge, or craftsman that crafted the material world, and even of thinking that the material world is evil, or a prison. As Plotinus explains, the demiurge is the nous (as an emanation of the One), the ordering principle or mind, and also reason. Plotinus was also critical of the Gnostic origin of the demiurge as the offspring of wisdom, represented as a deity called Sophia. She was anthropomorphically expressed as a feminine spirit deity not unlike the goddess Athena or the Christian Holy Spirit. Plotinus even went so far as to state at one point that if the Gnostics did believe this world was a prison then they could at any moment free themselves by committing suicide. To some degree the texts discovered in Nag Hammadi support his allegations, but others such as the Valentinians and the Tripartite Tractate insist on the goodness of the world and the Demiurge. Buddhism and Gnosticism Early 3rd century–4th century Christian writers such as Hippolytus and Epiphanius write about a Scythianus, who visited India around 50 AD from where he brought "the doctrine of the Two Principles". According to Cyril of Jerusalem, Scythianus' pupil Terebinthus presented himself as a "Buddha" ("He called himself Buddas"). Cyril of Jerusalem Catechetical Lecture 6, paragraph 23 Terebinthus went to Palestine and Judaea ("becoming known and condemned"), and ultimately settled in Babylon, where he transmitted his teachings to Mani, thereby creating the foundation of Manichaeism: In the 3rd century, the Syrian writer and Christian Gnostic theologian Bar Daisan described his exchanges with the religious missions of holy men from India (Greek: Σαρμαναίοι, Sramanas), passing through Syria on their way to Elagabalus or another Severan dynasty Roman Emperor. His accounts were quoted by Porphyry (De abstin., iv, 17 ) and Stobaeus (Eccles., iii, 56, 141). Finally, from the 3rd century to the 12th century, some Gnostic religions such as Manichaeism, which combined Christian, Hebrew and Buddhist influences (Mani, the founder of the religion, resided for some time in Kushan lands), spread throughout the Old World, to Gaul and Great Britain in the West, and to China in the East. Some leading Christian theologians such as Augustine of Hippo were Manichaeans before converting to orthodox Christianity. Such exchanges, many more of which may have gone unrecorded, suggest that Buddhism may have had some influence on early Christianity: "Scholars have often considered the possibility that Buddhism influenced the early development of Christianity. They have drawn attention to many parallels concerning the births, lives, doctrines, and deaths of the Buddha and Jesus" (Bentley, "Old World Encounters"). 'Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category In 1966 in Messina, Italy, a conference was held concerning systems of gnosis. Among its several aims were the need to establish a program to translate the recently-acquired Nag Hammadi library (discussed above) and the need to arrive at an agreement concerning an accurate definition of 'Gnosticism'. This was in answer to the tendency, prevalent since the eighteenth century, to use the term 'gnostic' less as its origins implied, but rather as an interpretive for contemporary philosophical and religious movements. For example, in 1835, New Testament scholar Ferdinand Christian Baur constructed a developmental model of Gnosticism that culminated in the religious philosophy of Hegel; one might compare literary critic Harold Bloom's recent attempts to identify Gnostic elements in contemporary American religion, or Eric Voegelin's analysis of totalitarian impulses through the interpretive lens of Gnosticism. The 'cautious proposal' reached by the conference concerning Gnosticism is described by Markschies: In essence, it had been decided that 'Gnosticism' would become a historically-specific term, restricted to mean the Gnostic movements prevalent in the 3rd century, while 'gnosis' would be a universal term, denoting a system of knowledge retained 'for a privileged élite.' However, this effort towards providing clarity in fact created more conceptual confusion, as the historical term 'Gnosticism' was an entirely modern construction, while the new universal term 'gnosis' was a historical term: 'something was being called "gnosticism" that the ancient theologians had called "gnosis" ... [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical sense' . In antiquity, all agreed that knowledge was centrally important to life, but few were agreed as to what exactly constituted knowledge; the unitary conception that the Messina proposal presupposed did not exist . These flaws have meant that the problems concerning an exact definition of Gnosticism persist. It remains current convention to use 'Gnosticism' in a historical sense, and 'gnosis' universally. Leaving aside the issues with the latter noted above, the usage of 'Gnosticism' to designate a category of 3rd century religions has recently been questioned as well. Of note is Michael Allen Williams' Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for the Dismantling of a Dubious Category, in which the author examines the terms by which Gnosticism as a category is defined, and then closely compares these suppositions with the contents of actual Gnostic texts (the newly-recovered Nag Hammadi library was of central importance to his argument) . Williams argues that the conceptual foundations on which the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda of the heresiologists. Too much emphasis has been laid on perceptions of dualism, body- and matter-hatred, and anticosmism without these suppositions being properly tested. In essence, the interpretive definition of Gnosticism that was created by the antagonistic efforts of the early church heresiologists has been taken up by modern scholarship and reflected in a categorical definition, even though the means now existed to verify its accuracy. Attempting to do so, Williams contests, reveals the dubious nature of categorical 'Gnosticism', and he concludes that the term needs replacing in order to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises. Williams' observations have provoked debate; however, to date his suggested replacement term 'the Biblical demiurgical tradition' has not become widely used. Gnosticism in modern times A number of 19th century thinkers such as William Blake, Arthur Schopenhauer, Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. II, Ch. XLVIII Albert Pike and Madame Blavatsky studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even figures like Herman Melville and W. B. Yeats were more tangentially influenced. Smith, Richard. "The Modern Relevance of Gnosticism" in The Nag Hammadi Library, 1990 ISBN 0-06-066935-7 Jules Doinel "re-established" a Gnostic church in France in 1890 which altered its form as it passed through various direct successors (Fabre des Essarts as Tau Synésius and Joanny Bricaud as Tau Jean II most notably), and which, although small, is still active today. Cf. l'Eglise du Plérôme Early 20th century thinkers who heavily studied and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl Jung (who supported Gnosticism), Eric Voegelin (who opposed it), Jorge Luis Borges (who included it in many of his short stories), and Aleister Crowley, with figures such as Hermann Hesse being more moderatedly influenced. Rene Guenon founded the gnostic review, Le Gnose in 1909 (before moving to a more "Perennialist" position). Gnostic Thelemite organizations, such as Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis, trace themselves to Crowley's thought. The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library after 1945 had a huge impact on Gnosticism since World War II. Thinkers who were heavily influenced by Gnosticism in this period include Hans Jonas, Philip K. Dick and Harold Bloom, with Albert Camus and Allen Ginsberg being more moderately influenced. A number of ecclesiastical bodies which think of themselves as Gnostic have been set up or re-founded since World War II as well, including the Society of Novus Spiritus, Ecclesia Gnostica, the Thomasine Church, the Apostolic Johannite Church, the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, the North American College of Gnostic Bishops. Celia Green has written on Gnostic Christianity in relation to her own philosophy Green, Celia (1981,2006). Advice to Clever Children. Oxford: Oxford Forum. Ch.s XXXV-XXXVII . See also Antinomianism Apocrypha Christian mysticism Criticism of Christianity First Council of Nicaea Gnosis Gnosiology Hermeticism Theodicy Footnotes References Books Primary sources (in 7 volumes), vol. 1: ISBN 0-674-99484-1 The Gnostic Bible, Ed. Willis Barstone Secondary sources , translated as Petrement, Simone (1990), A Separate God: The Origins and Teachings of Gnosticsim, Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-066421-5 Videos The Naked Truth: Exposing the Deceptions About the Origins of Modern Religions (1995). External links Religious Tolerance - A survey of Gnosticism Early Christian Writings - primary texts The Gnostic Society Library - primary sources and commentaries. 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3,540 | Computer_program | Computer programs (also software programs, or just programs) are instructions for a computer. A computer requires programs to function. Moreover, a computer program does not run unless its instructions are executed by a central processor; however, a program may communicate an algorithm to people without running. Computer programs are usually executable programs or the source code from which executable programs are derived (e.g., compiled). Computer source code is often written by professional computer programmers. Source code is written in a programming language that usually follows one of two main paradigms: imperative or declarative programming. Source code may be converted into an executable file (sometimes called an executable program or a binary) by a compiler. Alternatively, computer programs may be executed by a central processing unit with the aid of an interpreter, or may be embedded directly into hardware. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines: system software and application software. And many computer programs may run simultaneously on a single computer, a process known as multitasking. Programming #include <stdio.h> int main(void) { puts("Hello world!"); return 0; } Source code of a program written in the C programming language Computer programming is the iterative process of writing or editing source code. Editing source code involves testing, analyzing, and refining, and sometimes coordinating with other programmers on a jointly developed program. A person who practices this skill is referred to as a computer programmer or software developer. The sometimes lengthy process of computer programming is usually referred to as software development. The term software engineering is becoming popular as the process is seen as an engineering discipline. Paradigms Computer programs can be categorized by the programming language paradigm used to produce them. Two of the main paradigms are imperative and declarative. Programs written using an imperative language specify an algorithm using declarations, expressions, and statements. A declaration couples a variable name to a datatype. For example: var x: integer; . An expression yields a value. For example: 2 + 2 yields 4. Finally, a statement might assign an expression to a variable or use the value of a variable to alter the program's control flow. For example: x := 2 + 2; if x = 4 then do_something(); One criticism of imperative languages is the side-effect of an assignment statement on a class of variables called non-local variables. Programs written using a declarative language specify the properties that have to be met by the output and do not specify any implementation details. Two broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages. The principle behind functional languages (like Haskell) is to not allow side-effects, which makes it easier to reason about programs like mathematical functions. The principle behind logical languages (like Prolog) is to define the problem to be solved — the goal — and leave the detailed solution to the Prolog system itself. The goal is defined by providing a list of subgoals. Then each subgoal is defined by further providing a list of its subgoals, etc. If a path of subgoals fails to find a solution, then that subgoal is backtracked and another path is systematically attempted. The form in which a program is created may be textual or visual. In a visual language program, elements are graphically manipulated rather than textually specified. Compilation or interpretation A computer program in the form of a human-readable, computer programming language is called source code. Source code may be converted into an executable image by a compiler or executed immediately with the aid of an interpreter. Compiled computer programs are commonly referred to as executables, binary images, or simply as binaries — a reference to the binary file format used to store the executable code. Compilers are used to translate source code from a programming language into either object code or machine code. Object code needs further processing to become machine code, and machine code is the Central Processing Unit's native code, ready for execution. Interpreted computer programs are either decoded and then immediately executed or are decoded into some efficient intermediate representation for future execution. BASIC, Perl, and Python are examples of immediately executed computer programs. Alternatively, Java computer programs are compiled ahead of time and stored as a machine independent code called bytecode. Bytecode is then executed upon request by an interpreter called a virtual machine. The main disadvantage of interpreters is computer programs run slower than if compiled. Interpreting code is slower than running the compiled version because the interpreter must decode each statement each time it is loaded and then perform the desired action. On the other hand, software development may be quicker using an interpreter because testing is immediate when the compilation step is omitted. Another disadvantage of interpreters is the interpreter must be present on the computer at the time the computer program is executed. By contrast, compiled computer programs need not have the compiler present at the time of execution. No properties of a programming language require it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted. The categorization usually reflects the most popular method of language execution. For example, BASIC is thought of as an interpreted language and C a compiled language, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters. Some systems use Just-in-time compilation (JIT) whereby sections of the source are compiled 'on the fly' and stored for subsequent executions. Self-modifying programs A computer program in execution is normally treated as being different from the data the program operates on. However, in some cases this distinction is blurred when a computer program modifies itself. The modified computer program is subsequently executed as part of the same program. Self-modifying code is possible for programs written in Machine code, assembly language, Lisp, COBOL, PL/1 and Prolog, among others. Execution and storage Typically, computer programs are stored in non-volatile memory until requested either directly or indirectly to be executed by the computer user. Upon such a request, the program is loaded into random access memory, by a computer program called an operating system, where it can be accessed directly by the central processor. The central processor then executes ("runs") the program, instruction by instruction, until termination. A program in execution is called a process. Termination is either by normal self-termination or by error — software or hardware error. Embedded programs The microcontroller on the right of this USB flash drive is controlled with embedded firmware. Some computer programs are embedded into hardware. A stored-program computer requires an initial computer program stored in its read-only memory to boot. The boot process is to identify and initialize all aspects of the system, from CPU registers to device controllers to memory contents. Following the initialization process, this initial computer program loads the operating system and sets the program counter to begin normal operations. Independent of the host computer, a hardware device might have embedded firmware to control its operation. Firmware is used when the computer program is rarely or never expected to change, or when the program must not be lost when the power is off. Manual programming Switches for manual input on a Data General Nova 3 Computer programs historically were manually input to the central processor via switches. An instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings. After setting the configuration, an execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated. Computer programs also historically were manually input via paper tape or punched cards. After the medium was loaded, the starting address was set via switches and the execute button pressed. Automatic program generation Generative programming is a style of computer programming that creates source code through generic classes, prototypes, templates, aspects, and code generators to improve programmer productivity. Source code is generated with programming tools such as a template processor or an Integrated Development Environment. The simplest form of source code generator is a macro processor, such as the C preprocessor, which replaces patterns in source code according to relatively simple rules. Software engines output source code or markup code that simultaneously become the input to another computer process. The analogy is that of one process driving another process, with the computer code being burned as fuel. Application servers are software engines that deliver applications to client computers. For example, a Wiki is an application server that allows users to build dynamic content assembled from articles. Wikis generate HTML, CSS, Java, and Javascript which are then interpreted by a web browser. Simultaneous execution Many operating systems support multitasking which enables many computer programs to appear to be running simultaneously on a single computer. Operating systems may run multiple programs through process scheduling — a software mechanism to switch the CPU among processes frequently so that users can interact with each program while it is running. Within hardware, modern day multiprocessor computers or computers with multicore processors may run multiple programs. Functional categories Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines. These functional categories are system software and application software. System software includes the operating system which couples the computer's hardware with the application software. The purpose of the operating system is to provide an environment in which application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner. In addition to the operating system, system software includes utility programs that help manage and tune the computer. If a computer program is not system software then it is application software. Application software includes middleware, which couples the system software with the user interface. Application software also includes utility programs that help users solve application problems, like the need for sorting. See also Algorithm for the relationship between computer programs and algorithms. Data structure References Further reading External links Definition of "Program" at Webopedia Definition of "Software" at FOLDOC Definition of "Computer Program" at dictionary.com be-x-old:Праграма | Computer_program |@lemmatized computer:53 program:67 also:4 software:23 instruction:5 require:3 function:2 moreover:1 run:10 unless:1 execute:13 central:6 processor:7 however:2 may:12 communicate:1 algorithm:4 people:1 without:1 usually:4 executable:6 source:16 code:29 derive:1 e:1 g:1 compile:8 often:1 write:6 professional:1 programmer:4 programming:11 language:19 follow:2 one:3 two:3 main:4 paradigm:3 imperative:4 declarative:4 convert:2 file:2 sometimes:3 call:7 binary:4 compiler:5 alternatively:2 processing:3 unit:2 aid:2 interpreter:9 embed:4 directly:3 hardware:6 categorize:3 along:2 functional:6 line:2 system:16 application:11 many:3 simultaneously:3 single:2 process:13 know:1 multitasking:2 include:5 stdio:1 h:1 int:1 void:1 put:1 hello:1 world:1 return:1 c:4 iterative:1 writing:1 edit:2 involve:1 test:2 analyze:1 refining:1 coordinate:1 jointly:1 develop:1 person:1 practice:1 skill:1 refer:3 developer:1 lengthy:1 development:3 term:1 engineering:2 become:3 popular:2 see:2 discipline:1 paradigms:1 use:10 produce:1 specify:4 declaration:2 expression:3 statement:4 couple:3 variable:5 name:1 datatype:1 example:6 var:1 x:4 integer:1 yield:2 value:2 finally:1 might:2 assign:1 alter:1 control:3 flow:1 criticism:1 side:2 effect:2 assignment:1 class:2 non:2 local:1 property:2 meet:1 output:2 implementation:1 detail:1 broad:1 category:3 logical:2 principle:2 behind:2 like:4 haskell:1 allow:2 make:1 easy:1 reason:1 mathematical:1 prolog:3 define:3 problem:2 solve:2 goal:2 leave:1 detailed:1 solution:2 provide:3 list:2 subgoals:3 subgoal:2 etc:1 path:2 fails:1 find:1 backtrack:1 another:4 systematically:1 attempt:1 form:3 create:2 textual:1 visual:2 element:1 graphically:1 manipulate:1 rather:1 textually:1 compilation:3 interpretation:1 human:1 readable:1 image:2 immediately:3 commonly:1 executables:1 simply:1 reference:2 format:1 store:5 translate:1 either:4 object:2 machine:6 need:3 native:1 ready:1 execution:9 interpret:4 decoded:1 decode:2 efficient:2 intermediate:1 representation:1 future:1 basic:3 perl:1 python:1 java:2 ahead:1 time:5 independent:2 bytecode:2 upon:2 request:3 virtual:1 disadvantage:2 slow:2 version:1 must:3 load:4 perform:1 desired:1 action:1 hand:1 quick:1 immediate:1 step:1 omit:1 present:2 contrast:1 exclusively:2 categorization:1 reflect:1 method:1 think:1 interpreted:1 compiled:1 despite:1 existence:1 jit:1 whereby:1 section:1 fly:1 subsequent:1 self:3 modify:2 normally:1 treat:1 different:1 data:3 operate:3 case:1 distinction:1 blur:1 modifies:1 modified:1 subsequently:1 part:1 possible:1 assembly:1 lisp:1 cobol:1 pl:1 among:2 others:1 storage:1 typically:1 volatile:1 memory:4 indirectly:1 user:5 random:1 access:2 operating:5 termination:3 normal:2 error:2 microcontroller:1 right:1 usb:1 flash:1 drive:2 embedded:1 firmware:3 stored:1 initial:2 read:2 boot:2 identify:1 initialize:1 aspect:2 cpu:2 register:1 device:2 controller:1 content:2 initialization:1 set:3 counter:1 begin:1 operation:2 host:1 rarely:1 never:1 expect:1 change:1 lose:1 power:1 manual:2 switch:4 input:4 general:1 nova:1 historically:2 manually:2 via:3 represent:1 configuration:2 setting:1 button:2 press:2 repeat:1 paper:1 tape:1 punch:1 card:1 medium:1 start:1 address:1 automatic:1 generation:1 generative:1 style:1 generic:1 prototype:1 template:2 generator:2 improve:1 productivity:1 generate:2 tool:1 integrate:1 environment:2 simple:2 macro:1 preprocessor:1 replace:1 pattern:1 accord:1 relatively:1 rule:1 engines:1 markup:1 analogy:1 burn:1 fuel:1 server:2 engine:1 deliver:1 client:1 wiki:1 build:1 dynamic:1 assemble:1 article:1 wikis:1 html:1 cs:1 javascript:1 web:1 browser:1 simultaneous:1 support:1 enable:1 appear:1 multiple:2 schedule:1 mechanism:1 frequently:1 interact:1 within:1 modern:1 day:1 multiprocessor:1 multicore:1 purpose:1 convenient:1 manner:1 addition:1 utility:2 help:2 manage:1 tune:1 middleware:1 interface:1 sort:1 relationship:1 structure:1 external:1 link:1 definition:3 webopedia:1 foldoc:1 dictionary:1 com:1 old:1 праграма:1 |@bigram stdio_h:1 perl_python:1 directly_indirectly:1 usb_flash:1 web_browser:1 user_interface:1 external_link:1 |
3,541 | British_Isles | The British Isles are a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe that include Great Britain and Ireland, and numerous smaller islands. "British Isles," Encyclopædia Britannica There are two sovereign states located on the islands: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and Ireland. The diplomatic and constitutional name of the Irish state is simply Ireland. For disambiguation purposes "Republic of Ireland" is often used although technically not the name of the state but, according to the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, its "description". Article 4, Bunreacht na hÉireann. Section 2, Republic of Ireland Act, 1948. The British Isles also includes the Crown Dependencies of the Isle of Man and, by tradition, the Channel Islands, although the latter are not physically a part of the island group. Collier's Encyclopedia, 1997 EditionDon Aitken, "What is the UK? Is it the same as Britain, Great Britain or England?", February 2002 The term British Isles is controversial in relation to Ireland, where there are objections to its usage due to the association of the word 'British' with Ireland. An Irishman's Diary Myers, Kevin; The Irish Times (subscription needed) 09/03/2000, Accessed July 2006 'millions of people from these islands - oh how angry we get when people call them the British Isles' The Government of Ireland discourages its use, The Times 'New atlas lets Ireland slip shackles of Britain' "Written Answers - Official Terms", Dáil Éireann - Volume 606 - 28 September, 2005. In his response, the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs stated that "The British Isles is not an officially recognised term in any legal or inter-governmental sense. It is without any official status. The Government, including the Department of Foreign Affairs, does not use this term. Our officials in the Embassy of Ireland, London, continue to monitor the media in Britain for any abuse of the official terms as set out in the Constitution of Ireland and in legislation. These include the name of the State, the President, Taoiseach and others." and in relations with the United Kingdom the words 'these islands' are used. Bertie Ahern's Address to the Joint Houses of Parliament, Westminster, 15 May 2007 Tony Blair's Address to the Dáil and Seanad, November 1998 According to the Oxford English Dictionary the phrase 'British Isles' was first used in 1577 by John Dee, whose writings have been described as being politicised. Ken MacMillan, 2001, "Discourse on history, geography, and law: John Dee and the limits of the British empire" in the Canadian Journal of History, April 2001 Robert Mayhew, 2005, "Mapping science's imagined community: geography as a Republic of Letters" in the British Journal of the History of Science, 38(1): 73-92, March 2005 Although still used as a geographic term, the controversy means that alternative names such as "Britain and Ireland" are increasingly used. British Culture of the Postwar: An Introduction to Literature and Society, 1945-1999, Alistair Davies & Alan Sinfield, Routledge, 2000, ISBN 0415128110, Page 9. The Reformation in Britain and Ireland: An Introduction, Ian Hazlett, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0567082806, Chapter 2 Alternative names and descriptions Several different names are currently used to describe the islands. Dictionaries, encyclopaedias and atlases that use the term British Isles define it as Great Britain and Ireland and adjacent islands – typically including the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland. Longman Modern English Dictionary - "a group of islands off N.W. Europe comprising Great Britain Ireland, the Hebrides, Orkney the Shetland Is and adjacent islands"Merriam Webster - "Function: geographical name, island group W Europe comprising Great Britain, Ireland, & adjacent islands"dictionary.com - includes for example the American Heritage Dictionary - "British Isles, A group of islands off the northwest coast of Europe comprising Great Britain, Ireland, and adjacent smaller islands"Encarta - "British Isles, group of islands in the northeastern Atlantic, separated from mainland Europe by the North Sea and the English Channel. It consists of the large islands of Great Britain and Ireland and almost 5,000 surrounding smaller islands and islets"Philip's World AtlasTimes Atlas of the WorldInsight Family World Atlas Some definitions include the Channel Islands. OED Online: "a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands" GENUKI: Crown Dependencies The British Isles and all that Philips University Atlas Commonly used alternative names are British-Irish Isles, John Oakland, 2003, British Civilization: A Student's Dictionary, Routledge: London British-Irish Isles, the (geography) see BRITISH ISLES British Isles, the (geography) A geographical (not political or CONSTITUTIONAL) term for ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, WALES, and IRELAND (including the REPUBLIC OF IRELAND), together with all offshore islands. A more accurate (and politically acceptable) term today is the British-Irish Isles. Britain and Ireland, Great Britain and Ireland, British Isles and Ireland Blackwellreference.com , or UK and Ireland. Some of these are used by corporate entities and can be seen on the internet, such as in the naming of Yahoo UK & Ireland, Yahoo UK and Ireland or the renaming of the rugby union team British Isles or British Lions to the current British and Irish Lions. However, these may be be ambiguous regarding the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Some critics have opted to use simply "the archipelago". UK media organisations such as the The Times and the BBC have style-guide entries to try to maintain consistent usage, "The British Isles is not a political entity. It is a geographical unit, the archipelago off the west coast of continental Europe covering Scotland, Wales, England, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands." The Times: "Britain or Great Britain = England, Wales, Scotland and islands governed from the mainland (i.e. not Isle of Man or Channel Islands). United Kingdom = Great Britain and Northern Ireland. British Isles = United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, Isle of Man and Channel Islands. Do not confuse these entities." but these are not always successful. Encyclopædia Britannica, the Oxford University Press (publishers of the Oxford English Dictionary) and the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (publisher of Admiralty charts) have all occasionally used the term British Isles and Ireland (with Britannica and Oxford contradicting their own definitions), Notice to Mariners of 2005 referring to a new edition of a nautical chart of the Western Approaches. Chart 2723 INT1605 International Chart Series, British Isles & Ireland, Western Approaches to the North Channel. " Thus, the Gulf Stream–North Atlantic–Norway Current brings warm tropical waters northward, warming the climates of eastern North America, the British Isles and Ireland, and the Atlantic coast of Norway in winter, and the Kuroshio–North Pacific Current does the same for Japan and western North America, where warmer winter climates also occur. Page retrieved Feb eighteenth 2007. " The description of the OUP textbook "The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries" in the series on the history of the British Isles carries the description that it 'Offers an integrated geographical coverage of the whole of the British Isles and Ireland - rather than purely English history'" The same blurb goes on to say that the "book encompasses the histories of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, and also considers the relationships between the different parts of the British Isles". Page retrieved Feb eighteenth 2007. and some specialist encyclopedias also use that term. " Illustrated Encyclopedia of Trees by David More and John White, Timber Press, Inc., 2002, "This book began and for many years quietly proceeded as DM's (David Martin's) personal project to record in detail as many tree species, varieties and cultivars as he could find in the British Isles and Ireland." The Economic History Society style guide suggests that use of the term British Isles should be avoided. Economic History Society Style Guide A number of international publications have abandoned the term – in early 2008, National Geographic abandoned use of the term and replaced the plates on its maps which formerly read British Isles with British and Irish Isles. http://www.tribune.ie/article/2008/jan/27/british-isles-references-leave-irish-eyes-frowning/?q= 'British Isles' references leave Irish eyes frowning, The Sunday Tribune, 27 January 2008 Likewise, publishers of road atlases such as Michelin, Michelin Tyre Amazon.com: Michelin Great Britain Ireland (Michelin Maps): Books: Michelin Travel Publications SK Baker, Amazon.co.uk: Rail Atlas Great Britain and Ireland: Books: S.K. Baker Hallwag, Hallwag Kümmerley und Frey Philip's, Octopus Publishing Group Octopus Publishing Group Reader's Digest Complete Driver's Atlas of Great Britain & Ireland | |Readers Digest UK and The Automobile Association (AA) Amazon.com Inc The Automobile Association have replaced British Isles with Great Britain and Ireland or Britain and Ireland in their recent maps. In 2008, Folens, an Irish publisher of school text books, decided to abandon using the term in Ireland while continuing to use it in the United Kingdom. The Irish Times, "Folens to wipe 'British Isles' off the map in new atlas", 2 October 2006 British Isles is removed from school atlases Geography Satellite image of the British Isles, excluding Orkney (obscured by cloud) and Shetland (out of frame). There are about 136 permanently inhabited islands in the group, the largest two being Great Britain and Ireland. Great Britain is to the east and covers 216,777 km2 (83,698 square miles), over half of the total landmass of the group. Ireland is to the west and covers 84,406 km2 (32,589 square miles). The largest of the other islands are to be found in the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland to the north, Anglesey and the Isle of Man between Great Britain and Ireland, and the Channel Islands near the coast of France. The islands are at relatively low altitudes, with central Ireland and southern Great Britain particularly low lying: the lowest point in the islands is the Fens at −4 m (−13 ft). The Scottish Highlands in the northern part of Great Britain are mountainous, with Ben Nevis being the highest point in the British Isles at 1,344 m (4,409 ft). Other mountainous areas include Wales and parts of the island of Ireland, but only seven peaks in these areas reach above 1,000 m (3,281 ft). Lakes on the islands are generally not large, although Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland is an exception, covering 381 km2 (147 square miles); the largest freshwater body in Great Britain is Loch Lomond at 71.1 km2 (27.5 square miles). Neither are rivers particularly long, the rivers Severn at 354 km (219 miles) and Shannon at 386 km (240 miles) being the longest. The British Isles have a temperate marine climate, the North Atlantic Drift ("Gulf Stream") which flows from the Gulf of Mexico brings with it significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C (20 °F) above the global average for the islands' latitudes. Winters are thus warm and wet, with summers mild and also wet. Most Atlantic depressions pass to the north of the islands, combined with the general westerly circulation and interactions with the landmass, this imposes an east-west variation in climate. Ibid., pp. 13–14. Transport Heathrow is the busiest airport of Europe in terms of passenger traffic and the Dublin-London route is the busiest air route of Europe, Seán McCárthaigh, Dublin–London busiest air traffic route within EU, Irish Examiner, 31 March 2003 and the second-busiest in the world. The English Channel and the southern North Sea are the busiest seaways in the world. The Channel Tunnel, opened 1994, links Great Britain to France and is the second-longest rail tunnel in the world. The idea of building a tunnel under the Irish Sea has been raised since 1895, "TUNNEL UNDER THE SEA", The Washington Post, 2 May 1897 (Archive link) when it was first investigated, but is not considered to be economically viable. Several potential Irish Sea tunnel projects have been proposed, most recently the Tusker Tunnel between the ports of Rosslare and Fishguard proposed by The Institute of Engineers of Ireland in 2004. A Vision of Transport in Ireland in 2050, IEI report (pdf), The Irish Academy of Engineers, 21/12/2004 Tunnel 'vision' under Irish Sea, (link), BBC news, Thursday, 23 December 2004 A different proposed route is between Dublin and Holyhead, proposed in 1997 by a leading British engineering firm, Symonds, for a rail tunnel from Dublin to Holyhead. Either tunnel, at 80 km, would be by far the longest in the world, and would cost an estimated €20 billion. A proposal in 2007, BBC News, From Twinbrook to the Trevi Fountain, 21 August 2007 estimated the cost of building a bridge from County Antrim in Northern Ireland to Galloway in Scotland at £3.5bn (€5bn). However, none of these is thought to be economically viable at this time. Geology An image showing the British Isles in relation to the north-west European continental shelf. The British Isles lie at the juncture of several regions with past episodes of tectonic mountain building. These orogenic belts form a complex geology which records a huge and varied span of earth history. Of particular note was the Caledonian Orogeny during the Ordovician Period, ca. 488–444 Ma and early Silurian period, when the craton Baltica collided with the terrane Avalonia to form the mountains and hills in northern Britain and Ireland. Baltica formed roughly the north western half of Ireland and Scotland. Further collisions caused the Variscan orogeny in the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, forming the hills of Munster, south-west England, and south Wales. Over the last 500 million years the land which forms the islands has drifted northwest from around 30°S, crossing the equator around 370 million years ago to reach its present northern latitude. Ibid., p. 5. The islands have been shaped by numerous glaciations during the Quaternary Period, the most recent being the Devensian. As this ended, the central Irish Sea was de-glaciated (whether or not there was a land bridge between Great Britain and Ireland at this time is somewhat disputed, though there was certainly a single ice sheet covering the entire sea) and the English Channel flooded, with sea levels rising to current levels some 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, leaving the British Isles in their current form. The islands' geology is highly complex, though there are large numbers of limestone and chalk rocks that formed in the Permian and Triassic periods. The west coasts of Ireland and northern Great Britain that directly face the Atlantic Ocean are generally characterized by long peninsulas, and headlands and bays; the internal and eastern coasts are "smoother". Demographics Population density per km of the British Isles. Dublin and London, with respective population densities of 1,288 and 4,761 are shaded blue. The demographics of the British Isles shows a generally high density of population in England, which accounts for almost 80% of the total population of the islands. In Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales high density of population is limited to areas around, or close to, their respective capitals. Major population centres (greater than one million people) exist in the following areas: Greater London Urban Area (8.5 million) London metropolitan area (12—14 million) West Midlands conurbation (2.3 million) Greater Manchester Urban Area (2.2 million) West Yorkshire Urban Area (2.1 million) Greater Glasgow (1.7 million) Greater Dublin Area (1.6 million) South Yorkshire (1.2 million) Tyne and Wear (1.1 million) The population of England has risen steadily throughout its history, while the populations of Scotland and Wales have shown little increase during the twentieth century - the population of Scotland remaining unchanged since 1951. Ireland, which for most of its history comprised a population proportionate to its land area, one third of the total population, has since the Great Famine fallen to less than one tenth of the population of the British Isles. The famine, which caused a century-long population decline, drastically reduced the Irish population and permanently altered the demographic make-up of the British Isles. On a global scale this disaster led to the creation of an Irish diaspora that number fifteen times the current population of the island + Population of Ireland since the Great Famine v Total for British Isles Ireland British Isles % of total Graph 1841 8.2 26.7 30.7% 1851 6.9 27.7 24.8% 1891 4.7 37.8 12.4% 1951 4.1 53.2 7.7% 1991 5.5 62.9 8.7% 2006 6.0 64.3 9.3% Political co-operation within the islands Between 1801 and 1922, Great Britain and Ireland together formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Though the Irish Free State left the United Kingdom on 6 December 1922 the name of the United Kingdom was not changed to reflect that until April 1927, when Northern Ireland was substituted for Ireland in its name. In 1922, twenty-six counties of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom following the Irish War of Independence and the Anglo-Irish Treaty; the remaining six counties, mainly in the northeast of the island, became known as Northern Ireland under the Government of Ireland Act, 1920. Both states, but not the Isle of Man or the Channel Islands, are members of the European Union. However, despite independence of most of Ireland, political cooperation exists across the islands on some levels: Travel. Since Irish partition an informal free-travel area has continued to exist across the entire region; in 1997 it was formally recognised by the European Union, in the Amsterdam Treaty, as the Common Travel Area. Voting rights. No part of the British Isles considers a citizen of any other part as an 'alien' This pre-dates and goes much further than that required by European Union law, and gives common voting rights to all citizens of the jurisdictions within the archipelago. Exceptions to this are presidential elections and referendums in the Republic of Ireland, for which there is no comparable franchise in the other states. Other EU nationals may only vote in local and European Parliament elections while resident in either the UK or Ireland. A 2008 UK Ministry of Justice report proposed to end this arrangement arguing that, "the right to vote is one of the hallmarks of the political status of citizens; it is not a means of expressing closeness between countries." Goldsmith, 2008, Citizenship: Our Common Bond, Ministry of Justice: London Diplomatic. Bilateral agreements allow UK embassies to act as an Irish consulate when Ireland is not represented in a particular country. Northern Ireland. Citizens of Northern Ireland are entitled to the choice of Irish or British citizenship or both. The British-Irish Council was set up in 1999 following the 1998 Belfast Agreement. This body is made up of all political entities across the islands, both the sovereign governments of Ireland and the United Kingdom, the devolved governments of Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and the dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man. It has no executive authority but meets biannually to discuss issues of mutual importance, currently restricted to the misuse of drugs, the environment, the knowledge economy, social inclusion, tele-medicine, tourism, transport and national languages of the participants. During the February 2008 meeting of the Council, it was agreed to set-up a standing secretariat that would serve as a permanent 'civil service' for the Council. [Communiqué of the British-Irish Council], February 2008 The British-Irish Inter-Parliamentary Body () was established in 1990. Originally it comprised 25 members of the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament, and 25 members of the parliament of the United Kingdom, with the purpose of building mutual understanding between members of both legislature. Since then the role and scope of the body has been expanded with the addition of five representatives from the Scottish Parliament, five from the National Assembly for Wales and five from the Northern Ireland Assembly. One member is also taken from the States of Jersey, one from the States of Guernsey and one from the High Court of Tynwald (Isle of Man). With no executive powers, it may investigate and collect witness evidence from the public on matters of mutual concern to its members, these have in the past ranged from issues such as the delivery of health services to rural populations, to the Sellafield nuclear facility, to the mutual recognition of penalty points against drivers across the British Isles. Reports on its findings are presented to the governments of Ireland and the United Kingdom. Leading on from developments in the British-Irish Council, the chair of the Body, Niall Blaney, has suggested a name-change and that the body should shadow the British-Irish Council's work. Martina Purdy, 28 February 2008 2008, Unionists urged to drop boycott, BBC: London History A 1490 Italian reconstruction of Ptolemy's Geography based on surviving latitude and longitude descriptions, showing Ibernia Britannica Insula ("Hibernia, Island of Britannia", Ireland), Albion Insula Britannica ("Albion, Island of Britannia", Great Britain) and Mona Insula (Isle of Man) separated from the European mainland by Oceanus Germanicus ("Germanic Ocean", North Sea) to the east and Oceanus Britannicus ("Britannic Ocean", English Channel) to the south. The British Isles have a long and complex shared history. While this tends to be presented in terms of national narratives, many events transcended modern political boundaries. In particular these borders have little relevance to early times and in that context can be misleading, though useful as an indication of location to the modern reader. Also, cultural shifts which historians have previously interpreted as evidence of invaders eliminating or displacing the previous populations are now, in the light of genetic evidence, perceived by a number of archaeologists and historians as being to a considerable extent changes in the culture of the existing population brought by groups of immigrants or invaders who at times became a new ruling elite. Languages A combined Venn diagram showing language branches, major languages and typically where they are spoken for modern languages in the British Isles. The ethno-linguistic heritage of the British Isles is very rich in comparison to other areas of similar size, with twelve languages from six groups across four branches of the Indo-European family. The Insular Celtic languages of the Goidelic sub-group (Irish, Manx, Scottish Gaelic) and the Brythonic sub-group (Cornish, Welsh and Breton, spoken in north-western France) are the only remaining Celtic languages - their continental relations becoming extinct during the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries. The Norman languages of Guernésiais, Jèrriais and Sarkese are spoken in the Channel Islands, as is French. A cant, called Shelta, is a language spoken by Irish Travellers, often as a means to conceal meaning from those outside the group. However, English, sometimes in the form of Scots, is the dominant language, with few monoglots remaining in the other languages of the region. The Norn language appears to have become extinct in the 18th/19th century. Until perhaps 1950 the use of languages other than English roughly coincided with the major ethno-cultural regions in the British Isles. As such, many of them, especially the Celtic languages, became intertwined with national movements in these areas, seeking either greater independence from the parliament of the United Kingdom, seated in England, or complete secession. The common history of these languages was one of sharp decline in the mid-19th century, prompted by centuries of economic deprivation and official policy to discourage their use in favour of English. However, since the mid-twentieth century there has been somewhat of a revival of interest in maintaining and using them. Celtic-language medium schools are available throughout Ireland, Scotland and Wales to such an extent that it is now possible to receive all formal education, up to and including third-level education, through a Celtic language. Instruction in Irish and Welsh is compulsory in all schools in the Republic of Ireland and Wales respectively. In the Isle of Man, Manx in taught in all schools, although it is not compulsory, and there is one Manx-medium school. The respective languages are official languages of state in Ireland, the Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales, with equal status with respect to English. In the Channel Islands French is a legislative and administrative language (see Jersey Legal French). Since 2007, Irish is a working language of the European Union. During the last 60 years there has been a great deal of immigration into Great Britain (less into Ireland). As a result a number of languages not formerly found in the British Isles are in regular use. Polish, Punjabi, and Hindustani (inc Urdu & Hindi), are each probably the first language of over 1 million residents, and a number of other languages are regularly spoken by substantial numbers of persons. Even in provincial areas it has become common for local government to publish information to residents in ten or so languages, and in the largest city, London, the first language of about 20% of the population is neither English nor an indigenous Celtic language. ‘A Profile of Londoners by Language’: Greater London Authority: Data Management and Analysis Group http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/factsandfigures/dmag-briefing-2006-26.pdf Cornish and the Norman languages of Guernésiais, Jèrriais and Sarkese are far less supported. In Jersey, a language office (L'Office du Jèrriais) is funded to provide education services for Jèrriais in schools and other language services, while in Guernsey there is a language officer and Guernésiais is taught in some schools on a volunteer basis. Of the four, only Cornish is recognised officially under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, and it is taught in some schools as an optional modern language. Guernésiais and Jèrriais are recognised as regional languages by the British and Irish governments within the framework of the British-Irish Council. Scots, as either a dialect of or a closely related language to English, is similarly recognised by the European Charter, the British-Irish Council, and as "part of the cultural wealth of the island of Ireland" under the Good Friday Agreement. However, it is without official status as a language of state in Scotland, where English is used in its place. Shelta, spoken by the ethnic minority Irish Travellers, is thought to be spoken by 6,000–25,000 people, according to varying sources. Although evidence suggests that it existed as far back as the 13th century, as a secret language, it was only discovered at the end of the 19th century. It is without any official status, despite being thought to have 86,000 speakers worldwide, mostly in the USA. Culture Sport A number of sports are popular throughout the British Isles, the most prominent of which is association football. While this is organised separately in different national associations, leagues and national teams, even within the UK, it is a common passion in all parts of the islands. Rugby union is also widely enjoyed across the islands. The British and Irish Lions is a team made up of players from England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales that undertakes tours of the southern hemisphere rugby playing nations every four years. This team was formerly known as The British Isles or colloquially as "The British Lions", but was renamed as "The British and Irish Lions" in 2001. Ireland play as an united team, represented by players from both Northern Ireland and the Republic. The four national rugby teams from Great Britain and Ireland play each other each year for the Triple Crown. Also since 2001 the professional club teams of Ireland, Scotland and Wales compete together in the Magners League. The Ryder Cup in golf was played between a United States team and a team representing Great Britain and Ireland. From 1979 onwards this was expanded to include the whole of Europe. Popular culture The United Kingdom and Ireland have separate media, although British television, newspapers and magazines are widely available in Ireland, giving people in Ireland a high level of familiarity with cultural matters in Great Britain. A few cultural events are organised for the island group as a whole. For example, the Costa Book Awards are awarded to authors resident in the UK or Ireland. The Man Booker Prize is awarded to authors from the Commonwealth of Nations or Ireland. The Mercury Music Prize is handed out every year to the best album from a British or Irish musician or group. Many other bodies are organised throughout the islands as a whole; for example the Samaritans which is deliberately organised without regard to national boundaries on the basis that a service which is not political or religious should not recognise sectarian or political divisions. Samaritans - Would you like to know more? > History > National growth The RNLI is also organised throughout the islands as a whole, covering both the United Kingdom and Ireland. The RNLI is a charity that provides a 24-hour lifesaving service around the UK and Republic of Ireland. References Further reading A History of Britain: At the Edge of the World, 3500 B.C. - 1603 A.D. by Simon Schama, BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 978-0786866755 A History of Britain — The Complete Collection on DVD by Simon Schama, BBC 2002 The Isles, A History by Norman Davies, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0195134421 Shortened History of England by G. M. Trevelyan Penguin Books ISBN 978-0140233230 See also Botanical Society of the British Isles Great Britain and Ireland List of the British Isles by area List of the British Isles by population Terminology of the British Isles British Isles naming dispute External links Geo Links for British Isles An interactive geological map of the British Isles. Geograph British Isles — Creative Commons-licensed, geo-located photographs of the British Isles. 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3,542 | Naked_singularity | In general relativity, a naked singularity is a gravitational singularity without an event horizon. The singularities inside black holes are always surrounded by an area which does not allow light to escape, and therefore cannot be directly observed. A naked singularity, by contrast, is observable from the outside. The theoretical existence of naked singularities is important because their existence would mean that it would be possible to observe the collapse of an object to infinite density. Some research has suggested that if loop quantum gravity is correct, then naked singularities could exist in nature, M. Bojowald, Living Rev. Rel. 8, (2005), 11 (http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2008-4/) R. Goswami & P. Joshi, Phys. Rev. D, (2008) (http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0608136) R. Goswami, P. Joshi, & P. Singh, Phys. Rev. Letters, (2006), 96 (http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0506129) implying that the cosmic censorship hypothesis does not hold. Numerical calculations D. Eardley & L. Smarr, Phys. Rev. D., (1979), 19, (http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v19/i8/p2239_1) and some other arguments A. Krolak, Prog. Theor. Phys. Supp., (1999) 136, 45, (http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/136/45/) have also hinted at this possibility. Predicted formation From concepts drawn of rotating black holes, it is shown that a singularity, spinning rapidly, can become a ring-shaped object. This results in two event horizons, as well as an ergosphere, which draw closer together as the spin of the singularity increases. When the outer and inner event horizons merge, they shrink toward the rotating singularity and eventually expose it to the rest of the universe. A singularity rotating this fast might be created by the collapse of dust or by a supernova of a fast-spinning star. Studies of pulsars and some computer simulations (Choptuik, 1997) have been performed. This is, of course, an example of a mathematical difficulty (divergence to infinity of the density) which reveals a more profound problem in our understanding of the relevant physics involved in the process. A workable theory of quantum gravity should be able to solve problems such as these. Effects A naked singularity could allow scientists to observe an infinitely dense material, which would under normal circumstances be impossible by the cosmic censorship hypothesis. Without an event horizon of any kind, some speculate that naked singularities could actually emit light. Because no such objects have been found in the universe, and no such effects have been observed, many scientists are convinced that a theory of quantum gravity that coincides with the Standard Model would disallow such objects to come into being. In fiction A naked singularity almost appears in the six episode OAV series Diebuster. In the final episode, a black hole's event horizon is somehow breached when struck by a powerful force. It is stated that this "crack" would eventually lead to the singularity inside being exposed to the universe. In the same scene, one character speculates that the Big Bang was the aftermath of such an event. A Naked Singularity plays a key part in Peter Hamilton's Night's Dawn trilogy, in particular in the Third book, "The Naked God". In this case, it is an observable, light-emitting 'structure' built by an intelligent race. In Ring by Stephen Baxter, the Big Dumb Object in the title is a rapidly rotating galaxy-sized object whose center acts as a gateway to other universes. In Marco's Millions, a naked singularity threatens to destroy Earth's universe. In Eon by Greg Bear, the flaw is a man-made singularity inside the seventh (and last) chamber of a big asteroid known as Thistledown, stretching the seventh chamber into infinity with the flaw in the center. This infinite corridor is known as The Way from which it is possible to open gates to other universes. In the two-part Battlestar Galactica series finale, "Daybreak", the Cylon Colony is located in orbit around a naked singularity. The show's Science advisor; however, stated it was more in common with a black hole, but the production staff wanted to avoid public misconceptions about the nature of black holes. See also List of astronomical topics List of physics topics References External links Naked singularity on arXiv M. C. Werner and A. O. Peters, "Magnification relations for Kerr lensing and testing cosmic censorship", Physics Review D, Vol. 76, Issue 6 (2007). Pankaj S. 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3,543 | Lundy | Lundy is the largest island in the Bristol Channel, lying off the coast of Devon, England, approximately one third of the distance across the channel between England and Wales. Lundy gives its name to a British sea area and is one of the islands of England. As of 2007, there was a resident population of 28 people, including volunteers. These include a warden, island manager, and farmer, as well as bar and house-keeping staff. Most live in and around the village at the south of the island. Most visitors are day-trippers, although there are 23 holiday properties and a camp site for staying visitors, mostly also around the south of the island. In a 2005 opinion poll of Radio Times readers, Lundy was named as Britain's tenth greatest natural wonder. The entire island has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and it was England's first statutory Marine Nature Reserve, because of its unique flora and fauna. It is managed by the Landmark Trust on behalf of the National Trust. History Lundy's jetty and harbour The name Lundy is believed to come from the old Norse word for "puffin island," however an alternative explanation has been suggested with Lund referring to a copse, or wooded area. According to genealogist Edward MacLysaght the surname Lundy is from Norman de la Lounde, a name recorded in medieval documents in counties Tipperary and Kilkenny in Ireland. Ancestry.com Lundy has evidence of visitation or occupation from the Neolithic period onward, with Mesolithic flintwork, Bronze Age burial mounds, four inscribed gravestones from the early medieval period, See the discussion and bibliography in Elisabeth Okasha, Corpus of early Christian inscribed stones of South-west Britain (Leicester: University Press, 1993), pp. 154-166 Lundy Field Society 40th Annual Report for 1989. Pp. 34 - 47. and an early medieval monastery (possibly dedicated to St Elen or St Helen). Beacon Hill Cemetery Sketch of Beacon Hill cemetery Beacon Hill cemetery was excavated by Charles Thomas in 1969. Charles Thomas, And Shall These Mute Stones Speak? (1994) Cardiff: University of Wales Press The cemetery contains four inscribed stones dated to the 5th or 6th century AD. The site was originally enclosed by a curvilinear bank and ditch which is still visible in the South West corner. However, the other walls were moved when the Old Light was constructed in 1819. Early Christian enclosures of this type are known as lanns. There are surviving examples in Luxulyan, in Cornwall; Mathry, Mydrim, and Clydey in Wales; and Stowford, Jacobstowe, Lydford, and Instow, in Devon. Thomas proposed a five stage sequence of site use: (1) An area of round huts and fields. These huts may have fallen into disuse before the construction of the cemetery. (2) The construction of the focal grave, a 11ft by 8ft rectangular stone enclosure containing a single cist grave. The interior of the enclosure was filled with small granite pieces. Two more cist graves located to the west of the enclosure may also date to this time. (3) Perhaps 100 years later, the focal grave was opened and the infill removed. The body may have been moved to a church at this time. (4) & (5) Two further stages of cist grave construction around the focal grave. 23 cist graves were found during this excavation. Considering that the excavation only uncovered a small area of the cemetery, there may be as many as 100 graves. Inscribed Stones Inscribed stones Four Celtic inscribed stones have been found in Beacon Hill cemetery: 1400 OPTIMI, or TIMI, Elisabeth Okasha, (1993) Corpus of early Christian inscribed stones of South-west Britain Leicester: University Press the name is Latin and male. Discovered in 1962 by D.B. Hague. 1401 RESTEVTAE, or RESGEVT[A], Latin, female. Discovered in 1962 by D.B. Hague. 1402 POTIT[I], or [PO]TIT, Latin, male. Discovered in 1961 by K.S. Gardener and A. Langham. 1403 --]IGERNI [FIL]I TIGERNI, or --I]GERNI [FILI] [T]I[G]ERNI, Brittonic, male. Discovered in 1905. Knights Templar Lundy was granted to the Knights Templar by Henry II in 1160. The Templars were a major international maritime force at this time, with interests in North Devon, and almost certainly an important port at Bideford or on the River Taw in Barnstaple. It is likely this was because of the increasing threat posed by the Norse sea raiders, however it is unclear whether they ever took possession of the island. Ownership was disputed by the Marisco family who may have been already on the island during King Stephen's reign. The Mariscos were fined, and the island was cut off from necessary supplies. Evidence of the Templars' weak hold on the island came when King John, on his accession in 1199, confirmed the earlier grant. Marisco and pirates Marisco Castle William de Marisco was implicated in the murder of Henry Clement, one of the king's messengers, in 1235. In 1238, an attempt was made on the king's life by a man who later confessed to being an agent of the Marisco family; William de Marisco fled to the island, where he lived as a virtual king. He built a stronghold in the area now known as Bulls' Paradise with thick walls that safeguarded him and his 'subjects'. This triggered a concerted effort to rid the then king, Henry III, of the family. In 1242, the king sent his best men to scale the island's cliff, and William de Marisco and 16 of his accomplices were captured and tried. The king built the castle (sometimes erroneously referred to as the Marisco Castle) in an attempt to establish the rule of law on the island and its surrounding waters. A period of anarchy followed, with English and foreign pirates and privateers—including other members of the Marisco family—taking control of the island for short periods. They found it profitable to capture the many passing Bristol merchant ships bringing back valuable goods from overseas. Because of the dangerous shingle banks in the fast flowing River Severn and Bristol Channel, with its tide, the second highest in the world, ships were forced to navigate close to Lundy. Around 1645 Barbary Pirates under command of the Dutch renegade Jan Janszoon operating from the Moroccan port of Salé occupied Lundy, before he was expelled by the Penn. During this time there were reports of captured slaves being sent to Algiers and of the Islamic flag flying over Lundy. Civil war In the English Civil War Thomas Bushell held Lundy for King Charles I, rebuilding Marisco Castle and garrisoning the island at his own expense. He was a friend of Francis Bacon, a strong supporter of the Royalist cause and an expert on mining and coining. This was the last part of the Royalist lands to capitulate to the Parliament forces, and only after a year-long siege. Richard Fiennes, representing General Fairfax, received the surrender. In 1656 the island was acquired by Lord Say and Sele. 18th and 19th centuries The late 18th and early 19th centuries were years of lawlessness on Lundy, particularly during the ownership of Thomas Benson, a Member of Parliament for Barnstaple in 1747 and Sheriff of Devon, who notoriously used the island for housing convicts whom he was supposed to be deporting. Benson leased Lundy from its owner, Lord Gower, at a rent of £60 per annum and contracted with the Government to transport a shipload of convicts to Virginia, but diverted the ship to Lundy to use the convicts as his personal slaves. Later Benson was involved in an insurance swindle. He purchased and insured the ship Nightingale and loaded it with a valuable cargo of pewter and linen. Having cleared the port on the mainland, the ship put into Lundy, where the cargo was removed and stored in a cave built by the convicts, before setting sail again. Some days afterwards, when a homeward-bound vessel was sighted, the Nightingale was set on fire and scuttled. The crew were taken off the stricken ship by the other ship, which landed them safely at Clovelly. Foundations for the first lighthouse were laid in 1787 but the lighthouse was not built until Trinity House obtained a 999-year lease in 1819. The tower was designed by Daniel Asher Alexander and built by Joseph Nelson at a cost of £36,000. Because the site is above sea level, the highest in Britain, the fog problem was not solved and the Fog Signal Battery was built about 1861, but eventually the lighthouse was abandoned in 1897 when the North and South Lundy lighthouses were built. Millcombe House William Hudson Heaven purchased Lundy in 1834, as a summer retreat and for the shooting, at a cost of 9,400 guineas (£9,870). He claimed it to be a "free island", and successfully resisted the jurisdiction of the mainland magistrates. Lundy was in consequence sometimes referred to as "the kingdom of Heaven." It belongs in fact to the county of Devon, and has always been part of the hundred of Braunton. Many of the buildings on the island today, including St. Helena's Church and Millcombe House (originally known simply as The Villa), date from the Heaven period. The Georgian style Villa was built in 1836. However, the expense of building the road from the beach (no financial assistance being provided by Trinity House, despite their regular use of the road following the construction of the lighthouses), the Villa and the general cost of running the island had a ruinous effect on the family's finances, which had been damaged by reduced profits from their sugar plantations in Jamaica. 20th and 21st centuries William Heaven was succeeded by his son the Reverend Hudson Grosset Heaven who, thanks to a legacy from Sarah Langworthy (née Heaven), was able to fulfill his life's ambition of building a stone church on the island. St Helena's was completed in 1896, and stands today as a lasting memorial to the Heaven period. It has been designated by English Heritage a Grade II listed building. He is said to have been able to afford either a church or a new harbour. His choice of the church was not however in the best financial interests of the island. The unavailability of the money for re-establishing the family's financial soundness, coupled with disastrous investment and speculation in the early 20th century, caused severe financial hardship. One Puffin coin of 1929, bearing the portrait of Martin Coles Harman Hudson Heaven died in 1916, and was succeeded by his nephew, Walter Charles Hudson Heaven. With the outbreak of World War I, matters deteriorated seriously, and in 1918 the family sold Lundy to Augustus Langham Christie. In 1924, the Christie family sold the island along with the mail contract and the MV Lerina to Martin Coles Harman, who proclaimed himself a king. Harman issued two coins of Half Puffin and One Puffin denominations in 1929, nominally equivalent to the British halfpenny and penny, resulting in his prosecution under the United Kingdom's Coinage Act of 1870. The House of Lords found him guilty in 1931, and he was fined £5 with fifteen guineas expenses. The coins were withdrawn and became collectors' items. In 1965 a "fantasy" restrike four-coin set, a few in gold, was issued to commemorate 40 years since Harman purchased the island. He died in 1954. Residents did not pay taxes to the United Kingdom and had to pass through customs when they travelled to and from Lundy Island. Although the island was ruled as a virtual fiefdom, its owner never claimed to be independent of the United Kingdom, in contrast to later territorial "micronations". Following the death of Harman's son Albion in 1968, "Island owner dies after air lift" (source unknown). 24 June 1968 Lundy was put up for sale in 1969. Jack Hayward, a British millionaire, purchased the island for £150,000 and gave it to the National Trust, who leased it to the Landmark Trust. The Landmark Trust has managed the island since then, deriving its income from arranging day trips and letting out holiday cottages. The island is visited by over 20,000 day-trippers a year, but during September 2007 had to be closed for several weeks due to an outbreak of Norovirus. Wreck of Battleship Montagu Battleship HMS Montagu aground on Lundy in 1906A naval footnote in the history of Lundy was the wreck of the Royal Navy battleship HMS Montagu. Steaming in heavy fog, she ran hard aground near Shutter Rock on the island's southwest corner at about 2:00 a.m. on May 30, 1906. Thinking they were aground at Hartland Point on the English mainland, a landing party went ashore for help, only finding out where they were after encountering the lighthouse keeper at the island's North light. HMS Montagu during the failed salvage attempts of the summer of 1906Strenuous efforts by the Royal Navy to salvage the badly damaged battleship during the summer of 1906 failed, and in 1907 it was decided to give up and sell her for scrap. Montagu was scrapped at the scene over the next fifteen years. Geography Lundy Granite Lundy is located at (51.177191, 4.6661). It is long from north to south by wide, with an area of . The highest point on Lundy is at 142 metres (466 ft). A few metres off the southeastern coast is Seal's Rock. Geology The island is primarily composed of granite from the palaeocene period, with slate at the southern end; the plateau soil is mainly loam, with some peat. Among the igneous dykes cutting the granite are a small number composed of a unique orthophyre. This was given the name Lundyite in 1914, although the term—never precisely defined—has since fallen into disuse. Ecology Flora Lundy Cabbage (growing at Bristol Zoo) There is one endemic plant species, the Lundy Cabbage (Coincya wrightii), a species of primitive brassica. The eastern side of the island has become overgrown by rhododendrons (Rhododendron ponticum) but action is in hand to eradicate this non-native plant by 2012. The vegetation on the plateau is mainly dry heath, with an area of waved Calluna heath towards the northern end of the island, which is also rich in lichens, such as Teloschistes flavicans and several species of Cladonia and Parmelia. Other areas are either a dry heath/acidic grassland mosaic, characterised by heaths and Western Gorse (Ulex gallii), or semi-improved acidic grassland in which Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus) is abundant. Tussocky (Thrift) (Holcus/Armeria) communities occur mainly on the western side, and some patches of Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) on the eastern side. Fauna Until 2006 the Lundy Cabbage was thought to support two endemic species of beetle. The beetles are now known not to be unique to Lundy, but an endemic weevil, the Lundy cabbage flea beetle, (Psylliodes luridipennis) has been discovered. The island is also home to the purseweb spider (Atypus affinis), the only British member of the bird-eating spider family. Birds The number of puffins (Fratercula arctica), which may have given the island its name, declined in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, with the 2005 breeding population estimated to be only two or three pairs, as a consequence of depredations by brown and black rats (Rattus rattus) (which have now been eliminated) and possibly also as a result of commercial fishing for sand eels, the puffins' principal prey. Since 2005, the breeding numbers have been slowly increasing. Adults were seen taking fish into four burrows in 2007, Saunders, Nicola (2007 in press): Lundy Warden's Report for 2007 Annual Report of the Lundy Field Society 58 and six burrows in 2008. Saunders, Nicola (personal communication) A group of six puffins on Lundy, June 2008 As an isolated island on major migration routes, Lundy has a rich bird life and is a popular site for birding. Large numbers of Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) nest on the cliffs, as do Razorbill (Alca torda), Guillemot (Uria aalge), Herring Gull (Larus argentatus), Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus), Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis), Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), Skylark (Alauda arvensis), Meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis), Common Blackbird (Turdus merula), Robin (Erithacus rubecula) and Linnet (Carduelis cannabina). There are also smaller populations of Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) and Raven (Corvus corax). Lundy has attracted many vagrant birds, particular species from North America. The island's bird list totals 317 species. Davis, Tim & Tim Jones (2007), The Birds of Lundy ISBN 0-954-0088-7-1 This has included the following species, each of which represents the sole British record: Ancient Murrelet, Eastern Phoebe and Eastern Towhee. Records of Bimaculated Lark, American Robin and Common Yellowthroat were also firsts for Britain (American Robin has also occurred two further times on Lundy). Veerys in 1987 and 1997 were Britain's second and fourth records, a Rüppell's Warbler in 1979 was Britain's second, an Eastern Bonelli's Warbler in 2004 was Britain's fourth, and a Black-faced Bunting in 2001 Britain's third. Other British Birds rarities that have occurred (single records unless otherwise indicated) are: Little Bittern, Glossy Ibis, Gyrfalcon (3 records), Little and Baillon's crakes, Collared Pratincole, Semipalmated (5 records), Least (2 records), White-rumped and Baird's (2 records) sandpipers, Wilson's Phalarope, Laughing Gull, Bridled Tern, Pallas's Sandgrouse, Great Spotted, Black-billed and Yellow-billed (3 records) cuckoos, European Roller, Olive-backed Pipit, Citrine Wagtail, Alpine Accentor, Thrush Nightingale, Red-flanked Bluetail, Black-eared (2 records) and Desert wheatears, White's, Swainson's (3 records), and Grey-cheeked (2 records) thrushes, Sardinian (2 records), Arctic (3 records), Radde's and Western Bonelli's warblers, Isabelline and Lesser Grey shrikes, Red-eyed Vireo (7 records), Two-barred Crossbill, Yellow-rumped and Blackpoll warblers, Yellow-breasted (2 records) and Black-headed (3 records) buntings, Rose-breasted Grosbeak (2 records), Bobolink and Baltimore Oriole (2 records). Mammals Sika Deer Lundy is home to a range of unusual mammals, almost all introduced, including a distinct breed of wild pony, the Lundy Pony. Until recently, Lundy and the Shiant Isles in the Hebrides were the only two places in the UK where the Black Rat (Rattus rattus) could be found. It has since been eradicated on the island, in order to protect the nesting seabirds. Other species which have made the island their home include the Grey Seal (Halichoerus grypus), Sika Deer (Cervus nippon), Pygmy Shrew (Sorex minutus) and feral goats (Capra aegagrus hircus). Unusually, 20% of the rabbits (Leporidae) on the island are melanistic compared with 4% which is typical in the UK. In mid-2006 the rabbit population was decimated by myxomatosis, leaving only 60 pairs from the previous 15–20,000 individuals. Soay Sheep (Ovis aries) on the island have been shown to vary their behaviours according to nutritional requirements, the distribution of food and the risk of predation. Marine habitat In 1971 a proposal was made by the Lundy Field Society to establish a marine reserve. Provision for the establishment of statutory Marine Nature Reserves was included in the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, and on 21 November 1986 the Secretary of State for the Environment announced the designation of a statutory reserve at Lundy. There is an outstanding variety of marine habitats and wildlife, and a large number of rare and unusual species in the waters around Lundy, including some species of seaweed, branching sponges, sea fans and cup corals. In 2003 the first statutory No Take Zone (NTZ) for marine nature conservation in the UK was set up in the waters to the east of Lundy island. In 2008 this was declared as having been successful in several ways including the increasing size and number of lobsters within the reserve, and potential benefits for other marine wildlife, however the no take zone has received a mixed reaction from local fishermen. Transport The Lundy ferry Oldenburg sails into Ilfracombe harbour, north Devon, past inflatable ThunderCat powerboats waiting to begin an offshore race There are two ways of getting to Lundy, depending upon the season of travel. During the summer months (April to October) visitors are carried on the Landmark Trust's own vessel, MS Oldenburg|MS Oldenburg, which sails from both Bideford and Ilfracombe. Sailings are usually three days a week, on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, with additional sailings on Wednesdays during July and August. The voyage takes on average two hours, depending on ports, tides and weather. During the winter months, (November to March) the Oldenburg comes out of service, and the island is served by a scheduled helicopter service from Hartland Point. The helicopter operates on Mondays and Fridays, with flights between 12 noon and 2 pm. The heliport is a field at the top of Hartland Point, not far from the Beacon. Entrance to Lundy is free for anyone arriving by scheduled transport. Visitors arriving by non-scheduled transport are charged a small entrance fee, currently (July 2007) £5.00, with an additional charge payable by those using light aircraft. Anyone arriving on Lundy by non-scheduled transport is also subject to an additional fee for transporting luggage to the top of the island. In 2007, Derek Green, Lundy's general manager, launched an appeal to raise £250,000 to save the mile-long Beach Road, which had been damaged by heavy rain and high seas. The road was built in the first half of the 19th century to provide people and goods with safe access to the top of the island, above the only jetty. The fundraising was completed on the 10th March 2009. Staying on the island Lundy has 23 holiday properties to choose from sleeping between 1 and 14 people. These include a lighthouse, a castle and a Victorian mansion. Many of the buildings are constructed from the island's granite. All have heating and many also have wood burning stoves with a bath or shower depending on size. Kitchens are fully equipped for those wishing to self-cater. The island also has a campsite, at the south of the island in the field next to the shop. It has hot and cold running water, with showers and toilets in an adjacent building. Administration The island is administered as part of Torridge district of the English county of Devon. It belongs to the ward of Clovelly Bay. It is part of the constituency electing the Member of Parliament for Torridge and West Devon and the South West England constituency for the European Parliament. Stamps Owing to a decline in population and lack of interest in the mail contract, the GPO ended its presence at the end of 1927. For the next couple of years "King" Harman handled the mail to and from the island without charge. On November 1 1929 he decided to offset the expense by issuing a series of private postage stamps, with a value expressed in "Puffins". The printing of Puffin stamps continues to this day. They have to be put on the bottom left hand corner of the envelope, so that the mainland sorting offices can process them: their cost includes the standard Royal Mail charges for onward delivery. Puffins are a type of stamp known to philatelists as a "local carriage label". Issues of increasing value were made over the years, including air mail, featuring a variety of people. Many are now highly sought-after by collectors. Lundy Island continues to issue stamps with the latest issues being in 2006 (100th anniversary of the wreck HMS Montagu) and 2008 (50th birthday of MS Oldenburg). The value of the early issues has risen substantially over the years. The stamps of Lundy Island serve to cover the postage of letters and cards from the island to the nearest GPO post box on the mainland for the many thousands of annual visitors, and have become part of the collection of the many British Local Posts collectors. These stamps appeared in the 1970's in the Rosen Catalogue of British Local Stamps, and in the Phillips Modern British Locals CD Catalogue, published since 2003.. Modern British Locals CD Catalogue, 2009 edition Labbe's Specialized Guide to Lundy Island Stamps serves as a definitive guide to the issues of Lundy Island including varieties, rarities and special philatelic items.. Guide to Lundy Island stamps, 2008 edition References Further reading Davis, Tim and Tim Jones (2007) The Birds of Lundy ISBN 0-954-0088-7-1 External links Official website Lundy Field Society Lundy Birds Pete Robsons Lundy Island Site LundyCam Guide to Lundy Island Stamps June Austin Lundy is at coordinates | Lundy |@lemmatized lundy:64 large:3 island:62 bristol:4 channel:3 lie:1 coast:2 devon:8 england:5 approximately:1 one:6 third:2 distance:1 across:1 wale:3 give:5 name:7 british:10 sea:5 area:8 resident:2 population:5 people:4 include:14 volunteer:1 warden:2 manager:2 farmer:1 well:1 bar:2 house:6 keep:1 staff:1 live:2 around:5 village:1 south:9 visitor:5 day:6 tripper:2 although:3 holiday:3 property:2 camp:1 site:7 stay:2 mostly:1 also:11 opinion:1 poll:1 radio:1 time:6 reader:1 britain:9 tenth:1 great:2 natural:1 wonder:1 entire:1 designate:2 special:2 scientific:1 interest:4 first:5 statutory:4 marine:7 nature:3 reserve:5 unique:3 flora:2 fauna:2 manage:2 landmark:4 trust:6 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3,544 | Captain_America | Captain America is a fictional character that appears in comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character first appeared in Captain America Comics #1 (March 1941), from Marvel Comics' 1940s predecessor, Timely Comics, The 1995 Marvel Milestone Edition: Captain America archival reprint has no cover date or number, and its postal indicia says "Originally published ... as Captain America #000". Timely's first comic Marvel Comics #1, likewise had no number on its cover, and was released with two different cover dates. and was created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby. Over the years, an estimated 210 million copies of "Captain America" comic books have been sold in a total of 75 countries. Death to ‘America’: Comic-book hero killed off, msnbc.com, March 7, 2007 For nearly all of the character's publication history Captain America was the alter ego of Steve Rogers, a sickly young man who was enhanced to the peak of human perfection by an experimental serum in order to aid the United States war effort. Captain America wears a costume that bears an American flag motif, and is armed with an indestructible shield that can be thrown as a weapon. "Bullpen Bulletins: "Stan's Soapbox", December 1999] An intentionally patriotic creation who was often depicted fighting the Axis powers of World War II, Captain America was Timely Comics' most popular character during World War II. After the war ended, the character's popularity waned and he disappeared by the 1950s aside from an ill-fated revival in 1953. Captain America was reintroduced during the Silver Age of comics when he was revived from suspended animation by the superhero team the Avengers in The Avengers #4 (March 1964). Since then, Captain America has often led the team, as well as starring in his own series. Steve Rogers was killed in Captain America vol. 5, #25 (March 2007), although the Captain America series continues publication with Rogers' former sidekick, Bucky, having taken up the mantle. Publication history Writer Joe Simon conceived the idea for Captain America, which was refined by his partner, artist Jack Kirby, in 1941. Captain America was a consciously political creation. Simon and Kirby were morally repulsed by the actions of Nazi Germany in the years leading up to the United States' involvement in World War II and felt war was inevitable. Simon later said, "The opponents to the war were all quite well organized. We wanted to have our say too." Wright, Bradford W. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Johns Hopkins, 2001. ISBN 0-8018-7450-5, p. 36 Captain America Comics #1 (March 1941) — on sale in December 1940, a year before the bombing of Pearl Harbor but a full year into World War II, showed the protagonist punching Nazi leader Adolf Hitler in the jaw — sold nearly one million copies. Per researcher Keif Fromm, Alter Ego #49, p. 4 (caption) While most readers responded favorably to the comic, some took objection. Simon noted, "When the first issue came out we got a lot of . . . threatening letters and hate mail. Some people really opposed what Cap stood for." Though preceded as a "patriotically themed superhero" by MLJ's The Shield, Captain America immediately became the most prominent and enduring of that wave of superheroes introduced in American comic books prior to and during World War II. With his sidekick Bucky, Captain America faced Nazis, Japanese and other threats to wartime America and the Allies. Captain America soon became Timely's most popular character and even had a fan-club called the "Sentinels of Liberty." Circulation figures remained close to a million copies per month after the debut issue, which outstripped even the circulation of news magazines like Time during the period. Daniels, p. 37 1974 Comic Art Convention program featuring Simon's original 1940 sketch of Captain America. After the Simon & Kirby team moved to DC late 1941, having produced Captain America Comics through issue #10 (January 1942), Al Avison and Syd Shores became regular pencillers of the celebrated title, with one generally inking over the other. The character was also featured in All Winners Comics #1-19 (Summer 1941 - Fall 1946), Marvel Mystery Comics #80-84,86-92, USA Comics #6-17 (December 1942 - Fall 1945) and All Select Comics #1-10 (Fall 1943 - Summer 1946). In the post-war era, with the popularity of superheroes fading, Captain America led Timely/Marvel's first superhero team, the All-Winners Squad, in its two published adventures, in All Winners Comics #19 & 21 (Fall-Winter 1946; there was no issue #20). After Bucky was shot and wounded in a 1948 Captain America story, he was succeeded by Captain America's girlfriend Betsy Ross, who became the superheroine Golden Girl. Captain America Comics ended with #75 (February 1950), by which time the series had been titled Captain America's Weird Tales for two issues, with the finale a horror/suspense anthology issue with no superheroes. Marvel's 1950s iteration Atlas Comics attempted to revive its superhero titles when it reintroduced Captain America, along with the original Human Torch and the Sub-Mariner, in Young Men #24 (December 1953). Billed as "Captain America, Commie Smasher!" Captain America appeared during the next year in Young Men #24-28 and Men's Adventures #27-28, as well as in issues #76-78 of an eponymous title. Atlas' attempted superhero revival was a commercial failure, Wright, p. 123 and the character's title was canceled with Captain America #78 (September 1954). Silver Age revival The Avengers #4 (March 1964). Cover art by Jack Kirby & George Roussos In the Human Torch story titled "Captain America" in Marvel Comics' Strange Tales #114 (November 1963), Grand Comics Database: Strange Tales #114 (Nov. 1963) writer-editor Stan Lee and artist and co-plotter Jack Kirby depicted the brash young Fantastic Four member Johnny Storm, the Human Torch, in an exhibition performance with Captain America, described as a legendary World War II and 1950s superhero who has returned after many years of apparent retirement. The 18-page story ends with this Captain America revealed as an impostor: it was actually the villain the Acrobat, a former circus performer the Torch had defeated in Strange Tales #106. Afterward, Storm digs out an old comic book in which Captain America is shown to be Steve Rogers. A caption in the final panel says this story was a test to see if readers would like Captain America to return. Captain America was then formally reintroduced in The Avengers #4 (March 1964), which explained that in the final days of WWII, he had fallen from an experimental drone plane into the North Atlantic Ocean and spent decades frozen in a block of ice in a state of suspended animation. He quickly became leader of that superhero team. Following the success of other Marvel characters introduced during the 1960s, Captain America was recast as a hero "haunted by past memories, and trying to adapt to 1960s society." Wright, p. 215 After then guest-starring in the feature "Iron Man" in Tales of Suspense #58 (October 1964), Captain America gained his own solo feature in that "split book," beginning the following issue. Kirby, Captain America's co-creator during the 1940s period fans and historians call the Golden Age of comic books, was illustrating his hero's solo adventures again for the first time since 1941. Issue #63 (March 1965), which retold Captain America's origin, through #71 (November 1965) was a period feature set during World War II and co-starred Captain America's Golden Age sidekick, Bucky. In the 1970s, the post-war versions of Captain America were retconned into separate, successive characters who briefly took up the mantle of Captain America after Steve Rogers went into suspended animation near the end of World War II. Captain America #153-156 (September-December 1972) What If? #4 (August 1977) The hero found a new generation of readers as leader of the all-star superhero team the Avengers, and in a new solo feature beginning in Tales of Suspense #59 (November 1964), a "split book" shared with the feature "Iron Man". Kirby drew all but two of the stories in Tales of Suspense, which became Captain America with #100 (April 1968); Gil Kane and John Romita Sr. each filled in once. Several stories were finished by penciller-inker George Tuska over Kirby layouts, with one finished by Romita Sr. and another by penciller Dick Ayers and inker John Tartaglione. Kirby's regular inkers on the series were Frank Giacoia (as "Frank Ray") and Joe Sinnott, though Don Heck and Golden Age Captain America artist Syd Shores inked one story each. The new title Captain America continued to feature artwork by Kirby, as well as a short run by Jim Steranko, and work by many of the industry's top artists and writers. It was called Captain America and the Falcon from #134-222. This series — considered Captain America vol. 1 by comics researchers and historians, following the 1940s Captain America Comics and its 1950s numbering continuation — ended with #454 (August 1996). It was almost immediately followed by the 13-issue Captain America vol. 2 (November 1996 - November 1997), the 50-issue Captain America vol. 3 (January 1998 - February 2002), Unofficial Handbook: "Captain America (III) (1998-2002) PG"; Grand Comics Database: Captain America (1998 Series) the 32-issue Captain America vol. 4 (June 2002 - December 2004) Unofficial Handbook: "Captain America (IV) (2002-2004) PSR"; Grand Comics Database: Captain America (2002 Series) and Captain America vol. 5 (January 2005 - July 2009 ). Unofficial Handbook: "Captain America (V) (2005-2007) T+"; Grand Comics Database: Captain America (2005 Series) . Beginning with the 600th overall issue counting these series, Captain America resumes its original numbering with issue #600, as if the series continued after #454. There were attempts for a second series such as Captain America Sentinel of Liberty (September 1998-August 1999) and Captain America and the Falcon (May 2004-June 2005). As part of the aftermath of Marvel Comics' company crossover "Civil War", Steve Rogers was killed in Captain America vol. 5, #25 (March 2007). Series writer Ed Brubaker remarked, "What I found is that all the really hard-core left-wing fans want Cap to be standing out on and giving speeches on the street corner against the George W. Bush administration, and all the really right-wing fans all want him to be over in the streets of Baghdad, punching out Saddam Hussein". "Captain America killed!", by Ethan Sacks, New York Daily News, March 7, 2007 The character's death came as a blow to co-creator Joe Simon, who said, "It's a hell of a time for him to go. We really need him now." In August 2007, Marvel announced that the Captain America of the 1940s will travel to the present day in a 12-issue series created by Alex Ross. "Wizard World Chicago 2007: Alex Ross Returns to Marvel", Marvel press release (August 11, 2007) and Marvel also announced that a new Captain America, with a costume designed by Ross, would debut in Captain America #34. The 2007 mini-series Captain America: The Chosen, written by David Morrell and penciled by Mitchell Breitweiser, depicts a dying Steve Rogers' final minutes, at S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters, as his spirit guides James Newman, a young American marine fighting in Afghanistan. The Chosen is not part of the main Marvel Universe continuity. Fictional character biography 1940s Captain America Comics#1 (March 1941). Cover art by Joe Simon (inks and pencils) & Jack Kirby (pencils). Steve Rogers was born on July 4, 1917 in the Lower East Side of Manhattan, New York City, to Irish immigrants Sarah and Joseph Rogers. Adventures of Captain America–Sentinel of Liberty #1-#4 (October 1991 - January 1992) By the early 1940s, before America's entry into World War II, Rogers is a tall but scrawny fine arts student specializing in illustration. Disturbed by the rise of the Third Reich, Rogers attempts to enlist, only to be rejected due to his poor constitution. A U.S. Army officer looking for test subjects offers Rogers the chance to serve his country by taking part in a top-secret defense project — Operation: Rebirth, which seeks to develop a means of creating physically superior soldiers. Rogers volunteers for the research and, after a rigorous selection process, is chosen as the first human test subject for the Super-Soldier serum developed by the scientist "Dr. Josef Reinstein," Captain America Comics #1 (March 1941) Captain America #109 (January 1969) later retroactively changed to a code name for the scientist Abraham Erskine. Captain America #255 (March 1981) That night Operation: Rebirth is implemented, Rogers receives injections and oral doses of the Super-Soldier formula. He is then exposed to a controlled burst of "Vita-Rays" that activate and stabilize the chemicals in his system. Although the process is arduous physically, it successfully alters his physiology almost instantly from its relatively frail form to the maximum of human efficiency, greatly enhancing his musculature and reflexes. Erskine declares Rogers to be the first of a new breed of man, a "nearly perfect human being." At that moment, a Nazi spy reveals himself and shoots Erskine. Because the scientist had committed the crucial portions of the Super-Soldier formula to memory, it cannot be duplicated. Rogers kills the spy in retaliation and vows to oppose the enemies of America. Tales of Suspense #63 (March 1964) The United States government, making the most of its one super-soldier, re-imagines him as a superhero who serves as both a counter-intelligence agent and a propaganda symbol to counter Nazi Germany's head of terrorist operations, the Red Skull. To that end, Rogers is given a uniform modeled after the American flag (based on Rogers's own sketches) a bulletproof shield, a personal side arm, and the codename Captain America. He is also given a cover identity as a clumsy infantry private at Camp Lehigh in Virginia. Barely out of his teens himself, Rogers makes friends with the camp's teenage mascot James Buchanan "Bucky" Barnes. Cover of Captain America vol. 5, #5 (May 2005), with fellow Invaders the Sub-Mariner and the original Human Torch. Art by Steve Epting. Barnes accidentally learns of Rogers's dual identity and offers to keep the secret if he can become Captain America's sidekick. Rogers agrees and trains Barnes. Rogers meets President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who presents him with a new shield made from a mixture of steel and vibranium, fused by an unknown catalyst. The alloy is indestructible, yet the shield is light enough to use as a discus-like weapon that can be angled to return to him. It proves so effective that Captain America forgoes the sidearm. Throughout World War II, Captain America and Bucky fight the Nazi menace both on their own and as members of the superhero team the Invaders (as seen in the 1970s comic of the same name). Giant-Sized Invaders #1 (June 1975) During the closing days of World War II, Captain America and Bucky try to stop the villainous Baron Zemo from destroying an experimental drone plane. Zemo launches the plane with an armed explosive on it, with Rogers and Barnes in hot pursuit. They reach the plane just before it takes off, but when Bucky tries to defuse the bomb, it explodes in mid-air. The young man is believed killed, and Rogers is hurled into the freezing waters of the North Atlantic. Neither body is found, and both are presumed dead. It is later revealed through retcons that neither character actually died. Late 1940s to 1950s Captain America #78 (September 1954), featuring the first Electro. Cover pencils and inks by John Romita, Sr. Captain America continues to appear in comics for the next few years changing from World War II era hero fighting against the Nazis to trying to defeat the United States' newest enemy, Communism. The revival of the character in the mid-1950s is shortlived though and events during that time period are later retconned to show that multiple people operated using the codename in order to explain the changes in the character. The last of these other Captains was a man who was so devoted to emulating Captain America that he has his appearance surgically altered to resemble Rogers. Furthermore, he also treated himself and a protege to an acquired Nazi copy of the Super Soldier serum to become the new Captain America and Bucky, but were unaware of the necessary Vita-Ray component. As a result, the raw chemicals administered began to seriously affect the pair's minds, rendering them violently paranoid. After it became evident that the two were insane, they were captured and placed in indefinite cryogenic storage. 1960s to 1970s Years later, The Avengers #4 (March 1964) the superhero team the Avengers discovers Steve Rogers' body in the North Atlantic, his costume under his soldier's uniform and still carrying his shield. After he revives, they piece together that Rogers had been preserved in a block of ice since 1945, surviving in such a state only because of his enhancements from Operation Rebirth. The block had begun to melt after the Sub-Mariner, enraged that an Arctic Inuit tribe is worshiping the frozen figure, throws it into the ocean. Rogers accepts membership in the Avengers, and although long out of his time, his considerable combat experience makes him a valuable asset to the team. He quickly assumes leadership, The Avengers #16 (May 1965) and has typically returned to that position throughout the team's history. Captain America #180 (December 1974). Captain America becomes "Nomad". Cover art by Gil Kane & Frank Giacoia. Captain America is plagued by guilt for having been unable to prevent Bucky's death — a feeling that does not ease for some time. Although he takes the young Rick Jones (who closely resembles Bucky) under his tutelage, he refuses for some time to allow Jones to take up the Bucky identity, not wishing to be responsible for another youth's death. Insisting that his hero finally move on from that loss, Jones eventually convinces Rogers to let him don the Bucky costume, Captain America #110 (February 1969) but this partnership lasts only a short time; a disguised Red Skull, impersonating Rogers with the help of the Cosmic Cube, drives Jones away. Rogers also reunites with his old war comrade Nick Fury, who is similarly well-preserved due to the "Infinity Formula". As a result, Rogers regularly undertakes missions for the security agency S.H.I.E.L.D. for which Fury was executive director. Tales of Suspense #78 (June 1966) Through Fury, Rogers befriends Sharon Carter, a SHIELD agent, Tales of Suspense #75 (March 1966) with whom he eventually begins a romantic relationship. Rogers later meets and trains Sam Wilson, who becomes the superhero the Falcon, Captain America #117 (September 1969) the first African-American superhero in mainstream comic books. The characters established an enduring friendship and adventuring partnership, sharing the series title for some time as Captain America and the Falcon. Captain America #117-119 (September-November 1969) The two later encounter the revived but still insane 1950s Captain America. Although Rogers and the Falcon defeat the faux Rogers and Jack Monroe, Rogers becomes deeply disturbed that he could have suffered his counterpart's fate. |Captain America #350 (February 1989): Rogers as The Captain vs. John Walker as Captain America. Cover art by Kieron Dwyer & Al Milgrom. The series also dealt with the Marvel Universe's version of the Watergate scandal, making Rogers so uncertain about his role that he abandons his Captain America identity in favor of one called Nomad. During this time, several men unsuccessfully assume the Captain America identity. Captain America #176-183 (August 1974 - March 1975) Rogers eventually re-assumes it after coming to consider that the identity could be a symbol of American ideals and not its government. Jack Monroe, cured of his mental instability, later takes up the Nomad alias. Captain America #282 (June 1983) During this period, Rogers also temporarily gains super strength. Captain America #159 (March 1973) He also learns of the apparent death of Sharon Carter. Captain America #237 (September 1979) 1980s to 1990s In the 1980s, in addition to runs from such acclaimed creators as John Byrne, the series reveals the true face and full origin of the Red Skull. Rogers meets law student Bernie Rosenthal, Captain America #248 (August 1980) who becomes his girlfriend. He also takes Jack Monroe, Nomad, as a partner for a time. He also meets Diamondback at this time. Captain America #310 (October 1985) The heroes gathered by the Beyonder elect Rogers as leader during their stay on Battleworld. Secret Wars #1 (May 1984) Long-time writer Mark Gruenwald explores numerous political and social themes, such as extreme idealism when Captain America fights the anti-nationalist terrorist Flag-Smasher; and vigilantism when he hunts the murderous Scourge of the Underworld. He takes D-Man as his partner. Homophobia was also dealt with as Steve Rogers runs into a childhood friend named Arnold Roth. Rogers receives a large back-pay reimbursement dating back to his disappearance at the end of World War II, and a government commission orders him to work directly for the U.S. government. Already troubled by the corruption he had encountered with the Nuke incident in New York City, Rogers chooses instead to resign his identity, and then takes the alias of "the Captain". A replacement Captain America, John Walker, struggles to emulate Rogers' ideals until pressure from hidden enemies helps to drive Walker insane. Rogers returns to the Captain America identity while a recovered Walker becomes the U.S. Agent. Captain America #332-#351 (August 1987 - March 1989) Sometime afterward, Rogers avoids the explosion of a methamphetamine lab, but the drug triggers a chemical reaction in the Super-Soldier serum in his system. To combat the reaction, Rogers has the serum removed from his body, and trains constantly to maintain his physical condition. Captain America #378 (October 1990) A retcon later establishes that the serum was not a drug per se, which would have metabolized out of his system, but in fact a virus-like organism that effected a biochemical and genetic change. This additionally explained how arch-nemesis Red Skull, who at the time inhabited a body cloned from Rogers' cells, also has the formula in his body. Because of his altered biochemistry, Rogers' body begins to deteriorate, and for a time he must wear a powered exoskeleton and is eventually placed again in suspended animation. During this time, he is given a transfusion of blood from the Red Skull, which cures his condition and stabilizes the Super-Soldier virus in his system. Captain America returns both to crime fighting and the Avengers. Captain America #425-454 (March 1994 - August 1996) 2000s Captain America with the Winter Soldier, after the latter has recovered his memories. Pencils by Steve Epting. Rogers reveals his identity to the world, and establishes a residence in the Red Hook neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. Captain America vol. 2, #1-7 (June 2002 - February 2003) Following the events of Avengers Disassembled, again under the employ of S.H.I.E.L.D., Rogers discovers that Bucky is alive, having been saved and deployed by Soviet espionage interests as the Winter Soldier. Rogers also resumes his on-again, off-again relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Sharon Carter, who, after his death, believes she is pregnant with Steve Rogers' child. In the 2006-2007 "Civil War" crossover, Captain America opposes mandatory federal registration of all super-powered beings, which he sees as an erosion of civil liberties for the superhero community, and leads the Anti-Registration faction and resistance movement. He becomes a fugitive and opposes the heroes of the Pro-Registration group, including his former friend Iron Man. He adopts the alias "Brett Hendrick", a mall security guard, to avoid government detection. Civil War #1-7 (July 2006 - January 2007) As the War continues, Cap enlists the assistance of several figures with whom he would not choose to ally himself under normal circumstances, such as the Punisher and the Kingpin. Civil War: War Crimes #1 (February 2007) Captain America battles Iron Man during the climactic battle and has victory within his grasp when a group of civilians attempts to restrain him. Rogers realizes that he is endangering the very people he has sworn to protect. He then surrenders to the authorities and orders the anti-Registration forces to stand down. As Rogers is led away in handcuffs, the Punisher retrieves Captain America's discarded mask. Death and aftermath Steve Rogers's death. Art by Steve Epting. Following his surrender, Steve Rogers is indicted on multiple criminal charges. As he is brought to a federal courthouse, a sniper shoots him in the back. In the chaos that ensues, he is wounded three more times in the stomach and chest by Sharon Carter. Rogers is taken to a hospital, where he dies. Captain America vol. 5, #25 (March 2007) The assassination, orchestrated by the Red Skull, involves Crossbones as the sniper and Dr. Faustus posing as a S.H.I.E.L.D. psychiatrist, who gives Sharon Carter a hypnotic suggestion to shoot Rogers at a crucial moment. The superhero community is shaken by the assassination. The Punisher temporarily adopts a costume similar to that of Captain America, while Winter Soldier and Wolverine seek to avenge Rogers' death. The Winter Soldier steals Captain America's shield, and the Punisher provides him with the mask from Steve Rogers' uniform. Punisher War Journal vol. 2, #11 (November 2007) Captain America is publicly laid to rest in Arlington National Cemetery, under a monument built in his honor. The body in Arlington is a fake: Tony Stark, accompanied by Hank Pym and Janet Van Dyne, returns Rogers' body to the Arctic where Rogers had been found years before. Namor attends the small private ceremony and vows no one will disturb the site. Fallen Son: The Death of Captain America #1-5 (June-August 2007) Stark receives a letter containing Rogers' final requests: Stark should "save" Bucky, and that, despite his demise, the world still needs Captain America. Captain America #30 (September 2007) Bucky accepts Stark's offer to take on the mantle of Captain America in exchange for a promise of complete autonomy from Stark. Captain America #34 Bucky kept Steve Rogers' trademark shield, but donned a new costume and began carrying a pistol and knife. The Norse god superhero Thor communicates with Steve Rogers' spirit on the first anniversary of his death. Thor grants Steve a minute of silence, by using his powers to cut off all the electronic media in America for exactly sixty seconds. Thor vol. 3, #11 (October 2008) Powers and abilities Steve Rogers' physical transformation, from a reprint of Captain America Comics #1 (March 1941). Art by Joe Simon & Jack Kirby. Captain America has no superhuman powers, although as a result of the Super-Soldier serum and vita-ray treatment, he is transformed from a frail young man into a "perfect" specimen of human development and conditioning. Captain America's strength, endurance, agility, speed, reflexes, durability and healing are at the highest limits of natural human potential. It has been established that Rogers' body regularly regenerates the super-soldier serum; it does not wear off. Captain America #372-#378 (May-November 1990) The formula enhances all of his metabolic functions and prevents the build-up of fatigue poisons in his muscles, giving him endurance far in excess of an ordinary human being. This accounts for many of his extraordinary feats, including bench pressing 1100 pounds (500 kg) and running a mile (1.6 km) in little more than a minute. Captain America 65th Anniversary Special (May 2006) Furthermore, his enhancements are the reason why he was able to survive being frozen in suspended animation for decades. Rogers is also unable to become intoxicated by alcohol and is immune to many diseases. Mentally, Rogers' battle experience and training make him an expert tactician and an excellent field commander, with his teammates frequently deferring to his orders in battle. Rogers' reflexes and senses are also extraordinarily keen. He has blended Judo, American boxing and gymnastics into his own unique fighting style and is a master of multiple martial arts. Years of practice with his indestructible shield make him able to aim and throw it with almost unerring accuracy. His skill with his shield is such that he can attack multiple targets in succession with a single throw or even cause a boomerang-like return from a throw to attack an enemy from behind. In canon, he is regarded by other skilled fighters as one of the best hand-to-hand combatants in the Marvel Universe. Captain America #302 (February 1985) Captain America #375 (August 1990) Rogers has vast U.S. military knowledge and is often shown to be familiar with ongoing, highly-classified Defense Department operations. He is an expert in combat strategy, survival, acrobatics, military strategy, piloting, and demolitions. Despite his high profile as one of the world's most popular and recognizable superheroes, Rogers also has a broad understanding of the espionage community, largely through his ongoing relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. He occasionally makes forays into mundane career fields, including commercial arts, comic book artistry, education (high school history) and law enforcement. Weapons and equipment Captain America uses several shields throughout his history, the most recognizable of which is a nigh-indestructible disc-shaped shield made from a fusion of vibranium with an experimental steel alloy. Captain America #303-304 (March-April 1985) This alloy was created by accident and never duplicated, although efforts to reverse-engineer it result in the creation of adamantium. Captain America often uses his shield as an offensive throwing weapon. The first instance of Captain America's trademark ricocheting shield-toss occurs in Stan Lee's first comics writing, the two-page text story "Captain America Foils the Traitor's Revenge" in Captain America Comics #3 (May 1941). Thomas, Roy, Stan Lee's Amazing Marvel Universe (Sterling Publishing, New York, 2006), p. 11. ISBN 1-4027-4225-8; ISBN 978-1-4027-4225-5. The line reads: "With the speed of thought, he sent his shield spinning through the air to the other end of the tent, where it smacked the knife out of Haines' hand!" It became a convention starting the following issue, in Simon & Kirby's comics story, they depict the following: "Captain America's speed of thought and action save Bucky's life — as he hurls his shield across the room". The legacy of the shield to other characters is seen when Cable reveals to Captain America that his shield still exists in one of the possible futures; Cable carries it into battle and brandishes it as a symbol. Cable and Deadpool #25 Captain America's uniform is made of a fire-retardant material, and he wears a lightweight, bulletproof "duralumin" scale armor beneath his uniform for added protection. Originally, Rogers' mask was a separate piece of material, but an early engagement had it dislodged, thus almost exposing his identity. To prevent a recurrence of the situation, Rogers modified the mask with connecting material to his uniform, an added benefit of which was extending his armor to cover his previously exposed neck. Since then, events have forced him to reveal his identity to the world. As a member of the Avengers, Rogers has an Avengers priority card, which serves as a communications device. Captain America has also used a custom special Harley Davidson motorcycle, modified by the S.H.I.E.L.D. weapons laboratory, as well as a custom-built battle van, constructed by the Wakanda Design Group with the ability to change its color for disguise purposes. Enemies Captain America has faced numerous foes in over 60 years of published adventures. Many of his recurring foes embody ideals contrary to the American values Captain America is shown to strive for and believe. Some examples of these opposing values are Nazism (Red Skull, Baron Zemo), neo-Nazism (Crossbones, Doctor Faustus), technocratic fascism (AIM, Arnim Zola), Communism (Aleksander Lukin), and international and domestic terrorism (HYDRA, Crossbones). Alternate versions In other media References Bibliography Daniels, Les. Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1993. ISBN 0-8109-8146-7 Gladstone, Brooke. On The Media (March 9, 2007): Transcript (and streaming audio) of "Death to America". Retrieved July 27, 2007. Powell, Matt. Wizard (March 7, 2007): "Captain America Remembered". Retrieved July 27, 2007. Wright, Bradford W. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Johns Hopkins, 2001. ISBN 0-8018-7450-5 Simon, Joe and Simon, Jim. The Comic Book Makers. Crestwood/II Publications, 1990. 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3,545 | Economy_of_Moldova | Moldova is the second smallest of the former Soviet republics and the most densely populated. Industry accounts for only 20% of its labor force, while agriculture's share is more than one-third. It remains the poorest country in Europe. It is landlocked, bounded by Ukraine on the east and Romania to the west. Overview Moldova's proximity to the Black Sea gives it a mild and sunny climate. The fertile soil supports wheat, corn, barley, tobacco, sugar beet, and soybeans. Beef and dairy cattle are raised, and beekeeping is widespread. Moldova's best-known product comes from its extensive and well-developed vineyards concentrated in the central and southern regions. In addition to world-class wine, Moldova produces liqueurs and sparkling wine. It is also known for its sunflower seeds, walnuts, apples, and other fruits. This makes the area ideal for agriculture and food processing, which accounts for about 40% of the country's GDP. Moldova has experienced economic difficulties, like many other former Soviet republics. Since its economy was highly dependent on the rest of the former Soviet Union for energy and raw materials, the breakdown in trade following the breakup of the Soviet Union had a serious effect, exacerbated at times by drought and civil conflict. The Russian ruble devaluation of 1998 had a deleterious effect on Moldova's economy, but economic growth has been steady since 2000. Moldova has made progress in economic reform since independence. The government has liberalized most prices and has phased out subsidies on most basic consumer goods. A program begun in March 1993 has privatized 80% of all housing units and nearly 2,000 small, medium, and large enterprises. Other successes include the privatization of nearly all of Moldova's agricultural land from state to private ownership, as a result of an American assistance program, "Pamînt" ("land"), completed in 2000. A stock market opened in June 1995. Inflation was brought down from over 105% in 1994 to 11% in 1997. Though inflation spiked again after Russia’s 1998 currency devaluation, Moldova made great strides in bringing it under control: 18.4% in 2000, 6.3% in 2001, and 4.4% in 2002. In 2003 inflation escalated again – due mainly to a drought-driven rise in agricultural prices – reaching 15.7%, although it was reigned in to 12.5% in 2004. The local currency appreciated considerably in 2003 and the first months of 2004. By May, the leu had reached its highest level since the end of 1999. After the National Bank of Moldova increased considerably its purchases on the foreign exchange market, the leu stabilized in November-December 2004 at 12.00-12.50 to the US dollar. Moldova continues to make progress toward developing a viable free-market economy. The country recorded its fifth consecutive year of positive GDP growth in 2004, with year-end real GDP growth of 8%. This growth is impressive considering that, prior to 2000, Moldova had recorded only one year of positive GDP growth since independence. Budget execution in 2004 was also impressive, as actual consolidated budget revenues exceeded projections by 1.4% for most of the year. Privatization results in 2004 were not significant: several smaller companies and one winery were privatized in 2004, but the government postponed indefinitely the privatization of several larger state enterprises, including two electricity distribution companies. Sporadic and ineffective enforcement of the law, economic and political uncertainty, and government harassment and interference continue to discourage inflows of foreign direct investment. Imports continued to increase more rapidly than exports during the first nine months of 2004; Moldova’s terms of trade worsened, as higher-priced energy imports outpaced the value of Moldova’s main exports--agricultural and agro-processing goods. During 2002, Moldova rescheduled an outstanding Eurobond, in the amount of $39.6 million, to avoid a potential default. In May 2004, Moldova redeemed promissory notes with a total value of $114.5 million to Russian Gazprom for just $50 million. Moldova informed its bilateral creditors in mid-2003 that it would no longer service its debts. The 2004 budget did provide funds for external debt service (interest) at some 6% of the government budget, the 2005 budget projects external debt service at some 4%. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank resumed lending to Moldova in July 2002, and then suspended lending again in July 2003. Although Moldova passed a Poverty Reduction Strategy in 2004, it has yet to reach an agreement with international financial institutions. 70% of total electrical energy power consumed in Moldova is imported from Ukraine and only 30% is produced in Moldova. Macroeconomic situation Mainly, Moldova is doing well, despite a series of consecutive shocks, which included the doubling of the price of imported natural gas and Russia's ban on imports of Moldovan wine in 2006, and a severe drought in 2007. Growth is estimated at 5 percent in 2007 and is projected to increase to 7 percent in 2008. Investment is picking up, and is beginning to replace remittances as the main source of growth—an encouraging sign that the earlier model of consumption-driven growth is changing. Moldova increasingly faces the challenges experienced by other transition economies. Improved growth prospects have come with strong appreciation pressures from foreign exchange inflows, and a widening trade deficit. Foreign direct investment (FDI) has picked up and is estimated to have reached 12 percent of GDP in 2007, compared with 7 percent in 2006. The main macroeconomic concern is inflation, which at 13 percent remains high for the region. A deterioration in the merchandise trade balance due to strong import growth has been offset by improvements in net income and transfers, with a small improvement in the current account deficit to 12 percent of GDP. A resumption of wine exports to Russia in October was a major positive development, although volumes are likely to recover slowly. Fiscal policy remained tight, ending 2007 with a modest deficit of 0.3 percent of GDP. Strong revenue performance was driven by robust VAT on imports, while expenditure was kept in line with the budget. However, the tax cuts introduced in 2008 may undermine the favorable fiscal position. Monetary tightening in 2007 was complicated by the strong inflow of foreign exchange. The National Bank of Moldova increased reserve requirements from 10 to 15 percent, and raised policy interest rates by 2.5 percentage points. Nevertheless, the possibility of second-round effects from the drought, liquidity pressures from growing remittances and FDI, and the continued strong growth in credit and broad money suggest that upside risks to inflation are not yet fully contained. Currently In spite of some favorable background, the Republic of Moldova remains actually one of Europe's poorest nations, resisting pursuing the types of reforms that have vastly improved the economies of some of its Eastern European neighbors. The Communist Party retained political control after winning the March 2005 parliamentary elections and re-elected its leader, Vladimir Voronin, as president in collaboration with the opposition. Although the government maintains a pro-Western stance, it has had trouble pursuing structural reforms and has made little progress on the International Monetary Fund's program to attract external financial resources. The parliament approved the government's economic growth and strategy paper in December 2004, but international financial institutions and Western investors will not be satisfied until the government begins to address fiscal adjustment, wage restraint, and payment of debt arrears. Despite the fact that the pace of privatization and industrial output has slowed, GDP growth was 7.3 percent in 2004, consumption continues to grow, and the currency continues to appreciate. The impasse in the pro-Russian Transnistria enclave, plagued by corruption and the smuggling of arms and contraband, continues despite international attempts at mediation. Moldova's fiscal burden of government score is 0.1 point better in 2005. As a result, its overall score is 0.01 point better in 2005. Doing business According to the Global Competitiveness Report The Global Competitiveness Report , the Most Problematic Factors for Doing Business is the access to finances, corruption and bureaucracy. From a list of 14 factors, respondents were asked to select the five most problematic for doing business in their country and to rank them between 1 (most problematic) and 5. The bars in the figure show the responses weighted according to their rankings. Trade policy According to the World Bank, Moldova's weighted average tariff rate in 2001 (the most recent year for which World Bank data are available) was 2.8 percent. (The World Bank has revised the figure for 2001 downward from the 3.9 percent reported in the 2005 Index.) A 2004 World Bank report notes a "range of informal barriers to both imports and exports in Moldova, such as cumbersome and restrictive trade procedures, corruption, burdensome and inappropriate regulations and high transport costs." Based on the revised trade factor methodology, Moldova's trade policy score is unchanged. Fiscal burden Moldova's top income tax rate is 22 percent. The top corporate tax rate has been cut to 18 percent from 20 percent, effective January 2005. In 2003, government expenditures as a share of GDP increased 1.2 percentage points to 33.6 percent, compared to the 3.0 percentage point increase in 2002. On net, Moldova's fiscal burden of government score is 0.1 point better in 2005. Government intervention The World Bank reports that the government consumed 17.7 percent of GDP in 2003. In the same year, based on data from the International Monetary Fund, Moldova received 4.93 percent of its revenues from state-owned enterprises and government ownership of property. Monetary policy Between 1995 and 2004, Moldova's weighted average annual rate of inflation was 11.99 percent. Foreign investment The Moldovan government does not maintain many formal barriers to foreign investment, and the Moldovan embassy reports that foreign investors are free to "place their investments throughout the Republic of Moldova, in any area of business activity, as long as it does not go against the interests of the national security, anti-monopoly legislation, environment protection norms, public health and public order." However, there are significant informal barriers and indications that the formal reasons to block investment are liberally applied. According to the International Monetary Fund, "despite efforts to simplify licensing and business registration, there has been no significant improvement in the business climate. Moreover, the privatization program has stalled, while corruption remains widespread and governance weak. Government interference in the private sector…casts doubt over the authorities' commitment to market-oriented reforms." The Economist Intelligence Unit reports that the "poor investment climate, including annulments of some earlier sales, continues to deter many Western investors. Between 2001 and 2004 the government privatized less than 60 of the 480-odd enterprises scheduled for sale." Foreign investors may not purchase agricultural or forest land. The IMF reports that both residents and non-residents may hold foreign exchange accounts, but approval is required in some cases. Payments and transfers require supporting documentation and approval of the National Bank of Moldova if they exceed specified amounts. Nearly all capital transactions require approval by or registration with the National Bank of Moldova. Banking and finance There are no official barriers to founding foreign banks or branches in Moldova. The central bank has increased the minimum capital requirement, which is expected to contribute to consolidation in the banking sector. First Initiative reports that the banking sector "consists of 16 commercial banks (2003). There are 14 locally-owned banks, while the two remaining ones are from Russia and Romania. The banking sector is highly concentrated with the five largest banks accounting for over 70% of lending in 2002. Unlike the banking sector, the insurance sector has high levels of foreign-participation. The largest insurance firm in Moldova, the former state insurance company, is owned by an Australian company." Moldova's stock exchange is very small, listing fewer than 25 companies in 2002. The Moldovan embassy reports that the government holds shares in two banks—JSCB "Banca de Economii" SA and JSCB "EuroCreditBank"—including a controlling share of Banca de Economii. The Economist Intelligence Unit reports that foreign investment accounts for approximately 50 percent of total banking capital. List of banks in Moldova Wages and prices The government influences prices through the large state-owned sector. According to the Ministry of Economy, the state regulates the prices of goods and services provided by monopolies and the prices of electric or thermal energy, land, medical services, and services offered by local tax regions. Moldova has two legal monthly minimum wages: one wage for state employees and another, higher wage for the private sector. In 2006, the average monthly salary was 1956 lei (equivalent of 129 U.S. dollars), up by 28.5% against 2005 Moldpress 29 January 2007 - Average salary in Moldova up 28.5 per cent in 2006 . Property rights The U.S. Department of Commerce reports that the "legal system has improved in recent years. Moldova has a documented and consistently applied commercial law." Nevertheless, much more needs to be done. According to the U.S. Department of State, "The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, the executive branch has exerted undue influence on the judiciary. Many observers believe that arrears in salary payments also make it difficult for judges to remain independent from outside influences and free from corruption." Regulation "Bureaucratic procedures are not always transparent and red tape often makes processing unnecessarily long," reports the U.S. Department of Commerce. "[C]ommercial law is a confusing patchwork of narrow statutes and an outdated civil code. With USAID experts, a draft civil code has been developed which follows the current European practice of incorporating commercial law provisions." The same source reports that anti-corruption laws "are not effectively enforced and corruption exists at an advanced level." A report provided by the World Bank indicates that labor laws are somewhat rigid. Informal market Transparency International's 2004 score for Moldova is 2.3. Therefore, Moldova's informal market score is 4 in 2005. Statistics GDP (billions) $ 4.10 — 2007; $ 3.98 — 2006; $ 2.76 — 2005; $ 2.6 — 2004; $ 2.0 — 2003; $ 1.6 — 2002; $ 1.5 — 2001. GDP real growth rate 3.0% — 2007; 4.8% — 2006; 7.5% — 2005 5.7% — 2004 6.3% — 2003; 7.2% — 2002; 6.1% — 2001. Table 1. Moldovan Real GDP Growth and CPI Inflation, 2006–09 (Percent) [http://www.imf.org/External/Pubs/FT/REO/2008/EUR/ENG/ereo0408.pdf Regional Economic Outlook, World Economic and Financial Surveys, INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, April 08, Europe Reassessing Risks Report] % 2006200720082009 Real GDP Growth4.0 5.0 7.0 8.0 CPI Inflation 12.712.611.47.9 Table 2. Moldova: External and Fiscal Balances, Government Debt, 2006–08 (Percent) to GDP (%) 200620072008Current Account Balance -12.0-9.7-10.3 General Government Balance 0.2-0.3-0.5Gross Government Debt 34.6 - - Per capita GDP (2004 est.):$ 760 ($ 540 in 2003: $448 in 2002; $422 in 2001). Natural resources: Lignite, phosphates, gypsum, arable land, and limestone. Agriculture: Products--vegetables, fruits, wine and spirits, grain, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, meat, milk, eggs, tobacco, walnuts. Industry: Types--processed foods and beverages, including wine and refined sugar; processed fruit and vegetable products, including vegetable oil; dairy and meat products; tobacco items; metal processing and production of machinery; textiles and clothing, shoes; furniture. Trade (2003): Exports--$790 million (of which 46% go to countries outside the former Soviet Union): foodstuffs, wine, textiles, clothing, footwear and machinery. Major markets--Russia, Romania, Italy, Ukraine, Germany. Imports-- $1,403 million (of which 58% come from countries outside the former Soviet Union): gas, oil, coal, steel, machinery and equipment, chemical products, textiles, foodstuffs, automobiles, and other consumer durables. Major suppliers--Ukraine, Russia, Germany, Italy, Romania, Currency: Moldovan Leu (plural Lei). Exchange rate: Lei/US$ (2004): 12.33; 12.46 (end of year); (13.94 average in 2003); (13.57 average in 2002) Investment (gross fixed): 17.1% of GDP (2004 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.2% highest 10%: 30.7% (1997) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 40.6 (1997) Agriculture - products: vegetables, fruits, wine, grain, sugar beets, sunflower seed, tobacco; beef, milk Industrial production growth rate: 17% (2003 est.) Electricity: production: 3.876 TWh (2002) consumption: 4.605 TWh (2002) exports: 0 kWh (2002) imports: 1 TWh (2002) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 90.6% hydro: 9.4% other: 0% (2001) nuclear: 0% Oil: production: 0 barrel/day (2001 est.) consumption: 24,000 barrel/day (2001 est.) exports: NA imports: NA Natural gas: production: 0 m³ (2001 est.) consumption: 2.05 billion m³ (2001 est.) exports: 0 m³ (2001 est.) imports: 2.05 billion m³ (2001 est.) Current account balance: $-148.4 million (2004 est.) Exports - commodities: foodstuffs, textiles, machinery Imports - commodities: mineral products and fuel, machinery and equipment, chemicals, textiles (2000) Reserves of foreign exchange & gold: $390 million (2004 est.) See also Economy of Europe Moldova References External links www.statistica.md - main statistical national rapports www.bnm.md - National Bank of Moldova International Monetary Fund: Republic of Moldova: Statistical Appendix www.imf.md - Moldova's International Monetary Fund Web Page MP-Macroeconomic Indicators-Year 2006 Barriers to Growth in Moldova | Economy_of_Moldova |@lemmatized moldova:51 second:2 smallest:1 former:6 soviet:6 republic:5 densely:1 populated:1 industry:2 account:8 labor:2 force:1 agriculture:4 share:5 one:6 third:1 remain:7 poor:3 country:6 europe:4 landlocked:1 bound:1 ukraine:4 east:1 romania:4 west:1 overview:1 proximity:1 black:1 sea:1 give:1 mild:1 sunny:1 climate:3 fertile:1 soil:1 support:2 wheat:1 corn:1 barley:1 tobacco:4 sugar:4 beet:3 soybean:1 beef:2 dairy:2 cattle:1 raise:2 beekeeping:1 widespread:2 best:1 know:2 product:7 come:3 extensive:1 well:5 develop:3 vineyard:1 concentrate:2 central:2 southern:1 region:3 addition:1 world:9 class:1 wine:8 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3,546 | Andrew_II_of_Hungary | Andrew II the Jerosolimitan (Hungarian: Jeruzsálemi II András/Endre, Croatian: Andrija II. Arpadovic Slovak: Ondrej) (c. 1177 – 21 September, 1235), King of Hungary Andrew II. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/23972/Andrew-II (1205-1235). He was the younger son of King Béla III of Hungary, who invested him with the government of the Principality of Halych. However, the boyars of Halych rebelled against his rule and expelled the Hungarian troops. Following their father's death, Andrew continuously conspired against his brother, King Emeric of Hungary who had to grant him the government of Croatia and Dalmatia. When his brother and his infant son died, Andrew ascended the throne and started to grant royal domains to his partisans. He participated in the Fifth Crusade but he could not achieve any major military success. He was obliged to issue the Golden Bull confirming the privileges of the noblemen of Hungary and later he was also obliged to confirm the special privileges of the clergy. During his long reign, he had several quarrels with his sons. The turbulent duke Andrew was the second son of King Béla III and his first wife, Agnes of Antioch. As younger son, Andrew had no hope to inherite the Kingdom of Hungary from his father who wanted to ensure the inheritance of his elder son, Emeric and had him crowned already in 1182. Nevertheless, when Prince Volodymyr II of Halych, who had been expelled from his country by his subjects, fled to Hungary seeking for assistance in 1188, King Béla III had him arrested and occupied his principality and he invested Andrew with Halych. The child Andrew's rule in Halych must have been only nominal; he even did not visit his principality. Although, the young prince's troops could get the mastery in 1189 when the boyars of Halych rose against his rule, but shortly afterwards Prince Volodymyr II managed to escape from his captivity and he expelled the Hungarian troops from Halych. On 23 April 1196, King Béla III died and he left the Kingdom of Hungary unportioned to his eldest son, Emeric, while Andrew inherited a large amount of money in order to fulfill his father's Crusader oath. However, Andrew used the money to recruit followers among the barons and also sought the assistance of Leopold V, Duke of Austria. In December 1197, Andrew's troops defeated King Emeric's armies in a battle near to Macsek in December 1197. Following Andrew's victory, the king was obliged to transfer the government of the Duchies of Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew. In the beginning of 1198, Pope Innocent III requested Andrew to fulfill his father's last will and lead a Crusade to the Holy Land. However, instead of a Crusade, Andrew made a campaign against the neighbouring provinces and occupied Zahumlje and Rama. Andrew also went on conspiring with some prelates against his brother, but King Emeric was informed on Andrew's plans and he personally arrested Bishop Boleszlo of Vác, one of Andrew's main supporters, and he also deprived his brother's followers (e.g., Palatine Mog) of their dignities. In the summer of 1199, King Emeric defeated Andrew in the Battle of Rád and Andrew had to fleed to Austria. Finally, the two brothers made peace with the mediation of the Papal Legate Gregory, and the king granted again the government of Croatia and Dalmatia to his brother. Around 1200, Andrew married Gertrude, a daughter of Berthold IV, Duke of Merania. It was probably his wife who persuaded him to conspire against his brother again, but when King Emeric, who had realised that Andrew's troops outnumbered his armies, went unarmed, wearing only the crown and the sceptre, to Andrew's camp near Varasd, Andrew surrendered voluntarily on the spur of the scene. The king had his brother arrested, but Andrew managed to escape shortly afterwards. Nevertheless, the king become more and more ill, and wanted to secure the ascension of his young son, Ladislaus, who had been crowned on 26 August 1204. Shortly afterwards, the king reconciled with Andrew whom he appointed to govern the kingdom during his son's minority. After his brother's death on 30 September/November 1204, Andrew took over the government of the kingdom as his nephew's tutor and he also seized the money his brother had deposited on behalf of the child Ladislaus. The Dowager Queen Constance was anxious about her son's life and she escaped with King Ladislaus to the court of Leopold VI, Duke of Austria. Andrew made preparations for a war against Austria, but the child king died on 7 May 1205, thus Andrew inherited the throne. Novæ institutiones Andrew was crowned by Archbishop John of Kalocsa on 29 May 1205 in Székesfehérvár, but before the coronation, he had to take an oath. Andrew made a radical alteration in the internal policy followed by his predecessors and he began to bestow the royal estates to his partisans. He called this new policy novæ institutiones in his deeds, and he declared that "Nothing can set bounds to generosity of the Royal Majesty, and the best measure of grants, for a monarch, is immeasurableness". He gave away everything - money, villages, domains, whole counties - to the utter impoverishment of the treasury. Andrew was generous primarily with his wife's German relatives and followers, which caused discontent among his subjects. Struggles for Halych During the first years of his reign, Andrew was occupied with the discords within the Principality of Halych. In 1205, he led his armies to the principality to ensure the rule of the child Prince Danylo. Following his campaign, he adopted the title of "King of Galicia and Lodomeria" referring to his supremacy over the two neighbouring principalities. In the beginning of the next year, the child Danylo was again expelled from Halych but Andrew denied to give assistance to him because the child prince's opponent, Prince Volodymyr III Igorevych had bribed him. Nevertheless, in the same year, he made a campaign in Halych and gave assistance to Prince Roman Igorevych to acquire the throne. In 1208, taking advantage of the quarrel between Prince Roman Igorevych and his boyars, Andrew occupied Halych and appointed a regent to govern the principality in his name, but Prince Volodymyr III Igorevych managed to reconquer his principality already in the following year. A group of the aristocrats of his court, scandalised by Andrew's generosity towards his wife's relatives and followers, planned to offer the throne to his cousins, who had been living in the court of the Emperor Theodore I Lascaris of Nicea, but their envoy was arrested and Andrew could overcome the conspiracy. In 1211, he granted the Burzenland to the Teutonic Knights in order to ensure the security of the southeastern borders of his kingdom against the Cumans. However, the Teutonic Knights began to establish a country independent of the King of Hungary. In 1211, Andrew provided military assistance to Prince Danylo to reoccupy Halych. Moreover, in the following year, Andrew lead his armies personally to Halych to repulse the attack of Prince Mstilav of Peresopnytsia against Prince Danylo. Shortly afterwards, Prince Danylo, was obliged to leave his country and he sought again Andrew's assistance. Andrew left for his campaign in the summer 1213 when he was informed that a group of conspirators had murdered his queen on 28 September and he had to return. Following his return, he ordered the execution only the leader of the conspirators and he forgave the other members of the group, which resulted in the emerging antipaty of his son, Béla. Nevertheless, in 1214, Andrew had his son crowned. In the summer of 1214, Andrew had a meeting with Grand Duke Leszek I of Poland and they agreed that they would divide the Principality of Halych between Hungary and Poland. Their allied troops occupied the neighbouring principality which was granted to Andrew's younger son, Coloman. However, Andrew denied to transfer the agreed territories to Duke Leszek I who made an alliance with Prince Mstilav of Novgorod and they drove away Andrew's troops from the principality. Shortly afterwards, Andrew made an alliance again with Leszek I and they occupied Halych where again Andrew's son was appointed to prince. The Fifth Crusade In the meantime, Andrew began to deal with the problems of the southern borders of his kingdom. In 1214, the Hungarian troops annexed Belgrade and Braničevo from the Bulgarian Empire. In February 1215, Andrew married Yolanda, the niece of Henry I, the Emperor of Constantinople. When the Emperor Henry I died on 11 July 1216, Andrew was planning to acquire the imperial throne, but the barons of the Latin Empire proclaimed his father-in-law, Peter of Courtenay their emperor. Nevertheles, Andrew decided to fulfill his father's oath and made preparations for a Crusade. He agreed with the Republic of Venice to undertake the delivery of his troops to the Holy Land, in exchange he renounced the supremacy over Zára on behalf of the Republic. Andrew and his troops embarked on 23 August 1217 in Spalato. They landed on 9 October on Cyprus from where they sailed to Acre. The well-mounted army defeated sultan Al-Adil I ( Sultan of Egypt ) in Bethsaida at Jordan River on November 10. Muslim forces retreated in their fortress and towns. The catapults and trebuchets didn't arrived on time, so he had fruitless assaults on the fortresses of the Lebanon and on Mount Tabor. Afterwards, Andrew spent his time collecting alleged relics. Andrew set home on (January 18, 1218). On the way home, he negotiated with King Levon I of Armenia, the Emperor Theodore I Laskaris of Nicaea and Tsar Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria and arranged several marriage contracts between his children and the courts he visited. When he was staying in Nicaea, his cousins, who had been living there, made an unsuccessful attempt to take his life. The Golden Bull and the Diploma Andreanum On his return, he found its kingdom in anarchy. While he had been away in the Holy Land, even his regent, Archbishop John of Esztergom had been obliged to leave the country and his treasury had been exhausted. He tried to collect money by using new instruments, such as introducing new taxes, undermining the currency and leasing his income to Jews and Muslims which increased his unpopularity. His foreign policy was also a total failure. In August 1219, his younger son, Coloman, who had been crowned King of Halych, was expelled from his kingdom by Prince Mstilav of Novgorod. Andrew had to make peace with the Prince of Novgorod and he also engaged his youngest son, Andrew with one of his opponent's daughter. In 1220, Andrew entrusted the government of Slavonia, Dalmatia and Croatia to his son, Béla. Andrew also enforced Béla to separate from his wife. In the beginning of 1222, the discontent serviens (nobles) came to Andrew's court in large numbers, and they persuaded the king to issue the Golden Bull which confirmed their privileges, including the right to disobey the King if he acted not in line with the provisions of the Golden Bull (ius resistendi). In 1223, the junior King Béla IV took back his wife and escaped to Austria fearing of Andrew's anger. Finally, Andrew made an agreement with his son with the mediation of Pope Honorius III and the junior king took over again the government of Slavonia, Dalmatia and Croatia. On 6 June 1224 Andrew made a peace with Duke Leopold VI of Austria. In 1224, Andrew issued the Diploma Andreanum which unified and ensured the special privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons. It's considered the oldest Autonomy law in the world. In the same year, Andrew expelled the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania because they had ignored his overlordship. Discords with his son The junior King Béla IV started, with the authorization of Pope Honorius III, to take back the royal domains in his provinces that Andrew had granted to his partisans during the first half of his reign. Andrew opposed his son's policy and he entrusted Béla with the government of Transylvania while his younger son, Coloman became the governor of Béla's former provinces. In the second half of 1226, Andrew lead his armies to Halych on the request of his youngest son, Andrew. Although, Prince Mstilav defeated the royal armies, but finally he agreed to cede the government of the principality to the Hungarian prince. During 1228, Andrew's two sons started again to take back the former royal domains in their provinces, and they persuaded Andrew to confiscate the estates of the barons who had taken part in the conspiracy against their mother. In 1229, Prince Danylo of Halych expelled Andrew's youngest son from his principality, while Frederick II, Duke of Austria started to attack the western borders of the kingdom in 1230. The Agreement of Bereg Andrew, in contrast with the decisions of the Fourth Council of the Lateran, often employed Jews and Muslims in the royal household. Therefore, Pope Gregory IX requested him to give up this practise. Finally, Andrew was obliged to confirm the Golden Bull and supplement it with a provision that prohibited the employment of non-Christians and also authorised the Archbishop of Esztergom to punish the king in case he ignored his promise. In the second half of 1231, Andrew lead his armies to Halych and managed to ensure his youngest son's rule in the principality. On his return to Hungary, Archbishop Robert of Esztergom took his kingdom under interdict and excommunicated the king's major dignitaries because Andrew insisted on the employment of Jews and Muslims in his administration. Nevertheless, upon Andrew's request, the Archbishop withdrew the ecclesiastic punishments soon and the Pope promised that the dignitaries of the King of Hungary would never be excommunicated without his special authorization. On 20 August 1233, Andrew had a meeting with the legate of Pope Gregory IX in the woods of Bereg, and they made an agreement which ensured the privileges of the clergy. In the autumn of the year, he also met with Duke Frederick II of Austria and they agreed to stop the skirmishes on the border, but the Duke soon broke the agreement. His last years On 14 May 1234, Andrew, who had lost his second wife in the previous year, married Beatrice D'Este who was thirty years younger than himself. Because of the new marriage, his relationship enworthened with his sons. In the summer of 1234, the Bishop John of Bosnia excommunicated Andrew because he had not respected some provisions of the Agreement of Bereg. Andrew appealed to the Pope against the bishop's measure. In the autumn of 1234, Prince Danylo laid siege to the capital of Andrew's youngest son who died during the siege. Thus, the Hungarian supremacy over Halych disappeared. In the beginning of 1235, Andrew made a campaign against Austria and enforced Duke Frederick II to make a peace. He was still alive when one of his daughters, Elisabeth, who had died some years before, was canonized on 28 May 1235. Before his death, he was absolved from the excommunication; moreover, the Pope also promised that the King of Hungary and his relatives would not be excommunicated without the special permission of the Pope. Marriages and children #1. around 1200: Gertrude of Merania (? – 8 September 1213), a daughter of Berthold IV, Duke of Merania and his wife, Agnes of Wettin Anna Maria of Hungary (c. 1204 – 1237), wife of Tzar Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria King Béla IV of Hungary (1206 – 3 May 1270) Saint Elisabeth of Hungary (1207 – 10 November 1231), wife of Landgraf Louis IV of Thuringia King Coloman of Halych (1208 – after 11 April 1241) Prince Andrew II of Halych (c. 1210 – 1234) #2. February 1215: Yolanda de Courtenay (c. 1200 – 1233), daughter of Peter I, Emperor of the Latin Empire and his second wife, Yolanda I, Empress of the Latin Empire Violant of Hungary or Yolanda (c. 1215 – 12 October 1251), wife of King James I of Aragon #3. 14 May 1234: Beatrice D'Este (c. 1215 – before 8 May 1245), daughter of Aldobrandino I D'Este and his wife Stephen (1236 – 10 April 1271) Ancestors Ancestors of Andrew II of Hungary References Titles King of Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia and Lodomeria. http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=504 Sources Kristó, Gyula - Makk, Ferenc: Az Árpád-ház uralkodói (IPC Könyvek, 1996) Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon (9-14. század), főszerkesztő: Kristó, Gyula, szerkesztők: Engel, Pál és Makk, Ferenc (Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1994) Magyarország Történeti Kronológiája I. – A kezdetektől 1526-ig, főszerkesztő: Benda, Kálmán (Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1981) | Andrew_II_of_Hungary |@lemmatized andrew:86 ii:14 jerosolimitan:1 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3,547 | Handball | Handball player moves towards the goal prior to throwing the ball, while the goalkeeper waits to stop it. Dimensions of a field of field handball played with 11 players at 1936 Summer Olympics compared to a football field. Handball (also known as team handball, Olympic handball or European handball) is a team sport in which two teams of seven players each (six players and a goalkeeper) pass and bounce a ball to throw it into the goal of the opposing team. The team with the most goals after two periods of 30 minutes wins. Modern handball is usually played indoors, but outdoors variants exist in the form of field handball (which was more common in the past) and beach handball. American handball is a completely different sport. The game is quite fast and includes body contact as the defenders try to stop the attackers from approaching the goal. Contact is only allowed when the defensive player is completely in front of the offensive player, i.e. between the offensive player and the goal, this is referred to as a player sandwich. Any contact from the side or especially from behind is considered dangerous and is usually met with penalties. When a defender successfully stops an attacking player, the play is stopped and restarted by the attacking team from the spot of the infraction or on the nine meter line. Unlike in basketball where players are allowed to commit only 5 fouls in a game (6 in the NBA), handball players are allowed an unlimited number of "faults," which are considered good defense and disruptive to the attacking team's rhythm. Goals are scored quite frequently in handball; usually both teams score at least 20 goals each, and it is not uncommon to have a match end 33-31. This was not true in the earliest history of the game, when the scores were more akin to that of ice hockey. But, as offensive play has improved, particularly the use of counterattacks (fast breaks) after a failed attack from the other team, goal scoring has increased. Origins and development There are records of handball-like games in medieval France, and among the Inuit in Greenland, in the Middle Ages, and in Ancient Africa, primarily Egypt. By the 19th century, there existed similar games of håndbold from Denmark, hazena in the Czech Republic, hádzaná in Slovakia, gandbol in Ukraine, torball in Germany, as well as versions in Uruguay. The team handball game of today was formed by the end of the 19th century in northern Europe, primarily Denmark, Germany, Norway and Sweden. The Dane Holger Nielsen drew up the rules for modern handball (håndbold) in 1898 and published them in 1906, and R. N. Ernst did something similar in 1897. Another set of team handball rules was published on 29 October 1917 by Max Heiser, Karl Schelenz, and Erich Konigh from Germany. After 1919 these rules were improved by Karl Schelenz. The first international games were played under these rules, between Germany and Belgium for men in 1925 and between Germany and Austria for women in 1930. In 1926, the Congress of the International Amateur Athletics Federation nominated a committee to draw up international rules for field handball. The International Amateur Handball Federation was formed in 1928, and the International Handball Federation was formed in 1946. Men's field handball was played at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin at the request of Adolf Hitler. Staff (2008-05-12). "Handball a Hit in Europe: Variations of modern handball have been played since the beginning of recorded history", CBC Sports. It was removed, to return as team handball for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. Women's team handball was added at the 1976 Summer Olympics. The International Handball Federation organized the men's world championship in 1938 and every 4 (sometimes 3) years from World War II to 1995. Since the 1995 world championship in Iceland, the competition has been every two years. The women's world championship has been played since 1957. The IHF also organizes women's and men's junior world championships. By February 2007, the IHF listed 159 member federations - approximately 1,130,000 teams and 31 million players, trainers, officials and referees. Basics Unless noted otherwise all statements in this section reflect the official international rules The official Handball rules (PDF) provided by the International Handball Federation (IHF). Playing field Schematic diagram of a handball playing field (German captions). Handball is played on a court 40 meters long by 20 meters wide (40 m x 20 m), with a goal in the center of each end. The goals are surrounded by a near-semicircular area, called the zone or the crease, defined by a line six meters from the goal. A dashed near-semicircular line nine meters from the goal marks the free-throw line. Each line on the court is part of the area it encompasses. This implies that the middle line belongs to both halves at the same time. Goals Each goal has a rectangular clearance area of three meters in the width and two meters in the height. It must be securely bolted either to the floor or the wall behind. The goal posts and the crossbar must be made out of the same material (e.g. wood or aluminium) and feature a quadratic cross section with a side of 8 cm. The three sides of the beams visible from the playing field must be painted alternatingly in two contrasting colors which both have to contrast against the background. The colors on both goals must be the same. Each goal must feature a net. This must be fastened in such a way that a ball thrown into does not leave or pass the goal under normal circumstances. If necessary, a second net may be clasped to the back of the net on the inside. Goal perimeter The goals are surrounded by the crease. This area is delimited by two quarter circles with a radius of six meters around the far corners of each goal post and a connecting line parallel to the goal line. Only the defending goalkeeper is allowed inside this perimeter. However, the court players may catch and touch the ball in the air within it as long as the player starts his jump outside the zone and releases the ball before he lands. If a player contacts the ground inside the goal perimeter he must take the most direct path out of it. However, should a player cross the zone in an attempt to gain an advantage (e.g. better position) his team cedes the ball. Similarly, violation of the zone by a defending player is only penalized if he does so in order to gain an advantage in defending. Substitution area Outside of one long edge of the playing field to both sides of the middle line are the substitution areas for each team. The areas usually contain the benches as seating opportunities. Team officials, substitutes and suspended players must wait within this area. The area always lies to the same side as the team's own goal. During half-time substitution areas are swapped. Any player entering or leaving the play must cross the substitution line which is part of the side line and extends 4.5 meters from the middle line to the team's side. Duration Team timeout. A standard match for all teams of 16 and older has two periods of 30 minutes with a 10 minute half-time. Teams may switch sides of the field, as well as benches. For youths the game duration is: 2 x 25 minutes at ages 12 to 16. 2 x 20 minutes at ages 8 to 12. However, national federations of some countries may differ in their implementation from the official guidelines. If a decision must be reached in a particular match (e.g. in a tournament) and it ends in a draw after regular time, there are at maximum two overtimes of 2 x 5 minutes with a 1 minute break each. Should these not decide the game either, the winning team is determined in a penalty shootout. The referees may call timeout according to their sole discretion, typical reasons are injuries, suspensions or court cleaning. Penalty throws should only trigger a timeout for lengthy delays as a change of the goalkeeper. Each team may call one team timeout (TTO) per period which lasts one minute. This right may only be invoked by team in ball possession. To do so, the representative of the team lays a green card marked by black “T” on the desk of the timekeeper. The timekeeper then immediately interrupts the game by sounding an acoustic signal and stops the time. Referees A Handball match is led by two equal referees. Some national bodies allow games with only a single referee in special cases like illness on short notice. Should the referees disagree on any occasion, a decision is made on mutual agreement during a short timeout, or, in case of punishments, the more severe of the two comes into effect. The referees are obliged make their decisions “on the basis of their observations of facts” Official rules, rule 17:11 . Their judgements are final and can only be appealed against if not in compliance with the rules. The referees (blue shirts) keep both teams between them. The referees position themselves in such a way that the team players are confined between them. They stand diagonally aligned so that each can observe one side line. Depending on their positions one is called field referee and the other goal referee. These positions automatically switch on ball turnover. They physically exchange their positions approximately every 10 minutes (long exchange) and change sides every 5 minutes (short exchange). The IHF defines 18 hand signals for quick visual communication with players and officials. The signal for warning or disqualification is accompanied by a yellow or red card Official rules, hand signal 13 , respectively. The referees also use whistle blows to indicate infractions or restart the play. The referees are supported by a scorekeeper and a timekeeper who attend to formal things like keeping track of goals and suspensions or starting and stopping the clock, respectively. They also have an eye on the benches and notify the referees on substitution errors. Their desk is located in between both substitutions areas. Team players, substitutes and officials Each team consists of 7 players on court and up to 7 substitute players on the bench. One player on the court must be the designated goalkeeper differing in his or her clothing from the rest of the field players. Substitution of players can be done in any number and at any time during game play. An exchange takes place over the substitution line. A prior notification of the referees is not necessary. Some national bodies as the Deutscher Handball Bund (DHB, "german handball federation") allow substitution in junior teams only when in ball possession or during timeouts. This restriction is intended to prevent early specialization of players to offense or defense. Field players Field players are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their bodies above the knee (knee included). As in several other team sports, a distinction is made between catching and dribbling. A player who is in possession of the ball may stand stationary for only three seconds and may only take three steps. They must then either shoot, pass or dribble the ball. At any time taking more than three steps is considered travelling and results in a turnover. A player may dribble as many times as he wants (though since passing is faster it is the preferred method of attack) as long as during each dribble his hand contacts only the top of the ball. Therefore basketball-style carrying is completely prohibited, and results in a turnover. After the dribble is picked up, the player has the right to another three seconds or three steps. The ball must then be passed or shot as further holding or dribbling will result in a "double dribble" turnover and a free throw for the other team. Other offensive infractions that result in a turnover include, charging, setting an illegal screen, or carrying the ball into the six meter zone. Goalkeeper Only the goalkeeper is allowed move freely within the goal perimeter, although he may not cross the goal perimeter line while carrying or dribbling the ball. Within the zone, he is allowed to touch the ball with all parts of his body including his feet. The goalkeeper may participate in the normal play of his team mates. As he is then considered as normal field player, he is typically substituted for a regular field player if his team uses this scheme to outnumber the defending players. As this player becomes the designated goalkeeper on the court, he must wear some vest or bib to identify himself as such. If the goalkeeper deflects the ball over the outer goal line, his team stays in possession of the ball in contrast to other sports like soccer. The goalkeeper resumes the play with a throw from within the zone ("goalkeeper throw"). Passing to your own goalkeeper results in a turnover. Throwing the ball against the head of the goalkeeper when he is not moving is to be punished by disqualification ("red card"). Team officials Each team is allowed to have a maximum of four team officials seated on the benches. An official is anybody who is neither player nor substitute. One official must be the designated representative who is usually the team manager. The representative may call team timeout once every period and may address scorekeeper, timekeeper and referees. Other officials typically include physicians or managers. Neither official is allowed to enter the playing court without permission of the referees. Ball A size III handball. The ball is spherical and must either be made of leather or a synthetic material. It is not allowed to have a shiny or slippery surface. As it is intended to be operated by a single hand, the official sizes vary depending on age and sex of the participating teams. SizeUsed byCircumfence (in cm)Weight (in g)IIIMen and male youth older than 1658–60425–475IIWomen, male youth older than 12 and female youth older than 1454–56325–375IYouth older than 850–52290–330 Resin product used to improve ball handling. Though not officially regulated, the ball is usually resinated. The resin improves the ability of the players to manipulate the ball with a single hand like spinning trick shots. Some indoor arenas prohibit the usage of resin since many products leave sticky stains on the ground. Awarded throws The referees may award a special throw to a team. This usually happens after certain events like scored goals, off-court balls, turnovers, timeouts, etc. All of these special throws require the thrower to obtain a certain position and pose restrictions on the positions of all other players. Sometimes the execution must wait for a whistle blow by the referee. Throw-off A throw-off takes place from the center of the court. The thrower must touch the middle line with one foot and all of the other players must be in the half of their team. The defending players must keep a distance of at least three meters to the thrower. A throw-off occurs at the begin of each period and after the opposing team scored a goal. It must be cleared by the referees. Modern Handball introduced the "fast throw-off" concept, i. e. the play will be immediately restarted by the referees as soon as the executing team fulfilles its requirements. Many teams leverage this rule in order to score easy goals before the other team had time form a stable defense line after their own success. Throw-in The team which did not touch the ball last is awarded a throw-in when the ball fully crosses the side line or touches the ceiling. If the ball crosses the outer goal line, a throw-in is only awarded if the defending field players touched the balls last. Execution requires the thrower to place one foot on the nearest outer line to the cause. All defending players must keep a distance of three meters. However, they are allowed to stand immediately outside their own goal area even when the distance is less. Goalkeeper-throw If ball crosses the outer goal line without interference from the defending team or when deflected by their goalkeeper, a goalkeeper-throw is awarded to the defending team. This is the most common turnover. The goalkeeper resumes the play with a throw from anywhere within his goal area. Free-throw A free-throw restarts the play after an interruption by the referees. It takes places from the spot where the interruption was caused as long as this spot is outside of the free-throw line of the opposing team. In the latter case the throw is deferred to the nearest spot on the free-throw line. Free-throws are the equivalent to free-kicks in association football. The thrower may take a direct attempt for a goal which is, however, not feasible if the defending team organized a defense. A 7-meter throw. 7-meter throw A 7-meter throw is awarded when a clear chance of scoring is illegally destroyed anywhere on the court by a opposing team player, official or spectator. It is also awarded when the referees interupted a legitimate scoring chance for any reason. The thrower steps with one foot on the 7-meter line with only the defending goalkeeper between him and the goal. The goalkeeper must keep a distance of three meters which is marked by a short tick on the floor. All other players must remain behind the free-throw line until execution. The thrower must await the whistle blow of the referee. A 7-meter throw is the equivalent to a penalty kick in association football, it is, however, far more common and typically occurs several times in a single game. Penalties Yellow card shown in a handball match. Penalties are given to players, in progressive format, for fouls that require more punishment than just a free-throw. "Actions" directed mainly at the opponent and not the ball (such as reaching around, holding, pushing, hitting, tripping, or jumping into opponent) as well as contact from the side or from behind a player are all considered illegal and subject to penalty. Any infraction that prevents a clear scoring opportunity, will result in a seven-meter penalty shot. Typically the referee will give a warning yellow card for an illegal action, but if the contact was particularly dangerous the referee can forego the warning for an immediate two-minute suspension. A player can only get two warnings before receiving a two minute suspension. One player is only permitted three 2-minute suspensions; after that he/she will be shown the red card. A red card results in an ejection from the game and a two minute penalty for the team. A player may receive a red card directly for particularly rough penalties. For instance any contact from behind during a fast break is now being treated with a red card. A red carded player has to leave the playing area completely. A player who is disqualified may be substituted with another player after the two minute penalty is served. A Coach/Official can also be penalized progressively. Any coach/official who receives a 2-minute suspension will have to pull out one of his players for two minutes - note: the player is not the one punished and can be substituted in again, because the main penalty is the team playing with a man less than the other. If a player assaults a referee, an opponent or any other person, the referee can expel the player forming a cross over his head with his arms, which will tell the player that he/she will have to leave the game completely and his team will have to play a man down for the remainder of the game. This expulsion is the most severe penalty possible in handball. After having lost the ball during an attack, the ball has to be laid down quickly or else the player not following this rule will face a 2-minute suspension. Also gesticulating or verbally questioning the referee's order, as well as arguing with the officials decisions, will normally result in a 2-minute suspension. If it is done in a very provocative way, a player can be given a second 2-minute suspension if he/she does not walk straight off the field to the bench after being given a suspension, or if the referee deems the tempo deliberately slow. Illegal substitution, any substitution that does not take place in the specified substitution area or where the entering player enters before the exiting player exits is also punishable with a 2 minute suspension. Gameplay Formations Positions of attacking (red) and defending players (blue), in a 5-1 defense formation. (German captions) Players are typically referred to by the position they are playing. The positions are always denoted from the view of the respective goalkeeper, so that a defender on the right opposes an attacker on the left. However, not all of the following positions may be occupied depending on the formation or potential suspensions. Offense Left and right wingman. These typically excel at ball control and wide jumps from the outside of the goal perimeter to get into a better shooting angle at the goal. Teams usually try to occupy the left position with a right-handed player and vice versa. Left and right backcourt. Goal attempts by these players are typically made by jumping high and shooting over the defenders. Thus, it is usually advantageous to have tall players for these positions. Center backcourt. A player with experience is preferred on this position who acts as playmaker and the handball equivalent of a basketball point guard. Pivot (left and right, if applicable). This player tends to intermingle with the defense, setting picks and attempting to disrupt the defense formation. This positions requires the least jumping skills but ball control and physical strength are an advantage. Defense Far left and far right. The opponents of the wingmen. Half left and half right. The opponents of the left and right backcourts. Back center (left and right). Opponent of the pivot. Front center. Opponent of the center backcourt, may also be set against another specific backcourt player. Offensive play Attacks are played with all field players on the side of the defenders. Depending on the speed of the attack, one distinguishes between three attack waves with a decreasing chance of success: Women's Handball - a jump shot completes a fastbreak. First Wave First wave attacks are characterized by the absence of defending players around their goal perimenter. The chance of success is very high the throwing player is unhindered in his scoring attempt. Such attacks typically occur after an intercepted pass or a steal and if the defending team can switch fast to offense. The far left/far right will usually try to run the attack as they are not as tightly bound in the defense. On a turnover, they immediately sprint forward and receive the ball halfway to the other goal. Thus, these positions are commonly held by quick players. Second Wave If the first wave is not successful and some defending players gained their positions around the zone, the second wave comes into play: The remaining players advance with quick passes in order to locally outnumber the retreating defenders. If one player manages to step up to the perimeter or catches the ball at this spot he becomes unstoppable by legal defensive means. From this position the chance of success is naturally very high. Second wave attacks became much more important with the "fast throw-off" rule. Third Wave The time during which the second wave may be successful is very short, as then the defenders closed the gaps around the zone. In the third wave, the attackers use standardized attack patterns usually involving crossing and passing between the back court players who either try to pass the ball through a gap to their pivot, take a jumping shot from the backcourt at the goal, or lure the defense away from a wingman. The third wave evolves into the normal offensive play when all defenders reach not only the zone but gain their accustomed positions. Some teams then substitute specialized offense players. However, this implies that these player must play in the defense should the opposing team be able to switch quickly to offense. The latter is another benefit for fast playing teams. If the attacking team does not make sufficient progress (eventually releasing a shot on goal), the referees can call passive play (since about 1995, the referee gives a passive warning some time before the actual call by holding one hand up in the air, signaling that the attacking team should release a shot soon), turning control over to the other team. A shot on goal or an infringement leading to a yellow card or two minute penalty will mark the start of a new attack, causing the hand to be taken down, but a shot blocked by the defense or a normal free throw will not. If it were not for this rule, it would be easy for an attacking team to stall the game indefinitely, as it is difficult to intercept a pass without at the same time conceding dangerous openings towards the goal. Defensive play The usual formations of the defense are 6-0, when all the defense players line up between the 6 meter and 9 meter lines to form a wall; the 5-1, when one of the players cruises outside the 9 meter perimeter, usually targeting the center forwards while the other 5 line up on the six meter line; and the lesser common 4-2 when there are two such defenders out front. Very fast teams will also try a 3-3 formation which is close to a switching man-to-man style. The formations vary greatly from country to country and reflect each country's style of play. 6-0 is sometimes known as “flat defense”, and all other formations are usually called “offensive defense”. Organization Handball teams are usually organized as clubs. On a national level, the clubs are associated in federations which organize matches in leagues and tournaments. International bodies The administrative and controlling body for international Handball is the International Handball Federation (IHF). The federation organizes world championships, separate for men and women, held in uneven years. The final round is hosted in one of its member states. Current title holders are France (men) and Russia (women). The IHF is composed of five continental federations which organize continental championships held every other second year. In addition to these competitions between national teams, the federations arrange international tournaments between club teams. The federations and their corresponding tournaments and members are summarized in the following table: International Handball Federation (IHF) Championship World Men's Handball Championship – World Women's Handball Championship Club Super Globe Members Asia – Asian Handball Federation (AHF) Championship Asian Women's Handball Championship – Asian Men's Handball Championship Club Asian Club League Handball Championship Members AfghanistanBahrainBangladeshChinaChinese TaipeiHong KongIndiaIranIraqJapanJordanKazakhstanKuwaitKyrgyzstanLebanonMacauMalaysiaMongoliaNepalNorth KoreaOmanPakistanPalestinian AuthorityPhilippinesQatarSaudi ArabiaSouth KoreaSyriaTajikistanThailandTurkmenistanUnited Arab EmiratesUzbekistanVietnamYemen Africa – Confederation Africaine de Handball (CAHB) Championship African Handball Nations Championship Club Champions League – Cup Winners' Cup Members AlgeriaAngolaBurundiBeninCameroonRepublic of Cape VerdeCentral African RepublicChadComorosCongoDemocratic Republic of the CongoDjiboutiEgyptEthiopiaGabonGambiaGhanaGuineaGuinea-BissauIvory CoastKenyaLesothoLiberiaLibyaMadagascarMaliMauritaniaMauritiusMoroccoMozambiqueNamibiaNigeriaNigerRwandaSenegalSeychellesSierra LeoneSomaliaSouth AfricaSudanTanzaniaTogoTunisiaUgandaZambiaZimbabwe Pan-America – Pan-American Team Handball Federation (PATHF) Championship American Handball Championship Members ArgentinaBarbadosBrazilCanadaChileColombiaCosta RicaCubaDominican RepublicEcuadorEl SalvadorGreenlandGuatemalaHaitiHondurasMexicoNicaraguaPanamaParaguayPuerto RicoTrinidad and TobagoUnited StatesUruguayVenezuela Oceania – Oceania Handball Federation (OHF) Championship Oceania Handball Nations Cup Club Oceania Champions Cup Members AustraliaCook IslandsNew ZealandSamoaVanuatuFrench PolynesiaNew CaledoniaWallis and Futuna Europe – European Handball Federation (EHF) Championship European Women's Handball Championship – European Men's Handball Championship Club WomenChampions LeagueCup Winners' CupEHF CupChallenge CupChampions TrophyMenChampions LeagueCup Winners' CupEHF CupChallenge CupChampions Trophy Members AlbaniaArmeniaAustriaAzerbaijanBelarusBelgiumBosnia and HerzegovinaBulgariaCroatiaCyprusCzech RepublicDenmarkEnglandEstoniaFaroe IslandsFinlandFranceGeorgiaGermanyGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandIsraelItalyLatviaLiechtensteinLithuaniaLuxembourgFYR MacedoniaMaltaMoldovaMonacoMontenegroNetherlandsNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaRussiaScotlandSerbiaSlovakiaSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandTurkeyUkraineGreat BritainKosovo Handball is an olympic sport played during the Summer Olympics. It is also played during the Pan American Games , All-Africa Games , and Asian Games. National competitions Bosnia and Herzegovina: Handball Championship of Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia: Croatian First League of Handball Denmark: GuldBageren Ligaen, CBB Mobil Ligaen Germany: Handball-Bundesliga Greece: Greek Men's handball championship Hungary: Hungarian Championship of Men's Handball Iceland: N1 deildin Montenegro: Montenegrin First League of Men's Handball Poland: Polish Ekstraklasa Men's Handball League, Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League Portugal: Liga Portuguesa de Andebol Slovenia: Slovenian First League of Handball Spain: Liga ASOBAL Sweden: Elitserien Turkey: 1st Handball League See also Handball commemorative coin Handball events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Handball commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. On the coin, the modern athlete directs the ball in his hands towards his target, while in the background the ancient athlete is just about to throw a ball, in a game known as cheirosphaira, in a representation taken from a black-figure pottery vase of the Archaic period. References External links Official Rules in English, French and German... International Handball Federation Official Flooring Of USA Team Handball USA Team Handball's official website Handball Videos Explained by Thiago Simões... AHF (Australian Handball Federation All about Handball, videos, news, rules, players... All about handball EHF Champions League European Beach Handball, rules, players... International Handball Community Downloads of Handball National Handball Teams Spanish Handball TeamHandballNews.com- Handball News and Commentary Dutch Handball News site Revised Handball Handballvideo Argentina Handball Bahìa Blanca Handball Live Scores Team Handball in New York City Outdoor Team handball be-x-old:Гандбол | Handball |@lemmatized handball:90 player:85 move:3 towards:3 goal:47 prior:2 throw:38 ball:41 goalkeeper:21 wait:3 stop:6 dimension:1 field:20 play:30 summer:6 olympics:6 compare:1 football:3 also:12 know:3 team:77 olympic:2 european:5 sport:6 two:18 seven:2 six:5 pas:4 bounce:1 oppose:5 period:6 minute:22 win:1 modern:5 usually:14 indoors:1 outdoors:1 variant:1 exist:2 form:7 common:4 past:1 beach:2 american:4 completely:5 different:1 game:21 quite:2 fast:8 include:5 body:7 contact:8 defender:9 try:5 attacker:3 approach:1 allow:13 defensive:3 front:3 offensive:7 e:5 refer:2 sandwich:1 side:13 especially:1 behind:5 consider:5 dangerous:3 meet:1 penalty:14 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3,548 | Heraclitus | Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: — , English Heraclitus the Ephesian) (ca. 535–475 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. Heraclitus is known for his doctrine of change being central to the universe, and that the Logos is the fundamental order of all. Today, he is famous for his influence on Friedrich Nietzsche by the idea of every moment being its own universe; summarized in his famous quote, "You could not step twice into the same river; for other waters are ever flowing on to you." Quoted by Plato in Cratylus, 402a (DK22A6). Ancient characterizations The obscure At some time in antiquity he acquired this epithet denoting that his major sayings were difficult to understand. Timon of Phlius calls him "the riddler" (ainiktēs) according to Diogenes Laërtius, Diogenes Laertius Book IX, Sections 1-6. who had just explained that Heraclitus wrote his book "rather unclearly" (asaphesteron) so that only the "capable" should attempt it. By the time of Cicero he had become "the dark" (Ancient Greek — De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, Chapter 2, Section 15. ) because he had spoken nimis obscurē, "too obscurely", concerning nature and had done so deliberately in order to be misunderstood. The customary English translation of follows the Latin, "the obscure." The weeping philosopher Diogenes Laërtius ascribes to Theophrastus the theory that Heraclitus did not complete some of his works because of melancholia. Later he was referred to as the "weeping philosopher", as opposed to Democritus, who is known as the "laughing philosopher". If Stobaeus III.20.53 writes correctly, Sotion in the early 1st century AD was already combining the two in the imaginative duo of weeping and laughing philosophers: "Among the wise, instead of anger, Heraclitus was overtaken by tears, Democritus by laughter." The view is expressed by the satirist Juvenal: Satire X. Translation from The motif was also adopted by Lucian of Samosata in his "Sale of Creeds", in which the duo is sold together as a complementary product in the satirical auction of philosophers. Subsequently they were considered an indispensable feature of philosophic landscapes. Montaigne proposed two archetypical views of human affairs based on them, selecting Democritus' for himself. The weeping philosopher makes an appearance in William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. Act I Scene II Line 43. Donato Bramante painted a fresco, "Democritus and Heraclitus", in Casa Panigarola in Milan. And so on. The naturalist Diogenes says that the book attributed to Heraclitus was On Nature (peri physeōs). Heraclitus' statement that "nature likes to hide" DK B123. places him among those seeking the hidden nature of things, including those who were finding an explanation in substance. Heraclitus had a rather different idea of the hidden nature than substance, but he was being called physicus at least as early as Cicero: De Divinationibus II 132-133. nemo physicus obscurus? ... valde Heraclitus obscurus ....no physicus was obscure? ... Heraclitus the obscure certainly was.If physis is nature, then physikos must translate to naturalist, but the term in English can have a great many meanings not necessarily implied by the ancient Greek. Life The main source for the life of Heraclitus is Diogenes Laërtius. Some have questioned the validity of the anecdotes based on political or social conjecture; For example, Kahn gives an overview of some of the scholarship on Heraclitus but descends to personal invective in support of unsubstantiated speculation: "The 'Life' ... is a tissue of Hellenistic anecdotes, most of them obviously fabricated ... the unusually disgusting report of his final illness and death reveal a malicious pleasure .... Such stories may reflect no more than the contempt for his fellow-citizens." While these statements reflect the values and views of Kahn, they must not be taken as an objective account of antiquity. however, there is no solid scholarship refuting them. Dates Diogenes said that Heraclitus flourished in the 69th Olympiad, The Greek is a form of the verb, "to acme", according to which English scholars refer to the acme, meaning floruit. which would be 504-501 BC. All the rest of the evidence - whom Heraclitus is said to have known or who implies that he was familiar with Heraclitus' work - confirms the floruit but does nothing to establish the start and end dates. Those vary by several years in different authors but all are based on a life span of 60 years, the age at which Diogenes says he died, with the floruit in the middle. Circumstances Heraclitus was born to an aristocratic family in Ephesus, present-day Efes, Turkey. His father was named either Blosōn or Herakōn. Diogenes says that he abdicated the kingship (basileia) in favor of his brother and Strabo confirms that there was a ruling family in Ephesus descended from the Ionian founder, Androclus, which still kept the title and could sit in the chief seat at the games, as well as a few other privileges. Strabo Chapter 1, section 3. How much power the king had is another question. Ephesus had been part of the Persian Empire since 547 and was ruled by a satrap (see under Ephesus), a more distant figure, as the Great King allowed the Ionians considerable autonomy. Diogenes says that Heraclitus used to play knuckle-bones with the youths in the temple of Artemis and when asked to start making laws he refused saying that the constitution (politeia) was ponēra, which can mean either that it was fundamentally wrong or that it gave him a headache. Education With regard to education, Diogenes says that Heraclitus was "marvellous" (thaumasios) from childhood, which is an implication of prodigy. Diogenes relates that Sotion said he was a "hearer" of Xenophanes, which seems to be paradoxical, as (so says Diogenes) he had taught himself by questioning himself. The word hearer implies that he was physically present at the speaking of Xenophanes in some capacity. English pupil or disciple have implications not in the Greek as to method, purpose and assent. Burnet states in any case that "... Xenophanes left Ionia before Herakleitos (Greek spelling) was born." Chapter 3 beginning. Insufficient information survives to resolve the question. Diogenes relates that as a boy Heraclitus had said he "knew nothing" but later claimed to "know everything." The Greek for "know" changes from the aorist, or indefinite past, to the perfect, which is a stative aspect: he was in a state of knowing as a result of some previous event. For the event he affirmed that he "heard no one" but "questioned himself." The implication is that man contains all knowledge within himself to be elicited by self-questioning, and yet he says: "The things that can be seen, heard and learned are what I prize the most" DK B55. The self-examination then may only be a program of objective inquiry. Character Diogenes relates that Heraclitus had a poor opinion of human affairs. He believed that Hesiod and Pythagoras lacked understanding though learned DK B40. and that Homer and Archilochus deserved to be beaten. DK B42. Laws needed to be defended as though they were city walls. DK B44. Timon is said to have called him a "mob-reviler" who did his reviling, either really or figuratively, in a voice as shrill as a cuckoo. Diogenes quotes a letter from Darius inviting him to come to court to explain his writings and offering him rank and good company. Heraclitus refuses: "All men upon earth hold aloof from truth and justice, while, by reason of wicked folly, they devote themselves to avarice and thirst for popularity." No reaction of the king to these words has been recorded. Apparently the excuse that he had a "horror of splendour" and "was content with little" was accepted. Heraclitus hated the Athenians and his fellow Ephesians, wishing the latter wealth in punishment for their wicked ways. DK B125a. Says Diogenes: "Finally, he became a hater of his kind (misanthrope) and wandered the mountains ... making his diet of grass and herbs." Works Diogenes says: "As to the work which passes as his, it is a continuous treatise On Nature, but is divided into three discourses, one on the universe, another on politics, and a third on theology." Theophrastus says (in Diogenes) "... some parts of his work are half-finished, while other parts make a strange medley." Diogenes also tells us that he deposited his book as a dedication in the great temple of Artemis, the Artemisium, one of the largest temples of the 6th century BCE and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Ancient temples were regularly used for storing treasures, and were open to private individuals under exceptional circumstances; furthermore, many subsequent philosophers in this period refer to the work. Says Kahn: "Down to the time of Plutarch and Clement, if not later, the little book of Heraclitus was available in its original form to any reader who chose to seek it out." Diogenes says: "the book acquired such fame that it produced partisans of his philosophy who were called Heracliteans." Unfortunately, as with other pre-Socratics, his writings only survive in fragments quoted by other authors. Death Heraclitus' life as a philosopher was interrupted by a general edema and impairment of vision. The physicians he consulted were unable to prescribe a cure. He treated himself with a liniment of cow manure and baking in the sun, believing that this method would remove the fluid. After 24 hours of treatment he died and was interred in the marketplace. Philosophy Panta rhei, "everything is in a state of flux" (panta rhei) "everything is in a state of flux" either was not spoken by Heraclitus or did not survive as a quotation of his. This famous aphorism used to characterize Heraclitus' thought comes from Simplicius. Barnes page 65, and also Simplicius' commentary on Aristotle's physica 1313.11. The word rhei, adopted by rhe-o-logy, is simply the Greek word for "to stream." For the etymology see In pronunciation the -ei- is a diphthong sounding like the -ei- in reindeer. The initial r is aspirated or made breathy, which indicates the dropping of the s in *sreu-. Heraclitus by Hendrick ter Brugghen The philosophy of Heraclitus is summed up in his cryptic utterance: (DK22B12, quoted in Arius Didymus apud Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, 15.20.2) Potamoisi toisin autoisin embainousin, hetera kai hetera hudata epirrei"On those stepping into rivers the same, other and other waters flow." The quote from Heraclitus is interpreted by Plato as: Cratylus Paragraph 402 section a line 8. Panta chōrei kai ouden menei Instead of "flow" Plato uses chōrei, to change chōros, or ground, and not to "remain", with which menei is cognate. Just previously Plato explained: Cratylus Paragraph 401 section d line 5. ta onta ienai te panta kai menein ouden"All beings going and remaining not at all" At first thought Heraclitus might be supposed to be asserting nothing more profound or obscure than that we exist in a field or continuum in which everything is constantly in flux or process: a non-remarkable observation for such a famous philosophy. However, the assertions of flow are coupled in many fragments with the enigmatic river image: DK B49a, Harris 110. Others like it are DK B12, Harris 20; DK B91, Harris 21. "We both step and do not step in the same rivers. We are and are not." As a fellow Ionian, Heraclitus was certainly familiar with the preceding substance solution of the Milesian school to the problem of change. The problem only exists under the law of identity, one formulation of which is the law of excluded middle. The classical formulation of that law had to wait for Aristotle but it was nevertheless known and operant in pre-socratic philosophy. In the fragment above Heraclitus is proposing that another law also is in effect. The law of identity states that an identity, say A, is identical to itself, is not non-A, and is not both A and non-A. Heraclitus affirms the middle in the passage above, that the A is both A and not-A. As far as the assertion is true, the change problem disappears and does not need a solution. According to fragment DK B91: "nor is it possible to touch a mortal substance twice" and DK B6: "The sun is ... not only new each day but forms continually new ...." the Heraclitean law only applies in cases where the identity is sampled diachronically. The sampling rate can be adjusted to as rapidly as an object can be touched, or to the rate of flow of the stream, or daily, or by extrapolation to the frequency at which a photon can be perceived. Heraclitus just said "continually" and theorized: "simultaneously it forms and dissolves." DK B91. It seems clear that the stream of the metaphor is time and that the stepping in it is the instant of the present. Heraclitus is therefore asserting that an object is and is not identical with itself of x instants ago. Kalliste Harmonia, "the fairest harmony" Milesian philosophy was based on a binary law, which postulates a binary existence: objects either fully exist as completely identical to themselves or do not exist at all. There are two states, off or on. In Heraclitus the existence can be both off and on: a middle state of existing that is to some degree off and to some degree on. The middle characteristic results from Heraclitus' existence being a derived quantity rather than a given one. It is the resultant of "simultaneous formation and dissolution" (see previous section) in the current instant, which explains such fragments as:The way up and the way down are one and the same. DK B60. ... what is drawn together and what is drawn asunder ... The one is made up of all things and all things issue from the one. DK B10. In the circumference of the circle the beginning and the end are common. DK B103. ... it (substance) approaches and departs. As for the resultant, it is a "harmony": For the etymology see ek tōn diapherontōn kallistēn harmonian"out of discord comes the fairest harmony." DK B8. Hodos ano kato, "the way up and the way down" In DK B60 the structure anō katō is more accurately translated as a hyphenated word: "the upward-downward path." They go on simultaneously and instantaneously (see previous section) and result in "hidden harmony". DK B54. A way is a series of transformations which imply a chronological sequence no matter how closely spaced: the , "turnings of fire," DK B31 first into sea, then half of sea to earth and half to rarefied air. The transformation is a replacement of one element by another: "The death of fire is the birth of air, and the death of air is the birth of water;" DK B76. moreover, the replacement is quantitatively determined, in which there appears to be a foreshadowing of conservation of mass:"Sea ... is measured by the same amount (logos) as before it became earth" DK B31. Harris notes the foreshadowing in the presentation of his fragment 33. or again:This world, which is the same for all, Note the foreshadowing of the Principle of Relativity. no one of gods or men has made. But it always was and will be: an ever-living fire, with measures of it kindling, and measures going out. DK B30. This latter phraseology is further elucidated:All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and gold for goods. DK B90 Dike eris, "strife is justice" If objects are new from moment to moment so that one can never touch the same object twice, then each object must dissolve and be generated continually momentarily and an object is a harmony between a building up and a tearing down. This is a foreshadowing of the scientific concept of equilibrium in many contexts. Heraclitus calls the oppositional processes eris, "strife", and hypothesizes that the apparently stable state, dikē, or "justice," is a harmony of it: DK B80. We must know that war (polemos) is common to all and strife is justice, and that all things come into being through strife necessarily. As Diogenes explains: Diogenes Laertius IX section 8. All things come into being by conflict of opposites, and the sum of things (ta hola, "the whole") flows like a stream. In the bow metaphor Heraclitus compares the resultant to a strung bow held in shape by an equilibrium of the string tension and spring action of the bow: DK B51. There is a harmony in the bending back (palintropos) as in the case of the bow and the lyre.Heraclitus here references the Scythian bow, the horns of which pointed forward unstrung but back strung, or the deformation of the cross-bar of the lyre under string tension. The palintropos of an object would therefore be its stinting from the growth of the current instant by the decay of the object of the previous. This identity-not-identity accounts for such statements as: DK B88. It is one and the same thing to be living and dead, awake or asleep, young or old.A change is the result of a change in balance: DK B126. Cold things become warm, and what is warm cools; what is wet dries, and the parched is moistened. Hepesthai to koino, "follow the common" The idea that the universe changes according to a plan or logos, with which the truly aware soul should cooperate, is expressed in the notable but obscure DK B1 and DK B2. The first phrase of the first fragment can be interpreted as "of the logos which is as I describe it" or "though this word is true evermore" depending on how the words are to be regarded as clustered and what is or is not implied by them. The meaning of logos also is subject to interpretation: "word", "plan", "formula", "measure", "proportion", "reckoning." However translated it refers to Heraclitus' vision of the operation of the universe and therefore is not the progenitor of the logos of any other creed, doctrine or religion. The ancient Greek word, which is frequent and also appears in a large number of English words, such as logic, was certainly not a neologism of Heraclitus: he was not "the first" to use it. There is no univocal word, logos, and if there ever was one, its meaning is lost in prehistory. For the etymology see The problem with the Heraclitean logos is that his explanation of it did not survive. Whatever it was, "all things come to pass in accordance with this word" DK B1. and "the word is common." DK B2. It is "the account which governs the universe (ta hola, the whole)." DK B72. Logos appears to be some sort of natural law and yet men must "follow the common (hepesthai tō ksunō)" The initial part of DK B2, often omitted because broken by a note explaining that ksunos (Ionic) is koinos (Attic). and not live having "their own judgement (phonēsis)" implying a voluntary assent, which natural law does not offer. He distinguishes between human laws and divine law (tou theiou "of God"). DK B114. He removes the human sense of justice from his concept of God; i.e., man is not the image of God: "To God all things are fair and good and just, but men hold some things wrong and some right." DK B102. God's custom has wisdom but man's does not DK B78. and yet both man and God are childish: "human opinions are children's toys" DK B70. and "Time is a child moving counters in a game; the kingly power is a child's." DK B52. Wisdom is "to know the thought by which all things are steered through all things", DK B41. which must not imply that men are or can be wise. Only Zeus is wise. DK B32. To some degree then Heraclitus seems to be in the mystic's position of urging men to follow God's plan without much of an idea what that may be. In fact there is a note of despair: "The fairest universe (kallistos kosmos) is but a heap of rubbish (sarma, sweepings) piled up (kechumenon, poured out) at random (eikē)." DK B124. This may be a foreshadowing of scientific randomness rather than an internal struggle, but the evidence is too scant to make either presumption. Influence Heraclitus - detail from The School of Athens by Raphael, 1510 Many philosophers have expressed the belief that they were influenced by Heraclitus, whether accurately or not. Some of the more notable ones are mentioned in this section; others will be found in linked articles where they exist. Coincidental resemblances are too numerous for consideration in one article. Plato In Heraclitus a perceived object is a harmony between two fundamental units of change, a waxing and a waning. He typically uses the ordinary word "to become" (gignesthai or ginesthai, root sense of being born), which led to his being characterized as the philosopher of becoming rather than of being. He recognizes the changing of objects with the flow of time; in fact, this is the view of modern science, which recognizes nothing static and sees a balance between processes everywhere, though not those of Heraclitus. Plato argues against Heraclitus as follows: Cratylus Paragraph 440 sections c-d. How can that be a real thing which is never in the same state? ... for at the moment that the observer approaches, then they become other ... so that you cannot get any further in knowing their nature or state .... but if that which knows and that which is known exist ever ... then I do not think they can resemble a process or flux .... In Plato one experienced unit is a state, or object existing, which can be observed. The time parameter is set at "ever"; that is, the state is to be presumed present between observations. Change is to be deduced by comparing observations, but no matter how many of those you are able to make, you cannot get through the mysterious gap between them to account for the change that must be occurring there. Bearden's presentation of a relativistic solution to the change problem (under External links below) distinguishes between space and spacetime, the latter being an aspect of reality mathematically defined by Albert Einstein. An object in spacetime has four dimensions in directions x, y, z, and t, where t is time, containing within its boundaries change, so that it is not deduced but is delivered in experience. To take an observation is to reduce the object to nearly three dimensions; that is, to eliminate the time depth, which is equivalent to saying that Plato's states of existence only appear when you look for them, but even as you ponder the observation, time and change do not stop; reality continues to be delivered in units of spacetime. Those who are able read advanced mathematics will perhaps find the concept of the Four-momentum of matter-energy post-Heraclitean. Aristotle Aristotle brings his logic to bear against Heraclitus in Metaphysics invoking the identity laws: Book 4, Chapters 7-8, Paragraph 1012. ... there cannot be an intermediate between contradictories, but of one subject we must either affirm or deny any one predicate.Bearden describes "one subject" as a snapshot in spacetime. The identity laws apply to simultaneous snapshots of A and B but as soon as they are not simultaneous the change problem occurs. Says Bearden, the laws:... are monocular, unchanging, 3-dimensional, spatial, non-temporal relational statements. Any statement that is temporal, changing or 4-dimensional will thus appear as a logical paradox to this logical shorthand.If the "one subject" becomes 4-dimensional, any delimited chunk includes starting and ending snapshots as well as everything in between. If over that time A becomes not-A then both are in the "one subject". As the identity law is only applied subsequent to the experience of A and not-A the two are superimposed in the final snapshot: the object is both A and not-A. Bearden therefore postulates a conditional identity law: the first three apply if time is not considered but if it is then the dual, or Heraclitean law, applies. Aristotle might have had access to this result if he had applied his theory of act and potency, which asserts that an object is actually what it is sampled to be and is potentially whatever it has been or will be. An object might be therefore actually A and potentially not-A simultaneously. Stoics Stoicism is a school of thought comprising many philosophers between the 3rd century BC and about the 6th century AD. It began among the Greeks and became the major philosophy of the Roman Empire before declining with the rise of Christianity in the 3rd century. Throughout their long tenure the Stoics believed that the major tenets of their philosophy derived from the thought of Heraclitus. According to Long, "the importance of Heraclitus to later Stoics is evident most plainly in Marcus Aurelius." Long page 56. Explicit connections of the earliest Stoics to Heraclitus showing how they arrived at their interpretation are missing but they can be inferred from the Stoic fragments. Long concludes to "modifications of Heraclitus." Page 51. The Stoics were interested in Heraclitus' treatment of fire. In addition to seeing it as the most fundamental of the four elements and the one that is quantified and determines the quantity (logos) of the other three, he presents fire as the cosmos, which was not made by any of the gods or men, but "was and is and ever shall be ever-living fire." This is the closest he comes to a substance, but it is an active one altering other things quantitatively and performing an activity Heraclitus describes as "the judging and convicting of all things." DK B66. It is "the thunderbolt that steers the course of all things." DK B64. There is no reason to interpret the judgement, which is actually "to separate" (krinein), as outside of the context of "strife is justice" (see subsection above). The earliest surviving Stoic work, the Hymn to Zeus of Cleanthes, Different translations of this critical piece of literature, transitional from pagan polytheism to the modern religions and philosophies, can be found at though not explicitly referencing Heraclitus, adopts what appears to be the Heraclitean logos modified. Zeus rules the universe with law (nomos) wielding on its behalf the "forked servant", the "fire" of the "ever-living lightening." So far nothing has been said that differs from the Zeus of Homer. But then, says Cleanthes, Zeus uses the fire to "straighten out the common logos" that travels about (phoitan, "to frequent") mixing with the greater and lesser lights (heavenly bodies). This is Heraclitus' logos, but now it is confused with the "common nomos", which Zeus uses to "make the wrong (perissa, left or odd) right (artia, right or even)" and "order (kosmein) the disordered (akosma)." The ancient Greek can be found in Downloadable Google Books at . In short, the logos has developed from being an impersonal and even random eternal quantitative plan of change associated with the upward-downward way and especially fire taking precedence even over the will of Zeus, who did not create it, to being the instrument and design of God, who is personal, whose children humans and only humans are, Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus. which he uses to bring about order and correct wrong. It remained logically only to affirm unequivocally the identity of God with his logos, which was done in the Gospel of John. The Stoic modification of Heraclitus' idea of the Logos was also influential on Jewish philosophers such as Philo of Alexandria, who connected it to "Wisdom personified" as God's creative principle. Philo uses the term Logos throughout his treatises on Hebrew Scripture in a manner clearly influenced by the Stoics. Church fathers The church fathers were the leaders of the Christian church during its first five centuries of existence, roughly contemporaneous to stoicism under the Roman Empire. The works of dozens of writers in hundreds of pages have survived. All of them had something to say about the Christian form of the logos. From them chiefly the modern world receives its Heraclitean fragments, mainly because the church found it necessary to discriminate between the Christian logos and that of Heraclitus as part of its ideological distancing from paganism. The necessity to convert by defeating paganism was of paramount importance. Hippolytus of Rome therefore identifies Heraclitus along with the other pre-Socratics (and academics) as sources of heresy. Church use of the methods and conclusions of ancient philosophy as such was as yet far in the future, even though many were converted philosophers. In Refutation of All Heresies Book IX leading sentence. Hippolytus says: "What the blasphemous folly is of Noetus, and that he devoted himself to the tenets of Heraclitus the Obscure, not to those of Christ." Hippolytus then goes on to present the inscrutable DK B67: "God (theos) is day and night, winter and summer, ... but he takes various shapes, just as fire, when it is mingled with spices, is named according to the savor of each." The fragment seems to support pantheism if taken literally. Hippolytus condemns the obscurity of it. He cannot accuse Heraclitus of being a heretic so he says instead: "Did not (Heraclitus) the Obscure anticipate Noetus in framing a system ...?" The apparent pantheist deity of Heraclitus (if that is what DK B67 means) must be equal to the union of opposites and therefore must be corporeal and incorporeal, divine and not-divine, dead and alive, etc., and the Trinity can only be reached by some sort of illusory shape-shifting. Notes Bibliography First published in 1892, this book has had dozens of editions and has been used as a textbook for decades. The first edition is downloadable from Google Books. Complete fragments of Heraclitus in English. . Transcript of seminar in which two German philosophers analyze and discuss Heraclitus' texts. . Parallel Greek & English. Book IX, Chapter 1, Heraclitus. Pyle, C. M. (1997). 'Democritus and Heracleitus: An Excursus on the Cover of this Book,' Milan and Lombardy in the Renaissance. Essays in Cultural History. Rome, La Fenice. (Istituto di Filologia Moderna, Università di Parma: Testi e Studi, Nuova Serie: Studi 1.) (Fortuna of the Laughing and Weeping Philosophers topos) Taylor, C. C. W (ed.), Routledge History of Philosophy: From the Beginning to Plato, Vol. I, pp. 80 – 117. ISBN 0-203-02721-3 Master e-book ISBN, ISBN 0-203-05752-X (Adobe eReader Format) and ISBN 0-415-06272-1 (Print Edition). See also The following articles on other topics contain non-trivial information that relates to Heraclitus in some way. Cratylus Dialectical monism Dialectics Dualism Ephesian School Ferdinand Lassalle Introduction to Metaphysics Ionian School Logos Marcel Conche Metaphysics (Aristotle) Nondualism Ontology Pantheism Panentheism Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks Philosophy of space and time Process philosophy Tao te ching Unity of opposites External links The links below are to collections of fragments of the writings of Heraclitus in a number of languages, mainly ancient Greek and English. Included also are interpretive essays. No standard or uniform presentation of Heraclitus exists. Translations and interpretations as well as quality vary widely, but these limitations may always have been true. . A modern physicist looks at the problem of change as expressed by the law of identity of Aristotle and the flux of Heraclitus and formulates a relativistic solution. A basic knowledge of Symbolic logic and the concept of spacetime is required but advanced mathematics is not necessary. Heraclitus bilingual anthology from DK in Greek and English, side by side, the translations being provided by the organization, Elpenor. Greek and English with DK numbers and commentary. Text and selected aphorisms in Greek, English, Italian and French. Selected fragments translated by Hooker. The fragments also cited in DK in Greek (Unicode) with the English translations of John Burnet (see Bibliography). Essay on the flux and fire philosophy of Heraclitus. Site with links to pdf's containing the fragments of DK in Greek (Unicode) with the English translations of John Burnet (see Bibliography) and translations into French, either in parallel columns or interlinear, with links on the lexical items to Perseus dictionaries. 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3,549 | Aztlan_Underground | Aztlan Underground is a fusion band from Los Angeles. Since early 1989, Aztlan Underground has played Rapcore. Indigenous drums, flutes, and rattles are commonplace in its musical compositions. This unique sound is the backdrop for the band's message of dignity for indigenous people, all of humanity, and Earth. Aztlan Underground has been cultivating a grass roots audience across the country, which has become a large and loyal underground following. Their music includes spoken word pieces and elements of punk, hip hop, rock, funk, jazz, and indigenous music, among others. The artists are Chenek "DJ Bean" (turntables, samples and percussion), Yaotl (vocals, indigenous percussion), Joe "Peps" (bass, rattles), Alonzo Beas (guitars, synth), Caxo (drums, indigenous percussion), and Bulldog (vocals, flute). Aztlan Underground appeared on television on Culture Clash on Fox in 1993, was part of Breaking Out, a concert on pay per view in 1998, and was featured in the independent films Algun Dia and Frontierlandia. The band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines: the Vancouver Sun, Northshore News (Vancouver, Canada newspaper), New Times (Los Angeles weekly entertainment newspaper), BLU Magazine (underground hip hop magazine), BAM Magazine (Southern California), La Banda Elastica Magazine, and the Los Angeles Times Calendar section. It is also the subject of a chapter in It's Not About A Salary, by Brian Cross. They also opened for Rage Against the Machine in Mexico City. It was nominated in the New Times 1998 "Best Latin Influenced" category, the BAM Magazine 1999 "Best Rock en Español" category, and the LA Weekly 1999 "Best Hip Hop" category. Aztlan Underground were signed to a Basque record label in 1999 which enabled them to tour Spain extensively and perform in France and Portugal. Other parts of the world that Aztlan Underground have performed include Canada, Australia, and Venezuela. The band is currently in the studio completing their third album as of June 2006. The new album is currently in its final stages of production as of Fall 08. Discography Decolonize Year:1995 Teteu Innan Killing Season Lost Souls My Blood Is Red Natural Enemy Sacred Circle Blood On Your Hands Interlude Aug 2 The 9 Indigena Lyrical Drive By Sub-Verses Year:1998 Permiso They Move In Silence No Soy Animal Killing Season Blood On Your Hands Reality Check Lemon Pledge Revolution Preachers Of The Blind State Lyrical Drive-By Nahui Ollin How To Catch A Bullet Ik Otik Obsolete Man Decolonize War Flowers See also Chicano Rap Native American hip hop Rapcore Chicano rock External links Xicano Records and Film Myspace link | Aztlan_Underground |@lemmatized aztlan:6 underground:8 fusion:1 band:4 los:3 angeles:3 since:1 early:1 play:1 rapcore:2 indigenous:5 drum:2 flute:2 rattle:2 commonplace:1 musical:1 composition:1 unique:1 sound:1 backdrop:1 message:1 dignity:1 people:1 humanity:1 earth:1 cultivate:1 grass:1 roots:1 audience:1 across:1 country:1 become:1 large:1 loyal:1 follow:1 music:2 include:2 spoken:1 word:1 piece:1 element:1 punk:1 hip:4 hop:4 rock:3 funk:1 jazz:1 among:1 others:1 artist:1 chenek:1 dj:1 bean:1 turntable:1 sample:1 percussion:3 yaotl:1 vocal:2 joe:1 peps:1 bass:1 alonzo:1 beas:1 guitar:1 synth:1 caxo:1 bulldog:1 appear:1 television:1 culture:1 clash:1 fox:1 part:2 break:1 concert:1 pay:1 per:1 view:1 feature:2 independent:1 film:2 algun:1 dia:1 frontierlandia:1 mention:1 various:1 newspaper:3 magazine:6 vancouver:2 sun:1 northshore:1 news:1 canada:2 new:3 time:3 weekly:2 entertainment:1 blu:1 bam:2 southern:1 california:1 la:2 banda:1 elastica:1 calendar:1 section:1 also:3 subject:1 chapter:1 salary:1 brian:1 cross:1 open:1 rage:1 machine:1 mexico:1 city:1 nominate:1 best:3 latin:1 influence:1 category:3 en:1 español:1 sign:1 basque:1 record:2 label:1 enable:1 tour:1 spain:1 extensively:1 perform:2 france:1 portugal:1 world:1 australia:1 venezuela:1 currently:2 studio:1 complete:1 third:1 album:2 june:1 final:1 stage:1 production:1 fall:1 discography:1 decolonize:2 year:2 teteu:1 innan:1 kill:2 season:2 lose:1 soul:1 blood:3 red:1 natural:1 enemy:1 sacred:1 circle:1 hand:2 interlude:1 aug:1 indigena:1 lyrical:2 drive:2 sub:1 verse:1 permiso:1 move:1 silence:1 soy:1 animal:1 reality:1 check:1 lemon:1 pledge:1 revolution:1 preacher:1 blind:1 state:1 nahui:1 ollin:1 catch:1 bullet:1 ik:1 otik:1 obsolete:1 man:1 war:1 flower:1 see:1 chicano:2 rap:1 native:1 american:1 external:1 link:2 xicano:1 myspace:1 |@bigram aztlan_underground:6 los_angeles:3 grass_roots:1 hip_hop:4 en_español:1 chicano_rap:1 external_link:1 |
3,550 | Dodo_(Alice's_Adventures_in_Wonderland) | John Tenniel's illustration of the Dodo in "A Caucus-Race and a Long Tale". An illustration from Alice in Wonderland. The Dodo is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). The Dodo is a caricature of the author. A popular but unsubstantiated belief is that Dodgson chose the particular animal to represent himself because of his stammer, and thus would accidentally introduce himself as "Do-do-dodgson." In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of 4th July, 1862 during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as herself, and the others represented by birds: the Lory was Lorina Liddell, the Eaglet was Edith Liddell, the Dodo was Dodgson, and the Duck was Rev. Robinson Duckworth. In order to get dry after a swim, the Dodo proposes that everyone run a Caucus race — where the participants run in patterns of any shape, starting and leaving off whenever they like, so that everyone wins. At the end of the race, Alice distributes comfits from her pocket to all as prizes. However this leaves no prize for herself. The Dodo inquires what else she has in her pocket. As she has only a thimble, the Dodo requests it from her and then awards it to Alice as her prize. The Caucus Race as depicted by Carroll is a satire on the political caucus system, mocking its lack of clarity and decisiveness. In the Disney film, the Dodo plays a much greater role in the story, replacing the role of Pat as well. | Dodo_(Alice's_Adventures_in_Wonderland) |@lemmatized john:1 tenniel:1 illustration:2 dodo:8 caucus:4 race:4 long:1 tale:1 alice:6 wonderland:2 fictional:1 character:1 appear:1 chapter:1 book:1 adventure:2 lewis:2 carroll:3 charles:1 lutwidge:1 dodgson:4 caricature:1 author:1 popular:1 unsubstantiated:1 belief:1 choose:1 particular:1 animal:1 represent:2 stammer:1 thus:1 would:1 accidentally:1 introduce:1 passage:1 incorporated:1 reference:1 everyone:3 present:1 original:1 boating:1 expedition:1 july:1 first:1 tell:1 others:1 bird:1 lory:1 lorina:1 liddell:2 eaglet:1 edith:1 duck:1 rev:1 robinson:1 duckworth:1 order:1 get:1 dry:1 swim:1 propose:1 run:2 participant:1 pattern:1 shape:1 start:1 leave:2 whenever:1 like:1 win:1 end:1 distributes:1 comfit:1 pocket:2 prize:3 however:1 inquire:1 else:1 thimble:1 request:1 award:1 depict:1 satire:1 political:1 system:1 mock:1 lack:1 clarity:1 decisiveness:1 disney:1 film:1 play:1 much:1 great:1 role:2 story:1 replace:1 pat:1 well:1 |@bigram john_tenniel:1 tenniel_illustration:1 alice_wonderland:1 adventure_wonderland:1 lewis_carroll:2 |
3,551 | Establishing_shot | In film and television, an establishing shot sets up, or "establishes", a scene's setting and/or its participants. Typically it is a shot at the beginning (or, occasionally, end) of a scene indicating where, and sometimes when, the remainder of the scene takes place. For example, an exterior shot of a building at night, followed by an interior shot of people talking, implies that the conversation is taking place at night inside that building,wergh. (Of course the conversation may in fact have been filmed on a studio set far from the apparent location, because of budget, permits, time limitations, etc.) Establishing shots may also use famous landmarks – such as the Eiffel Tower, the Colosseum or the Statue of Liberty – to identify a city. Alternatively, an establishing shot might just be a long shot of a room that shows all the characters from a particular scene. For example, a scene about a murder in a college lecture hall might begin with a shot that shows the entire room, including the lecturing professor and the students taking notes. Establishing shots were more common during the classical era of filmmaking than they are now. Today's filmmakers tend to skip the establishing shot in order to move the scene along more quickly. In addition, scenes in mysteries and the like often wish to obscure the setting and its participants and thus avoid clarifying them with an establishing shot. An establishing shot may also establish a concept, rather than a location. For example, opening with a martial arts drill visually establishes the theme of martial arts. | Establishing_shot |@lemmatized film:2 television:1 establish:9 shot:12 set:2 establishes:1 scene:7 setting:2 participant:2 typically:1 beginning:1 occasionally:1 end:1 indicate:1 sometimes:1 remainder:1 take:3 place:2 example:3 exterior:1 building:2 night:2 follow:1 interior:1 people:1 talk:1 implies:1 conversation:2 inside:1 wergh:1 course:1 may:3 fact:1 studio:1 far:1 apparent:1 location:2 budget:1 permit:1 time:1 limitation:1 etc:1 also:2 use:1 famous:1 landmark:1 eiffel:1 tower:1 colosseum:1 statue:1 liberty:1 identify:1 city:1 alternatively:1 might:2 long:1 room:2 show:2 character:1 particular:1 murder:1 college:1 lecture:1 hall:1 begin:1 entire:1 include:1 lecturing:1 professor:1 student:1 note:1 common:1 classical:1 era:1 filmmaking:1 today:1 filmmaker:1 tend:1 skip:1 order:1 move:1 along:1 quickly:1 addition:1 mystery:1 like:1 often:1 wish:1 obscure:1 thus:1 avoid:1 clarify:1 concept:1 rather:1 open:1 martial:2 art:2 drill:1 visually:1 theme:1 |@bigram eiffel_tower:1 martial_art:2 |
3,552 | Groupoid | In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, especially in category theory and homotopy theory, a groupoid generalises the notion of group and of category in several equivalent ways. A groupoid can be seen as a: Group with a partial function replacing the binary operation; Category in which every morphism is an isomorphism. A category of this sort can be viewed as augmented with a unary operation, called inverse by analogy with group theory. Special cases include: Setoids, that is: sets which come with an equivalence relation; G-sets, sets equipped with an action of a group G. Groupoids are often used to reason about geometrical objects such as manifolds. Heinrich Brandt introduced groupoids in 1926. Definitions Algebraic A groupoid is a set G with a unary operation and a partial function * is not a binary operation because it is not necessarily defined for all possible pairs of G-elements. The precise conditions under which * is defined are not articulated here and vary by situation. and -1 have the following axiomatic properties. Let a, b, and c be elements of G. Then: Associativity: If a * b and b * c are defined, then (a * b) * c and a * (b * c) are defined and equal. Conversely, if either of these last two expressions is defined, then so is the other (and again they are equal). Inverse: a-1 * a and a * a-1 are always defined. Identity: If a * b is defined, then a * b * b-1 = a, and a-1 * a * b = b. (The previous two axioms already show that these expressions are defined and unambiguous.) In short: (a * b) * c = a * (b * c); (a * b) * b-1 = a; a-1 * (a * b) = b. From these axioms, two easy and convenient theorems follow: (a-1)-1 = a; If a * b is defined, then (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1. Category theoretic A groupoid is a small category in which every morphism is an isomorphism, and hence invertible. More precisely, a groupoid G is: A set G0 of objects; For each pair of objects x and y in G0, there exists a (possibly empty) set G(x,y) of morphisms (or arrows) from x to y. We write f : x → y to indicate that f is an element of G(x,y). The objects and morphisms have the properties: For every object x, there exists the element of G(x,x); For each triple of objects x, y, and z, there exists the function G(x,y)G(y,z) → G(x,z). We write gf for , where fG(x,y), and gG(y,z); There exists the function G(x,y) → G(y,x). Moreover, if f : x → y, g : y → z, and h : z → w, then: and ; (hg)f = h(gf); and . Comparing the definitions The algebraic and category-theoretic definitions are equivalent, as follows. Given a groupoid in the category-theoretic sense, let G be the disjoint union of all of the sets G(x,y). Then and become partially defined operations on G, and will in fact be defined everywhere; so we define * to be and to be . Thus we have a groupoid in the algebraic sense. Explicit reference to G0 (and hence to ) can be dropped. Conversely, given a groupoid G in the algebraic sense, with typical element f, let G0 be the set of all elements of the form f*f-1. In other words, the objects are identified with the identity morphisms, so that is just x. Let G(x,y) be the set of all elements f such that yfx is defined. Then -1 and * break up into several functions on the various G(x,y), which may be called and , respectively. Sets in the definitions above may be replaced with classes, as is generally the case in category theory. Groupoid Category The category whose objects are groupoids and whose morphisms are groupoid homomorphisms is called the groupoid category, or the category of groupoids. Examples Linear algebra Given a field K, the corresponding general linear groupoid GL*(K) consists of all invertible matrices whose entries range over K. Matrix multiplication interprets composition. If G = GL*(K), then the set of natural numbers is a proper subset of G0, since for each natural number n, there is a corresponding identity matrix of dimension n. G(m,n) is empty unless m=n, in which case it is the set of all nxn invertible matrices. Topology Given a topological space X, let G0 be the set X. The morphisms from the point p to the point q are equivalence classes of continuous paths from p to q, with two paths being equivalent if they are homotopic. Two such morphisms are composed by first following the first path, then the second; the homotopy equivalence guarantees that this composition is associative. This groupoid is called the fundamental groupoid of X, denoted (X). An important extension of this idea is to consider the fundamental groupoid (X,A) where A is a set of "base points" and a subset of X. Here, one considers only paths whose endpoints belong to A. (X,A) is a sub-groupoid of (X). The set A may be chosen according to the geometry of the situation at hand. Equivalence relation If X is a set with an equivalence relation denoted by infix , then a groupoid "representing" this equivalence relation can be formed as follows: The objects of the groupoid are the elements of X; For any two elements x and y in X, there is a single morphism from x to y if and only if x~y. Group action If the group G acts on the set X, then we can form a groupoid representing this group action as follows: The objects are the elements of X; For any two elements x and y in X, there is a morphism from x to y corresponding to every element g of G such that gx = y; Composition of morphisms interprets the binary operation of G. Another way to describe G-sets is the functor category , where is the groupoid (category) with one element and isomorphic to the group G. Indeed, every functor F of this category defines a set X=F and for every g in G (i.e. for every morphism in ) induces a bijection Fg : X→X. The categorical structure of the functor F assures us that F defines a G-action on the set X. The (unique) representable functor F : → is the Cayley representation of G. In fact, this functor is isomorphic to and so sends to the set which is by definition the "set" G and the morphism g of (i.e. the element g of G) to the permutation Fg of the set G. We deduce from the Yoneda embedding that the group G is isomorphic to the group {Fg | g∈G}, a subgroup of the group of permutations of G. Fifteen puzzle The symmetries of the Fifteen puzzle form a groupoid (not a group, as not all moves can be composed). This groupoid acts on configurations. Relation to groups If a groupoid has only one object, then the set of its morphisms forms a group. Using the algebraic definition, such a groupoid is literally just a group. Many concepts of group theory generalize to groupoids, with the notion of functor replacing that of group homomorphism. If x is an object of the groupoid G, then the set of all morphisms from x to x forms a group G(x). If there is a morphism f from x to y, then the groups G(x) and G(y) are isomorphic, with an isomorphism given by the mapping g → fgf −1. Every connected groupoid (that is, one in which any two objects are connected by at least one morphism) is isomorphic to a groupoid of the following form. Pick a group G and a set (or class) X. Let the objects of the groupoid be the elements of X. For elements x and y of X, let the set of morphisms from x to y be G. Composition of morphisms is the group operation of G. If the groupoid is not connected, then it is isomorphic to a disjoint union of groupoids of the above type (possibly with different groups G for each connected component). Thus any groupoid may be given (up to isomorphism) by a set of ordered pairs (X,G). Note that the isomorphism described above is not unique, and there is no natural choice. Choosing such an isomorphism for a connected groupoid essentially amounts to picking one object x0, a group isomorphism h from G(x0) to G, and for each x other than x0, a morphism in G from x0 to x. In category-theoretic terms, each connected component of a groupoid is equivalent (but not isomorphic) to a groupoid with a single object, that is, a single group. Thus any groupoid is equivalent to a multiset of unrelated groups. In other words, for equivalence instead of isomorphism, one need not specify the sets X, only the groups G. Consider the examples in the previous section. The general linear groupoid is both equivalent and isomorphic to the disjoint union of the various general linear groups GLn(F). On the other hand: The fundamental groupoid of X is equivalent to the collection of the fundamental groups of each path-connected component of X, but an isomorphism requires specifying the set of points in each component; The set X with the equivalence relation is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of the trivial group for each equivalence class, but an isomorphism requires specifying what each equivalence class is: The set X equipped with an action of the group G is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of G for each orbit of the action, but an isomorphism requires specifying what set each orbit is. The collapse of a groupoid into a mere collection of groups loses some information, even from a category-theoretic point of view, because it is not natural. Thus when groupoids arise in terms of other structures, as in the above examples, it can be helpful to maintain the full groupoid. Otherwise, one must choose a way to view each G(x) in terms of a single group, and this choice can be arbitrary. In our example from topology, you would have to make a coherent choice of paths (or equivalence classes of paths) from each point p to each point q in the same path-connected component. As a more illuminating example, the classification of groupoids with one endomorphism does not reduce to purely group theoretic considerations. This is analogous to the fact that the classification of vector spaces with one endomorphism is nontrivial. Morphisms of groupoids come in more kinds than those of groups: we have, for example, fibrations, covering morphisms, universal morphisms, and quotient morphisms. Thus a subgroup H of a group G yields an action of G on the set of cosets of H in G and hence a covering morphism p from, say, K to G, where K is a groupoid with vertex groups isomorphic to H. In this way, presentations of the group G can be "lifted" to presentations of the groupoid K, and this is a useful way of obtaining information about presentations of the subgroup H. For further information, see the books by Higgins and by Brown in the References. Another useful fact is that the category of groupoids, unlike that of groups, is cartesian closed. Lie groupoids and Lie algebroids When studying geometrical objects, the arising groupoids often carry some differentiable structure, turning them into Lie groupoids. These can be studied in terms of Lie algebroids, in analogy to the relation between Lie groups and Lie algebras. References F. Borceux, G. Janelidze, 2001, Galois theories. Cambridge Univ. Press. Shows how generalisations of Galois theory lead to Galois groupoids. Brown, Ronald, 1987, "From groups to groupoids: a brief survey," Bull. London Math. Soc. 19: 113-34. Reviews the history of groupoids up to 1987, starting with the work of Brandt on quadratic forms. The downloadable version updates the many references. --------, 2006. Topology and groupoids. Booksurge. Revised and extended edition of a book previously published in 1968 and 1988. --------, Higher dimensional group theory Explains how the groupoid concept has to led to higher dimensional homotopy groupoids, having applications in homotopy theory and in group cohomology. Many references. Cannas da Silva, A., and A. Weinstein, Geometric Models for Noncommutative Algebras. Especially Part VI. Golubitsky, M., Ian Stewart, 2006, "Nonlinear dynamics of networks: the groupoid formalism", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 43: 305-64 Higgins, P. J., 1971. Categories and groupoids. Van Nostrand Notes in Mathematics. Now downloadable. Applications of groupoids in group theory, for example to a generalisation of Grushko's theorem, and in topology. Good introduction to category theory. Higgins, P. J., "The fundamental groupoid of a graph of groups", J. London Math. Soc. (2) 13 (1976) 145--149. Higgins, P. J. and Taylor, J., "The fundamental groupoid and the homotopy crossed complex of an orbit space", in Category theory (Gummersbach, 1981), Lecture Notes in Math., Volume 962. Springer, Berlin (1982), 115--122. Mackenzie, K. C. H., 2005. General theory of Lie groupoids and Lie algebroids. Cambridge Univ. Press. Weinstein, Alan, "Groupoids: unifying internal and external symmetry." Also available in Postscript. | Groupoid |@lemmatized abstract:1 algebra:4 branch:1 mathematics:2 especially:2 category:22 theory:13 homotopy:5 groupoid:46 generalise:1 notion:2 group:44 several:2 equivalent:9 way:5 see:2 partial:2 function:5 replace:3 binary:3 operation:7 every:8 morphism:10 isomorphism:11 sort:1 view:3 augment:1 unary:2 call:4 inverse:2 analogy:2 special:1 case:3 include:1 setoids:1 set:34 come:2 equivalence:11 relation:7 g:65 equip:2 action:7 groupoids:22 often:2 use:2 reason:1 geometrical:2 object:17 manifold:1 heinrich:1 brandt:2 introduce:1 definition:6 algebraic:5 necessarily:1 define:14 possible:1 pair:3 element:16 precise:1 condition:1 articulate:1 vary:1 situation:2 following:2 axiomatic:1 property:2 let:7 b:19 c:7 associativity:1 equal:2 conversely:2 either:1 last:1 two:8 expression:2 always:1 identity:3 previous:2 axiom:2 already:1 show:2 unambiguous:1 short:1 easy:1 convenient:1 theorem:2 follow:5 theoretic:6 small:1 hence:3 invertible:3 precisely:1 x:62 exist:4 possibly:2 empty:2 morphisms:15 arrow:1 write:2 f:16 indicate:1 triple:1 z:6 gf:2 fg:4 gg:1 moreover:1 h:8 w:1 hg:1 compare:1 give:6 sense:3 disjoint:3 union:3 become:1 partially:1 defined:1 fact:4 everywhere:1 thus:5 explicit:1 reference:5 drop:1 typical:1 form:8 word:2 identify:1 yfx:1 break:1 various:2 may:4 respectively:1 class:6 generally:1 whose:4 homomorphism:2 example:7 linear:4 field:1 k:8 corresponding:2 general:4 gl:2 consist:1 matrix:4 entry:1 range:1 multiplication:1 interprets:2 composition:4 natural:4 number:2 proper:1 subset:2 since:1 n:4 dimension:1 unless:1 nxn:1 topology:4 topological:1 space:3 point:7 p:7 q:3 continuous:1 path:8 homotopic:1 compose:2 first:2 second:1 guarantee:1 associative:1 fundamental:6 denote:2 important:1 extension:1 idea:1 consider:3 base:1 one:12 endpoint:1 belong:1 sub:1 choose:3 accord:1 geometry:1 hand:2 infix:1 represent:2 single:4 act:2 correspond:1 gx:1 another:2 describe:2 functor:6 isomorphic:9 indeed:1 e:2 induce:1 bijection:1 categorical:1 structure:3 assure:1 u:1 unique:2 representable:1 cayley:1 representation:1 send:1 permutation:2 deduce:1 yoneda:1 embed:1 subgroup:3 fifteen:2 puzzle:2 symmetry:2 move:1 configuration:1 literally:1 many:3 concept:2 generalize:1 mapping:1 fgf:1 connect:7 least:1 pick:2 type:1 different:1 component:5 ordered:1 note:3 choice:3 essentially:1 amount:1 term:4 multiset:1 unrelated:1 instead:1 need:1 specify:4 section:1 gln:1 collection:2 connected:1 require:3 copy:2 trivial:1 orbit:3 collapse:1 mere:1 lose:1 information:3 even:1 arise:2 helpful:1 maintain:1 full:1 otherwise:1 must:1 arbitrary:1 would:1 make:1 coherent:1 illuminating:1 classification:2 endomorphism:2 reduce:1 purely:1 consideration:1 analogous:1 vector:1 nontrivial:1 kind:1 fibrations:1 cover:2 universal:1 quotient:1 yield:1 cosets:1 say:1 vertex:1 presentation:3 lifted:1 useful:2 obtain:1 book:2 higgins:4 brown:2 unlike:1 cartesian:1 closed:1 lie:8 algebroids:3 study:2 carry:1 differentiable:1 turn:1 borceux:1 janelidze:1 galois:3 cambridge:2 univ:2 press:2 generalisation:2 lead:2 ronald:1 brief:1 survey:1 bull:2 london:2 math:4 soc:3 review:1 history:1 start:1 work:1 quadratic:1 downloadable:2 version:1 update:1 booksurge:1 revise:1 extend:1 edition:1 previously:1 publish:1 high:2 dimensional:2 explain:1 application:2 cohomology:1 canna:1 da:1 silva:1 weinstein:2 geometric:1 model:1 noncommutative:1 part:1 vi:1 golubitsky:1 ian:1 stewart:1 nonlinear:1 dynamic:1 network:1 formalism:1 amer:1 j:5 van:1 nostrand:1 grushko:1 good:1 introduction:1 graph:1 taylor:1 cross:1 complex:1 gummersbach:1 lecture:1 volume:1 springer:1 berlin:1 mackenzie:1 alan:1 unifying:1 internal:1 external:1 also:1 available:1 postscript:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 equivalence_relation:5 category_theoretic:5 disjoint_union:3 category_groupoids:3 invertible_matrix:2 topological_space:1 homotopy_equivalence:1 fundamental_groupoid:5 composition_morphisms:2 functor_category:1 isomorphic_isomorphism:1 ordered_pair:1 lie_algebra:1 cambridge_univ:2 univ_press:2 math_soc:3 topology_groupoids:1 da_silva:1 nonlinear_dynamic:1 amer_math:1 van_nostrand:1 |
3,553 | Centriole | A centriole, showing the nine triplets of microtubules. Transmission electron microscope image. Schematic of centriole showing microtubule triplets 3-dimensional view of a centriole A centriole is a barrel-shaped organelle found in most animal eukaryotic cells, though absent in higher plants and most fungi. The walls of each centriole are usually composed of nine triplets of microtubules (protein of the cytoskeleton). Deviations from this structure include Drosophila melanogaster embryos, with nine doublets, and Caenorhabditis elegans sperm cells and early embryos, with nine singlets. An associated pair of centrioles, arranged perpendicularly and surrounded by an amorphous mass of dense material (the pericentriolar material) constitutes the compound structure known as the centrosome. Cell division Centrioles are involved in the many organizations of the mitotic spindle and in the completion of cytokinesis. Centrioles were previously thought to be required for the formation of a mitotic spindle in animal cells. However, more recent experiments have demonstrated that cells whose centrioles have been removed via laser ablation can still progress through the G1 stage of interphase before centrioles can be synthesized later in a de novo fashion . Additionally, mutant flies lacking centrioles can develop almost normally, although the adult flies lack flagella and cilia, a lack that underscores the requirement of centrioles for the formation of these organelles (see below). Cells whose centrioles have been removed via laser ablation or genetic manipulation lack aster microtubules. These cells often fail to undergo proper asymmetric cell division, as the aster microtubules help to position the spindle within the cell. Cellular organization Centrioles are a very important part of centrosomes, which are involved in organizing microtubules in the cytoplasm. The position of the centriole determines the position of the nucleus and plays a crucial role in the spatial arrangement of cell organelles. Ciliogenesis In organisms with flagella and cilia, the position of these organelles is determined by the mother centriole, which becomes the basal body. An inability of cells to use centrioles to make functional cilia and flagella has been linked to a number of genetic and developmental diseases. In particular, the inability of centrioles to properly migrate prior to ciliary assembly has recently been linked to Meckel-Gruber syndrome. Animal development Proper orientation of cilia via centriole positioning toward the posterior of embryonic node cells is critical for establishing left–right asymmetry during mammalian development. Centriole duplication Cells in G0 and G1 usually contain two complete centrioles. The older of the two centrioles in a pair is termed the mother centriole, whereas the younger is termed the daughter centriole. During the cell division cycle, a new centriole grows from the side of each of the existing "mother" centrioles. After centriole duplication, the two pairs of centrioles remain attached to each other in an orthogonal configuration until mitosis, when the mother and daughter centrioles separate in a manner dependent upon the enzyme separase. The two centrioles in the centrosome are connected to each other by unidentified proteins. The mother centriole has radiating appendages at the distal end of its long axis and is attached to the daughter centriole at the other proximal end. Each daughter cell formed after cell division will inherit one of these pairs (one older and one newer centriole). Duplication of centrioles starts at the time of the G1/S transition and ends before the onset of mitosis. References | Centriole |@lemmatized centriole:34 show:2 nine:4 triplet:3 microtubule:5 transmission:1 electron:1 microscope:1 image:1 schematic:1 dimensional:1 view:1 barrel:1 shape:1 organelle:4 find:1 animal:3 eukaryotic:1 cell:16 though:1 absent:1 high:1 plant:1 fungi:1 wall:1 usually:2 compose:1 protein:2 cytoskeleton:1 deviation:1 structure:2 include:1 drosophila:1 melanogaster:1 embryo:2 doublet:1 caenorhabditis:1 elegans:1 sperm:1 early:1 singlet:1 associated:1 pair:4 arrange:1 perpendicularly:1 surround:1 amorphous:1 mass:1 dense:1 material:2 pericentriolar:1 constitute:1 compound:1 know:1 centrosome:3 division:4 involve:2 many:1 organization:2 mitotic:2 spindle:3 completion:1 cytokinesis:1 previously:1 think:1 require:1 formation:2 however:1 recent:1 experiment:1 demonstrate:1 whose:2 remove:2 via:3 laser:2 ablation:2 still:1 progress:1 stage:1 interphase:1 synthesize:1 later:1 de:1 novo:1 fashion:1 additionally:1 mutant:1 fly:2 lack:4 develop:1 almost:1 normally:1 although:1 adult:1 flagellum:3 cilium:4 underscore:1 requirement:1 see:1 genetic:2 manipulation:1 aster:2 often:1 fail:1 undergo:1 proper:2 asymmetric:1 microtubules:1 help:1 position:5 within:1 cellular:1 important:1 part:1 organize:1 cytoplasm:1 determine:2 nucleus:1 play:1 crucial:1 role:1 spatial:1 arrangement:1 ciliogenesis:1 organism:1 mother:5 become:1 basal:1 body:1 inability:2 use:1 make:1 functional:1 link:2 number:1 developmental:1 disease:1 particular:1 properly:1 migrate:1 prior:1 ciliary:1 assembly:1 recently:1 meckel:1 gruber:1 syndrome:1 development:2 orientation:1 toward:1 posterior:1 embryonic:1 node:1 critical:1 establish:1 leave:1 right:1 asymmetry:1 mammalian:1 duplication:3 contain:1 two:4 complete:1 old:2 term:2 whereas:1 younger:1 daughter:4 cycle:1 new:2 grows:1 side:1 exist:1 remain:1 attached:1 orthogonal:1 configuration:1 mitosis:2 separate:1 manner:1 dependent:1 upon:1 enzyme:1 separase:1 connect:1 unidentified:1 radiate:1 appendage:1 distal:1 end:3 long:1 axis:1 attach:1 proximal:1 form:1 inherit:1 one:3 start:1 time:1 transition:1 onset:1 reference:1 |@bigram electron_microscope:1 eukaryotic_cell:1 drosophila_melanogaster:1 caenorhabditis_elegans:1 mitotic_spindle:2 laser_ablation:2 cilium_flagellum:1 |
3,554 | Politics_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands | Politics of the Northern Mariana Islands takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic system, whereby the Governor is head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. The Northern Mariana Islands are a commonwealth in political union with the United States. Federal funds to the Commonwealth are administered by the Office of Insular Affairs of the U.S. Department of the Interior. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Local government is carried out through three regional mayors. The Northern Mariana Islands and the United States reached a Covenant Agreement effective 4 November 1986. The Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands became effective 1 January 1978. Executive branch |Governor |Benigno Fitial |Covenant Party |January 2006 |} Legislative branch The Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 20 members, elected for a two year term in single-seat constituencies. The Senate has 9 members, elected for a two year term in single-seat constituencies. The Commonwealth elects an official called "resident representative" in Washington, DC who speaks for the Commonwealth on national issues. As authorized by , the Commonwealth "shall be represented in the United States Congress by the Resident Representative to the United States." This person will be considered a nonvoting delegate to the U.S. Congress (similar to other U.S. insular areas). The first election will be held on November 4, 2008, and the winner will take office in January 2009. Political parties and elections Judicial branch Commonwealth Supreme Court; Superior Court; Federal District Court Federal representation In November 2008, the Northern Mariana Islands held its first election for a delegate to the United States Congress. Gregorio "Kilili" Sablan won the election, and will begin his term of office in January 2009. The delegate will serve as a member to some House committees and may vote in those committees, but the delegate is not permitted to vote on bills up for vote among all members of the House. International organization participation ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), SPC Political culture Historically, the Northern Mariana Islands have been subject to the colonizing powers of Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United States under a United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Agreement. Each power contributed elements that mixed with local indigenous cultures to form the current political culture of the Northern Mariana Islands. When United States citizenship was granted in 1986 to people who qualified as descendents of the Northern Marianas, few among the island's native population had been adequately prepared for democracy. As a result, politics in the Northern Mariana Islands is often "more a function of family relationships and personal loyalties" where the size of one's extended family is more important than a candidate's personal qualifications. Both scholarly works and the authors of the controversial website Saipansucks.com charge that this is nepotism carried out within the trappings of democracy.. See also Political party strength in the Northern Mariana Islands External links Food for Thought - Weekly CNMI political commentary by KZMI and KCNM manager Harry Blalock | Politics_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands |@lemmatized politics:2 northern:11 mariana:10 island:9 take:2 place:1 framework:1 presidential:1 representative:4 democratic:1 system:2 whereby:1 governor:2 head:1 government:4 pluriform:1 multi:1 party:4 commonwealth:8 political:6 union:1 united:8 state:7 federal:3 fund:1 administer:1 office:3 insular:2 affair:1 u:3 department:1 interior:1 executive:3 power:4 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 two:4 chamber:2 parliament:1 judiciary:1 independent:1 legislature:2 local:2 carry:2 three:1 regional:1 mayor:1 reach:1 covenant:2 agreement:2 effective:2 november:3 constitution:1 become:1 january:4 branch:3 benigno:1 fitial:1 islands:3 house:3 member:4 elect:3 year:2 term:3 single:2 seat:2 constituency:2 senate:1 official:1 call:1 resident:2 washington:1 dc:1 speak:1 national:1 issue:1 authorize:1 shall:1 represent:1 congress:3 person:1 consider:1 nonvoting:1 delegate:4 similar:1 area:1 first:2 election:4 hold:2 winner:1 judicial:1 supreme:1 court:3 superior:1 district:1 representation:1 gregorio:1 kilili:1 sablan:1 win:1 begin:1 serve:1 committee:2 may:1 vote:3 permit:1 bill:1 among:2 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 escap:1 associate:1 interpol:1 subbureau:1 spc:1 culture:3 historically:1 subject:1 colonize:1 spain:1 germany:1 japan:1 nation:1 trust:1 territory:1 pacific:1 contribute:1 element:1 mixed:1 indigenous:1 form:1 current:1 citizenship:1 grant:1 people:1 qualify:1 descendent:1 marianas:1 native:1 population:1 adequately:1 prepared:1 democracy:2 result:1 often:1 function:1 family:2 relationship:1 personal:2 loyalty:1 size:1 one:1 extend:1 important:1 candidate:1 qualification:1 scholarly:1 work:1 author:1 controversial:1 website:1 saipansucks:1 com:1 charge:1 nepotism:1 within:1 trapping:1 see:1 also:1 strength:1 external:1 link:1 food:1 thought:1 weekly:1 cnmi:1 commentary:1 kzmi:1 kcnm:1 manager:1 harry:1 blalock:1 |@bigram northern_mariana:10 mariana_island:7 pluriform_multi:1 judiciary_independent:1 legislative_branch:1 mariana_islands:3 seat_constituency:2 washington_dc:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 escap_associate:1 interpol_subbureau:1 northern_marianas:1 external_link:1 |
3,555 | Evangelicalism | Evangelicalism is a Protestant Christian movement which began in Great Britain in the 1730s. Bebbington, D. W. (2008). Evangelicals in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s, London: Unwin, 1. Most adherents consider its key characteristics to be: a belief in the need for personal conversion (or being "born again"); some expression of the gospel in effort; a high regard for Biblical authority; and an emphasis on the death and resurrection of Jesus. David Bebbington has termed these four distinctive aspects conversionism, activism, biblicism, and crucicentrism, saying, "Together they form a quadrilateral of priorities that is the basis of Evangelicalism." Bebbington, p. 3. Note that the term "Evangelical" does not equal Fundamentalist Christianity, although the latter is sometimes regarded simply as the most theologically conservative subset of the former. The major differences largely hinge upon views of how to regard and approach scripture ("Theology of Scripture"), as well as construing its broader worldview implications. While most conservative Evangelicals believe the label has broadened too much beyond its more limiting traditional distinctives, this trend is nonetheless strong enough to create significant ambiguity in the term. George Marsden Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism Eerdmans, 1991. As a result, the dichotomy between "evangelical" vs. "mainline" denominations is increasingly complex (particularly with such innovations as the "Emergent Church" movement). Usage Alternative usage The term evangelical (with a lower case "e") can refer to the personal belief that Jesus is the Messiah. The word comes from the Greek word for "Gospel" or "good news:" ευαγγελιον evangelion, from eu- "good" and angelion "message." In that sense, to be evangelical would mean to be a believer in the gospel, that is the message of Jesus Christ as revealed in the New Testament. Beginning with the Reformation, evangelical was used in a broad sense to refer to either Protestants or Christians in general. Martin Luther referred to the evangelische Kirche or evangelical church to distinguish Protestants from Catholics in the Roman Catholic Church. In Germany, Switzerland and Denmark, and especially among Lutherans, the term has continued to be used in a broad sense. This can be seen in the names of certain Lutheran denominations or national organizations, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, and the Evangelical Church in Germany. Current usage The contemporary North American usage of the term is influenced by the evangelical/fundamentalist controversy of the early 20th century. Evangelicalism may sometimes be perceived as the middle ground between the theological liberalism of the Mainline (Protestant) denominations and the cultural separatism of Fundamentalist Christianity. Evangelicalism has therefore been described as "the third of the leading strands in American Protestantism, straddl[ing] the divide between fundamentalists and liberals." While the North American perception is important to understand the usage of the term, it by no means dominates a wider global view, where the fundamentalist debate was not so influential. History Protestant Reformation to World War II In the 18th century the Wesleyan revival in the Church of England influenced the formation of a party of pietistic Anglicans, whose descendant movement is still called the "Evangelical party". In the United States, Jonathan Edwards and the "New Lights" (revival Calvinists) were opposed by "Old Lights" (confessional Calvinists). George Whitfield, a Methodist, continued and expanded this pietistic "New Light" revivalism together with the non-Calvinist, Arminian Methodist movement. From the late 20th century onwards, such conservative Protestant Christians, and their churches and social movements, have often been called evangelical to distinguish them from Protestants who have a tendency towards more liberal Christianity. John Nelson Darby, an 1800's English minister - Created the movement of Dispensationalism, an innovative Protestant movement that gave rise to evangelicalism - (History Channel "Antichrist: Zero Hour" (2005)). Post WW II to the Present The term neo-evangelicalism was coined by Harold Ockenga in 1947, to identify a distinct movement within fundamentalist Christianity at the time, especially in the English-speaking world. There was a split within the fundamentalist movement, as they disagreed among themselves about how a 'Christian' ought to respond to an unbelieving world. The evangelicals urged that Christians must engage the culture directly and constructively, [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN080282661X Henry, Carl F.H., (1947), The Uneasy Conscience of Modern Fundamentalism]; reprinted, (2003), Eerdmans, Grand Rapids and they began to express reservations about being known to the world as fundamentalists. As Kenneth Kantzer put it at the time, the name fundamentalist had become "an embarrassment instead of a badge of honor." Kenneth Kantzer, The Fundamentalist-Evangelical Split retrieved July 2005 The fundamentalists saw the evangelicals as often being too concerned about social acceptance and intellectual respectability, and being too accommodating to a perverse generation that needed correction. In addition, they saw the efforts of evangelist Billy Graham, who worked with non-evangelical denominations, such as the Roman Catholics (which they claimed to be heretical), as a mistake. (Christian) Fundamentalism The self-identified fundamentalists also cooperated in separating their opponents from the fundamentalist name, by increasingly seeking to distinguish themselves from the more open group, whom they often characterized derogatorily, by Ockenga's term, "Neo-evangelical" or just Evangelical. North American perspective Evangelicals held the view that the modernist and liberal parties in the Protestant churches had surrendered their heritage as Evangelicals by accommodating the views and values of the world. At the same time, they criticized their fellow Fundamentalists for their separatism and their rejection of the Social Gospel as it had been developed by Protestant activists of the previous century. They charged the modernists with having lost their identity as Evangelicals and the Fundamentalists with having lost the Christ-like heart of Evangelicalism. They argued that the Gospel needed to be reasserted to distinguish it from the innovations of the liberals and the fundamentalists. As part of this renewal of Evangelicalism, the new evangelicals sought to engage the modern world and the liberal Christians in a positive way, remaining separate from worldliness but not from the world — a middle way between modernism and the separating variety of fundamentalism. They sought allies in denominational churches and liturgical traditions, disregarding views of eschatology and other "non-essentials," and joined also with Trinitarian varieties of Pentecostalism. They believed that in doing so, they were simply re-acquainting Protestantism with its own recent tradition. The movement's aim at the outset was to reclaim the Evangelical heritage in their respective churches, not to begin something new; and for this reason, following their separation from Fundamentalists, the same movement has been better known merely as "Evangelicalism." By the end of the 20th century, this was the most influential development in American Protestant Christianity. Global demographics On a worldwide scale evangelical churches (together with Pentecostals) claim to be the most rapidly growing Christian churches. The two often overlap, in a movement sometimes called Transformationalism. Churches in Africa exhibit rapid growth and great diversity in part because they are not dependent on European and North American evangelical sources. An example of this can be seen in the African Initiated Churches. The World Evangelical Alliance is "a network of churches in 127 nations that have each formed an evangelical alliance and over 100 international organizations joining together to give a worldwide identity, voice and platform to more than 420 million evangelical Christians" . The Alliance (WEA) was formed in 1951 by Evangelicals from 21 countries. It has worked to support its members to work together globally. Types of evangelicalism Conservative evangelicalism Chinese evangelical church in Madrid, Spain, a Roman Catholic nation. Toward the end of the 20th century some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism, but as noted above they are not the same; the labels represent very distinct differences of approach which both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism. Both groups seek to maintain an identity as theological conservatives; evangelicals, however, seek to distance themselves from stereotypical perceptions of the "fundamentalist" posture, of antagonism toward the larger society, advocating involvement in the surrounding community rather than separation from it. On the American political spectrum, evangelicals traditionally fall under socially conservative. For instance, based on the biblical position that marriage is defined as only between one man and one woman, they tend to oppose state recognition of same-sex marriage and polyamory. Also, based on the principle that the life of a child begins at conception and that a baby's right to live should take precedence over a wish to terminate an unwanted pregnancy, evangelicals tend to oppose laws permitting abortion (See below for more details). Note that while evangelicals may have conservative cultural values and lifestyles, they rarely seek to actually restrict private behavior of others except where they believe it infringes the rights of others (such as with abortion). For example, while they oppose governmental endorsement of same-sex marriage (regarding it as actively promoting an opposing worldview), hardly any evangelicals seek to actually criminalize private sexual behavior (see below). Though less publicized, evangelicals traditionally tend to be economically conservative as well; this stems from biblical principles such as reverence for private property rights, freedom to contract, and the view that charity should primarily be voluntary/non-coercive and privately (i.e., church, family, individuals) administered. Post-evangelicalism British author Dave Tomlinson characterizes post-evangelicalism as a movement comprising various trends of dissatisfaction among evangelicals. The term is used by others with comparable intent, often to distinguish evangelicals in the so-called emerging church movement from post-evangelicals and anti-evangelicals. Tomlinson argues that "linguistically, the distinction [between evangelical and post-evangelical] is similar to the one that sociologists make between the modern and postmodern eras." There persists considerable and inevitable confusion as to how best to classify the non-traditional/non-conservative forms of evangelicalism. Some call the emergent church movement a version or manifestation of post-evangelicalism, whereas others distinguish both under the broader umbrella of the "evangelical left" movement. As such developments are still relatively new, it remains to be seen how the categories and semantics will settle. Evangelicalism in the United States Demographics The 2004 survey of religion and politics in the United States identified the Evangelical percentage of the population at 26.3%; while Roman Catholics are 22% and Mainline Protestants make up 16%. In the 2007 Statistical Abstract of the United States, the figures for these same groups are 28.6% (Evangelical), 24.5% (Roman Catholics), and 13.9% (Mainline Protestant.) The latter figures are based on a 2001 study of the self-described religious identification of the adult population for 1990 and 2001 from the Graduate School and University Center at the City University of New York. The National Association of Evangelicals is a U.S. agency which coordinates cooperative ministry for its member denominations. Politics Christian right Evangelical influence in America was first evident in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century movement of prohibition . In recent decades the most prominent issue that tends to be associated with conservative Evangelicals' political activism is abortion. Conservative Evangelicals generally believe it to be the taking of an innocent life, although the theological bases underlying this belief vary, from specific verses purportedly about when life begins, to the more generalized ban on murder (the latter typically descending into a mutually circular argument regarding the definition of personhood). Critics believe that any legal restrictions based on such a worldview amount to imposing religion, whereas adherents claim that it is as legitimate as seeking protection for any other oppressed class through religiously-motivated activism (many of which causes are now non-controversial). Abortion abolitionists trace some of their lineage through the history of English common law, which for centuries had purported to implement fundamental Judeo-Christian principles of justice into its legal system. However, abortion was not deemed criminal until the "quickening" of the fetus under common law; it was not until England's "Offences Against the Person" Acts of 1837 and 1861 that abortion was fully criminalized there, and even then it was not legally classified as murder. There remains today a wide divergence of opinion within the American religious right as to precisely how abortion should ideally be classified and/or punished, exactly whom would be prosecuted, and other logistical matters of implementing an outright ban. There are also internal disagreements about whether and which exceptions to any ban should be entertained. Modern opponents of the Christian Right assert that Roe v Wade, the Supreme Court decision rendered in 1973 preventing states from making laws that prohibit abortion, was not the most significant landmark of a new era of conservative evangelical political action. They maintain that it was not until 1980 that the evangelical movement came to oppose abortion. NPR.org "Church Meets State in the Oval Office" on Fresh Air NPR.org "Charismatic Movement" They cite Green v. Connally a.k.a. Coit v. Green (and President Jimmy Carter's support of the decision), which ruled that any segregated institution was not charitable and thus not tax-exempt, as having galvanized conservative evangelicals. Evangelical author Randall Balmer's article. Almost no conservative Evangelicals agree with this characterization, regarding it as an attempt to portray them in a negative light; they widely contend that racial segregation has long been a minority view among Evangelicals, and dismiss portrayals to the contrary as smears from what they regard as a hostile media. The mass-appeal of the Christian right in the so-called red states, and its success in rallying resistance to certain social agendas, is sometimes alleged as an attempt to impose a theocracy on an otherwise secular society. New York Times Review of Books 'American Theocracy,' by Kevin Phillips There are indications that the belief is widespread among conservative evangelicals in the USA that Christianity should enjoy a privileged place in American public life in accordance with its importance in American life and history. Fresh Air A Political Warning Shot: 'American Theocracy' Accordingly, those Evangelicals often strenuously oppose the expression of other faiths in schools or in the course of civic functions. For example, when Venkatachalapathi Samuldrala became the first Hindu priest to offer an invocation before Congress in 2000, the September 21 edition of the online publication operated by the Family Research Council, Culture Facts, stated the following objection: Conversely, many on the Christian right contend that they merely seek freedom from the imposition of an equally-subjective secular worldview, and feel that it is their opponents who are violating their rights. They suggest that on many hot-button issues (other than abortion), they rarely seek to actually criminalize the behaviors of others, and that more often it is the other way around. Indeed while most in the religious right criticized the Supreme Court's Lawrence v. Texas decision striking down state laws prohibiting homosexual conduct, it was also emphasized that the reasons for disagreeing with the ruling were more about process than substance (much like dissenting Justice Scalia, who noted that were he a legislator he would oppose such laws, but he just didn't believe that they were actually unconstitutional). Even the most ardent opponents of legally-recognized same-sex marriage almost never seek to reinstitute any bans on homosexual conduct. The Christian Right is not made up completely (or even mostly) of Evangelical Christians. According to an article in the November 11, 2004 issue of The Economist, entitled "The Triumph of the Religious Right", "The implication of these findings is that Mr. Bush's moral majority is not, as is often thought, composed of a bunch of right-wing evangelical Christians. Rather, it consists of traditionalist and observant church-goers of every kind: Catholic and mainline Protestant, as well as evangelicals, Mormons, and Sign Followers. Meanwhile, modernist evangelicals tend to be Democratic." Although evangelicals are currently seen as being on the Christian Right in the United States, there are those in the center as well. A major distinction between traditional/conservative Evangelicals and others is a conviction that a truly "Biblical worldview" compels certain social and cultural (and thus political) positions among professed followers. To the extent that traditional Evangelicals find common ground with conservative segments of other religions (especially other forms of Christianity), alliances inevitably form, sometimes ironically against the more moderate or liberal strains of Evangelicalism (with whom there may still be more theological overlap). According to recent reports in the New York Times, some evangelicals have sought to expand their movement's social agenda to include poverty, combating AIDS in the Third World, and protecting the environment. The Evangelical Crackup, cited from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/28/magazine/28Evangelicals-t.html?_r=2&hp&oref=slogin&oref=slogin This is highly contentious within the Evangelical community, since more conservative Evangelicals believe that this trend is compromising important issues and prioritizing popularity and consensus too highly. Personifying this division were the Evangelical leaders James Dobson and Rick Warren, the former who warned of the dangers of an Obama victory in 2008 from his point of view , in contrast with the latter who declined to endorse either major candidate on the grounds that he wanted the church to be less politically divisive and that he agreed substantially with both men. Indeed many are not sure how to characterize Rick Warren on the Evangelical spectrum; despite his avowed centrism he recently supported California's controversial Proposition 8 (2008), which is regarded by critics as a right-wing position; however, many conservative denominations nonetheless vigorously dissociate themselves from him and his movement. Christian left Typically, members of the evangelical left affirm the primary tenets of evangelical theology, such as the doctrines of Incarnation, atonement, and resurrection, and also see the Bible as a primary authority for the Church. A major theological difference, however, which in turn leads to many of the social/political differences, is the issue of how strictly to interpret the Bible, as well as what particular values and principles predominantly constitute the "Biblical Worldview" believed to be binding upon all followers. Inevitably, battles over how to characterize each other and themselves ensure, with the Evangelical left and right often hyperbolically regarding each other as "mainline/non-Evangelical" and "fundamentalist" respectively. Unlike conservative evangelicals, the evangelical left is generally opposed to capital punishment and supportive of gun control. In many cases, evangelical leftists are pacifistic. Some promote the legalization of gay marriage or protection of access to abortion. There is considerable dispute over how to even characterize the various segments of the Evangelical theological and political spectra, and whether a singular discernible rift between "right" and "left" is oversimplified. However, to the extent that some simplifications are necessary to discuss any complex issue, it's recognized that modern trends like focusing on non-contentious issues (like poverty) and downplaying hot-button social issues (like abortion) tend to be key distinctives of the modern "Evangelical Left" or "Emergent Church" movement. See also Anglo-Catholicism Bible believer Broad Church Conservative Christianity Conservative Evangelicalism Evangelical Catholic Fundamentalism Green Christianity High Church List of evangelical Christians List of evangelical seminaries and theological colleges National Association of Evangelicals Neoorthodoxy New Monasticism Oxford Movement Ritualism Summary of Christian eschatological differences Publications Christianity Today Sojourners Magazine The Christian Post Further reading Bebbington, D W Evangelicals in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Unwin, 1989) Carpenter, Joel A., "Fundamentalist Institutions and the Rise of Evangelical Protestantism, 1929-1942," Church History 49 (1980) pp. 62-75. Marsden, George M., Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1987. Pierard, Richard V., "The Quest For the Historical Evangelicalism: A Bibliographical Excursus," Fides et Historia 11 (2) (1979) pp. 60-72. Price, Robert M., "Neo-Evangelicals and Scripture: A Forgotten Period of Ferment," Christian Scholars Review 15 (4) (1986) pp. 315-330. External links Institute for the Study of American Evangelicalism - Wheaton College Evangelical Christian Forums The Coming Evangelical Collapse by Michael Spencer, The Christian Science Monitor, March 10 2009 Notes | Evangelicalism |@lemmatized evangelicalism:24 protestant:14 christian:25 movement:23 begin:6 great:2 britain:3 bebbington:4 w:2 evangelicals:38 modern:8 history:7 london:2 unwin:2 adherent:2 consider:1 key:2 characteristic:1 belief:4 need:3 personal:2 conversion:1 bear:1 expression:2 gospel:5 effort:2 high:2 regard:8 biblical:5 authority:2 emphasis:1 death:1 resurrection:2 jesus:3 david:1 term:10 four:1 distinctive:1 aspect:1 conversionism:1 activism:3 biblicism:1 crucicentrism:1 say:1 together:5 form:6 quadrilateral:1 priority:1 basis:1 p:1 note:5 evangelical:52 equal:1 fundamentalist:20 christianity:10 although:4 latter:4 sometimes:5 regarded:1 simply:3 theologically:1 conservative:23 subset:1 former:2 major:4 difference:5 largely:1 hinge:1 upon:2 view:8 approach:2 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3,556 | Hydrolysis | Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, hydrolysis, accessed 2007-01-23. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, solvolysis, accessed 2007-01-23. It is the type of reaction that is used to break down certain polymers, especially those made by step-growth polymerization. Such polymer degradation is usually catalysed by either acid e.g. concentrated sulphuric acid [H2SO4] or alkali e.g. sodium hydroxide [NaOH] attack, often increasing with their strength or pH. Hydrolysis is distinct from hydration, where hydrated molecule does not "lyse" (break into two new compounds). It should not be confused with hydrogenolysis, a reaction of hydrogen. Types Hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule is cleaved into two parts by the addition of a molecule of water. One fragment of the parent molecule gains a hydrogen ion (H+) from the additional water molecule. The other group collects the remaining hydroxyl group (OH−). To illustrate this process, some examples from real life and actual living systems are discussed here. The most common hydrolysis occurs when a salt of a weak acid or weak base (or both) is dissolved in water. Water autoionizes into negative hydroxyl ions and hydrogen ions. The salt breaks down into positive and negative ions. For example, sodium acetate dissociates in water into sodium and acetate ions. Sodium ions react very little with hydroxyl ions whereas acetate ions combine with hydrogen ions to produce neutral acetic acid, and the net result is a relative excess of hydroxyl ions, causing a basic solution. However, under normal conditions, only a few reactions between water and organic compounds occur. Generally, strong acids or bases must be added in order to achieve hydrolysis where water has no effect. The acid or base is considered a catalyst. They are meant to speed up the reaction, but are recovered at the end of it. Acid–base-catalyzed hydrolyses are very common; one example is the hydrolysis of amides or esters. Their hydrolysis occurs when the nucleophile (a nucleus-seeking agent, e.g., water or hydroxyl ion) attacks the carbon of the carbonyl group of the ester or amide. In an aqueous base, hydroxyl ions are better nucleophiles than dipoles such as water. In acid, the carbonyl group becomes protonated, and this leads to a much easier nucleophilic attack. The products for both hydrolyses are compounds with carboxylic acid groups. Perhaps the oldest example of ester hydrolysis is the process called saponification. It is the hydrolysis of a triglyceride (fat) with an aqueous base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH). During the process, glycerol, also commercially named glycerin, is formed, and the fatty acids react with the base, converting them to salts. These salts are called soaps, commonly used in households. Moreover, hydrolysis is an important process in plants and animals, the most significant example being energy metabolism and storage. All living cells require a continual supply of energy for two main purposes: for the biosynthesis of small and macromolecules, and for the active transport of ions and molecules across cell membranes. The energy derived from the oxidation of nutrients is not used directly but, by means of a complex and long sequence of reactions, it is channeled into a special energy-storage molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP molecule contains pyrophosphate linkages (bonds formed when two phosphate units are combined together) that release energy when needed. ATP can be hydrolyzed in two ways: the removal of terminal phosphate to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate, or the removal of a terminal diphosphate to yield adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and pyrophosphate. The latter is usually cleaved further to yield two phosphates. This results in biosynthesis reactions, which do not occur alone, that can be driven in the direction of synthesis when the phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. In addition, in living systems, most biochemical reactions, including ATP hydrolysis, take place during the catalysis of enzymes. The catalytic action of enzymes allows the hydrolysis of proteins, fats, oils, and carbohydrates. As an example, one may consider proteases, enzymes that aid digestion by hydrolyzing peptide bonds in proteins. They catalyze the hydrolysis of interior peptide bonds in peptide chains, as opposed to exopeptidases, another class of enzymes, that catalyze the hydrolysis of terminal peptide bonds, liberating one free amino acid at a time. However, proteases do not catalyze the hydrolysis of all kinds of proteins. Their action is stereo-selective: Only proteins with a certain tertiary structure will be targeted. The reason is that some kind of orienting force is needed to place the amide group in the proper position for catalysis. The necessary contacts between an enzyme and its substrates (proteins) are created because the enzyme folds in such a way as to form a crevice into which the substrate fits; the crevice also contains the catalytic groups. Therefore, proteins that do not fit into the crevice will not be hydrolyzed. This specificity preserves the integrity of other proteins such as hormones, and therefore the biological system continues to function normally. Hydrolysis of amide links In the hydrolysis of an amide link into a carboxylic acid and an amine or ammonia, the carboxylic acid has a hydroxyl group derived from a water molecule and the amine (or ammonia) gains the hydrogen ion. image:amide hydrolysis.png A specific case of the hydrolysis of an amide link is the hydrolysis of peptides to smaller fragments or amino acids. Many polyamide polymers such as nylon 6,6 are attacked and hydrolysed in the presence of strong acids. Such attack leads to depolymerization and nylon products fail by fracturing when exposed to even small amounts of acid. Other polymers made by step-growth polymerization are susceptible to similar polymer degradation reactions. The problem is known as stress corrosion cracking. Hydrolysis of polysaccharides Sucrose. The glycoside bond is represented by the central oxygen atom which holds the two monosaccharide units together In polysaccharides, monosaccharide molecules are linked together by a glycosidic bond. This bond can be cleaved by hydrolysis to yield monosaccharides. The best known disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar). Hydrolysis of sucrose yields glucose and fructose. There are many enzymes which speed up the hydrolysis of polysaccharides. Invertase is used industrially to hydrolyze sucrose to so-called invert sugar. Invertase is an example of a glycoside hydrolase (glucosidase). Lactase is essential for digestive hydrolysis of lactose in milk. Deficiency of the enzyme in humans causes lactose intolerance. β-amylase catalyzes the conversion of starch to maltose. Malt made from barley is used as a source of β-amylase to break down starch into a form that can be used by yeast to produce beer. The hydrolysis of cellulose into glucose, known as saccharification, is catalyzed by cellulase. Animals such as cows (ruminants) are able to digest cellulose because of the presence of symbiotic bacteria which produce cellulases. Irreversibility of hydrolysis under physiological conditions Under physiological conditions (i.e. in dilute aqueous solution), a hydrolytic cleavage reaction, where the concentration of a metabolic precursor is low (on the order of 10-3 to 10-6 molar), is essentially thermodynamically irreversible. To give an example: A + H2O → X + Y Assuming that x is the final concentration of products, and that C is the initial concentration of A, and W = [H2O] = 55.5 molar, then x can be calculated with the equation: let Kd×W = k: then For a value of C = 0.001 molar, and k = 1 molar, x/C > 0.999. Less than 0.1% of the original reactant would be present once the reaction is complete. This theme of physiological irreversibility of hydrolysis is used consistently in metabolic pathways, since many biological processes are driven by the cleavage of anhydrous pyrophosphate bonds. Hydrolysis of metal aqua ions Metal ions are Lewis acids, and in aqueous solution they form aqua ions, of the general formula M(H2O)nm+. Burgess, J. Metal ions in solution, (1978) Ellis Horwood, New York The aqua ions are hydrolyzed, to a greater or lesser extent. The first hydrolysis step is given generically as M(H2O)nm+ + H2O M(H2O)n-1(OH)(m-1)+ + H3O+ Thus the aqua ion is behaving as an acid in terms of Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory. This is easily explained by considering the inductive effect of the positively charged metal ion, which weakens the O-H bond of an attached water molecule, making the liberation of a proton relatively easy. The dissociation constant, pKa, for this reaction is more or less linearly related to the charge-to-size ratio of the metal ion. Baes, C.F.; Mesmer, R.E. The Hydrolysis of Cations, (1976),Wiley, New York Ions with low charges, such as Na+ are very weak acids with almost imperceptible hydrolysis. Large divalent ions such as Ca2+, Zn2+, Sn2+ and Pb2+ have a pKa of 6 or more and would not normally be classed as acids, but small divalent ions such as Be2+ are extensively hydrolyzed. Trivalent ions like Al3+ and Fe3+ are weak acids whose pKa is comparable to that of acetic acid. Solutions of salts such as BeCl2 or Al(NO3)3 in water are noticeably acidic; the hydrolysis can be suppressed by adding an acid such as nitric acid, making the solution more acidic. Hydrolysis may proceed beyond the first step, often with the formation of polynuclear species. Some "exotic" species such as Sn3(OH)42+ p384 are well characterized. Hydrolysis tends to increase as pH rises leading, in many cases, to the precipitation of an hydroxide such as Al(OH)3 or AlO(OH). These substances, the major constituents of bauxite, are known as laterites and are formed by leaching from rocks of most of the ions other than aluminium and iron and subsequent hydrolysis of the remaining aluminium and iron. Ions with a formal charge of four are extensively hydrolyzed and salts of Zr4+, for example, can only be obtained from strongly acidic solutions. With oxidation states five and higher the concentration of the aqua ion in solution is negligible. In effect the aqua ion is a strong acid. For example, aqueous solutions of Cr(VI) contain CrO42-. Cr(H2O)66+ → CrO42- + 2 H2O + 8 H+ Note that reactions such as Cr2O72- + H2O 2 CrO42- + 2 H+ are formally hydrolysis reactions as water molecules are split up yielding hydrogen ions. Such reactions are common among polyoxometalates. See also Adenosine triphosphate Dehydration synthesis Polymer degradation Solvolysis Tissue Digestion Hydrolysis constant References External links | Hydrolysis |@lemmatized hydrolysis:39 chemical:4 reaction:16 one:5 water:14 molecule:13 split:2 hydrogen:7 hydroxide:4 ion:32 may:3 go:1 participate:1 compendium:2 terminology:2 accessed:2 solvolysis:2 type:2 use:7 break:4 certain:2 polymer:6 especially:1 make:5 step:4 growth:2 polymerization:2 degradation:3 usually:2 catalyse:1 either:1 acid:26 e:5 g:3 concentrate:1 sulphuric:1 alkali:1 sodium:5 naoh:2 attack:5 often:2 increase:2 strength:1 ph:2 distinct:1 hydration:1 hydrate:1 lyse:1 two:7 new:3 compound:3 confuse:1 hydrogenolysis:1 process:6 cleave:3 part:1 addition:2 fragment:2 parent:1 gain:2 h:4 additional:1 group:8 collect:1 remain:2 hydroxyl:7 oh:5 illustrate:1 example:10 real:1 life:1 actual:1 living:2 system:3 discuss:1 common:3 occur:4 salt:6 weak:4 base:8 dissolve:1 autoionizes:1 negative:2 positive:1 acetate:3 dissociates:1 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triphosphate:2 atp:4 contain:3 pyrophosphate:3 linkage:1 bond:10 phosphate:5 unit:2 together:3 release:1 need:2 hydrolyze:8 way:2 removal:2 terminal:3 diphosphate:2 adp:1 inorganic:1 yield:5 monophosphate:1 amp:1 latter:1 far:1 alone:1 drive:2 direction:1 synthesis:2 live:1 biochemical:1 include:1 take:1 place:2 catalysis:2 enzyme:8 catalytic:2 action:2 allow:1 protein:6 oil:1 carbohydrate:1 protease:2 aid:1 digestion:2 peptide:5 interior:1 chain:1 oppose:1 exopeptidases:1 another:1 class:2 liberate:1 free:1 amino:2 time:1 kind:2 stereo:1 selective:1 proteins:1 tertiary:1 structure:1 target:1 reason:1 orient:1 force:1 proper:1 position:1 necessary:1 contact:1 substrate:2 create:1 fold:1 crevice:3 fit:2 therefore:2 specificity:1 preserve:1 integrity:1 hormone:1 biological:2 continue:1 function:1 normally:2 link:5 amine:2 ammonia:2 image:1 png:1 specific:1 case:2 many:4 polyamide:1 nylon:2 hydrolyse:1 presence:2 depolymerization:1 fail:1 fracture:1 expose:1 even:1 amount:1 susceptible:1 similar:1 problem:1 know:3 stress:1 corrosion:1 cracking:1 polysaccharide:3 sucrose:4 glycoside:2 represent:1 central:1 oxygen:1 atom:1 hold:1 monosaccharide:3 glycosidic:1 best:1 known:1 disaccharide:1 table:1 sugar:2 glucose:2 fructose:1 invertase:2 industrially:1 invert:1 hydrolase:1 glucosidase:1 lactase:1 essential:1 digestive:1 lactose:2 milk:1 deficiency:1 human:1 intolerance:1 β:2 amylase:2 conversion:1 starch:2 maltose:1 malt:1 barley:1 source:1 yeast:1 beer:1 cellulose:2 saccharification:1 cellulase:1 cow:1 ruminant:1 able:1 digest:1 symbiotic:1 bacteria:1 cellulases:1 irreversibility:2 physiological:3 dilute:1 hydrolytic:1 cleavage:2 concentration:4 metabolic:2 precursor:1 low:2 molar:4 essentially:1 thermodynamically:1 irreversible:1 give:2 x:4 assume:1 final:1 c:4 initial:1 w:2 calculate:1 equation:1 let:1 kd:1 k:2 value:1 less:3 original:1 reactant:1 would:2 present:1 complete:1 theme:1 consistently:1 pathway:1 since:1 anhydrous:1 metal:5 aqua:6 lewis:1 general:1 formula:1 nm:2 burgess:1 j:1 elli:1 horwood:1 york:2 great:1 extent:1 first:2 generically:1 n:1 thus:1 behave:1 term:1 brønsted:1 lowry:1 theory:1 easily:1 explain:1 inductive:1 positively:1 charge:4 weaken:1 attached:1 liberation:1 proton:1 relatively:1 dissociation:1 constant:2 pka:3 linearly:1 relate:1 size:1 ratio:1 baes:1 f:1 mesmer:1 r:1 cation:1 wiley:1 na:1 almost:1 imperceptible:1 large:1 divalent:2 extensively:2 trivalent:1 like:1 whose:1 comparable:1 al:2 noticeably:1 acidic:3 suppress:1 nitric:1 proceed:1 beyond:1 formation:1 polynuclear:1 specie:2 exotic:1 well:1 characterize:1 tend:1 rise:1 precipitation:1 alo:1 substance:1 major:1 constituent:1 bauxite:1 laterite:1 leach:1 rock:1 aluminium:2 iron:2 subsequent:1 formal:1 four:1 obtain:1 strongly:1 state:1 five:1 high:1 negligible:1 cr:2 vi:1 note:1 formally:1 among:1 polyoxometalates:1 see:1 dehydration:1 tissue:1 reference:1 external:1 |@bigram hydroxide_ion:1 growth_polymerization:2 polymer_degradation:3 sulphuric_acid:1 sodium_hydroxide:2 hydroxide_naoh:2 hydroxyl_ion:5 acetic_acid:2 organic_compound:1 ester_amide:1 carboxylic_acid:3 fatty_acid:1 adenosine_triphosphate:2 triphosphate_atp:1 adenosine_diphosphate:1 diphosphate_adp:1 inorganic_phosphate:1 adenosine_monophosphate:1 peptide_bond:3 catalyze_hydrolysis:3 enzyme_catalyze:1 amino_acid:2 glycosidic_bond:1 disaccharide_sucrose:1 glucose_fructose:1 lactose_intolerance:1 digest_cellulose:1 symbiotic_bacteria:1 aqueous_solution:3 metabolic_pathway:1 aqua_ion:6 brønsted_lowry:1 positively_charge:1 dissociation_constant:1 nitric_acid:1 dehydration_synthesis:1 external_link:1 |
3,557 | Foreign_relations_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina | The implementation of the Dayton Accords of 1995 has focused the efforts of policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the countries-successors of the former Yugoslavia. Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors of Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia have been fairly stable since the signing of the Dayton Agreement in 1995. Foreign relations Bulgaria Bosnia and Herzegovina-Bulgaria relations are foreign relations between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria. Both countries established diplomatic relations on January 15, 1992. Since 1996, Bulgaria has an embassy in Sarajevo. Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Sofia. Both countries are full members of the Southeast European Cooperation Process, of the Southeast European Cooperative Initiative, of the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Council of Europe. Croatia Discussions continue with Croatia on several small disputed sections of the boundary related to maritime access that hinder final ratification of the 1999 border agreement. Sections of the Una river and villages at the base of Mount Plješevica are in Croatia, while some are in Bosnia, which causes an excessive number of border crossings on a single route and impedes any serious development in the region. The Zagreb-Bihać-Split railway line is still closed for major traffic due to this issue. The road Karlovac-Plitvice Lakes-Knin, which is on the European route E71, is becoming increasingly unused because Croatia built a separate highway to the west of it. The border on the Una river between Hrvatska Kostajnica on the northern, Croatian side of the river, and Bosanska Kostajnica on the southern, Bosnian side, is also being discussed. A river island between the two towns is under Croatian control, but is claimed by Bosnia. A shared border crossing point has been built and has been functioning since 2003, and is used without hindrance by either party. The Herzegovinian municipality of Neum in the south makes the southernmost part of Croatia an exclave and the two countries are negotiating special transit rules through Neum to compensate for that. Recently Croatia has opted to build a bridge to the Pelješac peninsula to connect the Croatian mainland with the exclave but Bosnia and Herzegovina has protested that it will close their way to international waters (although Croatian territory and territorial waters surround Bosnian-Herzegovinan ones completely) and has suggested that the bridge must be higher than 55 meters for free passage of all types of ships. Negotiations are still being held. Cyprus Cyprus recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina’s independence on February 7, 2000, both countries established diplomatic relations on the same date. Bosnia and Herzegovina is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Tel Aviv (Israel). Cyprus is represented in Bosnia and Herzegovina through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary). Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean, of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Council of Europe. Czech Republic The Czech Republic recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina’s independence on February 8, 1992. Both countries established diplomatic relations on April 8, 1993. Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Prague. The Czech Republic has an embassy in Sarajevo. Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Council of Europe. Germany Germany is one of the most important partners of Bosnia and Herzegovina in foreign affairs. Bilateral relations have developed steadily since diplomatic ties were established in mid-1994. Germany was closely involved in efforts to bring about peace before and after the conclusion of the Dayton Agreement. There is also a long tradition of economic relations between Germany and Bosnia. When the country was still part of the former Yugoslavia, joint ventures and cooperation played a large role here (motor industry, metal processing, textile industry/contract processing work, steel and chemicals). After the war, Germany took on a spearheading role in investments in production in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is undergoing a transitional phase from a centrally planned to a market economy. These investments are concentrated primarily in vehicle assembly and parts supply, the construction industry/cement, raw materials processing/ aluminum and regional dairy farming. http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/en/Laenderinformationen/01-Laender/BosnienHerzegowina.html Greece Greece recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina’s independence in 1992. Both countries established diplomatic relations on November 30, 1995. Since 1998, Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Athens. Since 1996, Greece has an embassy in Sarajevo. Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean, of the Southeast European Cooperation Process, of the Southeast European Cooperative Initiative, of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Council of Europe. Romania Romania recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina’s independence on March 1, 1996, both countries established diplomatic relations on the same day. Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Bucharest. Romania has an embassy in Sarajevo. Relations were described as "excellent" by the foreign ministers in 2006, ahead of the opening of the Bosnian embassy in Bucharest. Russia Bosnia is one of the countries where Russia has contributed troops for the NATO-led stabilization force. Others were sent to Kosovo, and Serbia. Pakistan Pakistan recognised the independence of Bosnia from Yugoslavia in 1992. Pakistan sent in UN Peacekeeping forces to the former Yugoslavia during the Yugoslav wars. Pakistan and Bosnia have a free trade agreement. During the War time, Pakistan had hosted thousands of Bosnians as refugees in Pakistan. Pakistan have provided medium-tech weapons to Bosnian Government in past. Serbia Bosnia and Herzegovina filed a suit against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (today Serbia) before the International Court of Justice for aggression and genocide during the Bosnian War. Sections along the Drina River remain in dispute between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. United States The 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina was ended with the crucial participation of the United States in brokering the 1995 Dayton Accords. After leading the diplomatic and military effort to secure the Dayton agreement, the United States has continued to lead the effort to ensure its implementation. The United States maintains command of the NATO headquarters in Sarajevo. The United States has donated hundreds of millions of dollars to help with infrastructure, humanitarian aid, economic development, and military reconstruction in Herzegovina and Bosnia. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and Support for Eastern European Democracies (SEED) has played a large role in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina, including programs in economic development and reform, democratic reform (media, elections), infrastructure development, and training programs for Bosnian professionals, among others. Additionally, there are many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that have likewise played significant roles in the reconstruction. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2868.htm#relations EU accession The accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the European Union is one of the main political objectives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Stabilisation and Association Process (SAP) is the EU's policy framework. Countries participating in the SAP have been offered the possibility to become, once they fulfill the necessary conditions, Member States of the EU. Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore a potential candidate country for EU accession. http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/potential-candidate-countries/bosnia_and_herzegovina/eu_bosnia_and_herzegovina_relations_en.htm Foreign support Bosnia and Herzegovina receives support from donor programs of: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) European Union International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Monetary Fund USAID In the 3 years since the Dayton Accords were signed, over $4 billion in foreign aid has flown into Bosnia, about $800 million of it coming from SEED funds. As stated above, this support has been key to the growth and revitalization of the economy and infrastructure in the republic. However, most of this aid has been targeted at the Federation; the previous government of the RS was anti-Dayton and not assisted by the U.S. The election of the "Sloga" or "Unity" Coalition government, led by Prime Minister Dodik, has shifted the balance of power in the Republika Srpska (RS) to a pro-Dayton stance and will result in an upsurge of funding to the RS from the international community. In addition to SEED funding, USAID programs have been crucial to the redevelopment of Bosnia and Herzegovina. USAID has programing in the following areas: economic policy reform and restructuring; private sector development (the Business Development Program); infrastructure rebuilding; democratic reforms in the media, political process and elections, and rule of law/legal code formulation; and training programs for women and diplomats. International organizations BIS, , CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, , IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, SECI, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMEE, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer) See also Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnian diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Bosnia and Herzegovina References External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs - policy priorities | Foreign_relations_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina |@lemmatized implementation:2 dayton:8 accord:3 focus:1 effort:4 policymakers:1 bosnia:36 herzegovina:29 well:1 international:8 community:2 regional:2 stabilization:2 country:16 successor:1 former:3 yugoslavia:5 within:1 relation:13 neighbor:1 croatia:7 montenegro:1 serbia:5 fairly:1 stable:1 since:7 signing:1 agreement:5 foreign:7 bulgaria:4 establish:6 diplomatic:9 january:1 embassy:11 sarajevo:5 sofia:1 full:4 member:5 southeast:4 european:9 cooperation:3 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reference:1 external:1 link:1 ministry:1 priority:1 |@bigram bosnia_herzegovina:28 montenegro_serbia:1 diplomatic_relation:5 embassy_sarajevo:4 sarajevo_bosnia:1 embassy_sofia:1 croatia_bosnia:1 tel_aviv:1 budapest_hungary:1 czech_republic:3 prague_czech:1 foreign_affair:2 joint_venture:1 centrally_plan:1 raw_material:1 dairy_farming:1 http_www:2 embassy_bucharest:2 bucharest_romania:1 un_peacekeeping:1 yugoslavia_yugoslav:1 herzegovina_serbia:1 humanitarian_aid:1 pa_ei:1 ei_bgn:1 bgn_htm:1 ec_europa:1 europa_eu:1 eu_enlargement:1 monetary_fund:1 prime_minister:1 republika_srpska:1 ebrd_ece:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 imf_imo:1 imo_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_observer:1 iso_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_guest:1 oas_observer:1 observer_oic:1 observer_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 seci_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 upu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 herzegovina_bosnian:1 diplomatic_mission:2 external_link:1 |
3,558 | Constantinople | Map of Constantinople Constantinople (Greek: , Konstantinoúpolis, or hē Pólis, Latin: , in formal Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطينيه Konstantiniyye) was the imperial capital (Gr: , Basileúousa) of the Roman Empire (330–395), the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922). Strategically located between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara at the point where Europe meets Asia, Byzantine Constantinople had been the capital of a Christian empire, successor to ancient Greece and Rome. Throughout the Middle Ages Constantinople was Europe's largest Pounds, Norman John Greville. An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500-1840, p. 124. CUP Archive, 1979. ISBN 0521223792. and wealthiest city. Depending on the background of its rulers, it often had several different names at any given time; among the most common were Byzantium (Gr.:, Byzántion), New Rome (Gr.: Néa Rhōmē, ), Constantinople, and Stamboul. It was also called Tsargrad ("City of the Emperors") by the Slavs, while to the Vikings it was known as Miklagård, "the Great City", similar to the common Greek appellation "the City" (, hē Pólis). It was officially renamed to its modern Turkish name Istanbul in 1930 BBC - Timeline: Turkey. Room, Adrian, (1993), Place Name changes 1900-1991, Metuchen, N.J., & London:The Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN 0-8108-2600-3 pp. 46, 86. with the Turkish Postal Service Law, as part of Atatürk's national reforms. Britannica, Istanbul. Lexicorient, Istanbul. This name in turn derives from the Greek phrase eis tēn polin ("to the City [Constantinople]"). History The 1453 Siege of Constantinople, painted 1499 Byzantium Constantinople was founded by the Roman emperor Constantine I on the site of an already existing city, Byzantium, settled in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, probably around 671-662 BC. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. It is currently located in Turkey. Constantine the Great (306–337) Emperor Constantine I presents a representation of the city of Constantinople as tribute to an enthroned Mary and baby Jesus in this church mosaic. St Sophia, c. 1000 Coin struck by Constantine I to commemorate the founding of Constantinople Constantine had altogether more ambitious plans. Having restored the unity of the Empire, and being in course of major governmental reforms as well as of sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, he was well aware that Rome was an unsatisfactory capital. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the Imperial courts, and it offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians. Yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it will have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Nevertheless, he identified the site of Byzantium as the right place: a place where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the Empire. Constantinople was built over six years, and consecrated on 11 May 330. Although the city was essentially Greek-speaking, Latin was the language of government. It became known as Constantinopolis, "Constantine's City". According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum, vol. 164 (Stuttgart 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" (Nova Roma). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (see e.g. Michael Grant, The climax of Rome (London 1968), p. 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" (, Deutéra Rhōmē) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, A description can be found in the Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae. and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis. A description can be found in the Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae. Yet initially Constantine's new Rome did not have all the dignities of old Rome. It possessed a proconsul, rather than an urban prefect. It had no praetors, tribunes or quaestors. Although it did have senators, they held the title clarus, not clarissimus, like those of Rome. It also lacked the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food supply, police, statues, temples, sewers, aqueducts or other public works. The new programme of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the Empire and moved to the new city. Similarly, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The Emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the Imperial estates in Asiana and Pontica, and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to the citizens. At the time the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city. Socrates ii 13, cited by J B Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, p. 74. Constantine laid out a new square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate-house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot-races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire. From the Augustaeum led a great street, the Mese (Greek: Μέση (Οδός) lit. "Middle Street"), lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law-court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate-house and a high column with a statue of Constantine himself in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking towards the rising sun. From there the Mese passed on and through the Forum of Taurus and then the Forum of Bous, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall. After the construction of the Theodosian Walls in the early 5th century, it would be extended to the new Golden Gate, reaching a total length of seven Roman miles. J B Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, p. 75. et seqq. Divided empire, 395–527 Theodosius I was the last Roman emperor who ruled over an undivided empire (detail from the Obelisk at the Hippodrome of Constantinople The first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople was Honoratus, who took office on 11 December 359 and held it until 361. The emperor Valens built the Palace of Hebdomon on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors up to Zeno and Basiliscus were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. Theodosius I founded the Church of John the Baptist to house the skull of the saint (today preserved at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, Turkey), put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of Aphrodite into a coach house for the Praetorian Prefect; Arcadius built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine. Gradually the importance of Constantinople increased. After the shock of the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the emperor Valens with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the Visigoths within a few days' march, the city looked to its defenses, and Theodosius II built in 413–414 the 18 metre (60 ft) tall triple-wall fortifications which were never to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a University near the Forum of Taurus, on 27 February 425. Uldin, a prince of the Huns, appeared on the Danube about this time and advanced into Thrace, but he was deserted by many of his followers, who joined with the Romans in driving their king back north of the river. Subsequently new walls were built to defend the city, and the fleet on the Danube improved. In due course the barbarians overran the Western Roman Empire: its emperors retreated to Ravenna, and it diminished to nothing. Thereafter, Constantinople became in truth the largest city of the Roman Empire and of the world. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City, and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia flowed into Constantinople. Justinian, 527–565 Map of Constantinople (1422) by Florentine cartographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti Description des îles de l'archipel, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. is the oldest surviving map of the city, and the only one which antedates the Turkish conquest of the city in 1453 Hagia Sophia, built by emperor Justinian I in the 6th century AD The emperor Justinian I (527–565) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works. It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of the former Diocese of Africa set sail on or about 21 June 533. Before their departure the ship of the commander Belisarius anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise. After the victory, in 534, the Temple treasure of Jerusalem, looted by the Romans in 70 AD and taken to Carthage by the Vandals after their sack of Rome in 455, was brought to Constantinople and deposited for a time, perhaps in the Church of St. Polyeuctus, before being returned to Jerusalem in either the Church of the Resurrection or the New Church. Margaret Barker, Times Literary Supplement 4 May 2007 p. 26. Chariot-racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor; and also where they openly criticized the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue. The entire late Roman and early Byzantine period was one where Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the orthodox and the monophysites became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the horse-racing parties of the Blues and the Greens. The partisans of the Blues and the Greens were said Procopius' Secret History: see P Neville-Ure, Justinian and his Age, 1951. to affect untrimmed facial hair, head hair shaved at the front and grown long at the back, and wide-sleeved tunics tight at the wrist; and to form gangs to engage in night-time muggings and street violence. At last these disorders took the form of a major rebellion of 532, known as the "Nika" riots (from the battle-cry of "Victory!" of those involved). Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed Constantine's basilica of St Sophia, the city's principal church, which lay to the north of the Augustaeum. Justinian commissioned Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to replace it with a new and incomparable St Sophia. This was the great cathedral of the Orthodox Church, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets. St Sophia was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of the city, and is now a museum. The dedication took place on 26 December 537 in the presence of the emperor, who exclaimed, "O Solomon, I have outdone thee!" Source for quote: Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum, ed T Preger I 105 (see A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, 1952, vol I p. 188). St Sophia was served by 600 people including 80 priests, and cost 20,000 pounds of gold to build. T. Madden, Crusades: The Illustrated History, 114. Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles built by Constantine with a new church under the same dedication. This was designed in the form of an equally-armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics. This church was to remain the burial place of the emperors from Constantine himself until the eleventh century. When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of Mehmet II the Conqueror. Justinian was also concerned with other aspects of the city's built environment, legislating against the abuse of laws prohibiting building within of the sea front, in order to protect the view. Justinian, Novellae 63 and 165. During Justinian I's reign, the city's population reached about 500,000 people. Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades, Dr. Kenneth W. Harl. However, the social fabric of Constantinople was also damaged by the onset of Plague of Justinian between 541–542 AD. It killed perhaps 40% of the city's inhabitants. Past pandemics that ravaged Europe, BBC News, November 7, 2005. Restored section of the fortifications that protected Constantinople during the medieval period Survival, 565–717 In the early 7th century the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, threatening Constantinople from the west. Simultaneously the Persian Sassanids overwhelmed the Prefecture of the East and penetrated deep into Anatolia. Heraclius, son to the exarch of Africa, set sail for the city and assumed the purple. He found the military situation so dire that he is said at first to have contemplated withdrawing the imperial capital to Carthage, but relented after the people of Constantinople begged him to stay. While the Great City withstood a siege, Heraclius launched a flank attack against the Persians, invading Armenia and Media. The Emperor's victories restored the previous status quo and the Roman eastern frontier, but the prolonged warfare left both empires severely weakened. The religion of Islam arose in the power vacuum left by the two exhausted empires. It quickly overran the Sassanid Empire, and seized the Roman Near Eastern provinces in quick succession. The centuries-long Byzantine-Arab Wars followed, creating a new balance of power in the Mediterranean world. During these wars, the Muslims attempted twice to strike at the heart of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople. The first siege lasted from 674 to 678, and the second from 717 to 718. While the Theodosian Walls made the city impregnable from the land, the newly discovered incendiary substance known as "Greek Fire" allowed the Byzantine navy to destroy the Arab fleets and keep the city supplied. In the second siege, decisive help was rendered by the Bulgars, who attacked the Arab army. The failure of this siege was a severe blow to the Umayyad Caliphate, and resulted in the stabilization of the Byzantine-Arab equilibrium, opening the way for the Empire's gradual recovery under the Isaurian dynasty. Recovery, 717–1025 Emperor Leo VI (886–912) adoring Jesus Christ. Mosaic above the Imperial Gate in the Hagia Sophia. The Högby Runestone is one of the c. 30 Greece Runestones in Sweden that commemorate members of the Varangian Guard. In the 730s Leo III carried out extensive repairs of the Theodosian walls, which had been damaged by frequent and violent attacks; this work was financed by a special tax on all the subjects of the Empire. Vasiliev 1952, p. 251. Theodora, widow of the emperor Theophilus (d. 842) acted as regent during the minority of her son Michael III, who was said to have been introduced to dissolute habits by her brother Bardas. When Michael assumed power in 856 he became known for excessive drunkenness, appeared in the hippodrome as a charioteer and burlesqued the religious processions of the clergy. He removed Theodora from the Great Palace to the Carian Palace and later to the monastery of Gastria, but after the death of Bardas she was released to live in the palace of St Mamas; she also had a rural residence at the Anthemian Palace, where Michael was assassinated in 867. George Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, Dent, London, 1906, pp. 156-161. In 865 an attack was made on the city by a new principality set up a few years earlier at Novgorod by Rurik, a Varangian chief: two hundred small Russian vessels passed through the Bosporus and plundered the monasteries and other properties on the suburban Prince's Islands. Oryphas, the admiral of the Byzantine fleet, alerted the emperor Michael, who promptly put the invaders to flight; but the suddenness and savagery of the onslaught made a deep impression on the citizens. Finlay, 1906 pp. 174-5. In 980 the emperor Basil II received an unusual gift from Prince Vladimir of Kiev: 6,000 Varangian warriors which Basil formed into a new bodyguard known as the Varangian Guard. They were known for their ferocity, honour and loyalty. It is said that in 1038 they were dispersed in winter quarters in the Thracesian theme when one of their number attempted to violate a countrywoman, but in the struggle she seized his sword and killed him; instead of taking revenge, however, his comrades applauded her conduct, compensated her with all his possessions, and exposed his body without burial as if he had committed suicide. Finlay, 1906, p. 379. However, following the death of an emperor, they became known also for plunder in the imperial palaces. Enoksen, Lars Magnar. (1998). Runor : historia, tydning, tolkning. Historiska Media, Falun. ISBN 91-88930-32-7 p. 135. Later in the 11th Century the Varangian Guard became dominated by Anglo-Saxons who preferred this way of life to subjugation by the new Norman kings of England. J M Hussey, The Byzantine World, Hutchinson, London, 1967, p. 92. The Book of the Eparch, which dates to the 10th century, gives a detailed picture of the city's commercial life and its organization at that time. The corporations in which the tradesmen of Constantinople were organised were supervised by the Eparch, who regulated such matters as production, prices, import and export. Each guild had its own monopoly, and tradesmen might not belong to more than one. It is an impressive testament to the strength of tradition how little these arrangements had changed since the office, then known by the Latin version of its title, had been set up in 330 to mirror the urban prefecture of Rome. Vasiliev 1952, pp. 343-4. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Constantinople had a population of between 500,000 and 800,000. Silk Road Seattle - Constantinople, Daniel C. Waugh. The Iconoclast controversy, 730–787, 814–842 In the eighth and ninth centuries the iconoclast movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor Leo III issued a decree in 726 against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act which was fiercely resisted by the citizens. The officer given the task was killed by the crowd, and in the end the image was removed rather than destroyed: it was to be restored by Irene and removed again by Leo V: Finlay 1906, p. 111. Constantine V convoked a church council in 754 which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over with depictions of trees, birds or animals: one source refers to the church of the Holy Virgin at Blachernae as having been transformed into a "fruit store and aviary". Vasiliev 1952, p. 261. Following the death of his son Leo IV in 780, the empress Irene restored the veneration of images through the agency of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress Theodora, who restored the icons. These controversies contributed to the deterioration of relations between the Western and the Eastern Churches. Prelude to the Comnenian period, 1025–1081 In the late 11th century catastrophe struck with the unexpected and calamitous defeat of the imperial armies at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071. The Emperor Romanus Diogenes was captured. The peace terms demanded by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, were not excessive, and Romanus accepted them. On his release, however, Romanus found that enemies had placed their own candidate on the throne in his absence; he surrendered to them and suffered death by torture, and the new ruler, Michael VII Ducas, refused to honour the treaty. In response, the Turks began to move into Anatolia in 1073. The collapse of the old defensive system meant that they met no opposition, and the empire's resources were distracted and squandered in a series of civil wars. Thousands of Turkoman tribesmen crossed the unguarded frontier and moved into Anatolia. By 1080, a huge area had been lost to the empire, and the Turks were within striking distance of Constantinople. The Comneni, 1081–1185 The Byzantine Empire under Manuel I, c. 1180 Twelfth century mosaic from the upper gallery of the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople. Emperor John II (1118–1143) is shown on the left, with the Virgin Mary and infant Jesus in the centre, and John's consort Empress Irene on the right. Under the Comnenian dynasty (1081–1185), Byzantium staged a remarkable military, financial and territorial recovery. In what is sometimes called the Comnenian Restoration, with the establishment of a new military system, the Empire recovered nearly half of the lost Anatolian lands. In 1090–91, the nomadic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army. The Pechenegs, Steven Lowe and Dmitriy V. Ryaboy. The battle of Levounion in 1091 marked the beginning of a resurgence of Byzantine power and influence that would last for a hundred years. In response to a call for aid from Alexius I Comnenus, the First Crusade assembled at Constantinople in 1096, but declining to put itself under Byzantine command set out for Jerusalem on its own account. There is an excellent source for these events: the writer and historian Anna Comnena in her work The Alexiad. John II built the monastery of the Pantocrator (Almighty) with a hospital for the poor of 50 beds. Vasiliev 1952, p. 472. With the restoration of firm central government, the empire became fabulously wealthy. The population was rising (estimates for Constantinople in the twelfth century vary from approximately 100,000 to 500,000), and towns and cities across the realm flourished. Meanwhile, the volume of money in circulation dramatically increased. This was reflected in Constantinople by the construction of the Blachernae palace, the creation of brilliant new works of art, and general prosperity at this time: an increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city-states, may have helped the growth of the economy. Certainly, the Venetians and others were active traders in Constantinople, making a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt. The Venetians had factories on the north side of the Golden Horn, and large numbers of westerners were present in the city throughout the twelfth century. Towards the end of Manuel I's reign, the number of foreigners in the city reached about 60,000-80,000 people out of a total population of about 400,000 people. J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 144. In 1171, Constantinople also contained a small community of 2,500 Jews. J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 155. In artistic terms, the 12th century was a very productive period. There was a revival in the mosaic art, for example: mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. There was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. According to N.H. Baynes (Byzantium, An Introduction to East Roman Civilization): "With its love of luxury and passion for colour, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the whole of the Christian world. Beautiful silks from the work-shops of Constantinople also portrayed in dazzling colour animals - lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins - confronting each other, or represented Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase." "From the tenth to the twelfth century Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice and of the cathedral at Torcello clearly reveal their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo, and the cathedral of Cefalù, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, demonstrate the influence of Byzantium on the Norman Court of Sicily in the twelfth century. Hispano-Moorish art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south-western France. Princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots of Monte Cassino, merchants of Amalfi, and the kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the twelfth century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centres dedicated to its production." The Angelids and the Latin Empire, 1185–1261 The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople, by Eugène Delacroix, 1840. In the course of a plot between Philip of Swabia, Boniface of Montferrat and the Doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was, despite papal excommunication, diverted in 1203 against Constantinople, ostensibly promoting the claims of Alexius son of the deposed emperor Isaac. The reigning emperor Alexius III had made no preparation. The Crusaders occupied Galata, broke the chain protecting the Golden Horn and entered the harbour, where on 27 July they breached the sea walls: Alexius III fled. But the new Alexius IV found the Treasury inadequate, and was unable to make good the rewards he had promised to his western allies. Tension between the citizens and the Latin soldiers increased. In January 1204 the protovestiarius Alexius Murzuphlus provoked a riot, probably to intimidate Alexius IV, but whose only result was the destruction of the great statue of Athena, the work of Phidias, which stood in the principal forum facing west. In February the people rose again: Alexius IV was imprisoned and executed, and Murzuphlus took the purple as Alexius V. He made some attempt to repair the walls and organise the citizenry, but there had been no opportunity to bring in troops from the provinces and the guards were demoralised by the revolution. An attack by the Crusaders on 6 April failed, but a second from the Golden Horn on 12 April succeeded, and the invaders poured in. Alexius V fled. The Senate met in St Sophia and offered the crown to Theodore Lascaris, who had married into the Angelid family, but it was too late. He came out with the Patriarch to the Golden Milestone before the Great Palace and addressed the Varangian Guard. Then the two of them slipped away with many of the nobility and embarked for Asia. By the next day the Doge and the leading Franks were installed in the Great Palace, and the city was given over to pillage for three days. The great historian of the Crusades, Sir Steven Runciman, wrote that the sack of Constantinople is “unparalleled in history”. “For nine centuries,” he goes on, “the great city had been the capital of Christian civilisation. It was filled with works of art that had survived from ancient Greece and with the masterpieces of its own exquisite craftsmen. The Venetians wherever they could seized treasures and carried them off. But the Frenchmen and Flemings were filled with a lust for destruction: they rushed in a howling mob down the streets and through the houses, snatching up everything that glittered and destroying whatever they could not carry, pausing only to murder or to rape, or to break open the wine-cellars. Neither monasteries nor churches nor libraries were spared. In St Sophia itself drunken soldiers could be seen tearing down the silken hangings and pulling the silver iconostasis to pieces, while sacred books and icons were trampled under foot. While they drank from the altar-vessels a prostitute sang a ribald French song on the Patriarch’s throne. Nuns were ravished in their convents. Palaces and hovels alike were wrecked. Wounded women and children lay dying in the streets. For three days the ghastly scenes continued until the huge and beautiful city was a shambles. Even after order was restored, citizens were tortured to make them reveal treasures they had hidden." Steven Runciman, History of the Crusades, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1965, vol 3, pp. 111-128. For the next half-century, Constantinople was the seat of the Latin Empire. The Byzantine nobility were scattered. Many went to Nicaea, where Theodore Lascaris set up an imperial court, or to Epirus, where Theodore Angelus did the same; others fled to Trebizond, where one of the Comneni had already with Georgian support established an independent seat of empire. Hussey 1967, p. 70. Nicaea and Epirus both vied for the imperial title, and tried to recover Constantinople. In 1261, Constantinople was captured from its last Latin ruler, Baldwin II, by the forces of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus. The Palaeologi, 1261–1453 Although Constantinople was retaken by Michael VIII, the Empire had lost many of its key economic resources, and struggled to survive. The palace of Blachernae in the north-west of the city became the main Imperial residence, with the old Great Palace on the shores of the Bosporus going into decline. When Michael VIII captured the city, its population was 35,000 people, but by the end of his reign, he had succeeded in increasing the population to about 70,000 people. T. Madden, Crusades: The Illustrated History, 113. The Emperor achieved this by summoning former residents, who had fled the city when the Crusaders captured it, back, and by relocating Greeks from the recently reconquered Peloponnese to the capital. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 217. In 1347, the Black Death spread to Constantinople. The Black Death, Channel 4 - History. In 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured the city, it contained approximately 50,000 people. D. Nicolle, Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium, 32. Importance Eagle and Snake, 6th century mosaic flooring Constantinople, Grand Imperial Palace Culture Constantinople was the largest and richest urban center in the Eastern Mediterranean during the late Roman Empire, mostly as a result of its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean and the Black Sea. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek speaking empire for over a thousand years. In its heyday, roughly corresponding to the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, particularly Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom: a Russian 14th-century traveller, Stephen of Novgorod, wrote, "As for St Sophia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it." It was especially important for preserving in its libraries manuscripts of Greek and Latin authors throughout a period when instability and disorder caused their mass destruction in western Europe and north Africa: on the city's fall thousands of these were brought by refugees to Italy, and played a key part in stimulating the Renaissance, and the transition to the modern world. The cumulative influence of the city on the west, over the many centuries of its existence, is incalculable. In terms of technology, art and culture, as well as sheer size, Constantinople was without parallel anywhere in Europe for a thousand years. International Status A 15th century map showing Constantinople in the upper left corner The city provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the old Roman Empire against the barbarian invasions of the 5th century. The 18 metre tall walls built by Theodosius II were essentially impregnable to the barbarians coming from south of the Danube river, who found easier targets to the west rather than the richer provinces to the east in Asia. From the 5th century the city was also protected by the Anastasian Wall, a 60 kilometre chain of walls across the Thracian peninsula. Many scholars argue that these sophisticated fortifications allowed the east to develop relatively unmolested while Ancient Rome and the west collapsed. With the emergence of Christianity and the rise of Islam, Constantinople became the gates of Christian Europe standing at the fore of Islamic expansion. As the Byzantine Empire was situated in-between the Islamic world and the Christian west, so did Constantinople act as Europe’s first line-of-defence against Arab advances in the 7th and 8th centuries. The city, and the empire, would ultimately fall to the Ottomans by 1453, but its enduring legacy had provided Europe centuries of resurgence following the collapse of Rome. Architecture Constantinople's monumental center The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in the copies taken from it throughout Europe. Particular examples include St. Mark's in Venice, the basilicas of Ravenna, and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th century Italian florin, the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the solidus of Diocletian becoming the bezant prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls were much imitated (for example, see Caernarfon Castle) and its urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping alive the art, skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. Religious Constantine's foundation gave prestige to the Bishop of Constantinople, who eventually came to be known as the Ecumenical Patriarch, vying for honour with the Pope, The Fourth Canon of the First Council of Constantinople: http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3914_689786. a situation which contributed to the Great Schism that divided Western Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy from 1054 onwards. Popularity Page depicting Constantinople in the Nuremberg Chronicle published in 1493, forty years after the city's fall to the Turks Constantinople appears as a city of wondrous majesty, beauty, remoteness, and nostalgia in William Butler Yeats' 1926 poem "Sailing to Byzantium". Robert Graves, author of I, Claudius, also wrote Count Belisarius, a historical novel about Belisarius, much of which is set in Constantinople under Justinian I. Constantinople is the setting of much of the action in Umberto Eco's 2000 novel Baudolino. Constantinople's change of name was the theme for a song made famous by The Four Lads and later covered by They Might Be Giants and many others entitled "Istanbul (Not Constantinople)". "Constantinople" was also the title of the opening track of The Residents' EP Duck Stab!, released in 1978. Constantinople under Justinian is the scene of "A Flame in Byzantium" by Chelsea Quinn Yarbro released in 1987. "Constantinople" is the title of a song by The Decemberists. Stephen Lawhead's novel Byzantium (1996) is set in 9th century Constantinople. Filmmaker Peter Jackson said he wanted images of Minas Tirith in his The Lord of the Rings trilogy to look like "Constantinople in the morning." Folk Metal band Turisas makes multiple references to Constantinople in their song "Miklagard Overture", referring to it as Konstantinopolis, Tsargrad, and Miklagard. Constantinople made an appearance in the MMORPG game; Silkroad, as a major capital, along with another Chinese major capital. References Notes Further reading See also Secular buildings and monuments: Great Palace of Constantinople Bucoleon Palace Hippodrome of Constantinople Horses of Saint Mark Obelisk of Theodosius Serpent Column Walled Obelisk Palace of the Porphyrogenitus Palace of Lausus Cistern of Philoxenos Walls of Constantinople Forum of Constantine Column of Constantine Column of Marcian Augustaion Column of Justinian Baths of Zeuxippus Basilica Cistern Valens Aqueduct MilionChurches and monasteries: Hagia Sophia Hagia Irene Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church of the Holy Apostles Nea Ekklesia Chora Church Pammakaristos Church Church of Christ Pantokrator Stoudios Monastery Church of St John the Baptist of Lips Myrelaion Church Church of Christ Pantepoptes Church of Theotokos Kyriotissa Church of St John en Trullo Church of St Theodore Church of Christ the Benefactor Church of St Andrew en te Krisei Church of St TheclaOther related topics: Istanbul Byzantium Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople University of Constantinople Nika riots Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae Sieges of Constantinople The Fall of Constantinople Golden Horn Third Rome Byzantine calendar The Turkish Tale External links Constantinople, from History of the Later Roman Empire, by J.B. Bury History of Constantinople from the "New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia." Monuments of Byzantium - Pantokrator Monastery of Constantinople Constantinoupolis on the web Select internet resources on the history and culture Info on the name change from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture Welcome to Constantinople, documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople | Constantinople |@lemmatized map:4 constantinople:84 greek:11 konstantinoúpolis:1 hē:2 pólis:2 latin:9 formal:1 ottoman:5 turkish:5 قسطنطينيه:1 konstantiniyye:1 imperial:14 capital:12 gr:3 basileúousa:1 roman:23 empire:41 byzantine:23 eastern:10 strategically:1 locate:2 golden:10 horn:6 sea:5 marmara:1 point:2 europe:12 meet:3 asia:6 christian:6 successor:1 ancient:3 greece:3 rome:19 throughout:9 middle:5 age:6 large:5 pound:2 norman:3 john:7 greville:1 historical:2 geography:1 p:15 cup:1 archive:1 isbn:3 wealthy:3 city:56 depend:1 background:1 ruler:3 often:1 several:1 different:2 name:8 give:5 time:10 among:1 common:2 byzantium:19 byzántion:1 new:23 néa:1 rhōmē:2 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3,559 | Abd-ar-Rahman_III | Abd-ar-Rahman III (Abd al-Rahmān ibn Muhammad ibn Abd Allāh; ; January 11 889 or 891 his date of birth is given as 891 in Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2 – October 15 961) was the Emir and Caliph of Córdoba (912-961) and a prince of the Ummayad dynasty in al-Andalus (Moorish Hispania). The blond-haired, blue-eyed ruler, called al-Nasir or the Defender (of the Faith), was born at Cordova on January 7, 891, the son of Prince Muhammad and a Frankish slave. Abd al-Rahman, III Biography He ascended the throne when he was twenty-two years of age and reigned for half a century as the most powerful prince of the Umayyad dynasty in Iberia. The Golden Caliphate Although under his rule, people of all creeds enjoyed tolerance and freedom of religion, he repelled the Fatimids, partly by supporting their enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the title caliph (ruler of the Islamic world) for himself. Life Early years of rule as Emir He succeeded his grandfather Abd Allāh, one of the Andalusian Umayyads, who had killed his father Muhammad. He spent the first part of his long rule (49 years) avoiding military action against the northern Christian Kingdoms of Asturias and Navarre: mainly because his early reign was troubled by revolt and tribal conflict amongst the Arabs following the harsh rule of Abd Allāh. Strife with Muslims of native Iberian descent was also a problem. Furthermore, Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians had acted with the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy. These restless nobles were the most serious of Abd-ar-Rahman's enemies, and he was to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians. He first had to suppress the revolt led by Umar ibn Hafsūn. In 913 he attacked Seville, which had allied with Hafsūn, conquering it on 20 December. The following year he campaigned in the Rayya mountains near Málaga, where his mild treatment achieved the surrender of most of the Christian castles. In 917 Hafsūn died, but the struggle continued with his son, who surrendered only after the fall of Málaga on 21 January 928. In 927, Abd-ar-Rahman launched a campaign against the rebel Banu Qasi clan, but was forced to break it off by the intervention of King Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona. Assumption of the Caliphate Despite the fact that his ancestors in Iberia had been content with the title of emir, on 16 January, 929 he declared himself as the Caliph of Córdoba, effectively breaking all allegiance to, and ties with, the Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs. Abd-ar-Rahman III The caliphate was thought only to belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina. But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd-ar-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa. He based his claim to the caliphate on his Umayyad ancestors who had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the Abbasids. In 930 Ibn Marwan surrendered, and in 932 Toledo was captured. At this point all Arabs, Iberians and Berbers submitted to Abd-ar-Rahman. In 931, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, the caliph helped the Berbers conquer Ceuta and other territories, which accepted his suzerainty. This was, however, lost a few years later. War with the Christian kingdoms of the north Even before having al-Andalus firmly under his rule, he restarted the war against King Ordoño II of León, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory. In 920 his troops had gained a first victory at Junquera and, in 924, sacked the Basque capital of Pamplona of King Sancho I. An attempt by Ramiro II of León to assist Toledo was repelled in 932. In 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and Álava, he forced Ramiro to retreat to Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son García Sánchez I. In 937 he conquered some thirty castles in León. Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim at-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city. Despite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphate army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, most likely, in part, to treason from Arabic elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, Abd-ar-Rahman stopped taking personal command of his military campaigns. His cause was however helped by Fernán González of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro. Later years Abd-ar-Rahman was accused of having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of the harem. Article on WikiSource . He is known to have openly kept a male as well as female harem Encyclopedia of Medieval Iberia, ed. Michael Gerli (New York: Routledge, 2003), 398–399. This likely influenced the polemical story of falling in love with a thirteen-year old boy (later enshrined as a Christian martyr and canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba) who refused the Caliph's advances. However, the love story may have been a construct on top of an original tale, in which he ordered the boy-slave to convert to Islam. Either way, enraged, he had the boy tortured and dismembered, thus serving as Christian polemic demonising Muslims. Walter Andrews and Mehmet Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, Duke University Press, 2005; p.2 Mark D. Jordan, The Invention of Sodomy in Christian Theology, Chicago, 1997; pp.10-28 . In 951 he signed a peace with the new king of León, Ordoño III, in order to have free hand against the Fatimids in North Africa. He was however able only to launch an expedition against Ifrīqiya, in the area of Tunis. In the meantime, Ordoño's half-brother and successor, Sancho the Fat, had been deposed by his cousin Ordoño IV, and, together with grandmother Toda of Navarre, Sancho sued for an alliance with Córdoba. In exchange for some castles, Abd-ar-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora (959) and Oviedo (960) and to overthrow Ordoño IV. Abd-ar-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba. He died in October 961, and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II. Legacy Abd-ar-Rahman was a patron of arts, and especially architecture. A third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded and a third spent on buildings. After declaring the caliphate, he had a massive palace complex, known as the Medina Azahara, built some 5 kilometers north of Córdoba. The Medina Azahara was modelled after the old Umayyad palace in Damascus and served as a symbolic tie between the new caliph and his ancestors. Under his reign, Córdoba became the most important intellectual centre of Western Europe. He expanded the city's library, which would be further enriched by his successors. He also reinforced the Iberian fleet, which became the most powerful in the Mediterranean Europe. Iberian raiders moved up to Galicia, Asturias and North Africa. The colonizers of Fraxinetum came from al-Andalus as well. References Related subjects Unfortunately, while there is copious Spanish and Arabic literature on this period, little appears to have been translated into English. Coope, Scales and Woolf provide important social and historical overviews of Christian/Muslim relations within the Caliphate of Córdoba during its history that may provide historical context for this subject. 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3,560 | Aeschylus | Aeschylus ( or , Greek: Ασχύλος, Aiskhylos, c. 525 BC/524 BC c. 456 BC/455 BC) was an ancient Greek playwright. He is often recognized as the father of tragedy, and is the earliest of the three Greek tragedians whose plays survive, the others being Sophocles and Euripides. According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in plays to allow for conflict among them; previously, characters interacted only with the chorus. Only seven of an estimated seventy to ninety plays by Aeschylus have survived into modern times; one of these plays, Prometheus Bound, is widely thought to be the work of a later author. At least one of Aeschylus' works was influenced by the Persian invasion of Greece, which took place during his lifetime. His play The Persians remains a good primary source of information about this period in Greek history. The war was so important to the Greeks and to Aeschylus himself that, upon his death around 456 BC, his epitaph commemorated his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon but not to his success as a playwright. Life There are no reliable sources for the life of Aeschylus. He was said to have been born in c. 525 in Eleusis, a small town about 27 kilometers northwest of Athens, which is nestled in the fertile valleys of western Attica, though the date is most likely based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia. His family was both wealthy and well-established; his father Euphorion was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica. As a youth, he worked at a vineyard until, according to the 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias, the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep and commanded him to turn his attention to the nascent art of tragedy. As soon as he woke from the dream, the young Aeschylus began writing a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499 BC, when he was only 26 years old; He would eventually win his first victory at the City Dionysia in 484 BC. The Persian Wars would play a large role in the playwright's life and career. In 490 BC, Aeschylus and his brother Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against Darius's invading Persian army at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians, though outnumbered, encircled and slaughtered the Persian army. This pivotal defeat ended the first Persian invasion of Greece proper and was celebrated across the city-states of Greece. Though Athens was victorious, Cynegeirus died in the battle. In 480, he was called into military service again, this time against Xerxes' invading forces at the Battle of Salamis, and perhaps, too, at the Battle of Plataea in 479. Salamis holds a prominent place in The Persians, his oldest surviving play, which was performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia. Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who had been initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, a cult to Demeter based in his hometown of Eleusis. Martin 2000,loc=§10.1}} As the name implies, members of the cult were supposed to have gained some sort of mystical, secret knowledge. Firm details of the Mysteries' specific rites are sparse, as members were sworn under the penalty of death not to reveal anything about the Mysteries to non-initiates. Nevertheless, according to Aristotle some thought that Aeschylus had revealed some of the cult's secrets on stage. Nicomachean Ethics 1111a8-10. According to other sources, an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot, but he fled the scene. When he stood trial for his offense, Aeschylus pleaded ignorance and was only spared because of his brave service in the Persian Wars. Aeschylus traveled to Sicily once or twice in the 470s BC, having been invited by Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, a major Greek city on the eastern side of the island; during one of these trips he produced The Women of Aetna (in honor of the city founded by Hieron) and restaged his Persians. By 473 BC, after the death of Phrynichus, one of his chief rivals, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition. In 458 BC, he returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela where he died in 456 or 455 BC. It is claimed that he was killed by a tortoise which fell out of the sky after it was dropped by an eagle, but this story is very likely apocryphal. See (e.g.) Lefkowitz 1981, 67ff. Cf. Sommerstein 2002, 33, who entirely ignores this story when giving a biographical sketch of the poet. Aeschylus' work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death, his were the only tragedies allowed to be restaged in subsequent competitions. His sons Euphorion and Euæon and his nephew Philocles would follow in his footsteps and become playwrights themselves. The inscription on Aeschylus' gravestone makes no mention of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his military achievements: GreekEnglish This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide, Euphorion's son and fruitful Gela's pride How tried his valour, Marathon may tell And long-haired Medes, who knew it all too well. Works Modern picture of the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, where many of Aeschylus' plays were performed The Greek art of the drama had its roots in religious festivals for the gods, chiefly Dionysus, the god of wine. During Aeschylus' lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the City Dionysia in the spring. The festival began with an opening procession, continued with a competition of boys singing dithyrambs, and culminated in a pair of dramatic competitions. The first competition, which Aeschylus would have participated in, was for the tragedians, and consisted of three playwrights each presenting three tragic plays followed by a shorter comedic satyr play. A second competition of five comedic playwrights followed, and the winners of both competitions were chosen by a panel of judges. Aeschylus entered many of these competitions in his lifetime, and various ancient sources attribute between seventy and ninety plays to him. Only seven tragedies have survived intact: The Persians, Seven against Thebes, The Suppliants, the trilogy known as The Oresteia, consisting of the three tragedies Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers and The Eumenides, and Prometheus Bound (whose authorship is disputed). With the exception of this last play—the success of which is uncertain—all of Aeschylus' extant tragedies are known to have won first prize at the City Dionysia. The Alexandrian Life of Aeschylus indicates that the playwright took the first prize at the City Dionysia thirteen times. This compares favorably with Sophocles' reported eighteen victories (with a substantially larger catalogue, at an estimated 120 plays), and dwarfs the five victories of Euripides (who featured a catalogue of roughly 90 plays). One hallmark of Aeschylean dramaturgy appears to have been his tendency to write connected trilogies in which each play serves as a chapter in a continuous dramatic narrative. The Oresteia is the only wholly extant example of this type of connected trilogy, but there is ample evidence that Aeschylus wrote such trilogies often. The comic satyr plays that would follow his dramatic trilogies often treated a related mythic topic. For example, the Oresteia'''s satyr play Proteus treated the story of Menelaus's detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War. Based on the evidence provided by a catalogue of Aeschylean play titles, scholia, and play fragments recorded by later authors, it is assumed that three other of Aeschylus' extant plays were components of connected trilogies: Seven against Thebes being the final play in an Oedipus trilogy, and The Suppliants and Prometheus Bound each being the first play in a Danaid trilogy and Prometheus trilogy, respectively (see below). Scholars have moreover suggested several completely lost trilogies derived from known play titles. A number of these trilogies treated myths surrounding the Trojan War. One—collectively called the Achilleis and comprising the titles Myrmidons, Nereids and Phrygians (alternately, The Ransoming of Hector)—recounts Hector's death at the hands of Achilles and the subsequent holding of Hector's body for ransom; another trilogy apparently recounts the entry of the Trojan ally Memnon into the war, and his death at the hands of Achilles (Memnon and The Weighing of Souls being two components of the trilogy); The Award of the Arms, The Phrygian Women, and The Salaminian Women suggest a trilogy about the madness and subsequent suicide of the Greek hero Ajax; Aeschylus also seems to have treated Odysseus' return to Ithaca after the war (including his killing of his wife Penelope's suitors and its consequences) with a trilogy consisting of The Soul-raisers, Penelope and The Bone-gatherers. Other suggested trilogies touched on the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (Argô, Lemnian Women, Hypsipylê); the life of Perseus (The Net-draggers, Polydektês, Phorkides); the birth and exploits of Dionysus (Semele, Bacchae, Pentheus); and the aftermath of the war portrayed in Seven against Thebes (Eleusinians, Argives (or Argive Women), Sons of the Seven). Sommerstein 2002, 34. The Persians The earliest of the plays that still exists is The Persians (Persai), performed in 472 BC and based on experiences in Aeschylus' own life, specifically the Battle of Salamis. It is unique among Greek tragedies in treating a recent historical event rather than a heroic or divine myth. The Persians focuses on the popular Greek theme of hubris by blaming Persia's loss on the overwhelming pride of its king. It opens with the arrival of a messenger in Susa, the Persian capital, bearing news of the catastrophic Persian defeat at Salamis to Atossa, the mother of the Persian King Xerxes. Atossa then travels to the tomb of Darius, her husband, where his ghost appears to explain the cause of the defeat. It is, he says, the result of Xerxes' hubris in building a bridge across the Hellespont, an action which angered the gods. Xerxes appears at the end of the play, not realizing the cause of his defeat, and the play closes to lamentations by Xerxes and the chorus. Vellacott: 7–19 Seven against ThebesSeven against Thebes (Hepta epi Thebas), which was performed in 467 BC, picks up a contrasting theme, that of fate and the interference of the gods in human affairs. It also marks the first known appearance in Aeschylus' work of a theme which would continue through his plays, that of the polis (the city) being a vital development of human civilization. The play tells the story of Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of the shamed King of Thebes, Oedipus. The sons agree to alternate in the throne of the city, but after the first year Eteocles refuses to step down, and Polynices wages war to claim his crown. The brothers go on to kill each other in single combat, and the original ending of the play consisted of lamentations for the dead brothers. A new ending was added to the play some fifty years later: Antigone and Ismene mourn their dead brothers, a messenger enters announcing an edict prohibiting the burial of Polynices; and finally, Antigone declares her intention to defy this edict. Aeschylus. "Prometheus Bound, The Suppliants, Seven Against Thebes, The Persians." Philip Vellacott's Introduction, pp.7-19. Penguin Classics. The play was the third in a connected Oedipus trilogy; the first two plays were Laius and Oedipus, likely treating those elements of the Oedipus myth detailed most famously in Sophocles' Oedipus the King. The concluding satyr play was The Sphinx. Sommerstein 2002, 23. The Suppliants Aeschylus would continue his emphasis on the polis with The Suppliants in 463 BC (Hiketides), which pays tribute to the democratic undercurrents running through Athens in advance of the establishment of a democratic government in 461. In the play, the Danaids, the fifty daughters of Danaus, founder of Argos, flee a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt. They turn to King Pelasgus of Argos for protection, but Pelasgus refuses until the people of Argos weigh in on the decision, a distinctly democratic move on the part of the king. The people decide that the Danaids deserve protection, and they are allowed within the walls of Argos despite Egyptian protests. The 1952 publication of Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2256 fr. 3 confirmed a long-assumed (because of The Suppliants cliffhanger ending) Danaid trilogy, whose constituent plays are generally agreed to be The Suppliants, The Aegyptids and The Danaids. A plausible reconstruction of the trilogy's last two-thirds runs thus See (e.g.) Turner 2001, 36-39; Sommerstein 1996, 141-51. : In The Aegyptids, the Argive-Egyptian war threatened in the first play has transpired. During the course of the war, King Pelasgus has been killed, and Danaus comes to rule Argos. He negotiates a peace settlement with Aegyptus, as a condition of which, his fifty daughters will marry the fifty sons of Aegyptus. Danaus secretly informs his daughters of an oracle predicting that one of his sons-in-law would kill him; he therefore orders the Danaids to murder the Aegyptids on their wedding night. His daughters agree. The Danaids would open the day after the wedding. In short order, it is revealed that forty-nine of the Danaids killed their husbands as ordered; Hypermnestra, however, loved her husband Lynceus, and thus spared his life and helped him to escape. Angered by his daughter's disobedience, Danaus orders her imprisonment and, possibly, her execution. In the trilogy's climax and dénouement, Lynceus reveals himself to Danaus, and kills him (thus fulfilling the oracle). He and Hypermnestra will establish a ruling dynasty in Argos. The other forty-nine Danaids are absolved of their murderous crime, and married off to unspecified Argive men. The satyr play following this trilogy was titled Amymone, after one of the Danaids. Sommerstein 2002, 89. The Oresteia The most complete tetralogy of Aeschylus' work that still exists is the Oresteia (458 BC), of which only the satyr play is missing. In fact, the Oresteia is the only full trilogy of Greek plays by any playwright that modern scholars have uncovered. The trilogy consists of Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers (Choephoroi), and The Eumenides. Together, these plays tell the bloody story of the family of Agamemnon, King of Argos. Agamemnon Agamemnon describes his death at the hands of his wife Clytemnestra, who was angry both at Agamemnon's sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia and at his keeping the Trojan prophetess Cassandra as a concubine. Cassandra enters the palace even though she knows she will be murdered by Clytemnestra as well, knowing that she cannot avoid her gruesome fate. The ending of the play includes a prediction of the return of Orestes, son of Agamemnon, who will surely avenge his father.The Libation BearersThe Libation Bearers continues the tale, opening with Clytemnestra's account of a nightmare in which she gives birth to a snake. She orders Electra, her daughter, to pour libations on Agamemnon's tomb (with the assistance of libation bearers) in hope of making amends. At the tomb, Electra meets Orestes, who has returned from protective exile in Phocis, and they plan revenge upon Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus together. They enter the palace pretending to bear news of Orestes' death, and when Clytemnestra calls in Aegisthus to share in the news, Orestes kills them both. Immediately, Orestes is beset by the Furies, who avenge patricide and matricide in Greek mythology. The Eumenides The final play of The Oresteia addresses the question of Orestes' guilt. The Furies pursue Orestes from Argos and into the wilderness. Orestes makes his way to the temple of Apollo and begs him to drive the Furies away. Apollo had encouraged Orestes to kill Clytemnestra, and so bears a portion of the guilt of the act. But the Furies belong to the older race of the Titans, and Apollo is unable to drive them away. He sends Orestes to the temple of Athena, with Hermes as a guide. There, the Furies track him down and, just before he is to be killed, the goddess Athena, patron of Athens, steps in and declares that a trial is necessary. Apollo argues Orestes' case and, after the jury splits their vote, Athena decides against the Furies. She also renames them the Eumenides, or kindly ones, and declares that thereafter all future hung juries should result in acquittal, since mercy should take precedence over harshness. The Eumenides specifically extols the importance of reason in the development of laws, and, like The Suppliants, lauds the ideals of a democratic Athens. Prometheus Bound In addition to these six works, a seventh tragedy, Prometheus Bound, is uniformly attributed to Aeschylus by ancient authorities. Since the late nineteenth century, however, modern scholarship has increasingly doubted this ascription largely on stylistic grounds. Its production date is also in dispute, with theories ranging from the 480's BC to as late as the 410's. The play consists mostly of static dialogue, as throughout the play the Titan Prometheus is bound to a rock as punishment from the Olympian Zeus for providing fire to humans. The god Hephaestus, the Titan Oceanus, and the chorus of Oceanids all express sympathy for Prometheus' plight. Prometheus meets , a fellow victim of Zeus' cruelty; he prophesies for her future travels, and reveals that one of her descendants will eventually free Prometheus. The play closes with Zeus sending Prometheus into the abyss because Prometheus refuses to divulge the secret of a potential marriage that could be Zeus' downfall. The Prometheus Bound appears to have been the first play in a trilogy called the Prometheia. In the second play, Prometheus Unbound, Heracles is supposed to free Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat Prometheus' perpetually regenerating liver. Perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus, we learn that Zeus has released the other Titans whom he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy. In the trilogy's conclusion, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer, it appears that the Titan finally warns Zeus not to lie with the sea nymph Thetis, for she is fated to give birth to a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus marries Thetis off to the mortal Peleus; the product of that union will be Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. After reconciling with Prometheus, Zeus perhaps inaugurates a festival in his honor at Athens. For a discussion of the trilogy's reconstruction, see (e.g.) Conacher 1980, 100-2. Influence on Greek drama and culture Mosaic of Orestes, main character in Aeschylus' only surviving trilogy, The Oresteia When Aeschylus first began writing, the theatre had only just begun to evolve, although earlier playwrights like Thespis had expanded the cast to include an actor who was able to interact with the chorus. Aeschylus added a second actor, allowing for greater dramatic variety, while the chorus played a less important role. He is sometimes credited with introducing skenographia, or scene-decoration According to Vitruvius. See Summers 2007, 23. , though Aristotle gives this distinction to Sophocles. Aeschylus is moreover said to have made innovations in costuming—making the costumes more elaborate and dramatic, and having his actors wear platform boots (cothurni) to make them more visible to the audience. According to a later account of Aeschylus' life, as they walked on stage in the first performance of the Eumenides, the chorus of Furies were so frightening in appearance that they caused young children to faint, patriarchs to urinate, and pregnant women to go into labor. Life of Aeschylus. Overall, though, he continued to write within the very strict bounds of Greek drama: his plays were written in verse, no violence could be performed on stage, and the plays had to have a certain remoteness from daily life in Athens, either by relating stories about the gods or by being set, like The Persians, in far-away locales. Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis. The Oresteia trilogy particularly concentrated on man's position in the cosmos in relation to the gods, divine law, and divine punishment. Aeschylus' abiding popularity is perhaps most evident in the praise the comic playwright Aristophanes gives him in The Frogs, produced some half-century after Aeschylus' death. Appearing as a character in the play, Aeschylus claims at line 1022 that his Seven against Thebes "made everyone watching it to love being warlike"; with his Persians, Aeschylus claims at lines 1026-7 that he "taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies." Aeschylus goes on to say at lines 1039ff. that his plays inspired the Athenians to be brave and virtuous. Influence outside of Greek Culture Aeschylus' works were influential beyond his own time. Hugh Lloyd-Jones (Regius Professor of Greek Emeritus at Oxford University) wrote extensively on Wagner's reverence of Aeschylus and the ensuing effect on his works. Michael Ewans argues in his Wagner and Aeschylus. The 'Ring' and the 'Oresteia (London: Faber. 1982) that the influence was so great as to merit a direct comparison, character by character, of Wagner's 'Ring' and Aeschylus' 'Orestia.' Reviews of his book, while not denying Lloyd-Jones' views that Wagner read and respected Aeschylus, refute Ewans' arguments on the grounds that they seem unreasonable and forced. Sir J. T. Sheppard argues in the second half of his Aeschylus and Sophocles: Their Work and Influence that Aeschylus, along with Sophocles, had a major part in the formation of dramatic literature from the Renaissance to the present, specifically in French and Elizabethan drama. He also claims that their influence went beyond just drama and applies to literature in general, citing Milton and the Romantics as his prime examples. See also Asteroid 2876 Aeschylus, which is named for him Theatre of ancient Greece Notes References . . . Lefkowitz, Mary (1981). The Lives of the Greek Poets. University of North Carolina Press. . . . —(2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. London: Routledge Press. ISBN 0415260272 Summers, David (2007). Vision, Reflection, and Desire in Western Painting. University of North Carolina Press. Thomson, George (1973) Aeschylus and Athens: A Study in the Social Origin of Drama. London: Lawrence and Wishart (4th edition) Turner, Chad (2001). "Perverted Supplication and Other Inversions in Aeschylus' Danaid Trilogy." Classical Journal 97.1, 27-50. Vellacott, Philip, (1961). Prometheus Bound and Other Plays: Prometheus Bound, Seven Against Thebes, and The Persians. New York:Penguin Classics. ISBN 0140441123 Æschylus. Aeschylus I: Oresteia. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Eighth ed. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago P, 1960. 1-31. External links Selected Poems of Aeschylus Aeschylus-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library Online English Translations of Aeschylus Photo of a fragment of The Net-pullers "Aeschylus, I: Persians" from the Loeb Classical Library®, Harvard University Press "Aeschylus, II: The Oresteia" from the Loeb Classical Library®, Harvard University Press "Aeschylus, III: Fragments" from the Loeb Classical Library®, Harvard University Press | Aeschylus |@lemmatized aeschylus:60 greek:21 ασχύλος:1 aiskhylos:1 c:3 bc:18 ancient:5 playwright:10 often:3 recognize:1 father:4 tragedy:9 early:3 three:5 tragedian:2 whose:3 play:53 survive:5 others:1 sophocles:6 euripides:2 accord:6 aristotle:3 expand:2 number:2 character:6 allow:4 conflict:1 among:2 previously:1 interact:2 chorus:6 seven:10 estimated:2 seventy:2 ninety:2 modern:4 time:5 one:11 prometheus:22 bound:10 widely:1 think:1 work:12 late:5 author:2 least:1 influence:6 persian:21 invasion:2 greece:4 take:4 place:3 lifetime:3 remain:1 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3,561 | Adin_Steinsaltz | Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz (Hebrew: עדין שטיינזלץ) or Adin Even Yisrael (Hebrew: עדין אבן ישראל) (born 1937) is most commonly known for his popular commentary and translation of both Talmuds into Hebrew, French, Russian and Spanish. In 1988, he was awarded the Israel Prize, Israel's highest honor. Steinsaltz is a noted rabbi, scholar, philosopher, social critic and author world wide whose background also includes extensive scientific training. In 1988, Time magazine praised him as an "once-in-a-millennium scholar." "A society must ask, seek and demand, that each individual give something of himself. From the sum of these small offerings. It can then build itself anew. If all of us light the candle of our souls, the world will be filled with light." -Adin Steinsaltz Biography Born in Jerusalem in 1937 to secular parents, Steinsaltz studied physics, chemistry, mathematics, and sociology at the Hebrew University, in addition to rabbinical studies. Following graduation, he established several experimental schools and, at the age of 23, became Israel’s youngest school principal, a record still unbroken. In 1965, he founded the Israel Institute for Talmudic Publications and began his monumental translation to Hebrew, English, Russian, and various other languages. His edition of the Talmud includes his own explanation of the text and a complete commentary on the Talmud. Steinsaltz first translates the Talmud into Modern Hebrew from the original Aramaic and rabbinical Hebrew and adds his explanations, the other language editions are translations of the Hebrew. The only rival to Steinsaltz is Artscroll's similarly popular Schottenstein Edition Talmud (translated first into English and then other languages). To date, he has published 42 of the anticipated 46 volumes. While not without criticism (e.g. by Neusner, 1998), the Steinsaltz edition is widely used throughout Israel, the United States and the world. Over 2 million volumes of the Steinsaltz Talmud have been distributed to date. The out of print Random House publication of The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition is widely regarded as the most accurate and least redacted of any English language edition and is sought after on that basis by scholars and collectors. Controversial Talmud passages previously obscured, omitted entirely or confined to footnotes in English translations like the Soncino Talmud, receive full exposition in the Steinsaltz Talmud. Random House halted publication of the Steinsaltz Talmud after less than one-third of the English translation had been published. The reasons for halting publication by Random House are disputed. His translation of the Talmud from Aramaic (or rabbinical Hebrew to Modern Hebrew) has increased the number of people who are able to study its content. His translation opened the door for women who traditionally are not taught Talmud, and are therefore not proficient in Aramaic, to study the Talmud. Modern Orthodox High Schools and Seminaries teach women Talmud using his translation. The number of men capable of studying Talmud also increased as a result of Steinzaltz' work. Regarding the access that his work provides, Steinsaltz says: “I never thought that spreading ignorance has any advantage, except for those who are in a position of power and want to deprive others of their rights and spread ignorance in order to keep them underlings. My gemarot are surely used, if they are used anywhere, in Matan [a yeshiva for Orthodox women in Jerusalem], from beginning to end. Why? Because they help skip the elementary school level of training. That makes learning Talmud for them possible, and if it is possible then it is challenging and some of the men don’t want that challenge.” The Rabbi’s classic work of Kabbalah, The Thirteen Petalled Rose, was first published in 1980 and now appears in eight languages. In all, Rabbi Steinsaltz has authored some 60 books and hundreds of articles on subjects including Talmud, Jewish mysticism, Jewish philosophy, sociology, historical biography, and philosophy. Many of these works have been translated into English by his close personal friend, now deceased, Yehuda Hanegbi. Continuing his work as a teacher and spiritual mentor, Rabbi Steinsaltz established a network of schools and educational institutions in Israel and the former Soviet Union. He has served as scholar in residence at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C. and the Institute for Advanced Studies at Princeton University. His honorary degrees include doctorates from Yeshiva University, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Bar Ilan University, Brandeis University, and Florida International University. Rabbi Steinsaltz is also Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshivat Hesder Tekoa, and functions as Nasi in an attempt to revive the Sanhedrin. Rabbi Steinsaltz was honored with the Israel Prize in 1988 in the field of Jewish studies. Being a personal friend and follower of the late Grand Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson of Chabad-Lubavitch, he went to help Jews in the Soviet Union assisting Chabad's shluchim network. Deeply involved in the future of the Jews in the former Soviet Union, Steinsaltz serves as the region's Duchovny Ravin, a historic Russian title which indicates that he is the spiritual mentor of Russian Jewry. In this capacity, Steinsaltz travelled to Russia and the Republics once each month from his home in Jerusalem. During his time in the former Soviet Union he founded the Jewish University, both in Moscow and Saint Petersburg. The Jewish University is the first degree-granting institution of Jewish studies ever established in the former Soviet Union. He has conducted interfaith work with several Cardinals in the Roman Catholic Church. Cardinals Meet For a Dialogue With Top Rabbis Rabbi Steinsaltz and his wife live in Jerusalem, and have three children and eleven grandchildren. His son, Rabbi Menachem Even-Israel, is the Director of Educational Programs at the Steinsaltz Center in the Nachlaot neighborhood of Jerusalem. As a speaker Steinsaltz is a popular University and radio commentator. He has been invited to speak at the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies at Yale University in 1979. In Jerusalem, he gives evening seminars, which according to Newsweek usually last till 2 in the morning, and have attracted prominent politicians as the former Prime Minister Levi Eshkol and former Finance Minister Pinhas Sapir. As Head of the new Sanhedrin Rabbi Steinsaltz accepted a position as Nasi (President) of a recent attempt to revive the Sanhedrin. Prior to the actual meeting of the new Sanhedrin, Rabbi Steinsaltz advised sticking strictly to devotional matters, focusing on gaining broadened acceptance in the traditional Jewish community, and steering clear of matters of politics. Since meeting, however, the new Sanhedrin appears to have disagreed. It established a division on state matters which takes a nationalistic position on matters of foreign policy and seeks to establish the new Sanhedrin as an upper theocratic political chamber with veto power over Israeli state laws and government actions it deems inconsistent with Halakha, traditional Jewish law. The new Sanhedrin has encountered extensive controversy, with opposition to its claims to religious legitimacy and its proposed role in the State. Rabbi Steinsaltz has not endorsed the Sanhedrin's current direction, but has remained in his position as Nasi. References Related information Modern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin External links Steinsaltz.org - The website of The Aleph Society and Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz Steinsaltz's lecture in winter 2005 at Florida International University Rabbi Steinsaltz talks about the Torah to BBC (sound file) Some articles written by Rabbi Adin Even-Yisrael Steinsaltz | Adin_Steinsaltz |@lemmatized rabbi:18 adin:6 steinsaltz:30 hebrew:10 עדין:2 שטיינזלץ:1 even:4 yisrael:2 אבן:1 ישראל:1 born:1 commonly:1 know:1 popular:3 commentary:2 translation:8 talmud:18 french:1 russian:4 spanish:1 award:1 israel:8 prize:2 high:2 honor:2 noted:1 scholar:5 philosopher:1 social:1 critic:1 author:2 world:3 wide:1 whose:1 background:1 also:3 include:4 extensive:2 scientific:1 training:2 time:2 magazine:1 praise:1 millennium:1 society:2 must:1 ask:1 seek:3 demand:1 individual:1 give:2 something:1 sum:1 small:1 offering:1 build:1 anew:1 u:1 light:2 candle:1 soul:1 fill:1 biography:2 bear:1 jerusalem:6 secular:1 parent:1 study:9 physic:1 chemistry:1 mathematics:1 sociology:2 university:12 addition:1 rabbinical:3 follow:1 graduation:1 establish:5 several:2 experimental:1 school:5 age:1 become:1 young:1 principal:1 record:1 still:1 unbroken:1 found:2 institute:3 talmudic:1 publication:4 begin:2 monumental:1 english:6 various:1 language:5 edition:6 explanation:2 text:1 complete:1 first:4 translate:3 modern:4 original:1 aramaic:3 add:1 rival:1 artscroll:1 similarly:1 schottenstein:1 date:2 publish:3 anticipated:1 volume:2 without:1 criticism:1 e:1 g:1 neusner:1 widely:2 use:4 throughout:1 united:1 state:4 million:1 distribute:1 print:1 random:3 house:3 regard:2 accurate:1 least:1 redacted:1 basis:1 collector:1 controversial:1 passages:1 previously:1 obscure:1 omit:1 entirely:1 confine:1 footnote:1 like:1 soncino:1 receive:1 full:1 exposition:1 halt:2 less:1 one:1 third:1 reason:1 dispute:1 increase:2 number:2 people:1 able:1 content:1 open:1 door:1 woman:3 traditionally:1 taught:1 therefore:1 proficient:1 orthodox:2 seminary:1 teach:1 men:2 capable:1 result:1 steinzaltz:1 work:6 access:1 provide:1 say:1 never:1 think:1 spread:2 ignorance:2 advantage:1 except:1 position:4 power:2 want:2 deprive:1 others:1 right:1 order:1 keep:1 underling:1 gemarot:1 surely:1 anywhere:1 matan:1 yeshiva:3 end:1 help:2 skip:1 elementary:1 level:1 make:1 learn:1 possible:2 challenge:2 classic:1 kabbalah:1 thirteen:1 petalled:1 rise:1 appear:2 eight:1 book:1 hundred:1 article:2 subject:1 jewish:8 mysticism:1 philosophy:2 historical:1 many:1 close:1 personal:2 friend:2 decease:1 yehuda:1 hanegbi:1 continue:1 teacher:1 spiritual:2 mentor:2 network:2 educational:2 institution:2 former:6 soviet:5 union:5 serve:1 residence:1 woodrow:1 wilson:1 international:3 center:2 washington:1 c:1 advanced:1 princeton:1 honorary:1 degree:2 doctorate:1 ben:1 gurion:1 negev:1 bar:1 ilan:1 brandeis:1 florida:2 rosh:1 yeshivat:1 hesder:1 tekoa:1 function:1 nasi:3 attempt:3 revive:3 sanhedrin:9 field:1 follower:1 late:1 grand:1 menachem:2 mendel:1 schneerson:1 chabad:2 lubavitch:1 go:1 jew:2 assist:1 shluchim:1 deeply:1 involve:1 future:1 serf:1 region:1 duchovny:1 ravin:1 historic:1 title:1 indicate:1 jewry:1 capacity:1 travel:1 russia:1 republic:1 month:1 home:1 moscow:1 saint:1 petersburg:1 grant:1 ever:1 conduct:1 interfaith:1 cardinal:2 roman:1 catholic:1 church:1 meet:1 dialogue:1 top:1 wife:1 live:1 three:1 child:1 eleven:1 grandchild:1 son:1 director:1 program:1 nachlaot:1 neighborhood:1 speaker:1 radio:1 commentator:1 invite:1 speak:1 aspen:1 humanistic:1 yale:1 seminar:1 accord:1 newsweek:1 usually:1 last:1 till:1 morning:1 attract:1 prominent:1 politician:1 prime:1 minister:2 levi:1 eshkol:1 finance:1 pinhas:1 sapir:1 head:1 new:5 accept:1 president:1 recent:1 prior:1 actual:1 meeting:2 advise:1 stick:1 strictly:1 devotional:1 matter:4 focus:1 gain:1 broaden:1 acceptance:1 traditional:2 community:1 steer:1 clear:1 politics:1 since:1 however:1 disagree:1 division:1 take:1 nationalistic:1 foreign:1 policy:1 upper:1 theocratic:1 political:1 chamber:1 veto:1 israeli:1 law:2 government:1 action:1 deem:1 inconsistent:1 halakha:1 encounter:1 controversy:1 opposition:1 claim:1 religious:1 legitimacy:1 propose:1 role:1 endorse:1 current:1 direction:1 remain:1 reference:1 related:1 information:1 external:1 link:1 org:1 website:1 aleph:1 lecture:1 winter:1 talk:1 torah:1 bbc:1 sound:1 file:1 write:1 |@bigram rabbi_adin:4 adin_steinsaltz:4 rabbi_steinsaltz:9 soviet_union:5 woodrow_wilson:1 ben_gurion:1 rabbi_menachem:2 menachem_mendel:1 mendel_schneerson:1 chabad_lubavitch:1 saint_petersburg:1 prime_minister:1 levi_eshkol:1 external_link:1 |
3,562 | Human_sexual_activity | Human sexual behavior or human sexual practices or human sexual activities refers to the manner in which humans experience and express their sexuality. It encompass a wide range of activities such as strategies to find or attract partners (mating and display behaviour), interactions between individuals, physical or emotional intimacy, and sexual contact. Although some cultures hold that sexual activity is acceptable only within marriage, extramarital sex still takes place within such cultures. Some sexual activities are illegal either universally or in some countries, and some are considered against the norms of a society. For example, sexual activities with a minor is considered a criminal offense as is sexual abuse of individuals in general. As a basic instinct, the sexual drive can be expressed through activity without a partner, through masturbation and/or sexual fantasy, however "sexual activity" normally refers to acts involving at least two people. Aspects of human sexual behavior Sexual pleasure Sexual pleasure is the pleasure a person derives from any kind of sexual activity, most commonly through orgasm. The most common pleasurable sexual activities are masturbation and sexual intercourse, and includes foreplay. Some people derive sexual pleasure from fetishism and/or BDSM. Sex and Relationships - Sex - 4Health from Channel 4 Improve your orgasm: you may have thought your sexual pleasure was the one thing that couldn't get any better. Think again - Sexual Fitness - physiology | Men's Fitness | Find Articles at BNET.com Cultural aspects As with other behaviors, human intelligence and complex societies have produced among the most complicated sexual behaviors of any animal. Most people experiment with a range of sexual activities during their lives, though they tend to engage in only a few of these regularly. Most people enjoy some sexual activities. However, most societies have defined some sexual activities as inappropriate (wrong person, wrong activity, wrong place, etc.) Some people enjoy many different sexual activities, while others avoid sexual activities altogether for religious or other reasons (see chastity, sexual abstinence). Some societies and religions view sex as appropriate only within marriage. Coitus, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV century) Social norms and rules Human sexual behavior, like many other kinds of activity engaged in by human beings, is generally governed by social rules that are culturally specific and vary widely. These social rules are referred to as sexual morality (what can and can not be done by society's rules) and sexual norms (what is and is not expected). In the United States, attitudes towards premarital sex and the use of contraceptives correlate to religious beliefs and political affiliation. Margaret Talbot, Red Sex, Blue Sex, from The New Yorker, November 3, 2008 Sexual ethics, morals, and norms relate to issues including deception/honesty, legality, fidelity and consent. Some activities, known as sex crimes in some locations, are illegal in some jurisdictions, including those conducted between (or among) consenting and competent adults (examples include sodomy law and adult-adult incest). Some people who are in a relationship but want to hide homosexual or heterosexual activity from their partner, may solicit consensual sexual activity with others through personal contacts, online chat rooms, or, advertising in select media. Some people engage in various sexual activities as a business transaction. When this involves having sex with, or performing certain actual sexual acts for another person in exchange for money or something of value, it is called prostitution. Other aspects of the adult industry include (for example) telephone sex operators, strip clubs, pornography and the like. Nearly all developed societies consider it a serious crime to force someone to engage in sexual behavior or to engage in sexual behavior with someone who does not consent. This is called sexual assault, and if sexual penetration occurs it is called rape, the most serious kind of sexual assault. The details of this distinction may vary among different legal jurisdictions. Also, precisely what constitutes effective consent to have sex varies from culture to culture and is frequently debated. Laws regulating the minimum age at which a person can consent to have sex (age of consent) are frequently the subject of political and moral debate , as is adolescent sexual behavior in general. Additionally, many societies have forced marriage, so consent does not really figure in to the equation of a sex crime. Frequency of sexual activity The frequency of sexual intercourse might range from zero (sexual abstinence) to 15 or 20 times a week. Sexual health: An interview with a Mayo Clinic specialist The average frequency of sexual intercourse for married couples is 2 to 3 times a week (in America). It is generally recognized that postmenopausal women experience declines in frequency of sexual intercourse and that average frequency of intercourse declines with age. According to the Kinsey Institute, average frequency of sexual intercourse in USA is 112 times per year (age 18-29), 86 times per year (age 30-39), and 69 times per year (age 40-49). Safety and ancillary issues There are four main areas of risk in sexual activity, namely: choosing to trust a partner who is physically at risk seeking or engaging in an activity which is legally or culturally disapproved sexually transmitted disease unwanted pregnancy These risks are raised by any condition (temporary or permanent) which impairs one's judgment, such as excess alcohol or other drugs, or emotional states such as loneliness, depression or euphoria. Carefully considered activity can greatly reduce all of these issues. Sexual behaviors that involve contact with the bodily fluids of another person entail risk of transmission of sexually transmitted disease. Safe sex practices try to avoid this. These techniques are often seen as less necessary for those in committed relationships with persons known to be free of disease; see fluid bonding. Due to health concerns arising from HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrhea, HPV and other sexually transmitted infections, some people may want potential sex partners to be tested for STDs before engaging in sex. Sexual behaviors that involve the contact of semen with the vagina or vulva may result in pregnancy. To prevent pregnancy, many people employ a variety of birth control measures. The most popular methods of prevention are condoms, spermicides, hormonal contraception, and sterilization. Safety issues can arise with alcohol and sex, as the disinhibition from alcohol can decrease judgment and result in individuals engaging in activities that they would avoid when sober. Legal issues related to sexual behavior Same sex laws Various forms of same-sex sexual activity have been prohibited under law in many areas at different times in history. In 2003, the Lawrence v Texas United States Supreme Court decision overturned all such laws in the US. Lawrence V. Texas Usually, though not always, such laws are termed sodomy laws, but also include issues such as age of consent laws, decency laws, and so forth. Laws prohibiting same-sex sexuality have varied widely throughout history, varying by culture, religious and social taboos and customs, etc. Often such laws are targeted or applied differently based on sex as well. For example, laws against same-sex sexual behavior in the United Kingdom during the reign of Queen Victoria, sodomy or "buggery" laws were aimed specifically at male same-sex sexual activity and did not target or even address female homosexuality. A well known example of such laws applied in relatively modern times can be found in the life story of Alan Turing. Child sexuality Children are naturally curious about their bodies and sexual functions — they wonder where babies come from, they notice anatomical differences between males and females, and many engage in genital play (often mistaken for masturbation). Child sex play includes exhibiting or inspecting the genitals. Many children take part in some sex play, typically with siblings or friends. Santrock, J.W. (2008). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (4thed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. In the past, children were often assumed to be sexually "pure", having no sexuality until later development. Sigmund Freud was one of the first researchers to take child sexuality seriously. While his ideas, such as psychosexual development and the Oedipus conflict, have been rejected or labeled obsolete, acknowledging the existence of child sexuality was a milestone. Alfred Kinsey also examined child sexuality in his Kinsey Reports. Sex play with others usually decreases as children go through their elementary school years, yet they still may possess romantic interest in their peers. Curiosity levels remain high during these years, but it is not until adolescence that the main surge in sexual interest occurs.. Child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which a child is abused for the sexual gratification of an adult or older adolescent. In addition to direct sexual contact, child sexual abuse also occurs when an adult indecently exposes their genitalia to a child, asks or pressures a child to engage in sexual activities, displays pornography to a child, or uses a child to produce child pornography. Martin, J., Anderson, J., Romans, S., et al. (1993). Asking about child sexual abuse: methodological implications of a two-stage survey, Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 383-392. sexual abuse definition from the NSPCC Effects of child sexual abuse include depression, Roosa M.W., Reinholtz C., Angelini P.J. (1999)."The relation of child sexual abuse and depression in young women: comparisons across four ethnic groups," Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology27(1):65-76. post-traumatic stress disorder, Widom C.S. (1999). stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up,"American Journal of Psychiatry; 156(8):1223-1229. anxiety, Levitan, R. D., N. A. Rector, Sheldon, T., & Goering, P. (2003). "Childhood adversities associated with major depression and/or anxiety disorders in a community sample of Ontario: Issues of co-morbidity and specificity," Depression & Anxiety; 17, 34-42. propensity to re-victimization in adulthood, Terri L. Messman-Moore & Patricia J. Long, "Child Sexual Abuse and Revictimization in the Form of Adult Sexual Abuse, Adult Physical Abuse, and Adult Psychological Maltreatment," 15 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 489 (2000). and physical injury to the child, among other problems. Dinwiddie S, Heath AC, Dunne MP, et al. (2000). "Early sexual abuse and lifetime psychopathology: a co-twin-control study." Psychological Medicine, 30:41–52 Sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, and can result in more serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest. Approximately 15% to 25% of women and 5% to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children. Crimes against Children Research Center Family Research Laboratory Most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims; approximately 30% are relatives of the child, most often fathers, uncles or cousins; around 60% are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbors; strangers are the offenders in approximately 10% of child sexual abuse cases. Most child sexual abuse is committed by men; women commit approximately 14% of offenses reported against boys and 6% of offenses reported against girls. Most offenders who abuse pre-pubescent children are pedophiles, Ames, A. & Houston, D. A. (1990).Legal, social, and biological definitions of pedophilia. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 19(4), 333-342. however a small percentage do not meet the diagnostic criteria for pedophilia. Sexuality in Late Adulthood Changes in sexual behavior occur with age and while humans in late adulthood may be impaired by infirmity, relationship needs such as closeness and sensuality remain. Aging produces changes in sexual performance. Men are more likely to experience these changes than women. For men, orgasms become less frequent and usually need more direct stimulation to produce an erection. One out of four men, ages 65 to 80, had severe problems getting or keeping erections and this percentage increased with men over 80 years of age. Yet, the use of drugs to treat erectile dysfunction increases the expectations of older adults to have sex. Despite medical complications and opinions that people in late adulthood should be asexual, many older adults continue to engage in sexual intercourse. The results of a recent interview study involving 3,000 adults 57 to 85 years of age have shown that health plays a role in the level of older adults' sexual activity. The percentage of sexually active older adults is higher for those that are in good health than those in poor health. Older women may be less sexually active due to outliving their partners or men's tendency to marry younger women. While older adults engage in sexual activity, intimacy and companionship tend to be more important than sex.. Cultural Factors of Sexuality Sexuality varies in different cultures. Some cultures consider sexual pleasures to be abnormal. For example, people who live on the island of Ines Beag off the coast of Ireland do not know about tongue kissing among other sexual acts. Men believe sexual intercourse reduces their energy level and is bad for their health. Sexual intercourse only occurs between married couples, at night, and takes place as quickly as possible. Yet in other cultures such as the Mangaian culture, Mangaians have sex almost every day by the end of adolescence. Young boys are encouraged to masturbate and their elders instruct them about sexual strategies until they undergo a ritual initiating them into sexual manhood at the age of 13.. Footnotes Further reading Agmo Anders, Functional and dysfunctional sexual behavior. 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3,563 | Mickey_Mouse | Mickey Mouse is a comic animal cartoon character who has become an icon for The Walt Disney Company. Mickey Mouse was created in 1928 by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks Kenworthy, John The Hand Behind the Mouse, Disney Editions: New York, 2001. p.54. and voiced by Walt Disney. The Walt Disney Company celebrates his birth as November 18, 1928 upon the release of Steamboat Willie. The anthropomorphic mouse has evolved from being simply a character in animated cartoons and comic strips to become one of the most recognizable symbols in the world. Mickey is currently the main character in the Disney Channel's Playhouse Disney series "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse." Mickey is the leader of the Mickey Mouse Club. Creation and debut One of the first MickeysMickey was created as a replacement for Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, an earlier cartoon character created by the Disney studio for Charles Mintz of Universal Studios. Michael Barrier, The Animated Man: A Life of Walt Disney, University of California Press, 2008, p. 56. ISBN 978-0520256194. When Disney asked for a larger budget for his popular Oswald series, Mintz announced he had hired the bulk of Disney's staff, but that Disney could keep doing the Oswald series, as long as he agreed to a budget cut and went on the payroll. Mintz owned Oswald and thought he had Disney over a barrel. Angrily, Disney refused the deal and returned to produce the final Oswald cartoons he contractually owed Mintz. Disney was dismayed at the betrayal by his staff, but determined to restart from scratch. The new Disney Studio initially consisted of animator Ub Iwerks and a loyal apprentice artist, Les Clark. One lesson Disney learned from the experience was to thereafter always make sure that he owned all rights to the characters produced by his company. In the spring of 1928, Disney asked Ub Iwerks to start drawing up new character ideas. Iwerks tried sketches of various animals, such as dogs and cats, but none of these appealed to Disney. A female cow and male horse were also rejected. They would later turn up as Clarabelle Cow and Horace Horsecollar. (A male frog, also rejected, would later show up in Iwerks own Flip the Frog series.) Kenworthy, John The Hand Behind the Mouse, Disney Editions: New York, 2001. p. 53. Walt Disney got the inspiration for Mickey Mouse from his old pet mouse he used to have on his farm. In 1925, Hugh Harman drew some sketches of mice around a photograph of Walt Disney. These inspired Ub Iwerks to create a new mouse character for Disney. Kenworthy, John The Hand Behind the Mouse, Disney Editions: New York, 2001. p. 54 "Mortimer Mouse" had been Disney's original name for the character before his wife, Lillian convinced him to change it, and ultimately Mickey Mouse came to be. Mickey Mouse's Magic- Tweentimes - Indiatimes » Mickey Mouse was going to be Mortimer Mo ... Useless Knowledge Actor Mickey Rooney has claimed that, during his Mickey McGuire days, he met cartoonist Walt Disney at the Warner Brothers studio, and that Disney was inspired to name Mickey Mouse after him. Albin, Kira. Mickey Rooney: Hollywood, Religion and His Latest Show. GrandTimes.com Senior Magazine. 1995. Said Disney: "We felt that the public, and especially the children, like animals that are cute and little. I think we are rather indebted to Charlie Chaplin for the idea. We wanted something appealing, and we thought of a tiny bit of a mouse that would have something of the wistfulness of Chaplin — a little fellow trying to do the best he could. When people laugh at Mickey Mouse, it's because he's so human; and that is the secret of his popularity. I only hope that we don't lose sight of one thing — that it was all started by a mouse." justdisney.com Plane Crazy Mickey and Minnie debuted in the cartoon short Plane Crazy, first released on May 15, 1928. The cartoon was co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. Iwerks was also the main animator for this short, and reportedly spent six weeks working on it. In fact, Iwerks was the main animator for every Disney short released in 1928 and 1929. Hugh Harman and Rudolf Ising also assisted Disney during those years. They had already signed their contracts with Charles Mintz, but he was still in the process of forming his new studio and so for the time being they were still employed by Disney. This short would be the last they animated under this somewhat awkward situation. The plot of Plane Crazy was fairly simple. Mickey is apparently trying to become an aviator in emulation of Charles Lindbergh. After building his own aircraft, he proceeds to ask Minnie to join him for its first flight, during which he repeatedly and unsuccessfully attempts to kiss her, eventually resorting to force. Minnie then parachutes out of the plane. While distracted by her, Mickey loses control of the plane. This becomes the beginning of an out-of-control flight that results in a series of humorous situations and eventually in the crash-landing of the aircraft. Mickey as portrayed in Plane Crazy was mischievous, amorous, and has often been described as a rogue. At the time of its first release, however, Plane Crazy apparently failed to impress audiences, and to add insult to injury, Walt could not find a distributor. Though understandably disappointed, Walt went on to produce a second Mickey short: The Gallopin' Gaucho. Early landmarks First encounter with Black / Peg Leg PeteThe Gallopin' Gaucho was again co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks, with the latter serving as the sole animator in this case. The short was intended as a parody of Douglas Fairbanks's The Gaucho, a film first released on November 21, 1928. Following the original film, the events of the short take place in the Pampas of Argentina. The gaucho of the title was Mickey himself. He is first seen riding on a rhea, instead of a horse as would be expected (or an ostrich as is often reported). He soon encounters "Cantina Argentina", apparently serving as the local bar and restaurant. Mickey proceeds to enter the establishment and take a seat. He apparently just wants to relax with some drinking and tobacco smoking. Also present at the establishment are Pegleg Pete (later renamed Black Pete, or just Pete), a wanted outlaw and fellow customer for the time being, and Minnie Mouse, the barmaid and dancer of the establishment, at the time performing a tango. Both customers soon begin to flirt with Minnie and to rival one another. At some point Pete proceeds in kidnapping Minnie and attempts to escape on his horse. Mickey gives chase on his rhea. He soon catches up to his rival and they proceed to fight with swords. Mickey emerges the victor of this joust. The finale of the short has Mickey and Minnie riding the rhea into the distance. In later interviews, Iwerks would comment that Mickey as featured in The Gallopin' Gaucho was intended to be a swashbuckler, an adventurer modeled after Fairbanks himself. This short marks the first encounter between Mickey and Black Pete, a character already established as an antagonist in both the Alice Comedies and the Oswald series. Based on Mickey and Minnie acting as strangers to each other before the finale, it was presumably intended to feature their original acquaintance to each other as well. Modern audiences have commented that all three characters seem to be coming out of rough, lower class backgrounds that little resemble their later versions. Consequently the short is arguably of some historical significance. At the time of its original production though, Walt again failed to find a distributor. It would be first released on December 30, 1928, following the release of another Mickey short. Reportedly Mickey was at first thought to be much too similar to Oswald and this resulted in the apparent lack of interest in him. Walt would soon start to contemplate ways to distinguish the Mickey Mouse series from his previous work and that of his rivals. The result of his contemplations would be the third Mickey short to be produced, the second to be released and the first to really draw the attention of the audiences: Steamboat Willie. Addition of sound to the series Mickey Mouse in Steamboat Willie (1928) Steamboat Willie was first released on November 18, 1928. It was co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. Iwerks again served as the head animator, assisted by Johnny Cannon, Les Clark, Wilfred Jackson and Dick Lundy. This short was intended as a parody of Buster Keaton's Steamboat Bill Jr., first released on May 12 of the same year. Although it was the third Mickey cartoon produced, it was the first to find a distributor, and thus has been cited as Mickey's debut. Willie featured changes to Mickey's appearance (in particular, simplifying his eyes to large dots) that established his look for later cartoons. The cartoon was not the first cartoon to feature a soundtrack connected to the action. Fleischer Studios, headed by brothers Dave and Max Fleischer, had already released a number of sound cartoons using the DeForest system in the mid-1920s. However, these cartoons did not keep the sound synchronized throughout the film. For Willie, Disney had the sound recorded with a click track that kept the musicians on the beat. This precise timing is apparent during the "Turkey in the Straw" sequence, when Mickey's actions exactly match the accompanying instruments. Animation historians have long debated who had served as the composer for the film's original music. This role has been variously attributed to Wilfred Jackson, Carl Stalling and Bert Lewis, but identification remains uncertain. Walt Disney himself was voice actor for both Mickey and Minnie. The script had Mickey serving aboard Steamboat Willie under Captain Pete. At first he is seen piloting the steamboat while whistling. Then Pete arrives to take over piloting and angrily throws him out of the boat's bridge. They soon have to stop for cargo to be transferred on board. Almost as soon as they leave, Minnie arrives. She was apparently supposed to be their only passenger but was late to board. Mickey manages to pick her up from the river shore. Minnie accidentally drops her sheet music for the popular folk song "Turkey in the Straw". A goat which was among the animals transported on the steamboat proceeds to eat the sheet music. Consequently Mickey and Minnie use its tail to turn it into a phonograph which is playing the tune. Through the rest of the short, Mickey uses various other animals as musical instruments. Captain Pete is eventually disturbed by all this noise and places Mickey back to work. Mickey is reduced to peeling potatoes for the rest of the trip. A parrot attempts to make fun of him but is then thrown to the river by Mickey. This served as the final scene of this short. Audiences at the time of Steamboat Willies release were reportedly impressed by the use of sound for comedic purposes. Sound films were still considered innovative. The first feature-length movie with dialogue sequences, The Jazz Singer starring Al Jolson, was released on October 6, 1927. Within a year of its success, most United States movie theaters had installed sound film equipment. Walt Disney apparently intended to take advantage of this new trend and, arguably, managed to succeed. Most other cartoon studios were still producing silent products and so were unable to effectively act as competition to Disney. As a result Mickey would soon become the most prominent animated character of the time. Walt Disney soon worked on adding sound to both Plane Crazy and The Gallopin' Gaucho (which had originally been silent releases) and their new release added to Mickey's success and popularity. A fourth Mickey short, The Barn Dance, was also put into production; however, Mickey does not actually speak until The Karnival Kid in 1929 when his first spoken words were "Hot dogs, Hot dogs!" After Steamboat Willie was released, Mickey became a close competitor to Felix the Cat, and his popularity would grow as he was continuously featured in sound cartoons. By 1929, Felix would lose popularity among theater audiences, and Pat Sullivan decided to produce all future Felix cartoons in sound as a result. toontracker.com Unfortunately, audiences did not respond well to Felix's transition to sound and by 1930, Felix had faded from the screen Felix the Cat | St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture | Roles and design Mickey as a suitor The Barn Dance, first released on March 14, 1929, was the first of twelve Mickey shorts released during that year. It was directed by Walt Disney with Ub Iwerks as the head animator. This short is notable for featuring Mickey turned down by Minnie in favor of Pete. It is also an unusual appearance of the Pete character; previously depicted as a menacing villain, he is portrayed here as a well-mannered gentleman. In addition, Mickey was not depicted as a hero but as a rather ineffective young suitor. In his sadness and crying over his failure, Mickey appears unusually emotional and vulnerable. It has been commented, however, that this only serves to add to the audience's empathy for the character. First gloved appearance "Ever wonder why we always wear these white gloves?" - Various characters (with minor variations) Mickey in gloves. The Opry House, first released on March 28, 1929, was the second short released during the year. This short introduced Mickey's gloves. Mickey can be seen wearing them in most of his subsequent appearances. Supposedly one reason for adding the white gloves was to allow audiences to distinguish the characters' hands when they appeared against their bodies, as both were black (Mickey did not appear in color until The Band Concert in 1935). The three black lines on the backs of the gloves represent darts in the gloves' fabric extending from between the digits of the hand, typical of kid glove design of the era. Depiction as a regular mouse When the Cat's Away, first released on April 18, 1929, was the third Mickey short to be released that year. It was essentially a remake of one of the Alice Comedies, Alice Rattled by Rats, which had been first released on January 15, 1926. Kat Nipp makes his second appearance, though his name is given as "Tom Cat" (this describes his being a tom cat, and the character should not be confused with the co-star of the Tom and Jerry series). He is seen getting drunk on alcoholic beverages. Then he leaves his house to go hunting. In his absence an army of mice invade his house in search of food. Among them are Mickey and Minnie, who proceed to turn this gathering into a party. This short is unusual in depicting Mickey and Minnie as having the size and partly the behavior of regular mice. The set standard both before and after this short was to depict them as having the size of rather short human beings. On another note, it has been commented that since this short was released during the Prohibition era, the alcoholic beverages would probably have been products of bootlegging. Mickey as a soldier The next Mickey short to be released is also considered unusual. It was The Barnyard Battle, first released on April 25, 1929. This short is notable as the first to depict Mickey as a soldier and the first to place him in combat. Mouse in transition Mickey Mouse Club In 1929, Disney began the first of what would later be many Mickey Mouse Clubs, which were located in hundreds of movie theaters across the United States. Disney Timeline: A mouse is born!! First comic strip appearance By this point Mickey had appeared in fifteen commercially successful animated shorts and was easily recognized by the public. So Walt Disney was approached by King Features Syndicate with the offer to license Mickey and his supporting characters for use in a comic strip. Walt accepted and Mickey made his first comic strip appearance on January 13, 1930. The comical plot was credited to Walt Disney himself, art to Ub Iwerks and inking to Win Smith. The first week or so of the strip featured a loose adaptation of Plane Crazy. Minnie soon became the first addition to the cast. The strips first released between January 13, 1930 and March 31 1930 have been occasionally reprinted in comic book form under the collective title "Lost on a Desert Island". Animation historian Jim Korkis notes "After the eighteenth strip[s], Iwerks left and his inker, Win Smith, continued drawing the gag-a-day format..." Korkis, Jim. "The Uncensored Mouse". Classical music performances Meanwhile in animation, two more Mickey shorts had been released. The first of them was The Barnyard Concert, first released on March 3, 1930. It featured Mickey conducting an orchestra. The only recurring characters among its members were Clarabelle as a flutist and Horace as a drummer. Their rendition of the Poet and Peasant Overture (by Franz von Suppé) is humorous enough; but it has been noted that several of the gags featured were repeated from previous shorts. The second, was originally released on March 14, 1930 under the title Fiddlin' Around but has since been renamed to Just Mickey. Both titles give an accurate enough description of the short which has Mickey performing a violin solo. It is only notable for Mickey's emotional renditions of the finale to the "William Tell Overture", Robert Schumann's "Träumerei" ("Reverie"), and Franz Liszt's "Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2", the latter which would appear on a regular basis in shorts starring Bugs Bunny, Tom and Jerry and Woody Woodpecker. In The Band Concert, the first Mickey Mouse cartoon filmed in Technicolor, Mickey conducted the William Tell Overture, but in the cartoon is swept up by a tornado, along with his orchestra. It is said that conductor Arturo Toscanini so loved this short that, upon first seeing it, he asked the projectionist to run it again. Mickey made his most famous classical music appearance in 1940 in the classic Disney film Fantasia. His screen "role" as The Sorcerer's Apprentice, set to the symphonic poem of the same name by Paul Dukas, is perhaps the most famous segment of the film. The segment features no dialogue at all, only the music. The apprentice (Mickey), not willing to do his chores, puts on the sorcerer's magic hat after the sorcerer goes to bed and casts a spell on a broom, which causes the broom to come to life and perform the most tiring chore—filling up a deep well using two buckets of water. When the well eventually overflows, Mickey finds himself unable to control the broom, leading to a near-flood. After the segment ends, Mickey is seen in silhouette shaking hands with Leopold Stokowski, who conducts all the music heard in Fantasia. Departure of a co-creator and consequences They were followed by Cactus Kid, first released on April 11, 1930. As the title implies the short was intended as a Western movie parody. But it is considered to be more or less a remake of The Gallopin' Gaucho set in Mexico instead of Argentina. Mickey was again cast as a lonely traveler who walks into the local tavern and starts flirting with its dancer. The latter is again Minnie. The rival suitor to Mickey is again Pete though using the alias Peg-Leg Pedro. For the first time in a Mickey short, Pete was depicted as having a peg-leg. This would become a recurring feature of the character. The rhea of the original short was replaced by Horace Horsecollar. This is considered to be his last non-anthropomorphic appearance. The short is considered significant for being the last Mickey short to be animated by Ub Iwerks. Shortly before its release, Iwerks left the Studio to start his own bankrolled by Disney's then-distributor Pat Powers. Powers and Disney had a falling out over money due Disney from the distribution deal. It was in response to losing the right to distribute Disney's cartoons that Powers made the deal with Iwerks, who had long harbored a desire to head his own studio. The departure is considered a turning point to the careers of both Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse. The former lost the man who served as his closest colleague and confidant since 1919. The latter lost the man responsible for his original design and for the direction and/or animation of several of the shorts released till this point, and some would argue Mickey's creator. Walt Disney has been credited for the inspiration to create Mickey, but Iwerks was the one to design the character and the first few Mickey Mouse cartoons were mostly or entirely drawn by Iwerks. Consequently some animation historians have suggested that Iwerks should be considered the actual creator of Mickey Mouse. It has been pointed that advertising for the early Mickey Mouse cartoons credit them as "A Walt Disney Comic, drawn by Ub Iwerks". Later Disney Company reissues of the early cartoons tend to credit Walt Disney alone. Disney and his remaining staff continued the production of the Mickey series, and he was able to eventually find a number of animators to replace Iwerks. As the Great Depression progressed and Felix the Cat faded from the movie screen, Mickey's popularity would rise, and by 1932, the Mickey Mouse Club would have one million members and Walt would receive a special Oscar for creating Mickey Mouse as well; in 1935, Disney would also begin to phase out the Mickey Mouse Clubs, due to administration problems. Chronology of the Walt Disney Company (1935) Despite being eclipsed by the Silly Symphonies short The Three Little Pigs in 1933, Mickey still maintained great popularity among theater audiences too, until 1935, when polls showed that Popeye the Sailor was more popular than Mickey. GAC Forums - Popeye's Popularity - Article from 1935 By 1934, Mickey merchandise had also earned $600,000.00 a year. The Golden Age of Mickey Mouse In 1994, The Band Concert was voted the third-greatest cartoon of all time in a poll of animation professionals. By colorizing and partially redesigning Mickey, Walt would put Mickey back on top once again, and Mickey would also reach popularity he never reached before as audiences now gave him more appeal; in 1935, Walt would also receive a special award from the League of Nations for creating Mickey as well. However, by 1938, the more manic Donald Duck would surpass the passive Mickey, resulting in a redesigned of the mouse; http://www.bcdb.com/bcdb/cartoon.cgi?film=15&m=r the redesign between 1938 and 1940 also put Mickey at the peak of his popularity we all. However, after 1940, Mickey's popularity would decline. Despite this, the character continued to appear regularly in animated shorts until 1943 (winning his only competitive Academy Award—with Pluto—for a short subject for Lend a Paw) and again from 1946 to 1952. Appearances in comics In early 1930, after Iwerks' departure, Disney was at first content to continue scripting the Mickey Mouse comic strip, assigning the art to Win Smith. However, Walt's focus had always been in animation and Smith was soon assigned with the scripting as well. Smith was apparently discontent at the prospect of having to script, draw, and ink a series by himself as evidenced by his sudden resignation. Walt proceeded to search for a replacement among the remaining staff of the Studio. For unknown reasons he selected Floyd Gottfredson, a recently hired employee. At the time Floyd was reportedly eager to work in animation and somewhat reluctant to accept his new assignment. Walt had to assure Floyd that the assignment was only temporary and that he would eventually return to animation. Floyd accepted and ended up holding this "temporary" assignment from May 5, 1930, to November 15, 1975. Walt Disney's last script for the strip appeared May 17, 1930. Gottfredson's first task was finish the storyline Disney had started on April 1, 1930. The storyline was completed on September 20, 1930 and later reprinted in comic book form as Mickey Mouse in Death Valley. This early adventure expanded the cast of the strip which to this point only included Mickey and Minnie. Among the characters who had their first comic strip appearances in this story were Clarabelle Cow, Horace Horsecollar and Black Pete as well as the debuts of corrupted lawyer Sylvester Shyster and Minnie's uncle Mortimer Mouse. The Death Valley narrative was followed by Mr. Slicker and the Egg Robbers, first printed between September 22 and December 26, 1930, which introduced Marcus Mouse and his wife as Minnie's parents. Starting with these two early comic strip stories, Mickey's versions in animation and comics are considered to have diverged from each other. While Disney and his cartoon shorts would continue to focus on comedy, the comic strip effectively combined comedy and adventure. This adventurous version of Mickey would continue to appear in comic strips and later comic books throughout the 20th and into the 21st century. Floyd Gottfredson left his mark with stories such as Mickey Mouse Joins the Foreign Legion (1936) and The Gleam (1942). He also created the Phantom Blot, Eega Beeva, Morty and Ferdie, Captain Churchmouse, and Butch. Besides Gottfredson artists for the strip over the years included Roman Arambula, Rick Hoover, Manuel Gonzales, Carson Van Osten, Jim Engel, Bill Wright, Ted Thwailes and Daan Jippes; writers included Ted Osborne, Merrill De Maris, Bill Walsh, Dick Shaw, Roy Williams, Del Connell, and Floyd Norman. The next artist to leave his mark on the character was Paul Murry in Dell Comics. His first Mickey tale appeared in 1950 but Mickey didn't become a speciality until Murry's first serial for Walt Disney's Comics and Stories in 1953 ("The Last Resort"). In the same period Romano Scarpa in Italy for the magazine Topolino began to revitalize Mickey in stories that brought back the Phantom Blot and Eega Beeva along with new creations such as the Atomo Bleep-Bleep. While the stories at Western Publishing during the Silver Age emphasized Mickey as a detective in the style of Sherlock Holmes, in the modern era several editors and creators have consciously undertaken to depict a more vigorous Mickey in the mold of the classic Gottfredson adventures. This reinnasance has been spearheaded by Byron Erickson, David Gerstein, Noel Van Horn, Michael T. Gilbert and Cesar Ferioli. Mickey was the main character for the series MM Mickey Mouse Mystery Magazine, published in Italy from 1999 to 2001. Later Mickey history Recent history On November 18, 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, he became the first cartoon character to have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The star is located on 6925 Hollywood Blvd. Melbourne (Australia) runs the annual Moomba festival involving a street procession and appointed Mickey Mouse as their King of Moomba (1977). Although immensely popular with children, there was controversy with the appointment: some Melburnians wanted a 'home-grown' choice, e.g. Blinky Bill; when it was revealed that Patricia O'Carroll (from Disneyland's Disney on Parade show) was performing the mouse, Australian newspapers reported "Mickey Mouse is really a girl!" Throughout the decades, Mickey Mouse competed with Warner Bros.' Bugs Bunny for animated popularity. But in 1988, in a historic moment in motion picture history, the two rivals finally shared screen time in the Robert Zemeckis film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. Warner and Disney signed an agreement stating that each character had exactly the same amount of screen time, right down to the micro-second. Similar to his animated inclusion into a live-action film on Roger Rabbit, Mickey made a featured cameo appearance in the 1990 television special The Muppets at Walt Disney World where he met Kermit the Frog. The two are established in the story as having been old friends. The Muppets have otherwise spoofed and referenced Mickey over a dozen times since the 1970s. Mickey appeared on several animated logos for Walt Disney Home Entertainment, starting with the "Neon Mickey" logo and then to the "Sorcerer Mickey" logos used for regular and Classics release titles. He also appeared on the video boxes in the 1980s. His most recent theatrical cartoon was 1995's short Runaway Brain, while in 1999-2004, he appeared in made-for-video features, like Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas, Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers, and the computer-animated Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas. He has yet to appear in an original Disney film that wasn't based on a classical work. Many television programs have centered around Mickey, such as the recent shows Mickey Mouse Works (1999—2000), Disney's House of Mouse (2001—2003) and Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006). Prior to all these, Mickey was also featured as an unseen character in the Bonkers episode "You Oughta Be In Toons". Mickey was the Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade on New Year's Day 2005. In the Disney on Ice play, Disney Presents Pixar's The Incredibles in a Magic Kingdom/Disneyland Adventure, Mickey and Minnie are kidnapped by an android replica of Syndrome, who seeks to create "his" own theme park in Walt Disney World/Disneyland's place. They are briefly imprisoned in the Pirates of the Caribbean attraction's prison cell before an assault on the robot Syndrome by the Incredible Family forces "him" to place them in LASER prisons, but not without using a flamethrower in a botched attempt to incinerate their would-be superhuman saviors. After the robot Syndrome is congealed by Frozone, Mickey and Minnie are finally liberated, the magic and happiness of the Walt Disney World/Disneyland Resort is restored, and the Incredibles become Mickey and Minnie's newest friends. Video games King Mickey in Kingdom Hearts II. Like many popular characters, Mickey has starred in many video games, including Mickey Mousecapade on the Nintendo Entertainment System, Mickey Mania: The Timeless Adventures of Mickey Mouse, Mickey's Ultimate Challenge, and Disney's Magical Quest on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Castle of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse on the Sega Genesis, Mickey Mouse: Magic Wands on the Game Boy, and many others. In the 2000s, the Disney's Magical Quest series were ported to the Game Boy Advance, while Mickey made his sixth generation era debut in Disney's Magical Mirror Starring Mickey Mouse, a Nintendo GameCube title aimed at younger audiences. Mickey plays a role in the Kingdom Hearts series, as the king of Disney Castle and aide to the protagonist, Sora. King Mickey wields the Keyblade, a weapon in the form of a key that has the power to open any lock and combat darkness. Toys and games In 1989, Milton Bradley released the electronic-talking game titled Mickey Says', with three modes featuring Mickey Mouse as its host. Mickey also appeared in other toys and games, including the Worlds of Wonder-released Talking Mickey Mouse. Design and voice The character has gone through some major changes through his existence. The first one happened with The Pointer in 1939, where he was given pupils in his eyes, a skin colored face, and a pear-shaped body. In the 40's, he changed once more in The Little Whirlwind, where he used his trademark pants for the last time in decades, lost his tail, got more realistic ears that changed with perspective and a different body anatomy. But this change would only last for a short period of time before returning to the one in The Pointer, with the exception of his pants. In his final theatrical cartoons in the 50's, he was given eyebrows, which were removed in the more recent cartoons. Mickey's top trademark is his ears, and they have also become a trademark of the Disney company in general. Basic design of Mickey's ears is two very round ears that are attached to a very round head. Other than the 1940s Mickey, he and Minnie's ears have had the unusual characteristic of always being viewable with the same symmetry despite which direction that their respective head is facing. In other words, the ears are always generally in the same position as they are in a frontal view of the character, and appear to be sideways on their head when facing left or right. A large part of Mickey's screen persona is his famously shy, falsetto voice. From his first speaking role in The Karnival Kid onward, Mickey was voiced by Walt Disney himself, a task in which Disney took great personal pride. (Carl Stalling and Clarence Nash allegedly did some uncredited ADR for Mickey in a few early shorts as well.) However, by 1946, Disney was becoming too busy with running the studio to do regular voice work (and it is speculated his cigarette habit had damaged his voice over the years), and during the recording of the Mickey and the Beanstalk section of Fun and Fancy Free, Mickey's voice was handed over to veteran Disney musician and actor Jimmy MacDonald. (Both Disney's and MacDonald's voices can be heard on the final soundtrack.) MacDonald voiced Mickey in the remainder of the theatrical shorts, and for various television and publicity projects up until his retirement in the mid-1970s, although Walt voiced Mickey again for the introductions of the original 1954—1959 "Mickey Mouse Club" TV series and the "Fourth Anniversary Show" episode of the "Disneyland" TV series aired on September 11, 1958. 1983's Mickey's Christmas Carol marked the theatrical debut of the late Wayne Allwine as Mickey Mouse, who was the voice of Mickey until his death in 2009 http://legends.disney.go.com/legends/detail?key=Wayne+Allwine . Allwine was, incidentally, married to Russi Taylor, the current voice of Minnie Mouse. Les Perkins did the voice of Mickey in the TV special Down and Out with Donald Duck released in 1987. Social impact A picture of several packaged products displaying pictures of Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck dressed in traditional Japanese attire. Use in politics In the United States, protest votes are often made in order to indicate dissatisfaction with the slate of candidates presented on a particular ballot, or to highlight the inadequacies of a particular voting procedure. Since most states' electoral systems do not provide for blank balloting or a choice of "None of the Above", most protest votes take the form of a clearly non-serious candidate's name entered as a write-in vote. Cartoon characters are typically chosen for this purpose; as Mickey Mouse is the best-known and most-recognized character in America, his name is frequently selected for this purpose. (Other popular selections include Donald Duck and Bugs Bunny.) This phenomenon has the humorous effect of causing Mickey Mouse to be a minor but perennial contestant in nearly all U.S. presidential elections. A similar phenomenon occurs in the parliament elections in Finland and Sweden, although Finns and Swedes usually write Donald Duck or Donald Duck Party as a protest vote. Mickey Mouse's name has also been known to appear fraudulently on voter registration lists, most recently in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election. Pejorative use of Mickey's name "Mickey Mouse" is a slang expression meaning small-time, amateurish or trivial. In the UK and Ireland, it also means poor quality or counterfeit. In The Godfather: Part II, Fredo's justification of betraying Michael is that his orders in the family usually were "Send Fredo off to do this, send Fredo off to do that! Let Fredo to take care of some Mickey Mouse night club somewhere!" as opposed to more meaningful tasks. In 1984, just after an ice hockey game in which Wayne Gretzky's Edmonton Oilers beat the New Jersey Devils 13-4, Gretzky is quoted as saying to a reporter, "Well, it's time they got their act together, they're ruining the whole league. They had better stop running a Mickey Mouse organization and put somebody on the ice." 1983-84: Growing Pains Lead to Promise Reacting to Gretzky's comment, Devils fans wore Mickey Mouse apparel when the Oilers returned to New Jersey. In the 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, a butler at Brunwald castle says to Indy, "Yes, we have tapestries. But if you are a Scottish lord, then I am Mickey Mouse!" In the 1993 Warner Bros. film Demolition Man, as Sylvester Stallone's character is fighting the malfunctioning AI of his out-of-control police car, he shouts for the system to "Brake! Brake! Brake, now, you Mickey Mouse piece of shit!" script-o-rama.com In the 1996 Warner Bros. film Space Jam, Bugs Bunny derogatorily referred to Daffy Duck's idea for the name of their basketball team, asking, "What kind of Mickey Mouse organization would call themselves 'The Ducks?'" (This also referenced the Anaheim Mighty Ducks, a NHL team that was owned by Disney.) In the United States armed forces, actions that produce good looks, but have little practical use, (such as the specific manner of making beds in basic training or the polishing of brass fittings onboard ship) are commonly referred to as "Mickey Mouse work". In schools a "Mickey Mouse course" or "Mickey Mouse major" is a class or college major where very little effort is necessary in order to attain a good grade (especially an A) and/or one where the subject matter of such a class is not of any importance in the labor market. BBC News | Education | 'Irresponsible' Hodge under fire Musicians often refer to a film score that directly follows each action on screen as Mickey Mousing (also mickey-mousing and mickeymousing). "Mickey Mouse money" is a derogatory term for foreign currency, often used by Americans to describe indigenous currency in a foreign country in which they are traveling. The term also refers to fake banknotes, especially in UK. (Disney theme parks and resorts have an actual kind of Mickey Mouse money, Disney Dollars. This money is worthless outside the Disney property and stores). The software company Microsoft has been derogatorily called "Mickeysoft". Richard Forno. ""Microsoft", No. "Mickeysoft", Yes." Published November 28, 2001; retrieved November 7, 2006. In card games, it is common for a "Mickey Mouse hand" to be played for instructional purposes. In such a hand all cards of all players that would normally be concealed are displayed, to demonstrate to new players the rules and procedures of the game. In motorsports, short road courses with tight corners, short straightways and no overtaking spots are sometimes called "Mickey Mouse tracks". In rhyming slang, a "Mickey" refers to a Liverpudlian or Liverpool FC supporter (ie. Mickey Mouser = Scouser). It may also refer to someone's home (house = Mickey Mouse). The Los Angeles Mafia was known as the "Mickey Mouse Mafia," due to their disorganized behavior and mess-ups. In the beginning of the 1980s, then-British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher once called the European Parliament a "Mickey Mouse parliament", meaning a discussion club without influence. Britons call the MLS, or Major League Soccer, the "Mickey Mouse League." In the British sitcom Red Dwarf: After the team's substandard equipment nearly cost them their lives, one character pointed out, "We're a real Mickey Mouse operation, aren't we?" Another replied, "Mickey Mouse? We ain't even Betty Boop!" Because of Mickey's status as Disney's signature character, he is often jokingly referred to as the boss of The Walt Disney Company. Disney employees sometimes say they "work for the Mouse." Working for the Mouse Working for the Mouse - Disney (Unofficial) - Families.com In the South Park season 13 episode "The Ring," Mickey is portrayed as a greedy, sadistic and foul-mouthed head of the studio, who berates and beats the Jonas Brothers after they complain that their purity rings are overshadowing their music. Legal issues A typical style of sign in Walt Disney World, showing one of many uses by Disney of the Mickey ears logo. It is sometimes erroneously stated that the Mickey Mouse character is only copyrighted. In fact, the character, like all major Disney characters, is also trademarked, which lasts in perpetuity as long as it continues to be used commercially by its owner. So, whether or not a particular Disney cartoon goes into the public domain, the characters themselves may not be used as trademarks without authorization. However, within the United States, European Union and some other jurisdictions, the Copyright Term Extension Act (sometimes called the 'Mickey Mouse Protection Act' due to extensive lobbying by the Disney corporation) and similar legislation has ensured that works such as the early Mickey Mouse cartoons will remain under copyright until at least 2023. However a Los Angeles Times article explains that ambiguity and "imprecision" in early film credits copyright claims could invalidate Disney's copyright on the earliest version of the character. The Walt Disney Company has become well known for protecting its trademark on the Mickey Mouse character, whose likeness is so closely associated with the company, with particular zeal. In 1989, Disney threatened legal action against three daycare centers in Florida for having Mickey Mouse and other Disney characters painted on their walls. The characters were removed, and rival Universal Studios replaced them with Universal cartoon characters. Daycare Center Murals, Snopes.com Censorship In 1930, The German Board of Film Censors prohibited showing a Mickey Mouse film because they felt the kepi-wearing mouse negatively portrayed the Germans and would "reawaken the latest anti-German feeling existing abroad since the War". The Times (1930-7-14). "Mickey Mouse in Trouble (German Censorship)", The Times Archive (archive.timesonline.co.uk) Accessed November 19, 2008. A mid 1930s German newspaper article even stated : "Mickey Mouse is the most miserable ideal ever revealed...Healthy emotions tell every independent young man and every honorable youth that the dirty and filfth-covered vermin, the greatest bacteria carrier in the animal kingdom, cannot be the ideal type of animal...Away with Jewish brutalization of the people! Down with Mickey Mouse! Wear the Swastika Cross!" Art Spiegelman used this quote on the opening page of the second volume of his comic Maus II. The 1935 Romanian authorities banned Mickey Mouse films from cinemas after they feared that children would be scared to see a ten-foot mouse in the movie theatre. Conner, Floyd. Hollywood's Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of Lucky Breaks, Prima Donnas, Box Office Bombs, and Other Oddities. illustrated. Brassey's, 2002.(pg 243) In 1938, based on the Ministry of Popular Culture's recommendation that a reform was necessary "to raise children in the firm and imperialist spirit of the Fascist revolution," the Italian Government banned Mickey and other foreign Children's literature. The Times (1938-11-16). "The Banning of a Mouse", The Times Archive (archive.timesonline.co.uk) Accessed November 19, 2008. Criticism of Mickey Mouse Mickey Mouse's global fame has made him both a symbol of The Walt Disney Company and as of the United States itself. For this reason Mickey has been used frequently in anti-American satire, such as the infamous underground cartoon Mickey Mouse in Vietnam. There have been numerous parodies of Mickey Mouse, such as the Mad Magazine parody "Mickey Rodent" by Will Elder in which the mouse walks around unshaven and jails Donald Duck out of jealousy over the duck's larger popularity. (http://johnglenntaylor.blogspot.com/2008_12_28_archive.html) The grotesque Rat Fink character was created by Ed "Big Daddy" Roth over his hatred of Mickey Mouse. In The Simpsons Movie, Bart Simpson puts a black bra on his head to mimic Mickey Mouse and says: "I'm the mascot of an evil corporation!".<ref>The Simpsons Movie (2007) - Memorable Quotes. The Internet Movie Database (IMDb). Retrieved on March 20, 2008.</ref>. In the South Park episode The Ring Mickey Mouse is depicted as the sadistic, greedy boss of The Walt Disney Company, only interested in money. On September 20, 2008 Sheikh Muhammad Al-Munajid claimed that the sharia considers mice to be harmful vermin and that characters like Mickey Mouse and Jerry from Tom & Jerry are to be blamed for making mice such loveable characters. He issued a fatwa against Mickey, which made international headline news and was the subject of much controversy and ridicule. Sheikh Muhammed Al-Munajid issued a statement afterwards in which he stated that he was misquoted and translated badly. Filmography Mickey Mouse films and appearances Steamboat Willie (1928) - First appearance (in order of release). Plane Crazy (1928) - First Mickey cartoon produced. The Gallopin' Gaucho (1928) The Barn Dance (1928) The Opry House (1929) - First cartoon where Mickey wears gloves. When the Cat's Away (1929) The Plow Boy (1929) - First appearance or Horace Horsecollar. The Barnyard Battle (1929) The Karnival Kid (1929) - First words spoken by Mickey ("Hot dogs!"). Mickey's Follies (1929) Mickey's Choo-Choo (1929) The Jazz Fool (1929) Jungle Rhythm (1929) Haunted House (1929) Just Mickey (1930) The Barnyard Concert (1930) The Cactus Kid (1930) Wild Waves (1930) The Fire Fighters (1930) The Shindig (1930) The Chain Gang (1930) - First appearance of Pluto. The Gorilla Mystery (1930) The Picnic (1930) Pioneer Days (1930) Minnie's Yoo Hoo (1930) The Birthday Party (1931) Traffic Troubles (1931) The Castaway (1931) The Moose Hunt (1931) The Delivery Boy (1931) Mickey Steps Out (1931) Blue Rhythm (1931) Fishin' Around (1931) The Barnyard Broadcast (1931) The Beach Party (1931) Mickey Cuts Up (1931) Mickey's Orphans (1931) The Duck Hunt (1932) The Grocery Boy (1932) The Mad Dog (1932) Barnyard Olympics (1932) Mickey's Revue (1932) - First appearance of Goofy. Musical Farmer (1932) Mickey in Arabia (1932) Mickey's Nightmare (1932) Trader Mickey (1932) The Whoopee Party (1932) Touchdown Mickey (1932) The Wayward Canary (1932) The Klondike Kid (1932) Parade of the Award Nominees (1932) - Even though it isn't an official Mickey cartoon, it is Mickey's first color appearance. Mickey's Good Deed (1932) Building a Building (1933) The Mad Doctor (1933) Mickey's Pal Pluto (1933) Mickey's Mellerdrammer (1933) Ye Olden Days (1933) The Mail Pilot (1933) Mickey's Mechanical Man (1933) Mickey's Gala Premiere (1933) Puppy Love (1933) The Pet Store (1933) The Steeple Chase (1933) Giantland (1933) Shanghaied (1934) Camping Out (1934) Playful Pluto (1934) Gulliver Mickey (1934) Mickey's Steamroller (1934) Orphan's Benefit (1934) - First time Donald Duck in "The Wise Little Hen" appears in a Mickey cartoon. Mickey Plays Papa (1934) The Dognapper (1934) Two-Gun Mickey (1934) Mickey's Man Friday (1935) The Band Concert (1935) - First Mickey cartoon in color. Mickey's Service Station (1935) - First Mickey/Donald/Goofy trio cartoon. Mickey's Kangaroo (1935) - Last Mickey cartoon in black and white. Mickey's Garden (1935) Mickey's Fire Brigade (1935) Pluto's Judgement Day (1935) On Ice (1935) Mickey's Polo Team (1936) Orphans' Picnic (1936) Mickey's Grand Opera (1936) Thru the Mirror (1936) Mickey's Rival (1936) Moving Day (1936) Alpine Climbers (1936) Mickey's Circus (1936) Mickey's Elephant (1936) The Worm Turns (1937) Magician Mickey (1937) Moose Hunters (1937) Mickey's Amateurs (1937) Hawaiian Holiday (1937) Clock Cleaners (1937) Lonesome Ghosts (1937) Boat Builders (1938) Mickey's Trailer (1938) The Whalers (1938) Mickey's Parrot (1938) Brave Little Tailor (1938) The Fox Hunt (1938, cameo) Society Dog Show (1939) - Last appearance of Mickey with his black-button eyes. The Pointer (1939) - First appearance of Mickey in his current design. Mickey's Surprise Party (1939) - A commercial short made for the National Biscuit Company and shown at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The Standard Parade (1939) - A commercial short made for the Standard Oil Company. The Sorcerer's Apprentice (1940, segment of Fantasia) Tugboat Mickey (1940) Pluto's Dream House (1940) Mr. Mouse Takes a Trip (1940) The Little Whirlwind (1941) Last appearance of Mickey in his traditional red shorts until 1995. The Nifty Nineties (1941) Orphan's Benefit (1941) - Same as the 1934 version, but with updated character models and in color. A Gentleman's Gentleman (1941) - In a Pluto cartoon. Canine Caddy (1941) Lend a Paw (1941) Mickey's Birthday Party (1942) Symphony Hour (1942) - Last Mickey cartoon until 1947. All Together (1942) - Made for the National Film Board of Canada in an effort to promote the sale of Canadian War Bonds. Out of the Frying Pan Into the Firing Line (1942, cameo) A picture of Mickey as a soldier is hung up on a wall in Minnie's house. Pluto and the Armadillo (1943) - In a Pluto cartoon. First Aiders (1944, not appearing) - Mickey Mouse does not appear in this cartoon. The Three Caballeros (1945, cameo) - Mickey went to the beach on the pail at North Pole. Squatter's Rights (1946) - In a Pluto cartoon. Mickey and the Beanstalk (1947, segment of Fun and Fancy Free) Mickey's Delayed Date (1947) - First Mickey cartoon since 1942. Mickey Down Under (1948) Pluto's Purchase (1948) - In a Pluto cartoon. Mickey and the Seal (1948) Pueblo Pluto (1949) - In a Pluto cartoon. Crazy Over Daisy (1950, cameo) Plutopia (1951) - In a Pluto cartoon. R'Coon Dawg (1951) Pluto's Party (1952) - In a Pluto cartoon; Eyebrows are added on Mickey. How to Be a Detective (1952, cameo) - Mickey's face is on the cover of the comic book Goofy is reading. Pluto's Christmas Tree (1952) The Simple Things (1953) - Last regular Mickey cartoon. Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983) - First screen appearance of Mickey since 1953; Mickey's eyebrows are removed. Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988, cameo) Mickey's 60th Birthday (1988) The Prince and the Pauper (1990) A Goofy Movie (1995, cameo) Runaway Brain (1995) Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas (1999) Fantasia 2000 (2000) Mickey Mouse Works (1999-2000) - A compilation show with new made-for-TV animated shorts featuring Mickey and friends. Disney's House of Mouse (2001-2004) A show showing short animated cartoons of Disney's favorite characters Mickey's House of Villains (2002) - House of Mouse video release. Kingdom Hearts (2002), a video game featuring Squaresoft and Disney characters. Disney's Magical Mirror Starring Mickey Mouse (2002, video game)Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse (2001) - House of Mouse video release.Mickey's PhilharMagic (2003) - Walt Disney World attraction.The Lion King 1½ (2004, cameo)Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers (2004)Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas (2004) - First Mickey film done in CGI.Kingdom Hearts II (2005), video game.Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006) - A television series made for preschoolers done in CGI. See also Minnie Mouse, best known as the fellow Disney character, often portrayed as Mickey's significant other in animated shorts and features. Pluto, a canine character of the Disney series who is often portrayed as Mickey's dog in the animated shorts and features. Mickey Mouse universe, the phenomenon that has spawned from the Mickey Mouse series and other related characters. Mouse Museum, a Russian museum featuring artifacts and memorabilia relating to Mickey Mouse. Mickey Mouse Adventures'' A short-lived comic starring Mickey Mouse as the protagonist. Hidden Mickey, a phenomenon featuring throughout Disney films, theme parks and merchandise involving hiding images that are similar to a silhouette of Mickey's head and ears, another trademark of the Disney series, in non-related places. Celebration Mickey, a two foot tall, ., 24-karat gold authentic Mickey Mouse sculpture, designed by Disney artist Marc Delle and produced in 2001 to commemorate Walt Disney's 100th birthday. Certified an authentic and one-of-a-kind piece by Disneyland Resort, it is the largest gold sculpture ever cast in the history of the Disney Company. References External links Toonopedia: Mickey Mouse Mickey Mouse's Campaign Website Disney's Mickey Mouse character page Disney's Mickey Mouse character page (Japanese) Wayne Allwine - Daily Telegraph obituary | Mickey_Mouse |@lemmatized mickey:317 mouse:135 comic:21 animal:7 cartoon:52 character:55 become:14 icon:1 walt:48 disney:116 company:15 create:10 ub:11 iwerks:25 kenworthy:3 john:3 hand:9 behind:3 edition:3 new:18 york:4 p:4 voice:14 celebrate:1 birth:1 november:9 upon:6 release:40 steamboat:11 willie:9 anthropomorphic:2 evolve:1 simply:1 animated:10 strip:15 one:15 recognizable:1 symbol:2 world:8 currently:1 main:4 channel:1 playhouse:1 series:20 clubhouse:3 leader:1 club:8 creation:2 debut:6 first:65 mickeysmickey:1 replacement:2 oswald:7 lucky:2 rabbit:4 early:11 studio:13 charles:3 mintz:5 universal:3 michael:3 barrier:1 man:7 life:3 university:1 california:1 press:1 isbn:1 ask:5 large:5 budget:2 popular:7 announce:1 hire:2 bulk:1 staff:4 could:4 keep:3 long:4 agree:1 cut:2 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3,564 | David_Bowie | David Bowie (; born David Robert Hayward-Jones http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000309/bio on 8 January 1947) is an English musician, actor, record producer and arranger. Active in five decades of popular music and frequently reinventing his music and image, Bowie is widely regarded as an innovator, particularly for his work in the 1970s. He has been cited as an influence by many musicians David Bowie by Stephen Thomas Erlewine; URL accessed 21 March 2007 and is known for his distinctive voice Earthling. and the intellectual depth of his work. Jesse Jarnow, "David Bowie," in Scott Schnider, ed., Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever (2008), "Openly bisexual and vociferously intellectual, David Bowie in the late 1970s was the very definition of charisma", Greenwood Publishing Group, pg. 482. Mark Paytress, Bolan: The Rise and Fall of a 20th Century Superstar (2002), "America responded favourably to Bowie's intellectual take on pop," Omnibus Press, pg. 218. Although he released an album (David Bowie) and numerous singles earlier, David Bowie first caught the eye and ear of the public in the autumn of 1969, when the Apollo program-inspired "Space Oddity" reached the top five of the UK singles chart. After a three-year period of experimentation he re-emerged in 1972 during the glam rock era as the flamboyant, androgynous alter ego Ziggy Stardust, spearheaded by the hit single "Starman" and the album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. The relatively short-lived Ziggy persona epitomised a career often marked by musical innovation, reinvention and striking visual presentation. In 1975, Bowie achieved his first major American crossover success with the number-one single "Fame", co-written with John Lennon,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2007/mar/16/popandrock.shopping1 |title=David Bowie, Young Americans|publisher=guardian.co.uk |accessdate=2009-02-15 |date=16 March 2007 }}</ref> and the hit album Young Americans, which the singer identified as "plastic soul". The sound constituted a radical shift in style that initially alienated many of his UK devotees. Carr & Murray (1981): pp.68-74 He then confounded the expectations of both his record label and his American audiences by recording the minimalist album Low—the first of three collaborations with Brian Eno over the next two years. Arguably his most experimental works to date, the so-called "Berlin Trilogy" albums all reached the UK Top Five. After uneven commercial success in the late 1970s, Bowie had UK number ones with the 1980 single "Ashes to Ashes" and its parent album, Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps). He paired with Queen for the 1981 UK chart-topping single "Under Pressure", but reached a commercial peak in 1983 with the album Let's Dance, which yielded the hit singles "Let's Dance", "China Girl", and "Modern Love". In the BBC's 2002 poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, Bowie ranked 29. Throughout his career he has sold an estimated 136 million albums, and ranks among the ten best-selling acts in UK pop history. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked him 39th on their list of the 100 Greatest Rock Artists of All Time. 1947 to 1967: Early years David Bowie was born David Robert Hayward-Jones in Brixton, London to parents who were married in September 1947 shortly after his birth. David Bowie Biography (1947-) bowiewonderworld His mother Margaret Mary "Peggy" (née Burns), of Irish descent http://www.teenagewildlife.com/cgi-sys/cgiwrap/torrie/fom.cgi?_recurse=1&file=9 worked as a cinema usherette and his father Hayward Stenton "John" Jones was a promotions officer for Dr Barnardo's. Buckley (2000): p.14 Bowie attended a school in Stockwell until he was six years old, when his family moved from Brixton to Bromley in Kent, where he attended Bromley Technical High School. Buckley (2000): p.27 When Bowie was fifteen years old, his friend, George Underwood, wearing a ring on his finger, punched him in the left eye during a fight over a girl. Bowie was forced to stay out of school for eight months so that doctors could conduct operations to repair his potentially blinded eye. Buckley (2000): p.24 Doctors could not fully repair the damage, leaving his pupil permanently dilated. As a result of the injury, Bowie has faulty depth perception. Bowie has stated that although he can see with his injured eye, his colour vision was mostly lost and a brownish tone is constantly present. Each iris has the same blue colour, but since the pupil of the injured eye is wide open, the hue of that eye is commonly mistaken to be different. Despite the fight, Underwood and Bowie remained good friends, and Underwood went on to do the artwork for Bowie's earlier albums. Bowie's interest in music was sparked at the age of nine when his father brought home a collection of American 45s, including Fats Domino, Chuck Berry and, most particularly, Little Richard. Upon listening to "Tutti Frutti", Bowie would later say, "I had heard God". Peter Doggett (2007). "Teenage Wildlife", MOJO 60 Years of Bowie: pp.8-9 His half-brother Terry introduced him to modern jazz and Bowie's enthusiasm for players like Charles Mingus and John Coltrane led his mother to give him a plastic saxophone for Christmas in 1959. Graduating to a real instrument, he formed his first band in 1962, the Konrads. He then played and sang in various blues/beat groups, such as The King Bees, The Manish Boys, The Lower Third and The Riot Squad in the mid-1960s, releasing his first record, the single "Liza Jane", with the King Bees in 1964. His early work shifted through the blues and Elvis-inspired music while working with many British pop styles. During the early 1960s, Bowie was performing either under his own name or the stage name "Davie Jones", and briefly even as "Davy Jones", creating confusion with Davy Jones of The Monkees. To avoid this, in 1966 he chose "Bowie" for his stage name, after the Alamo hero Jim Bowie and his famous Bowie knife. Buckley (2000): p.33 During this time, he recorded singles for Parlophone under the name of The Manish Boys and Davy Jones and for Pye under the name David Bowie (and The Lower Third), all without success. Bowie released his first album in 1967 for the Decca Records offshoot Deram, simply called David Bowie. It was an amalgam of pop, psychedelia, and music hall. Around the same time he issued a novelty single, "The Laughing Gnome", which utilised sped-up Chipmunk-style vocals. None of these releases managed to chart, and he would not cut another record for two years. His Deram material from the album and various singles was later recycled in a multitude of compilations. Influenced by the dramatic arts, he studied with Lindsay Kemp—from avant-garde theatre and mime to Commedia dell'arte—and much of his work would involve the creation of characters or personae to present to the world. During 1967, Bowie sold his first song to another artist, "Oscar" (an early stage name of actor-musician Paul Nicholas). Bowie wrote Oscar's third single, "Over the Wall We Go", which satirised life in a British prison. Carr & Murray (1981): p.117 In late 1968, his then-manager, Kenneth Pitt, produced a half-hour promotional film called Love You Till Tuesday featuring Bowie performing a number of songs, but it went unreleased until 1984. 1969 to 1973: Psychedelic folk to glam rock Bowie's first flirtation with fame came in 1969 with his single "Space Oddity," written the previous year but recorded and released to coincide with the first moon landing. Pegg (2004): pp.197-201 This ballad told the story of Major Tom, an astronaut who becomes lost in space, though it has also been interpreted as an allegory for taking drugs. Buckley (2000): p.74 It became a Top 5 UK hit. Bowie put the finishing touches to the track while living with Mary Finnigan as her lodger. Finnigan and Bowie joined forces with Christina Ostrom and the late Barrie Jackson to run a Folk Club on Sunday nights at The Three Tuns pub in Beckenham High Street, south London. The Three Tuns pub and the Beckenham Arts Lab: BowieWonderworld.com website. Retrieved on 22 September 2007. This soon morphed into the Beckenham Arts Lab and became extremely popular. In August 1969, The Arts Lab hosted a Free Festival in a local park, later immortalised by Bowie in his song "Memory of a Free Festival". "Memory of a Free Festival", hosted by the Beckenham Arts Lab: BowieWonderworld.com website. Retrieved on 22 September 2007. In 1969 and 1970, "Space Oddity" was used by the BBC during both its Apollo 11 moon landing coverage and its coverage of Apollo 13. The corresponding album, his second, was released in November 1969 and originally titled David Bowie, which caused some confusion as both of Bowie's first and second albums were released with that name in the UK. In the U.S. the same album originally bore the title Man of Words, Man of Music to overcome that confusion. In 1972, the album was re-released on both sides of the Atlantic by RCA Records as Space Oddity, a title it has kept until today. In 1970, Bowie released his third album, The Man Who Sold the World, rejecting the acoustic guitar sound of the previous album and replacing it with the heavy rock backing provided by Mick Ronson, who would be a major collaborator through to 1973. Much of the album resembles British heavy metal music of the period, but the album provided some unusual musical detours, such as the title track's use of Latin sounds and rhythms. The original UK cover of the album showed Bowie in a dress, an early example of his androgynous appearance. In the U.S., the album was originally released in a cartoonish cover that did not feature Bowie. His next record, Hunky Dory in 1971, saw the partial return of the fey pop singer of "Space Oddity", with light fare such as the droll "Kooks". Elsewhere, the album explored more serious themes on tracks such as "Oh! You Pretty Things" (a song taken to UK #12 by Herman's Hermits' Peter Noone in 1971), the semi-autobiographical "The Bewlay Brothers", and the Buddhist-influenced "Quicksand". Lyrically, the young songwriter also paid unusually direct homage to his influences with "Song for Bob Dylan", "Andy Warhol", and "Queen Bitch", which Bowie's somewhat cryptic liner notes indicate as a Velvet Underground pastiche. As with the single "Changes", Hunky Dory was not a big hit but it laid the groundwork for the move that would shortly lift Bowie into the first rank of stars, giving him four top-ten albums and eight top ten singles in the UK in eighteen months between 1972 and 1973. Bowie further explored his androgynous persona in June 1972 with the seminal concept album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, which presents a world destined to end in five years and tells the story of the ultimate rock star, Ziggy Stardust. The album's sound combined the hard rock elements of The Man Who Sold the World with the lighter experimental rock of Hunky Dory and the fast-paced glam rock pioneered by Marc Bolan's T.Rex. Many of the album's songs have become rock classics, including "Ziggy Stardust," "Moonage Daydream," "Hang on to Yourself," and "Suffragette City." The Ziggy Stardust character became the basis for Bowie's first large-scale tour beginning in 1972, where he donned his famous flaming red mullet and wild outfits, designed by Kansai Yamamoto. The tour featured a three-piece band representing The Spiders from Mars: Ronson on guitar, Trevor Bolder on bass, and Mick Woodmansey on drums. This was Bowie’s first tour to visit the US, making his first appearance on 22 September 1972 at Public Hall in Cleveland, Ohio. Wolff, Carlo (2006). Cleveland Rock and Roll Memories. Cleveland, OH: Gray & Company, Publishers. ISBN 978-1-886228-99-3 The album made #5 in the UK on the strength of the #10 placing of the single "Starman". Their success made Bowie a star, and soon the six-month-old Hunky Dory eclipsed Ziggy Stardust, when it peaked at #3 on the UK chart. At the same time the non-album single "John, I’m Only Dancing" (not released in the U.S. until 1979) peaked at UK #12, and "All the Young Dudes", a song he had given to, and produced for, Mott the Hoople, made UK #3. Around the same time Bowie began promoting and producing his rock and roll heroes, two of whom he met at the popular New York hangout Max's Kansas City : former Velvet Underground singer Lou Reed, whose solo breakthrough Transformer was produced by Bowie and Ronson; and Iggy Pop, whose band, The Stooges, signed with Bowie's management, MainMan Productions, to record their third album, Raw Power. Though he was not present for the tracking of the album, Bowie later performed its much-debated mix. Buckley (2000): p.156 Bowie sang back-up vocals on both Reed's Transformer, and Iggy's The Idiot. The Spiders From Mars came together again on Aladdin Sane, released in April 1973 and his first #1 album in the UK. Described by Bowie as "Ziggy goes to America", Pegg (2004): pp.281-283 all the new songs were written on ship, bus or trains during the first leg of his US Ziggy Stardust tour. The album's cover, featuring Bowie shirtless with Ziggy hair and a red, black, and blue lightning bolt across his face, has been described as being as "startling as rock covers ever got." Buckley (2000): pp.182-189 Aladdin Sane included the UK #2 hit "The Jean Genie", the UK #3 hit "Drive-In Saturday", and a rendition of The Rolling Stones' "Let's Spend the Night Together". Mike Garson joined Bowie to play piano on this album, and his solo on the title track has been cited as one of the album's highlights. Carr & Murray (1981): pp.52-56 Bowie's later Ziggy shows, which included songs from both Ziggy Stardust and Aladdin Sane, as well as a few earlier tracks like "Changes" and "The Width of a Circle", were ultra-theatrical affairs filled with shocking stage moments, such as Bowie stripping down to a sumo wrestling loincloth or simulating oral sex with Ronson's guitar. Carr & Murray (1981): p.7 Bowie toured and gave press conferences as Ziggy before a dramatic and abrupt on-stage "retirement" at London's Hammersmith Odeon on 3 July 1973. His announcement—"Of all the shows on this tour, this particular show will remain with us the longest, because not only is it the last show of the tour, but it's the last show that we'll ever do. Thank you."—was preserved in a live recording of the show, filmed by D. A. Pennebaker and belatedly released under the title Ziggy Stardust - The Motion Picture in 1983 after many years circulating as an audio bootleg. Carr & Murray (1981): p.116 Pin Ups, a collection of covers of his 1960s favourites, was released in October 1973, spawning a UK #3 hit in "Sorrow" and itself peaking at #1, making David Bowie the best-selling act of 1973 in the UK. Biography of David Bowie By this time, Bowie had broken up the Spiders from Mars and was attempting to move on from his Ziggy persona. Bowie's own back catalogue was now highly sought: The Man Who Sold the World had been re-released in 1972 along with the second David Bowie album (Space Oddity). Hunky Dory's "Life on Mars?" was released as a single in 1973 and made #3 in the UK, the same year Bowie's novelty record from 1967, "The Laughing Gnome", hit #6. 1974 to 1976: Soul, R&B, and The Thin White Duke 1974 saw the release of another ambitious album, Diamond Dogs, with a spoken word introduction and a multi-part song suite ("Sweet Thing/Candidate/Sweet Thing (reprise)"). Diamond Dogs was the product of two distinct ideas: a musical based on a wild future in a post-apocalyptic city, and setting George Orwell's 1984 to music. Bowie also made plans to develop a Diamond Dogs movie, but didn't get very far. Bowie had originally planned on writing a musical to 1984, but his interest waned after encountering difficulties in licensing the novel. He used some of the songs he had written for the project on Diamond Dogs. The album—and an NBC television special, The 1980 Floor Show, broadcast at around the same time—demonstrated Bowie headed toward the genre of soul/funk music, the track "1984" being a prime example. The album spawned the hits "Rebel Rebel" (UK #5) and "Diamond Dogs" (UK #21), and itself went to #1 in the UK, making him the best-selling act of that country for the second year in a row. In the US, Bowie achieved his first major commercial success as the album went to #5. To follow on the release of the album, Bowie launched a massive Diamond Dogs tour in North America from June to December 1974. Choreographed by Toni Basil, and lavishly produced with theatrical special effects, the high-budget stage production broke with contemporary standard practice for rock concerts by featuring no encores. It was filmed by Alan Yentob for the documentary Cracked Actor. The documentary seemed to confirm the rumours of his cocaine abuse, featuring a pasty and emaciated Bowie nervously sniffing in the backseat of a car and claiming that there was a fly in his milk. Bowie commented that the resulting live album, David Live, ought to have been called "David Bowie Is Alive and Well and Living Only In Theory," presumably in reference to his addled and frenetic psychological state during this period. Nevertheless the album solidified his status as a superstar, going #2 in the UK and #8 in the US. It also spawned a UK #10 hit in a cover of "Knock on Wood". After the opening leg of the tour, Bowie mostly jettisoned the elaborate sets. Then, when the tour resumed after a summer break in Philadelphia for recording new material, the Diamond Dogs sound no longer seemed apt. Bowie cancelled seven dates and made changes to the band, which returned to the road in October as the Philly Dogs tour. For Ziggy Stardust fans who had not discerned the soul and funk strains already apparent in Bowie's recent work, the "new" sound was considered a sudden and jolting step. 1975's Young Americans was Bowie's definitive exploration of Philly soul—though he himself referred to the sound ironically as "plastic soul." It contained his first #1 hit in the US, "Fame", co-written with Carlos Alomar and John Lennon (who also contributed backing vocals). It was based on a riff Alomar had developed while covering The Flares' 1961 doo-wop classic "Foot Stompin'", which Bowie's band had taken to playing live during the Philly Dogs period. One of the backing vocalists on the album is a young Luther Vandross, who also co-wrote some of the material for Young Americans. The song "Win" featured a hypnotic guitar riff later taken by Beck for the track/live staple "Debra" off his Midnite Vultures album. Despite Bowie's unashamed recognition of the shallowness of his "plastic soul," he did earn the bona fide distinction of being one of the few white artists to be invited to appear on the popular "Soul Train." Another violently paranoid appearance on ABC's The Dick Cavett Show (1974 5 December) seemed to confirm rumours of Bowie's heavy cocaine use at this time. DVD, Dick Cavett Show: Rock Icons, disc 1 Young Americans was the album that cemented Bowie's stardom in the U.S.; though only peaking there at #9, as opposed to the #5 placing of Diamond Dogs, the album stayed on the charts almost twice as long. At the same time, the album achieved #2 in the UK while a re-issue of his old single "Space Oddity" became his first #1 hit in the UK, only a few months after "Fame" had achieved the same in the US.Station to Station (1976) featured a darker version of this soul persona, called "The Thin White Duke". Visually the figure was an extension of Thomas Jerome Newton, the character Bowie portrayed in The Man Who Fell to Earth. Station to Station was a transitional album, prefiguring the Krautrock and synthesizer music of his next releases, while further developing the funk and soul music of Young Americans. By this time, Bowie had become heavily dependent on drugs, particularly cocaine; many critics have attributed the chopped rhythms and emotional detachment of the record to the influence of the drug, to which Bowie claimed to have been introduced in America. Bowie refused to relinquish control of a satellite, booked for a worldwide broadcast of a live appearance preceding the release of Station to Station, at the request of the Spanish Government, who wished to put out a live feed regarding the death of Spanish Dictator Francisco Franco. His sanity—by his own later admission—became twisted from cocaine: he overdosed several times during the year. Additionally, Bowie was withering physically after having lost an alarming amount of weight. Nonetheless, there was another large tour, the Isolar - 1976 Tour, which featured a starkly lit set and highlighted new songs such as the dramatic and lengthy title track, the ballads "Wild Is the Wind" and "Word on a Wing", and the funkier "TVC 15" and "Stay". The core band that coalesced around this album and tour—rhythm guitarist Alomar, bassist George Murray, and drummer Dennis Davis—would remain a stable unit through the 1970s. The tour was highly successful but also mired in political controversy. Bowie was quoted in Stockholm as saying that "Britain could benefit from a Fascist leader", and detained by customs in Eastern Europe for possessing Nazi paraphenalia. Buckley (2000): pp. 289–291. Matters came to a head in London on 2 May 1976, in what became known as the 'Victoria Station incident', when Bowie arrived in an open-top Mercedes convertible and apparently gave a Nazi salute to the crowd that was captured on film and published in NME. Bowie claimed that the photographer simply caught him in mid-wave, and later blamed his addictions and the character of The Thin White Duke for his troubles at this time. Carr & Murray (1981): p. 11. 1976 to 1979: The Berlin era Bowie's interest in the growing German music scene, as well as his drug addiction, prompted him to move to West Berlin to dry out and rejuvenate his career. Sharing an apartment in Schöneberg with his friend Iggy Pop, he co-produced three more of his own classic albums with Tony Visconti, while aiding Pop with his career. With Bowie as a co-writer and musician, Pop completed his first two solo albums, The Idiot and Lust for Life. Bowie joined Pop's touring band in the spring, simply playing keyboard and singing backing vocals. The group performed in the UK, Europe, and the US from March to April 1977. Kris Needs (2007). "The Passenger", MOJO 60 Years of Bowie: p.65 The brittle sound of Station to Station proved a precursor to Low, the first of three albums that became known as the "Berlin Trilogy". Low was recorded with Brian Eno as an integral collaborator but, despite widespread belief, not the album's producer. Journalists often mistakenly give Eno production credits on the trilogy but, in fact, Bowie and Tony Visconti co-produced, with Eno co-writing some of the music, playing keyboards, and developing strategies. Partly influenced by the Krautrock sound of Kraftwerk and Neu! and the minimalist work of Steve Reich, Bowie journeyed to Neunkirchen near Cologne to meet the famed German producer Conny Plank. Bowie and his team persevered, however, and recorded new songs that were relatively simple, repetitive and stripped-down, a perverse reaction to punk rock, with the second side almost wholly instrumental. (By way of tribute, proto-punk Nick Lowe recorded an EP entitled "Bowi".) The album provided him with a surprise #3 hit in the UK when the BBC picked up the first single, "Sound and Vision", as its 'coming attractions' theme music. The album was produced in 1976 and released in early 1977. The Low sessions also formalised Bowie's three-phase approach to making albums. Much of the band were present for the first five days only, after which Eno, Alomar and Gardiner remained to play overdubs. By the time Bowie wrote and recorded the lyrics everybody but Visconti and studio engineers had departed. The next record, "Heroes", was similar in sound to Low, though slightly more accessible. The mood of these records fit the zeitgeist of the Cold War, symbolised by the divided city that provided its inspiration. The title track, a story of two lovers who met at the Berlin Wall, is one of Bowie's most-covered songs. Pegg (2000): pp.90-92 Also in 1977, Bowie appeared on the Granada music show Marc, hosted by his friend and fellow glam pioneer Marc Bolan of T.Rex, with whom he had regularly socialised and jammed before either achieved fame. He turned out to be the show's final guest, as Bolan was killed in a car crash shortly afterward. Bowie Golden Years: Marc Bowie was one of many superstars who attended the funeral. For Christmas 1977, Bowie joined Bing Crosby, of whom he was an ardent admirer, at the ATV Television Studio in Herts England to do "Peace on Earth/Little Drummer Boy", a version of "Little Drummer Boy" with a new lyric. DVD, Bing Crosby, A Bing Crosby Christmas, Questar qd3175, ISBN 1-56855-683-7 The resultant video in a Christmas seasonal setting was actually recorded during a late summer heatwave with the air conditioning breaking down. The two singers had originally met on Crosby's Christmas television special two years earlier (on the recommendation of Crosby's children—he had not heard of Bowie) and performed the song. One month after the record was completed, Crosby died. Five years later, the song would prove a worldwide festive hit, charting in the UK at #3 on Christmas Day 1982. Bowie later remarked jokingly that he was afraid of being a guest artist, because "everyone I was going on with was kicking it", referring to Bolan and Crosby. Dave Thompson (2007). "Bowie and Bing", MOJO 60 Years of Bowie: p.64 Bowie and his band embarked on an extensive world tour in 1978 (including his first concerts in Australia and New Zealand) which featured music from both Low and Heroes. A live album from the tour was released as Stage the same year. Songs from both Low and Heroes were later converted to symphonies by minimalist composer Phillip Glass. 1978 was also the year that saw Bowie narrating Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf. 1979's Lodger was the final album in Bowie's so-called "Berlin Trilogy", or "triptych" as Bowie calls it. Buckley (2000): p.300 It featured the singles "Boys Keep Swinging", "DJ" and "Look Back in Anger" and, unlike the two previous LPs, did not contain any instrumentals. The style was a mix of New Wave and world music, which included pieces such as "African Night Flight" and "Yassassin". A number of tracks were composed using the non-traditional Bowie/Eno composition techniques: "Boys Keep Swinging" was developed with the band members swapping their instruments while "Move On" contains the chords for an early Bowie composition, "All The Young Dudes", played backwards. Carr & Murray (1981): p.102-107 This was Bowie's last album with Eno until 1. Outside in 1995. 1980 to 1989: From superstar to megastar In 1980, Bowie did an about-face, integrating the lessons learnt on Low, Heroes, and Lodger while expanding upon them with chart success. Carr & Murray (1981): pp.108-114 Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps) included the #1 hit "Ashes to Ashes", featuring the textural work of guitar-synthesist Chuck Hammer, and revisiting the character of Major Tom from "Space Oddity". The imagery Bowie used in the song's music video gave international exposure to the underground New Romantic movement and, with many of the followers of this phase being devotees, Bowie visited the London club "Blitz"—the main New Romantic hangout—to recruit several of the regulars (including Steve Strange of the band Visage) to act in the video, renowned as being one of the most innovative of all time. Pegg (2000): p.29 While Scary Monsters utilised principles that Bowie had learned in the Berlin era, it was considered by critics to be far more direct musically and lyrically, reflecting the transformation Bowie had gone through during his time in Germany and Europe. By 1980 Bowie had divorced his wife Angie, stopped the drug use of the "Thin White Duke" era, and radically changed his concept of the way music should be written. The album had a hard rock edge that included conspicuous guitar contributions from King Crimson's Robert Fripp, The Who's Pete Townshend, and Television's Tom Verlaine. As "Ashes to Ashes" hit #1 on the UK charts, Bowie opened a three-month run on Broadway starring in The Elephant Man on 23 September 1980. Rock Movers & Shakers, Dafydd Rees & Luke Crampton, Billboard Books, 1991 In 1981, Queen released "Under Pressure", co-written and performed with Bowie. The song was a hit and became Bowie's third UK #1 single. In the same year Bowie made a cameo appearance in the German movie Christiane F. Wir Kinder vom Bahnhof Zoo, the real-life story of a 13 year-old girl in Berlin who becomes addicted to heroin and ends up prostituting herself. Bowie is credited with "special cooperation" in the credits and his music features prominently in the movie. The soundtrack was released in 1982 and contained a version of "Heroes" sung partially in German that had previously been included on the German pressing of its parent album. The same year Bowie appeared in the BBC's adaptation of Bertolt Brecht's play Baal. Coinciding with transmission of the film, a five-track EP of songs from the play was released as David Bowie in Bertolt Brecht's Baal, recorded at Hansa by the Wall the previous September. It would mark Bowie’s final new release on RCA, as 1983 saw him change record labels from RCA to EMI America. In April 1982, Bowie released "Cat People (Putting Out Fire)" with Giorgio Moroder, for director Paul Schrader's film Cat People. Bowie scored his first truly commercial blockbuster with Let's Dance in 1983, a slick dance album co-produced by Chic's Nile Rodgers. The title track went to #1 in the United States and United Kingdom. The album also featured the singles "Modern Love" and "China Girl", the latter causing something of a stir due to its suggestive promotional video. "China Girl" was a remake of a song which Bowie co-wrote several years earlier with Iggy Pop, who recorded it for The Idiot. In an interview by Kurt Loder, Bowie revealed that the motivation for recording "China Girl" was to help out his friend Iggy Pop financially, contributing to Bowie's history of support for musicians he admired. Let's Dance was also notable as a stepping stone for the career of the late Texan guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan, who played on the album and was to have supported Bowie on the consequent Serious Moonlight Tour. Vaughan, however, never joined the tour after various disputes with Bowie. Vaughan was replaced by the Bowie tour veteran Earl Slick. Frank and George Simms from The Simms Brothers Band appeared as backing vocalists for the tour. Bowie's next album was originally planned to be a live album recorded on the Serious Moonlight Tour, but EMI demanded another studio album instead. The resulting album, 1984's Tonight, was also dance-oriented, featuring collaborations with Tina Turner and Iggy Pop, as well as various covers, including one of The Beach Boys' "God Only Knows". Critics labeled it a lazy effort, dashed off by Bowie as an attempt to simply recapture the chart success of Let's Dance, partially due to the fact most of the tracks were either covers or rerecordings of earlier material. Yet the album bore the transatlantic Top Ten hit "Blue Jean" whose complete video — the 21-minute short film "Jazzin' for Blue Jean" - reflected Bowie's long-standing interest in combining music with drama. This video would win Bowie his only Grammy to date, for Best Short Form Music Video. It also featured "Loving the Alien", a remix of which was a minor hit in 1985. The album also has a pair of dance rewrites of "Neighborhood Threat" and "Tonight", old songs Bowie wrote with Iggy Pop which had originally appeared on Lust for Life. In 1985, Bowie performed several of his greatest hits at Wembley for Live Aid. At the end of his set, which comprised "Rebel Rebel", "TVC 15", "Modern Love" and 'Heroes', he introduced a film of the Ethiopian famine, for which the event was raising funds, which was set to the song "Drive" by The Cars. At the event, the video to a fundraising single was premièred – Bowie performing a duet with Mick Jagger on a version of "Dancing in the Street", which quickly went to #1 on release. In the same year Bowie worked with the Pat Metheny Group on the song "This Is Not America", which was featured in the film The Falcon and the Snowman. This song was the centrepiece of the album, a collaboration intended to underline the espionage thriller's central themes of alienation and disaffection. Bowie performing in 1987 In 1986, Bowie contributed several songs to as well as acted in the film Absolute Beginners. The movie was not well reviewed but Bowie's theme song rose to #2 in the UK charts. He also took a role in the 1986 Jim Henson film Labyrinth, as Jareth, the Goblin King who steals the baby brother of a girl named Sarah (played by Jennifer Connelly), in order to turn him into a goblin. Bowie wrote five songs for the film, the script of which was partially written by Monty Python's Terry Jones. Bowie's final solo album of the 80s was 1987's Never Let Me Down, where he ditched the light sound of his two earlier albums, instead offering harder rock with an industrial/techno dance edge. The album, which peaked at #6 in the UK, contained hit singles "Day In, Day Out", "Time Will Crawl", and "Never Let Me Down". Bowie himself later described it as "my nadir" and "an awful album". James McNair (2007). "Tumble & Twirl", MOJO 60 Years of Bowie: p.101 Bowie decided to tour again in 1987, supporting the Never Let Me Down album. The Glass Spider Tour was preceded by nine promotional press shows before the 86-concert tour actually started on 30 May 1987. In addition to the actual band, that included Peter Frampton on lead guitar, five dancers appeared on stage for almost the entire duration of each concert. Taped pieces of dialogue were also performed by Bowie and the dancers in the middle of songs, creating an overtly theatrical effect. Several visual gimmicks were also recreated from Bowie's earlier tours. Critics of the tour described it as overproduced and claimed it pandered to then-current stadium rock trends in its special effects and dancing. Andy Fyfe (2007). "Too Dizzy", MOJO 60 Years of Bowie: pp.88-91 However, fans that saw the shows from the Glass Spider Tour were treated to many of Bowie's classics and rarities, in addition to the newer material. In August 1988, Bowie portrayed Pontius Pilate in the Martin Scorsese film The Last Temptation of Christ. 1989 to 1991: Tin Machine In 1989, for the first time since the early 1970s, Bowie formed a regular band, Tin Machine, a hard-rocking quartet, along with Reeves Gabrels, Tony Sales, and Hunt Sales. Tin Machine released two studio albums and a live record. The band received mixed reviews and a somewhat lukewarm reception from the public, but Tin Machine heralded the beginning of a long-lasting collaboration between Bowie and Gabrels. The original album, Tin Machine (1989), was a success, holding the number three spot on the charts of the UK. Tin Machine launched its first world tour, featuring a now unshaven David Bowie and additional guitarist Eric Schermerhorn, that year. Despite the success of the Tin Machine venture, Bowie was mildly frustrated that many of his ideas were either rejected or changed by the band. David Bowie performing at Rock In Chile Festival, 27 September 1990 Bowie began the 1990s with a stadium tour, in which he played mostly his biggest hits. The Sound + Vision Tour (named after the Low single) was conceived and directed by choreographer Edouard Lock of the Quebec contemporary dance troupe La La La Human Steps, with whom Bowie collaborated and performed on stage and in his videos. Bowie vowed during the tour that he would never play his early hits again. Though he surprised no one when he later reneged on that promise and also on the promise that his set in each country would be focused on the favourite hits voted by phone poll in that country — an idea quickly jettisoned when a campaign by the British magazine NME resulted in a landslide in favour of The Laughing Gnome, it is true that his later tours generally featured few of those hits, and when they appeared, they were often radically reworked in their arrangement and delivery. Bowie's negative press-image continued when the cover of Tin Machine's second album became unusually controversial, due to the presence of naked statues as its cover art. After the less successful second album Tin Machine II and the complete failure of live album Tin Machine Live: Oy Vey, Baby, Bowie tired of having to work in a group setting where his creativity was limited, and finally disbanded Tin Machine to work on his own. 1992 to 1999: Electronica In 1992 he performed his hits "Heroes" and "Under Pressure" (with Annie Lennox) at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert. 1993 saw the release of the soul, jazz and hip-hop influenced Black Tie White Noise, which reunited Bowie with Let's Dance producer Nile Rodgers. The album hit the number one spot on the UK charts with singles such as "Jump They Say" (a top 10 hit) and "Miracle Goodnight". Bowie explored new directions on The Buddha of Suburbia (1993), based on incidental music composed for a TV series. It contained some of the new elements introduced in Black Tie White Noise, and also signalled a move towards alternative rock. The album was a critical success but received a low-key release and only made number 87 in the UK charts. Buckley (2000): pp.494-495,623 The ambitious, quasi-industrial release Outside (1995), conceived as the first volume in a subsequently abandoned non-linear narrative of art and murder, reunited him with Brian Eno. The album introduced the characters of one of Bowie's short stories, and achieved chart success in both the UK and US. Buckley (2000): pp.623-624 The album and its singles put Bowie back into the mainstream of rock music. In September 1995, Bowie began the Outside Tour with Gabrels returning as guitarist. In a move that was equally lauded and ridiculed by Bowie fans and critics, Bowie chose Nine Inch Nails as the tour partner; Buckley (2000): pp.512-513 Trent Reznor also contributed a remix of the Outside song "The Hearts Filthy Lesson" for its single release. On 17 January 1996, Bowie was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at the eleventh annual induction ceremony. Receiving some of the strongest critical response since Let's Dance was Earthling (1997), Buckley (2000): p.533-534 which incorporated experiments in British jungle and drum 'n' bass and included a single released over the Internet, called "Telling Lies"; other singles included "Little Wonder" and "Dead Man Walking". There was a corresponding world tour. Bowie's track in the Paul Verhoeven film Showgirls, "I'm Afraid of Americans" was remixed by Trent Reznor for a single release. The video's heavy rotation (also featuring Reznor) contributed to the song's 16-week stay in the US Billboard Hot 100. 1999 to present: Neoclassicist Bowie In 1998, David Bowie had reunited with Tony Visconti to record a song for The Rugrats Movie called "(Safe in This) Sky Life". Although the track was edited out of the final cut, and did not feature on the film's soundtrack album, the reunion led to the pair pursuing a new collaborative effort. "(Safe In This) Sky Life" was later re-recorded and released as a single b-side in 2002 where it was retitled "Safe". The Complete David Bowie, Nicholas Pegg, 2006 Reynolds & Hearn Ltd Amongst their earliest work together in this period, was a reworking of Placebo's track "Without You I'm Nothing", from the album of the same name — Visconti overseeing the additional production required when Bowie's harmonised vocal was added to the original version for a strictly limited edition single release. In 1999 Bowie made the soundtrack for"Omikron," a computer game. Bowie and his wife, Iman, made appearances as characters in the game. That same year, re-recorded tracks from Omikron and new music was released in the album 'hours...' featured "What's Really Happening", with lyrics by Alex Grant, the winner of Bowie's "Cyber Song Contest" Internet competition. This album was Bowie's exit from heavy electronica, with an emphasis on more live instruments. Plans surfaced after the release of 'hours...' for an album titled Toy, which would feature new versions of some of Bowie's earliest pieces as well as three new songs. Sessions for the album commenced in 2000, but the album was never released, leaving a number of tracks, some as yet unheard, on the editing floor. Illustrated db Discography Bowie and Visconti continued collaboration with the production of a new album of completely original songs instead. The result of the sessions was the 2002 album Heathen, which had a dark atmospheric sound, and was Bowie's biggest chart success in recent years. 2002 also saw Bowie curate the annual Meltdown festival in London. Amongst the acts selected by Bowie to perform were Phillip Glass, Television and The Polyphonic Spree. Bowie himself played a show at the Royal Festival Hall which notably included a rare performance of his experimental opus Low in its entirety. In 2003, a report in the Sunday Express named Bowie as the second-richest entertainer in the UK (behind Sir Paul McCartney), with an estimated fortune of £510 million. However, the 2005 Sunday Times Rich List credited him with a little over £100 million. In September 2003, Bowie released a new album, Reality, and announced a world tour. 'A Reality Tour' was the best-selling tour of the following year. However, it was cut short after Bowie suffered chest pain while performing on stage at the Hurricane Festival in Scheeßel, Germany, on 25 June 2004. Originally thought to be a pinched nerve in his shoulder, the pain was later diagnosed as an acutely blocked artery; an emergency angioplasty was performed at St. Georg Hospital in Hamburg by Dr Karl Heinz Kuck. BBC News He was discharged in early July 2004 and continued to spend time recovering. Bowie later admitted he had suffered a minor heart attack, resulting from years of heavy smoking and touring. The tour was cancelled for the time being, with hopes that he would go back on tour by August, though this did not materialise. He recuperated back in New York City. BBC News In October 2004, Bowie released a live DVD of the tour, entitled A Reality Tour of his performances in Dublin on 22 November and 23 November 2003, which included songs spanning the full length of Bowie's career, although mostly focusing on his more recent albums. Still recuperating from his operation, Bowie worked off-stage and relaxed from studio work for the first time in several years. In 2004, a duet of his classic song "Changes" with Butterfly Boucher appeared in Shrek 2. The soundtrack for the film The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou featured David Bowie songs performed in Portuguese by cast member Seu Jorge (who adapted the lyrics to make them relevant to the film's story). Most of the David Bowie songs featured in the film were originally from David Bowie (debut album), Space Oddity, Hunky Dory, The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars and Diamond Dogs. Bowie commented, "Had Seu Jorge not recorded my songs acoustically in Portuguese I would never have heard this new level of beauty which he has imbued them with". Forbes Despite hopes for a comeback, in 2005, Bowie announced that he had made no plans for any performances during the year. After a relatively quiet year, Bowie recorded the vocals for the song "(She Can) Do That", co-written by Brian Transeau, for the movie Stealth. Rumours flew about the possibility of a new album, but no announcements were made. David Bowie finally returned to the stage on 8 September 2005, alongside Arcade Fire, for the US nationally televised event Fashion Rocks, his first gig since the heart attack. Bowie has shown interest in the Montreal band since he was seen at one of their shows in New York City nearly a year earlier. Bowie had requested the band to perform at the show, and together they performed the Arcade Fire's song "Wake Up" from their album Funeral, as well as Bowie's own "Five Years" and "Life on Mars?". He joined them again on 15 September 2005, singing "Queen Bitch" and "Wake Up" from Central Park's Summerstage as part of the CMJ Music Marathon. Bowie contributed back-up vocals for TV on the Radio's song "Province" from their album Return to Cookie Mountain. Pitchfork Media He made other occasional appearances, as in his commercial with Snoop Dogg for XM Satellite Radio. He appeared on Danish alt-rockers Kashmir's 2005 release, No Balance Palace, sharing lead vocals with Kashmir singer Kasper Eistrup on the song "The Cynic". The album was produced by Tony Visconti, who also arranged the contact. No Balance Palace also featured a spoken word performance by Lou Reed, making it the second project involving both Bowie and Reed in two years, since Reed's 2003 The Raven. On 8 February 2006, David Bowie was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In November, Bowie performed at the Black Ball in New York for the Keep a Child Alive Foundation alongside his wife, Iman, and Alicia Keys. He duetted with Keys on "Changes", and also performed "Wild is the Wind" and "Fantastic Voyage". For 2006, Bowie once again announced a break from performance, but he made a surprise guest appearance at David Gilmour's 29 May 2006 concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London. He sang "Arnold Layne" and "Comfortably Numb", closing the concert. The former performance was released, on 26 December 2006, as a single. In May 2007, it was announced that Bowie would curate the High Line Festival in the abandoned railway park in New York called the High Line where he would select various musicians and artists to perform. 2007 NYC Show As Bowie Curates first High Line Festival Bowie contributed backing vocals to two tracks - "Falling Down" and "Fannin' Street" - on Scarlett Johansson's 2008 album of Tom Waits covers, Anywhere I Lay My Head. Rolling Stone: How Scarlett Johansson and David Bowie got together On 29 June 2008, Bowie released a new compilation entitled iSELECT. This CD was a collection of personal favourites compiled by Bowie himself The Mail On Sunday, 29 June 2008 edition and was available exclusively as a free gift with the British newspaper The Mail On Sunday. The compilation is notable in that it only contained one major hit single, "Life on Mars?", and concentrated on lesser-known album tracks. Acting career Bowie's first major film role in The Man Who Fell to Earth in 1976, earned acclaim. Bowie's character Thomas Jerome Newton is an alien from a planet that is dying from a lack of water. In 1979's Just a Gigolo, an Anglo-German co-production directed by David Hemmings, Bowie played the lead role of a Prussian officer Paul von Pryzgodski returning from World War I who is discovered by a Baroness (Marlene Dietrich) and put into her Gigolo Stable. In the 1980s, Bowie continued with film roles and also starred in the Broadway production of The Elephant Man (1980-1981). In 1982, he made a cameo appearance as himself in Christiane F., focusing on a young girl's drug addiction. Bowie also starred in The Hunger (1983), a revisionist vampire movie with Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon. In the film, Bowie and Deneuve are vampire lovers, with her having made him a vampire centuries ago. While she is truly ageless, he discovers to his horror that although immortal, he can still age and rapidly becomes a pathetic, monstrous husk as the film progresses. In Nagisa Oshima's film Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983), based on Laurens van der Post's novel The Seed and the Sower, Bowie played Major Jack Celliers, a prisoner of war in a Japanese internment camp. Another famous musician, Ryuichi Sakamoto, played the camp commandant who begins to be undermined by Celliers' bizarre behavior. Bowie had a cameo as The Shark in Yellowbeard, a 1983 pirate comedy made by some of the members of Monty Python, and a small part as Colin the hit man in the 1985 film Into the Night. During this time Bowie was also asked to play the villain Max Zorin in the James Bond film A View to a Kill (1985), but turned down the role, stating that "I didn't want to spend five months watching my stunt double fall off mountains." The Complete David Bowie by Nicholas Pegg (2004, Reynolds & Hearn Ltd) p.561. Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence impressed some critics. His next major film project, the rock musical Absolute Beginners (1986), was both a critical and box office disappointment. The same year he appeared in the Jim Henson cult classic, the dark fantasy Labyrinth (1986), playing Jareth, the king of the goblins. Jareth is a powerful, mysterious creature who has an antagonistic yet strangely flirtatious relationship with Sarah (Jennifer Connelly), the film's teenage heroine. Appearing in heavy make-up and a mane-like wig, Bowie sang a variety of new songs specially composed for the film's soundtrack. Bowie also played a sympathetic Pontius Pilate in Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ (1988). He was briefly considered for the role of The Joker by Tim Burton and Sam Hamm for 1989's Batman. Hamm recalls "David Bowie would be kind of neat because he's very funny when he does sinister roles". The role ended up going to Jack Nicholson. Batman Movie Online: Behind the Scenes Bowie portrayed a disgruntled restaurant employee opposite Rosanna Arquette in the 1991 film The Linguini Incident, and played mysterious FBI agent Phillip Jeffries in David Lynch's Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992). He took the small but pivotal role of Andy Warhol in Basquiat, artist/director Julian Schnabel's 1996 biopic of the artist Jean-Michel Basquiat. In 1998 Bowie also co-starred in an Italian film called Gunslinger's Revenge (renamed from the original Il Mio West). Appearance in Il Mio West, Italian film, 1998: IMDB.com website. However, it was not released in the United States until 2005. In it he plays the most feared gunslinger in the region. Gunslinger's Revenge, 2005 US release of Il Mio West: review at the Reel Film website. Before appearing in The Hunger, a TV horror serial based on the 1983 movie, Bowie was invited by musician Goldie to play the aging gangster Bernie in Andrew Goth's Brighton Rock inspired movie, Everybody Loves Sunshine. He played the title role in the 2000 film, Mr. Rice's Secret, in which he played the neighbour of a terminally ill twelve year old. In 2001, Bowie appeared as himself in the film Zoolander, volunteering himself to be a walkoff judge between Ben Stiller's character Zoolander, and Owen Wilson's character, Hansel. In 2006, Bowie portrayed Nikola Tesla alongside Christian Bale and Hugh Jackman in The Prestige, directed by Christopher Nolan. It follows the bitter competition between two magicians around the turn of the century. Bowie has voice-acted in the animated movie Arthur and the Minimoys (known as Arthur and the Invisibles in the U.S.) as the powerful villain Maltazard. He also appeared as himself in an episode of Extras. Bowie (in the context of the show) improvised and sang a song mocking the main character Andy Millman, played by Ricky Gervais. He also lent his voice to the character "Lord Royal Highness" in the SpongeBob SquarePants episode "SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis". His latest project is a supporting role as Ogilvie in the new film, August, Film review, August (2008), to be released: ComingSoon.net website. Retrieved on 24 January 2008. directed by Austin Chick (best known for writing and directing the 2002 romantic drama XX/XY), and starring Josh Hartnett and Rip Torn (with whom he also worked on The Man Who Fell to Earth). Previous work with Rip Torn, The Man Who Fell to Earth: castlist from the IMDB.com website. Retrieved on 7 March 2008. Family and personal relationships Bowie met his first wife Angela Bowie in 1969. According to Bowie, they were "fucking the same bloke". Bowie, by Christopher Sandford Angie's sense of fashion and outrage has been credited as a significant influence in Bowie's early career and rise to fame. Buckley (2000): pp.92-93 They married on 19 March 1970 at Bromley Register Office in Beckenham Lane, Kent, England where she permanently took his adopted last name. Their first son was born on 30 May 1971 and named Zowie (Zowie later preferred to be known as Joe/Joey, although now he has reverted to his legal birth name - "Duncan Zowie Haywood Jones"). They separated after eight years of marriage and divorced on 8 February 1980, in Switzerland. The marriage has been cited as one of convenience for both. Bowie married his second wife, the Somali-born supermodel Iman Abdulmajid, in 1992. The couple have a daughter, Alexandria Zahra Jones (known as Lexi), born 15 August 2000, and live in Manhattan and London. Sexual orientation Bowie outed himself in an interview with Melody Maker in January 1972, a move coinciding with the first shots in his campaign for stardom as Ziggy Stardust. In a 1976 interview with Playboy, Bowie said: "It's true — I am a bisexual. But I can't deny that I've used that fact very well. I suppose it's the best thing that ever happened to me." He distanced himself from that in a 1983 interview with Rolling Stone, saying his earlier declaration of bisexuality was "the biggest mistake I ever made". Buckley (2000): p.401 In 1993, he made the claim that he had always been a "closet heterosexual", and that his interest in homosexual and bisexual culture was more a product of the times and situation than his own feelings. Bowie stated, "It wasn't something I was comfortable with at all." The Ziggy Stardust Companion Bowie expressed a different view in a 2002 interview with Blender; where he was posed with this question: "You once said that saying you were bisexual was 'the biggest mistake I ever made'. Do you still believe that?" His response: Interesting. [Long pause] I don’t think it was a mistake in Europe, but it was a lot tougher in America. I had no problem with people knowing I was bisexual. But I had no inclination to hold any banners or be a representative of any group of people. I knew what I wanted to be, which was a songwriter and a performer, and I felt that [bisexuality] became my headline over here for so long. America is a very puritanical place, and I think it stood in the way of so much I wanted to do. Politics In the 1970s Bowie caused controversy for some radical political comments, saying that Britain could benefit from a Fascist leader and that Adolf Hitler was 'the first super-star'. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,3805879,00.html Such comments were a major source of motivation behind the Rock Against Racism group. In more recent years Bowie has gone to great lengths to distance himself from such comments. In September 2007, he made a contribution of U.S.$10,000 to the NAACP for the Jena Six Legal Defense Fund to help with legal bills of six teenagers arrested and charged with crimes related to their involvement in the assault of a teenager in Jena. Donation to the Jena Six: article at the MonstersAndCritics.com website. Retrieved on 6 December 2007. Discography Studio albums David Bowie (1967) Space Oddity (1969) The Man Who Sold the World (1970) Hunky Dory (1971) The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972) Aladdin Sane (1973) Pin Ups (1973) Diamond Dogs (1974) Young Americans (1975) Station to Station (1976) Low (1977) "Heroes" (1977) Lodger (1979) Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps) (1980) Let's Dance (1983) Tonight (1984) Never Let Me Down (1987) Black Tie, White Noise (1993) The Buddha of Suburbia (1993) Outside (1995) Earthling (1997) 'Hours...' (1999) Heathen (2002) Reality (2003) Filmography Awards Bowie has previously declined the British honour Commander of the British Empire in 2000, and a knighthood in 2003. See also Bowie Bonds Best selling music artists - World's top selling music artists chart. List of number-one hits (United States) List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.) List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States) List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart List of people who have declined a British honour 100 Greatest Britons Low Symphony and Heroes Symphony List of bisexual people Notes References Further reading Buckley, David, David Bowie: Complete Guide to His Music, Omnibus, 2004. Sanford, Christopher, Bowie: Loving the Alien, Da Capo Press, 1998. Seabrook, Thomas Jerome, Bowie in Berlin: A New Career in a New Town, Jawbone Press, 2008. Thompson, Dave, Hallo Spaceboy: The Rebirth of David Bowie, Ecw Press, 2006. Tremlett, George, David Bowie: Living on the Brink, Carroll and Graf, 1997. Waldrep, Shelton, "Phenomenology of Performance," The Aesthetics of Self-Invention: Oscar Wilde to David Bowie, University of Minnesota Press, 2004. Welch, Chris, David Bowie: We Could Be Heroes: The Stories Behind Every David Bowie Song, Da Capo Press, 1999. Wilcken, Hugo, 33 1/2: David Bowie's'' Low, Continuum, 2005. External links Official David Bowie website Official David Bowie Myspace Page Official David Bowie YouTube Channel Charlie Rose interview (1998) | David_Bowie |@lemmatized david:47 bowie:267 bear:4 robert:3 hayward:3 jones:10 http:4 www:4 imdb:3 com:7 name:15 bio:1 january:4 english:1 musician:8 actor:3 record:33 producer:4 arranger:1 active:1 five:11 decade:1 popular:4 music:31 frequently:1 reinvent:1 image:2 widely:1 regard:2 innovator:1 particularly:3 work:18 cite:4 influence:6 many:10 stephen:1 thomas:4 erlewine:1 url:2 access:1 march:5 know:11 distinctive:1 voice:3 earthling:3 intellectual:3 depth:2 jesse:1 jarnow:1 scott:1 schnider:1 ed:1 icon:2 rock:28 encyclopedia:1 legend:1 change:9 forever:1 openly:1 bisexual:6 vociferously:1 late:8 definition:1 charisma:1 greenwood:1 publishing:1 group:7 pg:2 mark:3 paytress:1 bolan:5 rise:8 fall:7 century:3 superstar:4 america:8 respond:1 favourably:1 take:8 pop:14 omnibus:2 press:9 although:6 release:48 album:104 numerous:1 single:36 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3,565 | Braille | Braille code where the word (, French for "first") can be read. The Braille system is a method that is widely used by blind people to read and write. Braille was devised in 1821 by Louis Braille, a Frenchman. Each Braille character or cell is made up of six dot positions, arranged in a rectangle containing two columns of three dots each. A dot may be raised at any of the six positions to form sixty-four (26) permutations, including the arrangement in which no dots are raised. For reference purposes, a particular permutation may be described by naming the positions where dots are raised, the positions being universally numbered 1 to 3, from top to bottom, on the left, and 4 to 6, from top to bottom, on the right. For example, dots 1-3-4 would describe a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and on top of the right column, i.e., the letter m. The lines of horizontal Braille text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so that the dots of one line can be differentiated from the Braille text above and below. Punctuation is represented by its own unique set of characters. The Braille system was based on a method of communication originally developed by Charles Barbier in response to Napoleon's demand for a code that soldiers could use to communicate silently and without light at night called night writing. Barbier's system was too complex for soldiers to learn, and was rejected by the military. In 1821 he visited the National Institute for the Blind in Paris, France, where he met Louis Braille. Braille identified the major failing of the code, which was that the human finger could not encompass the whole symbol without moving, and so could not move rapidly from one symbol to another. His modification was to use a 6 dot cell — the Braille system — which revolutionized written communication for the blind. The Braille alphabet Braille can be seen as the world's first binary encoding scheme for representing the characters of a writing system. The system as originally invented by Braille consists of two parts: A character encoding for mapping characters of the French language to tuples of six bits or dots. A way of representing six-bit characters as raised dots in a Braille cell. Today different Braille codes (or code pages) are used to map character sets of different languages to the six bit cells. Different Braille codes are also used for different uses like mathematics and music. However, because the six-dot Braille cell only offers 64 possible combinations (26 = 64), of which some are omitted because they feel the same (having the same dots pattern in a different position), many Braille characters have different meanings based on their context. Therefore, character mapping is not one-to-one. In addition to simple encoding, modern Braille transcription uses contractions to increase reading speed. (See: Grade 2 Braille) The Braille cell Braille cell Braille generally consists of cells of six raised dots arranged in a grid of two dots horizontally by three dots vertically. The dots are conventionally numbered 1, 2, and 3 from the top of the left column and 4, 5, and 6 from the top of the right column. The presence or absence of dots gives the coding for the symbol. Dot height is approximately 0.02 inches (0.5 mm); the horizontal and vertical spacing between dot centers within a Braille cell is approximately 0.1 inches (2.5 mm); the blank space between dots on adjacent cells is approximately 0.15 inches (3.75 mm) horizontally and 0.2 inches (5.0 mm) vertically. A standard Braille page is 11 inches by 11.5 inches and typically has a maximum of 40 to 43 Braille cells per line and 25 lines. Encoding As originally conceived by Louis Braille, a sequence of characters, using the top four dots of the Braille cell, represents letters a through j. Dot 3 is added to each of the a through j symbols to give letters k through t. Both of the bottom dots (dots 3 and 6) are added to the symbols for "a" through e to give letters u, v, x, y, and z. The letter w is an exception to the pattern because French did not make use of the letter "w" at the time Louis Braille devised his alphabet, and thus he had no need to encode the letter "w". English Braille codes the letters and punctuation, and some double letter signs and word signs directly, but capitalization and numbers are dealt with by using a prefix symbol. In practice, Braille produced in the United Kingdom does not have capital letters. There are Braille codes for representing shorthand (produced on a machine which embosses a paper tape) and for representing mathematics (Nemeth Braille code) and musical notation (Braille music). Writing Braille Braille may be produced using a slate and stylus in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, by hand, or it may be produced on a Braille typewriter or Perkins Brailler, or produced by a Braille embosser attached to a computer. It may also be rendered using a refreshable Braille display. Braille has been extended to an 8-dot code, particularly for use with Braille embossers and refreshable Braille displays. In 8-dot Braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a matrix 4 dots high by 2 dots wide. The additional dots are given the numbers 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot). Eight-dot Braille has the advantages that the case of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter and that all the printable ASCII characters can be represented in a single cell. All 256 (28) possible combination of 8 dots are encoded by the Unicode standard. Braille with six dots is frequently stored as Braille ASCII. The first ten letters of the alphabet and the numbers 1 through 0 are formed using only the top four dots (1, 2, 4, and 5). Adding dot 3 forms the next ten letters, and adding dot 6 forms the last five letters (except w) and the words and, for, of, the, and with. Omitting dot 3 forms the letters U-Z and the five word symbols form nine digraphs (ch, gh, sh, th, wh, ed, er, ou, and ow) and the letter w. Letters and numbers Other symbols Note: * The question mark is represented by dots 2-3-6—the same as the opening quotation mark. Therefore the placement of the dots—before a word or after a word—will determine which symbol it is. * Opening and closing parentheses are shown with the same symbol. Therefore, the placement context will determine whether the parentheses is opening or closing. Grade 2 Braille contractions This is just a small sample of some of the contractions that are used in Grade 2 Braille. More information about Grade 2 Braille is below in the section on Braille transcription. Braille also includes a number of whole word contractions, for example the word Braille becomes a three cell word brl. Unicode rendering table The Unicode standard encodes 8-dot Braille glyphs according to their binary appearance, rather than following the alphabetic order of any particular convention. Unicode defines the "Braille Patterns" character block in the hex codepoint range from 2800 to 28FF. Braille Letter ⠁ A 1 ⠃ B 2 ⠉ C 3 ⠙ D 4 ⠑ E 5 ⠋ F 6 ⠛ G 7 ⠓ H 8 ⠊ I 9 ⠚ J 0 ⠅ K ⠇ L ⠍ M ⠝ N ⠕ O ⠏ P ⠟ Q ⠗ R ⠎ S Braille Letter ⠞ T ⠥ U ⠧ V ⠺ W ⠭ X ⠽ Y ⠵ Z ⠠ Capital sign ⠼ Number sign ⠲ Period ⠂ Comma ⠦ Question mark ⠆ Semicolon ⠖ Exclamation point ⠦ Opening quote ⠴ Closing quote ⠶ Bracket ⠤ Hyphen ⠄ Apostrophe Braille transcription Braille Writer Braille on a box of tablets Although it is possible to transcribe Braille by simply substituting the equivalent Braille character for its printed equivalent, such a character-by-character transcription (known as Grade 1 Braille) is used only by beginners. Braille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and the standard 11" by 11.5" (28 cm × 30 cm) page has room for only 25 lines of 43 characters. To reduce space and increase reading speed, virtually all Braille books are transcribed in what is known as Grade 2 Braille, which uses a system of contractions to reduce space and speed the process of reading. As with most human linguistic activities, Grade 2 Braille embodies a complex system of customs, styles, and practices. The Library of Congress's Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing runs to nearly 200 pages. Braille transcription is skilled work, and Braille transcribers need to pass certification tests. In English, the system of Grade 2 Braille contractions begins with a set of 23 words which are contracted to single characters. Thus the word but is contracted to the single letter b, can to c, do to d, and so on. Even this simple rule creates issues requiring special cases; for example, d is, specifically, an abbreviation of the verb do; the noun do representing the note of the musical scale is a different word, and must be spelled out. Portions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter "f" lowered in the Braille cell) stands for "ff" when used in the middle of a word. At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word "to" although the character is written in Braille with no space following it. At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point. One problem that can occur when reading Grade 2 Braille is that some contractions are closely similar, even when the words are not. One example compares the contractions "ll", meaning little, and "lr", meaning letter from Barry Hampshire's "Working with Braille" Hampshire, Barry. Working with Braille. Paris: Unesco P, 1981. . The braille notation for the letter "r" differs only by adding one dot to the letter "l". This causes greater confusion between words that are not as similar in normal print and can hinder the learning process of Grade 2 Braille. The contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the word; thus, contractions are not to be used when their use would alter the usual Braille form of a base word to which a prefix or suffix has been added. And some portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgment of the transcriber. Thus, when the contraction rules permit the same word in more than one way, preference is given to "the contraction that more nearly approximates correct pronunciation." Grade 3 Braille is a system that includes many additional contractions, almost a shorthand; it is not used for publication, but is used mostly for individuals for their personal convenience. The current series of Canadian banknotes have raised dots on the banknotes that indicate the denomination and can be easily identified by visually impaired people; this 'tactile feature' does not use standard Braille but, instead, a system developed in consultation with blind and visually impaired Canadians after research indicated that not all potential users read Braille. Mexican bank notes also have special raised symbols to make them identifiable by the visually impaired. Though Braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported two-million visually impaired population, it is estimated that only around 15-20 thousand people use Braille. Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers with screen reader software instead, a more portable communication method that they can also use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make Braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it. In India there are instances where the parliament acts have been published in Braille too. For example 'The Right to Information Act' Braille reading techniques Since Braille is one of the few writing systems where tactile perception is used, as opposed to visual perception, a Braille reader must develop new skills. One skill important for Braille readers is the ability to create smooth and even pressures when running one's fingers along the words. There are many different styles and techniques used for the understanding and development of Braille, even though a study by B. F. Holland B.F. Holland, 'Speed and Pressure Factors in Braille Reading', Teachers Forum, Vol. 7, September 1934 p. 13-17 suggests that there is no specific technique that is superior to any other. Another study by Lowenfield & Abel B. Lowenfield and G. L. Abel, Methods of Teaching Braille Reading Efficiency of Children in Lower Senior Classes. Birmingham, Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped, 1977 shows that Braille could be read "the fastest and best... by students who read using the index fingers of both hands." Another important reading skill emphasized in this study is to finish reading the end of a line with the right hand and to find the beginning of the next line with the left hand simultaneously. One final conclusion drawn by both Lowenfield and Abel is that children have difficulty using both hands independently where the right hand is the dominant hand. But this hand preference does not correlate to other activities. Braille for other scripts See main articles: Hebrew braille, Japanese braille, Korean braille, Vietnamese braille, Tibetan braille, and Chinese braille. The information about the historic site of Safdarjung’s tomb in Delhi, India. The Braille plate is installed near the English version of the same. The English version of the Braille plate. There are many extensions of Braille for additional letters with diacritics, such as ç, ô, é. When Braille is adapted to languages which do not use the Latin alphabet, the blocks are generally assigned to the new alphabet according to how it is transliterated into the Latin alphabet, and the alphabetic order of the national script (and therefore the natural order of Latin Braille) is disregarded. Such is the case with Russian, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese. In Greek, for example, gamma is written as Latin g, despite the fact that it has the alphabetic position of c; Hebrew bet, the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter b, is sometimes pronounced /b/ and sometimes /v/, and is written b or v accordingly; Russian ts is written as c, which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet; and Arabic f is written as f, despite being historically p, and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet (between historic o and q). Esperanto letters with circumflexes, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ and ŝ, are written as those letters without circumflexes with a filled sixth dot. Therefore the letter ĵ has the same representation as the English w and to write a w in Esperanto, the dot 3 is filled (dots 2-3-4-5-6 are used for w instead of dots 2-4-5-6) The ŭ, used in Esperanto also, is as the u but the first dot is moved to the fourth place. Greater differences occur in Chinese Braille. In the case of Mandarin Braille, which is based on Zhuyin rather than the Latin Pinyin alphabet, the traditional Latin Braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels. However, on Latin Braille for many of the initial consonants and simple vowels (based on romanizations of a century ago), but the blocks pull double duty, with different values depending on whether they're placed in syllable-initial or syllable-final position. For instance, the block for Latin k represents old-style Cantonese k (g in Yale and other modern romanizations) when initial, but aak when final, while Latin j represents Cantonese initial j but final oei''. However, at least three adaptations of Braille have completely reassigned the Latin sound values of the blocks. These are, Japanese Braille, Korean Braille, and Tibetan Braille. In Japanese Braille, alphabetic signs for a consonant and vowel are combined into a single syllabic block; in Korean Braille, the consonants have different syllable-initial and syllable-final forms. These modifications made Braille much more compatible with Japanese kana and Korean hangul, but meant that the Latin sound values could not be maintained. See also Refreshable Braille display Braille Watch Moon type Unified English Braille Code List of binary codes Braille ASCII Hebrew braille Japanese Braille Chinese braille Vietnamese braille Korean braille Needle punch Accessible publishing References External links Organizations Braille Authority of North America Braille - American Foundation for the Blind National Braille Week Scottish Braille Press Royal National Institute For The Blind Perkins School for the Blind National Braille Press - offers a free Braille alphabet card Alternate Text Production Center Accessible Media Center National Braille Association, Inc. Libraries The National Library for the Blind Libraries Australia - catalog of Braille in 800+ Australian libraries Washington Talking Book & Braille Library - serving residents of the State of Washington, USA Learning Learn Braille on the Internet For Free Braille Bug - an educational site for kids, from the American Foundation for the Blind BRL: Braille Through Remote Learning On-line Braille Course of University of São Paulo Online Braille Generator A Braille alphabet card Learn Braille online, change own text to Braille, Braille Writer Simulator and more History Celebrating 200 Years of Braille Happy Birthday Louis! RNIB celebrates the bicentenary of the birth of Louis Braille Louis Braille Online Museum -- An all-new illustrated exhibit traces the history of braille and the life of this remarkable inventor. How Braille Began -- a detailed history of Braille's origins and the people who supported and opposed the system. Robert B. Irwin's As I Saw It, 1955, gives a history of the "War of the Dots" that ultimately led to the adoption of the English form of the Braille literary code in the United States and the demise of American Braille and New York Point, its main competitors. Making a Newspaper For Sightless Readers: By means of raised dots and lines embossed on manila paper, news of the world is conveyed to the fingertips of the blind Popular Science( monthly, January 1919, page 24-25, Scanned by Google Books ) Documents English Braille: American Edition Library of Congress Instructional Manual for Braille Transcribing Details on Braille cell representation Unified (English) Braille Code (including information specific to British Braille) Braille code for Russian and transliteration of Cyrillic Legal India-Right to Information Act in Braille US copyright exemption for Braille Language specific resources Devanagari to (Bharati) Braille Converter Download or use online. Bharati Braille for Indian Languages Braille Without Borders - Braille for Tibetans Greek Braille System Computer resources Braille for various scripts Free Braille fonts Free Unicode Braille TTF font (supports all Braille scripts) Free Unicode fonts which include Braille | Braille |@lemmatized braille:170 code:14 word:23 french:3 first:4 read:12 system:14 method:4 widely:1 use:34 blind:11 people:6 write:12 devise:2 louis:7 frenchman:1 character:22 cell:19 make:6 six:8 dot:53 position:7 arrange:2 rectangle:1 contain:2 two:4 column:5 three:5 may:6 raise:9 form:9 sixty:1 four:3 permutation:2 include:5 arrangement:1 reference:2 purpose:1 particular:2 describe:2 name:1 universally:1 number:7 top:8 bottom:5 left:4 right:8 example:8 would:2 e:3 letter:32 line:9 horizontal:2 text:6 separate:1 space:5 much:3 like:2 visible:1 printed:3 one:12 differentiate:1 punctuation:2 represent:12 unique:1 set:3 base:5 communication:3 originally:3 develop:3 charles:1 barbier:2 response:1 napoleon:1 demand:1 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3,566 | Nail_(fastener) | A pile of nails. In engineering, woodworking and construction, a nail is a pin-shaped, sharp object of hard metal, typically steel, used as a fastener. Nails for specialized purposes may also be made of stainless steel, brass or aluminium. Nails are typically driven into the workpiece by a hammer or by a nail gun driven by compressed air or a small explosive charge. A nail holds materials together by friction in the axial direction and shear strength in lateral directions. The point of the nail is also sometimes bent over or clinched to prevent it from pulling out. Nails are made in a great variety of forms for specialized purposes. The most common type of nail is a "wire nail". Other types of nails include "pins", "tacks", "brads", and "spikes." Today, nails are usually made of steel. Formerly they were usually of wrought iron, but for some purposes nails are made of copper or (rather) brass. History Nails can be hammered or shot into materials such as wood. Nails go back at least to the Ancient Roman period. The provision of iron for nails by King David for Solomon's Temple is mentioned in the Bible. Bible, 1 Chronicles 22:3. Until the end of the 18th century, they were always made by hand, a nailer providing them with a head and point. Until the early 17th century there were workmen called slitters who cut up iron bars to a suitable size for nailers to work on, but in 1590 the slitting mill was introduced to England, providing a mechanical means of producing rods of uniform cross-section. In the 19th century, after the invention of machines to make "cut nails", some nails continued to be made by hand, but the handmade nail industry gradually declined and was largely extinct by the end of that century. Manufactured cut nails were first introduced in America at the end of the 18th century. Cut nails are machine-cut from flat sheets of steel (originally iron). They are also called square nails because of their roughly rectangular cross section. Though still used for historical renovations, and for heavy-duty applications, such as attaching boards to masonry walls, cut nails are much less common today than wire nails. Different types of nails Types of nail include: brass tack bullethead nail canoe tacks carpet tack casing - similar to finish nails but on a larger scale clout coffin nail corrugated Dheadnails double-ended fiber cement finish horseshoe lost-head masonry - fluted nail for use in concrete oval brad floor brad (aka 'stigs') - flat, tapered and angular, for use in fixing floor boards panel pin plastic strip gutter spikes roofing tack ring shank shake - small headed nails to use for nailing sidewall shakes square T Teco - 1-1/2 x .148 shanks nails used in metal connectors (usually hurricane ties) veneer pin wire wire-weld collated Sizes Most countries, except the United States, use a metric system for describing nail sizes. A 50 x 3.0 indicates a nail 50 mm long (not including the head) and 3 mm in diameter. Lengths are rounded to the nearest millimeter. For example, finishing nail* sizes typically available from German suppliers are: Length Diameter mm mm 20 1.2 25 1.4 30 1.6 35 1.6 35 1.8 40 2.0 45 2.2 50 2.2 55 2.2 55 2.5 60 2.5 60 2.8 65 2.8 65 3.1 70 3.1 80 3.1 80 3.4 90 3.4 100 3.8 90 3.8 100 4.2 110 4.2 120 4.2 130 4.6 140 5.5 160 5.5 180 6.0 210 7.0 Drahtstift mit Senkkopf (Stahl, DIN 1151) The USA uses a similar system except nail lengths are given in inches. United States penny sizes Nails are usually sold by weight (either in bulk or in boxes). In the US, the length of a nail is designated by its penny size. It is commonly believed that the origin of the term "penny" in relation to nail size is based on the old custom in England of selling nails by the hundred. A hundred nails that sold for six pence were "six penny" nails. The larger the nail, the more a hundred nails would cost. Thus the larger nails have a larger number for its penny size. This classification system was still used in England in the 18th century, but is obsolete there. The penny size is written with a number and the abbreviation d for penny (e.g. - 10d). D is an abbreviation for denarius, a Roman coin similar to a penny; this was the abbreviation for a penny in the UK before decimalisation. A smaller number indicates a shorter nail and a larger number indicates a longer nail. Nails under 1¼ in., often called brads, are sold mostly in small packages with only a length designation (e.g. ½" (12 mm), 1" (28 mm), etc.). In boxes of nails that are packaged for pneumatics nails are called 8 penny nails but have a length of 2-3/8. Some 16d nails are called 16d short and measure 3-1/4". Penny size is not always directly correlated to length because nails with larger shanks and shorter lengths will be the same weight as the standard penny designation. penny size length(inches) length(nearest mm) 2d 1 25 3d 1¼ 32 4d 1½ 38 6d 2 51 7d 2¼ 57 8d 2½ 65 9d 2¾ 70 10d 3 76 12d 3¼ 83 16d 3½ 89 20d 4 102 30d 4½ 115 40d 5 127 50d 5½ 140 60d 6 152 Terminology Box - a wire nail with a head; box nails have a smaller shank than common nails of the same size Bright - no surface coating; not recommended for weather exposure or acidic or treated lumber Casing - a wire nail with a slightly larger head than finish nails; often used for flooring CC or Coated - "cement coated"; nail coated with adhesive (cement) for greater holding power; also resin- or vinyl-coated; coating melts from friction when driven to help lubricate then hardens when cool; color varies by manufacturer (tan, pink, are common) Common - a common construction wire nail with a head: common nails have larger shanks than box nails of the same size Duplex - a common nail with a second head, allowing for easy extraction Finish - a wire nail that does not have a "head"; can be easily concealed Galvanized - treated for resistance to corrosion and/or weather exposure Electrogalvanized - provides a smooth finish with some corrosion resistance Mechanically galvanized - deposits more zinc than electrogalvanizing for increased corrosion resistance Hot-dip galvanized - provides a rough finish that deposits more zinc than other methods, resulting in very high corrosion resistance that is suitable for some acidic and treated lumber; often easier to bend than other types of nails Head - round flat metal piece affixed to the top of the nail; for increased holding power Helix - the nail has a square shank that has been twisted this makes the nail very difficult to pull out; often used in decking Length - distance from the head to the point of a nail Phosphate-coated - a dark grey to black finish providing a surface that binds well with paint and joint compound and minimal corrosion resistance Point - sharpened end opposite the "head" for greater ease in driving Ring Shank - small rings on the shank to prevent the nail from being worked back out often used in flooring Shank - the body the length of the nail between the head and the point; may be smooth, or may have rings or spirals for greater holding power Sinker - Same thin diameter as a box nail, cement coated (see above), the funnel shaped head is easier to nail flat and the head has a grid on the strike surface to keep the hammer strike from slipping; these are the common nails used in framing today Spike - a large nail (usually over 4" - 100 mm) See also Rail spike External links UK DIY site Description of different types of nails US DIY site description of different nails Nail forging movie References be-x-old:Цьвік | Nail_(fastener) |@lemmatized pile:1 nail:79 engineering:1 woodworking:1 construction:2 pin:4 shape:2 sharp:1 object:1 hard:1 metal:3 typically:3 steel:4 use:13 fastener:1 specialized:2 purpose:3 may:3 also:5 make:8 stainless:1 brass:3 aluminium:1 drive:3 workpiece:1 hammer:3 gun:1 compressed:1 air:1 small:6 explosive:1 charge:1 hold:4 material:2 together:1 friction:2 axial:1 direction:2 shear:1 strength:1 lateral:1 point:5 sometimes:1 bent:1 clinch:1 prevent:2 pull:2 great:4 variety:1 form:1 common:9 type:6 wire:8 include:3 tack:5 brad:4 spike:4 today:3 usually:5 formerly:1 wrought:1 iron:4 copper:1 rather:1 history:1 shoot:1 wood:1 go:1 back:2 least:1 ancient:1 roman:2 period:1 provision:1 king:1 david:1 solomon:1 temple:1 mention:1 bible:2 chronicle:1 end:5 century:6 always:2 hand:2 nailer:2 provide:5 head:15 early:1 workman:1 call:5 slitters:1 cut:6 bar:1 suitable:2 size:13 work:2 slitting:1 mill:1 introduce:2 england:3 mechanical:1 mean:1 produce:1 rod:1 uniform:1 cross:2 section:2 invention:1 machine:2 continue:1 handmade:1 industry:1 gradually:1 decline:1 largely:1 extinct:1 manufacture:1 first:1 america:1 flat:4 sheet:1 originally:1 square:3 roughly:1 rectangular:1 though:1 still:2 historical:1 renovation:1 heavy:1 duty:1 application:1 attach:1 board:2 masonry:2 wall:1 much:1 less:1 different:3 bullethead:1 canoe:1 carpet:1 case:2 similar:3 finish:8 large:9 scale:1 clout:1 coffin:1 corrugate:1 dheadnails:1 double:1 fiber:1 cement:4 horseshoe:1 lose:1 flute:1 concrete:1 oval:1 floor:4 aka:1 stigs:1 taper:1 angular:1 fix:1 panel:1 plastic:1 strip:1 gutter:1 roof:1 ring:4 shank:9 shake:2 sidewall:1 teco:1 x:3 connector:1 hurricane:1 tie:1 veneer:1 weld:1 collate:1 country:1 except:2 united:2 state:2 metric:1 system:3 describe:1 indicate:3 mm:8 long:2 diameter:3 length:12 round:2 near:2 millimeter:1 example:1 available:1 german:1 supplier:1 drahtstift:1 mit:1 senkkopf:1 stahl:1 din:1 usa:1 give:1 inch:2 penny:14 sell:4 weight:2 either:1 bulk:1 box:6 u:2 designate:1 commonly:1 believe:1 origin:1 term:1 relation:1 base:1 old:2 custom:1 hundred:3 six:2 would:1 cost:1 thus:1 number:4 classification:1 obsolete:1 write:1 abbreviation:3 e:2 g:2 denarius:1 coin:1 uk:2 decimalisation:1 short:3 often:5 mostly:1 package:2 designation:2 etc:1 pneumatics:1 measure:1 directly:1 correlate:1 standard:1 terminology:1 bright:1 surface:3 coat:8 recommend:1 weather:2 exposure:2 acidic:2 treat:2 lumber:2 slightly:1 cc:1 adhesive:1 power:3 resin:1 vinyl:1 melt:1 driven:1 help:1 lubricate:1 harden:1 cool:1 color:1 varies:1 manufacturer:1 tan:1 pink:1 duplex:1 second:1 allow:1 easy:3 extraction:1 easily:1 conceal:1 galvanize:3 resistance:5 corrosion:5 electrogalvanized:1 smooth:2 mechanically:1 deposit:2 zinc:2 electrogalvanizing:1 increase:2 hot:1 dip:1 rough:1 method:1 result:1 high:1 treated:1 bend:1 piece:1 affix:1 top:1 helix:1 twist:1 difficult:1 deck:1 distance:1 phosphate:1 dark:1 grey:1 black:1 bind:1 well:1 paint:1 joint:1 compound:1 minimal:1 sharpened:1 opposite:1 ease:1 body:1 spiral:1 sinker:1 thin:1 see:2 funnel:1 grid:1 strike:2 keep:1 slip:1 frame:1 rail:1 external:1 link:1 diy:2 site:2 description:2 forge:1 movie:1 reference:1 цьвік:1 |@bigram stainless_steel:1 wrought_iron:1 mm_mm:2 corrosion_resistance:4 dip_galvanize:1 external_link:1 |
3,567 | Matteo_Carcassi | Matteo Carcassi Matteo Carcassi (Florence, Italy, 1792 - Paris, France, January 16, 1853), was a famous Italian guitarist and composer. Carcassi began with the piano, but learned guitar when still a child. He quickly gained a reputation as a virtuoso concert guitarist. He moved to Germany in 1810, gaining almost immediate success. In 1815, he was living in Paris, earning his living as a teacher of both the piano and the guitar. On a concert tour in Germany in 1819, he met his friend Antoine Meissonnier for the first time. Also a famous guitarist, Meissonnier published many of Carcassi's works in his Paris publishing house. From 1820 on, Carcassi spent the majority of his time in Paris. In 1822, he performed an extremely successful series of concerts in London that earned him great fame, both as a performing artist and as a teacher. However, in Paris, a long time passed before his talents were truly recognised, partly because of the presence of Fernando Carulli, 'adored' by his audience. Carcassi was in Germany again during the fall of 1824. Afterwards he performed in London, where his reputation now gave him access to more prestigious concert halls. Finally he returned to Paris. For several years, he made concert trips from here to the most important cultural towns of Europe, including London. After a short return to performing in 1836, he quit his concert practice around 1840 and died in the French capital in 1853. Carcassi wrote a method for guitar (op. 59) that remains valuable, relevant and interesting. His most famous works are collected in his 25 Etudes op. 60. In these, he managed to blend technical skills and brilliant romantic music. This is the reason his music is still played by so many classical guitarists today. His works have been published and recorded by numerous well known guitarists. External links Sheet music Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden | Matteo_Carcassi |@lemmatized matteo:2 carcassi:7 florence:1 italy:1 paris:6 france:1 january:1 famous:3 italian:1 guitarist:5 composer:1 begin:1 piano:2 learn:1 guitar:4 still:2 child:1 quickly:1 gain:2 reputation:2 virtuoso:1 concert:6 move:1 germany:3 almost:1 immediate:1 success:1 live:1 earn:2 living:1 teacher:2 tour:1 meet:1 friend:1 antoine:1 meissonnier:2 first:1 time:3 also:1 publish:2 many:2 work:3 publishing:1 house:1 spend:1 majority:1 perform:4 extremely:1 successful:1 series:1 london:3 great:1 fame:1 artist:1 however:1 long:1 pass:1 talent:1 truly:1 recognise:1 partly:1 presence:1 fernando:1 carulli:1 adore:1 audience:1 fall:1 afterwards:1 give:1 access:1 prestigious:1 hall:1 finally:1 return:2 several:1 year:1 make:1 trip:1 important:1 cultural:1 town:1 europe:1 include:1 short:1 quit:1 practice:1 around:1 die:1 french:1 capital:1 write:1 method:1 op:2 remain:1 valuable:1 relevant:1 interesting:1 collect:1 etude:1 manage:1 blend:1 technical:1 skill:1 brilliant:1 romantic:1 music:5 reason:1 play:1 classical:1 today:1 record:1 numerous:1 well:1 know:1 external:1 links:1 sheet:1 rischel:1 birket:1 smith:1 collection:2 det:1 kongelige:1 bibliotek:1 denmark:1 boije:1 library:1 sweden:1 |@bigram external_links:1 det_kongelige:1 kongelige_bibliotek:1 |
3,568 | Tree_(data_structure) | In computer science, a tree is a widely-used data structure that emulates a hierarchical tree structure with a set of linked nodes. It is an acyclic connected graph where each node has a set of zero or more children nodes, and at most one parent node. Terminology A node is a structure which may contain a value, a condition, or represent a separate data structure (which could be a tree of its own). Each node in a tree has zero or more child nodes, which are below it in the tree (by convention, trees grow down, not up as they do in nature). A node that has a child is called the child's parent node (or ancestor node, or superior). A node has at most one parent. Nodes at the bottommost level of the tree are called leaf nodes. Since they are at the bottommost level, they do not have any children. They are also referred to as terminal nodes. The height of a node is the length of the longest downward path to a leaf from that node. The height of the root is the height of the tree. The depth of a node is the length of the path to its root (i.e., its root path). This is commonly needed in the manipulation of the various self balancing trees, AVL Trees in particular. Conventionally, the value -1 corresponds to a subtree with no nodes, whereas zero corresponds to a subtree with one node. The topmost node in a tree is called the root node. Being the topmost node, the root node will not have parents. It is the node at which operations on the tree commonly begin (although some algorithms begin with the leaf nodes and work up ending at the root). All other nodes can be reached from it by following edges or links. (In the formal definition, each such path is also unique). In diagrams, it is typically drawn at the top. In some trees, such as heaps, the root node has special properties. Every node in a tree can be seen as the root node of the subtree rooted at that node. An internal node or inner node is any node of a tree that has child nodes and is thus not a leaf node. A subtree of a tree T is a tree comprised of a node in T and all of its descendants in T. (This is different than the formal definition of subtree used in graph theory. ) The subtree corresponding to the root node is the entire tree; the subtree corresponding to any other node is called is a proper subtree (in analogy to the term proper subset). Ordering There are two basic types of trees. In a recursive tree or unordered tree, a tree is a tree in a purely structural sense — that is to say, given a node, there is no order for the children of that node. A tree on which an order is imposed — for example, by assigning different natural numbers to each edge leading to a node's children — is called an edge-labeled tree or an ordered tree with data structures built upon them being called ordered tree data structures. Ordered trees are by far the most common form of tree data structure. Binary trees are one kind of ordered tree because the children are ordered as left child node and right child node. Tree representations There are many different ways to represent trees; common representations represent the nodes as records allocated on the heap (not to be confused with the heap data structure) with pointers to their children, their parents, or both, or as items in an array, with relationships between them determined by their positions in the array (e.g., binary heap). Trees as graphs In graph theory, a tree is a connected acyclic graph. A rooted tree is such a graph with a vertex singled out as the root. In this case, any two vertices connected by an edge inherit a parent-child relationship. An acyclic graph with multiple connected components or a set of rooted trees is sometimes called a forest.Traversal methods Stepping through the items of a tree, by means of the connections between parents and children, is called walking the tree, and the action is a walk of the tree. Often, an operation might be performed when a pointer arrives at a particular node. A walk in which each parent node is traversed before its children is called a pre-order walk; a walk in which the children are traversed before their respective parents are traversed is called a post-order walk. Common operations Enumerating all the items Enumerating a section of a tree Searching for an item Adding a new item at a certain position on the tree Deleting an item Removing a whole section of a tree (called pruning) Adding a whole section to a tree (called grafting') Finding the root for any node Common uses Manipulate hierarchical data Make information easy to search (see tree traversal) Manipulate sorted lists of data As a workflow for compositing digital images for visual effects See also Tree (graph theory) Tree (set theory) Tree structure Hierarchy (mathematics) Other trees DSW algorithm Enfilade References Eric W. Weisstein "Subtree." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Subtree.html Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming: Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4 . Section 2.3: Trees, pp.308–423. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7 . Section 10.4: Representing rooted trees, pp.214–217. Chapters 12–14 (Binary Search Trees, Red-Black Trees, Augmenting Data Structures), pp.253–320. External links Description from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures STL-like C++ tree class Description of tree data structures from ideainfo.8m.com flash actionscript 3 opensource implementation of tree and binary tree — opensource library | Tree_(data_structure) |@lemmatized computer:2 science:1 tree:57 widely:1 use:2 data:11 structure:12 emulate:1 hierarchical:2 set:4 link:3 node:47 acyclic:3 connect:2 graph:8 zero:3 child:16 one:4 parent:9 terminology:1 may:1 contain:1 value:2 condition:1 represent:4 separate:1 could:1 convention:1 grow:1 nature:1 call:12 ancestor:1 superior:1 bottommost:2 level:2 leaf:4 since:1 also:3 refer:1 terminal:1 height:3 length:2 long:1 downward:1 path:4 root:13 depth:1 e:3 commonly:2 need:1 manipulation:1 various:1 self:1 balance:1 avl:1 particular:2 conventionally:1 corresponds:2 subtree:10 whereas:1 topmost:2 operation:3 begin:2 although:1 algorithms:2 work:1 end:1 reach:1 follow:1 edge:4 formal:2 definition:2 unique:1 diagram:1 typically:1 draw:1 top:1 heap:4 special:1 property:1 every:1 see:3 internal:1 inner:1 thus:1 comprise:1 descendant:1 different:3 theory:4 corresponding:2 entire:1 proper:2 analogy:1 term:1 subset:1 order:8 two:2 basic:1 type:1 recursive:1 unordered:1 purely:1 structural:1 sense:1 say:1 give:1 impose:1 example:1 assign:1 natural:1 number:1 lead:1 label:1 ordered:2 build:1 upon:1 far:1 common:4 form:1 binary:4 kind:1 left:1 right:1 representation:2 many:1 way:1 record:1 allocate:1 confuse:1 pointer:2 item:6 array:2 relationship:2 determine:1 position:2 g:1 connected:2 rooted:2 vertex:2 single:1 case:1 inherit:1 multiple:1 component:1 sometimes:1 forest:1 traversal:2 method:1 step:1 mean:1 connection:1 walk:6 action:1 often:1 might:1 perform:1 arrive:1 traverse:3 pre:1 respective:1 post:1 enumerate:2 section:5 search:3 add:2 new:1 certain:1 delete:1 remove:1 whole:2 pruning:1 grafting:1 find:1 us:1 manipulate:2 make:1 information:1 easy:1 sort:1 list:1 workflow:1 compositing:1 digital:1 image:1 visual:1 effect:1 hierarchy:1 mathematics:1 dsw:1 algorithm:3 enfilade:1 reference:1 eric:1 w:1 weisstein:1 mathworld:2 wolfram:2 web:1 resource:1 http:1 com:2 html:1 donald:1 knuth:1 art:1 programming:1 fundamental:1 third:1 edition:2 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:2 pp:3 thomas:1 h:1 cormen:1 charles:1 leiserson:1 ronald:1 l:1 rivest:1 clifford:1 stein:1 introduction:1 second:1 mit:1 press:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 chapter:1 red:1 black:1 augment:1 external:1 description:2 dictionary:1 stl:1 like:1 c:1 class:1 ideainfo:1 flash:1 actionscript:1 opensource:2 implementation:1 library:1 |@bigram leaf_node:4 avl_tree:1 subtree_node:1 acyclic_graph:2 w_weisstein:1 mathworld_wolfram:2 donald_knuth:1 addison_wesley:1 h_cormen:1 cormen_charles:1 e_leiserson:1 leiserson_ronald:1 l_rivest:1 rivest_clifford:1 clifford_stein:1 introduction_algorithms:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 flash_actionscript:1 opensource_library:1 |
3,569 | Abacá | Abacá, ( "ah buh KAH"),from Spanish "abacá" or Musa textilis, is a species of banana native to the Philippines, grown widely as well in Borneo and Sumatra. It is sometimes referred to as "BacBac". The plant is of great economic importance, being harvested for its fibre, once generally called Manila hemp, extracted from the leaf sheath around the trunk. On average, the plant grows about 20 feet (6 meters) tall. The fibre was originally used for making twines and ropes as well as the Manila envelope; now most abacá is pulped and used in a variety of paper-like products including filter paper and banknotes. It is classified as a hard fibre, along with coir, henequin and sisal. The plant's name is sometimes spelled Abaká. Abacá was first cultivated on a large scale in Sumatra in 1925 under the Dutch, who had observed its cultivation in the Philippines for cordage since the 1800s, followed up by plantings in Central America sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture "abaca." Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 January 2007 . Commercial planting began in 1930 in British North Borneo; with the commencement of WWII, the supply from the Philippines was eliminated by the Japanese. Other common names for abacá or Manila hemp include "Cebu hemp" and "Davao hemp". Composition The leaves grow from the trunk of the plant, and the bases of the leaves form a sheath (covering) around the trunk; there are approximately 25 of these, with 5 cm in diameter and from 12 to 25 leaves with overlapping petioles, covering the stalk to form a shrub, "false trunk" or pseudotrunk about 30 to 40 cm in diameter. They grow in succession, with the oldest growing from the bottom of the trunk and successively younger ones from the top. The sheaths contain the valuable fibre. The coarse fibres range from 5 to 11½ feet (1.5 to 3.5 metres) in length. They are composed primarily of the plant materials such as cellulose, lignin, and pectin. After the fibre has been separated, it is sold under the name Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Harvesting Bananera, Guatemalan worker trims leaves from abacá plant. The plant is normally grown in well-drained loamy soil, using pieces of mature root planted at the start of the rainy season. Growers harvest abacá fields every three to eight months after an initial growth period of 18-25 months and a total lifespan of about 10 years. Harvest generally includes having several operations concerning the leaf sheaths: tuxying (separation of primary and secondary sheath) stripping (getting the fibers) drying (usually following tradition of sun-drying). The fibers can then be spun into twines or cordage. Applications Most abacá fibre is pulped and processed into specialty paper used in tea bags, vacuum bags, currency, and more. It can be used to make handcrafts like bags, carpets, clothing and furniture. Abacá rope is very durable, flexible and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in rope, hawsers, ship's lines and fishing nets. Abacá fibre was once used primarily for rope, but this application is now of minor significance. Lupis is the finest quality of abacá. Sinamay is woven chiefly from abacá. "lupis", "sinamay" in Merriam-Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, third edition Scientific classification The abacá plant belongs to the banana family, Musaceae; it resembles its closely related cousin plant, the Musa sapientum. Its scientific name is Musa textilis. References The World Book encyclopedia set, 1988. See International Year of Natural Fibres 2009 External links Historical notes Plants USDA abacá A comprehensive pamphlet about Philippine abacá presented 1915 Panama Pacific International Exposition held in San Francisco. Online publication uploaded in Filipiniana.net | Abacá |@lemmatized abacá:15 ah:1 buh:1 kah:1 spanish:1 musa:3 textilis:2 specie:1 banana:2 native:1 philippine:5 grown:1 widely:1 well:3 borneo:2 sumatra:2 sometimes:2 refer:1 bacbac:1 plant:11 great:1 economic:1 importance:1 harvest:4 fibre:9 generally:2 call:1 manila:4 hemp:4 extract:1 leaf:5 sheath:4 around:2 trunk:5 average:1 grow:5 foot:2 meter:1 tall:1 originally:1 use:7 make:2 twine:2 rope:4 envelope:1 pulp:2 variety:1 paper:3 like:2 product:1 include:3 filter:1 banknote:1 classify:1 hard:1 along:1 coir:1 henequin:1 sisal:1 name:4 spelled:1 abaká:1 first:1 cultivate:1 large:1 scale:1 dutch:1 observe:1 cultivation:1 cordage:2 since:1 follow:2 planting:2 central:1 america:1 sponsor:1 u:1 department:1 agriculture:1 abaca:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 january:1 commercial:1 begin:1 british:1 north:1 commencement:1 wwii:1 supply:1 eliminate:1 japanese:1 common:1 cebu:1 davao:1 composition:1 base:1 form:2 cover:2 approximately:1 cm:2 diameter:2 overlap:1 petiole:1 stalk:1 shrub:1 false:1 pseudotrunk:1 succession:1 old:1 bottom:1 successively:1 young:1 one:1 top:1 sheaths:1 contain:1 valuable:1 coarse:1 range:1 metre:1 length:1 compose:1 primarily:2 material:1 cellulose:1 lignin:1 pectin:1 separate:1 sell:1 capital:1 bananera:1 guatemalan:1 worker:1 trim:1 leave:1 normally:1 drain:1 loamy:1 soil:1 piece:1 mature:1 root:1 start:1 rainy:1 season:1 grower:1 field:1 every:1 three:1 eight:1 month:2 initial:1 growth:1 period:1 total:1 lifespan:1 year:2 several:1 operation:1 concern:1 tuxying:1 separation:1 primary:1 secondary:1 stripping:1 get:1 fiber:2 dry:1 usually:1 tradition:1 sun:1 drying:1 spin:1 application:2 process:1 specialty:1 tea:1 bag:3 vacuum:1 currency:1 handcraft:1 carpet:1 clothing:1 furniture:1 durable:1 flexible:1 resistant:1 salt:1 water:1 damage:1 allow:1 hawser:1 ship:1 line:1 fish:1 net:2 minor:1 significance:1 lupis:2 fine:1 quality:1 sinamay:2 weave:1 chiefly:1 merriam:1 webster:1 unabridged:1 dictionary:1 third:1 edition:1 scientific:2 classification:1 belongs:1 family:1 musaceae:1 resemble:1 closely:1 relate:1 cousin:1 sapientum:1 reference:1 world:1 book:1 encyclopedia:1 set:1 see:1 international:2 natural:1 external:1 link:1 historical:1 note:1 usda:1 comprehensive:1 pamphlet:1 present:1 panama:1 pacific:1 exposition:1 hold:1 san:1 francisco:1 online:1 publication:1 upload:1 filipiniana:1 |@bigram sometimes_spelled:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 cellulose_lignin:1 rainy_season:1 merriam_webster:1 unabridged_dictionary:1 closely_relate:1 external_link:1 san_francisco:1 |
3,570 | Cube | A cube English cube from Old French < Latin cubus < Greek kubos, "a cube, a die, vertebra". In turn from PIE *keu(b)-, "to bend, turn". is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces, facets or sides, with three meeting at each vertex. The cube can also be called a regular hexahedron and is one of the five Platonic solids. It is a special kind of square prism, of rectangular parallelepiped and of trigonal trapezohedron. The cube is dual to the octahedron. It has cubical symmetry (also called octahedral symmetry). A cube is the three-dimensional case of the more general concept of a hypercube. Cartesian coordinates For a cube centered at the origin, with edges parallel to the axes and with an edge length of 2, the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are (±1,±1,±1) while the interior consists of all points (x0, x1, x2) with -1 < xi < 1. Formulae For a cube of edge length , surface areavolumeradius of circumscribed sphereradius of sphere tangent to edgesradius of inscribed sphere As the volume of a cube is the third power of its sides a×a×a, third powers are called cubes, by analogy with squares and second powers. A cube has the largest volume among cuboids (rectangular boxes) with a given surface area. Also, a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same total linear size (length + width + height). Symmetry The cube has 3 classes of symmetry, which can be represented by vertex-transitive coloring the faces. The highest octahedral symmetry Oh has all the faces the same color. The dihedral symmetry D4h comes from the cube being a prism, with all four sides being the same color. The lowest symmetry D2h is also a prismatic symmetry, with sides alternating colors, so there are three colors, paired by opposite sides. Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol. (3 colors)| 2 2 2D2h(2 colors)4 2 | 2D4h(1 color)3 | 4 2Oh Geometric relations These familiar six-sided dice are cube-shaped. The cube is unique among the Platonic solids for being able to tile space regularly. It is also unique among the Platonic solids in having faces with an even number of sides and, consequently, it is the only member of that group that is a zonohedron (every face has point symmetry). The cube can be cut into 6 identical square pyramids. If these square pyramids are then attached to the faces of a second cube, a rhombic dodecahedron is obtained. Other dimensions The analogue of a cube in four-dimensional Euclidean space has a special name — a tesseract or (rarely) hypercube. The analogue of the cube in n-dimensional Euclidean space is called a hypercube or n-dimensional cube or simply n-cube. It is also called a measure polytope. There are analogues of the cube in lower dimensions too: a point in dimension 0, a segment in one dimension and a square in two dimensions. Related polyhedra The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron. These two together form a regular compound, the stella octangula. The intersection of the two forms a regular octahedron. The symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to those of a cube which map each tetrahedron to itself; the other symmetries of the cube map the two to each other. One such regular tetrahedron has a volume of ⅓ of that of the cube. The remaining space consists of four equal irregular tetrahedra with a volume of 1/6 of that of the cube, each. The rectified cube is the cuboctahedron. If smaller corners are cut off we get a polyhedron with 6 octagonal faces and 8 triangular ones. In particular we can get regular octagons (truncated cube). The rhombicuboctahedron is obtained by cutting off both corners and edges to the correct amount. A cube can be inscribed in a dodecahedron so that each vertex of the cube is a vertex of the dodecahedron and each edge is a diagonal of one of the dodecahedron's faces; taking all such cubes gives rise to the regular compound of five cubes. If two opposite corners of a cube are truncated at the depth of the 3 vertices directly connected to them, an irregular octahedron is obtained. Eight of these irregular octahedra can be attached to the triangular faces of a regular octahedron to obtain the cuboctahedron. All but the last of the figures shown have the same symmetries as the cube (see octahedral symmetry). The cube is a special case in various classes of general polyhedra: NameEqual edge-lengths?Equal angles?Right angles?CubeYesYesYesRhombohedronYesYesNoCuboidNoYesYesParallelepipedNoYesNoquadrilaterally-faced hexahedronNoNoNo Combinatorial cubes A different kind of cube is the cube graph, which is the graph of vertices and edges of the geometrical cube. It is a special case of the hypercube graph. An extension is the 3-dimensional k-ary Hamming graph, which for k = 2 is the cube graph. Graphs of this sort occur in the theory of parallel processing in computers. See also Kaaba, a large masonry structure roughly the shape of a cube Unit cube Square Tesseract Cube (film) Trapezohedron References External links Cube: Interactive Polyhedron Model K.J.M. MacLean, A Geometric Analysis of the Five Platonic Solids and Other Semi-Regular Polyhedra The Uniform Polyhedra Virtual Reality Polyhedra Volume of a cube, with interactive animation | Cube |@lemmatized cube:47 english:1 old:1 french:1 latin:1 cubus:1 greek:1 kubos:1 die:1 vertebra:1 turn:2 pie:1 keu:1 b:1 bend:1 three:4 dimensional:6 solid:5 object:1 bound:1 six:2 square:7 face:10 facet:1 side:7 meeting:1 vertex:8 also:7 call:5 regular:10 hexahedron:1 one:5 five:3 platonic:4 special:4 kind:2 prism:2 rectangular:2 parallelepiped:1 trigonal:1 trapezohedron:2 dual:1 octahedron:5 cubical:1 symmetry:14 octahedral:3 case:3 general:2 concept:1 hypercube:4 cartesian:2 coordinate:2 center:1 origin:1 edge:7 parallel:2 ax:1 length:4 interior:1 consists:1 point:3 xi:1 formula:1 surface:2 areavolumeradius:1 circumscribed:1 sphereradius:1 sphere:2 tangent:1 edgesradius:1 inscribed:1 volume:6 third:2 power:3 analogy:1 second:2 large:3 among:4 cuboid:2 box:1 give:2 area:1 total:1 linear:1 size:1 width:1 height:1 class:2 represent:1 transitive:1 color:8 high:1 oh:1 dihedral:1 come:1 four:4 low:2 prismatic:1 alternate:1 pair:1 opposite:2 form:4 different:2 wythoff:1 symbol:1 geometric:2 relation:1 familiar:1 dice:1 shape:2 unique:2 able:1 tile:1 space:4 regularly:1 even:1 number:1 consequently:1 member:1 group:3 zonohedron:1 every:1 cut:3 identical:1 pyramid:2 attach:2 rhombic:1 dodecahedron:4 obtain:4 dimension:5 analogue:3 euclidean:2 name:1 tesseract:2 rarely:1 n:3 simply:1 measure:1 polytope:1 segment:1 two:6 relate:1 polyhedron:6 tetrahedron:5 together:1 compound:2 stella:1 octangula:1 intersection:1 correspond:1 map:2 remain:1 consist:1 equal:2 irregular:3 rectified:1 cuboctahedron:2 small:1 corner:3 get:2 octagonal:1 triangular:2 particular:1 octagon:1 truncate:2 rhombicuboctahedron:1 correct:1 amount:1 inscribe:1 diagonal:1 take:1 rise:1 depth:1 directly:1 connect:1 eight:1 last:1 figure:1 show:1 see:2 various:1 nameequal:1 angle:2 right:1 cubeyesyesyesrhombohedronyesyesnocuboidnoyesyesparallelepipednoyesnoquadrilaterally:1 hexahedronnonono:1 combinatorial:1 graph:6 geometrical:1 extension:1 k:3 ary:1 hamming:1 sort:1 occur:1 theory:1 processing:1 computer:1 kaaba:1 masonry:1 structure:1 roughly:1 unit:1 film:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 interactive:2 model:1 j:1 maclean:1 analysis:1 semi:1 polyhedra:1 uniform:1 virtual:1 reality:1 animation:1 |@bigram platonic_solid:4 octahedral_symmetry:3 cartesian_coordinate:2 vertex_transitive:1 rhombic_dodecahedron:1 dimensional_euclidean:2 regular_tetrahedron:3 regular_octahedron:2 external_link:1 uniform_polyhedron:1 |
3,571 | Cantonese_cuisine | Cantonese (Yue) cuisine comes from Guangdong in Southern China. Hsiung, Deh-Ta. Simonds, Nina. Lowe, Jason. [2005] (2005). The food of China: a journey for food lovers. Bay Books. ISBN 978-0681025844. p17. Of all the regional varieties of Chinese cuisine, Cantonese is renowned both inside and outside China. Its prominence outside China is due to its palatability to Westerners and the great numbers of early emigrants from Guangdong. In China, too, it enjoys great prestige among the eight great traditions of Chinese cuisine, and Cantonese chefs are highly sought after throughout the country. Background Cantonese cuisine draws upon a great diversity of ingredients as Guangdong has been a trading port since the days of the Thirteen Factories, bringing it many imported foods and ingredients. Besides pork, beef, and chicken, Cantonese cuisine incorporates almost all edible meats, including organ meats, chicken feet, duck and duck tongues, snakes, and snails. Many cooking methods are used, steaming and stir-frying being the most favoured due to their convenience and rapidity, and their ability to bring out the flavor of the freshest ingredients. Other techniques include shallow frying, double boiling, braising, and deep-frying. For many traditional Cantonese cooks, the flavors of a finished dish should be well-balanced, and never cloying or greasy. Also, spices should be used in modest amounts to avoid overwhelming the flavors of the primary ingredients, and these primary ingredients in turn should be at the peak of their freshness and quality. Interestingly, there is no widespread use of fresh herbs in Cantonese cooking (and most other regional Chinese cuisines in fact), contrasting with the liberal usage seen in European cuisines and other Asian cuisines such as Thai or Vietnamese. Garlic chives and coriander leaves are notable exceptions, although the latter tends to be mere garnish in most dishes. Elements of cooking Sauces and condiments Blanched kailan (芥兰) with oyster sauce Classic Cantonese sauces are light, mellow and perhaps bland compared to the thicker, darker, and richer sauces of other Chinese cuisines. Spring onion, sugar, salt, soy sauce, rice wine, corn starch, vinegar, sesame oil, and other oils suffice to enhance flavor in most Cantonese cooking, though garlic is used heavily in some dishes, especially those in which internal organs, such as entrails, may emit unpleasant odors. Ginger, chili peppers, five-spice powder, powdered white pepper, star anise and a few other spices are used, but often sparingly. Sauces and condiments include: Hoisin sauce (海鮮醬) Oyster sauce (蠔油) Plum sauce (蘇梅醬) Sweet and sour sauce (甜酸醬) Black bean paste (蒜蓉豆豉醬) Fermented bean paste (豆醬) Shrimp paste (鹹蝦醬) Red vinegar (浙醋) Master stock (滷水) Char siu sauce (叉燒醬) Chu hau paste (柱侯醬) Dried and preserved ingredients Though Cantonese cooks pay much attention to the freshness of their cooking ingredients, Cantonese cooking also uses a long list of preserved food items to give a depth of flavour to a dish. This may be an influence from Hakka cuisine, since the Hakkas was once a dominant group occupying Imperial Hong Kong and other southern territories. Barber, Nicola. [2004] (2004) Hong Kong. Gareth Stevens Publishing. ISBN 0836851986 Some items gain very intense flavors during the drying/preservation/oxidation process. Some chefs combine both dried and fresh varieties of the same items in a dish to create a contrast in the taste and texture. Dried items are usually soaked in water to rehydrate before cooking. Not only do preserved foods have a longer shelf life, sometimes the dried foods are preferred over the fresh ones because of their uniquely intense flavor or texture. These ingredients are generally not served individually, and need to go with vegetables or other Cantonese dishes. Includes: Dried scallops (乾瑤柱) Fermented tofu (腐乳, fu yu) Fermented black beans (豆豉) Chinese sausage (臘腸) Preserve-salted fish (鹹魚, haam yu) Preserve-salted duck (臘鴨, laap ngaap) Preserve-salted pork (臘肉, laap yuk) Salted duck egg (鹹蛋) Century egg (皮蛋) Dried cabbage (菜乾, choi gon) Chinese sauerkraut (鹹酸菜, haam suen choi) Dried small shrimp (蝦米) Tofu skin (腐皮) Dried shrimp/ha gon (usually deveined, shelled, and sliced in half) (蝦乾) Pickled Chinese cabbage (梅菜, mui choi) Pickled diced daikon (菜脯, choi po) Cantonese dishes Cantonese stir-fried vegetables. Often, vegetables are simply stir-fried plain or with minced garlic. Traditional dishes A number of dishes have been a part of the Cantonese cuisine collection since the earliest territorial establishments of Guangdong province. While many of these are on the menus of typical Cantonese restaurants, some are more commonly found among Chinese homes due to their simplicity. Home-made Cantonese dishes are usually served with plain white rice. Includes: Chinese steamed eggs (蒸水蛋) Congee with century egg (皮蛋粥) Cantonese fried rice (炒飯) Sweet and sour pork (咕噜肉) Steamed spare ribs (pai gwhut) with fermented black beans and chili pepper (豉椒排骨) Stir-fried vegetables with meat (e.g. chicken, duck, pork, beef, or intestines) (青菜炒肉片) Steamed frog legs on lotus leaf (荷葉蒸田雞) Steamed ground pork and salted duck egg meatballs (鹹蛋蒸肉餅) Blanched vegetables with oyster sauce (油菜) Stir fried water convolvulus with shredded chili and fermented tofu (椒絲腐乳通菜) Deep fried dishes Zhaliang, a popular Cantonese breakfast There are a small selection of deep fried dishes in Cantonese cuisine, and can often be found as street food. As they have been extensively documented throughout Colonial Hong Kong records in the 19th to 20th century, most are considered essential part of the Cantonese diet, as a few are synonymously associated with Cantonese breakfast and lunch. Wordie, Jason. [2002] (2002) Streets: Exploring Hong Kong Island. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 962-2095631 Though these are also expected to be part of other cuisines. Includes: Cha Leung (炸兩) Yau Tiu (油條) Dace fish balls (鯪魚球) Prawn crackers (蝦饼) Deep-fried marinated pigeon (燒乳鴿) Winter melon soup Slow cooked soup Another notable Cantonese speciality is slow-cooked soup, or lo foh tong (老火湯) in the Cantonese dialect (literally meaning old fire-cooked soup). The soup is usually a clear broth prepared by simmering meat and other ingredients for several hours. Sometimes, Chinese herbal medicines are added to the pot. Ingredients vary greater depending on the type of soup. The main attraction is the liquid in the pot, although the solids are eaten too. A whole chicken may simmer in a broth for six hours or longer. Traditional Cantonese families have this type of soup at least once a week. In this day and age many families with both parents working cannot afford this tradition due to the long preparation time required. However, wealthy families with servants and a cook still enjoy the luxury every day. Because of the long preparation time, most restaurants do not serve home made soup or opt for a soup du jour. Includes: Snow fungus soup (銀耳湯) Spare rib soup with watercress and apricot kernels (南北杏西洋菜豬骨湯) Cantonese seafood soup (海皇羹) (not formally considered "slow cooked") Winter melon soup (冬瓜湯) (not formally considered "slow cooked") Cantonese seafood section Seafood Due to Guangdong's location on the southern coast of China, fresh live seafood is a specialty in Cantonese cuisine. Many authentic restaurants maintain live seafood tanks. From the Cantonese perspective, strong spices are added only to stale seafood to cover the rotting odor. The freshest seafood is odorless, and is best cooked by steaming. For instance, only a small amount of soy sauce, ginger, and spring onion is added to steamed fish. The light seasoning is used only to bring out the natural sweetness of the seafood. However, most restaurants would gladly get rid of their stale seafood inventory by offering dishes loaded with garlic and spices. As a rule of thumb in Cantonese dining, the spiciness of a dish is usually inversely proportional to the freshness of the ingredients. Includes: Steamed fish (蒸魚) Steamed scallops with ginger and garlic (蒜茸蒸扇貝) White boiled shrimp (白灼蝦) Lobster with ginger and scallions (薑蔥龍蝦) "pissing shrimp" (mantis shrimp) (拉尿蝦) Wonton noodles Noodle dishes A number of noodle dishes are part of the Cantonese cuisine. These are commonly available at dai pai dong or dim sum side menus. Includes: Wonton noodle (雲吞麵) Chinese noodles with fish balls, beef balls, or fish slices Beef chow fun (乾炒牛河) Shahe fen (沙河粉) Lo mein (撈麵) Pan-fried crispy noodles (炒麵) Noodle soup with roasted or braised duck (鸭腿麵); a more complex and nutritious variety is known as 'Herbal duck noodle soup' (鴨腿面線) A section dedicated to Siu mei and Lou mei Siu mei Siu mei is essentially the Chinese rotisserie style of cooking. Unlike most other Cantonese dishes, Siu mei consists only of meat, with no vegetables. It creates a unique, deep barbecue flavor that is usually enhanced by a flavorful sauce, a different sauce is used for each meat. Includes: Char siu (叉叉燒) Roasted duck (燒鴨, siu ngap) Roasted goose (燒鵝, siu ngo) Roasted pig (燒肉) Street lou mei Lou mei Lou mei is the name given to dishes made out of internal organs, entrails and left-over parts of animals. It is grouped under Siu laap (燒臘) as part of Cantonese cuisine. It is widely available in Southern Chinese regions. It should be noted that many people who consume Cantonese dishes regularly are not interested in eating lou mei dishes due to personal preference. Includes: Beef entrails (牛雜) Beef stew (牛腩) Duck gizzard (鴨腎) Pig tongue (豬脷) Siu laap store front Siu laap Just about all the Cantonese-style cooked meat including siu mei, lou mei and preserved meat can be mixed together under the generic name (燒臘, Siu laap). Siu laap also includes foods such as: White cut chicken (白切雞) Orange cuttlefish (鹵水墨魚) Poached duck in master stock (滷水鴨) Soy sauce chicken (豉油雞, si yau gai) A typical dish may consist of some organs and half an order of multiple varieties of roasted meat. A large majority of siu laap consists strictly of white and red meat. Includes: White rice with Chinese sausage and cha siu(叉燒飯） White rice with goose entrails and roasted goose （燒鵝鵝腸飯） White rice with white cut chicken, duck gizzards, and beef stew （白白切雞鴨腎燜牛肉飯） Siu mei platter (燒味拼盤) Siu lap platter (燒臘拼盤) Little pan rice Little pan rice Little pan rice (煲仔飯, bou1 zai2 faan6) are dishes that are cooked and served in a flat-bottomed pan (as opposed to a round-bottomed wok). Usually it is a saucepan or braising pan (see Clay pot cooking). Such dishes are cooked by covering and steaming, making the rice and ingredients very hot and soft. Usually the ingredients are layered on top of the rice with little to no mixing in between. Quite a number of ingredients are used with many standard combinations. Includes: Layered egg and beef over rice (窩蛋牛肉飯) Layered steak over rice (肉餅煲仔飯) Tofu pot over rice Pork spare ribs over rice (排骨煲仔飯) Steamed chicken over rice (蒸雞肉煲仔飯) Preserved chinese sausage over rice (蠟味煲仔飯) Pork "pastry" over rice Fried tofu with shrimp Night dishes There are a number of dishes that are often served in Cantonese restaurants exclusively during dinner. Traditionally dim sum restaurants stop serving bamboo basket-dishes after yum cha hour and begin offering an entirely different menu in the evening. Some dishes are more standard while others are quite regional. Some are customized for special purposes like Chinese marriages or banquets. Salt and pepper dishes are one of the few spicy dishes. Includes: Crispy fried chicken (炸子雞) Seafood birdsnest (海鲜雀巢) Roasted suckling pig (燒乳猪) Taro duck (陳皮芋頭鴨) Roast young pigeon/squabs (烤乳鴿) Sour spare ribs (生炒排骨) Salt and pepper rib (椒鹽骨) Salt and pepper squid (椒鹽魷魚) Salt and pepper shrimp (椒鹽蝦) Fried tofu with shrimp Hybrid red bean soup with taro Dessert After a night meal or dish, Cantonese restaurants usually offer tong sui, or sweet soups [literally meaning sugar water]. Many of the varieties are shared between Cantonese and other Chinese cuisines. Some desserts are more traditional, while others are more recent with local chef creativity. Higher end restaurants usually offer their own blend and customization of desserts. Includes: Red bean soup (紅豆沙) Black sesame soup (芝麻糊) Sai mai lo (西米露) Sweet potato soup (番薯糖水) Mung bean soup (綠豆沙) Dau fu fa (豆腐花) Guilinggao (龜苓膏) Sweet Chinese pastry (糕點) Coconut bar (椰汁糕) Shaved Ice (刨冰) Steamed egg custard (燉蛋) Steamed milk custard (燉奶) Double skin milk (雙皮奶) Cantonese bao yu Delicacies There are some dishes that are prized within the culture. These dishes range from being medium price to very expensive. Most of these have been around in the Far East for a long time, while some are just barely becoming available around the world. Many of these prized animals have serious animal rights controversial issues such as finning of Shark cartilages due to increasing price demands. Includes: Braised abalone (燜鮑魚, bao yu) Jellyfish (海蜇) Shark fin soup (魚翅羹, yu qi tong) Sea cucumber (海參, hoi sam) Swallow's nest soup (燕窩, yeen waw) Comparison Sometimes in the US, the term "Hong Kong Style" is used to distinguish this style of cooking from the more Americanized version most Americans are familiar with. Note that actual Hong Kong cuisine has evolved somewhat from traditional Cantonese cuisine served in Guangzhou. Characterization from non-Cantonese people There is a level of complexity associated with the cooking style and ingredients that fascinate Westerners and establish stereotypes and misunderstandings. An example is the western commentary by Prince Philip commenting on Chinese eating habits to the World Wildlife Fund conference in 1986. "If it has got four legs and it is not a chair, if it has two wings and it flies but is not an aeroplane, and if it swims and is not a submarine, the Cantonese will eat it." Ward, Laura. [2003] (2003). Foolish Words: The Most Stupid Words Ever Spoken. Sterling Publishing Company. ISBN 1856486982 Despite having the quote presented to a notable organization, it has also appeared in books such as "The most stupid Words Ever Spoken" as it is deemed by some Westerners as a showcase of "lack of understanding" in foreign culinary traditions in the Western world. Some sources point out that this is a modern Chinese saying used by the Northern Chinese with reference to southern Chinese cuisine, especially Cantonese. Olszewski, Wiesław. [2003] (2003). Chiny - zarys kultury. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. ISBN 83-232-1272-4. p.177 (in Polish) Controversy Posters informing about animal rights in HK Dog and cat consumption One subject of controversy is the raising of dogs and cats as food in some places in mainland China centering in the Cantonse-speaking regions. Eating dogs was common and fiercely defended by the nationalist-leaning Chinese people, even from non-Cantonese parts of the country, in the first half of the 20th century. However, as time goes it is becoming a custom going out of fashion. In Hong Kong, Philippines and Taiwan dog eating has been banned for a long time. Animalasia.org. "Animalasia.org." Dog & Cat Eating in China. Retrieved on 2009-01-03. As of early parts of the 21st century serving dogs as food is illegal and risks social ostracism especially from those under the age of 50 courtesy of the increasing awareness of animal-welfare issues, and even within mainland China an increasing number of young mainland Chinese have called for its abolition as well. 伴侣动物保护网络(CCAPN)-拒吃猫狗肉网络签名活动 Some Westerners have defended the practice of Chinese serving dogs as food by putting forth claims of eating dogs as a survival tactic in times of famine Bonner, Arthur. [1997] (1997). Alas! What Brought Thee Hither: The Chinese in New york, 1800-1950. Fairleigh Dickinson University press. ISBN 0838637043 . Chinese historical records show serving dog as food does have a history going as far back as the Shang dynasty as one of the nine varieties of animals that could be eaten. Dogs were raised as food as pigs and chickens were. One old-style dish found in mainland China that incorporate cat meat is the Dragon tiger phoenix. Big5.China.com. "China.com.cn." Cantonese cuisine. Retrieved on 2008-12-28. Newsweek.com. "Newsweek.com." Pet lovers protest cats on the menu in China. Retrieved on 2008-12-28. At the end of December 2008 a series of dogs and cats were being sold to meat markets in large numbers. In Beijing a tearful protest was held to defend the cats. In South China, a rescue effort was carried out by the Animals Asia Foundation to rescue the dogs. About 149 dogs were saved in the operation. Animalasia.org. "Animalasia.org." New year brings hope for Chinese dogs. Retrieved on 2009-01-03. Many of the dogs were deceptively sold to consumers as lamb meat, since lamb meat cost more than dog meat yielding higher profits. PRC Guangdong TV (新闻在线) December 28, 2008. Others A 2009 trend in South China is the selling of pork illegally inflated with water during off hour operations using special techniques. The pork weight is then increased significantly and made to look much healthier than it really is. The meat are then transported in open air on the back of motorcycles and then sold to consumers the next morning. PRC Guangdong TV (今日关注) January 2, 2009. The meat is dubbed by the mainland media as "bad intention pork meat" (黑心豬肉). References See also Cuisine of Hong Kong Dim sum Chinese food therapy 2008 South China animal consumption incidents External links Chinese recipes | Cantonese_cuisine |@lemmatized cantonese:45 yue:1 cuisine:22 come:1 guangdong:7 southern:5 china:16 hsiung:1 deh:1 ta:1 simonds:1 nina:1 lowe:1 jason:2 food:14 journey:1 lover:2 bay:1 book:2 isbn:6 regional:3 variety:6 chinese:30 renowned:1 inside:1 outside:2 prominence:1 due:7 palatability:1 westerner:4 great:5 number:7 early:3 emigrant:1 enjoy:2 prestige:1 among:2 eight:1 tradition:3 chef:2 highly:1 seek:1 throughout:2 country:2 background:1 draw:1 upon:1 diversity:1 ingredient:15 trading:1 port:1 since:4 day:3 thirteen:1 factory:1 bring:5 many:11 import:1 besides:1 pork:10 beef:8 chicken:10 incorporate:2 almost:1 edible:1 meat:18 include:18 organ:4 foot:1 duck:13 tongue:2 snake:1 snail:1 cooking:8 method:1 use:12 steam:13 stir:5 frying:3 favoured:1 convenience:1 rapidity:1 ability:1 flavor:7 fresh:6 technique:2 shallow:1 double:2 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3,572 | Minute | A minute is a unit of measurement of time or of angle. The minute is a unit of time equal to 1/60th of an hour or 60 seconds. In the UTC time scale, a minute occasionally has 59 or 61 seconds; see leap second. The minute is not an unit; however, it is accepted for use with SI units. The symbol for minute or minutes is min. The fact that an hour contains 60 minutes is probably due to influences from the Babylonians, who used a base-60 or sexagesimal counting system. Astronomy In astronomy, the minute is a unit of angle, the minute of right ascension. It is equal to 1/60th of an hour of right ascension and can be further divided into 60 seconds of right ascension. The symbol for a minute of right ascension is min. The Earth turns on its polar axis through fifteen minutes of arc in every minute of sidereal time. One minute of arc at the Earth's equator is approximately one nautical mile. In old astronomical texts minute can also mean a unit of time equal to 1/60th of a day (24 usual minutes). These minutes correspond to the Latin diei scrupulis, and used to express periods of planetary motions. For example, Kepler in Harmonices Mundi gives Saturn year as 10759D12', that is 10759 (Earth) days, 4 hours, and 48 (usual) minutes. Origin The first division was originally known as a "prime minute", from Latin "(pars) minuta prima", meaning "first minute (i.e. small) part (or division)" of the hour. Likewise, the second was known as a "second minute", meaning "the second small division" of the hour. See also International System of Units References Henry Campbell Black, Black's Law Dictionary, 6th Edition, entry on Minute. West Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1991. Eric W. Weisstein. "Arc Minute." From MathWorld -- A Wolfram be-x-old:Хвіліна | Minute |@lemmatized minute:22 unit:7 measurement:1 time:5 angle:2 equal:3 hour:6 second:7 utc:1 scale:1 occasionally:1 see:2 leap:1 however:1 accept:1 use:3 si:1 symbol:2 min:2 fact:1 contain:1 probably:1 due:1 influence:1 babylonian:1 base:1 sexagesimal:1 counting:1 system:2 astronomy:2 right:4 ascension:4 far:1 divide:1 earth:3 turn:1 polar:1 axis:1 fifteen:1 arc:3 every:1 sidereal:1 one:2 equator:1 approximately:1 nautical:1 mile:1 old:2 astronomical:1 text:1 also:2 mean:1 day:2 usual:2 correspond:1 latin:2 diei:1 scrupulis:1 express:1 period:1 planetary:1 motion:1 example:1 kepler:1 harmonices:1 mundi:1 give:1 saturn:1 year:1 origin:1 first:2 division:3 originally:1 know:2 prime:1 par:1 minuta:1 prima:1 meaning:2 e:1 small:2 part:1 likewise:1 international:1 reference:1 henry:1 campbell:1 black:2 law:1 dictionary:1 edition:1 entry:1 west:1 publish:1 company:1 st:1 paul:1 minnesota:1 eric:1 w:1 weisstein:1 mathworld:1 wolfram:1 x:1 хвіліна:1 |@bigram nautical_mile:1 planetary_motion:1 harmonices_mundi:1 w_weisstein:1 mathworld_wolfram:1 |
3,573 | Cincinnati_Reds | The Cincinnati Reds are a Major League Baseball team based in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. They are members of the Central Division of the National League. The franchise originated in 1882 as a charter member of the now-defunct 19th century Major League called the American Association. The name "Reds" evolved from the original ball club called the Cincinnati Red Stockings, baseball's first openly professional baseball team. The current Reds joined the National League in 1890 after spending its first eight years in the Association. Since 2003, the Reds have played their home games in Great American Ball Park, a baseball-only facility built next door to their previous home, Riverfront Stadium, which has since been demolished. The Reds are managed by Dusty Baker. The Reds have enjoyed sporadic success over their 125-plus years. They won the AA's inaugural season in 1882, and did not win another championship until 1919. They were also competitive in the late 1930s, and from the late 1950s well into the 1970s. Their most recent World Series championship came in 1990. Franchise history The original "Red Stockings" The 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings team photograph. The original Cincinnati Red Stockings, baseball's first openly all-professional team, were founded as an amateur club in 1866, and became fully professional in 1869. The Red Stockings won 130 straight games throughout 1869 and 1870, before being defeated by the Brooklyn Atlantics. Star players included brothers Harry and George Wright, Fred Waterman, and pitcher Asa Brainard. The 1869 Red Stockings made an eastern swing of 21 games and went undefeated. According to Walter Camp, the team received a banquet and a "champion bat...this rather remarkable testimonial was twenty-seven feet long and nine inches (229 mm) in diameter". The following year, the team lost only one game. They were defeated at the Brooklyn Atlantics' Capitoline Grounds. According to Camp, the Red Stockings lost 8–7 in 11 innings. The game apparently served as a precursor to today's unruly crowds because he wrote: "A crowd of ten thousand people assembled to witness this match, and so lost their heads in the excitement as to give the Western men a very unfair reception." [See: "Base-Ball For The Spectator", Walter Camp, Century Magazine October, 1889.] <center>Palace of the Fans.The best players of the Cincinnati Red Stockings relocated to Boston after the 1870 season, taking the nickname along with them and becoming the Boston Red Stockings, a team later dubbed the "Beaneaters" and eventually the "Braves", who are now based in Atlanta. A new Cincinnati Red Stockings team became a charter member of the National League in 1876, five years after the first Red Stockings team. The second Red Stockings team was expelled from the league after the 1880 season, in part for violating league rules by serving beer to fans at games, and for their refusal to stop renting out their ballpark, the Bank Street Grounds, on Sundays. The American Association Following the expulsion, a third Cincinnati team of the same name became a founding member of the American Association, a rival league that began play in 1882 http://www.scsr.org/Baseball/Reds-2/Home.htm http://www.redshistory.com/Timeline/1882-1889.htm . That team (which is the same franchise of today) played for eight seasons in the American Association and won the Association's inaugural pennant in 1882. The pennant winning club still holds the record for the highest winning percentage of any Reds club to date (.688). In November 1889, the Cincinnati Red Stockings and the Brooklyn Dodgers both left the Association for the National League. In the move, the Red Stockings dropped "Stockings" from their name. The National League returns to Cincinnati <center>Cincinnati Reds baseball team in 1909 Although some dispute whether the two teams are the same, according to The Baseball Encyclopedia Palmer, Peter & Gillette, Gary, editors, The Baseball Encyclopedia. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 2004, pp 1370 & 1387. the Cincinnati Red Stockings left the American Association in 1890 to play in the National League. One of the main reasons had absolutely nothing to do with the team directly--the upstart Player's League, an early, failed attempt to break the reserve clause in baseball. The league's impending presence severely weakened both previously existing leagues, and, because the National League decided to expand and the American Association was weakening, the team decided to accept the invitation to become members of the stronger National League. It was also at this time that the team first shortened their nickname from "Red Stockings" to "Reds". The Reds wandered through the 1890s signing local stars & aging veterans. During this time, the team never finished above third place (1897) and never closer than 10 1/2 games (1890). At the turn of the century, the Reds had hitting stars such as Sam Crawford and Cy Seymour. Seymour's .377 average in 1905 was the first individual batting crown won by a Red. In 1911, Bob Bescher stole 81 bases, which is still a team record. Like the previous decade, the 1900s were not kind to the Reds, as much of the decade was spent in the league's second division. Redland Field to the Great Depression Hall of famer Edd Roush lead Cincinnati to the 1919 World Series.In 1912, the club opened a new steel-and-concrete ballpark, Redland Field (later to be known as Crosley Field). The Reds had actually been playing baseball on that same site, the corner of Findlay and Western Avenues on the city's west side, for 28 years, in wooden structures that had been occasionally damaged by fires. By the late 1910s the Reds began to come out of the second division. The 1918 team finished 4th, and then new manager Pat Moran led the Reds to an NL pennant in 1919, in what the club advertised as its "Golden Anniversary", although that was not historically accurate. The 1919 team had hitting stars led by Edd Roush and Heinie Groh while the pitching staff was led by Hod Eller and Harry "Slim" Sallee, a left-hander. The Reds finished ahead of John McGraw's New York Giants, and then won the world championship in 8 games over the Chicago White Sox. By 1920, the "Black Sox" scandal had brought a taint to the Reds' first championship. In the remainder of the 1920s and early 1930s the Reds were second division dwellers for most of those years. Eppa Rixey, Dolf Luque and Pete Donohue were pitching stars; the offense never quite lived up to the pitching. By 1931 the team was bankrupt, thanks to the Great Depression, and Crosley Field was in a state of disrepair. Revival of 1930s Powel Crosley Jr., an electronics magnate who, with his brother Lewis M. Crosley, produced radios, refrigerators, and other household items, bought the Reds out of bankruptcy in 1933, and hired Larry MacPhail to be the General Manager. Powell Crosley Jr. had also started WLW radio and the Crosley Broadcasting Corporation in Cincinnati and was doing quite well as a civic leader. (WLW has been the Reds' radio flagship for decades.) MacPhail began to develop the Reds' minor league system and expanded the Reds' base. The Reds, throughout the 1930s, became a team of "firsts". Crosley Field, (formerly Redland Field), became the host of the first night game in 1935. Johnny Vander Meer became the only pitcher in major league history to throw back-to-back no-hitters in 1938. Thanks to Vander Meer, Paul Derringer, and second-baseman/third baseman-turned-pitcher Bucky Walters, the Reds had a solid pitching staff. The offense came around in the late 1930s. Ernie Lombardi was named the National League's Most Valuable Player in 1938, First baseman Frank McCormick was the 1940 NL MVP. Other position players included Harry Craft, Lonny Frey, Ival Goodman and Lew Riggs. By 1938 the Reds, now led by manager Bill McKechnie, were out of the second division finishing fourth. By 1939 they were National League champions. The Reds were swept by the New York Yankees in four straight. In 1940, they repeated as NL Champions, and for the first time in 21 years, the Reds captured a World championship, beating the Detroit Tigers 4 games to 3. From WWII through the 1960s World War II and age finally caught up with the Reds. Throughout the remainder of the 1940s and the early 1950s, Cincinnati finished mostly in the second division. In 1944, Joe Nuxhall (who was later to become part of the radio broadcasting team), at age 15, pitched for the Reds on loan from Wilson Junior High school in Hamilton, Ohio. He became the youngest person ever to play in a major league game -- a record that still stands today. Ewell "The Whip" Blackwell was the main pitching stalwart before arm problems cut short his career. Ted Kluszewski was the NL home run leader in 1954. The rest of the offense was a collection of over-the-hill players and not-ready-for-prime-time youngsters. In 1956, led by National League Rookie of the Year Frank Robinson, the Reds hit 221 HR to tie the NL record. By 1961, Robinson was joined by Vada Pinson, Wally Post, Gordy Coleman and Gene Freese. Pitchers Joey Jay, Jim O'Toole, and Bob Purkey led the staff. The Reds captured the 1961 National League pennant, holding off the Los Angeles Dodgers and the San Francisco Giants, only to be defeated by the perennially powerful New York Yankees in the World Series. The Reds had many successful teams during the rest of the 1960s, but did not produce any championships. They won 98 games in 1962 (paced by Purkey's 23), but finished third. In 1964, they lost the pennant by one game, having taken 1st place when the Phillies collapsed in September but then losing out to the Cardinals. In that 1964 season, the beloved leader of the Reds, manager Fred Hutchinson, died of cancer, succumbing just weeks after the end of the 1964 season, one of baseball's most exciting pennant races ever. The failure of the Reds to win the 1964 pennant led to owner Bill DeWitt's selling off key components of the team, in anticipation of relocating the franchise. After the 1965 season he executed what may be the most lopsided trade in baseball history, sending former Most-Valuable Player Frank Robinson to the Baltimore Orioles for pitchers Milt Pappas and Jack Baldschun, and outfielder Dick Simpson. Robinson went on to win the MVP in the American league for 1966, win the "triple crown", and lead Baltimore to its first ever World Series title in a four-game sweep of the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Reds did not recover from this trade until the rise of the "Big Red Machine" of the 1970s. Starting in the early 1960s, the Reds' farm system began producing a series of future stars, such as Jim Maloney (the Reds pitching ace of the 1960s), Pete Rose, Tony Pérez, Johnny Bench, Lee May, Tommy Helms, Bernie Carbo, Hal McRae, Dave Concepción, and Gary Nolan. The tipping point came in 1967 with the appointment of Bob Howsam as general manager. That same year the Reds avoided an all but certain move to San Diego when the city of Cincinnati and Hamilton County agreed to build a new, state of the art, downtown stadium on the edge of the Ohio River. The Reds entered into a 30-year lease in exchange for the stadium commitment keeping the franchise in its original home city. In a series of strategic moves, Howsam nurtured the homegrown talent and brought in key personnel, allowing the team to finally reach its potential during the 1970s. The Reds' final game at Crosley Field, home to more than 4,500 baseball games, was played on June 24, 1970, a 5-4 victory over the San Francisco Giants. In its place, a new stadium, and a new Reds dynasty. Striving for an image: The "Redlegs" and Clean Shaves Twice in the 1950s (the McCarthy era), the Reds, fearing that their traditional club nickname would associate them with the threat of Communism, officially changed the name of the team to the Cincinnati Redlegs. From 1956 to 1960, the club's logo was altered to remove the term "REDS" from the inside of the "wishbone C" symbol. The "REDS" reappeared on the 1961 uniforms, but the point of the C was removed, leaving a smooth, non-wishbone curve. The traditional home-uniform logo was restored in 1967. Under Howsam's administration starting in the late 1960s, the Reds instituted a strict rule barring the team's players from wearing mustaches, beards, and long hair. (This rule, with a mustache exemption, is also enforced to this day by the New York Yankees, under the ownership of George Steinbrenner.) The clean cut look was meant to present the team as wholesome and traditional in an era of turmoil. Over the years, the rule was controversial, but persisted under the ownership of Marge Schott. All players coming to the Reds were required to shave and cut their hair for the next three decades or more. On at least one occasion, in the early 1980s, when the Reds were hurting for pitching, strict enforcement of this rule lost them the services of star reliever Rollie Fingers, who would not shave his trademark handlebar moustache in order to join the team. The Reds thus took a pass on Fingers. Sports People; Fingers Won'T Conform - New York Times When Pete Rose became player-manager in the mid-1980s, he grew a rattail, fashionable among the youth of the time, but the rule was not officially rescinded until 1999 when the Reds traded for slugger Greg Vaughn, who had a goatee. The Reds' grooming rules also included guidelines for wearing the uniform. In major league baseball, a club generally provides most of the equipment and clothing needed for play. However, players are required to supply their gloves and shoes themselves. Many players take advantage of this rule by entering into sponsorship arrangements with shoe manufacturers. Through the mid-1980s, the Reds had a strict rule that players were to wear only plain black shoes with no prominent logo. Reds players decried the boring color choice as well as the denial of the opportunity to earn more money through shoe contracts. A compromise was struck in which players were given the opportunity to wear red shoes. For years, club management and players throughout Major League Baseball have been involved in a struggle over how uniform pants and stockings are to be worn. Generally, baseball players wear a double layer of socks -- underneath, the regular socks or "sanitaries" (traditionally plain white) and over that, a stirrup-type stocking (traditionally bearing team colors). Some clubs, such as the Reds, require that the pants and socks be worn so that the team colors on the stirrup are visible. However, since the 1990s, players have generally preferred to pull down the cuffs of their trousers all the way to the ankle, thus covering up the colored stockings. The Big Red Machine <center>Riverfront StadiumIn , little known George "Sparky" Anderson was hired as manager, and the Reds embarked upon a decade of excellence, with a team that came to be known as "The Big Red Machine". Playing at Crosley Field until June 30, 1970, when the Reds moved into brand-new Riverfront Stadium, a 52,000 seat multi-purpose venue on the shores of the Ohio River, the Reds began the 1970s with a bang by winning 70 of their first 100 games. Johnny Bench, Tony Pérez, Pete Rose, Lee May and Bobby Tolan were the early Red Machine offensive leaders; Gary Nolan, Jim Merritt, Wayne Simpson and Jim McGlothlin led a pitching staff which also contained veterans Tony Cloninger and Clay Carroll and youngsters Pedro Borbón and Don Gullett. The Reds breezed through the 1970 season, winning the NL West and captured the NL pennant by sweeping the Pittsburgh Pirates in three games. By time the club got to the World Series, however, the Reds pitching staff had run out of gas and the veteran Baltimore Orioles beat the Reds in five games. After the disastrous season (the only season of the '70s during which the Reds finished with a losing record) the Reds reloaded by trading veterans Jimmy Stewert, May, and Tommy Helms for Joe Morgan, César Gerónimo, Jack Billingham, Ed Armbrister, and Denis Menke. Meanwhile, Dave Concepción blossomed at shortstop. 1971 was also the year a key component of the future world championships was acquired in George Foster from the San Francisco Giants in a trade for shortstop Frank Duffy. The Reds won the NL West in baseball's first ever strike-shortened season and defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates in an exciting five-game playoff series--that fifth game in Cincinnati was the last major league game Pittsburgh great Roberto Clemente ever played--then faced the Oakland Athletics in the World Series. Six of the seven games were won by one run. With powerful slugger Reggie Jackson sidelined due to an injury incurred during Oakland's playoff series against Detroit, Ohio native Gene Tenace got a chance to play in the series for manager Dick Williams, delivering four home runs that tied the World Series record for homers, propelling Oakland to a dramatic seven-game series win. This was the first World Series in which no starting pitcher for either side pitched a complete game. The Reds won a third NL West crown in after a dramatic second half comeback, that saw them make up 10½ games on the Los Angeles Dodgers after the All-Star break. However they lost the NL pennant to the New York Mets in five games. In game one, Tom Seaver faced Jack Billingham in a classic pitching duel, with all three runs of the 2-1 margin being scored on home runs. John Milner provided New York's run off Billingham, while Pete Rose tied the game in the seventh inning off Seaver, setting the stage for a dramatic game ending home run by Johnny Bench in the bottom of the ninth inning. The New York series provided plenty of controversy with the riotous behavior of Shea Stadium fans towards Pete Rose when he and Bud Harrelson scuffled after a hard slide by Rose into Harrelson at second base during the fifth inning of Game 3. A full bench-clearing fight resulted after New York's Bud Harrelson responded to Rose's aggressive move to prevent him from completing a double play by calling him a name. The resulting on-field tension led to two separate incidents in which play was stopped. The Reds trailed 9-3 and New York's manager, Yogi Berra, and legendary outfielder Willie Mays, at the request of National League president Warren Giles, appealed to fans in left field to restrain themselves. The next day the series was extended to a fifth game when Rose homered in the 12th inning to tie the series at two games each. The Reds won 98 games in but they finished second to the 102-win Los Angeles Dodgers and MVP Steve Garvey. The 1974 season started off with much excitement, as the Atlanta Braves were in town to open the season with the Reds. Hank Aaron entered opening day with 713 home runs, one shy of tying Babe Ruth's record of 714. On a three ball one strike count, the first pitch Aaron swung at in the 74 season was the record tying home run off Jack Billingham. The next day the Braves benched Aaron, hoping to save him for his record breaking home run on their season opening homestand. The commissioner of baseball, Bowie Kuhn, ordered Braves management to play Aaron the next day, where he narrowly missed the historic home run in the fifth inning. Aaron went on to set the record in Atlanta two nights later off Al Downing and the Los Angeles Dodgers. 1974 also was the debut of Hall of Fame radio announcer Marty Brennaman, who replaced Al Michaels, after Michaels left the Reds to broadcast for the San Francisco Giants. With 1975, the Big Red Machine lineup solidified with the starting team of Johnny Bench (c), Tony Perez (1b), Joe Morgan (2b), Dave Concepción (ss), Pete Rose (3b), Ken Griffey (rf), César Gerónimo (cf), and George Foster (lf). The starting pitchers included Don Gullett, Fred Norman, Gary Nolan, Jack Billingham, Pat Darcy, and Clay Kirby. However, it was the bullpen that was the key to the Reds' pitching (and Anderson's reputation as "Captain Hook") with Rawly Eastwick and Will McEnaney combining for 37 saves. Pedro Borbon and Clay Carroll filled in with five and seven saves respectively. However, this was not the lineup on Opening Day. At that time, Rose still played in left field, Foster was not a starter, while John Vuckovich, an off-season acquisition from the Milwaukee Brewers was the starting third baseman, replacing Dan Driessen, who was a decent hitter, but whose defensive skills were considered a weakness. While Vuckovich was a superb defensive shortstop, he was a weak hitter. In May, with the team off to a slow start and trailing the Dodgers, Sparky Anderson made a bold move by moving Rose to third base (a position where he had very little experience) and inserting Foster in left field to bat cleanup. This was the jolt that the Reds needed to propel them into first place, with Rose proving to be reliable on defense, while adding Foster to the outfield gave the offense some added punch. During the season, the Reds compiled two notable streaks: (1) by winning 41 out of 50 games in one stretch, and (2) by going a month without committing any errors on defense. <center>Pete Rose at bat in a game during the 1970s In the 1975 season, Cincinnati clinched the NL West with 108 victories, then swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in three games to win the NL pennant. In the World Series, the Boston Red Sox were the opponents. After splitting the first four games, the Reds took Game 5. After a three-day rain delay, the two teams met in Game 6, one of the most memorable baseball games ever played and considered by many to be the best World Series game ever. The Reds were ahead 6-3 with 5 outs left, when the Red Sox tied the game on former Red Bernie Carbo's three-run home run. It was Carbo's second pinch-hit three-run homer in the series. After a few close-calls either way, Carlton Fisk hit a dramatic 12th inning home run off the foul pole in left field (which is considered to be one of the greatest TV sports moments of all time) to give the Red Sox a 7-6 win and force a deciding Game 7. Cincinnati prevailed the next day when Morgan's RBI single won Game 7 and gave the Reds their first championship in 35 years. 1976 saw a return of the same starting eight in the field. The starting rotation was led by Gary Nolan. The remaining starters, Don Gullet, Jack Billingham, Pat Zachary, Santos Alcalá, and Fred Norman comprised an underrated staff in which four of the six had ERAs below 3.10. Rawley Eastwick, Pedro Borbon, and Will McEnany shared closer duties, recording 26, 8, and 7 saves respectively. In , the Reds won the NL West by ten games. They went undefeated in the postseason, sweeping the Philadelphia Phillies (winning Game 3 in their final at-bat) to return to the World Series. They continued to dominate by sweeping the Yankees in the newly renovated Yankee Stadium, the first World Series games played in Yankee Stadium since 1964. This was only the second ever sweep of the proud Yankees in the World Series. In winning the Series, the Reds became the first NL team since the 1921–22 New York Giants to win back-to-back World Series championships. The Machine Dismantled and "We Wuz Robbed!" Personnel changes were in the offing. Popular Tony Perez was sent to Montreal after the 1976 season, breaking up the Big Red Machine's starting lineup. Starting pitcher Don Gullet left via free agency and signed with the New York Yankees. In an effort to fill that gap, a trade with the Oakland A's for starting ace Vida Blue was arranged during the '76–'77 off-season. However, Bowie Kuhn, the Commissioner of Baseball at the time, vetoed this trade in an effort to maintain the competitive balance in baseball. On June 15, 1977, the Reds entered the trading market with a vengeance. New York was heartbroken by the news that the Mets' franchise pitcher Tom Seaver was being traded to the Reds for Pat Zachry, Doug Flynn, Steve Henderson, and Dan Norman. In less successful deals, the Reds also traded Gary Nolan to the Angels for Craig Hendrickson, Rawly Eastwick to St. Louis for Doug Capilla and Mike Caldwell to Milwaukee for Dick O'Keeffe and Garry Pyka, and got Rick Auerbach from Texas. The end of the Big Red Machine era was heralded by the replacement of General Manager Bob Howsam with Dick Wagner. After the 1978 season, Cincinnati hero Pete Rose, who since 1963 had played almost every position for the team except pitcher and catcher, signed with Philadelphia as a free agent. In Rose's last season as a Red, he gave baseball a thrill as he challenged Joe DiMaggio's 56 game hitting streak, tying for the second longest streak ever at 44 games. The streak came to an end in Atlanta after striking out in his 5th at bat in the game against Gene Garber. Rose also earned his 3000th hit that season, on his way to becoming baseball's all time hits leader when he rejoined the Reds in the mid 80's. The year also witnessed the only no-hitter of Hall of Fame pitcher Tom Seaver's career, coming against the St. Louis Cardinals on June 16, 1978. The later years of the 1970s brought turmoil and change. After two consecutive runner-up seasons, Wagner fired manager Anderson. By , players Gullett, Nolan, Pérez, and Rose, among others, had left the club. By 1979, the starters were Bench (c), Dan Driessen (1b), Morgan (2b), Concepcion (ss), Ray Knight (3b), with Griffey, Foster, and Geronimo again in the outfield. The pitching staff had experienced an almost complete turnover. The ace starter was now Tom Seaver, acquired from the New York Mets in 1977 in a multiple-player deal. Only Norman was left from 1975-76; the remaining starters were Mike La Coss, Bill Bonham, and Paul Moskau. In the bullpen, only Borbon had remained. Dave Tomlin and Mario Soto worked mid-innings with Tom Hume and Doug Bair closing. The Reds did manage to win the 1979 NL West behind the pitching of Tom Seaver but were dispatched in the NL playoffs by Pittsburgh, after a controversial play in Game 2 in which a ball hit by Pittsburgh's Phil Garner was caught by Cincinnati outfielder Dave Collins but was ruled a trap, setting the Pirates up to take a 2-1 lead. The Pirates swept the series 3 games to 0. The 1981 team fielded a strong lineup, with only Concepcion, Foster, and Griffey retaining their spots from the 1975-76 heyday. Johnny Bench broke his ankle and so Joe Nolan played the majority of games behind the plate. Driessen and Knight still played the corners, but Morgan and Geronimo had been replaced at second base and center field by Ron Oester and Dave Collins. Mario Soto posted a banner year starting on the mound, even surpassing the performance of Seaver. La Coss, Bruce Berenyi, and Frank Pastore rounded out the starting rotation. Hume again led the bullpen as closer, joined by Bair, Moskau, Joe Price, and Geoff Combe. In , Cincinnati had the best overall record in baseball, but they finished second in the division in both of the half-seasons that were created after a mid-season players' strike. To commemorate this, a team photo was taken, accompanied by a banner that read "Baseball's Best Record 1981". By , the Reds were a shell of the original Red Machine; they lost 101 games that year. Johnny Bench retired a year later. Outraged Reds' fans proclaimed, "We Wuz Robbed!" when talking about the 1981 season. The 1980s After the heartbreak of 1981, General Manager Dick Wagner pursued the strategy of ridding the team of veterans including catcher Nolan, third-baseman Knight (who had replaced Pete Rose) and the entire starting outfield of Griffey, Foster, and Collins. Johnny Bench decided to give up catching entirely and was made the starting third baseman; Alex Trevino became the regular starting catcher. The outfield was staffed with Paul Householder, César Cedeño, and the untried Eddie Milner. The starting rotation still featured the strong Seaver and Soto, joined by Pastore and Bruce Berenyi, but their efforts were wasted without a strong offensive lineup backing them. Tom Hume still led the bullpen, but he had no support from the dismal relieving of Ben Hayes, Brad "The Animal" Lesley, Joe Price, and Jim Kern. The Reds fell to the absolute bottom of the Western Division for the next few years, losing Seaver after the 1982 season. A series of changes followed — Dann Bilardello behind the plate, Nick Esasky taking over after Bench's failed experiment at third base, and Gary Redus taking over from Cedeno. Tom Hume had pitched himself out and there was not a body in the bullpen worth naming. Dave Concepción was the sole remaining starter from the Big Red Machine era. Wagner's control of the Reds ended in 1983, when Howsam, the architect of the Big Red Machine was brought back and he began his return by acquiring Cincinnati native Dave Parker from Pittsburgh. In the Reds began to move up, depending on trades and some minor leaguers. In that season Dave Parker, Dave Concepción and Tony Pérez were in Cincinnati uniforms. By the end of 1984, Pete Rose was hired to be the Reds player-manager. After raising the franchise from the grave, Howsam gave way to the administration of Bill Bergesch, who was principally known for holding on tightly to perennial future stars like Kurt Stillwell, Tracy Jones, Kal Daniels, and others, refusing to risk these "crown jewels" for pitching help. Under Bergesch, from –89 the Reds finished second four times. Among the highlights, Rose became the all-time hits leader, Tom Browning threw a perfect game, and Chris Sabo was the 1988 National League Rookie of the Year. The Reds also had a bullpen star in John Franco, who was with the team from 1984 to 1989. In , Rose was banned from baseball by Commissioner Bart Giamatti, who declared Rose guilty of "conduct detrimental to baseball". Controversy also swirled around Reds owner Marge Schott, who was accused several times of ethnic and racial slurs. After Pete Rose <center>Eric Davis in 1990 In , General Manager Bergesch was replaced by Murray Cook, who initiated a series of deals that would finally bring the Reds back to the championship, starting with acquisitions of Danny Jackson and Jose Rijo, finally letting go of Bergesch favorites Stillwell and Parker. In , Cook was succeeded by Bob Quinn, who put the final pieces of the championship puzzle together, with acquisitions such as Hal Morris, Billy Hatcher, and Randy Myers. In , the Reds under new manager Lou Piniella shocked baseball by leading the NL West from wire-to-wire. They started off 33-12, winning their first 9 games, and maintained their lead throughout the year. Led by Chris Sabo, Barry Larkin, Eric Davis, Paul O'Neill and Billy Hatcher in the field, and by José Rijo, Tom Browning and the "Nasty Boys" of Rob Dibble, Norm Charlton and Randy Myers on the mound, the Reds took out the Pirates in the NLCS. Adopting MC Hammer's "U Can't Touch This" as the team's unofficial anthem, the Reds swept the heavily favored Oakland Athletics in four straight. The sweep of the Oakland Athletics extended the Reds winning streak in the World Series to 9 consecutive games. The World Series, however, cost the team Eric Davis, who severely bruised a kidney diving for a fly ball in the first inning of Game 4. In , Quinn was replaced in the front office by Jim Bowden. On the field, manager Lou Piniella wanted outfielder Paul O'Neill to be a power-hitter to fill the void Eric Davis left when he was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers in exchange for Tim Belcher. However, O'Neill only hit .246 and 14 homers. In the midst of all that trouble, the Reds won 90 games in 1992. But that was enough for 2nd place behind the division-winning Atlanta Braves. Before the season ended, Piniella got into an altercation with reliever Rob Dibble. Additionally, O'Neill was traded to the New York Yankees for outfielder Roberto Kelly. Kelly would only be in a Reds uniform for a few years. As for O'Neill, he would lead an up-and-coming Yankees team to several postseason appearances. Also, the Reds would replace the famous "Big Red Machine" uniforms in favor of a pinstriped uniform with no sleeves. For the 1993 season Piniella was replaced by fan favorite Tony Perez, but he lasted only 44 games at the helm, replaced by Davey Johnson. With Johnson steering the team, the Reds made steady progress upward. In 1994, the Reds were in the newly-created National League Central Division with the Chicago Cubs, St. Louis Cardinals, as well as fellow rivals Pittsburgh Pirates and Houston Astros. By the time the strike hit, the Reds finished a half-game ahead of the Astros for first-place in the NL Central. By , the Reds won the division thanks to Most Valuable Player Barry Larkin. After defeating the NL West champion Dodgers in the first NLDS since 1981, they lost to the Atlanta Braves. As of 2008, 1995 remains the only year in the Division Series era in which neither the Cubs, Cardinals, nor Astros made the playoffs, since the Reds had won the division and the Colorado Rockies (in only their 3rd year) won the NL Wild Card - as a consequence, the Reds have not made the playoffs since 1995. Team owner Marge Schott announced mid-season that Johnson would be gone by the end of the year, regardless of outcome, to be replaced by former Reds third baseman Ray Knight. Johnson and Schott had never gotten along; by most accounts, the main reason for the firing was that Schott didn't approve of Johnson living with his fiancée before they were married Washingtonpost.com: Poor Communication at Heart of Feud , In contrast, Knight, along with his wife, professional golfer Nancy Lopez, were personal friends of Schott's. The team took a dive under Knight and he was unable to complete two full seasons as manager, subject to complaints in the press about his strict managerial style. In the Reds won 96 games, led by manager Jack McKeon, but lost to the New York Mets in a one game playoff. Earlier that year, Schott sold controlling interest in the Reds to Cincinnati businessman Carl Lindner. Following (and despite) an 85–77 finish, and being named 1999 NL manager of the year, McKeon was fired after the 2000 season, and the Reds have not had a winning season since. Riverfront Stadium was demolished in and ended an era marked by three world championships. Great American Ball Park opened in with high expectations for a team led by local favorites, including outfielder Ken Griffey, Jr., shortstop Barry Larkin, reliever Danny Graves and first baseman Sean Casey. Although attendance improved considerably with the new ballpark, the team continued to lose. This was largely because Schott hadn't invested much in the farm system since the early 1990s, leaving the team relatively thin on talent. After years of promises that the club was rebuilding toward the opening of the new ballpark, General Manager Jim Bowden and manager Bob Boone were fired on July 28. This broke up the father-son combo of manager Bob Boone and third baseman Aaron Boone, and Aaron was soon traded to the New York Yankees. Following the season Dan O'Brien was hired as the Reds' 16th General Manager. The and seasons continued the trend of big hitting and poor pitching and ultimately poor records. Griffey, Jr. joined the 500-home run club in 2004, but was again hampered by injuries. Adam Dunn emerged as formidable home run hitter, hitting a home run against Jose Lima. He also broke the major league record for strikeouts in 2004. Although a number of free agents were signed before 2005, the Reds were quickly in last place and manager Dave Miley was forced out in the 2005 midseason and replaced by Jerry Narron. Like many other small market clubs, the Reds dispatched some of their veteran players and began entrusting their future to a young nucleus that includes Adam Dunn, Ryan Freel, and Aaron Harang. Late summer, 2004 saw the opening of the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame. The Reds HOF had been in existence in "name only" since the 1950s, with player plaques, photos and other memorabilia scattered throughout front office store rooms and hallways. Ownership and management desired a stand-alone facility, where the public could walk through inter-active displays, see locker-room recreations, watch videos of classic Reds moments and peruse historical items from the Reds' long history. The main first floor houses a movie theater which resembles an older, ivy-covered brick wall ballyard - the movie theatere replays continuously throughout the day. The hallways contain many old photographs. As visitors move to the rear of the building, they can view a three-story wall containing a baseball for every hit Pete Rose had during his career. The third floor contains interactive exhibits including a pitcher's mound fans can throw off of, a radio booth fans can create their own play-by-play announcements, and children's area where the fundamentals of baseball are taught by former Reds player videos. <center>Rob DibbleFor Opening Day 2006, President George W. Bush threw out the ceremonial first pitch, becoming the first sitting president to throw out the first pitch at a Reds game. 2006 also began a new era in Reds baseball as fruit and vegetable wholesaler Robert Castellini took over as owner, assuming control of the team from Lindner. Castellini promptly fired general manager Dan O'Brien. Wayne Krivsky, previously an assistant General Manager with the Minnesota Twins, and a candidate for the job when O'Brien was hired, was appointed as the General Manager of the Reds after a protracted search. The first move Krivsky made was to trade young outfielder Wily Mo Peña to the Boston Red Sox for pitcher Bronson Arroyo. Arroyo made his first start in a Reds uniform on April 5, 2006. He not only earned the win, but also led off the third inning with his first career home run. Krivsky also gave fans hope with mid season trades that bolstered the "non-existent" bullpen, trading for "Everyday Eddie" Guardado and then trading outfielder Austin Kearns, shortstop Felipe López, and 2004 first round draft pick Ryan Wagner to the Washington Nationals for relievers Gary Majewski, Bill Bray, shortstop Royce Clayton, and two prospects. This move was controversial, as not only did it seem as if the Reds did not receive much in return for two starting position players and a former first-round draft pick, but also it was later discovered that the Nationals may have hidden Majewski's health problems. The Reds made a run at the playoffs in the weak Central Division, but ultimately ended with a 80–82 losing record. The 2007 season saw many returning faces but was ultimately mired in mediocrity. Midway through the season Jerry Narron was fired as manager and replaced by Pete Mackanin, the advance scout for the club. The Reds ended up posting a winning record under Mackanin, but finished the season in 5th place in the Central Division. Mackanin was manager in an interim capacity only, and though he was considered for the job permanently, the Reds, seeking a big name to fill the spot, ultimately brought in Dusty Baker. Early in the 2008 season, Wayne Krivsky was fired and replaced by former St. Louis Cardinals general manager Walt Jocketty, who helped build the 2006 World Champion Cardinals. Jocketty had been added by Castellini in the offseason in an advisory role, and after another poor start by the Reds, took the reins of general manager. Though the Reds were never a winning franchise under Krivsky, he is credited often with revamping the farm system and signing a good deal of young talent that could potentially lead the Reds to success in the future. Logos and Uniforms Reds records Season-by-season results Current roster Quick facts "Founded": 1882 - Reds merchandise purchased at Great American Ballpark lists 1869 as the date in which the Reds were founded; However, their own museum acknowledges that the current club dates from 1882. Formerly known as: The Red Stockings in the 19th century; the Redlegs (1953-1960) Home ballpark: Great American Ball Park, Cincinnati Uniform colors: Red and white, trim Black Logo design: a drop-shadow red wishbone "C" with the drop-shadowed word "REDS" inside Team motto: The Power of Tradition Playoff appearances (12): 1919, 1939, 1940, 1961, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1990, 1995 Pennants: 1882,1919, 1939, 1940, 1961, 1970, 1972, 1975, 1976, 1990 World Series Champions: 1919, 1940, 1975, 1976, 1990 Other "titles" won: (2): Had baseball's best overall record in 1981; First place in N.L. Central in 1994 American Association pennants won: (1): 1882 Ownership: Robert Castellini Local Television: FSN Ohio Spring Training Facility: Ed Smith Stadium, Sarasota, FL Home Runs: Ken Griffey, Jr. hit his 600th home run on June 8, 2008. Baseball Hall of Famers Sparky Anderson * Jake Beckley Johnny Bench Jim Bottomley Mordecai Brown Charles Comiskey Sam Crawford Candy Cummings Kiki Cuyler Leo Durocher Buck Ewing Clark Griffith Chick Hafey Jesse Haines Harry Heilmann Miller Huggins Joe Kelley George Kelly King Kelly Ernie Lombardi Rube Marquard Christy Mathewson Bill McKechnie Bid McPhee Joe Morgan Tony Pérez Charles Radbourn Eppa Rixey Frank Robinson Edd Roush Amos Rusie Tom Seaver Al Simmons Joe Tinker Dazzy Vance * Manager Retired numbers <b>FredHutchinsonMgr: 1959-64 <b>JohnnyBenchC: 1967-83<b>JoeMorgan2B: 1972-79 <b>SparkyAndersonMgr: 1970-78 <b>DaveConcepciónSS: 1970-88 <b>TedKluszewski1B: 1947-57Coach: 1970-78 <b>FrankRobinsonOF: 1956-65 <b>TonyPérez1B: 1964-761B: 1984-86Coach: 1987-92Mgr: 1993 <b>JackieRobinsonRetired by Baseball Since Pete Rose was banned from baseball, the Reds have not retired his #14. However, they have not reissued it except for Pete Rose, Jr. in his 11 game tenure in 1997. Additionally, the number 11 of former captain Barry Larkin has not been issued since his retirement, and the Reds have not named a new captain either. Minor league affiliations AAA: Louisville Bats, International League AA: Carolina Mudcats, Southern League Advanced A: Sarasota Reds, Florida State League A: Dayton Dragons, Midwest League Rookie: Billings Mustangs, Pioneer League Rookie: Gulf Coast Reds, Gulf Coast League Rookie: VSL Reds, Venezuelan Summer League Radio and television The Reds' flagship radio station has been WLW, 700AM since 1969. Prior to that, the Reds were heard over: WKRC, WCPO, WSAI and WCKY. WLW, a 50,000-watt station, is "clear channel" in more than one way, as Clear Channel Communications owns the "blowtorch" outlet which is also known as "The Nation's Station". In 2007, Thom Brennaman, a veteran announcer seen nationwide on Fox Sports, joined his Ford C. Frick Award-winning father Marty in the radio booth for the games. Jeff Brantley, formerly of ESPN, was brought on in for the games that Thom does not announce, save for a few games that featured Joe Nuxhall. Televised games are seen exclusively on FSN Ohio (in Cincinnati, Dayton, Columbus and Kentucky) and FSN Indiana. George Grande, who hosted the first SportsCenter on ESPN in 1979, is the play-by-play announcer. Thom Brennaman will announce some TV games as the play-by-play announcer as well, and both Chris Welsh and Jeff Brantley will see time as the color commentator. NBC affiliate WLWT carried Reds games from 1948–1995. Among those that have called games for WLWT include Waite Hoyt, Ray Lane, Steve Physioc, Johnny Bench, Joe Morgan, and Ken Wilson. WSTR-TV aired games from 1996-1998, and the Reds have not broadcast games over-the-air on a regular basis since then. However, a few games, including one against state rival Cleveland Indians, were aired on FOX Network during the 2008 season. References External links Cincinnati Reds official web site Reds Minor Leagues News | Cincinnati_Reds |@lemmatized cincinnati:30 red:174 major:8 league:41 baseball:36 team:54 base:9 ohio:7 usa:1 member:5 central:6 division:15 national:17 franchise:8 originate:1 charter:2 defunct:1 century:4 call:5 american:12 association:10 name:11 reds:6 evolve:1 original:5 ball:8 club:18 stocking:21 first:37 openly:2 professional:4 current:3 join:7 spend:2 eight:3 year:29 since:16 play:26 home:23 game:76 great:8 park:3 facility:3 build:3 next:7 door:1 previous:2 riverfront:4 stadium:10 demolish:2 manage:2 dusty:2 baker:2 enjoy:1 sporadic:1 success:2 plus:1 win:40 aa:2 inaugural:2 season:45 another:2 championship:12 also:20 competitive:2 late:7 well:5 recent:1 world:23 series:32 come:9 history:4 photograph:2 found:3 amateur:1 become:16 fully:1 straight:3 throughout:7 defeat:5 brooklyn:3 atlantic:2 star:10 player:27 include:10 brother:2 harry:4 george:8 wright:1 fred:4 waterman:1 pitcher:13 asa:1 brainard:1 make:10 eastern:1 swing:1 go:7 undefeated:2 accord:3 walter:3 camp:3 receive:2 banquet:1 champion:6 bat:6 rather:1 remarkable:1 testimonial:1 twenty:1 seven:4 foot:1 long:3 nine:1 inch:1 mm:1 diameter:1 following:1 lose:12 one:15 capitoline:1 ground:2 inning:10 apparently:1 serve:2 precursor:1 today:3 unruly:1 crowd:2 write:1 ten:2 thousand:1 people:2 assemble:1 witness:2 match:1 head:1 excitement:2 give:9 western:3 men:1 unfair:1 reception:1 see:5 spectator:1 magazine:1 october:1 center:7 palace:1 fan:9 best:5 relocate:2 boston:4 take:12 nickname:3 along:3 later:6 dub:1 beaneaters:1 eventually:1 brave:6 atlanta:6 new:30 five:5 second:16 expel:1 part:2 violate:1 rule:10 beer:1 refusal:1 stop:2 rent:1 ballpark:6 bank:1 street:1 sunday:1 follow:4 expulsion:1 third:14 founding:1 rival:3 begin:9 http:2 www:2 scsr:1 org:1 htm:2 redshistory:1 com:2 timeline:1 pennant:12 winning:4 still:7 hold:3 record:19 high:3 percentage:1 date:3 november:1 dodgers:1 leave:10 move:11 drop:3 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3,574 | Cheirogaleidae | Cheirogaleidae is the family of strepsirrhine primates that contains the various dwarf and mouse lemurs. Like all other lemurs, cheirogaleids live exclusively on the island of Madagascar. This is the only family in the Cheirogaleoidea superfamily. Characteristics Cheirogaleids are smaller than the other lemurs and, in fact, they are the smallest primates. They have a soft, long fur colored grey-brown to reddish on top with a generally brighter underbelly. Typically they have small ears, large, close set eyes, and long hind legs. Like all strepsirrhines they have fine claws at the second toe of the hind legs. They grow to a size of only 13 to 28 cm, with a tail that is very long, sometimes up to one and a half times as long as the body. They weigh no more than 500 grams, with some species weighing as little as 60 grams. Dwarf and mouse lemurs are nocturnal and arboreal. They are excellent climbers and can also jump far, using their long tail for balance. When on the ground (a rare occurrence) they move by hopping on their hind legs. They spend the day in tree hollows or home-made nests. Cheirogaleids are typically solitary but sometimes live together in pairs. Their eyes possess a tapetum lucidum, a light-reflecting layer that improves their night vision. Some species, such as the Lesser Dwarf Lemur, store fat at the hind legs and the base of the tail and hibernate. Unlike lemurids, they have long upper incisors, although they do have the comb-like teeth typical of all strepsirhines. They have the dental formula: Cheirogaleids are omnivores, eating fruits, flowers and leaves (and sometimes nectar) as well as insects, spiders and small vertebrates. The females usually have three pairs of nipples. After a meager 60 day gestation, they will bear two to four (usually two or three) young. After five to six weeks these are weaned and become fully mature near the end of their first year or sometime in their second year, depending on the species. In human care, they can live for up to 15 years, although their life expectancy in the wild is probably significantly shorter. Classification The five genera of cheirogaleids contain 32 species. Superfamily Cheirogaleoidea Family Cheirogaleidae Genus Cheirogaleus: dwarf lemurs C. medius group Fat-tailed Dwarf Lemur, Cheirogaleus medius Southern Fat-tailed Dwarf Lemur, Cheirogaleus adipicaudatus C. major group Greater Dwarf Lemur, Cheirogaleus major Furry-eared Dwarf Lemur, Cheirogaleus crossleyi Lesser Iron-gray Dwarf Lemur, Cheirogaleus minusculus Greater Iron-gray Dwarf Lemur, Cheirogaleus ravus Sibree's Dwarf Lemur, Cheirogaleus sibreei Genus Microcebus: mouse lemurs Gray Mouse Lemur, Microcebus murinus Reddish-gray Mouse Lemur, Microcebus griseorufus Golden-brown Mouse Lemur, Microcebus ravelobensis Northern Rufous Mouse Lemur, Microcebus tavaratra Sambirano Mouse Lemur, Microcebus sambiranensis Simmons' Mouse Lemur, Microcebus simmonsi Pygmy Mouse Lemur, Microcebus myoxinus Brown Mouse Lemur, Microcebus rufus Madame Berthe's Mouse Lemur, Microcebus berthae Goodman's Mouse Lemur, Microcebus lehilahytsara Jolly's Mouse Lemur, Microcebus jollyae MacArthur's Mouse Lemur, Microcebus macarthurii Mittermeier's Mouse Lemur, Microcebus mittermeieri Claire's Mouse Lemur, Microcebus mamiratra Bongolava Mouse Lemur, Microcebus bongolavensis Danfoss' Mouse Lemur, Microcebus danfossi Arnhold's Mouse Lemur, Microcebus arnholdi Morgot Marsh's Mouse Lemur, Microcebus margotmarshae Lokobe Mouse Lemur, Microcebus lokobensis Genus Mirza: giant mouse lemurs Coquerel's Giant Mouse Lemur or Coquerel's Dwarf Lemur, Mirza coquereli Northern Giant Mouse Lemur, Mirza zaza Genus Allocebus Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur, Allocebus trichotis Genus Phaner: fork-crowned lemurs Masoala Fork-crowned Lemur, Phaner furcifer Pale Fork-crowned Lemur, Phaner pallescens Pariente's Fork-crowned Lemur, Phaner parienti Mt. d’Ambre Fork-crowned Lemur, Phaner electromontis Footnotes In 2008, 7 new species of Microcebus were formally recognized, but Microcebus lokobensis (Lokobe Mouse Lemur) was not among the additions. Therefore its status as a species is still questionable. References | Cheirogaleidae |@lemmatized cheirogaleidae:2 family:3 strepsirrhine:1 primate:2 contain:2 various:1 dwarf:13 mouse:26 lemur:41 like:3 cheirogaleids:5 live:3 exclusively:1 island:1 madagascar:1 cheirogaleoidea:2 superfamily:2 characteristic:1 small:4 fact:1 soft:1 long:6 fur:1 color:1 grey:1 brown:3 reddish:2 top:1 generally:1 brighter:1 underbelly:1 typically:2 ear:1 large:1 close:1 set:1 eye:2 hind:4 leg:4 strepsirrhines:1 fine:1 claw:1 second:2 toe:1 grow:1 size:1 cm:1 tail:5 sometimes:3 one:1 half:1 time:1 body:1 weigh:2 gram:2 specie:6 little:1 nocturnal:1 arboreal:1 excellent:1 climber:1 also:1 jump:1 far:1 use:1 balance:1 ground:1 rare:1 occurrence:1 move:1 hop:1 spend:1 day:2 tree:1 hollow:1 home:1 make:1 nest:1 solitary:1 together:1 pair:2 posse:1 tapetum:1 lucidum:1 light:1 reflect:1 layer:1 improve:1 night:1 vision:1 less:1 store:1 fat:3 base:1 hibernate:1 unlike:1 lemurids:1 upper:1 incisor:1 although:2 comb:1 teeth:1 typical:1 strepsirhines:1 dental:1 formula:1 omnivore:1 eat:1 fruit:1 flower:1 leaf:1 nectar:1 well:1 insect:1 spider:1 vertebrate:1 female:1 usually:2 three:2 nipple:1 meager:1 gestation:1 bear:1 two:2 four:1 young:1 five:2 six:1 week:1 wean:1 become:1 fully:1 mature:1 near:1 end:1 first:1 year:3 sometime:1 depend:1 human:1 care:1 life:1 expectancy:1 wild:1 probably:1 significantly:1 short:1 classification:1 genus:6 cheirogaleus:8 lemurs:3 c:2 medius:2 group:2 southern:1 adipicaudatus:1 major:2 great:2 furry:1 eared:2 crossleyi:1 lesser:1 iron:2 gray:4 minusculus:1 ravus:1 sibree:1 sibreei:1 microcebus:22 murinus:1 griseorufus:1 golden:1 ravelobensis:1 northern:2 rufous:1 tavaratra:1 sambirano:1 sambiranensis:1 simmons:1 simmonsi:1 pygmy:1 myoxinus:1 rufus:1 madame:1 berthe:1 berthae:1 goodman:1 lehilahytsara:1 jolly:1 jollyae:1 macarthur:1 macarthurii:1 mittermeier:1 mittermeieri:1 claire:1 mamiratra:1 bongolava:1 bongolavensis:1 danfoss:1 danfossi:1 arnhold:1 arnholdi:1 morgot:1 marsh:1 margotmarshae:1 lokobe:2 lokobensis:2 mirza:3 giant:3 coquerel:2 coquereli:1 zaza:1 allocebus:2 hairy:1 trichotis:1 phaner:5 fork:5 crown:5 masoala:1 furcifer:1 pale:1 pallescens:1 pariente:1 parienti:1 mt:1 ambre:1 electromontis:1 footnote:1 new:1 formally:1 recognize:1 among:1 addition:1 therefore:1 status:1 still:1 questionable:1 reference:1 |@bigram mouse_lemur:24 hind_leg:4 weigh_gram:1 dwarf_lemur:10 life_expectancy:1 lemur_cheirogaleus:7 lemur_microcebus:19 |
3,575 | Physical_constant | A physical constant is a physical quantity that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and constant in time. It can be contrasted with a mathematical constant, which is a fixed numerical value but does not directly involve any physical measurement. There are many physical constants in science, some of the most widely recognized being the speed of light in vacuum c, the gravitational constant G, Planck's constant h, the electric constant ε0, and the elementary charge e. Physical constants can take many dimensional forms: the speed of light signifies a maximum speed limit of the universe and is expressed dimensionally as length divided by time; while the fine-structure constant α, which characterizes the strength of the electromagnetic interaction, is dimensionless. Dimensionful and dimensionless physical constants Whereas the values of physical constants do not depend on the unit system used, the numerical values of dimensionful physical constants do depend on the unit used. Therefore, these numerical values (such as 299,792,458 for the constant speed of light c expressed in units of meters per second) are not values that a theory of physics can be expected to predict. Ratios of like-dimensioned physical constants do not depend on unit systems in this way (the units cancel), so they are pure (dimensionless) numbers whose values a future theory of physics could conceivably hope to predict. Additionally, all equations describing laws of physics can be expressed without dimensional physical constants via a process known as nondimensionalisation, but the dimensionless constants will remain. Thus, theoretical physicists tend to regard these dimensionless quantities as fundamental physical constants. However, the phrase fundamental physical constant is also used in other ways. For example, the National Institute of Standards and Technology Latest (2006) Values of the Constants; NIST, 2006. uses it to refer to any universal physical quantity believed to be constant, such as the speed of light, c, and the gravitational constant G. The fine-structure constant α is probably the best known dimensionless fundamental physical constant. Many attempts have been made to derive its value (currently measured at about 1/137.035999) from theory, but so far none have succeeded. The same holds for the dimensionless ratios of masses of fundamental particles (the most apparent is mp/me, approximately 1836.152673). With the development of quantum chemistry in the 20th century, however, a vast number of previously inexplicable dimensionless physical constants were successfully computed from theory. As such, some theoretical physicists still hope for continued progress in explaining the values of dimensionless physical constants. It is known that the universe would be very different if these constants took values significantly different from those we observe. For example, a few percent change in the value of the fine structure constant would be enough to eliminate stars like our Sun. This has prompted attempts at anthropic explanations of the dimensionless physical constants. How constant are the physical constants? Beginning with Paul Dirac in 1937, some scientists have speculated that physical constants may actually decrease in proportion to the age of the universe. Scientific experiments have not yet pinpointed any definite evidence that this is the case, although they have placed upper bounds on the maximum possible relative change per year at very small amounts (roughly 10−5 per year for the fine structure constant α and 10−11 for the gravitational constant G). It is currently disputed Duff, Michael J. "Comment on time-variation of fundamental constants." High Energy Physics - Theory, 2004. Duff, M. J.; Okun, L. B.; Veneziano, G. "Trialogue on the number of fundamental constants." Classical Physics, 2002. that any changes in dimensional physical constants such as G, c, ħ, or ε0 are operationally meaningful; c, and ε0 now are defined numerical values, independent of experiment, so observations now are trained elsewhere, for example, upon a changing value of the meter. however, a sufficient change in a dimensionless constant such as α is generally agreed to be something that would definitely be noticed. If a measurement indicated that a dimensional physical constant had changed, this would be the result or interpretation of a more fundamental dimensionless constant changing, which is the salient metric. From John D. Barrow 2002: "[An] important lesson we learn from the way that pure numbers like α define the world is what it really means for worlds to be different. The pure number we call the fine structure constant and denote by α is a combination of the electron charge, e, the speed of light, c, and Planck's constant, h. At first we might be tempted to think that a world in which the speed of light was slower would be a different world. But this would be a mistake. If c, h, and e were all changed so that the values they have in metric (or any other) units were different when we looked them up in our tables of physical constants, but the value of α remained the same, this new world would be observationally indistinguishable from our world. The only thing that counts in the definition of worlds are the values of the dimensionless constants of Nature. If all masses were doubled in value you cannot tell because all the pure numbers defined by the ratios of any pair of masses are unchanged." Anthropic principle Some physicists have explored the notion that if the (dimensionless) fundamental physical constants had sufficiently different values, our universe would be so radically different that intelligent life would probably not have emerged, and that our universe therefore seems to be fine-tuned for intelligent life. The Strong anthropic principle states that it must be because these fundamental constants acquired their respective values that there was sufficient order in the Universe and richness in elemental diversity for life to have formed, which subsequently evolved the necessary intelligence toward observing that these constants have taken on the values they have, which then allowed for our privileged perspective from the Weak anthropic principle standpoint. Table of universal constants QuantitySymbolValueRelative Standard Uncertaintyspeed of light in vacuum299 792 458 m·s−1definedNewtonian constant of gravitation1.0 × 10−4Planck constant6.626 068 96(33) × 10−34 J·s5.0 × 10−8reduced Planck constant3.313 034 48π-1 × 10−34 J·s = 1.054 571 628(53) × 10−34 J·s5.0 × 10−8 Table of electromagnetic constants QuantitySymbolValue The values are given in the so-called concise form; the number in brackets is the standard uncertainty, which is the value multiplied by the relative standard uncertainty. ( units)Relative Standard Uncertaintymagnetic constant (vacuum permeability)4π × 10−7 N·A−2 = 1.256 637 061... × 10−6 N·A−2definedelectric constant (vacuum permittivity)2.781 625 140 134 046 080 435 224 912 12π-1 × 10-11 F·m−1 = 8.854 187 817... × 10−12 F·m−1definedcharacteristic impedance of vacuum119.916 983 2π Ω = 376.730 313 461... ΩdefinedCoulomb's constant8.987 551 787 368 176 4 × 109 N·m²·C−2definedelementary charge1.602 176 487(40) × 10−19 C2.5 × 10−8Bohr magneton927.400 915(23) × 10−26 J·T−12.5 × 10−8conductance quantum7.748 091 717 914 392 775 819 594 884 104 2(53) × 10−5 S6.8 × 10−10inverse conductance quantum12 906.403 749 556 760 396 515 369 018 534(88) Ω6.8 × 10−10Josephson constant4.835 978 91(12) × 1014 Hz·V−12.5 × 10−8magnetic flux quantum2.067 833 667(52) × 10−15 Wb2.5 × 10−8nuclear magneton5.050 783 43(43) × 10−27 J·T−18.6 × 10−8von Klitzing constant25 812.807 499 113 520 793 030 738 037 068(18) Ω6.8 × 10−10 Table of atomic and nuclear constants {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2"| Quantity !Symbol !Value ( units) !Relative Standard Uncertainty |- | colspan=2 |Bohr radius | |0.529 177 2108(18) × 10−10 m |3.3 × 10−9 |- | colspan=2 |classical electron radius | |2.817 940 299 579 513 654 416 052 301 942(58) × 10−15 m |2.1 × 10−9 |- | colspan=2 |electron mass | | 9.109 382 15(45) × 10−31 kg |5.0 × 10−8 |- |colspan=2| Fermi coupling constant | |1.166 39(1) × 10−5 GeV−2 |8.6 × 10−6 |- |colspan=2 |fine-structure constant | |7.297 352 537 6(50) × 10−3 |6.8 × 10−10 |- |colspan=2 |Hartree energy | |4.359 744 17(75) × 10−18 J |1.7 × 10−7 |- |colspan=2 |proton mass | | 1.672 621 637(83) × 10−27 kg |5.0 × 10<sup>−8<sup> |- |colspan=2 |quantum of circulation | |3.636 947 550(24) × 10−4 m² s−1 |6.7 × 10−9 |- |colspan=2 |Rydberg constant | |10 973 731.568 525(73) m−1 |6.6 × 10−12 |- |colspan=2 |Thomson cross section | |6.652 458 73(13) × 10−29 m² |2.0 × 10−8 |- |colspan=2 |weak mixing angle | |0.222 15(76)</td> 3.4 × 10−3 |- |} Table of physico-chemical constants QuantitySymbolValue ( units)Relative Standard Uncertaintyatomic mass unit (unified atomic mass unit)1.660 538 86(28) × 10−27 kg1.7 × 10−7Avogadro's number6.022 141 5(10) × 1023 mol−11.7 × 10−7Boltzmann constant1.380 650 388 238 137 546 253 272 195 613 5(24) × 10−23 J·K−11.8 × 10−6Faraday constant96 485.337 716 389 95(83)C·mol−18.6 × 10−8first radiation constant 1.191 042 819 608 808 028 820 490 4π × 10−16 W·m² = 3.741 771 18(19) × 10−16 W·m²5.0 × 10−8for spectral radiance1.191 042 82(20) × 10−16 W·m² sr−11.7 × 10−7Loschmidt constantat =273.15 K and =101.325 kPa2.686 777 3(47) × 1025 m−31.8 × 10−6gas constant8.314 472(15) J·K−1·mol−11.7 × 10−6molar Planck constant3.990 312 716(27) × 10−10 J·s·mol−16.7 × 10−9molar volume of an ideal gasat =273.15 K and =100 kPa2.271 098 026 8(40) × 10−2 m³·mol−11.7 × 10−6at =273.15 K and =101.325 kPa2.241 399 483 641 746 854 182 087 342 709 1(39) × 10−2 m³·mol−11.7 × 10−6Sackur-Tetrode constantat =1 K and =100 kPa −1.151 704 7(44)3.8 × 10−6at =1 K and =101.325 kPa−1.164 867 7(44)3.8 × 10−6second radiation constant1.438 775 2(25) × 10−2 m·K1.7 × 10−6Stefan-Boltzmann constant5.670 400(40) × 10−8 W·m−2·K−47.0 × 10−6Wien displacement law constant 4.965 114 231...2.897 768 5(51) × 10−3 m·K1.7 × 10−6 Table of adopted values QuantitySymbolValue ( units)Relative Standard Uncertaintyconventional value of Josephson constant This is the value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the volt using the Josephson effect. 4.835 979 × 1014 Hz·V−1definedconventional value of von Klitzing constant This is the value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the ohm using the quantum Hall effect. 25 812.807 Ωdefinedmolar massconstant1 × 10−3 kg·mol−1definedof carbon-121.2 × 10−2 kg·mol−1definedstandard acceleration of gravity (gee, free-fall on Earth)9.806 65 m·s−2definedstandard atmosphere101 325 Padefined Table of derived physical constants Using dimensional analysis, it is possible to obtain a number of "derived physical constants" in terms of only five fundamental physical constants: and . It is considered that 1 dyne = 1 esu2/ 1 cm2. The list below can be further extended. As mentioned above, the physical interpretation of these constants (discarding factors of 2, , etc...) may have meaningful implications for physical theories yet to come. Dimension Derived constant SI value Longitude 4.05 × 10−35 m Area 1.64 × 10−69 m2 Volume 6.64 × 10−104 m3 Time 1.35 × 10−43 s Mass 5.46 × 10−8 kg Mass density 8.24 × 1095 kg/m3 Velocity 3.00 × 108 m/s Acceleration 2.22 × 1051 m/s2 Force 1.21 × 1044 N Pressure 7.41 × 10112 Pa Linear momentum 1.64 × 101 N s Angular momentum 6.63 × 10-34 J s Energy 4.91 × 109 J Gravitational potential 9.00 × 1016 m2/s2 Power 3.64 × 1052 W Radiation flux 2.22 × 10121 W/m2 Electric charge 1.60 × 10-19 C Electric charge 1.32 × 10-18 C Charge density 2.41 × 1084 C/m3 Electric current 1.19 × 1024 A Current density 7.24 × 1092 A/m2 Electric field 7.59 × 1062 N/C Magnetic field 2.53 × 1054 T Electric potential 3.90 × 1015 V Magnetic potential 1.02 × 1020 T m Electric dipolar moment 6.48 × 10-54 C m Magnetic dipolar moment 1.94 × 10-45 C m2/s Electric resistance 2.59 × 104 Capacitance 5.21 × 10-48 F Magnetic flux 4.14 × 10-15 T m2 Inductance 3.49 × 10-39 H Notes "Longitude" should be "Length" References CODATA Recommendations - 2006 CODATA Internationally recommended values of the Fundamental Physical Constants Barrow, John D., The Constants of Nature; From Alpha to Omega - The Numbers that Encode the Deepest Secrets of the Universe. Pantheon Books, 2002. ISBN 0-375-42221-8. Mohr, Peter J., Taylor, Barry N., Newell, David B., CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006 External Links Sixty Symbols, University of Nottingham be-x-old:Фундамэнтальныя фізычныя канстанты | Physical_constant |@lemmatized physical:30 constant:68 quantity:4 generally:2 believe:2 universal:3 nature:3 time:4 contrast:1 mathematical:1 fixed:1 numerical:4 value:31 directly:1 involve:1 measurement:2 many:3 science:1 widely:1 recognize:1 speed:7 light:7 vacuum:3 c:15 gravitational:4 g:5 planck:4 h:4 electric:8 elementary:1 charge:5 e:3 take:3 dimensional:5 form:3 signifies:1 maximum:2 limit:1 universe:7 express:3 dimensionally:1 length:2 divide:1 fine:7 structure:6 α:7 characterize:1 strength:1 electromagnetic:2 interaction:1 dimensionless:14 dimensionful:2 whereas:1 depend:3 unit:12 system:2 use:7 therefore:2 meter:2 per:3 second:1 theory:6 physic:5 expect:1 predict:2 ratio:3 like:3 dimensioned:1 way:3 cancel:1 pure:4 number:9 whose:1 future:1 could:1 conceivably:1 hope:2 additionally:1 equation:1 describe:1 law:2 without:1 via:1 process:1 know:2 nondimensionalisation:1 remain:2 thus:1 theoretical:2 physicist:3 tend:1 regard:1 fundamental:12 however:3 phrase:1 also:1 example:3 national:1 institute:1 standard:8 technology:1 late:1 nist:1 refer:1 probably:2 best:1 known:1 attempt:2 make:1 derive:3 currently:2 measure:1 far:2 none:1 succeed:1 hold:1 mass:9 particle:1 apparent:1 mp:1 approximately:1 development:1 quantum:3 chemistry:1 century:1 vast:1 previously:1 inexplicable:1 successfully:1 compute:1 still:1 continued:1 progress:1 explain:1 would:9 different:7 significantly:1 observe:2 percent:1 change:7 enough:1 eliminate:1 star:1 sun:1 prompt:1 anthropic:4 explanation:1 begin:1 paul:1 dirac:1 scientist:1 speculate:1 may:2 actually:1 decrease:1 proportion:1 age:1 scientific:1 experiment:2 yet:2 pinpoint:1 definite:1 evidence:1 case:1 although:1 place:1 upper:1 bound:1 possible:2 relative:6 year:2 small:1 amount:1 roughly:1 dispute:1 duff:2 michael:1 j:14 comment:1 variation:1 high:1 energy:3 okun:1 l:1 b:2 veneziano:1 trialogue:1 classical:2 ħ:1 operationally:1 meaningful:2 define:3 independent:1 observation:1 train:1 elsewhere:1 upon:1 sufficient:2 agree:1 something:1 definitely:1 notice:1 indicate:1 result:1 interpretation:2 changing:1 salient:1 metric:2 john:2 barrow:2 important:1 lesson:1 learn:1 world:7 really:1 mean:1 call:2 denote:1 combination:1 electron:3 first:1 might:1 tempt:1 think:1 slow:1 mistake:1 look:1 table:7 new:1 observationally:1 indistinguishable:1 thing:1 count:1 definition:1 double:1 cannot:1 tell:1 pair:1 unchanged:1 principle:3 explore:1 notion:1 sufficiently:1 radically:1 intelligent:2 life:3 emerge:1 seem:1 tune:1 strong:1 state:1 must:1 acquire:1 respective:1 order:1 richness:1 elemental:1 diversity:1 subsequently:1 evolve:1 necessary:1 intelligence:1 toward:1 allow:1 privileged:1 perspective:1 weak:2 standpoint:1 quantitysymbolvaluerelative:1 uncertaintyspeed:1 quantitysymbolvalue:3 give:1 concise:1 bracket:1 uncertainty:3 multiply:1 uncertaintymagnetic:1 permeability:1 n:7 permittivity:1 f:3 impedance:1 ω:1 ωdefinedcoulomb:1 conductance:1 hz:2 v:3 flux:3 klitzing:2 atomic:2 nuclear:1 class:1 wikitable:1 colspan:12 symbol:2 bohr:1 radius:2 kg:6 fermi:1 couple:1 gev:1 hartree:1 proton:1 sup:2 circulation:1 rydberg:1 thomson:1 cross:1 section:1 mix:1 angle:1 td:1 physico:1 chemical:1 uncertaintyatomic:1 unified:1 mol:8 k:8 radiation:3 w:6 spectral:1 sr:1 constantat:2 volume:2 ideal:1 gasat:1 tetrode:1 kpa:2 boltzmann:1 displacement:1 adopt:3 uncertaintyconventional:1 josephson:2 internationally:3 realize:2 representation:2 volt:1 effect:2 von:1 ohm:1 hall:1 ωdefinedmolar:1 carbon:1 acceleration:2 gravity:1 gee:1 free:1 fall:1 earth:1 padefined:1 derived:1 analysis:1 obtain:1 term:1 five:1 consider:1 dyne:1 list:1 extend:1 mention:1 discard:1 factor:1 etc:1 implication:1 come:1 dimension:1 si:1 longitude:2 area:1 density:3 velocity:1 force:1 pressure:1 pa:1 linear:1 momentum:2 angular:1 potential:3 power:1 current:2 field:2 magnetic:4 dipolar:2 moment:2 resistance:1 capacitance:1 inductance:1 note:1 reference:1 codata:3 recommendation:1 recommend:2 alpha:1 omega:1 encode:1 deep:1 secret:1 pantheon:1 book:1 isbn:1 mohr:1 peter:1 taylor:1 barry:1 newell:1 david:1 external:1 link:1 sixty:1 university:1 nottingham:1 x:1 old:1 фундамэнтальныя:1 фізычныя:1 канстанты:1 |@bigram planck_constant:2 like_dimensioned:1 could_conceivably:1 dimensionless_quantity:1 anthropic_principle:3 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_colspan:1 bohr_radius:1 sup_sup:1 rydberg_constant:1 physico_chemical:1 angular_momentum:1 magnetic_field:1 magnetic_flux:1 alpha_omega:1 external_link:1 |
3,576 | Fritz_Leiber | This article refers to the science fiction writer. For the actor, see Fritz Leiber, Sr. Fritz Reuter Leiber Jr. (December 24, 1910 – September 5, 1992) was an American writer of fantasy, horror and science fiction. He was also an expert chess player and a champion fencer. Leiber (first syllable rhymes with "shy") was born Dec 24, 1910 in Chicago, Illinois to Fritz Leiber, Sr and Virginia Leiber, thespians (theater and actors feature heavily in his narrative) and, for a time, seemed inclined to follow in his parents' footsteps. He spent 1928 touring with his parents' Shakespeare company before studying philosophy at the University of Chicago, whence he graduated with honours (1928-32). In 1932 he studied at general Theological seminary and worked for a time as a lay preacher. In 1934 he toured with his parents' acting company, Fritz Lieber & Co. He married Jonquil Stephens on January 16, 1936, and their son Justin Leiber was born in 1938. Jonquil's death in 1969 precipitated a three-year drunk, but he returned to his original form with a fantasy novel set in modern-day San Francisco, Our Lady of Darkness. In the last years of his life, Leiber married his second wife, Margo Skinner, a journalist and poet with whom he had been friends for many years. Many people believed that Leiber was living in poverty on skid row. He seems to have suffered periods of penury; Harlan Ellison has written of his anger at finding that the much-awarded Lieber had to write his novels on a manual typewriter that was propped up over the sink in his apartment. But other reports suggest that Leiber preferred to live simply in the city, spending his money on dining, movies and travel. In the last years of his life, royalty checks from TSR, the makers of Dungeons and Dragons, who had licensed the mythos of the Fafhrd and Gray Mouser series, were enough in themselves to ensure that he lived comfortably. Leiber's death occurred a few weeks after a physical collapse while traveling from a science-fiction convention in London, Ontario with Skinner. The cause of his death was given as "organic brain disease." He wrote a 100-page-plus autobiography, Not Much Disorder and Not So Early Sex, which can be found in The Ghost Light (1984) . Leiber's own literary criticism, including several ground-breaking essays on Lovecraft, was collected in the volume Fafhrd and Me (1990) . Leiber and the theater As the child of two Shakespearean actors—Fritz, Sr. and Virginia (née Bronson)—Leiber was fascinated with the stage, describing itinerant Shakespearean companies in stories like "No Great Magic" and "Four Ghosts in Hamlet," and creating an actor/producer protagonist for his novel A Specter is Haunting Texas. Although his Change War novel, The Big Time, is about a war between two factions, the "Snakes" and the "Spiders", changing and rechanging history throughout the universe, all the action takes place in a small bubble of isolated space-time about the size of a theatrical stage, with only a handful of characters. He also acted in a few films, once with his father in Warner Bros.' The Great Garrick (1937). Judith Merril (in the July 1969 issue of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction) remarks on Leiber's acting skills when the writer won a science fiction convention costume ball. Leiber's costume consisted of a cardboard military collar over turned-up jacket lapels, cardboard insignia, an armband, and a spider pencilled large in black on his forehead, thus turning him into an officer of the Spiders, one of the combatants in his Change War stories. "The only other component," Merril writes, "was the Leiber instinct for theatre." Writing career Leiber was heavily influenced by H. P. Lovecraft and Robert Graves in the first two decades of his career. Beginning in the late 1950s, he was increasingly influenced by the works of Carl Jung, particularly by the concepts of the anima and the shadow. From the mid-1960s onwards, he began incorporating elements of Joseph Campbell's The Hero with a Thousand Faces. These concepts are often openly mentioned in his stories, especially the anima, which becomes a method of exploring his fascination with but estrangement from the female. Leiber liked cats, which feature prominently in many of his stories. Tigerishka, for example, is a cat-like alien who is sexually attractive to the human protagonist yet repelled by human customs in the novel The Wanderer. Leiber's "Gummitch" stories feature a kitten with an I.Q. of 160, just waiting for his ritual cup of coffee so that he can become human, too. His first stories were inspired by H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos and it seems that a letter of encouragement from Lovecraft during 1936 spurred his decision to pursue a literary career. Lieber later wrote several essays on Lovecraft such as "A Literary Copernicus" which formed key moments in the serious critical appreciation of Lovecraft's life and work. Lieber's first professional sale was Two Sought Adventure (Unknown, August 1939), which introduced his most famous characters, Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser. His work as a writer earned much praise but little money, a problem exacerbated by bouts of alcoholism. In 1943 he sold his first novels - Conjure Wife to Unknown and Gather, Darkness to Astounding. From 1945-56 Lieber was associate editor of Science Digest. 1947 marked the publication of his first book - Night's Black Agents, a short story collection. Book publication of Gather, Darkness followed in 1950. In 1951 Lieber was Guest of Honour at the World Science Fiction Convention in New Orleans. Further novels followed during the 1950's, and in 1958 The Big Time won the Hugo Award for Best Novel. Many further books were published in the 1960s. His novel The Wanderer (1964) won the Hugo Award for Best Novel and he was awarded three further Hugos for Best Novella/Novellette: for Gonna Roll the Bones (1967),(which also won the Nebula Award in the same category); Ship of Shadows (1969) and Ill Met in Lankhmar(1970). Our Lady of Darkness— originally serialized in short form in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction under the title "The Pale Brown Thing" (1977) — featured cities as the breeding grounds for new types of elementals called paramentals, summonable by the dark art of megapolisomancy, with such activities centering around the Transamerica Pyramid. Our Lady of Darkness won the World Fantasy Award. Leiber also did the 1966 novelisation of the Clair Huffaker screenplay of Tarzan and the Valley of Gold. http://www.erbzine.com/mag2/0210.html Many of Leiber's most-acclaimed works are short stories, especially in the horror genre. Due to such stories as "The Girl With the Hungry Eyes" and "You're All Alone" (AKA "The Sinful Ones"), he is widely regarded as one of the forerunners of the modern urban horror story. (Ramsey Campbell cites him as his single biggest influence.) In his later years, Leiber returned to short story horror in such works as "Horrible Imaginings", "Black Has Its Charms" and the award-winning "The Button Moulder." The short parallel worlds story "Catch That Zeppelin!" (1975) added yet another Nebula and Hugo award to his collection. This story shows a plausible alternate reality that is much better than our own, whereas the typical parallel universe story depicts a world that is much worse than our own. "Belsen Express" (1975) won him another World Fantasy Award. Both stories reflect Leiber's uneasy fascination with Nazism -- an uneasiness compounded by his mixed feelings about his German ancestry and his philosophical pacifism during World War II "The short story, Parallel universe or alternate reality in science fiction and fantasy is a self-contained separate reality coexisting with our own story "Catch That Zeppelin!" (1975) added yet another Nebula and Hugo award to his collection. This story shows a plausible alternate reality that is much better than our own, whereas the typical parallel universe story depicts a world that is much worse than our own. "Belsen Express" (1975) won him another World Fantasy Award. Both stories reflect Leiber's uneasy fascination with Nazism -- an uneasiness compounded by his mixed feelings about his German ancestry and his philosophical pacifism during World War II." . Fans awarded him the Gandalf (Grand Master) award at the World Science Fiction Convention in 1975, he was Guest of Honor at the World Science Fiction Convention in Brighton, England (1979)and in 1981 the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America voted him the recipient of their Grand Master award. He was also a member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loose-knit group of Heroic Fantasy authors founded in the 1960s, some of whose works were anthologized in Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! anthologies. In an appreciation in the July 1969 "Special Fritz Leiber Issue" of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Merril writes of Leiber's connection with his readers: That this kind of personal response...is shared by thousands of other readers, has been made clear on several occasions. The November 1959 issue of Fantastic, for instance: Leiber had just come out of one of his recurrent dry spells, and editor Cele Lalli bought up all his new material until there was enough [five stories] to fill an issue; the magazine came out with a big black headline across its cover — Leiber Is Back! Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser His legacy appears to have been consolidated by the most famous of his creations, the Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories, written over a span of 50 years. The first of these, "Two Sought Adventure", appeared in Unknown in 1939. They are concerned with an unlikely pair of heroes found in and around the city of Lankhmar. (Fafhrd was based on Leiber himself and the Mouser on his friend Harry Otto Fischer, and the two characters created in a series of letters exchanged by the two in the mid-1930s) These stories were among the progenitors of many of the tropes of the sword and sorcery genre (a term coined by Leiber). They are also notable among sword and sorcery stories in that, over the course of the stories, his two heroes mature, take on more responsibilities, and eventually settle down into marriage. Leiber's Fafhrd and Gray Mouser stories were also award winners and nominees: "Scylla's Daughter" was nominated for a Hugo (1961), and the Hugo and Nebula awards were awarded to "Ill Met in Lankhmar" (1970). Fittingly, Leiber's last major work, "The Knight and Knave of Swords" (1991) brought the series to a satisfactory close while leaving room for possible sequels. In the last year of his life, Leiber was considering allowing the series to be completed by another writer, but his sudden death put an end to the idea. The stories were influential in shaping the genre and were influential on other works. Joanna Russ' stories about thief-assassin Alyx (collected in 1976 in The Adventures of Alyx) were in part inspired by Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser, and Alyx in fact made guest appearances in two of Leiber's stories. Numerous writers have paid homage to the stories. For instance, Terry Pratchett's city of Ankh-Morpork bears something more than a passing resemblance to Lankhmar (acknowledged by Pratchett by the placing of the swordsman-thief "The Weasel" and his giant barbarian comrade "Bravd" in the opening scenes of the first Discworld novel). Bibliography Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser series The Swords of Lankhmar (1968) (expanded from "Scylla's Daughter" in Fantastic, 1963) Swords and Deviltry (1970). Collection of 3 short stories. Swords Against Death (1970). Collection of 10 short stories. Swords in the Mist (1970). Collection of 6 short stories. Swords Against Wizardry (1970). Collection of 4 short stories. Swords and Ice Magic (1977). Collection of 8 short stories. (Though see Rime Isle below.) The Knight and Knave of Swords (1988) Retitled Farewell to Lankhmar (2000, UK) Novels/Novellas The Best of Fritz Leiber (1974), 1974 Sphere paperback edition. 368 pages Conjure Wife (originally appeared in Unknown Worlds, April 1943) — This novel relates a college professor's discovery that his wife (and all other women) are regularly using magic against one another and their husbands. It was filmed three times under variant titles: Weird Woman (1944) Night of the Eagle (aka Burn, Witch, Burn!) (1962) (screenplay by Charles Beaumont) Witches' Brew (aka Which Witch is Which?) (1980) Note: A new big-screen movie version of Conjure Wife has been announced in 2008, to be filmed by US director Billy Ray. It will be a United Artists/Studio Canal co-production. Gather, Darkness! (serialized in Astounding, May, June, and July 1943) The Sinful Ones (1953), an adulterated version of You're All Alone (1950 Fantastic Adventures abridged); Leiber rewrote the inserted passages and saw published a revised edition in 1980. The Green Millennium (1953) Destiny Times Three (1957) The Big Time (expanded 1961 from a version serialized in Galaxy, March and April 1958, which won a Hugo) — Change War series The Silver Eggheads (1961; a shorter version was published in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction in 1959) The Wanderer (1964) Tarzan and the Valley of the Gold (1966) (novelisation of a Clair Huffaker screenplay) A Specter is Haunting Texas (1969) You're All Alone (1972) (the first book edition includes two shorter works as well) Our Lady of Darkness (1977) Rime Isle (1977) (somewhere between a novella and a two-novelet collection, comprised of "The Frost Monstreme" and "Rime Isle" offered as a unitary volume) The Dealings of Daniel Kesserich (1997) — H. P. Lovecraftian novella written in 1936 and lost for decades Dark Ladies (NY: Tor Books, 1999). Omnibus edition of Conjure Wife and Our Lady of Darkness Collections Night's Black Agents (1947) Two Sought Adventure (1957) The Mind Spider and Other Stories (1961). Collection of 6 short stories. Shadows With Eyes (1962). Collection of 6 short stories. A Pail of Air (1964). Collection of 11 short stories. Ships to the Stars (1964). Collection of 6 short stories. The Night of the Wolf (1966). Collection of 4 short stories. The Secret Songs (1968). Collection of 11 short stories. Night Monsters (1969). Collection of 4 short stories. UK (1974) edition drops 1 story and adds 4. The Best of Fritz Leiber (1974). Collection of 22 short stories. The Book of Fritz Leiber (1974). Collection of 10 stories and 9 articles. The Second Book of Fritz Leiber (1975). Collection of 4 stories, 1 play, and 6 articles. Bazaar of the Bizarre (1978) Heroes & Horrors (1978). Collection of 10 stories. Ship of Shadows (1979). Collection of 5 short stories & novel The Big Time. Paperback (1982) drops 1 story. Changewar (1983). Collection of the Changewar short stories (7 stories). The Leiber Chronicles (1990) Collection of 44 short stories. Gummitch and Friends (1992). Leiber's cat stories, the first five of which feature Gummitch. Ill Met in Lankhmar (White Wolf Publishing, 1995, ISBN 1565049268) combines Swords and Deviltry (1970) and Swords Against Death (1970). Lean Times in Lankhmar (White Wolf Publishing, 1996, ISBN 1565049276) combines Swords in the Mist (1970) and Swords Against Wizardry (1970) Return to Lankhmar (White Wolf Publishing, 1997, ISBN 1565049284) combines The Swords of Lankhmar (1968) and Swords and Ice Magic (1977) The Black Gondolier (2000) Collection of 18 short stories. Smoke Ghost and Other Apparitions (2002) Collection of 18 short stories. Day Dark, Night Bright (2002) Collection of 20 short stories. Horrible Imaginings (2004) Collection of 15 short stories. Plays Quicks Around the Zodiac: A Farce. (Newcastle, VA: Cheap Street, 1983). Short stories 1939 "Two Sought Adventure" aka "The Jewels in the Forest" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1940 "The Automatic Pistol" "The Bleak Shore" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1941 "The Howling Tower" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "The Power of the Puppets" "Smoke Ghost" "They Never Come Back" 1942 "The Hill and the Hole" "The Hound" "The Phantom Slayer" - aka "The Inheritance" "Spider Mansion" "The Sunken Land" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1943 "Conjure Wife" (novel) "Gather, Darkness! (novel) "The Mutant's Brother" "Thieves' House" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "To Make a Roman Holiday" 1944 "Business of Killing" "Sanity" aka "Crazy Wolf" "Taboo" "Thought" 1945 "Destiny Times Three" (novella) "The Dreams of Albert Moreland" "Wanted — An Enemy" 1946 "Alice and the Allergy" "Mr. Bauer and the Atoms" 1947 "Adept's Gambit" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Diary in the Snow" "The Man Who Never Grew Young" 1949 "The Girl with the Hungry Eyes" "In the X-Ray" 1950 "The Black Ewe" "Coming Attraction" "The Dead Man" "The Enchanted Forest" "Later Than You Think" "Let Freedom Ring" aka "The Wolf Pack" "The Lion and the Lamb" "Martians, Keep Out!" "The Ship Sails at Midnight" "You're All Alone" 1951 "Appointment in Tomorrow" aka "Poor Superman" "Cry Witch!" "Dark Vengeance" aka "Claws from the Night" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Nice Girl with Five Husbands" "A Pail of Air" "When the Last Gods Die" 1952 "Dr. Kometevsky's Day" "The Foxholes of Mars" — appeared in the 1969 anthology The War Book, edited by James Sallis. "I'm Looking for "Jeff"" "The Moon Is Green" "Yesterday House" 1953 "A Bad Day for Sales" "The Big Holiday" "The Night He Cried" — a notable sf pastiche of Mickey Spillane "The Seven Black Priests" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1954 "The Mechanical Bride" (play) "The Silence Game" 1957 "The Big Trek" "Femmequin 973" "Friends and Enemies" "Last" "Time Fighter" "Time in the Round" "What's He Doing in There?" 1958 "The Big Time" (short novel) — Change War story "Bread Overhead" "Bullet With His Name" "A Deskful of Girls" — Change War story "The Last Letter" "Little Old Miss Macbeth" "The Number of the Beast" — Change War story "Rump-Titty-Titty-Tum-TAH-Tee" "Space-Time for Springers" — first Gummitch story "Try and Change the Past" — Change War story 1959 "Damnation Morning" — Change War story "The House of Mrs. Delgado" "The Improper Authorities" "Lean Times in Lankhmar" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "The Mind Spider" — Change War story "MS Found in a Maelstrom" "Our Saucer Vacation" "Pipe Dream" "Psychosis from Space" "The Reward" "The Silver Eggheads" (novella, later expanded to book-length) "Tranquility, Or Else!" aka "The Haunted Future" — Change War story 1960 "Deadly Moon" "Mariana" "The Night of the Long Knives" aka "The Wolf Pair" "The Oldest Soldier" — Change War story "Rats of Limbo" "Schizo Jimmie" "When the Sea-King's Away" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1961 "All the Weed in the World" "The Beat Cluster" "The Goggles of Dr. Dragonet" "Hatchery of Dreams" "Kreativity for Kats" — Gummitch story "Scream Wolf" "Scylla's Daughter" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "A Visitor from Back East" 1962 "The 64-Square Madhouse" "The Big Engine" (shortened revision of "You're All Alone") "A Bit of the Dark World" "The Creature from Cleveland Depths" aka "The Lone Wolf" "The Man Who Made Friends with Electricity" "Mirror" "The Moriarty Gambit" "The Secret Songs" "The Snowbank Orbit" "The Thirteenth Step" "The Unholy Grail" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1963 "237 Talking Statues, Etc." "Bazaar of the Bizarre" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "The Casket-Demon" "The Cloud of Hate" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Crimes Against Passion" "Dr. Adams' Garden of Evil" "Game for Motel Room" "A Hitch in Space" "Kindergarten" "Myths My Great-Granddaughter Taught Me" "No Great Magic" — Change War story "The Spider" "Success" "X Marks the Pedwalk" 1964 "Be of Good Cheer" "The Black Gondolier" "Lie Still, Snow White" "The Lords of Quarmall" (with Harry O. Fischer) — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Midnight in the Mirror World" "When the Change-Winds Blow" — Change War story 1965 "Cyclops" "Far Reach to Cygnus" "Four Ghosts in Hamlet" "The Good New Days" "Knight's Move" aka "Knight to Move" — Change War story "Moon Duel" "Stardock" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1966 "The Crystal Prison" "Sunk Without Trace" "To Arkham and the Stars" — a Cthulhu Mythos story 1967 "Answering Service" "Black Corridor" — Change War story "Gonna Roll the Bones" - winner of Hugo and Nebula awards. "The Inner Circles" aka "The Winter Flies" 1968 "Crazy Annaoj" "In the Witch's Tent" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "One Station of the Way" "A Specter is Haunting Texas" "The Square Root of Brain" "Their Mistress, the Sea" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "The Turned-off Heads" "The Two Best Thieves in Lankhmar" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "When Brahma Wakes" "The Wrong Branch" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1969 "Endfray of the Ofay" "Richmond, Late September, 1849" "Ship of Shadows" "When They Openly Walk" 1970 "America the Beautiful" "The Circle Curse" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Ill Met in Lankhmar" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "The Price of Pain-Ease" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "The Snow Women" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1971 "Gold, Black, and Silver" 1972 "Another Cask of Wine" "The Bump" "Day Dark, Night Bright" "The Lotus Eaters" 1973 "The Bait" — Fafhrd & Gray Mouser story "Cat Three" "The Sadness of the Executioner" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Trapped in the Shadowland" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1974 "Beauty and the Beasts" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Cat's Cradle" — Gummitch story "Do You Know Dave Wenzel?" "Midnight by the Morphy Watch" "Mysterious Doings in the Metropolitan Museum" "WaIF" 1975 "Belsen Express" "Catch That Zeppelin!" "The Glove" "Night Passage" "Trapped in the Sea of Stars" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Under the Thumbs of the Gods" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1976 "Dark Wings" "The Death of Princes" "The Eeriest Ruined Dawn World" "The Frost Monstreme" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "The Terror from the Depths" — a Cthulhu Mythos story 1977 "The Princess in the Tower 250,000 Miles High" "Rime Isle" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "A Rite of Spring" "Sea Magic" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1978 "Black Glass" "The Mer She" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1979 "The Button Molder" "The Man Who Was Married to Space and Time" 1980 "The Repair People" 1981 "The Great San Francisco Glacier" 1982 "Horrible Imaginings" "The Moon Porthole" 1983 "The Cat Hotel" — Gummitch story "The Curse of the Smalls and the Stars" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story 1984 "Black Has Its Charms" "The Ghost Light" 1988 "The Mouser Goes Below" — Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story "Slack Lankhmar Afternoon Featuring Hisvet" — excerpt from "The Mouser Goes Below" 1990 "Replacement for Wilmer: A Ghost Story" 1993 "Thrice the Brinded Cat" 2002 "The Enormous Bedroom" Further reading A bibliography of Lieber's work is Fritz Leiber: A Bibliography 1934-1979 by Chris Morgan (Birmingham, UK: Morgenstern, 1979). It is fairly definitive to the date of publication but Leiber's work badly needs an updated comprehensive bibliography. Jeff Frane's critical study in the Starmont Reader's Guide series, Fritz Leiber (Mercer Island, WA: Starmont House, 1980) was the first full-length monograph on Lieber's life and work. Another booklength study, Fritz Leiber by Tom Staicar was published in 1983 (NY: Fredrick Ungar Publishing Co). An important bio-critical study is Witches of the Mind by Bruce Byfield, . An essay examining Lieber's literary relationship with H. P. Lovecraft appears in S. T. Joshi's The Evolution of the Weird Tale (2004) . Benjamin J. Szumskyj edited (with S.T. Joshi) Fritz Leiber and H.P. Lovecraft: Writers of the Dark (Wildside Press, 2003), a collection of letters, fiction and essays relating the two writers. Szumskyj has also edited Fritz Leiber: Critical Essays, which examines various aspects of Leiber's work and Fantasy Commentator No. 57/58, a special theme issue devoted to Leiber's work. Listen to "A Pail of Air" on X Minus One, NBC, 1956 See also International Fortean Organisation Notes External links Fritz Leiber obituary Reviews of Fritz Leiber's work Fritz Leiber website established in 1994 | Fritz_Leiber |@lemmatized article:3 refer:1 science:14 fiction:14 writer:9 actor:4 see:3 fritz:18 leiber:52 sr:3 reuter:1 jr:1 december:1 september:2 american:1 fantasy:13 horror:5 also:9 expert:1 chess:1 player:1 champion:1 fencer:1 first:12 syllable:1 rhyme:1 shy:1 bear:3 dec:1 chicago:2 illinois:1 virginia:2 thespian:1 theater:2 feature:5 heavily:2 narrative:1 time:17 seem:3 inclined:1 follow:3 parent:3 footstep:1 spend:2 tour:2 shakespeare:1 company:3 study:5 philosophy:1 university:1 whence:1 graduate:1 honour:2 general:1 theological:1 seminary:1 work:16 lay:1 preacher:1 act:3 lieber:9 co:3 marry:3 jonquil:2 stephen:1 january:1 son:1 justin:1 death:7 precipitate:1 three:6 year:7 drunk:1 return:3 original:1 form:3 novel:17 set:1 modern:2 day:6 san:2 francisco:2 lady:6 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3,577 | Park_Güell | The entrance to the park Park Güell is a garden complex with architectural elements situated on the hill of el Carmel in the Gràcia district of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It was designed by the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí and built in the years 1900 to 1914. It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Works of Antoni Gaudí". Origins as a housing development The park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site, the idea of Count Eusebi Güell, whom the park was named after. It was inspired by the English garden city movement; hence the original English name Park (in the Catalan language spoken in Catalonia where Barcelona is located, the word for "Park" is "Parc", and the name of the place is "Parc Güell" in its origin language). The site was a rocky hill with little vegetation and few trees, called Montaña Pelada (Bare Mountain). It already included a large country house called Larrard House or Muntaner de Dalt House, and was next to a neighborhood of upper class houses called La Salud. The intention was to exploit the fresh air (well away from smoky factories) and beautiful views from the site, with sixty triangular lots being provided for luxury houses. Count Eusebi Güell added to the prestige of the development by moving in 1906 to live in Larrard House. Ultimately, only two houses were built, neither designed by Gaudí. One was intended to be a show house, but on being completed in 1904 was put up for sale, and as no buyers came forward, Gaudí, at Güell's suggestion, bought it with his savings and moved in with his family and his father in 1906. Municipal garden It has since been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground railway (although the stations are at a distance from the Park), by city buses, or by commercial tourist buses. While entrance to the Park is free, Gaudí's house, "la Torre Rosa," — containing furniture that he designed — can be only visited for an entrance fee. There is a reduced rate for those wishing to see both Park Güell and the Sagrada Familia. Gaudí's mosaic work on the main terrace Gaudí's multicolored mosaic dragon fountain at the main entrance, prior to vandalism early in 2007 Park Güell is skillfully designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park. The buildings flanking the entrance, though very original and remarkable with fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles, fit in well with the use of the park as pleasure gardens and seem relatively inconspicuous in the landscape when one considers the flamboyance of other buildings designed by Gaudí. The focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a sea serpent. To design the curvature of the bench surface Gaudí used the shape of buttocks left by a naked workman sitting in wet clay. The curves of the serpent bench form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere. Gaudí incorporated many motifs of Catalan nationalism, and elements from religious mysticism and ancient poetry, into the Park. The visitor was originally greeted by two life-size mechanical gazelles (a major euphemistic symbol of 'the young beloved' in the Hebrew strand of the medieval love poetry of the region), but these have since been lost during the turbulence of war. Roadways around the park to service the intended houses were designed by Gaudí as structures jutting out from the steep hillside or running on viaducts, with separate footpaths in arcades formed under these structures. This minimized the intrusion of the roads, and Gaudí designed them using local stone in a way that integrates them closely into the landscape. His structures echo natural forms, with columns like tree trunks supporting branching vaulting under the roadway, and the curves of vaulting and alignment of sloping columns designed in a similar way to his Church of Colònia Güell so that the inverted catenary arch shapes form perfect compression structures. The Works of Gaudí, retrieved 2007-04-03 The large cross at the Park's high-point offers the most complete view of Barcelona and the bay. It is possible to view the main city in panorama, with the Sagrada Familia and the Montjuïc area visible at a distance. The observant visitor will notice green birds flying around amongst the pigeons and sparrows. These are monk parakeets, either deliberately released to add further colour to the park or escapes from captivity. Like the pigeons they nest in the tall palm trees. The two buildings at the entrance of the park. Recent events On February 7, 2007 it was reported that the world-famous dragon at the entrance had been vandalized overnight, with a group of youths being sought by the authorities. Typically Spanish News Service The head and face of the sculpture had apparently been smashed repeatedly with a metal bar and was quite substantially damaged. The Third Deputy Mayor spoke to the international press of her disgust and determination to prosecute – and to repair the dragon. Gallery of images References External links Park Güell at Google Maps UNESCO World Heritage Sites Works of Antoni Gaudí Park Güell Barcelona - Gardens Guide Park Güell Photo Gallery Park Güell map Park Güell at Great Buildings Interactive Panorama: Park Güell | Park_Güell |@lemmatized entrance:7 park:24 güell:14 garden:6 complex:1 architectural:1 element:2 situate:1 hill:2 el:1 carmel:1 gràcia:1 district:1 barcelona:4 catalonia:2 spain:1 design:9 catalan:3 architect:1 antoni:3 gaudí:14 build:2 year:1 part:2 unesco:2 world:3 heritage:2 site:4 work:4 origins:1 housing:2 development:2 originally:2 commercially:1 unsuccessful:1 idea:1 count:2 eusebi:2 name:3 inspire:1 english:2 city:3 movement:1 hence:1 original:2 language:2 speak:2 locate:1 word:1 parc:2 place:1 origin:1 rocky:1 little:1 vegetation:1 tree:3 call:3 montaña:1 pelada:1 bare:1 mountain:1 already:1 include:1 large:2 country:1 house:10 larrard:2 muntaner:1 de:1 dalt:1 next:1 neighborhood:1 upper:1 class:1 la:2 salud:1 intention:1 exploit:1 fresh:1 air:1 well:2 away:1 smoky:1 factory:1 beautiful:1 view:3 sixty:1 triangular:1 lot:1 provide:1 luxury:1 add:2 prestige:1 move:2 live:1 ultimately:1 two:3 neither:1 one:3 intend:1 show:1 complete:2 put:1 sale:1 buyer:1 come:1 forward:1 suggestion:1 buy:1 saving:1 family:1 father:1 municipal:2 since:2 convert:1 reach:1 underground:1 railway:1 although:1 station:1 distance:2 bus:2 commercial:1 tourist:1 free:1 torre:1 rosa:1 contain:1 furniture:1 visit:1 fee:1 reduced:1 rate:1 wish:1 see:1 sagrada:2 familia:2 mosaic:2 main:4 terrace:2 multicolored:1 dragon:3 fountain:1 prior:1 vandalism:1 early:1 skillfully:1 compose:1 bring:1 peace:1 calm:1 would:1 expect:1 building:4 flank:1 though:1 remarkable:1 fantastically:1 shape:3 roof:1 unusual:1 pinnacle:1 fit:1 use:3 pleasure:1 seem:1 relatively:1 inconspicuous:1 landscape:2 consider:1 flamboyance:1 focal:1 point:2 surround:1 long:1 bench:3 form:5 sea:1 serpent:2 curvature:1 surface:1 buttock:1 leave:1 naked:1 workman:1 sit:2 wet:1 clay:1 curve:2 number:1 enclave:1 create:1 social:1 atmosphere:1 incorporate:1 many:1 motif:1 nationalism:1 religious:1 mysticism:1 ancient:1 poetry:2 visitor:2 greet:1 life:1 size:1 mechanical:1 gazelle:1 major:1 euphemistic:1 symbol:1 young:1 beloved:1 hebrew:1 strand:1 medieval:1 love:1 region:1 lose:1 turbulence:1 war:1 roadway:2 around:2 service:2 intended:1 structure:4 jut:1 steep:1 hillside:1 run:1 viaduct:1 separate:1 footpath:1 arcade:1 minimize:1 intrusion:1 road:1 local:1 stone:1 way:2 integrate:1 closely:1 echo:1 natural:1 column:2 like:2 trunk:1 support:1 branch:1 vault:2 alignment:1 slop:1 similar:1 church:1 colònia:1 inverted:1 catenary:1 arch:1 perfect:1 compression:1 retrieve:1 cross:1 high:1 offer:1 bay:1 possible:1 panorama:2 montjuïc:1 area:1 visible:1 observant:1 notice:1 green:1 bird:1 fly:1 amongst:1 pigeon:2 sparrow:1 monk:1 parakeet:1 either:1 deliberately:1 release:1 far:1 colour:1 escape:1 captivity:1 nest:1 tall:1 palm:1 recent:1 event:1 february:1 report:1 famous:1 vandalize:1 overnight:1 group:1 youth:1 seek:1 authority:1 typically:1 spanish:1 news:1 head:1 face:1 sculpture:1 apparently:1 smash:1 repeatedly:1 metal:1 bar:1 quite:1 substantially:1 damage:1 third:1 deputy:1 mayor:1 international:1 press:1 disgust:1 determination:1 prosecute:1 repair:1 gallery:2 image:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 google:1 map:2 guide:1 photo:1 great:1 interactive:1 |@bigram park_güell:9 barcelona_catalonia:1 architect_antoni:1 antoni_gaudí:3 inverted_catenary:1 catenary_arch:1 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1 |
3,578 | Cthulhu_Mythos | Cthulhu in the lost city of R'lyeh The Cthulhu Mythos is a shared universe created in the 1920s by American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft. The term Lovecraft Mythos is preferred by some — most notably the Lovecraft scholar S.T. Joshi. Joshi, "The Lovecraft Mythos", H. P. Lovecraft, p. 31ff. The term was coined by Lovecraft's associate August Derleth, and named after Cthulhu, a powerful fictional entity in Lovecraft's stories. The conglomerate of several Lovecraft works describing Cthulhu form the mythos that authors writing in the Lovecraftian milieu have used – and continue to use – in their ongoing expansion of the fictional universe, sometimes in ways far removed from Lovecraft's original conception. Harms, "A Brief History of the Cthulhu Mythos", The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana, pp. viii–ix. Development Robert M. Price, in his essay "H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos", sees two stages in the development of the Cthulhu Mythos. The first stage, or "Cthulhu Mythos proper" as Price calls it, took shape during Lovecraft's lifetime and was subject to his guidance. The second stage occurred under August Derleth who attempted to categorize and expand the Mythos after Lovecraft's death. Price, "H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos", Crypt of Cthulhu #35, p. 5. First stage (the Mythos proper) Lovecraft borrowed terms and ideas from earlier writers he admired: Hastur, for example, was originally a benevolent deity mentioned in an Ambrose Bierce story, but took on more sinister traits when appropriated a few years later by Robert W. Chambers. Lovecraft's only references to Hastur are in "The Whisperer in Darkness". The Great Old One Hastur the Unspeakable was created by August Derleth in "The Return of Hastur" (1937). During the latter part of Lovecraft's life, there was much borrowing of story elements among the authors of the "Lovecraft Circle", and many many others, a clique of writers with whom Lovecraft corresponded. This group included Clark Ashton Smith, Robert E. Howard, Robert Bloch, Frank Belknap Long, Henry Kuttner, and others. Lovecraft recognized that each writer had his own story-cycle, and that an element from one cycle would not necessarily become part of another simply because a writer used it in one of his stories. For example, although Smith might mention "Kthulhut" (referring to Lovecraft's Cthulhu) or Iog-Sotôt (Yog-Sothoth) in one of his Hyperborean tales, this does not mean that Cthulhu is part of the Hyperborean cycle. A notable exception, however, is Smith's Tsathoggua, which Lovecraft appropriated for his revision of Zelia Bishop's "The Mound" (1940). Lovecraft effectively connected Smith's creation to his story-cycle by placing Tsathoggua alongside such entities as Cthulhu, Yig, Shub-Niggurath, and Nug and Yeb in subterranean K'n-yan. Most of the elements of Lovecraft's Mythos were not a cross-pollination of the various story-cycles of the Lovecraft Circle, but were instead deliberately created by each writer to become part of the Mythos, the most notable example being the various arcane grimoires of forbidden lore. So, for example, Robert E. Howard has his character Friedrich Von Junzt reading Lovecraft's Necronomicon in "The Children of the Night" (1931), and Lovecraft in turn mentions Howard's Unaussprechlichen Kulten in both "Out of the Aeons" (1935) and "The Shadow Out of Time (1936). Ibid, pp. 6–7. Howard frequently corresponded with H. P. Lovecraft, and the two would sometimes insert references or elements of each others' settings in their works. Later editors reworked many of the original Conan stories by Howard; thus, diluting this connection. Nevertheless, many of Howard's unedited Conan stories are arguably part of the Cthulhu Mythos. Patrice Louinet. Hyborian Genesis: Part 1, page 436, The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian; 2003, Del Rey. The Mythos as a background element According to David E. Schultz, Lovecraft never meant to create a canonical Mythos but rather intended his imaginary pantheon to serve merely as a background element. Thus, Lovecraft's "pseudomythology"—a term used by Lovecraft himself and others to describe the beings appearing in his stories—is the backdrop for his tales but is not the primary focus. Indeed, the cornerstone of his stories seems to be the town of Arkham and not beings like Cthulhu. Schultz, "Who Needs the Cthulhu Mythos?", A Century Less A Dream, pp. 46, 54. Lovecraft himself sometimes referred to his mythos humorously as "Yog-Sothothery". http://www.timpratt.org/611.html That Lovecraft gave more weight to his "Arkham cycle" locations than to his pseudomythology is perhaps demonstrated by his so-called revision stories. Will Murray points out that while Lovecraft often employed his fictional pantheon in the stories he ghostwrote for other authors, he reserved Arkham and its environs exclusively for those tales he wrote under his own name. (Murray, "In Search of Arkham Country I", pp. 105, 107.) Furthermore, Lovecraft may not have been serious when he spoke of developing a "myth-cycle" and probably would have had no need to give it a name anyway. Since he used his Mythos simply as background material, he probably had this in mind when he allowed other writers to use it in their own stories. It could be said that Lovecraft's Mythos was a kind of elaborate inside joke propagating among the writers of his circle. However, August Derleth's understanding of the Mythos appears to have been that Lovecraft wanted other authors to actively write about the myth-cycle rather than to simply allude to it in their stories. Schultz, "Who Needs the Cthulhu Mythos?", pp. 46–7. The most notable, and subsequently recognizable of Lovecraftian contributions to popular culture is the "Necronomicon" a mythical work referenced in many of Lovecraft's tales. Although it is a fictitious book (and Lovecraft himself had to work to dispel rumors of it's actual existence) it is referenced often in popular culture in movies, music and literature as an ancient book of incredible evil and as one often antipodal to the Christian Bible. In reference to the Cthulhu mythos, the necromicon is an essential element of the pseudomythology, as it details the cosmic origins of our world as purported by the mythos itself. Second stage (the "Derleth Mythos") The second stage began with August Derleth, The writer Richard L. Tierney coined the term "Derleth Mythos" to distinguish between August Derleth's version and Lovecraft's (Cf. Richard L. Tierney, "The Derleth Mythos", Discovering H. P. Lovecraft, p. 52). Dirk Mosig, goes further and recommends that the term Cthulhu Mythos be dropped altogether in favor of the Yog-Sothoth Cycle of Myth (Mosig, "H. P. Lovecraft: Myth-Maker", Mosig at Last, p. 28). who added to the mythos and developed the elemental system, associating the pantheon with the four elements of air, earth, fire, and water. To understand Derleth's changes to the Mythos, it is important to distinguish among Lovecraft's story cycles. Price says that Lovecraft's writings can be divided into three separate groups: the Dunsanian, Arkham, and Cthulhu cycles. Price, "H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos", Crypt of Cthulhu #35, p. 9. The Dunsanian stories are those that are written in the vein of Lord Dunsany (and may include Lovecraft's so-called Dream Cycle tales), the Arkham stories include those that take place in Lovecraft's fictionalized New England setting, and the Cthulhu cycle stories are those that use Lovecraft's cosmic story-cycle (the Lovecraft Mythos). Derleth combined Lovecraft's various cycles to create a large, singular story-cycle. For example, he appropriated Nodens from the Dunsanian cycle and leagued him with the Elder Gods against the Old Ones. He also introduced a good versus evil dichotomy into the Mythos contrary to the dark, nihilistic vision of Lovecraft and his immediate circle. Derleth apparently treated any story mentioning a mythos element as part of the Mythos, and in consequence all other elements in the story also became part of the mythos. Hence, as Lovecraft made passing reference to Clark Ashton Smith's Book of Eibon, Derleth added Smith's Ubbo-Sathla to the mythos. Because of Derleth's broad canon the Mythos grew enormously. Ibid, pp. 6–10. Further removing the Cthulhu Mythos from its source were stories written by such authors as Lin Carter, Colin Wilson, and Brian Lumley. Carter was especially influential in setting out detailed lists of gods, their ancestry, and their servitors through his Mythos tales, attempting to codify the elements of the Mythos as much as possible. Through this process, more gods, books, and places were created and interlinked with each other. Another influence has been the Call of Cthulhu RPG published by Chaosium in 1981. Largely developed by Sandy Petersen, this version of the Mythos broke Lovecraft's entities down into further sub-groupings: Outer Gods, Great Old Ones, servitor races and the nebulously-termed Other Gods. Material from these sources has slowly crept back into mainstream Mythos fiction, as Chaosium published fiction related to, or written by players of, the game. Many of the newer generation of Mythos authors (especially those published in Chaosium compendiums) take their cue from this more clinical, continuity-focused brand of the Mythos instead of Lovecraft's more mysterious version. Some new stories (such as those found in The Spiraling Worm: Man Versus the Cthulhu Mythos) have included protagonists who are members of government agencies actively opposed to the entities that dominate the Cthulhu Mythos. This is a significant divergence, as the protagonist changes from being an unprepared victim to a warrior prepared both physically and mentally to fight the horrors of the world. Though this is not an entirely new concept, as H.P. Lovecraft did have Innsmouth destroyed by an attack from the Federal government. Structure The Mythos usually takes place in fictional New England towns and is centered on the Great Old Ones, a fearsome assortment of ancient, powerful deities who came from outer space and once ruled the Earth. They are presently quiescent, having fallen into a death-like sleep at some time in the distant past. Harms, "A Brief History of the Cthulhu Mythos", p. viii. The best-known of these beings is Cthulhu, who currently lies "dead [but] dreaming" in the submerged city of R'lyeh somewhere in the Southeast Pacific Ocean. One day, "when the stars are right", R'lyeh will rise from beneath the sea, and Cthulhu will awaken and wreak havoc on the earth. Lovecraft, "The Call of Cthulhu" (1928). Despite his notoriety, Cthulhu is not the most powerful of the deities, nor is he the theological center of the mythos. Mosig says that Cthulhu "is perhaps one of the weakest and least important of the main entities [in the mythos]—save for his immediacy". He also notes that in the Necronomicon passage in Lovecraft's "The Dunwich Horror" (1929), Cthulhu is demoted to "their cousin". (Mosig, "H. P. Lovecraft: Myth-Maker", Mosig at Last, p. 25.) Instead, this position is held by the demon-god Azathoth, an Outer God, ruling from his cosmically centered court. Nonetheless, Nyarlathotep, who fulfills Azathoth's random urges, has intervened more frequently and more directly in human affairs than any other Outer god. He has also displayed more blatant contempt for humanity, especially his own worshippers, than almost any other Lovecraftian deity. Theme The essence in the Mythos is that the human world and our role in it is an illusion. Humanity is simply living in a fragile bubble, unaware of what lies behind the curtains or even of the curtains themselves, and our seeming dominance over the world is illusory and ephemeral. We are blessed in that we do not realize what lies dormant in the unknown lurking places on Earth and beyond. As Lovecraft famously begins his short story, The Call of Cthulhu, "The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents." Now and then, individuals can, by accident or carelessness, catch a glimpse of, or even confront the ancient extraterrestrial entities that the mythology centers around, usually with fatal consequences. Other times, they are represented by their non-human worshipers, whose existence shatters the worldview of those who stumble across them. Human followers exist as well. Because of the limitations of the human mind, these deities appear as so overwhelming that they can often drive a person insane. They are portrayed as neither good nor evil. Within the Mythos these are concepts invented by our species as a way to explain intentions and actions which may otherwise seem inexplicable. The Call of Cthulhu was the premiere story in which Lovecraft realized and made full use of these themes, which is why his mythology would later be named after the creature in this story, as it defined a new direction in both his authorship and in the horror fiction genre. This is also the only story by Lovecraft where humans and one of the cosmic entities called the Great Old Ones come face to face. In his final years, Lovecraft used fewer supernatural elements to represent the dangers which threaten humanity. Instead, he gradually replaced them with non-supernatural cosmic beings and phenomena, based on principles outside the laws of nature in our own space-time continuum. This sci-fi trend particularly becomes clear in works such as At the Mountains of Madness. Many of these later tales also humanize these aliens to some extent, and the degree to which they still retain the theme of nihilistic horror varies. Derleth's involvement Derleth's take on the mythos was to conform it to his own Roman Catholic cosmology and moral principles. Instead of a universe of meaninglessness and chaos, Derleth's mythos is a struggle of good versus evil. Bloch, "Heritage of Horror", p. 9. Derleth once wrote: As Lovecraft conceived the deities or forces of his mythos, there were, initially, the Elder Gods... [T]hese Elder Gods were benign deities, representing the forces of good, and existed peacefully at or near Betelgeuze in the constellation Orion, very rarely stirring forth to intervene in the unceasing struggle between the powers of evil and the races of Earth. These powers of evil were variously known as the Great Old Ones or the Ancient Ones... —August Derleth, "The Cthulhu Mythos" Derleth, "The Cthulhu Mythos", Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos, p. vii. Lovecraft was an atheist, Joshi, The Scriptorium, "H. P. Lovecraft", section II. and claimed that Kant's ethical system "is a joke." Derleth's theories about the Cthulhu Mythos thus differ from Lovecraft's concept, which was not really a cohesive, singular entity, but rather a collection of ideas that could be used in separate works to provoke the same emotions. Turner, "Iä! Iä! Cthulhu Fhtagn!", Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos, p. viii. Turner writes: "Lovecraft's imaginary cosmogony was never a static system but rather a sort of aesthetic construct that remained ever adaptable to its creator's developing personality and altering interests... [T]here was never a rigid system that might be posthumously appropriated by the pasticheur... [T]he essence of the mythos lies not in a pantheon of imaginary deities nor in a cobwebby collection of forgotten tomes, but rather in a certain convincing cosmic attitude." The Elder Gods of Derleth's mythos never appear in Lovecraft's writings, except for one or two termed "Other Gods" such as Nodens in Lovecraft's "The Strange High House in the Mist" (though perhaps this is an example of how "very rarely [they stir] forth"; i.e., usually never). Furthermore, in Lovecraft the Great Old Ones, or Ancient Ones, have no unified pantheon. Indeed, the term "Ancient Ones" appears in only one Lovecraft story, "Through the Gates of the Silver Key," actually a collaboration between Lovecraft and his friend and correspondent E. Hoffmann Price. Elemental theory Derleth connected the deities of the Mythos to the four elements of air, earth, fire, and water, filling in gaps in the system by creating the beings Ithaqua, representing air, and Cthugha, representing fire. Derleth created Cthugha when a fan, Francis T. Laney, pointed out that he had neglected to include a fire elemental in his schema. Laney, the editor of The Acolyte, had categorized the Mythos in an essay that first appeared in the Winter 1942 issue of the magazine. Impressed by the glossary, Derleth asked Laney to rewrite it for publication in the Arkham House collection Beyond the Wall of Sleep (1943). (Robert M. Price, "Editorial Shards", Crypt of Cthulhu #32, p. 2.) Laney's essay ("The Cthulhu Mythos") was later republished in Crypt of Cthulhu #32 (1985). As realized, the system has a few problems. For example, Derleth classified Cthulhu as a water elemental, which makes it odd that he could be trapped beneath the ocean and his psychic emanations blocked by water. Another problem arises in applying the elemental theory to beings that function on a cosmic scale, such as Yog-Sothoth—some authors have attempted to get around this by creating a separate category of aethyr elementals for Azathoth, Shub-Niggurath, Nyarlathotep, and Yog-Sothoth. Finally, Derleth matched the earth beings against the fire beings and the air beings against the water beings, which is inconsistent with the classical elements dichotomy in which air opposes earth and fire opposes water. Harms, "Elemental Theory", p. 101. +Elemental classificationsAirEarthFireWaterHastur**Ithaqua*Zhar and Lloigor*Azathoth(?)CyäeghaNyarlathotep(?)NyogthaShub-NiggurathTsathogguaYog-Sothoth(?)Aphoom-ZhahCthugha*CthulhuDagonGhatanothoaMother HydraZoth-Ommog *Deity created by Derleth. **Deity incorporated by Derleth. Conclusion Derleth became a publisher of Lovecraft's stories after his death. Bloch, "Heritage of Horror", p. 8. Lovecraft himself was very critical of his own writings and was often easily discouraged, especially when faced with any rejection of his work. Joshi, The Scriptorium, "H. P. Lovecraft", section I. Were it not for Derleth, Lovecraft's writings and the Cthulhu Mythos might have remained largely unknown. Japanese Cthulhu Mythos Kaoru Kurimoto's Makai Suikoden 魔界水滸伝 is regarded as an important work in the Japanese Cthulhu Mythos, which tells the story of a war between the Elder Gods and Japanese gods. It is a retelling of The Water Margin, a Chinese classical novel, and introduced many Japanese people to the Cthulhu Mythos. See also Elements of the Cthulhu Mythos Cthulhu Mythos anthology Dreamlands Elder Gods Great Old Ones Outer Gods The Cthulhu Mythos has become part of popular culture. See Cthulhu Mythos in popular culture for a list. For a list of characters, see Cthulhu Mythos biographies. Notes References Books No ISBN. Web sites Further reading External links The H. P. Lovecraft Archive Mythos Tomes, stories, articles, and reviews relating to the Cthulhu Mythos The Official Cthulhu Mythos FAQ, by Daniel Harms Index of The Works of Howard Phillips Lovecraft Full stories The Dan Clore Necronomicon Page Everything You Never Wanted To Know About The Necronomicon (Al Azif) Of The Mad Arab Abdul Alhazred But Weren't Afraid Enough To Know Better Than To Ask! 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3,579 | Human_sacrifice | "Polyxena dies by the hand of Neoptolemus on the tomb of Achilles" (1900 drawing after an ancient cameo) Human sacrifice is the act of killing human beings as part of a religious ritual (ritual killing). Its typology closely parallels the various practices of ritual slaughter of animals (animal sacrifice) and of religious sacrifice in general. Human sacrifice has been practiced in various cultures throughout history. Victims were typically ritually killed in a manner that was supposed to please or appease gods, spirits or the deceased, for example as a propitiatory offering, or as a retainer sacrifice when the King servants die in order to continue to serve their master in the next life. Closely related practices found in some tribal societies are cannibalism and headhunting. By the Iron Age, with the associated developments in religion (the Axial Age), human sacrifice was becoming less common throughout the Old World, and came to be widely looked down upon as barbaric already in pre-modern times (Classical Antiquity). Blood libel is a false charge of ritual killing against such taboos. Even if not ostensibly connected with religion, infliction of capital punishment is often highly ritualised and thus difficult to distinguish from human sacrifice. Death by burning historically has aspects of both human sacrifice (Wicker Man, Tophet) and capital punishment (Brazen bull, Tamar, tunica molesta). Execution by burning of Christian heretics was introduced by Justinian I in the 6th century. Detractors of the death penalty may consider all forms of capital punishment as secularized variants of human sacrifice. So Benjamin Rush (1792), see Louis P. Masur Rites of Execution Oxford University Press (1989), p. 65 Similarly, lynching, pogroms and genocides are sometimes interpreted as human sacrifice following Theodor W. Adorno. Horkheimer, M., Adorno T. W. (1947), Dialektik der Aufklärung. Philosophische Fragmente, Amsterdam: Querido; p. 199ff. Hughes (2007) in reference to the Holocaust writes, "the great exterminations of the twentieth century [...] have superseded human sacrifice as the ultimate touchstones of barbarity. When we require place names to denote the horror where culture collapses, we no longer think of Aulis or Taurica." In modern times, even the once ubiquitous practice of animal sacrifice has virtually disappeared from all major religions (or has been re-cast in terms of ritual slaughter), and human sacrifice has become extremely rare. Most religions condemn the practice, and present-day secular laws treat it as murder. In the context of a society which condemns human sacrifice, the term ritual murder is used. Nonetheless it is still occasionally seen today, with reports from the 2000s from Sub-Saharan Africa (muti killings), but also isolated cases in the immigrant African diaspora in Europe. Boys 'used for human sacrifice' Kenyan arrests for 'witch' deaths Evolution and context The idea of human sacrifice has its roots in deep prehistory, Early Europeans Practiced Human Sacrifice in the evolution of human behaviour. Mythologically, it is closely connected, or even fundamentally identical with animal sacrifice. Walter Burkert has argued for such a fundamental identity of animal and human sacrifice in the connection of a hunting hypothesis which traces the emergence of human religious behaviour to the beginning of behavioral modernity in the Upper Paleolithic (roughly 50,000 years ago). There has been a lot of debate on the primacy of myth vs. ritual, and the presence of a myth of human sacrifice should not be taken as necessarily implying the historical existence of the actual practice: human sacrifice may be taken as the re-enactment of an older myth, or conversely a myth can be taken as a memory of an earlier practice of human sacrifice. Theistic rationalizations of human sacrifice may involve the idea of offering to deities as payment for favorable interventions in an event of special importance, to forestall unfavorable events, or to purchase disclosures about the physical world. Human sacrifice has been practiced on a number of different occasions and in many different cultures. The various rationales behind human sacrifice are the same that motivate religious sacrifice in general. Human sacrifice is intended to bring good fortune and to pacify the gods, for example in the context of the dedication of a completed building like a temple or bridge. There is a Chinese legend that says there are thousands of people entombed in the Great Wall of China. In ancient Japan legends talk about Hitobashira ("human pillar"), in which maidens were buried alive at the base or near some constructions as a prayer to ensure the buildings against disasters or enemy attacks. History of Japanese Castles For the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they killed about 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days. According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed in the ceremony. Hassig, Ross (2003). "El sacrificio y las guerras floridas". Arqueología mexicana, p. 46-51. Human sacrifice can also have the intention of winning the gods' favour in warfare. Iphigeneia was to be sacrificed by her father Agamemnon for success in the Trojan War. According to the Bible, Jephthah sacrificed his daughter after making a vow (Judges 11). John Huesman, "Judges", New Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture, Nelson 1969 "Did Jephthah Kill his Daughter?", Solomon Landers, Biblical Archaeology Review, August 1991. Another motivation for human sacrifice is burial: in some notions of an afterlife, the deceased will benefit from victims killed at his funeral. Mongols, Scythians, early Egyptians and various Mesoamerican chiefs could take most of their household, including servants and concubines, with them to the next world. This is sometimes called a "retainer sacrifice," as the leader's retainers would be sacrificed along with their master, so that they could continue to serve him in the afterlife. Another purpose is divination from the body parts of the victim. According to Strabo, Celts stabbed a victim with a sword and divined the future from his death spasms. "Strabo Geography", Book IV Chapter 4:5, published in Vol. II of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1923. Headhunting is the practice of taking the head of a killed adversary, for ceremonial or magical purposes, or for reasons of prestige. It was found in many pre-modern tribal societies. Human sacrifice may be a ritual practiced in a stable society, and may even be conductive to enhance societal bonds (see sociology of religion), both by creating a bond unifying the sacrificing community, and in combining human sacrifice and capital punishment, by removing individuals that have a negative effect on societal stability (criminals, religious heretics, foreign slaves or prisoners of war). But outside of civil religion, human sacrifice may also result in outbursts of "blood frenzy" and mass killings that destabilize society. Thus, the Thuggee cult that plagued India was devoted to Kali, the goddess of death and destruction. Thug: the true story of India's murderous cult by Mike Dash, The Independent Thuggee (Thagi) (13th C. to ca. 1838) According to the Guinness Book of Records the Thuggee cult was responsible for approximately 2,000,000 deaths. The bursts of capital punishment during European witch-hunts, or during the French Revolutionary Reign of Terror show similar sociological patterns (see also moral panic). Many cultures show traces of prehistoric human sacrifice in their mythologies, but have ceased to practice them before the onset of historical records. The story of Abraham and Isaac (Genesis 22) is an example of a myth explaining the abolition of human sacrifice. Similarly, the Vedic Purushamedha, literally "human sacrifice", is already a purely symbolic act in its earliest attestation. According to Pliny the Elder, human sacrifice in Ancient Rome was abolished by a senatorial decree in 97 BCE, although by this time the practice had already become so rare that the decree was mostly a symbolic act. Human sacrifice once abolished is typically replaced by either animal sacrifice, or by the "mock-sacrifice" of effigies, such as the argei dolls in ancient Rome. History by region Ancient Near East Ancient Egypt There may be evidence of retainer sacrifice in the early dynastic period at Abydos, when on the death of a King he would be accompanied with servants, and possibly high officials, who would continue to serve him in eternal life. The skeletons found show no obvious signs of trauma, leading to speculation that the giving up of life to serve the King may have been a voluntary act, possibly carried out in a drug induced state. At about 2800 BCE any possible evidence of such practices disappears, though echoes are perhaps to be seen in the burial of statues of servants in Old Kingdom tombs. "Human Sacrifice", retrieved 12 May 2007. "Abydos - Life and Death at the Dawning of Egyptian Civilization", National Geographic, April 2005, retrieved 12 May 2007. Mesopotamia Retainer sacrifice was practiced within the royal tombs of ancient Mesopotamia. Courtiers, guards, musicians, handmaidens and grooms died, presumed to have taken poison. "The Practice of Human Sacrifice", Mike Parker-Pearson, 2002-08-19, BBC "Acrobats Last Tumble", Bruce Bower, Science News, Vol 174 #1, July 8, 2008 Levant References in the Bible point to an awareness of human sacrifice in the history of ancient near-eastern practice. During a battle with the Israelites the king of Moab gives his firstborn son and heir as a whole burnt offering (olah, as used of the Temple sacrifice). "Why King Mesha of Moab Sacrificed His Oldest Son", Baruch Margalit, Biblical Archaeology Review, Nov/Dec 1986. (2 Kings 3:27). In Genesis 22 there is a story about the binding of Isaac. In this story, God tests Abraham by asking him to present his son, Isaac, as a sacrifice on Mount Moriah. No reason is given within the text. Abraham agrees to this command without arguing. According to the text, God does not want Abraham to actually sacrifice his son; it states from the beginning that this is only a test of obedience. The story ends with an angel stopping Abraham at the last minute and making Isaac's sacrifice unnecessary by providing a ram, caught in some nearby bushes, to be sacrificed instead. Many Bible scholars have suggested this story's origin was a remembrance of an era when human sacrifice was abolished in favor of animal sacrifice. "Child Sacrifice: Returning God’s Gift", Susan Ackerman, Biblical Archaeology Review, June 1993. "Child Sacrifice at Carthage—Religious Rite or Population Control?", Lawrence E. Stager and Samuel R. Wolff, Biblical Archaeology Review, Jan/Feb 1984. Another instance of human sacrifice mentioned in the Bible is the sacrifice of Jephthah's daughter in Judges chapter 11. Jephthah vows to sacrifice to God whatsoever comes to greet him at the door when he returns home if he is victorious. The vow is stated in Judges 11:31 as "Then it shall be, that whatsoever cometh forth of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return in peace from the children of Ammon, shall surely be the Lord's, and I will offer it up for a burnt offering." When he returns from battle, his virgin daughter runs out to greet him. That he actually does sacrifice her is shown in verse 11:39, "And it came to pass at the end of two months, that she returned unto her father, who did with her according to his vow which he had vowed". This example seems to be the exception rather than the rule, however, as the verse continues "And she was a virgin. From this comes the Israelite custom that each year the young women of Israel go out for four days to commemorate the daughter of Jephthah the Gileadite." According to commentators of the rabbinic Jewish tradition this was a gross violation of God's law, and this part of the Bible illustrates the terrible tragedy of human sacrifice. However, most scholars believe the passage suggests the sacrifice was accepted by God. "Why the Deuteronomist Told about the Sacrifice of Jephthah's Daughter", Journal for the Study of the Old Testament,Sage Publications, p7, Others point out the complete lack of censure by God of Jephthah and the sacrifice of his daughter in the biblical account. "Did Jephthah Kill his Daughter?", Solomon Landers, Biblical Archaeology Review, August 1991. Phoenicia According to Roman and Greek sources, Phoenicians and Carthaginians sacrificed infants to their gods. The bones of numerous infants have been found in Carthaginian archaeological sites in modern times but the subject of child sacrifice is controversial. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05146/510878.stm Carthage tries to live down image as site of infanticide Plutarch (ca. 46–120 AD) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian, Orosius, Diodorus Siculus and Philo. Livy and Polybius do not. The Bible asserts that children were at a place called the Tophet ("roasting place") to the god Moloch. According to Diodorus Siculus' account of the Carthagians: Plutarch, however claims that the children were already dead at the time, having been killed by their parents, whose consent - as well as those of the children - was required; Tertullian explains the acquiescence of the children as a product of their youthful trustfulness. The accuracy of such stories is disputed by some modern historians and archaeologists. Fantar, M’Hamed Hassine. Archaeology Odyssey Nov/Dec 2000, pp. 28-31 Europe Neolithic Europe There is archaeological evidence of human sacrifice in Neolithic to Eneolithic Europe. Retainer sacrifices seem to have been common in early Indo-European religion. For example, the Luhansk sacrificial site shows evidence of human sacrifice in the Yamna culture. Greco-Roman Antiquity Other than three possible sites in Crete, dated to the pre-Hellenic Minoan civilisation, and allusions to the practice in classical mythology, archaeologists have been unable to find any evidence that Ancient Greeks practiced human sacrifice. The deus ex machina salvation in some versions of Iphigeneia (who was about to be sacrificed by her father Agamemnon) and her replacement with a deer by the goddess Artemis, may be a vestigial memory of the abandonment and discrediting of the practice of human sacrifice among the Greeks in favor of animal sacrifice. Many scholars have suggested a possible analogy with the story of Isaac's attempted sacrifice by his father Abraham in the Bible, which was also stopped at the last minute (though it had first been encouraged) by divine intervention. Early Romans practiced various forms of human sacrifice in their first centuries; from Etruscans (or, according to other sources, Sabellians), they adopted the original form of gladiatorial combat where the victim was slain in a ritual battle. During the early republic, criminals who had broken their oaths or defrauded others were sometimes "given to the gods" (that is, executed as a human sacrifice). The Rex Nemorensis was an escaped slave who became priest of the goddess Diana at Nemi by killing his predecessor. Prisoners of war and Vestal virgins were buried alive as offerings to Manes and Di Inferi (gods of the underworld). Archaeologists have found sacrificial victims buried in building foundations. Ordinarily, deceased Romans were cremated rather than buried. Captured enemy leaders, after the victorious general's triumph, would be ritually strangled in front of a statue of Mars, the war god. According to Pliny the Elder, human sacrifice was abolished by a senatorial decree in 97 BC, although by this time it was so rare that the decree was wholly symbolic. Pliny, Natural History 30.3.12 Most of the rituals turned to animal sacrifice like taurobolium or became merely symbolic. A Roman general might bury a statue of his likeness to thank the gods for victory. Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, i.19, 38. refers to a sacrifice of Argei in the Vestal ritual that might have originally included sacrifice of old men. When the Roman Empire expanded, Romans stopped human sacrifices as barbaric. However, other activities with a ritual origin kept being practiced for many years, and even got more massive, like the gladiatorial games and some kinds of executions. A wicker man, that, according to Caesar, was used to sacrifice humans to the gods. Celts As written in Roman sources, Celtic Druids engaged extensively in human sacrifice. "The Religion of the Ancient Celts", J. A. MacCulloch, ch xvi, 1911, retrieved 24 May 2007. According to Julius Caesar, the slaves and dependants of Gauls of rank would be burnt along with the body of their master as part of his funerary rites. "Gaius Julius Caesar Commentaries on the Gallic War", Book VI:19, translated by W.A. McDevitte and W.S. Bohn, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1869. He also describes how they built wicker figures that were filled with living humans and then burned. "Gaius Julius Caesar Commentaries on the Gallic War", Book VI:16, translated by W.A. McDevitte and W.S. Bohn, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1869. It is known that druids at least supervised sacrifices of some kind. According to Cassius Dio, Boudica's forces impaled Roman captives during her rebellion against the Roman occupation, to the accompaniment of revellery and sacrifices in the sacred groves of Andate. "Roman History", Cassius Dio, p95 ch62:7, Translation by Earnest Cary, Loeb classical Library, retrieved 24 May 2007. Some modern-day scholars question the accuracy of these accounts, as they invariably come from hostile (Roman or Greek) sources. "What We Don't Know About the Ancient Celts", Rowan Fairgrove, Pomegrante Magazine, Issue 2 1997, retrieved 24 May 2007. Different gods reportedly required different kind of sacrifices. Victims meant for Esus were hung, those meant for Taranis immolated and those for Teutates drowned. Some, like the Lindow Man, may have gone to their deaths willingly. Archaeological evidence from the British Isles seems to indicate that human sacrifice may have been practiced, over times long pre-dating any contact with Rome. Human remains have been found at the foundations of structures from the Neolithic time to the Roman era, with injuries and in positions that argue for their being foundation sacrifices. Similarly, additional human remains in the tombs of aged men show signs of having been killed to be buried in the grave. Germanic peoples According to Norse mythology, Odin hanged himself from the world-tree Yggdrasil for nine nights to attain divine wisdom. Medieval Christian sources refer to Norsemen sacrificing prisoners by hanging them from trees, but the true extent of this behavior is unclear; it is most likely that these killings were of an executional nature leaving the bodies on show as a warning to enemies, or criminals. One account by Ahmad ibn Fadlan as part of his account of an embassy to the Volga Bulgars in 921 claims that Norse warriors were sometimes buried with enslaved women with the belief that these women would become their wives in Valhalla. In his description of the funeral of a Scandinavian chieftain, a slave volunteers to die with a Norseman. After ten days of festivities, she is stabbed to death by an old woman, a sort of priestess who is referred to as Völva or "Angel of Death", and burnt together with the deceased in his boat. Adam von Bremen recorded human sacrifices to Odin in 11th century Sweden, at the Temple at Uppsala, a tradition which is confirmed by Gesta Danorum and the Norse sagas. According to the Ynglinga saga, king Domalde was sacrificed there in the hope of bringing greater future harvests and the total domination of all future wars. The same saga also relates that Domalde's descendant king Aun sacrificed nine of his own sons to Odin in exchange for longer life, until the Swedes stopped him from sacrificing his last son, Egil. Heidrek in the Hervarar saga agrees to the sacrifice of his son in exchange for the command over a fourth of the men of Reidgotaland. With these, he seizes the entire kingdom and prevents the sacrifice of his son, dedicating those fallen in his rebellion to Odin instead. Slavic peoples According to Russian Primary Chronicle, prisoners of war were sacrificed to Perun, the slavic god of war. Leo the Deacon mentions prisoner sacrifice by Sviatoslav during Russo-Byzantine War. The last known sacrifice occurred in 978, victims were a young Christian named Ioann and his father Theodor who tried to stop the crowd. Theodor and Ioann were later beatified as Christian martyrs. Sacrifices to pagan gods, along with paganism itself, were banned after Baptism of Russia by prince Vladimir I in the 980's. China The ancient Chinese are known to have made sacrifices of young men and women to river deities, and to have buried slaves alive with their owners upon death as part of a funeral service. This was especially prevalent during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. During the Warring States period, Ximen Bao of Wei demonstrated to the villagers that sacrifice to river deities was actually a ploy by crooked priests to pocket money. Ximen Bao In Chinese lore, Ximen Bao is regarded as a folk hero who pointed out the absurdity of human sacrifice. The sacrifice of a high-ranking male's slaves, concubines or servants upon his death (called Xun Zang 殉葬 or more specifically Sheng Xun 生殉) was a more common form. The stated purpose is to provide companionship for the dead in afterlife. In earlier times the victims were either killed or buried alive, while later they were usually forced to commit suicide. Funeral human sacrifice was abolished by the Qin Dynasty in 384 BC. Afterwards it became relatively rare throughout the central parts of China. However, the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming Dynasty revived it in 1395 when his second son died and two of the prince's concubines were sacrificed. In 1464, the Zhengtong Emperor in his will forbade the practice for Ming emperors and princes. Human sacrifice was also practiced by the Manchus. Following Emperor Nurhaci's death, his wife, Lady Abahai, and his two lesser consorts committed suicide. During the Qing Dynasty, sacrifice of slaves was banned by Emperor Kangxi in 1673. India Human sacrifices were carried out in connection with the worship of Shakti till approximately the early modern period, and in Bengal perhaps as late as the early nineteenth century. Certain tantric cults performed human sacrifice till around the same time, both actual and "symbolic"; it was a "highly ritualised" act, and on occasion took many months to complete. The question of whether human sacrifice is permitted in the Vedas and, if so, was actually practiced is a matter of dispute by scholars. The prevailing nineteenth century view, associated above all with Henry Colebrooke, was that human sacrifice had little scriptural warrant, and did not actually take place. Those verses which referred to purusamedha were meant to be read symbolically or as a 'priestly fantasy'. However, barely a generation later Albrecht Weber collected textplaces referring to human sacrifice with greater specificity; and Rajendralal Mitra published a defence of the thesis that human sacrifice, as had been practiced in Bengal, was a continuation of traditions dating back to Vedic periods. Hermann Oldenberg held to Colebrooke's view; but Jan Gonda underlined its disputed status. It was agreed even by Colebrooke, however, that by the Puranic period - at least at the time of the writing of the Kalika-Purana, human sacrifice was accepted. These two periods, however were separated by a period of increasing "embarrassment" in the use of violence in worship, contemporaneous with the Upanishads. In the post-Puranic medieval period, however, it became increasingly common. In the seventh century, Banabhatta, in a description of the dedication of a temple of Chandika, describes a series of human sacrifices; similarly, in the ninth century, Haribhadra describes the sacrifices to Chandika in Orissa. It was "more common" in the Southern parts of India, where it took on a scapegoating rather than purifying role. The Khonds, an aboriginal tribe of India, inhabiting the tributary states of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, became notorious, on the British occupation of their district about 1835, from the prevalence and cruelty of the human sacrifices they practised. Khonds, or Kandhs, Encyclopedia Britannica The practice of Suttee (सती} in some Hindu communities, whereby a widow would immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre, continued well into the 19th century. Believed to guarantee the couple's salvation and reunion in the afterlife, it may be seen as a form of retainer sacrifice. India's Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act (1987) Text was designed to finally suppress it, as isolated incidents still occurred. Pacific In Ancient Hawaii, a luakini temple, or luakini heiau, was a Native Hawaiian sacred place where human and animal blood sacrifices were offered. Kauwa, the outcast or slave class, were often used as human sacrifices at the luakini heiau. They are believed to have been war captives, or the descendents of war captives. They were not the only sacrifices; law-breakers of all castes or defeated political opponents were also acceptable as victims. luakini heiau (ancient Hawaiian religious site) Pu'ukohala Heiau & Kamehameha I Pre-Columbian Americas Altar for human sacrifice at Monte Alban Some of the most famous forms of ancient human sacrifice were performed by various Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas. Mexican tomb reveals gruesome human sacrifice that included the sacrifice of prisoners as well as voluntary sacrifice. Friar Marcus de Nica (1539) writing of the "Chichimecas": that from time to time "they of this valley cast lots whose luck (honor) it shall be to be sacrificed, and they make him great cheer, on whom the lot falls, and with great joy they crown him with flowers upon a bed prepared in the said ditch all full of flowers and sweet herbs, on which they lay him along, and lay great store of dry wood on both sides of him, and set it on fire on either part, and so he dies" and "that the victim took great pleasure" in being sacrificed. Grace E. Murray, "Ancient Rites and Ceremonies", p19, ISBN 1-85958-158-7 Mesoamerica The Mixtec players of the Mesoamerican ballgame were sacrificed when the game was used to resolve a dispute between cities. The rulers would play a game instead of going to battle. The losing ruler would be sacrificed. The ruler "Eight Deer" was considered a great ball player and won several cities this way, until he lost a ball game and was sacrificed. The Maya held the belief that cenotes or limestone sinkholes were portals to the underworld and sacrificed human beings to please the water god Chaac. The most notable example of this is the "Sacred Cenote" at Chichen Itza where extensive excavations have recovered the remains of 42 individuals, half of them under twenty years old. In the Post-Classic period, the victims and the altar are represented as daubed in a hue now known as Maya Blue, obtained from the añil plant and the clay mineral palygorskite. as cited in Aztec sacrifices, Codex Mendoza. The Aztecs were particularly noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale; an offering to Huitzilopochtli would be made to restore the blood he lost, as the sun was engaged in a daily battle. Human sacrifices would prevent the end of the world that could happen on each cycle of 52 years. In the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan some estimate that 80,400 prisoners were sacrificed. The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice Science and Anthropology though numbers are difficult to quantify as all obtainable Aztec texts were destroyed by Christian missionaries during the period 1528-1548. George Holtker, "Studies in Comparative Religion", The Religions of Mexico and Peru, Vol 1, CTS According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, "between 10,000 and 80,400 people" were sacrificed in the ceremony. The old reports of numbers sacrificed for special feasts have been described as "unbelievably high" by some authors and that on cautious reckoning, based on reliable evidence, the numbers would have been in the hundreds for yearly feasts in Tenochtitlan. The real number of sacrificed victims during the 1487 consecration is unknown. Michael Harner, in his 1997 article The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice, estimates the number of persons sacrificed in central Mexico in the 15th century as high as 250,000 per year. Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl, a Mexica descendant and the author of Codex Ixtlilxochitl, claimed that one in five children of the Mexica subjects was killed annually. Victor Davis Hanson argues that an estimate by Carlos Zumárraga of 20,000 per annum is more plausible. Other scholars believe that, since the Aztecs always tried to intimidate their enemies, it is more likely that they could have inflated the number as a propaganda tool. Duverger (op. cit), 174-77 New chamber confirms culture entrenched in human sacrifice Tlaloc would require weeping boys in the first months of the Aztec calendar to be ritually murdered. Sacrifices to Xipe Totec were bound to a post and shot full of arrows. The dead victim would be skinned and a priest would use the skin. Earth mother Teteoinnan required flayed female victims. South America In common with all known bronze age civilizations the Incas practiced human sacrifice, especially at great festivals or royal funerals where retainers died to accompany the dead into the next life. Woods, Michael, "Conquistadors", p114, BBC Worlwide, 2001, ISBN 0-563-55116X The Moche of Northern Peru sacrificed teenagers en masse, as archaeologist Steve Bourget found when he uncovered the bones of 42 male adolescents in 1995. – Discovery Channel article The study of the images seen in Moche art has enabled researchers to reconstruct the culture’s most important ceremonial sequence, which began with ritual combat and culminated in the sacrifice of those defeated in battle. Dressed in fine clothes and adornments, armed warriors faced each other in ritual combat. In this hand-to-hand encounter the aim was to remove the opponent’s headdress rather than kill him. The object of the combat was the provision of victims for sacrifice. The vanquished were stripped and bound, after which they were led in procession to the place of sacrifice. The captives are portrayed as strong and sexually potent. In the temple, the priests and priestesses would prepare the victims for sacrifice. The sacrificial methods employed varied, but at least one of the victims would be bled to death. His blood was offered to the principal deities in order to please and placate them. A number of mummies of sacrificed children have been recovered in the Inca regions of South America, an ancient practice known as capacocha. North America The Pawnee practiced an annual Morning Star Ceremony, which included the sacrifice of a young girl. Though the ritual continued, the sacrifice was discontinued in the 19th Century. Pawnee ritual The Iroquois are said to have occasionally sent a maiden to the Great Spirit. Religion and Conflict: before Columbus The Southern Cult or Mound Builders, of the Southeastern United States may have also practiced human sacrifice, as some artifacts have been interpreted as depicting such acts. Mississippian Civilization Early European explorers reported witnessing mass human sacrifices. Article on Cahokia Mounds West Africa Human sacrifice was common in west African states up to and during the nineteenth century. The Annual customs of Dahomey was the most notorious example, but sacrifices were carried out all along the west African coast and further inland. Sacrifices were particularly common after the death of a King or Queen, and there are many recorded cases of hundreds or even thousands of slaves being sacrificed at such events. Sacrifices were particularly common in Dahomey, in the Benin Empire, in what is now Ghana, and in the small independent states in what is now southern Nigeria. In the northern parts of West Africa, human sacrifice had become rare early as Islam became more established in these areas such as the Hausa States. Human sacrifice was officially banned in the remainder of West African states only by coercion, or in some cases annexation, by either the British or French. An important step was the British coercing the powerful Egbo secret society to oppose human sacrifice in 1850. This society was powerful in a large number of states in what is now south-eastern Nigeria. Nonetheless, human sacrifice continued, normally in secret, until west Africa came under firm colonial control. The Leopard men were a West African secret society active into mid-1900s that practiced cannibalism. In theory, the ritual cannibalism would strengthen both members of the society as well as their entire tribe. In Tanganyika, the Lion men committed an estimated 200 murders in a single three-month period. Murder by Lion, TIME The last major center of human sacrifice was the Benin Empire in modern Nigeria. The Benin Empire agreed with the British to prohibit human sacrifice in the 1890s. However, for five years the rulers continued human sacrifice on a large scale. After an incident in which British observers were killed in order to prevent them witnessing human sacrifice, the British authorities assembled forces to conquer the Benin Empire. This caused an escalation of human sacrifice as Benin's rulers sought to protect themselves from Britain by appeasing the Gods with sacrifice. After a brief campaign the Benin Empire was conquered and human sacrifice suppressed. Prohibition in major religions Judaism Current religious thinking views the Akedah as central to the replacement of human sacrifice; while some Talmudic scholars assert the replacement was the sacrifice of animals at the Temple - using Exodus 13,2.12f; 22,28f; 34,19f; Numeri 3,1ff; 18,15; Deuteronomy 15,19 - others view that as superseded by the symbolic pars-pro-toto sacrifice of circumcision. Leviticus 20,2 and Deuteronomy 18,10 specifically outlaw the giving of children to Moloch, making it punishable by stoning; the Tanakh subsequently denounces human sacrifice as barbaric customs of Baal worshippers (e.g. Psalms 106,37ff). Despite this, human sacrifice is a popular theme in the Old Testament. In Numbers 31 when the Israelites slaughter the people of Midian they take all of the cattle, goods, and flocks into their possession, along with the women and children of the Midianites. This displeases God, who sends a plague upon the Israelites for not slaughtering all of the Midianites, and Moses commands that of the captured Midianites all the male children and all the females who are not virgins are slaughtered. Of the remaining virgin women and children there are recorded 32,000, of which Moses divides amongst the people to offer as human sacrifices to God. Judges chapter 11 contains a story in which a Judge named Jephthah makes a vow to God to sacrifice the first thing that comes out of the door of his house in exchange for God's help with a military battle against the Ammonites. Much to his dismay, his only daughter greeted him upon his triumphant return. Judges 11:39 states that Jephthah kept his vow and sacrificed his only daughter. The 1st century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus understood this to mean that Jephthah burned his daughter on Yahweh’s altar, whilst pseudo-Philo, late first-century C.E., wrote that Jephthah offered his daughter as a burnt offering because he could find no sage in Israel who would cancel his vow. According to Jewish tradition Jephthah was punished along with the high priest Phinehas, who could have annulled Jephthah’s vow but refused. A modern commentator, Solomon Landers, believes that a plausible alternative is that Jephthah’s vow was most likely modified and that she was not in fact sacrificed, but rather, her fate may have been perpetual virginity or solitary confinement. "Did Jephthah Kill his Daughter?", Solomon Landers, Biblical Archaeology Review, August 1991. This is seen by others to be contradicted by scripture which says: "That from year to year the daughters of Israel assemble together, and lament the daughter of Jephte, the Galaadite, for four days"(Judges xi,40) on the basis that people do not mourn for the living. Husenbeth, F.C, "The History of the Blessed Virgin Mary", p29, Forrester Christianity The majority of the early Christian Church Fathers saw the sacrifice of Jepthah's virgin daughter as foreshadowing, like Isaac, the death of Jesus Christ not least because Jepthah's vow in the biblical account was made whilst under the influence of the Holy Spirit (Judges 11:29). In the Christian religion the belief developed that the story of Isaac's binding was a foreshadowing of the sacrifice of Jesus, whom Christians believe was God's only begotten son and simultaneously God Himself, and whose resurrection allowed sins to be washed away. There is a tradition that the site of the binding of Isaac, Moriah, was also the city of Jesus's future crucifixion, i.e. Jerusalem. http://"Voices From the Children of Abraham",[www.newmantoronto.com/040311childrenofabraham2.htm] However no archaeological or historical evidence supports this assertion. The beliefs of most denominations of Christianity hinge upon a single, specific human sacrifice: that of the Christ. Most Christians believe, at least nominally, that in order to gain access to paradise in the afterlife each individual person must somehow become a partaker in that all-important human sacrifice for the atonement of their personal sins. Christians believe they participate in the sacrifice of Calvary through the Eucharist which Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christians believe is really the body and blood of Jesus Christ. "The Sacrifice of the Mass", Catholic Encyclopedia. "Sacrifice of the Mass", Orthodox Church of America. Many Protestants, however, reject this, and rather believe that the bread and wine of communion are merely symbolic, trusting that it is their faith in Christ's finished work on the cross that atones for their sins. Although early Christians in the Roman Empire were accused of being cannibals, Benko, Stephen, Pagan Rome and the Early Christians, p70, Indiana University Press, 1986, ISBN 0253203856 practices such as human sacrifice were abhorrent to them. "The Britons", Christopher Allen Snyder, p52, Blackwell Publishing, 2003, ISBN 063122260X Yet Pliny the Elder (b. 23CE d. 79CE) wrote “It is beyond calculation how great is the debt owed to the Romans, who swept away the monstrous rites, in which to kill a man was the highest religious duty and for him to be eaten a passport to health.” Religions of Rome: A History, Mary Beard, John A. North, S.R.F Price, Cambridge University Press, p234, 1998, ISBN-0521316820 Islam The Quran strongly condemns human sacrifice, as a "grave error and sinful act" (surah 17 ayah 31) and an "ignorant, foolish act of those that have gone astray" (surah 6 ayah 140), and speaks of how the "pagans were deluded by their deities to kill their own children" (surah 6 ayah 140). The Quran instructs the believers not to kill their children for fear of poverty (surah 17 ayah 31) or because they are poor (surah 6 ayah 151). Some Arabs before Islam used to bury their daughters alive; Islam abolished this practice (surah 81 verse 8-9). In the sirah (Biography of Muhammad, written after his death), the father of the prophet Muhammad, Abdullah, was about to be sacrificed by his own father Abd-Almutalib to fulfill an oath he had taken. He was saved from death and 100 camels were slaughtered instead. Eastern religions Many traditions of Eastern religions (Buddhism and Jainism) embrace the doctrine of ahimsa (non-violence) which imposes vegetarianism and outlaws animal as well as human sacrifice. In Hinduism, the principle of ahimsa was prescribed as early as in the Maurya period Manu Smrti. It was, however, not taken to extend to religious violence, based on the argument that sacrificial killing is in fact a benevolent act, not violence, because the victim will attain a high rebirth in the cycle of reincarnation. Manu Smriti 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207). Human sacrifice remained common in medieval Hinduism in the context of Shaktism until the Late Middle Ages, when it generally declined with the rise of the Bhakti movement. The status of the Hindu practice of widow-burning remains disputed. As a burial rite, it qualifies as a "retainer sacrifice" of the sort also found in Near Eastern and European antiquity. The killing of a large number of wives and concubines was practiced in particular in Rajput royal burials. In Sikhism, human sacrifice is neither permitted nor practiced. In Chinese imperial religion, human sacrifice was abolished by the Kangxi Emperor in 1673. Blood libel Allegations of human sacrifice have been made against the Jews generally in the form of accusations of child cannibalism or desecrating the eucharist. Groups that have had such accusations leveled against them include blood libel against the Jews by Apion in the 30s AD, Christians in the Roman empire later allegations of a Jewish conspiracy and the witch hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 20th century, blood libel accusations re-emerged as part of the satanic ritual abuse moral panic. Contemporary human sacrifice India Some people in India are adherents of a set of theistic philosophies called Tantrism (not to be confused with Tantric Buddhism) or Shaktism (worship of Kali). Most either use animal sacrifice or symbolic effigies, but a minority continues to practice human sacrifice despite the risk of prosecution. According to the Hindustan Times, there has been an incident of human sacrifice in western Uttar Pradesh in 2003. Similarly, police in Khurja reported "dozens of sacrifices" in the period of half a year in 2006. The Supreme Court of India habitually issues the death penalty to those found guilty of practicing human sacrifice. Death to those guilty of human sacrifice, PTI, India December 21, 2003 timesofindia.indiatimes.com Sub-Saharan Africa Human sacrifice, in the context of religious ritual, still occurs in other traditional religions, for example in muti killings in Eastern Africa. Human sacrifice is no longer officially condoned in any country, and such cases are regarded as murder. On January, 2008, Milton Blahyi of Liberia confessed being part of human sacrifices which "included the killing of an innocent child and plucking out the heart, which was divided into pieces for us to eat." He fought versus Charles Taylor's militia. news.bbc.co.uk, I ate children's hearts, ex-rebel says In August 2004, a muti killing took place in Ireland; the headless corpse of a Malawi woman was found near Piltown, County Kilkenny. Daughter of minister beheaded - Times Online Ritual murder Ritual killings perpetrated by individuals or small groups within a society that denounces them as simple murder are difficult to classify as either "human sacrifice" or mere pathological homicide because they lack the societal integration of sacrifice proper. The alleged killings by lone cultists discussed under Satanic ritual abuse would classify as such, although the vast majority of these has been shown to have been the product of mass hysteria. The murder of Roberto Calvi in 1982 has been suspected to have a ritual background in a Masonic context. The Norwegian black metal scene in the early 1990s was also rumoured to involve plots of ritual murders among rival groups, but neither of the two fatal stabbings that did occur in this context can be described as "ritual". Martin Ledang, Pål Aasdal (2008). Once Upon a Time in Norway. The instances closest to "ritual killing" in the criminal history of modern society would be pathological serial killers such as the Zodiac Killer, and mass suicides with doomsday cult background, such as the Peoples Temple, Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God, Order of the Solar Temple or Heaven's Gate incidents. Other examples include the "Matamoros killings" attributed to Mexican cult leader Adolfo Constanzo and the "Superior Universal Alignment" killings in 1990s Brazil. Todd Lewan, Satanic Cult Killings Spread Fear in Southern Brazil, The Associated Press, 26 October 1992 In fiction Human sacrifice has a history as a topos in literature, opera, video games, and cinema. A recurrent theme in the Classics, it returns to prominence in European imagination with the Spanish accounts of the Aztec rituals. Derek Hughes in Culture and Sacrifice traces the topic's iterations through the works of Shakespeare, Dryden and Voltaire, and its central position in the operatic tradition from Mozart to Wagner and into 20th century works such as those of D. H. Lawrence. Hughes (2007). See also Bookshelf (hero.ac.uk) "The Lottery" is a 1948 short story that caused controversy in the United States. The Wicker Man is a 1973 film on the topic. See also Child sacrifice Animal sacrifice Religion and violence Cannibalism Sati (practice) - widow-burning Witch-hunt Capital punishment Colosseum Footnotes References Books David Carrasco, City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization, Moughton Mifflin, 2000, ISBN 0-807-04643-4 Clemency Coggins and Orrin C. Shane III Cenote of Sacrifices, ; 1984 The university of Texas Press; ISBN 0-292-71097-6 René Girard, Violence and the Sacred, translated by P. Gregory; Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, ISBN 0826477186 René Girard, I See Satan Fall Like Lightning, translated by James G. Williams; Orbis Books; 2001, ISBN 1-57075-319-9 Miranda Aldhouse Green, Dying for the Gods,; Trafalgar Square; 2001, ISBN 0-7524-1940-4 Dennis D. Hughes, Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece 1991 Routledge ISBN 0-415-03483-3 Derek Hughes, Culture and Sacrifice: Ritual Death in Literature and Opera, 2007, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521867337 Ronald Hutton, The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy , 1991, ISBN 0-631-18946-7 Larry Kahaner, Cults That Kill, ; Warner Books; 1994, ISBN 978-0446356374 Valerio Valeri, Kingship and Sacrifice: Ritual and Society in Ancient Hawaii, 1985, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-84559-1 Journal articles Michael Winkelman, Aztec Human Sacrifice: Cross-Cultural Assessments of the Ecological Hypothesis, Ethnology, Vol. 37, No. 3. (Summer, 1998), pp. 285–298. R. H. Sales, Human Sacrifice in Biblical Thought, Journal of Bible and Religion, Vol. 25, No. 2. (Apr., 1957), pp. 112–117. Brian K. Smith; Wendy Doniger, Sacrifice and Substitution: Ritual Mystification and Mythical Demystification, Numen, Vol. 36, Fasc. 2. (Dec., 1989), pp. 189–224. Brian K. Smith, Capital Punishment and Human Sacrifice, Journal of the American Academy of Religion 2000 68(1):3-26. Robin Law, Human Sacrifice in Pre-Colonial West Africa, African Affairs, Vol. 84, No. 334. (Jan., 1985), pp. 53–87. Th. P. van Baaren, Theoretical Speculations on Sacrifice, Numen, Vol. 11, Fasc. 1. (Jan., 1964), pp. 1–12. Heinsohn, Gunnar: “The Rise of Blood Sacrifice and Priest Kingship in Mesopotamia: A Cosmic Decree?” (also published in Religion, Vol. 22, 1992) J. Rives, Human Sacrifice among Pagans and Christians, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 85. (1995), pp. 65–85. Clifford Williams, Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 21, No. 3. (1988), pp. 433–441. Sheehan, Jonathan, The Altars of the Idols: Religion, Sacrifice, and the Early Modern Polity, Journal of the History of Ideas 67.4 (2006) 649-674 Harco Willems, Crime, Cult and Capital Punishment (Mo'alla Inscription 8), The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 76, (1990), 27-54. | Human_sacrifice |@lemmatized polyxena:1 dy:1 hand:3 neoptolemus:1 tomb:5 achilles:1 drawing:1 ancient:20 cameo:1 human:121 sacrifice:229 act:10 kill:22 part:12 religious:11 ritual:30 killing:13 typology:1 closely:3 parallel:1 various:6 practice:43 slaughter:6 animal:14 general:4 culture:9 throughout:3 history:11 victim:19 typically:2 ritually:3 manner:1 suppose:1 please:3 appease:2 god:30 spirit:3 deceased:1 example:9 propitiatory:1 offering:6 retainer:9 king:9 servant:5 die:7 order:5 continue:8 serve:4 master:3 next:3 life:6 related:1 find:12 tribal:2 society:12 cannibalism:5 headhunting:2 iron:1 age:5 associated:2 development:1 religion:24 axial:1 become:12 less:2 common:10 old:10 world:5 come:7 widely:1 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3,580 | Archaeopteryx | Archaeopteryx, sometimes referred to by its German name Urvogel ("original bird" or "first bird"), is the earliest and most primitive bird known. The name is from the Ancient Greek (archaios) meaning "ancient", and (pteryx), meaning "feather" or "wing"; . Archaeopteryx lived in the late Jurassic Period around 150–145 million years ago, in what is now southern Germany during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size and shape to a European Magpie, Archaeopteryx could grow to about 0.5 metres (1.6 ft) in length. Despite its small size, broad wings, and inferred ability to fly or glide, Archaeopteryx has more in common with small theropod dinosaurs than it does with modern birds. In particular, it shares the following features with the deinonychosaurs (dromaeosaurs and troodontids): jaws with sharp teeth, three fingers with claws, a long bony tail, hyperextensible second toes ("killing claw"), feathers (which also suggest homeothermy), and various skeletal features. The features above make Archaeopteryx the first clear candidate for a transitional fossil between dinosaurs and birds. Archaeopteryx: An Early Bird - University of California, Berkeley Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 2006-OCT-18 Archaeopteryx lithographica - Nick Longrich, University of Calgary. Discusses how many wings an Archaeopteryx had and other questions. Thus, Archaeopteryx plays an important role not only in the study of the origin of birds but in the study of dinosaurs. The first complete specimen of Archaeopteryx was announced in 1861, only two years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, and it became a key piece of evidence in the debate over evolution. Over the years, nine more fossils of Archaeopteryx have surfaced. Despite variation among these fossils, most experts regard all the remains that have been discovered as belonging to a single species, though this is still debated. Many of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers—among the oldest (if not the oldest) direct evidence of feathers. Moreover, because these feathers are an advanced form (flight feathers), these fossils are evidence that feathers had been evolving for quite some time. Description Eight specimens compared to a human foot in scale Archaeopteryx was a primitive bird that lived during the Tithonian stage of the Jurassic Period, around 150–145 million years ago. The only specimens of Archaeopteryx that have been discovered come from Bavaria in southern Germany. Archaeopteryx was roughly the size of a medium-sized modern-day bird, with broad wings that were rounded at the ends and a long tail compared to its body length. In all, Archaeopteryx could reach up to 500 millimeters (1.6 ft) in body length. Archaeopteryx feathers, although less documented than its other features, were very similar in structure and design to modern-day bird feathers. However, despite the presence of numerous avian features, Archaeopteryx had many theropod dinosaur characteristics. Unlike modern birds, Archaeopteryx had small teeth as well as a long bony tail, features which Archaeopteryx shared with other dinosaurs of the time. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 130 (1997) 275-292 Because it displays a number of features common to both birds and dinosaurs, Archaeopteryx has often been considered a link between them—possibly the first bird in its change from a land dweller to a bird. In the 1970s, John Ostrom, following T. H. Huxley's lead in 1868, argued that birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs and Archaeopteryx was a critical piece of evidence for this argument; it preserves a number of avian features, such as a wishbone, flight feathers, wings and a partially reversed first toe, and a number of dinosaur and theropod features. For instance, it has a long ascending process of the ankle bone, interdental plates, an obturator process of the ischium, and long chevrons in the tail. In particular, Ostrom found that Archaeopteryx was remarkably similar to the theropod family Dromaeosauridae. Bühler, P. & Bock, W.J. (2002). Zur Archaeopteryx-Nomenklatur: Missverständnisse und Lösung. Journal of Ornithology. 143(3): 269–286. [Article in German, English abstract] (HTML abstract) Feduccia, A. (1993). Evidence from claw geometry indicating arboreal habits of Archaeopteryx. Science. 259(5096): 790–793. Feduccia, A. & Tordoff, H.B. (1979). Feathers of Archaeopteryx: Asymmetric vanes indicate aerodynamic function. Science. 203(4384): 1021–1022. Huxley T.H. (1868). On the animals which are most nearly intermediate between birds and reptiles. Geol. Mag. 5, 357–65; Annals & Magazine of Nat Hist 2, 66–75; Scientific Memoirs 3, 3–13. Huxley T.H. (1868) Remarks upon Archaeopteryx lithographica. Proc Roy Soc 16, 243–48; Sci Memoirs 3, 340-45. Huxley T.H. (1870) Further evidence of the affinity between the dinosaurian reptiles and birds. Quart J Geol Soc 26, 32–50; Sci Mem 3, 487–509. Kennedy, Elaine (2000). Solnhofen Limestone: Home of Archaeopteryx. Geoscience Reports. 30: 1–4. Retrieved 2006-10-18. <ref>Nedin, C. (1999). All About Archaeopteryx. talk.origins archive. Version of June 10, 2002; retrieved 2006-10-18.</ref> Olson, S.L. & Feduccia, A. (1979). Flight capability and the pectoral girdle of Archaeopteryx. Nature. 278(5701). 247–248. (HTML abstract) Ostrom, J.H. (1976). Archaeopteryx and the origin of birds. Biol. J. Linn. Soc.. 8: 91–182. Ostrom, J.H. (1985). Introduction to Archaeopteryx. In: Hecht, M.K.O.; Ostrom, J.H.; Viohl, G. & Wellnhofer, P. (eds.) The Beginnings of Birds: Proceedings of the International Archaeopteryx Conference: 9–20. Eichstätt, Freunde des Jura-Museums Eichstätt. Owen, R. (1863). On the Archaeopteryx of Von Meyer, with a description of the fossil remains of a long-tailed species from the lithographic stone of Solnhofen. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London. 153: 33–47. The first remains of Archaeopteryx were discovered in 1861; just two years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. Archaeopteryx seemed to confirm Darwin's theories and has since become a key piece of evidence in the origin of birds, transitional fossils debate and the confirmation of evolution. Indeed, further research on dinosaurs from the Gobi Desert and China has since provided more evidence of a link between Archaeopteryx and the dinosaurs, such as the Chinese feathered dinosaurs. Archaeopteryx is close to the ancestry of modern birds, and it shows most of the features one would expect in an ancestral bird. However, it may not be the direct ancestor of living birds, and it is uncertain how much evolutionary divergence was already present among other birds at the time. Paleobiology Plumage Specimens of Archaeopteryx were most notable for their well-developed flight feathers. They were markedly asymmetrical and showed the structure of flight feathers in modern birds, with vanes given stability by a barb-barbule-barbicel arrangement. The tail feathers were less asymmetrical, again in line with the situation in modern birds and also had firm vanes. The thumb, however, did not yet bear a separately movable tuft of stiff feathers. 1880 photo of the Berlin Archaeopteryx specimen, showing leg feathers that were subsequently removed during preparation The body plumage of Archaeopteryx is less well documented and has only been properly researched in the well-preserved Berlin specimen. Thus, as more than one species seems to be involved, the research into the Berlin specimen's feathers does not necessarily hold true for the rest of the species of Archaeopteryx. In the Berlin specimen, there are "trousers" of well-developed feathers on the legs; some of these feathers seem to have a basic contour feather structure but are somewhat decomposed (they lack barbicels as in ratites), Christensen P, Bonde N. (2004). Body plumage in Archaeopteryx: a review, and new evidence from the Berlin specimen. Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3: 99–118. PDF fulltext but in part they are firm and thus capable of supporting flight. Longrich N. (2006): Structure and function of hindlimb feathers in Archaeopteryx lithographica. Paleobiology. 32(3): 417–431. (HTML abstract) There was a patch of pennaceous feathers running along the back which was quite similar to the contour feathers of the body plumage of modern birds in being symmetrical and firm, though not as stiff as the flight-related feathers. Apart from that, the feather traces in the Berlin specimen are limited to a sort of "proto-down" not dissimilar to that found in the dinosaur Sinosauropteryx, being decomposed and fluffy, and possibly even appeared more like fur than like feathers in life (though not in their microscopic structure). These occur on the remainder of the body, as far as such structures are both preserved and not obliterated by preparation, and the lower neck. However, there is no indication of feathering on the upper neck and head. While these may conceivably have been nude as in many closely related feathered dinosaurs for which good specimens are available, this may still be an artifact of preservation. It appears that most Archaeopteryx specimens became embedded in anoxic sediment after drifting some time on their back in the sea — the head and neck and the tail are generally bent downwards, which suggests that the specimens had just started to rot when they were embedded, with tendons and muscle relaxing so that the characteristic shape of the fossil specimens was achieved. This would mean that the skin was already softened and loose, which is bolstered by the fact that in some specimens the flight feathers were starting to detach at the point of embedding in the sediment. So it is hypothesized that the pertinent specimens moved along the sea bed in shallow water for some time before burial, the head and upper neck feathers sloughing off, while the more firmly attached tail feathers remained. Elżanowski A. (2002): Archaeopterygidae (Upper Jurassic of Germany). In: Chiappe, L. M. & Witmer, L. M (eds.), Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs: 129–159. University of California Press, Berkeley. Flight Anatomical illustration comparing the "frond-tail" of Archaeopteryx to the "fan-tail" of a modern bird As in the wings of modern birds, the flight feathers of Archaeopteryx were highly asymmetrical and the tail feathers were rather broad. This implies that the wings and tail were used for lift generation. However, it is unclear whether Archaeopteryx was simply a glider or capable of flapping flight. The lack of a bony breastbone suggests that Archaeopteryx was not a very strong flier, but flight muscles might have attached to the thick, boomerang-shaped wishbone, the platelike coracoids, or perhaps to a cartilaginous sternum. The sideways orientation of the glenoid (shoulder) joint between scapula, coracoid and humerus—instead of the dorsally angled arrangement found in modern birds—suggests that Archaeopteryx was unable to lift its wings above its back, a requirement for the upstroke found in modern flapping flight. Thus, it seems likely that Archaeopteryx was indeed unable to use flapping flight as modern birds do, but it may well have utilized a downstroke-only flap-assisted gliding technique. Senter, P. (2006). Scapular orientation in theropods and basal birds and the origin of flapping flight. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 51(2): 305–313. PDF fulltext Archaeopteryx wings were relatively large, which would have resulted in a low stall speed and reduced turning radius. The short and rounded shape of the wings would have increased drag, but could also have improved Archaeopteryx ability to fly through cluttered environments such as trees and brush (similar wing shapes are seen in birds which fly through trees and brush, such as crows and pheasants). The presence of "hind wings", asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as Microraptor, would also have added to the aerial mobility of Archaeopteryx. The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich in 2006 suggested that the structures formed up to 12% of the total airfoil. This would have reduced stall speed by up to 6% and turning radius by up to 12%. Longrich N. (2006). Structure and function of hindlimb feathers in Archaeopteryx lithographica. Paleobiology. 32(3): 417–431. (HTML abstract) In 2004, scientists analyzing a detailed CT scan of Archaeopteryx braincase concluded that its brain was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain. Other well-developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination. Witmer, L. M. (2004). Palaeontology: Inside the oldest bird brain. Nature. 430(7000): 619–620. PMID 15295579 The skull scan also revealed the structure of the inner ear. The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of reptiles. These characteristics taken together suggest that Archaeopteryx had the keen sense of hearing, balance, spatial perception and coordination needed to fly. Alonso, P. D., Milner, A. C., Ketcham, R. A., Cookson, M. J. & Rowe, T. B. (2004). The avian nature of the brain and inner ear of Archaeopteryx. Nature. 430(7000): 666–669. PMID 15295597. . PDF fulltext Supplementary info Mounted replica of an Archaeopteryx skeleton. Archaeopteryx continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and evolution of birds. Some scientists see it as a semi-arboreal climbing animal, following the idea that birds evolved from tree-dwelling gliders (the "trees down" hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by O.C. Marsh). Other scientists see Archaeopteryx as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running (the "ground up" hypothesis proposed by Samuel Wendell Williston). Still others suggest that Archaeopteryx might have been at home both in the trees and on the ground, like modern crows, and this latter view is what today is considered best-supported by morphological characters. Altogether, it appears that the species was not particularly specialized for running on the ground or for perching. Considering the current knowledge of flight-related morphology, a scenario outlined by Elżanowski in 2002, namely that Archaeopteryx used its wings mainly to escape predators by glides punctuated with shallow downstrokes to reach successively higher perches, and alternatively to cover longer distances by (mainly) gliding down from cliffs or treetops, appears quite reasonable. Paleoecology The richness and diversity of the Solnhofen limestones in which all specimens of Archaeopteryx have been found have shed light on an ancient Jurassic Bavaria strikingly different from the present day. The latitude was similar to Florida, though the climate was likely to have been drier, as evidenced by fossils of plants with adaptations for arid conditions and lack of terrestrial sediments characteristic of rivers. Evidence of plants, though scarce, include cycads and conifers while animals found include a large number of insects, small lizards, pterosaurs and Compsognathus. The excellent preservation of Archaeopteryx fossils and other terrestrial fossils found at Solnhofen indicates that they did not travel far before becoming preserved. The Archaeopteryx specimens found are likely therefore to have lived on the low islands surrounding the Solnhofen lagoon rather than been corpses that drifted in from further away. Archaeopteryx skeletons are considerably less numerous in the deposits of Solnhofen than those of pterosaurs, of which seven genera have been found. Bartell K.W., Swinburne N.H.M. and Conway-Morris S. 1990. Solnhofen: a study in Mesozoic palaeontology. Cambridge (transl. and revised from Bartel K.W. 1978. Ein Blick in die Erdgeschichte. Ott. The pterosaurs included such as Rhamphorhynchus, the group which dominated the niche currently occupied by seabirds, and which became extinct at the end of the Jurassic. The pterosaurs, which also included Pterodactylus, were common enough that it is unlikely that the specimens found are vagrants from the larger islands 50 km (31 miles) to the north. The islands that surrounded the Solnhofen lagoon were low lying, semi-arid and sub-tropical with a long dry season and little rain. The closest modern analogue for the Solnhofn conditions is said to be Orca Basin in the northern Gulf of Mexico, though that is much deeper than the Solnhofn lagoons. The flora of these islands was adapted to these dry conditions and consisted mostly of low (3 m [10 ft]) shrubs. Contrary to reconstructions of Archaeopteryx climbing large trees, these seem to have been mostly absent from the islands; few trunks have been found in the sediments and fossilized tree pollen is also absent. The lifestyle of Archaeopteryx is difficult to reconstruct and there are several theories regarding it. Some researchers suggest that it was primarily adapted to life on the ground, while other researchers suggest that it was principally arboreal. The absence of trees does not preclude Archaeopteryx from an arboreal lifestyle; several species of extant bird live exclusively in low shrubs. Various aspects of the morphology of Archaeopteryx point to either an arboreal or ground existence, the length of its legs, the elongation in its feet; and some authorities consider it likely to have been a generalist capable of feeding in both shrubs, open ground and even alongside the shores of the lagoon. It most likely hunted small prey, seizing it with its jaws if it was small enough or with its claws if it was larger. History of discovery Timeline of Archaeopteryx discoveries. (Click to enlarge) Over the years, ten body fossil specimens of Archaeopteryx and a feather that may belong to it have been found. All of the fossils come from the limestone deposits, quarried for centuries, near Solnhofen, Germany. National Geographic News- Earliest Bird Had Feet Like Dinosaur, Fossil Shows - Nicholas Bakalar, December 1, 2005, Page 1. Retrieved 2006-10-18. The famous, single feather The initial discovery, a single feather, was unearthed in 1860 and described a year later by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer. It is currently located at the Humboldt Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin. This is generally assigned to Archaeopteryx and was the initial holotype, but whether it actually is a feather of this species or another, as yet undiscovered, proto-bird is unknown. There are some indications it is indeed not from the same animal as most of the skeletons (the "typical" A. lithographica). Griffiths, P. J. (1996). The Isolated Archaeopteryx Feather. Archaeopteryx 14: 1–26. Replica of the London Archaeopteryx. Soon after, the first skeleton, known as the London Specimen (BMNH 37001) was unearthed in 1861 near Langenaltheim, Germany and given to a local physician Karl Häberlein in return for medical services. He then sold it to the Natural History Museum in London, where it remains. Missing most of its head and neck, it was described in 1863 by Richard Owen as Archaeopteryx macrura, who assumed it did not belong to the same species as the feather. In the subsequent 4th edition of his On the Origin of Species (chap. 9 p. 367), Charles Darwin described how some authors had maintained "that the whole class of birds came suddenly into existence during the eocene period; but now we know, on the authority of Professor Owen, that a bird certainly lived during the deposition of the upper greensand; and still more recently, that strange bird, the Archeopteryx, with a long lizard-like tail, bearing a pair of feathers on each joint, and with its wings furnished with two free claws, has been discovered in the oolitic slates of Solenhofen. Hardly any recent discovery shows more forcibly than this how little we as yet know of the former inhabitants of the world." The Greek term "pteryx" (πτερυξ) primarily means "wing", but can also designate merely "feather". Von Meyer suggested this in his description. At first he referred to a single feather which appeared like a modern bird's remex (wing feather), but he had heard of and been shown a rough sketch of the London specimen, to which he referred as a "Skelet eines mit Federn bedeckten " ("skeleton of an animal covered in feathers"). In German, this ambiguity is resolved by the term Schwinge which does not necessarily mean a wing used for flying. Urschwinge was the favored translation of Archaeopteryx among German scholars in the late 19th century. In English, "ancient pinion" offers a rough approximation. Since then nine specimens have been recovered: The Berlin Archaeopteryx. The Berlin Specimen (HMN 1880) was discovered in 1876 or 1877 on the Blumenberg near Eichstätt, Germany, by Jakob Niemeyer. He exchanged this precious fossil for a cow, with Johann Dörr. Placed on sale in 1881, with potential buyers including O.C. Marsh of Yale University's Peabody Museum, it was bought by the Humboldt Museum für Naturkunde, where it is now displayed. The transaction was financed by Ernst Werner von Siemens, founder of the famous company that bears his name. Described in 1884 by Wilhelm Dames, it is the most complete specimen, and the first with a complete head. Once classified as a new species, A. siemensii, a recent evaluation supports the A. siemensii species definition. Composed of a torso, the Maxberg Specimen (S5) was discovered in 1956 or 1958 near Langenaltheim and described in 1959 by Heller. It is currently missing, though it was once exhibited at the Maxberg Museum in Solnhofen. It belonged to Eduard Opitsch, who loaned it to the museum. After his death in 1991, the specimen was discovered to be missing and may have been stolen or sold. The specimen is missing its head and tail, although the rest of the skeleton is mostly intact. The Haarlem Specimen (TM 6428, also known as the Teyler Specimen) was discovered in 1855 near Riedenburg, Germany and described as a Pterodactylus crassipes in 1875 by von Meyer. It was reclassified in 1970 by John Ostrom and is currently located at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, the Netherlands. It was the very first specimen, despite the classification error. It is also one of the least complete specimens, consisting mostly of limb bones and isolated cervical vertebrae and ribs. Cast of slab and counter-slab of the Eichstätt Specimen, American Museum of Natural History The Eichstätt Specimen (JM 2257) was discovered in 1951 or 1955 near Workerszell, Germany and described by Peter Wellnhofer in 1974. Currently located at the Jura Museum in Eichstätt, Germany, it is the smallest specimen and has the second best head. It is possibly a separate genus (Jurapteryx recurva) or species (A. recurva). The Solnhofen Specimen (BSP 1999) was discovered in the 1960s near Eichstätt, Germany and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum in Solnhofen, it was originally classified as Compsognathus by an amateur collector. It is the largest specimen known and may belong to a separate genus and species, Wellnhoferia grandis. It is missing only portions of the neck, tail, backbone, and head. The Munich Specimen The Munich Specimen (S6, formerly known as the Solnhofen-Aktien-Verein Specimen) was discovered in 1991 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. It is currently located at the Paläontologisches Museum München in Munich. What was initially believed to be a bony sternum turned out to be part of the coracoid, Wellnhofer, P. & Tischlinger, H. (2004). Das "Brustbein" von Archaeopteryx bavarica Wellnhofer 1993 - eine Revision. Archaeopteryx. 22: 3–15. [Article in German] but a cartilaginous sternum may have been present. Only the front of its face is missing. It may be a new species, A. bavarica. An eighth, fragmentary specimen, the Bürgermeister-Müller Specimen was discovered in 1997 and it is currently kept at the Bürgermeister-Müller Museum. Other than the above remains discovered, a further fragmentary fossil was found in 2004. The Thermopolis Specimen Long in a private collection, the Thermopolis Specimen (WDC CSG 100) was discovered in Germany and described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Donated to the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in Thermopolis, Wyoming, it has the best-preserved head and feet; most of the neck and the lower jaw have not been preserved. The "Thermopolis" specimen was described in the December 2, 2005 Science journal article as "A well-preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features"; it shows that the Archaeopteryx lacked a reversed toe—a universal feature of birds—limiting its ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk-climbing lifestyle. Mayr G, Pohl B & Peters DS. (2005). A well-preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features. Science. 310(5753): 1483–1486. See commentary on article This has been interpreted as evidence of theropod ancestry. The specimen also has a hyperextendible second toe. "Until now, the feature was thought to belong only to the species' close relatives, the deinonychosaurs." National Geographic News- Earliest Bird Had Feet Like Dinosaur, Fossil Shows - Nicholas Bakalar, December 1, 2005, Page 2. Retrieved 2006-10-18. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul claimed to have found evidence of a hyperextensible toe, but this was not verified and accepted by other scientists until the Thermopolis specimen was described. Paul, G.S. (1988). Predatory Dinosaurs of the World, a Complete Illustrated Guide. New York: Simon and Schuster. 464 p. This tenth and latest specimen was assigned to Archaeopteryx siemensii in 2007. Mayr, G., Phol, B., Hartman, S. & Peters, D.S. (2007). The tenth skeletal specimen of Archaeopteryx. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 149, 97–116. The specimen itself, currently on loan to the Royal Tyrrell Museum, Drumheller, Alberta, Canada, is considered the most complete and well preserved Archaeopteryx remains yet. Taxonomy Today, the fossils are usually assigned to a single species A. lithographica, but the taxonomic history is complicated. Dozens of names have been published for the handful of specimens, most of which are simply spelling errors (lapsus). Originally, the name A. lithographica only referred to the single feather described by von Meyer. In 1960, Swinton proposed that the name Archaeopteryx lithographica be officially transferred from the feather to the London specimen. Swinton, W. E. (1960). Opinion 1084, Proposed addition of the generic name Archaeopteryx VON MEYER, 1861 and the specific name Lithographica, VON MEYER, 1861, as published in the binomen Archaeopteryx Lithographica to the official lists (Class Aves). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 17(6–8): 224–226. The ICZN did suppress the plethora of alternative names initially proposed for the first skeleton specimens, ICZN. (1961). Opinion 607, Archaeopteryx VON MEYER, 1861 (Aves); Addition to the Official list. Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 18(4): 260–261. which mainly resulted from the acrimonious dispute between von Meyer and his opponent Johann Andreas Wagner (whose Griphosaurus problematicus—"problematic riddle-lizard"—was a vitriolic sneer at von Meyer's Archaeopteryx). Wagner A (1861) Über ein neues, angeblich mit Vogelfedern versehenes Reptil aus dem Solnhofener lithographischen Schiefer. Sitzungberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, mathematisch-physikalisch Classe 146–154 In addition, descriptions of Archaeopteryx fossils as pterosaurs before their true nature was realized were also suppressed. ICZN. (1977). Opinion 1070. Conservation of Archaeopteryx lithographica VON MEYER 1861 (Aves). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 33: 165–166. The relationships of the specimens are problematic. Most subsequent specimens have been given their own species at one point or another. The Berlin specimen has been designated as Archaeornis siemensii, the Eichstätt specimen as Jurapteryx recurva, the Munich specimen as Archaeopteryx bavarica and the Solnhofen specimen was designated as Wellnhoferia grandis. Recently, it has been argued that all the specimens belong to the same species. Archaeopteryx turns out to be singular bird of a feather. New Scientist 2443:17. 17 April 2004. See commentary on article. However, significant differences exist among the specimens. In particular, the Munich, Eichstätt, Solnhofen and Thermopolis specimens differ from the London, Berlin, and Haarlem specimens in being smaller or much larger, having different finger proportions, having more slender snouts, lined with forward-pointing teeth and possible presence of a sternum. These differences are as large as or larger than the differences seen today between adults of different bird species. However, it is also possible that these differences could be explained by different ages of the living birds. Finally, it is worth noting that the feather, the first specimen of Archaeopteryx described, does not agree well with the flight-related feathers of Archaeopteryx. It certainly is a flight feather of a contemporary species, but its size and proportions indicate that it may belong to another, smaller species of feathered theropod, of which only this feather is so far known. As the feather was the original type specimen, this has created significant nomenclatorial confusion. Synonyms If two names are given, the first denotes the original describer of the "species", the second the author on whom the given name combination is based. As always in zoological nomenclature, putting an author's name in parentheses denotes that the taxon was originally described in a different genus. Pterodactylus crassipes Meyer, 1857 [suppressed in favor of A. lithographica 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070] Rhamphorhynchus crassipes (Meyer, 1857) (as Pterodactylus (Rhamphorhynchus) crassipes) [suppressed in favor of A. lithographica 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070] Archaeopteryx lithographica Meyer, 1861 [nomen conservandum] Scaphognathus crassipes (Meyer, 1857) Wagner, 1861 [suppressed in favor of A. lithographica 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070] Archaeopterix lithographica Anon., 1861 [lapsus] Griphosaurus problematicus Wagner, 1861 [nomen oblitum 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607] Griphornis longicaudatus Woodward, 1862 [nomen oblitum 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607] Griphosaurus longicaudatum (Woodward, 1862) [lapsus] Griphosaurus longicaudatus (Owen, 1862) [nomen oblitum 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607] Archaeopteryx macrura Owen, 1862 [nomen oblitum 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607] Archaeopterix macrura Owen, 1862 [lapsus] Archaeopterix macrurus Egerton, 1862 [lapsus] Archeopteryx macrurus Owen, 1863 [unjustified emendation] Archaeopteryx macroura Vogt, 1879 [lapsus] Archaeopteryx siemensii Dames, 1897 Archaeopteryx siemensi Dames, 1897 [lapsus] Archaeornis siemensii (Dames, 1897) Petronievics, 1917 Archaeopteryx oweni Petronievics, 1917 [nomen oblitum 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607] Gryphornis longicaudatus Lambrecht, 1933 [lapsus] Gryphosaurus problematicus Lambrecht, 1933 [lapsus] Archaeopteryx macrourus Owen, 1862 fide Lambrecht, 1933 [lapsus] Archaeornis siemensi (Dames, 1897) fide Lambrecht, 1933? [lapsus] Archeopteryx macrura Ostrom, 1970 [lapsus] Archaeopteryx crassipes (Meyer, 1857) Ostrom, 1972 [suppressed in favor of A. lithographica 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070] Archaeopterix lithographica di Gregorio, 1984 [lapsus] Archaeopteryx recurva Howgate, 1984 Jurapteryx recurva (Howgate, 1984) Howgate, 1985 Archaeopteryx bavarica Wellnhofer, 1993 Wellnhoferia grandis Elżanowski, 2001 The last 4 taxa may be valid genera and species."Archaeopteryx" vicensensis (Anon. fide Lambrecht, 1933) is a nomen nudum for what appears to be an undescribed pterosaur. Controversies Authenticity Beginning in 1985, a group including astronomer Fred Hoyle and physicist Lee Spetner published a series of papers claiming that the feathers on the Berlin and London specimens of Archaeopteryx were forged. Their claims were repudiated by Alan J. Charig and others at the British Museum (Natural History). Most of their evidence for a forgery was based on unfamiliarity with the processes of lithification; for example, they proposed that based on the difference in texture associated with the feathers, feather impressions were applied to a thin layer of cement, without realizing that feathers themselves would have caused a textural difference. They also expressed disbelief that slabs would split so smoothly, or that one half of a slab containing fossils would have good preservation, but not the counterslab. These, though, are common properties of Solnhofen fossils because the dead animals would fall onto hardened surfaces which would form a natural plane for the future slabs to split along, leaving the bulk of the fossil on one side and little on the other. They also misinterpreted the fossils, claiming that the tail was forged as one large feather, when this is visibly not the case. In addition, they claimed that the other specimens of Archaeopteryx known at the time did not have feathers, which is untrue; the Maxberg and Eichstätt specimens have obvious feathers. Finally, the motives they suggested for a forgery are not strong, and contradictory; one is that Richard Owen wanted to forge evidence in support of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which is unlikely given Owen's views toward Darwin and his theory. The other is that Owen wanted to set a trap for Darwin, hoping the latter would support the fossils so Owen could discredit him with the forgery; this is unlikely because Owen himself wrote a detailed paper on the London specimen, so such an action would certainly backfire. Charig et al.. pointed to the presence of hairline cracks in the slabs running through both rock and fossil impressions, and mineral growth over the slabs that had occurred before discovery and preparation, as evidence that the feathers were original. Spetner et al.. then attempted to show that the cracks would have naturally propagated through their postulated cement layer, but neglected to account for the fact that the cracks were old and had been filled with calcite, and thus were not able to propagate. They also attempted to show the presence of cement on the London specimen through X-ray spectroscopy, and did find something that was not rock. However, it was not cement, either, and is most probably from a fragment of silicone rubber left behind when molds were made of the specimen. Their suggestions have not been taken seriously by paleontologists, as their evidence was largely based on misunderstandings of geology, and they never discussed the other feather-bearing specimens, which have increased in number since then. Archaeopteryx and Protoavis In 1984, Sankar Chatterjee discovered fossils which he claimed in 1991 belonged to a fossil bird far older than Archaeopteryx. These fossils, believed to be around 210 to 225 million years old, have been assigned the name Protoavis. The fossils are too badly preserved to allow an estimate of flying ability; although Chatterjee's reconstructions usually show feathers, many paleontologists, including Paul (2002) and Witmer (2002) have rejected the claims that Protoavis was an earlier bird (or, alternately, that it existed at all). The fossils were found disarticulated, and were collected from different locations. Because the fossils are in poor condition, Archaeopteryx remains the earliest universally recognized bird. Phylogenetic position Modern paleontology has consistently placed Archaeopteryx as the most primitive bird. It is not thought to be a true ancestor of modern birds but, rather, a close relative of that ancestor (see Avialae and Aves). Nonetheless, Archaeopteryx is so often used as a model of the true ancestral bird that it has seemed almost heretical to suggest otherwise. Several authors have done so. Lowe (1935) and Thulborn (1984) questioned whether Archaeopteryx truly was the first bird. They suggested that Archaeopteryx was a dinosaur that was no more closely related to birds than were other dinosaur groups. Kurzanov (1987) suggested that Avimimus was more likely to be the ancestor of all birds than Archaeopteryx. Barsbold (1983) and Zweers and Van den Berge (1997) noted that many maniraptoran lineages are extremely birdlike, and suggested that different groups of birds may have descended from different dinosaur ancestors. In popular culture Painting of Archaeopteryx by Heinrich Harder, from around 1916.Archaeopteryx is the best known early bird and has thus received widespread attention. Its easily recognizable appearance and the intense public interest in dinosaurs have caused Archaeopteryx to become a feature of worldwide popular culture. For example, the second book in the Time Machine series, Search for Dinosaurs, takes the reader on a journey to the Mesozoic to find and photograph an Archaeopteryx. Bischoff, David; Search for Dinosaurs (Time Machine, No. 2); published 1984 by Bantam Books; introduction In one of the "strangest" appearances of Archaeopteryx in popular culture, Alfred Jarry's play ('Ubu cuckolded, or the Archaeopteryx') includes an Archaeopteryx as an important character. Buffetaut, E. (1985). The strangest interpretation of Archaeopteryx In: Hecht, M.K.O.; Ostrom, J.H.; Viohl, G. & Wellnhofer, P. (eds.) The Beginnings of Birds: Proceedings of the International Archaeopteryx Conference: 369-370. Eichstätt, Freunde des Jura-Museums Eichstätt. The iconic appearance of the Berlin Specimen has been adapted into the logo of Arc'teryx Equipment Inc. The company's name is a contraction of Archaeopteryx. A main belt asteroid discovered in 1991, 9860 Archaeopteryx, was named in honour of the genus. In Neil Cicierega's Dinosaurchestra album, there is a song named after and written about Archaeopteryx. See also Dinosaur Origin of birds Feathered dinosaurs Temporal paradox (paleontology) Footnotes Further reading de Beer, G.R. (1954). Archaeopteryx lithographica: a study based upon the British Museum specimen. Trustees of the British Museum, London. Chambers, P. (2002). Bones of Contention: The Fossil that Shook Science. John Murray, London. ISBN 0-7195-6059-4. Feduccia, A. (1996). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Yale University Press, New Haven. ISBN 0-300-06460-8. Heilmann, G. (1926). The Origin of Birds. Witherby, London. Huxley T.H. (1871). Manual of the anatomy of vertebrate animals. London. von Meyer, H. (1861). Archaeopteryx litographica (Vogel-Feder) und Pterodactylus von Solenhofen. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefakten-Kunde. 1861: 678–679, plate V [Article in German] Fulltext at Google Books. Shipman, P. (1998). Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. ISBN 0-297-84156-4. Wellnhofer, P. (2008). Archaeopteryx. Der Urvogel von Solnhofen'' (in German). Verlag Friedrich Pfeil, Munich. ISBN 978-389937076-8 External links Journal of Dinosaur Paleontology - With many articles on dinosaur-bird links. All About Archaeopteryx from Talk.Origins | Archaeopteryx |@lemmatized archaeopteryx:136 sometimes:1 refer:4 german:7 name:16 urvogel:2 original:4 bird:68 first:15 early:7 primitive:3 know:10 ancient:4 greek:2 archaios:1 mean:4 pteryx:2 meaning:1 feather:65 wing:19 live:5 late:3 jurassic:5 period:3 around:4 million:3 year:8 ago:2 southern:2 germany:11 time:9 europe:1 archipelago:1 island:5 shallow:3 warm:1 tropical:2 sea:3 much:4 closer:1 equator:1 similar:7 size:6 shape:5 european:1 magpie:1 could:5 grow:1 metre:1 ft:3 length:4 despite:4 small:9 broad:3 inferred:1 ability:4 fly:7 glide:3 common:4 theropod:10 dinosaur:28 modern:19 particular:3 share:2 follow:3 feature:15 deinonychosaurs:2 dromaeosaur:1 troodontids:1 jaw:3 sharp:1 teeth:3 three:1 finger:2 claw:5 long:10 bony:4 tail:15 hyperextensible:2 second:5 toe:5 kill:1 also:17 suggest:15 homeothermy:1 various:2 skeletal:2 make:2 clear:1 candidate:1 transitional:2 fossil:32 university:5 california:2 berkeley:2 museum:19 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3,581 | Lazy_evaluation | In computer programming, lazy evaluation is the technique of delaying a computation until the result is required. The benefits of lazy evaluation include: performance increases due to avoiding unnecessary calculations, avoiding error conditions in the evaluation of compound expressions, the ability to construct infinite data structures, and the ability to define control structures as regular functions rather than built-in primitives. Languages that use lazy actions can be further subdivided into those that use a call-by-name evaluation strategy and those that use call-by-need. Most realistic lazy languages, such as Haskell, use call-by-need for performance reasons, but theoretical presentations of lazy evaluation often use call-by-name for simplicity. The opposite of lazy actions is eager evaluation, also known as strict evaluation. Eager evaluation is the evaluation behavior used in most programming languages. Lazy evaluation refers to how expressions are evaluated when they are passed as arguments to functions and entails the following three points: "Conception, Evolution, and Application of Functional Programming Languages", Paul Hudak, ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 21, No.3, September 1989, pg. 383-385 The expression is only evaluated if the result is required by the calling function, called delayed evaluation. David A. Schmidt, "Denotational Semantics", p.181 The expression is only evaluated to the extent that is required by the calling function, called Short-circuit evaluation. the expression is never evaluated more than once, called applicative-order evaluation. David A. Watt, "Programming Language concepts and Paradigms", p. 100 Delayed evaluation Delayed evaluation is used particularly in functional languages. When using delayed evaluation, an expression is not evaluated as soon as it gets bound to a variable, but when the evaluator is forced to produce the expression's value. That is, a statement such as x:=expression; (i.e. the assignment of the result of an expression to a variable) clearly calls for the expression to be evaluated and the result placed in x, but what actually is in x is irrelevant until there is a need for its value via a reference to x in some later expression whose evaluation could itself be deferred, though eventually the rapidly-growing tree of dependencies would be pruned in order to produce some symbol rather than another for the outside world to see. Some programming languages delay evaluation of expressions by default, and some others provide functions or special syntax to delay evaluation. In Miranda and Haskell, evaluation of function arguments is delayed by default. In many other languages, evaluation can be delayed by explicitly suspending the computation using special syntax (as with Scheme's "delay" and "force" and OCaml's "lazy" and "Lazy.force") or, more generally, by wrapping the expression in a thunk. The object representing such an explicitly delayed evaluation is called a future or promise. Delayed evaluation has the advantage of being able to create calculable infinite lists without infinite loops or size matters interfering in computation. For example, one could create a function that creates an infinite list (often called a stream) of Fibonacci numbers. The calculation of the n-th Fibonacci number would be merely the extraction of that element from the infinite list, forcing the evaluation of only the first n members of the list. For example, in Haskell, the list of all Fibonacci numbers can be written as fibs = 0 : 1 : zipWith (+) fibs (tail fibs) In Haskell syntax, ":" prepends an element to a list, tail returns a list without its first element, and zipWith uses a specified function (in this case addition) to combine corresponding elements of two lists to produce a third. Provided the programmer is careful, only the values that are required to produce a particular result are evaluated. However, certain calculations may result in the program attempting to evaluate an infinite number of elements; for example, requesting the length of the list or trying to sum the elements of the list with a fold operation would result in the program either failing to terminate or running out of memory. Control structures Even in most eager languages if statements evaluate in a lazy fashion. if a then b else c evaluates (a), then if and only if (a) evaluates to true does it evaluate (b), otherwise it evaluates (c). That is, either (b) or (c) will not be evaluated. Conversely, in an eager language define f(x,y) = 2*x set k = f(e,f) will still evaluate (e) and (f) when computing (k). However, user-defined control structures depend on exact syntax, so for example define g(a,b,c) = if a then b else c l = g(h,i,j) (i) and (j) would both be evaluated in an eager language. l' = if h then i else j (i) or (j) would be evaluated, but never both. Lazy evaluation allows control structures to be defined normally, and not as primitives or compile-time techniques. If (i) or (j) had side effects or introduced run time errors the subtle differences between (l) and (l') can be complex. As most programming languages are Turing-complete, it is of course possible to have developers introduce their own lazy control structures in eager languages, either as built-ins like C's ternary operator ?: or by other techniques such as clever use of lambdas, or macros. Short-circuit evaluation of Boolean control structures is sometimes called "lazy". Controlling eagerness in lazy languages In lazy programming languages such as Haskell, although the default is to evaluate expressions only when they are demanded, it is possible in some cases to make code more eager - or conversely, to make it more lazy again after it has been made more eager. This can be done by explicitly coding something which forces evaluation (which may make the code more eager) or avoiding such code (which may make the code more lazy). Eagerness is also known as strictness. However, there is an optimisation implemented in some compilers called strictness analysis, which, in some cases, allows the compiler to infer that a value will always be used. In such cases, this may render the programmer's choice of whether to force that particular value or not, irrelevant, because strictness analysis will force strict evaluation. In Haskell, marking constructor fields strict means that their values will always be demanded immediately. The seq function can also be used to demand a value immediately and then pass it on, which is useful if a constructor field should generally be lazy. However, neither of these techniques implements recursive strictness - for that, a function called deepSeq was invented. Also, pattern matching in Haskell 98 is strict by default, so the ~ qualifier has to be used to make it lazy. Other uses In computer windowing systems, the painting of information to the screen is driven by "expose events" which drive the display code at the last possible moment. By doing this, they avoid the computation of unnecessary display content. Another example of laziness in modern computer systems is copy-on-write page allocation or demand paging, where memory is allocated only when a value stored in that memory is changed. Laziness can be useful for high performance scenarios. An example is the Unix mmap functionality. mmap provides "demand driven" loading of pages from disk, so that only those pages actually touched are loaded into memory, and unnecessary memory is not allocated. See also Combinatory logic Currying Dataflow Eager evaluation Functional programming Graph reduction Incremental computing - a related concept whereby computations are only repeated if their inputs change. May be combined with lazy evaluation. Lambda calculus Lazy initialization Lookahead Minimal evaluation Non-strict programming language Normal order evaluation External links Functional programming in Python becomes lazy Lazy function argument evaluation in the D programming language Lazy evaluation macros in Nemerle Lazy programming and lazy evaluation in Scheme Lazy argument evaluation in Io programming language Lazy evaluation list/set processing in C programming language References | Lazy_evaluation |@lemmatized computer:3 programming:12 lazy:28 evaluation:37 technique:4 delay:10 computation:5 result:7 require:4 benefit:1 include:1 performance:3 increase:1 due:1 avoid:4 unnecessary:3 calculation:3 error:1 condition:1 compound:1 expression:14 ability:2 construct:1 infinite:6 data:1 structure:7 define:5 control:7 regular:1 function:11 rather:2 build:2 primitive:2 language:19 use:14 action:2 far:1 subdivide:1 call:15 name:2 strategy:1 need:3 realistic:1 haskell:7 reason:1 theoretical:1 presentation:1 often:2 simplicity:1 opposite:1 eager:10 also:5 know:2 strict:5 behavior:1 refers:1 evaluate:16 pass:2 argument:4 entail:1 following:1 three:1 point:1 conception:1 evolution:1 application:1 functional:4 paul:1 hudak:1 acm:1 compute:3 survey:1 vol:1 september:1 pg:1 evaluated:1 delayed:2 david:2 schmidt:1 denotational:1 semantics:1 p:2 extent:1 short:2 circuit:2 never:2 applicative:1 order:3 watt:1 program:4 concept:2 paradigm:1 particularly:1 soon:1 get:1 bind:1 variable:2 evaluator:1 force:7 produce:4 value:8 statement:2 x:6 e:3 assignment:1 clearly:1 place:1 actually:2 irrelevant:2 via:1 reference:2 late:1 whose:1 could:2 defer:1 though:1 eventually:1 rapidly:1 grow:1 tree:1 dependency:1 would:5 prune:1 symbol:1 another:2 outside:1 world:1 see:2 default:4 others:1 provide:3 special:2 syntax:4 miranda:1 many:1 explicitly:3 suspend:1 scheme:2 ocaml:1 generally:2 wrap:1 thunk:1 object:1 represent:1 future:1 promise:1 advantage:1 able:1 create:3 calculable:1 list:11 without:2 loop:1 size:1 matter:1 interfere:1 example:6 one:1 stream:1 fibonacci:3 number:4 n:2 th:1 merely:1 extraction:1 element:6 first:2 member:1 write:2 fibs:1 zipwith:2 fib:2 tail:2 prepends:1 return:1 specified:1 case:4 addition:1 combine:2 corresponding:1 two:1 third:1 programmer:2 careful:1 particular:2 however:4 certain:1 may:5 attempt:1 request:1 length:1 try:1 sum:1 fold:1 operation:1 either:3 fail:1 terminate:1 run:2 memory:5 even:1 fashion:1 b:5 else:3 c:7 evaluates:1 true:1 otherwise:1 conversely:2 f:4 set:2 k:2 still:1 user:1 depend:1 exact:1 g:2 l:4 h:2 j:5 allow:2 normally:1 compile:1 time:2 side:1 effect:1 introduce:2 errors:1 subtle:1 difference:1 complex:1 turing:1 complete:1 course:1 possible:3 developer:1 like:1 ternary:1 operator:1 clever:1 lambda:2 macro:2 boolean:1 sometimes:1 eagerness:2 although:1 demand:5 make:6 code:5 cod:1 something:1 strictness:4 optimisation:1 implement:2 compiler:2 analysis:2 infer:1 always:2 render:1 choice:1 whether:1 mark:1 constructor:2 field:2 mean:1 immediately:2 seq:1 useful:2 neither:1 recursive:1 deepseq:1 invent:1 pattern:1 match:1 qualifier:1 us:1 windowing:1 system:2 painting:1 information:1 screen:1 drive:3 expose:1 event:1 display:2 last:1 moment:1 content:1 laziness:2 modern:1 copy:1 page:3 allocation:1 paging:1 allocate:2 store:1 change:2 high:1 scenario:1 unix:1 mmap:2 functionality:1 loading:1 disk:1 touch:1 load:1 combinatory:1 logic:1 curry:1 dataflow:1 graph:1 reduction:1 incremental:1 related:1 whereby:1 repeat:1 input:1 calculus:1 initialization:1 lookahead:1 minimal:1 non:1 normal:1 external:1 link:1 python:1 becomes:1 nemerle:1 io:1 processing:1 |@bigram lazy_evaluation:9 eager_evaluation:3 tail_fib:1 combinatory_logic:1 lambda_calculus:1 external_link:1 |
3,582 | Alexander_Rutskoy | Alexander Vladimirovich Rutskoy (Russian: Александр Владимирович Руцкой) (born September 16, 1947) is a Russian politician and a former Soviet military officer. Encarta Encyclopedia, "Encyclopedia Article: Aleksandr Rutskoy", 2008. Rutskoy served as the only Vice President of Russia from July 10, 1991 to October 4, 1993, and as the governor of Kursk Oblast from 1996 to 2000. In the course of the Russian constitutional crisis of 1993, he was proclaimed acting president of Russia , in opposition to Boris Yeltsin. Early life and career Alexander Rutskoy was born in Proskuriv, Ukraine. Rutskoy graduated from High Air Force School in Barnaul (1971) and Gagarin Air Force Academy in Moscow (1980). He had reached rank of Colonel when he was sent to the Soviet war in Afghanistan. He was in command of an air assault regiment and was shot down twice, in 1986 and the second time in 1988 by an F-16 flown by Sqn. Ldr. Athar Bukhari of the Pakistan Air Force. Rutskoy was then flying a Su-25 aircraft and strayed into Pakistani airspace by mistake. He managed to eject but was captured by mujahideen, interrogated by the Inter-Services Intelligence, given an offer to defect by the Central Intelligence Agency, and subsequently released. For his bravery in 1988 he was awarded Hero of the Soviet Union. As a soldier and a populist, he was chosen by Boris Yeltsin to be his vice presidential running mate in the 1991 Russian presidential election. Rutskoy was vice president of Russia from July 10, 1991 to October 4, 1993. As vice president, he openly called for the independence of Transnistria and Crimea from Moldova and Ukraine, respectively Michael Kraus, Ronald D. Liebowitz (1996), Russia and Eastern Europe After Communism, p. 305. Westview Press, ISBN 0813389488 and telephoned Georgia’s leader Eduard Shevardnadze, threatening to bomb Tbilisi during the war in South Ossetia. Alexei Zverev Ethnic Conflicts in the Caucasus 1988-1994, in: Bruno Coppieters (ed., 1996), Contested Borders in the Caucasus. VUB University Press Russian constitutional crisis of 1993 Following the initial period of peaceful collaboration with Yeltsin, from the end of 1992, Rutskoy began openly declaring his opposition to the President's economic and foreign policies and accusing some Russian government officials of corruption. His opposition to Yeltsin became especially clear during the crisis in March, 1993 when the Congress of People's Deputies tried, unsuccessfully, to remove Yeltsin from the presidency. In subsequent months, Rutskoy himself was accused of corruption by the officials of Yeltsin's government. On September 1, 1993, President Boris Yeltsin "suspended" Rutskoy's execution of his vice-presidential duties, due to alleged corruption charges. The Russian Constitutional Court subsequently declared Yeltsin's decree as unconstitutional. On September 21, 1993, President Boris Yeltsin dissolved the Supreme Soviet, which was in direct contradiction with the articles of Soviet Constitution of 1978, e.g.: Article 121-6. The powers of the President of RSFSR cannot be used to change national and state organization of RSFSR, to dissolve or to interfere with the functioning of any elected organs of state power. In this case, his powers cease immediately. On the night from September 21 to September 22, Rutskoy arrived at the residence of the Russian parliament and, at 12:22 a.m., assumed the powers of acting president of Russia, in accordance with the above article. He took the presidential oath, and said: "I am taking the authority of President. The anti-constitutional decree of President Yeltsin is annulled." Rutskoy's interim presidency, although constitutional, was never acknowledged outside Russia. After the two-week standoff, and the violence erupting on the streets of Moscow, on October 4, the Parliament building was taken by Yeltsin's military forces. Rutskoy and his supporters were arrested and charged with organization of mass disturbances. On the same day, Yeltsin officially dismissed Rutskoy as vice president and fired him from the military forces. Rutskoy was imprisoned in the Moscow Lefortovo prison until February 26, 1994, when he and other participants of both August 1991 and October 1993 crises, were granted amnesty by the new State Duma. Soon after his release, Rutskoy founded a populist, nationalist party Derzhava (Russian: Держава), which, failed in the State Duma election of 1995, gathering only about 2.5% of the votes, thus not passing the 5% threshold. He decided not to run for the presidency in the summer of 1996, but did run for the position of the governor of his native Kursk Oblast in the fall of the same year. Being a joint candidate from the Communist and "patriotic forces," he was initially banned from the election, but allowed to run by the Russian Supreme Court only a few days before the election, which he won in a landslide, with about 76% of the vote. His tenure as governor was marred by accusations of incompetence and nepotism from his political rivals. He was banned from running in 2000 Kursk's governor elections on a technicality for failing to register his car. The analysts attributed his exclusion from the election to the pressure from Kremlin. References External links About Rutskoy's Derzhava movement | Alexander_Rutskoy |@lemmatized alexander:2 vladimirovich:1 rutskoy:17 russian:10 александр:1 владимирович:1 руцкой:1 born:1 september:5 politician:1 former:1 soviet:5 military:3 officer:1 encarta:1 encyclopedia:2 article:4 aleksandr:1 serve:1 vice:6 president:12 russia:6 july:2 october:4 governor:4 kursk:3 oblast:2 course:1 constitutional:5 crisis:4 proclaim:1 act:2 opposition:3 boris:4 yeltsin:12 early:1 life:1 career:1 bear:1 proskuriv:1 ukraine:2 graduate:1 high:1 air:4 force:6 school:1 barnaul:1 gagarin:1 academy:1 moscow:3 reach:1 rank:1 colonel:1 send:1 war:2 afghanistan:1 command:1 assault:1 regiment:1 shoot:1 twice:1 second:1 time:1 f:1 fly:2 sqn:1 ldr:1 athar:1 bukhari:1 pakistan:1 su:1 aircraft:1 stray:1 pakistani:1 airspace:1 mistake:1 manage:1 eject:1 capture:1 mujahideen:1 interrogate:1 inter:1 service:1 intelligence:2 give:1 offer:1 defect:1 central:1 agency:1 subsequently:2 release:2 bravery:1 award:1 hero:1 union:1 soldier:1 populist:2 choose:1 presidential:4 run:5 mate:1 election:6 openly:2 call:1 independence:1 transnistria:1 crimea:1 moldova:1 respectively:1 michael:1 kraus:1 ronald:1 liebowitz:1 eastern:1 europe:1 communism:1 p:1 westview:1 press:2 isbn:1 telephone:1 georgia:1 leader:1 eduard:1 shevardnadze:1 threaten:1 bomb:1 tbilisi:1 south:1 ossetia:1 alexei:1 zverev:1 ethnic:1 conflict:1 caucasus:2 bruno:1 coppieters:1 ed:1 contest:1 border:1 vub:1 university:1 follow:1 initial:1 period:1 peaceful:1 collaboration:1 end:1 begin:1 declare:2 economic:1 foreign:1 policy:1 accuse:2 government:2 official:2 corruption:3 become:1 especially:1 clear:1 march:1 congress:1 people:1 deputy:1 try:1 unsuccessfully:1 remove:1 presidency:3 subsequent:1 month:1 suspend:1 execution:1 duty:1 due:1 allege:1 charge:2 court:2 decree:2 unconstitutional:1 dissolve:2 supreme:2 direct:1 contradiction:1 constitution:1 e:1 g:1 power:4 rsfsr:2 cannot:1 use:1 change:1 national:1 state:4 organization:2 interfere:1 functioning:1 elected:1 organ:1 case:1 cease:1 immediately:1 night:1 arrive:1 residence:1 parliament:2 assume:1 accordance:1 take:3 oath:1 say:1 authority:1 anti:1 annul:1 interim:1 although:1 never:1 acknowledge:1 outside:1 two:1 week:1 standoff:1 violence:1 erupt:1 street:1 building:1 supporter:1 arrest:1 mass:1 disturbance:1 day:2 officially:1 dismissed:1 fire:1 imprison:1 lefortovo:1 prison:1 february:1 participant:1 august:1 grant:1 amnesty:1 new:1 duma:2 soon:1 found:1 nationalist:1 party:1 derzhava:2 держава:1 fail:2 gather:1 vote:2 thus:1 pass:1 threshold:1 decide:1 summer:1 position:1 native:1 fall:1 year:1 joint:1 candidate:1 communist:1 patriotic:1 initially:1 ban:2 allow:1 win:1 landslide:1 tenure:1 mar:1 accusation:1 incompetence:1 nepotism:1 political:1 rival:1 technicality:1 register:1 car:1 analyst:1 attribute:1 exclusion:1 pressure:1 kremlin:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 movement:1 |@bigram vice_president:4 boris_yeltsin:4 soviet_union:1 presidential_election:1 westview_press:1 south_ossetia:1 supreme_court:1 external_link:1 |
3,583 | Carbonate | In chemistry, a carbonate is a salt or ester of carbonic acid. Applications To test for the presence of the carbonate anion in a salt, the addition of dilute mineral acid (e.g. hydrochloric acid) will yield carbon dioxide gas. Carbonate-containing salts are industrially and mineralogically ubiquitous. The term "carbonate" is also commonly used to refer to one of these salts or carbonate minerals. Most common is calcite, or calcium carbonate, CaCO3, the chief constituent of limestone. The process of removing carbon dioxide from these salts by heating is called calcination. The term is also used as a verb, to describe the process of raising carbonate and bicarbonate concentrations in soda, see also carbonated water, either by the introduction under pressure of carbon dioxide gas into the bottle, or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water. Structure and bonding The carbonate ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula CO32− and a molecular mass of 60.01 daltons; it consists of one central carbon atom surrounded by three identical oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement, and has D3h molecular symmetry. The carbonate ion carries a negative two formal charge and is the conjugate base of the hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3−, which is the conjugate base of H2CO3, carbonic acid. The structure and bonding of the carbonate ion cannot be properly represented by its Lewis structure, which depicts CO32− with two long single bonds and one short double bond: Like the isoelectronic nitrate ion, resonance structures can be used to depict the carbonate ion: In reality, CO32− has three equally long C-O bonds: Chemical properties A carbonate salt forms when a positively charged ion attaches to the negatively charged oxygen atoms of the ion, forming an ionic compound: 2 M+ + CO32− → M2CO3 M2+ + CO32− → MCO3 2 M3+ + 3 CO32− → M2(CO3)3 Most carbonate salts are insoluble in water at standard temperature and pressure, with solubility constants of less than 1×10−8. Exceptions include sodium, potassium and ammonium carbonates. In aqueous solution, carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide, and carbonic acid exist together in a dynamic equilibrium. In strongly basic conditions, the carbonate ion predominates, while in weakly basic conditions, the bicarbonate ion is prevalent. In more acid conditions, aqueous carbon dioxide, CO2(aq), is the main form, which, with water, H2O, is in equilibrium with carbonic acid - the equilibrium lies strongly towards carbon dioxide. Thus sodium carbonate is basic, sodium bicarbonate is weakly basic, while carbon dioxide itself is a weak acid. Carbonated water is formed by dissolving CO2 in water under pressure. When the partial pressure of CO2 is reduced, for example when a can of soda is opened, the equilibrium for each of the forms of carbonate (carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide, and carbonic acid) shifts until the concentration of CO2 in the solution is equal to the solubility of CO2 at that temperature and pressure. In living systems an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, speeds the interconversion of CO2 and carbonic acid. Acid-base chemistry The carbonate ion (CO32−) is a moderately strong base. It is a conjugate base of the weakly acidic bicarbonate (IUPAC name hydrogen carbonate HCO3−), itself a moderately strong conjugate base of the still weakly acidic carbonic acid. As such in aqueous solution, the carbonate ion seeks to reclaim hydrogen atoms. Organic carbonates In organic chemistry a carbonate can also refer to a functional group within a larger molecule that contains a carbon atom bound to three oxygen atoms, one of which is double bonded. These compounds are also known as organocarbonates or carbonate esters, and have the general formula ROCOOR′, or RR′CO3. Important organocarbonates include dimethyl carbonate, the cyclic compounds ethylene carbonate and propylene carbonate, and the toxic triphosgene. Biological Significance It works as a buffer in the blood as follows: when pH is too low, the concentration of hydrogen ions is too high, so you exhale CO2. This will cause the equation to shift left, essentially decreasing the concentration of H+ ions, causing a more basic pH. When pH is too high, the concentration of hydrogen ions in the blood is too low, so the kidneys excrete bicarbonate (HCO3−). This causes the equation to shift right, essentially increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions, causing a more acidic pH. Carbonate salts Carbonate overview: Presence outside Earth It is generally thought that the presence of carbonates in rock is strong evidence for the presence of liquid water. Recent observations of the Planetary nebula NGC 6302 shows evidence for carbonates in space, Kemper, F., Molster, F.J., Jager, C. and Waters, L.B.F.M. (2002) The mineral composition and spatial distribution of the dust ejecta of NGC 6302. Astronomy & Astrophysics 394, 679-690. where aqueous alteration similar to that on Earth is unlikely. Other minerals have been proposed which would fit the observations. Significant carbonate deposits have not been found on Mars via remote sensing or in situ missions, even though Martian meteorites contain small amounts. Groundwater may have existed at both Gusev Squyres et al., (2007) doi 10.1126/science.1139045 and Meridiani Planum. Squyres et al., (2006) doi 10.1029/2006JE002771 References See also Bicarbonate | Carbonate |@lemmatized chemistry:3 carbonate:36 salt:9 ester:2 carbonic:8 acid:12 application:1 test:1 presence:4 anion:2 addition:1 dilute:1 mineral:4 e:1 g:1 hydrochloric:1 yield:1 carbon:10 dioxide:8 gas:2 containing:1 industrially:1 mineralogically:1 ubiquitous:1 term:2 also:6 commonly:1 use:3 refer:2 one:4 common:1 calcite:1 calcium:1 chief:1 constituent:1 limestone:1 process:2 remove:1 heating:1 call:1 calcination:1 verb:1 describe:1 raise:1 bicarbonate:9 concentration:6 soda:2 see:2 water:8 either:1 introduction:1 pressure:5 bottle:1 dissolve:2 structure:4 bond:5 ion:16 polyatomic:1 empirical:1 formula:2 molecular:2 mass:1 dalton:1 consist:1 central:1 atom:6 surround:1 three:3 identical:1 oxygen:3 trigonal:1 planar:1 arrangement:1 symmetry:1 carry:1 negative:1 two:2 formal:1 charge:3 conjugate:4 base:6 hydrogen:6 bonding:1 cannot:1 properly:1 represent:1 lewis:1 depict:2 long:2 single:1 short:1 double:2 like:1 isoelectronic:1 nitrate:1 resonance:1 reality:1 equally:1 c:2 chemical:1 property:1 form:5 positively:1 attache:1 negatively:1 ionic:1 compound:3 insoluble:1 standard:1 temperature:2 solubility:2 constant:1 less:1 exception:1 include:2 sodium:3 potassium:1 ammonium:1 aqueous:4 solution:3 exist:2 together:1 dynamic:1 equilibrium:4 strongly:2 basic:5 condition:3 predominates:1 weakly:4 prevalent:1 aq:1 main:1 lie:1 towards:1 thus:1 weak:1 carbonated:1 partial:1 reduce:1 example:1 open:1 shift:3 equal:1 live:1 system:1 enzyme:1 anhydrase:1 speed:1 interconversion:1 moderately:2 strong:3 acidic:3 iupac:1 name:1 still:1 seek:1 reclaim:1 organic:2 functional:1 group:1 within:1 large:1 molecule:1 contain:2 bound:1 know:1 organocarbonates:2 general:1 rocoor:1 rr:1 important:1 dimethyl:1 cyclic:1 ethylene:1 propylene:1 toxic:1 triphosgene:1 biological:1 significance:1 work:1 buffer:1 blood:2 follow:1 ph:4 low:2 high:2 exhale:1 cause:4 equation:2 left:1 essentially:2 decrease:1 h:1 kidney:1 excrete:1 right:1 increase:1 overview:1 outside:1 earth:2 generally:1 think:1 rock:1 evidence:2 liquid:1 recent:1 observation:2 planetary:1 nebula:1 ngc:2 show:1 space:1 kemper:1 f:3 molster:1 j:1 jager:1 l:1 b:1 composition:1 spatial:1 distribution:1 dust:1 ejecta:1 astronomy:1 astrophysics:1 alteration:1 similar:1 unlikely:1 propose:1 would:1 fit:1 significant:1 deposit:1 find:1 mar:1 via:1 remote:1 sense:1 situ:1 mission:1 even:1 though:1 martian:1 meteorite:1 small:1 amount:1 groundwater:1 may:1 gusev:1 squyres:2 et:2 al:2 doi:2 science:1 meridiani:1 planum:1 reference:1 |@bigram carbonic_acid:7 hydrochloric_acid:1 carbon_dioxide:8 calcium_carbonate:1 carbonate_bicarbonate:4 carbon_atom:2 positively_charge:1 negatively_charge:1 sodium_potassium:1 aqueous_solution:2 bicarbonate_ion:1 sodium_carbonate:1 sodium_bicarbonate:1 carbonate_carbonate:1 enzyme_carbonic:1 carbonic_anhydrase:1 weakly_acidic:2 hydrogen_atom:1 organic_chemistry:1 planetary_nebula:1 nebula_ngc:1 astronomy_astrophysics:1 martian_meteorite:1 et_al:2 |
3,584 | Forward_pass | In several forms of football a forward pass is when the ball is thrown in the direction of the opponent's end line. American and Canadian Football An American football quarterback in the "pocket" and preparing to pass. In American and Canadian football, a forward pass—usually called simply a pass—consists of one offensive player throwing the football towards another downfield in the direction of the opponent's end line. This is permitted only once during a scrimmage down by the offensive team before team possession has changed, provided the pass is thrown from in or behind the neutral zone. An illegal forward pass incurs a 5 yard penalty and the loss of a down. If an eligible receiver on the passing team legally catches the ball it is a complete pass and the receiver may attempt to advance the ball. If an opposing player legally catches the ball (all defensive players are eligible receivers) it is an interception. That player's team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his opponent's goal. If no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an incomplete pass and the ball becomes dead the moment it touches the ground. It will then be returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down. If any player interferes with an eligible receiver's ability to catch the ball it is pass interference which is a foul. The person passing the ball must be a member of the offensive team, and the recipient of the forward pass must be an eligible receiver and must touch the passed ball before any ineligible player. The moment that a forward pass begins is important to the game. The pass begins the moment the passer's arm begins to move forward. If the passer drops the ball before this moment it is a fumble and therefore a loose ball. In this case anybody can gain possession of the ball before or after it touches the ground. In Canadian football, if the passer drops the ball while his arm is moving forward it is an incomplete pass (unless someone catches the ball before it hits the ground in which case it is a completed pass or an interception). Under American football's tuck rule, if the quarterback is attempting to bring the ball back to his body after starting a passing motion, a lost ball may be considered an incomplete pass even if the quarterback's arm is moving backward at the time. The quarterback generally either starts a few paces behind the line of scrimmage or drops back a few paces as the ball is snapped. This places him in an area called the "pocket" which is a protective region formed by the offensive blockers up front and between the tackles on each side. A quarterback who runs out of this pocket is said to be scrambling. Under NFL and NCAA rules, once the quarterback moves out of the pocket, and there is no good option for a forward pass, the ball may be legally thrown away to prevent a sack. NFHS (High School) rules do not allow for a passer to intentionally throw an incomplete forward pass to save loss of yardage or conserve time, except for a spike to conserve time after a hand to hand snap. If he throws the ball away while still in the pocket then a foul called "grounding" is assessed. If a forward pass is caught near a sideline or endline it is only a complete pass (or an interception) if a receiver catches the ball in bounds. For a pass to be ruled in bounds, the receiver's feet must be in contact with the in bounds portion of the playing field, or, if the ball is caught in the air, either one or two feet must touch the ground within the field boundaries, after the ball is caught. In the NFL the receiver must touch the ground with both feet, but in most other codes—CFL, NCAA and high school—one foot in bounds is enough. Common to all gridiron codes is the notion of control—a receiver must demonstrate control of the ball in order to be ruled in possession of it, while still in bounds, as defined by his code. If the receiver catches the ball but the official determines that he was still "bobbling" it prior to the end of the play, then the pass will be ruled incomplete. History Early illegal & experimental passes The forward pass had been attempted at least 30 years before the play was actually made legal. Vahe Gregorian researched the history of the play for an article in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch on September 4, 2006, on the eve of the 100th anniversary of the first legal pass. Gregorian observed that passes “had been carried out successfully but illegally several times, including the 1876 Yale–Princeton game in which Yale’s Walter Camp threw forward to teammate Oliver Thompson as he was being tackled. Princeton’s protest, one account said, went for naught when the referee ‘tossed a coin to make his decision and allowed the touchdown to stand’ ”. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill used the forward pass in an 1895 game against the University of Georgia. However, the play was still illegal at the time. Bob Quincy stakes Carolina's claim in his 1973 book They Made the Bell Tower Chime: John Heisman, namesake of the Heisman Trophy, wrote 30 years later that, indeed, the Tar Heels had given birth to the forward pass against the Bulldogs (UGA). It was conceived to break a scoreless deadlock and give UNC a 6–0 win. The Carolinians were in a punting situation and a Georgia rush seemed destined to block the ball. The punter, with an impromptu dash to his right, tossed the ball and it was caught by George Stephens, who ran 70 yards for a touchdown. In a 1905 experimental game, Gregorian reports, Washburn and what would become Wichita State used the pass before new rules allowing the play were approved in early 1906. 1905 had been a bloody year on the gridiron; the Chicago Tribune reported 18 players had been killed and 159 seriously injured that season. Jeffrey, Terence, "One hundred years of the forward pass", CNSNews, August 30, 2006 There were moves to abolish the game. But President Theodore Roosevelt personally intervened and demanded that the rules of the game be reformed. In a meeting of more than 60 schools in late 1905, the commitment was made to make the game safer. This meeting was the first step in the establishment of what would become the NCAA. The final meeting of the Rules Committee tasked with reshaping the game was held on April 6, 1906, at which time the forward pass officially became a legal play. Nelson, David M., Anatomy of a Game: Football, the Rules, and the Men Who Made the Game, 1994, Page 129 First legal pass Eddie Cochems, "Father of the Forward Pass", 19071906 St. Louis Post-Dispatch photograph of Brad Robinson, who threw the first legal forward passWriting in his book, The Anatomy of a Game: Football, the Rules, and the Men Who Made the Game, which was published posthumously in 1994, College Football Hall of Fame coach David M. Nelson (1920–1991) states that "E. B. Cochems is to forward passing what the Wright brothers are to aviation and Thomas Edison is to the electric light." Cochems, the coach at Saint Louis University from 1906 through 1908, was the first to use the legal forward pass on September 5, 1906 with Bradbury Robinson passing to Jack Schneider in a game at Carroll College (Wisconsin). St. Louis went on to win 22-0. First passing offense The forward pass was a central feature of Cochems' revolutionary offensive scheme. In that first season under the "new rules", his "Blue and White" completed a perfect 11–0 season in which they outscored opponents 407–11. The highlight of the campaign was St. Louis' shocking 31–0 thrashing of Iowa. Coach Nelson reports that "eight passes were completed in ten attempts for four touchdowns" in the Iowa game. "The average flight distance of the passes was twenty yards." Nelson continues, "the last play demonstrated the dramatic effect that the forward pass was having on football. St. Louis was on Iowa's thirty-five-yard line with a few seconds to play. Timekeeper Walter McCormack walked onto the field to end the game when the ball was thrown twenty-five yards and caught on the dead run for a touchdown." "Cochems said that the poor Iowa showing resulted from its use of the old style play and its failure to effectively use the forward pass", Nelson writes. "Iowa did attempt two basketball-style forward passes." "During the 1906 season [Robinson] threw a sixty-seven yard pass ... and ... Schneider tossed a sixty-five yarder. Considering the size, shape and weight of the ball, these were extraordinary passes." Because St. Louis was geographically isolated from both the dominating teams and the major sports media (newspapers) of the era ... all centered in and focused on the East ... Cochems' groundbreaking offensive strategy was not picked up by the major teams. Pass-oriented offenses would not be adopted by the Eastern football powers until the next decade. But that does not mean that other teams in the Midwest did not pick it up. Arthur Schabinger, quarterback for the College of Emporia in Kansas, was reported to have regularly used the forward pass in 1910. Coach H. W. "Bill" Hargiss' "Presbies" are said to have featured the play in a 17–0 victory over Washburn University Kansas Sports Hall of Fame, Arthur Schabinger and in a 107-0 destruction of Pittsburg State University. Pittsburg State (Kansas) Football Scores, 1910 Adoption by Notre Dame expands popularity Knute Rockne and Gus Dorais worked on the pass while lifeguarding on a Lake Erie beach at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, during the summer of 1913. That year, Jesse Harper, Notre Dame head coach, also showed how the pass could be used by a smaller team to beat a bigger one, first utilizing it to defeat rival Army. After it was used against a major school on a national stage in this game, the forward pass rapidly gained popularity. First pass in a professional game The first forward pass in a professional football game may have been thrown in an Ohio League game played on October 25, 1906. The Ohio League, which traced its history to the 1890s, was the predecessor of today's NFL. According to Robert W. Peterson in his book Pigskin The Early Years of Pro Football, the "passer was George W. (Peggy) Parratt, probably the best quarterback of the era", who played for the Massillon, Ohio Tigers, one of pro football's first franchises. Massillon Tiger Football History Citing the Professional Football Researchers Association as his source, Peterson writes that "Parratt completed a short pass to end Dan Riley (Dan Policowski)" in a game played at Massillon against a team from West Virginia. Since the Tigers "ran up a 61 to 0 score on the hapless Mountain Staters, the pass played no important part in the result." Peterson, Robert W., Pigskin The Early Years of Pro Football, pages 52-53, 1997 According to National Football League history, it legalized the forward pass from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage on February 25, 1933. Before that rule change, a forward pass had to be made from 5 or more yards behind the line of scrimmage. Forward passes were first permitted in Canadian football in 1929, CFL.ca History, Timeline, 1920 but the tactic remained a minor part of the game for several years. Jack Jacobs of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers is recognized, not for inventing the forward pass, but for popularizing it in the Western Interprovincial Football Union, thus changing the Canadian game from a more run-dominated game to the passing game as seen today. Change in ball shape Specification of the size of the ball for the American game came in 1912, but it was still essentially a rugby ball. Increased use of the forward pass encouraged adoption of a narrower ball, starting with changes in the 1920s which enhanced rifled throwing and also spiral punting. See "Introduction: A Brief History of College Football" on the College Football Encyclopedia web site. Rugby football In the two codes of rugby (union and league) a forward pass is against the rules. If the referee deems it accidental (as it nearly always is), this results in a scrum to the opposing team; however, deliberate forward passes result in a penalty. The team in possession must get behind the ball carrier or be ruled offside. Offside players will not be penalised as long as they remain inactive but if the ball is thrown to them then they become active and thus a scrum or penalty is awarded to the opposition. To minimise the chances of this happening and to support the ball carrier, team-mates try to stay behind the player with the ball. A forward pass is defined in terms of whether the ball leaves the hand of the thrower in a forwards direction or not. Players may not even drop the ball forwards which would also result in a scrum. See also Bradbury Robinson Eddie Cochems Glossary of American football History of American football Lateral pass Playing rugby league Rugby union References Additional sources Boyles, Bob & Guido, Paul, 50 Years of College Football, 2007 External links NFL Digest of Rules Football Plays, Drills and Fundamentals - Resource for coaches & players. 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3,585 | Hydrostatic_shock | The term hydrostatic shock describes the theory that a penetrating projectile produces remote wounding and incapacitating effects in living targets, in addition to local effects in tissue caused by direct impact, through a hydraulic effect in liquid filled tissues. There is scientific evidence that “hydrostatic shock" can produce remote neural damage and produce incapacitation more quickly than blood loss effects. The debate between proponents of bullets that are "light and fast" versus bullets that are "slow and heavy" often refers to this phenomenon. Theory's introduction It is unclear when the term "hydrostatic shock" first came into use to describe remote effects of penetrating projectiles, but Frank Chamberlin, a World War II trauma surgeon and ballistics researcher, noted remote pressure wave effects. Col. Chamberlin described what he called “explosive effects” and “hydraulic reaction” of bullets in tissue. ...liquids are put in motion by ‘shock waves’ or hydraulic effects... with liquid filled tissues, the effects and destruction of tissues extend in all directions far beyond the wound axis. Chamberlin FT, Gun Shot Wounds, in Handbook for Shooters and Reloaders, Vol. II, Ackley PO, ed., Plaza Publishing, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1966. He avoided the ambiguous use of the term “shock” because it can refer to either a specific kind of pressure wave associated with explosions and supersonic projectiles or to a medical condition in the body. Col. Chamberlin recognized that many theories have been advanced in wound ballistics. During World War II, he commanded an 8,500 bed hospital center that treated over 67,000 patients during the fourteen months that he operated it. P.O. Ackley estimates that 85% of the patients were suffering from gun shot wounds. Ackley PO, Col. Frank T. Chamberlin, in Handbook for Shooters and Reloaders, Vol. II, Ackley PO, ed., Plaza Publishing, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1966. Col. Chamberlin spent many hours interviewing patients as to their reactions to bullet wounds. He also conducted many live animal experiments after his tour of duty. On the subject of wound ballistics theories, he wrote: If I had to pick one of these theories as gospel, I’d still go along with the Hydraulic Reaction of the Body Fluids plus the reactions on the Central Nervous System. Other World War II era scientists noted remote pressure wave effects in the peripheral nerves. Livingstone WK, Davis EW, Livingstone KE: Delayed recovery in peripheral nerve lesions caused by high velocity wounding. J. Neurosurg., 2: 170, 1945. Puckett WO, Grundfest H, McElroy WD, McMillen JH, Damage to peripheral nerves by high velocity missiles without a direct hit. J. Neurosurg., 3: 294, 1946. There was support for the idea of remote neural effects of ballistic pressure waves in the medical and scientific communities, but the phrase "’hydrostatic shock’" and similar phrases including “shock” were used mainly by gunwriters (such as Jack O'Conner O’Conner J, The Hunting Rifle, McMillian, 1970. ) and the small arms industry (such as Roy Weatherby Gresham T, Gresham G, Weatherby: The Man, The Gun, The Legend, Cane River Publishing, 1992. , and Federal “Hydrashock.”) Dr. Fackler's contra-claim Dr. Martin Fackler, a Vietnam-era trauma surgeon and wound ballistics researcher, claimed that hydrostatic shock had been disproved and that the assertion that a pressure wave plays a role in injury or incapacitation is a myth. Others expressed similar views. Patrick UW: Handgun Wounding Factors and Effectiveness. FBI Firearms training Unit, Quantico, VA. 1989. MacPherson D: Bullet Penetration—Modeling the Dynamics and the Incapacitation Resulting From Wound Trauma. Ballistics Publications, El Segundo, CA, 1994. Dr. Fackler based his argument on the lithotriptor, a tool commonly used to break up kidney stones. The lithotriptor uses sonic pressure waves which are stronger than those caused by most handgun bullets, yet it produces no damage to soft tissues whatsoever. Hence, Fackler argued, ballistic pressure waves cannot damage tissue either. Fackler ML, Gunshot Wound Review, Annals of Emergency Medicine 28:2; 1996. However, tissue damage due to lithotriptors has been documented. Evan AP, Willis LR Lingeman JE, McAteer JA, Renal Trauma and the Risk of Long-Term Complications in Shock Wave Lithotripsy, Nephron 78(1):1-8, 1998. Lingeman JE, Kim SC, Keo RL, McAteer JA, Evan AP: Shockwave Lithotripsy: Anecdotes and Insights. Journal of Endourology 17(9):687-693; 2003. Lokhandwalla M, Sturtevant B: Mechanical Haemolysis in Shock Wave Lithotripsy (SWL): I. Analysis of Cell Deformation due to SWL Flow-Fields.” Physics in Medicine & Biology 46(2):413-437; 2001. Dr. Fackler also claimed that a study of rifle bullet wounds in Vietnam (Wound Data and Munitions Effectiveness Team) found “no cases of bones being broken, or major vessels torn, that were not hit by the penetrating bullet. In only two cases, an organ that was not hit (but was within a few cm of the projectile path), suffered some disruption.” Dr. Fackler cited a personal communication with R. F. Bellamy. However, Bellamy’s published findings the following year Bellamy RF, Zajtchuk R. The physics and biophysics of wound ballistics. In: Zajtchuk R, ed. Textbook of Military Medicine, Part I: Warfare, Weaponry, and the Casualty, Vol. 5, Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast, and Burn Injuries. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, United States of America; 1990: 107-162. available for download: http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/conventional_warfare/conventional_warfare.html estimated that 10% of fractures in the data set might be due to indirect injuries, and one specific case is described in detail (pp. 153-154). In addition, the published analysis documents five instances of abdominal wounding in cases where the bullet did not penetrate the abdominal cavity (pp. 149-152), a case of lung contusion resulting from a hit to the shoulder (pp. 146-149), and a case of indirect effects on the central nervous system (p. 155). Rather than contradict distant injuries, as Fackler claimed, the WDMET data from Vietnam actually provides supporting evidence. Courtney M, Courtney A: Misleading reference to unpublished wound ballistics data regarding distant injuries, http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0812/0812.4927.pdf Bellamy RF, Zajtchuk R. The physics and biophysics of wound ballistics. In: Zajtchuk R, ed. Textbook of Military Medicine, Part I: Warfare, Weaponry, and the Casualty, Vol. 5, Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast, and Burn Injuries. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, United States of America; 1990: 107-162. available for download: http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/conventional_warfare/conventional_warfare.html Inferences from Blast Pressure Wave Observations A shock wave can be created when fluid is rapidly displaced by an explosive or projectile. Tissue behaves similarly enough to water that a sonic pressure wave can be created by a bullet impact, generating pressures in excess of 100 atmospheres (1500 PSI). Harvey EN, Korr IM, Oster G, et al.:Secondary Damage in wounding due to pressure changes accompanying the passage of high velocity missiles. Surgery 21:218-239; 1947. Duncan McPherson, a former member of the International Wound Ballistics Association and author of the book, Bullet Penetration, claimed that shock waves cannot result from bullet impacts with tissue. In contrast, Brad Sturtevant, a leading researcher in shock wave physics at Caltech for many decades, found that shock waves can result from handgun bullet impacts in tissue. Sturtevant B, Shock Wave Effects in Biomechanics, Sadhana, 23: 579-596, 1998. Other sources also indicate that ballistic impacts can create shock waves in tissue. Roberts JC, Ward EE, Merkle AC, O’Conner JV, Assessing Behind Armor Blunt Trauma, The Journal of Trauma, 62, 1127-1133, 2007. Roberts JC, O’Conner JV, Ward EE, Modeling the Effect of Nonpenetrating Ballistic Impact, The Journal of Trauma, 58: 1241-1251, 2005. Suneson A, Hansson HA, Seeman T: Pressure Wave Injuries to the Nervous System Caused by High Energy Missile Extremity Impact: Part I. Local and Distant Effects on the Peripheral Nervous System. A Light and Electron Microscopic Study on Pigs. The Journal of Trauma. 30(3):281-294; 1990. Blast and ballistic pressure waves have physical similarities. Prior to wave reflection, they both are characterized by a steep wave front followed by a nearly exponential decay at close distances. They also have similarities in how they cause neural effects in the brain. In tissue, both types of pressure waves have similar magnitudes, duration, and frequency characteristics. Both have been shown to cause damage in the hippocampus. Wang Q, Wang Z, Zhu P, Jiang J: Alterations of the Myelin Basic Protein and Ultrastructure in the Limbic System and the Early Stage of Trauma-Related Stress Disorder in Dogs. The Journal of Trauma. 56(3):604-610; 2004. Cernak I, Wang, Z, Jiang J, Bian, X, Savic J, Ultrastructural and Functional Characteristics of Blast Injury-Induced Neurotrauma, The Journal of Trauma, 50:695-706, 2001. Cernak I, Wang, Z, Jiang J, Bian, X, Savic J, Cognitive deficits following blast injury induced neurotrauma, Brain Injury, 15(7):593-612, 2001. It has been hypothesized that both reach the brain from the thoracic cavity via major blood vessels. For example, Ibolja Cernak, a leading researcher in blast wave injury at the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, hypothesized, "alterations in brain function following blast exposure are induced by kinetic energy transfer of blast overpressure via great blood vessels in abdomen and thorax to the central nervous system." Cernak I, Blast (Explosion)-Induced Neurotrauma: A Myth Becomes Reality, Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 23:139-140, 2005. This hypothesis is supported by observations of neural effects in the brain from localized blast exposure focused on the lungs in experiments in animals. “Hydrostatic shock” expresses the idea that organs can be damaged by the pressure wave in addition to damage from direct contact with the penetrating projectile. If one interprets the "shock" in the term "hydrostatic shock" to refer to the physiological effects rather than the physical wave characteristics, the question of whether the pressure waves satisfy the definition of “shock wave” is unimportant, and one can consider the weight of scientific evidence and various claims regarding the possibility of a ballistic pressure wave to create tissue damage and incapacitation in living targets. Physics of Ballistic Pressure Waves A number of papers describe the physics of ballistic pressure waves created when a high-speed projectile enters a viscous medium. Lee M, Longoria RG, Wilson DE, Ballistic Waves in High-Speed Water Entry, Journal of Fluids and Structures, 11, 819-844, 1997. Hoover WR, Dawson VCD, Hydrodynamic pressure measurements of the vertical water entry of a sphere, U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak, MD, U.S.A., Tech. Report 66-70, 1966. Shi H, Kume M, An Experimental Research on the Flow Field of Water Entry by Pressure Measurements, Phys. Fluids 13(1), 347-349, 2001. These results show that ballistic impacts produce pressure waves that propagate at close to the speed of sound. Lee et al. present an analytical model showing that unreflected ballistic pressure waves are well approximated by an exponential decay, which is similar to blast pressure waves. Lee et al. also note the importance of the energy transfer: As would be expected, an accurate estimation of the kinetic energy loss by a projectile is always important in determining the ballistic waves. The rigorous calculations of Lee et al. require knowing the drag coefficient and frontal area of the penetrating projectile at every instant of the penetration. Since this is not generally possible with expanding handgun bullets, Courtney and Courtney developed a model for estimating the peak pressure waves of handgun bullets from the impact energy and penetration depth in ballistic gelatin. Courtney M, Courtney A: Ballistic pressure wave contributions to rapid incapacitation in the Strasbourg goat tests. http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0701267 accessed 5/29/2007. This model agrees with the more rigorous approach of Lee et al. for projectiles where they can both be applied. For expanding handgun bullets, the peak pressure wave magnitude is proportional to the bullet’s kinetic energy divided by the penetration depth. Remote Cerebral Effects of Ballistic Pressure Waves Goransson et al. were the first contemporary researchers to present compelling evidence for remote cerebral effects of extremity bullet impact. Göransson AM, Ingvar DH, Kutyna F: Remote Cerebral Effects on EEG in High-Energy Missile Trauma. The Journal of Trauma. 28(1 Supplement):S204-S205; January 1988. They observed changes in EEG readings from pigs shot in the thigh. A follow-up experiment by Suneson et al. implanted high-speed pressure transducers into the brain of pigs and demonstrated that a significant pressure wave reaches the brain of pigs shot in the thigh. Suneson A, Hansson HA, Seeman T: Pressure Wave Injuries to the Nervous System Caused by High Energy Missile extremity Impact: Part II. Distant Effects on the Central Nervous System. A Light and Electron Microscopic Study on Pigs. The Journal of Trauma. 30(3):295-306; 1990. These scientists observed apnea, depressed EEG readings, and neural damage in the brain caused by the distant effects of the ballistic pressure wave originating in the thigh. The results of Suneson et al. were confirmed and expanded upon by a later experiment in dogs which "confirmed that distant effect exists in the central nervous system after a high-energy missile impact to an extremity. A high-frequency oscillating pressure wave with large amplitude and short duration was found in the brain after the extremity impact of a high-energy missile . . ." Wang et al. observed significant damage in both the hypothalamus and hippocampus regions of the brain due to remote effects of the ballistic pressure wave. Remote Pressure Wave Effects in the Spine and Internal Organs In a study of a handgun injury, Sturtevant found that pressure waves from a bullet impact in the torso can reach the spine and that a focusing effect from concave surfaces can concentrate the pressure wave on the spinal cord producing significant injury. This is consistent with other work showing remote spinal cord injuries from ballistic impacts. Saxon M, Snyder HA, Washington HA, Atypical Brown-Sequard syndrome following gunshot wound to the face, Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 40: 299-302, 1982. Taylor RG, Gleave JRW, Incomplete Spinal Cord Injuries, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, B39:438-450, 1957. Roberts et al. present both experimental work and finite element modeling showing that there can be considerable pressure wave magnitudes in the thoracic cavity for handgun projectiles stopped by a Kevlar vest. For example, an 8 gram projectile at 360 m/s impacting a NIJ level II vest over the sternum can produce an estimated pressure wave level of nearly 2.0 MPa (280 PSI) in the heart and a pressure wave level of nearly 1.5 MPa (210 PSI) in the lungs. Impacting over the liver can also produce an estimated pressure wave level of 2.0 MPa (280 PSI) in the liver. Energy Transfer Required for Remote Neural Effects The work of Courtney et al. also supports the role of a ballistic pressure wave in incapacitation and injury. Courtney A, Courtney M: Links between traumatic brain injury and ballistic pressure waves originating in the thoracic cavity and extremities. Brain Injury 21(7): 657-662, 2007. Pre-print: http://www.ballisticstestinggroup.org/tbipwave.pdf Courtney M, Courtney A: Review of criticisms of ballistic pressure wave experiments, the Strasbourg goat tests, and the Marshall and Sanow data. http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0701268 accessed 5/29/2007. Courtney M, Courtney A: Relative incapacitation contributions of pressure wave and wound channel in the Marshall and Sanow data set. http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0701266 accessed 5/29/2007. Courtney M, Courtney A: A method for testing handgun bullets in deer. http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0702107 accessed 5/29/2007. The work of Suneson et al. and Courtney et al. suggest that remote neural effects can occur with levels of energy transfer possible with handguns (roughly 500 ft·lbf/700 joules). Using sensitive biochemical techniques, the work of Wang et al. suggests even lower impact energy thresholds for remote neural injury to the brain. In analysis of experiments of dogs shot in the thigh they report highly significant (p < 0.01), easily detectable neural effects in the hypothalamus and hippocampus with energy transfer levels close to 550 ft·lbf (740 Joules). Wang et al. reports less significant (p < 0.05) remote effects in the hypothalamus with energy transfer just under 100 ft·lbf (130 Joules). Even though Wang et al. document remote neural damage for low levels of energy transfer, roughly , these levels of neural damage are probably too small to contribute to rapid incapacitation. Courtney and Courtney believe that remote neural effects only begin to make significant contributions to rapid incapacitation for ballistic pressure wave levels above 500 PSI (corresponds to transferring roughly in of penetration) and become easily observable above 1000 PSI (corresponds to transferring roughly in of penetration). Incapacitating effects in this range of energy transfer are consistent with observations of remote spinal injuries , observations of suppressed EEGs and apnea in pigs. Suneson A, Hansson HA, Seeman T: Peripheral High-Energy Missile Hits Cause Pressure Changes and Damage to the Nervous System: Experimental Studies on Pigs. The Journal of Trauma. 27(7):782-789; 1987. Suneson A, Hansson HA, Seeman T: Central and Peripheral Nervous Damage Following High-Energy Missile Wounds in the Thigh. The Journal of Trauma. 28(1 Supplement):S197-S203; January 1988. and with observations of incapacitating effects of ballistic pressure waves without a wound channel. Courtney M, Courtney A, Experimental Observations of Incapacitation via Ballistic Pressure Wave without a Wound Channel , 2007. Pre-print: http://www.ballisticstestinggroup.org/lotor.pdf Other Scientific Findings The scientific literature contains significant other findings regarding injury mechanisms of ballistic pressure waves. Ming et al. found that ballistic pressure waves can break bones. Ming L, Yu-Yuan M, Ring-Xiang F, Tian-Shun F: The characteristics of pressure waves generated in the soft target by impact and its contribution to indirect bone fractures. The Journal of Trauma 28(1) Supplement: S104-S109; 1988. Tikka et al. reports abdominal pressure changes produced in pigs hit in one thigh. Tikka S, Cederberg A, Rokkanen P: Remote effects of pressure waves in missile trauma: the intra-abdominal pressure changes in anaesthetized pigs wounded in one thigh. Acta Chir. Scand. Suppl. 508: 167-173, 1982. Akimov et al. report on injuries to the nerve trunk from gunshot wounds to the extremities. Akimov GA, Odinak MM, Zhivolupov SA, et al., The mechanisms of the injuries to the nerve trunk in gunshot wounds of the extremities: Experimental research. Voen Med Zh 80: 34, 1993. See also Stopping power References | Hydrostatic_shock |@lemmatized term:5 hydrostatic:7 shock:20 describe:5 theory:5 penetrate:4 projectile:12 produce:9 remote:20 wound:27 incapacitate:2 effect:35 live:3 target:3 addition:3 local:2 tissue:14 cause:9 direct:3 impact:19 hydraulic:4 liquid:3 fill:2 scientific:5 evidence:4 neural:12 damage:16 incapacitation:10 quickly:1 blood:3 loss:2 debate:1 proponent:1 bullet:20 light:3 fast:1 versus:1 slow:1 heavy:1 often:1 refer:3 phenomenon:1 introduction:1 unclear:1 first:2 come:1 use:6 frank:2 chamberlin:6 world:3 war:3 ii:7 trauma:18 surgeon:4 ballistics:9 researcher:5 note:3 pressure:55 wave:63 col:4 call:1 explosive:2 reaction:4 put:1 motion:1 destruction:1 extend:1 direction:1 far:1 beyond:1 axis:1 ft:4 gun:3 shot:2 handbook:2 shooter:2 reloaders:2 vol:4 ackley:4 po:3 ed:4 plaza:2 publishing:3 salt:2 lake:2 city:2 utah:2 avoid:1 ambiguous:1 either:2 specific:2 kind:1 associate:1 explosion:2 supersonic:1 medical:2 condition:1 body:2 recognize:1 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oscillate:1 large:1 amplitude:1 short:1 hypothalamus:3 region:1 spine:2 internal:1 torso:1 concave:1 surface:1 concentrate:1 spinal:4 cord:3 consistent:2 work:5 saxon:1 snyder:1 atypical:1 brown:1 sequard:1 syndrome:1 face:1 oral:1 maxillofacial:1 taylor:1 gleave:1 jrw:1 incomplete:1 joint:1 finite:1 element:1 considerable:1 stop:2 kevlar:1 vest:2 gram:1 nij:1 level:9 sternum:1 estimated:2 mpa:3 heart:1 liver:2 link:1 traumatic:1 pre:2 print:2 ballisticstestinggroup:2 tbipwave:1 criticism:1 marshall:2 sanow:2 relative:1 channel:3 method:1 deer:1 suggest:2 occur:1 roughly:4 lbf:3 joule:3 sensitive:1 biochemical:1 technique:1 even:2 low:2 threshold:1 highly:1 easily:2 detectable:1 less:1 though:1 probably:1 contribute:1 believe:1 begin:1 make:1 correspond:2 observable:1 incapacitating:1 range:1 suppressed:1 lotor:1 finding:2 literature:1 contain:1 mechanism:2 ming:2 l:1 yu:1 yuan:1 ring:1 xiang:1 tian:1 shun:1 tikka:2 cederberg:1 rokkanen:1 intra:1 anaesthetized:1 acta:1 chir:1 scand:1 suppl:1 akimov:2 trunk:2 ga:1 odinak:1 mm:1 zhivolupov:1 sa:1 voen:1 med:1 zh:1 see:1 power:1 |@bigram hydrostatic_shock:7 shock_wave:10 wound_ballistics:7 peripheral_nerve:3 j_neurosurg:2 el_segundo:1 handgun_bullet:6 soft_tissue:1 gunshot_wound:4 washington_dc:2 http_www:4 abdominal_cavity:1 courtney_courtney:9 arxiv_org:5 et_al:20 peripheral_nervous:2 thoracic_cavity:3 kinetic_energy:3 naval_ordnance:1 penetration_depth:2 spinal_cord:3 brown_sequard:1 sequard_syndrome:1 oral_maxillofacial:1 maxillofacial_surgery:1 mpa_psi:3 traumatic_brain:1 ft_lbf:3 |
3,586 | Isolation_(poker) | In poker, an isolation play is usually a raise designed to encourage one or more players to fold, specifically for the purpose of making the hand a one-on-one contest with a specific opponent. For example, if an opponent raises and a player suspects he is bluffing, a player may reraise to pressure other opponents to fold, with the aim of getting heads up. Isolation plays are most common against overly-aggressive players ("maniacs") who frequently play inferior hands, or with players who may have a drawing hand. Isolation plays are also common in tournaments to isolate a player who is "short stacked", that is, one who is in imminent danger of elimination, and so is likely to be playing aggressively out of desperation. Isolating is encouraged when holding a hand that fares better heads up than in a multi-way pot. For instance, when a player has a small pocket pair he may raise a large amount simply to knock out other players because typically a small pocket pair is about 50 percent in a heads up situation, but worse when facing multiple opponents. See also Poker jargon Poker strategy Aggressive plays Bluffing plays Check-raise plays Defense plays Drawing plays Position plays Protection plays Slow plays Stealing plays | Isolation_(poker) |@lemmatized poker:3 isolation:3 play:14 usually:1 raise:4 design:1 encourage:2 one:4 player:8 fold:2 specifically:1 purpose:1 make:1 hand:4 contest:1 specific:1 opponent:4 example:1 suspect:1 bluff:2 may:3 reraise:1 pressure:1 aim:1 get:1 head:3 common:2 overly:1 aggressive:2 maniacs:1 frequently:1 inferior:1 drawing:1 also:2 tournament:1 isolate:1 short:1 stack:1 imminent:1 danger:1 elimination:1 likely:1 aggressively:1 desperation:1 isolating:1 hold:1 fare:1 good:1 multi:1 way:1 pot:1 instance:1 small:2 pocket:2 pair:2 large:1 amount:1 simply:1 knock:1 typically:1 percent:1 situation:1 bad:1 face:1 multiple:1 see:1 jargon:1 strategy:1 check:1 defense:1 draw:1 position:1 protection:1 slow:1 steal:1 |@bigram imminent_danger:1 poker_jargon:1 jargon_poker:1 |
3,587 | Cyprinidae | The family Cyprinidae, from the Ancient Greek κυπρῖνος (kuprīnos "carp"), consists of the carps, the true minnows, and their relatives (e.g. the barbs). They are commonly called cyprinids or carp and minnow family. It is the largest family of fresh-water fish, with over 2,400 species in about 220 genera. The family belongs to the order Cypriniformes, of whose genera and species the cyprinids make up two-thirds. Fishbase (2004), Nelson (2006) Following the discovery that the mysterious mountain carps are a peculiar lineage of cyprinids, they are included herein, tentatively as subfamily Psilorhynchinae. He et al. (2008b) Description Giant Barbs (Catlocarpio siamensis) are the largest members of this family The fish in this family are native to North America, Africa, and Eurasia. The largest cyprinid in this family is the Giant Barb (Catlocarpio siamensis), which may grow up to . The largest North American species is the Colorado Pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius), of which individuals up to long and weighing over have been recorded. On the other hand, many species are smaller than . As of 2008, the smallest known freshwater fish is a cypriniform, Danionella translucida, reaching at the longest. Nelson (2006) All fish in this family are egg-layers and most do not guard their eggs, however, there are a few species that build nests and/or guard the eggs. The bitterling-like cyprinids (Acheilognathinae) are notable for depositing their eggs in bivalve molluscs, where the young grow up until able to fend for themselves. Use by humans Proud angler with 17 kg Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) Cyprinids are highly important food fish; they are fished and farmed across Eurasia. In land-locked countries in particular, cyprinids are often the major species of fish eaten, although the prevalence of inexpensive frozen fish products made this less important now than it was in earlier times. Nonetheless, in certain places they remain popular for food as well as recreational fishing, and have been deliberately stocked in ponds and lakes for centuries for this reason. Magri MacMahon (1946): pp.149-152 Several cyprinids have been introduced to waters outside their natural range to provide food, sport, or biological control for some pest species. The Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) and the Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) are the most important of these, for example in Florida. In some cases, these have become invasive species that compete with native fishes or disrupt the environment, carp in particular can stir up the riverbed reducing the clarity of the water making it difficult for plants to grow. GSMFC (2005), FFWCC [2008] One of the more unusual goldfish breeds: A variegated pearlscale with an oranda-type wen ("cap"). Numerous cyprinids have become important in the aquarium hobby, most famously the Goldfish, which was bred in China from the Prussian Carp (Carassius (auratus) gibelio). First imported into Europe around 1728, it was much fancied by Chinese nobility as early as 1150 AD and after it arrived there in 1502, also in Japan. In the latter country, from the 18th century onwards the Common Carp was bred into the ornamental variety known as – or more accurately nishikigoi (錦鯉), as koi (鯉) simply means "Common Carp" in Japanese. Other popular aquarium cyprinids include danionins, rasborines and true barbs. Riehl & Baensch (1996): p.410 Larger species are bred by the thousands in outdoor ponds, particularly in Southeast Asia, and trade in these aquarium fishes is of considerable commercial importance. The small rasborines and danionines are perhaps only rivalled by characids and poecilid livebearers in their popularity for community aquaria. One particular species of these small and undemanding danionines is the Zebrafish (Danio rerio). It has become the standard model species for studying developmental genetics of vertebrates, in particular fish. Helfman et al. (1997): p.228 Habitat destruction and other causes have reduced the wild stocks of several cyprinids to dangerously low levels; some are already entirely extinct. In particular, Leuciscinae from southwestern North America have been hit hard by pollution and unsustainable water use in the early-mid 20th century; most globally extinct Cypriniformes species are in fact Leuciscinae from the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Systematics Itasenpara Bitterling (Acheilognathus longipinnis: Acheilognathinae) The "Odessa Barb" is a popular aquarium fish of the Barbinae, but its exact affiliations were only resolved in 2007/2008. Golden Crucian Carp (Carassius carassius: Cyprininae). The ancestors of goldfish were very similar fishes. Blue Danio (Danio kerri: Danioninae) Pseudogobio esocinus (Gobioninae) Silver Carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix: Hypophthalmichthyinae) Rohu (Labeo rohita) of the disputed Labeoninae) The massive diversity of cyprinids has so far made it difficult to resolve their phylogeny in sufficient detail to make assignment to subfamilies more than tentative in many cases. It is obvious that some distinct lineages exist – for example, Cultrinae and Leuciscinae, regardless of their exact delimitation, are rather close relatives and stand apart from Cyprininae –, but the overall systematics and taxonomy of the Cyprinidae remain a subject of considerable debate. A large number of genera are incertae sedis, too equivocal in their traits and/or too little-studied to permit assignment to a particular subfamily with any certainty. Part of the solution seems that the delicate rasborines are the core group, consisting of minor lineages that have not shifted far from their evolutionary niche, or have co-evolved, for millions of years. These are among the most basal lineages of living cyprinids. Other "rasborines" are apparently distributed across the diverse lineages of the family. He et al. (2008a) The validity and circumscription of proposed subfamilies like Labeoninae or Squaliobarbinae also remains doubtful, although the latter do appear to correspond to a distinct lineage. The sometimes-seen grouping of the large-headed carps (Hypophthalmichthyinae) with Xenocypris, on the other hand, seems quite in error. More likely, they are part of the Cultrinae. The Barbinae and the disputed Labeoninae might be better treated as part of the Cyprininae, forming a close-knit group whose internal relationships are still little known. Howes (1991) However, as noted above, how various minor lineages tie into this has not yet been resolved. Therefore such a radical move, though reasonable, is probably premature. The Tench (Tinca tinca), a significant food species farmed in western Eurasia in large numbers, is unusual. It is most often grouped with the Leuciscinae, but even when these were rather loosely circumscribed, it always stood apart. A cladistic analysis of DNA sequence data of the S7 ribosomal protein intron 1 supports the view that it is distinct enough to constitute a monotypic subfamily. It also suggests that it may be closer to the small East Asian Aphyocypris, Hemigrammocypris, and Yaoshanicus. They would have diverged roughly at the same time from cyprinids of east-central Asia, perhaps as a result of the Alpide orogeny that vastly changed the topography of that region in the late Paleogene, when their divergence presumably occurred. Subfamily Acheilognathinae – bitterling-like cyprinids (4 genera) Subfamily Barbinae – true barbs (includes Schizothoracinae, sometimes in Cyprininae) Barbus – typical barbs Capoeta Diptychus Labeobarbus Luciobarbus Pseudobarbus Puntius – spotted barbs Schizothorax Sinocyclocheilus Subfamily Cultrinae Chanodichthys Culter Erythroculter Hemiculter Ischikauia Megalobrama Parabramis Sinibrama Subfamily Cyprininae – true carps Aulopyge Barbodes Barbonymus Carassius – Crucian carps Cirrhinus – mud carps Cyprinus – typical carps Kosswigobarbus Osteobrama Probarbus Salmostoma Sawbwa Subfamily Danioninae – danionins (some 10 genera) Subfamily Gobioninae – true gudgeons and relatives (including Gobiobotinae) Abbottina Biwia Coreius Gnathopogon Gobio – typical gudgeons Gobiobotia Hemibarbus Microphysogobio Pseudogobio Pseudorasbora Pungtungia Rhinogobio Romanogobio Sarcocheilichthys Saurogobio Squalidus Xenophysogobio Subfamily Hypophthalmichthyinae – large-headed carps Aristichthys Hypophthalmichthys – bighead carps Subfamily Labeoninae (including Garrinae; disputed: in Cyprininae?) </div> Flame Chub (Hemitremia flammea), one of the chubs in the Leuciscinae) Sailfin Shiner (Notropis hypselopterus), a small and colorful shiner of the Leuciscinae) Chinese Minnow (Phoxinus oxycephalus), a minnow related to some North American daces Subfamily Leuciscinae – chubs, daces, true minnows, roaches, shiners etc. Aaptosyax Abramis – typical breams (including Ballerus) Achondrostoma Robalo, Almada, Levy & Doadrio, 2007 (disputed) Acrocheilus – Chiselmouth Agosia Alburnoides Alburnus – bleaks Algansea Anaecypris Aspius Aztecula Blicca Campostoma – stonerollers Chalcalburnus Chondrostoma – typical nases Clinostomus – redside daces Coreoleuciscus – Korean Splendid Dace Couesius – lake chubs Cyprinella – satinfin shiners Dionda – desert minnows Distoechodon Elopichthys (tentatively placed here) Eremichthys – Desert Dace Ericymba – silverjaw minnows Erimonax Erimystax – slender chubs Eupallasella Evarra – Mexican daces Exoglossum – cutlips minnows Gila – western chubs (including Siphateles) Hemitremia – Flame Chub Hesperoleucus – California Roach (may belong in Lavinia) Hybognathus – silvery minnows Hybopsis – bigeye chubs Iberochondrostoma Robalo, Almada, Levy & Doadrio, 2007 Iotichthys Ladigesocypris Lavinia – Hitch Lepidomeda – spinedaces Leucaspius Leuciscus – Eurasian daces Luciobrama (tentatively placed here) Luciocyprinus Luxilus – highscale shiners Lythrurus – finescale shiners Macrhybopsis – blacktail chubs Margariscus – Pearl Dace Meda – Spikedace Moapa – Moapa Dace Mylocheilus – peamouths Mylopharodon – hardheads Nocomis – hornyhead chubs Notemigonus – Golden Shiner Notropis – eastern shiners Ochetobius (tentatively placed here) Opsopoeodus – pugnose minnows Oregonichthys – Oregon chubs Oreoleuciscus Orthodon – Sacramento Blackfish Parachondrostoma Robalo, Almada, Levy & Doadrio, 2007 Pararhinichthys – Cheat Minnow Pelecus Petroleuciscus – Ponto-Caspian chubs and daces Phenacobius – suckermouth minnows Phoxinellus Phoxinus – Eurasian minnows and redbelly daces (including Rhynchocypris) Pimephales – bluntnose minnows Plagopterus – Woundfin Platygobio – flathead chubs Pogonichthys – splittails Protochondrostoma Robalo, Almada, Levy & Doadrio, 2007 Pseudochondrostoma Robalo, Almada, Levy & Doadrio, 2007 Pseudophoxinus Pteronotropis – flagfin shiners Ptychocheilus – pikeminnows Relictus – Relict Dace Rhinichthys – riffle daces (including Tiaroga) Richardsonius – redside shiners Rutilus – roaches Scardinius – rudds Semotilus – creek chubs Snyderichthys – Leatherside Chub Squalius – European chubs Telestes Tribolodon Tropidophoxinellus Vimba Yuriria </div> Trigonostigma somphongsi ("Rasborinae", probably not too distant from the Blue Danio above) Black Carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus: Squaliobarbinae) Subfamily Psilorhynchinae – mountain carps Psilorhynchus (including Psilorhynchoides) Subfamily Rasborinae – rasborines (probably paraphyletic) Amblypharyngodon Aphyocypris Barilius Boraras Candidia – Lake Candidus Dace Opsariichthys Oxygaster Raiamas Rasbora Tanichthys Trigonostigma Zacco Subfamily Squaliobarbinae (sometimes included in Cyprininae or Leuciscinae) Ctenopharyngodon – Grass Carp Mylopharyngodon Squaliobarbus Subfamily Tincinae – Tench (monotypic, sometimes included in Leuciscinae) </div> Hemigrammocypris rasborella is of uncertain relationships.It might be close to Aphyocypris. Mahseers are peculiar cyprinids in the genera Naziritor, Neolissochilus and Tor, sometimes united in the last. incertae sedis Acanthalburnus Acanthobrama Acrossocheilus Araiocypris Catlocarpio Chagunius Cyclocheilichthys Cyprinion Gibelion – Catla Gobiocypris Gymnocypris Gymnodiptychus Herzenstein, 1892 Hampala Hemigrammocypris (close to Aphyocypris?) Iberocypris Mystacoleucus Oreinus Naziritor (sometimes in Tor) Neolissochilus (sometimes in Tor) Pachychilon Paracheilognathus Parasikukia Phreatichthys Poropuntius Pseudobrama Pseudolaubuca Rohtee Semiplotus Sikukia Spinibarbichthys Spinibarbus Telestes Tor Varicorhinus Xenocyprioides Xenocypris (Cultrinae?) Yaoshanicus (close to Aphyocypris?) </div> Footnotes References (2004): Family Cyprinidae - Minnows or carps. Version of 2004-NOV-22. Retrieved 2007-03-05. (2006): Florida's Exotic Freshwater Fishes. Retrieved 2007-03-05. (2005): Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758). Version of 2005-08-03. Retrieved 2007-05-03. (2008a): Molecular phylogenetics of the family Cyprinidae (Actinopterygii: Cypriniformes) as evidenced by sequence variation in the first intron of S7 ribosomal protein-coding gene: Further evidence from a nuclear gene of the systematic chaos in the family. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 46(3): 818–829. PDF fulltext (2008b): Phylogenetic position of the enigmatic genus Psilorhynchus (Ostariophysi: Cypriniformes): Evidence from the mitochondrial genome. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 47(1): 419–425. PDF fulltext (1997): The Diversity of Fishes. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-86542-256-7 (1991): Systematics and biogeography: an overview. In: : Biology of Cyprinids: 1–33. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London. (1946): Fishlore. Pelican Books. (2006): Fishes of the World. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0471250317 (1996): Aquarium Atlas 1. Voyageur Press. ISBN 3-88244-050-3 External links | Cyprinidae |@lemmatized family:12 cyprinidae:4 ancient:1 greek:1 κυπρῖνος:1 kuprīnos:1 carp:24 consist:2 true:6 minnow:13 relative:3 e:1 g:1 barb:7 commonly:1 call:1 cyprinid:17 large:9 fresh:1 water:4 fish:16 specie:12 genus:7 belong:2 order:1 cypriniformes:4 whose:2 species:1 make:5 two:1 third:1 fishbase:1 nelson:2 follow:1 discovery:1 mysterious:1 mountain:2 peculiar:2 lineage:7 include:12 herein:1 tentatively:4 subfamily:18 psilorhynchinae:2 et:3 al:3 description:1 giant:2 catlocarpio:3 siamensis:2 member:1 native:2 north:4 america:2 africa:1 eurasia:3 may:3 grow:3 american:2 colorado:1 pikeminnow:1 ptychocheilus:2 lucius:1 individual:1 long:2 weigh:1 record:1 hand:2 many:2 small:6 known:1 freshwater:2 cypriniform:1 danionella:1 translucida:1 reach:1 egg:4 layer:1 guard:2 however:2 build:1 nest:1 bitterling:3 like:3 acheilognathinae:3 notable:1 deposit:1 bivalve:1 mollusc:1 young:1 able:1 fend:1 use:2 human:1 proud:1 angler:1 kg:1 common:4 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3,588 | Hyperthyroidism | Hyperthyroidism is the term for overactive tissue within the thyroid gland, resulting in overproduction and thus an excess of circulating free thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), or both. Thyroid hormone is important at a cellular level, affecting nearly every type of tissue in the body. Thyroid hormone functions as a stimulus to metabolism and is critical to normal function of the cell. In excess, it both overstimulates metabolism and exacerbates the effect of the sympathetic nervous system, causing "speeding up" of various body systems and symptoms resembling an overdose of epinephrine (adrenaline). These include fast heart beat and symptoms of palpitations, nervous system tremor and anxiety symptoms, digestive system hypermotility (diarrhea), and weight loss. A lack of functioning thyroid tissue results in a symptomatic lack of thyroid hormone, termed hypothyroidism. Causes Functional thyroid tissue producing an excess of thyroid hormone occurs in a number of clinical conditions. The major causes in humans are Graves' disease (the most common etiology with 70-80%) Toxic thyroid adenoma Toxic multinodular goitre High blood levels of thyroid hormones (most accurately termed hyperthyroxinemia) can occur for a number of other reasons: Inflammation of the thyroid is called thyroiditis. There are a number of different kinds of thyroiditis including Hashimoto's (immune mediated), and subacute (DeQuervain's). These may be initially associated with secretion of excess thyroid hormone, but usually progress to gland dysfunction and thus, to hormone deficiency and hypothyroidism. Oral consumption of excess thyroid hormone tablets is possible, as is the rare event of consumption of ground beef contaminated with thyroid tissue, and thus thyroid hormone (termed "hamburger hyperthyroidism"). Amiodarone, an anti-arrhythmic drug is structurally similar to thyroxine and may cause both under- or overactivity of the thyroid. Postpartum thyroiditis (PPT) occurs in about 7% of women during the year after they give birth. PPT typically has several phases, the first of which is hyperthyroidism. This form of hyperthyroidism usually corrects itself within weeks or months without the need for treatment. Signs and symptoms Major clinical signs include weight loss (often accompanied by an increased appetite), anxiety, intolerance to heat, fatigue, hair loss, weakness, hyperactivity, irritability, apathy, depression, polyuria, polydipsia, delirium, tremor, pretibial myxedema, and sweating. Additionally, patients may present with a variety of symptoms such as palpitations and arrhythmias (notably atrial fibrillation), shortness of breath (dyspnea), loss of libido, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Long term untreated hyperthyroidism can lead to osteoporosis. In the elderly, these classical symptoms may not be present. Neurological manifestations can include tremors, chorea, myopathy, and in some susceptible individuals (particularly of Asian descent) periodic paralysis. An association between thyroid disease and myasthenia gravis has been recognized. The thyroid disease, in this condition, is autoimmune in nature and approximately 5% of patients with myasthenia gravis also have hyperthyroidism. Myasthenia gravis rarely improves after thyroid treatment and the relationship between the two entities is not well understood. Some very rare neurological manifestations that are dubiously associated with thyrotoxicosis are pseudotumor cerebri, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and a Guillain-Barré-like syndrome. Minor ocular (eye) signs, which may be present in any type of hyperthyroidism, are eyelid retraction ("stare"), extra-ocular muscle weakness, and lid-lag. In hyperthyroid stare (Dalrymple sign) the eyelids are retracted upward more than normal (the normal position is at the superior corneoscleral limbus, where the "white" of the eye begins at the upper border of the iris). Extra-ocular muscle weakness may present with double vision. In lid-lag (von Graefe's sign), when the patient tracks an object downward with their eyes, the eyelid fails to follow the downward moving iris, and the same type of upper globe exposure which is seen with lid retraction occurs, temporarily. These signs disappear with treatment of the hyperthyroidism. Neither of these ocular signs should be confused with exophthalmos (protrusion of the eyeball) which occurs specifically and uniquely in Graves' disease. This forward protrusion of the eyes is due to immune mediated inflammation in the retro-orbital (eye socket) fat. Exophthalmos, when present, may exacerbate hyperthyroid lid-lag and stare. Thyrotoxic crisis (or thyroid storm) is a rare but severe complication of hyperthyroidism, which may occur when a thyrotoxic patient becomes very sick or physically stressed. Its symptoms can include: an increase in body temperature to over 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit), tachycardia, arrhythmia, vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, coma and death. Diagnosis A diagnosis may be suspected on history and physical examination, and is confirmed with blood tests. Measuring the level of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in the blood is usually all that is required. A low TSH indicates that the pituitary gland is being inhibited by increased levels of T4 and/or T3 in the blood, and is therefore a reliable marker of hyperthyroidism. Rarely, a low TSH indicates primary failure of the pituitary, or temporary inhibition of the pituitary due to another illness (euthyroid sick syndrome) and so checking the T4 and T3 is still clinically useful. Measuring specific antibodies, such as anti-TSH-receptor antibodies in Graves' disease, or anti-thyroid-peroxidase in Hashimoto's thyroiditis—a common cause of HYPOthyroidism—may also contribute to the diagnosis. Thyroid scintigraphy is a useful test to distinguish between causes of hyperthyroidism, and this entity from thyroiditis. In addition to testing the TSH levels, many doctors test for T3, Free T3, T4 and/or Free T4 for more detailed results. Often hyperthyroidism causes nodules in the thyroid. FNA Biopsy (Fine Needle Aspiration), Ultrasound testing and other radioactive scans can be done to determine whether these nodules are cancerous or not. Treatment The major and generally accepted modalities for treatment of hyperthyroidism in humans involve initial temporary use of suppressive thyrostatics medication, and possibly later use of permanent surgical or radioisotope therapy. All approaches may cause under active thyroid function (hypothyroidism) which is easily managed with levothyroxine supplementation. Temporary medical therapy Thyrostatics Thyrostatics are drugs that inhibit the production of thyroid hormones, such as carbimazole (used in UK) and methimazole (used in US), and propylthiouracil. Thyrostatics are believed to work by inhibiting the iodination of thyroglobulin by thyroperoxidase, and thus, the formation of tetra-iodothyronine (T4). Propylthiouracil' also works outside the thyroid gland, preventing conversion of (mostly inactive) T4 to the active form T3. Because thyroid tissue usually contains a substantial reserve of thyroid hormone, thyrostatics can take weeks to become effective, and the dose often needs to be carefully titrated over a period of months. A very high dose is often needed early in treatment, but if too high a dose is used persistently, patients can develop symptoms of hypothyroidism. Beta-blockers Many of the common symptoms of hyperthyroidism such as palpitations, trembling, and anxiety are mediated by increases in beta adrenergic receptors on cell surfaces. Beta blockers are a class of drug which offset this effect, reducing rapid pulse associated with the sensation of palpitations, and decreasing tremor and anxiety. This doesn't help the underlying problem of excess thyroid hormone, but makes the symptoms much more manageable, particularly as definitive treatment with thryostatic drugs can take a number of months to work. Propranolol in the UK, and Metoprolol in the US, are most frequently used to augment treatment for hyperthyroid patients. Geffner, DL, Hershman, JM.ß-adrenergic blockade for the treatment of hyperthyroidism. Am J Med 1992; 93:61. Permanent treatments Surgery as an option predates the use of the less invasive radioisotope therapy, but is still required in cases where the thyroid gland is enlarged and causing compression to the neck structures, or the underlying cause of the hyperthyroidism may be cancerous in origin. Surgery Surgery (to remove the whole thyroid or a part of it) is not extensively used because most common forms of hyperthyroidism are quite effectively treated by the radioactive iodine method. However, some Graves' disease patients who cannot tolerate medicines for one reason or another, patients who are allergic to iodine, or patients who refuse radioiodine opt for surgical intervention. Also, some surgeons believe that radioiodine treatment is unsafe in patients with unusually large gland, or those whose eyes have begun to bulge from their sockets, claiming that the massive dose of iodine needed will only exacerbate the patient's symptoms. The procedure is quite safe - some surgeons even perform partial thyroidectomies on an out-patient basis. Radioiodine In iodine-131 (Radioiodine) radioisotope therapy, radioactive iodine-131 is given orally (either by pill or liquid) on a one-time basis to destroy the function of a hyperactive gland. Patients who do not respond to the first dose are sometimes given an additional radioactive iodine treatment in a larger dose. The iodine given for ablative treatment is different from the iodine used in a scan. Radioactive iodine is given after a routine iodine scan, and uptake of the iodine is determined to confirm hyperthyroidism. The radioactive iodine is picked up by the active cells in the thyroid and destroys them. Since iodine is only picked up by thyroid cells (and picked up more readily by over-active thyroid cells), the destruction is local, and there are no widespread side effects with this therapy. Radioactive iodine ablation has been safely used for over 50 years, and the only major reasons for not using it are pregnancy and breast-feeding. A common outcome following radioiodine is a swing to the easily treatable hypothyroidism, and this occurs in 78% of those treated for Graves' thyrotoxicosis and in 40% of those with toxic multinodular goiter or solitary toxic adenoma. Use of higher doses of radioiodine reduces the incidence of treatment failure, with the higher response to treatment consisting mostly of higher rates of hypothyroidism. There is increased sensitivity to radioiodine therapy in thyroids appearing on ultrasound scans as more uniform (hypoechogenic), due to densely packed large cells, with 81% later becoming hypothyroid, compared to just 37% in those with more normal scan appearances (normoechogenic). Veterinary medicine Cats In veterinary medicine, hyperthyroidism'' is one of the most common endocrine conditions affecting older domesticated cats. Some veterinarians estimate that it occurs in up to 2% of cats over the age of 10. http://www.thyroid-info.com/articles/cat-hyper.htm The disease has become significantly more common since the first reports of feline hyperthyroidism in the 1970s. In cats, one cause of hyperthyroidism tends to be benign tumors, but the reason those cats develop such tumors continues to be researched. However, recent research published in Environmental Science & Technology, a publication of the American Chemical Society, suggests that many cases of feline hyperthyroidism are associated with exposure to environmental contaminants called polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), which are present in flame retardants in many household products, particularly furniture and some electronic products. The study from which the report was based, was conducted jointly by researchers at the EPA's National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory and Indiana University. In the study, which involved 23 pet cats with feline hyperthyroidism, PDBE blood levels were three times as high as those in younger, non-hyperthyroid cats. Ideally, PBDE and related endocrine disruptors that seriously damage health would not be present in the blood of any animals or humans. Most recently, mutations of the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor have been discovered which cause a constitutive activation of the thyroid gland cells. Many other factors may play a role in the pathogenesis of the disease such as goitrogens (isoflavones such as genistein, daidzein and quercertin) and iodine and selenium content in the diet. The most common presenting symptoms are: rapid weight loss, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), vomiting, diarrhea, increased consumption of fluids (polydipsia) and food, and increased urine production (polyuria). Other symptoms include hyperactivity, possible aggression, heart murmurs, a gallop rhythm, an unkempt appearance, and large, thick nails. About 70% of afflicted cats also have enlarged thyroid glands (goiter). The same three treatments used with humans are also options in treating feline hyperthyroidism (surgery, radioiodine treatment, and anti-thyroid drugs). Drugs must be given to cats for the remainder of their lives, but may be the least expensive option, especially for very old cats. Radioiodine treatment and surgery often cure hyperthyroidism. Some veterinarians prefer radioiodine treatment over surgery because it does not carry the risks associated with anesthesia. Radioiodine treatment, however, is not available in all areas for cats. The reason is that this treatment requires nuclear radiological expertise and facilities, since the animal's urine, sweat, saliva and stool are radioactive for several days after the treatment, requiring special inpatient handling and facilities usually for a total of 3 weeks (first week in total isolation and the next two weeks in close confinement). The guidelines for radiation levels vary from state to state; some states such as Massachusetts allow hospitalization for as little as two days before the animal is sent home with care instructions. Surgery tends to be done only when just one of the thyroid glands is affected (unilateral disease); however following surgery, the remaining gland may become over-active. As in people, one of the most common complications of the surgery is hypothyroidism. Dogs Hyperthyroidism is very rare in dogs (occurring in less than 1 or 2% of dogs), who instead tend to have the opposite problem: hypothyroidism. When hyperthyroidism does appear in dogs, it tends to be due to over-supplementation of the thyroid hormone during treatment for hypothyroidism. Symptoms usually disappear when the dose is adjusted. Occasionally dogs will have functional carcinoma in the thyroid; more often (about 90% of the time) this is a very aggressive tumor that is invasive and easily metastasizes or spreads to other tissues (esp. the lungs), making prognosis very poor. While surgery is possible, it is often very difficult due to the invasiveness of the mass in surrounding tissue including the arteries, the esophagus, and windpipe. It may only be possible to reduce the size of the mass, thus relieving symptoms and also allowing time for other treatments to work. If a dog does have a benign functional carcinoma (appears in 10% of the cases), treatment and prognosis is no different from that of the cat. The only real difference is that dogs tend to appear to be asymptomic, with the exception of having an enlarged thyroid gland appearing as a lump on the neck. See also Carbimazole Hypothyroidism Goitrogen Graves' ophthalmopathy Graves' disease References Additional images External links For Humans Merck Manual article about hyperthyroidism For Felines | Hyperthyroidism |@lemmatized hyperthyroidism:28 term:4 overactive:1 tissue:8 within:2 thyroid:45 gland:12 result:3 overproduction:1 thus:5 excess:6 circulate:1 free:3 hormone:16 thyroxine:2 triiodothyronine:1 important:1 cellular:1 level:7 affect:3 nearly:1 every:1 type:3 body:3 function:5 stimulus:1 metabolism:2 critical:1 normal:4 cell:7 overstimulates:1 exacerbate:3 effect:4 sympathetic:1 nervous:2 system:4 cause:12 speed:1 various:1 symptom:15 resemble:1 overdose:1 epinephrine:1 adrenaline:1 include:7 fast:1 heart:3 beat:1 palpitation:4 tremor:4 anxiety:4 digestive:1 hypermotility:1 diarrhea:4 weight:3 loss:5 lack:2 symptomatic:1 hypothyroidism:11 functional:3 produce:1 occur:8 number:4 clinical:2 condition:3 major:4 human:5 graf:7 disease:10 common:9 etiology:1 toxic:4 adenoma:2 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3,589 | Commodores | The Commodores are an American funk/soul band of the 1970s and 1980s. The members of the group met as freshmen at Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) in 1968, and signed with Motown in November 1972, having first caught the public eye opening for The Jackson 5 while on tour. Biography This group is best known for their ballads, such as "Easy" and "Three Times a Lady", but, for the most part, the group mainly recorded funky, driven dance-floor hits which include "Brick House", "Say Yeah", "Fancy Dancer", and "Too Hot Ta Trot". The Commodores originally called themselves the Jays, but had to change their name because of the similarly named O'Jays. To choose a new name William King opened a dictionary and randomly picked a word. "We lucked out," he remarked with a laugh when telling this story to People Weekly Magazine. "We almost became The Commodes!" "Machine Gun", the instrumental title track from the band's debut album, became a staple at American sporting events, and is similarly featured in many films, including Boogie Nights and Looking for Mr. Goodbar. It reached #24 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1975. Another instrumental, "Cebu" (named after an island in the Philippines), later became a staple in the Quiet Storm format. Three albums released in years 1975 and 1976 (Caught in the Act, Movin' On, Hot On The Tracks) are considered the peak of their harder funk period. Only one such hit from that era scored big, the funk-driven "Brick House" which reached #5 in the U.S. After those recordings the group started to move towards softer sound. That move was hinted from their 1976 Top Ten hits "Sweet Love" and "(Just To Be) Close To You". In 1977 the Commodores scored a ballad hit with "Easy", which became the group's biggest hit yet, reaching #4 in the U.S. After years of toiling in the Top Ten, the group finally reached #1 in 1978 with the sweet "Three Times a Lady". 1979 saw the Commodores score another Top Five ballad hit "Sail On" before reaching the top of the charts once again with another ballad, "Still". The group had no major hits in 1980, but by 1981 they were back with a vengeance, scoring Top Ten hits with the ballad "Oh No" (#4 U.S.) and their first upbeat single in almost five years, "Lady (You Bring Me Up)" (#8 U.S.) Many of their hit tunes were written or co-written by Walter "Clyde" Orange, the original lead singer before Lionel Richie came on board. Lionel and Clyde alternated as lead singers. Clyde was also the lead singer on "Nightshift" and "Brick House" among others. Clyde now lives with his family in Coral Springs, Florida and has three children named Paula, Colin and Cody. After Richie left to pursue a solo career, former Heatwave singer J.D. Nicholas assumed co-lead vocal duties with drummer Walter "Clyde" Orange. However, with the exception of the Grammy-winning "Nightshift" (#3 in the U.S., a tribute to Marvin Gaye and Jackie Wilson) the band never achieved the same level of success it had enjoyed with Richie. Ironically, "Nightshift" won The Commodores their only Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals in 1985. On Sunday 19 August 1990 the group made an appearance at Seagulls Rugby League Football Club, on Gollan Drive, West Tweed Heads, in New South Wales, Australia. Over time, the group's founding members began leaving. McClary left in 1982 (shortly after Richie left) to pursue a solo career and to develop a gospel music company. McClary was replaced by guitarist/vocalist Sheldon Reynolds. LaPread left in 1986 and moved to New Zealand, and Reynolds departed for Earth, Wind and Fire in 1987. Williams exited the band in 1989. The group also gradually abandoned its funk roots and moved into the more commercial pop arena. In 1983, Skyler Jett, replaced Lionel Richie as the lead singer for The Commodores, and toured the world and performed in over 32 countries in a two year span. In 1985, the group performed two commercials for NBC affiliate WXIA in Atlanta, Georgia. The group left Motown in 1986 for Polydor, and released several additional albums, which are primarily compilations of previous material. They have re-recorded Commodores hits and have recorded a live album and a Christmas album. Today, the Commodores consist of Walter "Clyde" Orange, James Dean "J.D." Nicholas and William "WAK" King, along with a backing band. King married songwriter Shirley Hanna-King ("Brick House" co-writer) in 1976. Together they have four children, Adam, Ryan Hanna, Leah Hanna and Noah. Since the late 1990s, Orange has also been working in conjunction with singer/songwriter Craig Deanto, and they have released an album titled "Who Hears The Cries". The group continues to perform, selling out concerts around the world, annually. They have the opening act for Trump casinos and Hard Rock casinos. Original band personnel Lionel B. Richie Jr. (vocals, saxophone and piano) - born 20 June 1949, Tuskegee, Alabama. Thomas McClary (lead guitar) - born 6 October 1949, Eustis, Florida. Milan Williams (keyboards, guitar) - born 28 March 1948 Okolona, Mississippi, died of cancer, July 9, 2006 Houston, Texas. William "WAK" King (trumpet, guitar, synthesizer) - born 30 January 1949, Alabama. Ronald La Pread (bass guitar, trumpet) - born 4 September 1946, Alabama. Walter Orange (vocals, drums) - born 10 December 1946, Florida. Discography Albums Machine Gun (1974) #138 U.S. Caught in the Act (1975) #26 U.S. Movin' On (1975) #29 U.S. Hot on the Tracks (1976) #12 U.S. Commodores (1977) #3 U.S. Commodores Live! (1977) #3 U.S., #60 UK Natural High (1978) #3 U.S., #8 UK Greatest Hits Midnight Magic (1979) #3 U.S., #15 UK Heroes (1980) #7 U.S., #50 UK In the Pocket (1981) #13 U.S., #70 UK Commodores 13 (1983) #103 U.S. All the Great Love Songs (1984) U.S. Nightshift (1985) #12 U.S., #13 UK United (1986) #101 U.S. Rock Solid (1988) #101 U.S. Commodores Christmas (1992) No Tricks (1993) Singles Year Song U.S. Hot 100 U.S. R&B chart UK singles Album 1974 "Machine Gun"22720 Machine Gun "The Zoo (The Human Zoo)"--44 "I Feel Sanctified"7512- 1975 "Slippery When Wet"191- Caught In The Act 1976 "Sweet Love"5232 Movin' On "Just to Be Close to You"7162 Hot On The Tracks 1977 "Fancy Dancer"399- "Easy"419 The Commodores "Brick House"5432 1978 "Too Hot ta Trot"24138 The Commodores Live! "Three Times a Lady"111 Natural High "Flying High"382137 1979 "Sail On"488 Midnight Magic "Still "114 1980 "Wonderland"252140 "Old-Fashion Love"208- Heroes "Heroes"5427- 1981 "Lady (You Bring Me Up)"8556 In The Pocket "Oh No"4544 1982 "Why You Wanna Try Me"6642- "Painted Picture"7019- All The Greatest Hits 1983 "Only You"5420- Commodores 13 1985 "Nightshift"313 Nightshift "Animal Instinct"432274 "Janet"8765- 1986 "Goin' To The Bank"65243 United 1987 "Take It from Me"-38 "United in Love" (hit on AC charts)-? 1988 "Solitaire"-51 Rock Solid Awards and recognition The Commodores were inducted into The Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2003. References External links Official Commodores website Commodores fansite 'The Commodores' Vocal Group Hall of Fame Page | Commodores |@lemmatized commodore:18 american:2 funk:4 soul:1 band:6 member:2 group:16 meet:1 freshman:1 tuskegee:3 institute:1 university:1 sign:1 motown:2 november:1 first:2 catch:3 public:1 eye:1 opening:2 jackson:1 tour:2 biography:1 best:2 know:1 ballad:5 easy:3 three:5 time:4 lady:5 part:1 mainly:1 record:3 funky:1 drive:2 dance:1 floor:1 hit:13 include:2 brick:5 house:5 say:1 yeah:1 fancy:2 dancer:2 hot:7 ta:2 trot:2 originally:1 call:1 jay:2 change:1 name:5 similarly:2 choose:1 new:3 william:3 king:5 open:1 dictionary:1 randomly:1 pick:1 word:1 lucked:1 remark:1 laugh:1 tell:1 story:1 people:1 weekly:1 magazine:1 almost:2 become:4 commode:1 machine:4 gun:4 instrumental:2 title:2 track:4 debut:1 album:8 staple:2 sport:1 event:1 feature:1 many:2 film:1 boogie:1 night:1 look:1 mr:1 goodbar:1 reach:5 billboard:1 another:3 cebu:1 island:1 philippine:1 later:1 quiet:1 storm:1 format:1 release:3 year:5 act:4 movin:3 consider:1 peak:1 hard:2 period:1 one:1 era:1 score:4 big:2 driven:1 u:22 recording:1 start:1 move:4 towards:1 soft:1 sound:1 hint:1 top:5 ten:3 sweet:3 love:5 close:2 yet:1 toiling:1 finally:1 saw:1 five:2 sail:2 chart:3 still:2 major:1 back:1 vengeance:1 oh:2 upbeat:1 single:3 bring:2 tune:1 write:2 co:3 walter:4 clyde:6 orange:5 original:2 lead:6 singer:6 lionel:4 richie:6 come:1 board:1 alternate:1 also:3 nightshift:6 among:1 others:1 live:4 family:1 coral:1 spring:1 florida:3 child:2 paula:1 colin:1 cody:1 leave:6 pursue:2 solo:2 career:2 former:1 heatwave:1 j:2 nicholas:2 assume:1 vocal:6 duty:1 drummer:1 however:1 exception:1 grammy:2 win:2 tribute:1 marvin:1 gaye:1 jackie:1 wilson:1 never:1 achieve:1 level:1 success:1 enjoy:1 ironically:1 award:2 r:2 b:3 performance:1 duo:1 sunday:1 august:1 make:1 appearance:1 seagull:1 rugby:1 league:1 football:1 club:1 gollan:1 west:1 tweed:1 head:1 south:1 wale:1 australia:1 found:1 begin:1 mcclary:3 shortly:1 develop:1 gospel:1 music:1 company:1 replace:2 guitarist:1 vocalist:1 sheldon:1 reynolds:2 lapread:1 zealand:1 depart:1 earth:1 wind:1 fire:1 williams:2 exit:1 gradually:1 abandon:1 root:1 commercial:2 pop:1 arena:1 skyler:1 jett:1 world:2 perform:3 country:1 two:2 span:1 nbc:1 affiliate:1 wxia:1 atlanta:1 georgia:1 polydor:1 several:1 additional:1 primarily:1 compilation:1 previous:1 material:1 christmas:2 today:1 consist:1 james:1 dean:1 wak:2 along:1 backing:1 married:1 songwriter:2 shirley:1 hanna:3 writer:1 together:1 four:1 adam:1 ryan:1 leah:1 noah:1 since:1 late:1 work:1 conjunction:1 craig:1 deanto:1 hear:1 cry:1 continue:1 sell:1 concert:1 around:1 annually:1 trump:1 casino:2 rock:3 personnel:1 jr:1 saxophone:1 piano:1 bear:1 june:1 alabama:3 thomas:1 guitar:4 born:5 october:1 eustis:1 milan:1 keyboard:1 march:1 okolona:1 mississippi:1 die:1 cancer:1 july:1 houston:1 texas:1 trumpet:2 synthesizer:1 january:1 ronald:1 la:1 pread:1 bass:1 september:1 drum:1 december:1 discography:1 uk:7 natural:2 high:3 great:3 midnight:2 magic:2 hero:3 pocket:2 song:2 unite:2 solid:2 trick:1 zoo:2 human:1 feel:1 sanctify:1 slippery:1 wet:1 caught:1 fly:1 wonderland:1 old:1 fashion:1 wanna:1 try:1 painted:1 picture:1 commodores:1 animal:1 instinct:1 janet:1 goin:1 bank:1 united:1 take:1 ac:1 solitaire:1 recognition:1 induct:1 hall:2 fame:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 fansite:1 page:1 |@bigram tuskegee_institute:1 billboard_hot:1 lionel_richie:2 marvin_gaye:1 grammy_award:1 guitarist_vocalist:1 nbc_affiliate:1 atlanta_georgia:1 singer_songwriter:1 bass_guitar:1 hall_fame:2 external_link:1 |
3,590 | Gospel_of_Mark | The Gospel of Mark (Gk. ) is the second of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament but is believed by most modern scholars to be the first gospel written, on which the other two synoptic gospels, Matthew and Luke, were partially based. It was written anonymously Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. but has been traditionally ascribed to Mark the Evangelist (also known as John Mark), a cousin of Barnabas. Bernd Kollmann, Joseph Barnabas (Liturgical Press, 2004), page 30. However, there are pieces of evidence that may confirm that the author of the Gospel of Mark was a disciple of Peter. The gospel narrates the life of Jesus of Nazareth from his baptism by John the Baptist to the resurrection (or to the empty tomb in the shorter recension), but it concentrates particularly on the last week of his life (chapters 11-16, the trip to Jerusalem). Its swift narrative portrays Jesus as a heroic man of action, an exorcist, a healer and miracle worker. It calls him the Son of Man (Jesus; to teachers of the law), (Jesus; to Pharisees), (Jesus via Mark, to disciples), (Jesus; to disciples and Caesarean crowd), (Jesus via Mark; to Peter, James, and John), (Jesus; to disciples), (Jesus; to disciples), (Jesus; to disciples), (Jesus; to Peter, James, John, and Andrew), (Jesus; to diciples), (Jesus; to Peter, James, and John), (Jesus; to high priest w/ chief priests, elders, and teachers of the law) , the Son of God verbatim in (evil spirits; to Jesus), ("Legion" i.e. evil spirits; to Jesus), (centurion at crucifixion; to undefined audience); contextually implied in (voice from heaven; to John the Baptist), (Jesus as eschatology; to disciples and crowd), (voice from cloud; to disciples), (Jesus as parable; to chief priests, scribes, and elders), (Jesus as eschatology; to disciples), (Jesus; to chief priest); included in some manuscripts of (Markan author as character introduction; to audience) , and the Christ (Markan author; to audience), (Peter; to Jesus), (Jesus; to John), (Jesus; to a large crowd), (Jesus; to Peter, James, John, and Andrew (v. 33)), (Jesus; to high priest), (chief priests, teachers of the law; (mockingly) to each other) (the Greek translation of Messiah). Two important themes of Mark are the Messianic secret and the obtuseness of the disciples. In Mark, Jesus often commands secrecy regarding aspects of his identity and certain actions. Secrecy regarding... (healing; to leper), (identity as Son of God; to evil spirits), (resurrecting a girl; to disciples and girl's parents), (healing; to healed man, "some people"), (identity as Messiah; to Peter, unspecified disciples), (identity as Son of God; to Peter, James, John); according to some manuscripts of (healing blindness; to healed man) Jesus uses parables to explain his message and fulfill prophecy (). At times, the disciples have trouble understanding the parables, but Jesus explains what they mean, in secret (, ). They also fail to understand the implication of the miracles that he performs before them. Following Augustine of Hippo, see also Augustinian hypothesis, the Gospel of Mark was traditionally believed by Christian churches to be based on the Gospel of Matthew, an epitome, and accordingly, it is placed after that gospel in most Bibles. However, most contemporary scholars regard it as the earliest of the canonical gospels (c 70). According to the two-source hypothesis, it was one source for material in the other synoptic gospels, Matthew and Luke. Content Galilean ministry John the Baptist (1:1–8,6:14–29) Baptism of Jesus (1:9–11) Temptation of Jesus (1:12–13) Good News (1:14–15) Calling Simon, Andrew, James, John (1:16–20) Capernaum (1:21–34) Galilee preaching tour (1:35–39) Leper and Paralytic (1:40–2:12) Recruiting the tax collector (2:13–17) Question about fasting (2:18–22) Sabbath observance (2:23–3:6) Multitude at the Sea of Galilee (3:7–12) Commission of the Twelve (3:13–19,6:7-13) Jesus and Beelzebub (3:20–35) Eternal sin (3:28-29) Parable of the Sower (4:1–9,13-20) Purpose of parables (4:10-12,33-34) Salt and Light (4:21–23,9:50) On measuring (4:24-25) Parable of the Growing Seed (4:26–29) Parable of the Mustard Seed (4:30–32) Rebuking wind and waves (4:35–41) Demon named Legion (5:1–20) Synagogue leader's daughter (5:21–43) Hometown rejection (6:1–6) Feeding the 5000 (6:30–44) Walking on water (6:45–52) Fringe of his cloak heals (6:53–56) Clean and Unclean (7:1–23) Feeding the dogs (7:24–30) Healing a deaf mute (7:31–37) Feeding the 4000 (8:1–9) No sign will be given (8:10–12) Beware of yeast (8:13-21) Healing with spit (8:22-26) Peter's confession (8:27–30) Son of Man (8:31-33, 9:30-32, 10:33-34) Those who want to follow should pick up a cross (8:34-37) Return of the Son of Man (8:38-9:1,14:62) Transfiguration (9:2–13) Disciples' exorcism failure (9:14-29) The First must be Last (9:33-37) Those not against are for (9:38–42) If thy hand offend thee (9:43-49)Journey to Jerusalem Entering Judea () Teaching about divorce (10:2–12) Little children blessed (10:13-16) Rich man's salvation (10:17–31) On the road to Jerusalem () James' and John's request (10:35–45) Blind Bartimaeus (10:46–52) Events in Jerusalem Entering Jerusalem (11:1–11) Cursing the fig tree (11:12–14,20-24) Temple incident (11:15–19,27-33) Prayer for forgiveness (11:25-26) Parable of the vineyard (12:1–12) Render unto Caesar (12:13–17) Resurrection of the dead (12:18-27) Great Commandment (12:28–34) Messiah, the son of David? (12:35-37) Denouncing scribes (12:38-40) Lesson of the widow's mite (12:41-44) The Coming Apocalypse (13) Plot to kill Jesus (14:1-2,10-11) A woman anointed Jesus (14:3–9) Last Supper (14:12–26) Peter's denial (14:27-31,66-72) Arrest (14:32–52) Before the High Priest (14:53–65) Before Pilate (15:1–15) Crucifixion (15:16–41) Joseph of Arimathea (15:42–47) Empty tomb (16:1–8) The Longer Ending and Resurrection appearances (16:9-20) Great Commission (16:14–18) Ascension (16:19) Authorship Fra Angelico's Head of St. Mark. The gospel itself is anonymous, but as early as Papias in the early 2nd century, a text was attributed to Mark, a cousin of Barnabas., who is said to have recorded the Apostle's discourses. Papias' authority in this was John the Presbyter. While the text of Papias is no longer extant, it was quoted by Eusebius of Caesarea: This, too, the presbyter used to say. ‘Mark, who had been Peter's interpreter, wrote down carefully, but not in order, all that he remembered of the Lord’s sayings and doings. For he had not heard the Lord or been one of his followers, but later, as I said, one of Peter’s. Peter used to adapt his teachings to the occasion, without making a systematic arrangement of the Lord’s sayings, so that Mark was quite justified in writing down some of the things as he remembered them. For he had one purpose only – to leave out nothing that he had heard, and to make no misstatement about it. Papias, quoted in Eusebius History of the Church, trans. G.A. Williamson (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1965). 3.39.15 / pp. 103–4. Also available online Irenaeus concurred with this tradition, Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.1, also 10:6. as did Origen of Alexandria, cited in Eusebius, History of the Church, 6:14 Tertullian, Tertullian, Against Marcion 4:5 and others. Clement of Alexandria, writing at the end of the 2nd century, reported an ancient tradition that Mark was urged by those who had heard Peter's speeches in Rome to write what the apostle had said. Following this tradition, scholars have generally thought that this gospel was written at Rome. Among recent alternate suggestions are Syria, Alexandria, or more broadly any area within the Roman Empire. In any case, many scholars do not accept the Papias citation as a reliable representation of the Gospel's history, pointing out that there is no distinctive Petrine tradition in Mark. Schelle, U. The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings.Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998. p200 It has been argued that there is an impending sense of persecution in the Gospel, and that this could indicate it being written to sustain the faith of a community under such a threat. As the main Christian persecution at that time was in Rome under Nero, this has been used to place the writing of the Gospel in Rome. Brown et al., pp. 596-97. Furthermore, it has been argued that the Latinized vocabulary See the Bauer lexicon, e.g. σπεκουλατορα ("soldier of the guard", , NRSV), ξεστων (Greek corruption of sextarius ("pots", ), κοδραντης ("penny", , NRSV), κεντυριων ("centurion", , ). employed in Mark (and in neither Matthew nor Luke) shows that the Gospel was written in Rome. Also cited in support is a passage in First Peter: "The chosen one at Babylon sends you greeting, as does Mark, my son."; Babylon being interpreted as a derogatory or code name for Rome, as the famous ancient city of Babylon ceased to exist in 275 BC. However, the Rome-Peter theory has been questioned in recent decades. Some scholars believe that the Gospel of Mark contains mistakes concerning Galilean geography and customs Dennis Nineham, Saint Mark, p 193 Bart Ehrman, The New Testament. A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings,p 74 Lee Martin McDonald, Stanley Porter, Early Christianity and its Sacred Literature, p 286 , supporting that the author, or his sources, were unfamiliar with the actual geography of that area and its customs, unlike the historical Peter. Complete Gospels, Robert J. Miller editor, 1992, translation note to verse 7:31: "Mark's geographical sense seems confused here, since Tyre is south of Sidon: to return to the Sea of Galilee [actually a freshwater lake, see note at 4:35-41, Luke corrects this at Luke 5:1 etc.] from Tyre would not normally mean a journey north to Sidon, nor to the southeast through the region of the gentile cities of the Decapolis (cf. 5:20). What seems to be intended is a general indication of a trip through non-Israelite areas to the north and east of Galilee." Translation note to verse 9:2-8: "...Again Mark provides his characters with a symbolic landscape [featuring a Lofty mountain] appropriate to the moment, without having to get too specific about the geographical details." Translation note to verse 5:1-20: "The placing of this episode in Gerasa, thirty miles from the lake, led to several "corrections" in the manuscript tradition..." Translation note to verse 3:13-19: "Jesus leads his group up an unnamed mountain. Mark creates an evocative landscape at will (empty places, a mountain, the seaside, "his home" or "the house"), without regard to narrative connection or plausibility..." Furthermore, certain scholars dispute the connection of the gospel with persecution, identified with Nero's persecution in Rome, asserting that persecution was widespread, albeit sporadic beyond the borders of the city of Rome. H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, pages 254-256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37-41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and the Julio-Claudian empire. Until then — if one accepts Sejanus' heyday [19-31] and the trouble caused by the census after Archelaus' banishment [6] — there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in the Temple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish-Roman war that might well have spread to the entire East." See also Zealots. It is generally agreed among contemporary scholars that the Gospel of Mark was the first of the canonical gospels to be written, whereas the traditional view, popular amongst the Church fathers and especially Augustine of Hippo, holds that Mark was composed second, after the Gospel of Matthew (see Augustinian hypothesis). This assertion of Markan Priority is closely associated with the Two-Source Hypothesis, Q hypothesis, and the Farrer hypothesis (see below). Date There are differing opinions as to how late Mark could have been written. Most scholars agree with the Two-source hypothesis that proposes that Mark was one of the sources for the other Synoptic Gospels, Matthew and Luke; according to this viewpoint the latest possible date for Mark depends on the dating of Matthew and Luke. A wide range of recent critical scholars believe that Mark was written at the earliest after the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple in 70. Two papyrologists, Fr. Josep O'Callaghan and Carsten Peter Thiede, have proposed that lettering on a postage-stamp-sized papyrus fragment found in a cave at Qumran, 7Q5, represents a fragment of Mark (); thus they assert that the present gospel was written and distributed prior to 68. Computer analysis has shown that, assuming their disputed reading of the letters to be correct, and allowing for the replacement of one letter and the omission of a three word phrase "to the land", only Mark matches these twenty letters and five lines among all known Greek manuscripts. The majority of papyrologists question this identification of the fragmentary text, for several reasons. Some assume that all early papyrus Gospel manuscripts were copied as codices. Brown 164 , and that a copy in a scroll format would not have been made for the Qumran librarians. While no other known Greek work matches 7Q5's wording, neither does Mark unless the phrase "to land", found in all other extant manuscripts of Mark, is omitted from 6:52–53. John Robinson in 'Redating the New Testament' proposes an even earlier date. He accepts Marcan Priority and dates Luke/Acts no later than 62. Therefore, if Mark was written before Luke/Acts, Robinson dates Mark to the mid fifties. John Robinson, Redating the New Testament. p.352 Dating of Mark near 70 AD is based on apparent references to the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, combined with the assumption that the first readers would not have understood these references if the gospel had been written prior to the events described. , known as the "Little Apocalypse", is a key passage for dating the text. Using the method of Higher Criticism to analyze the Biblical text and to discover the historical framework in which it was written, correspondences have been seen by scholars between this passage and the calamities of the First Jewish Revolt of 66–70. The passage predicts that Herod's Temple would be torn down completely, and this was done by the forces of the Roman general Titus in the year 70. Josephus, Jewish War VI; note that the Western Wall, which still stands, was not a part of the Temple proper, but rather part of a larger structure on which the Temple and other buildings stood. Scholars have also pointed out that the last verse of the Parable of the Wicked Husbandmen alludes to the slaughter and exile of the Jews from Jerusalem by the Romans after 70 (according to historians, the Jews were excluded from Jerusalem only after the Bar Kokhba revolt H.H Ben=Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, page 334, ISBN 0674397312 ). Others see the reference in to the false accusation that Jesus threatened to destroy the Temple and rebuild it in three days as another reference to the destruction of the Temple in 70. A small group of scholars, including the German radical critical scholar Hermann Detering, see a 2nd century date for Mark. These scholars make the case that the "Little Apocalypse" refers to the events of the Bar Kokhba Revolt of 132-135, and which they see as a much better fit to events described in this text than the First Jewish Revolt of 70. See also Ten Martyrs H.H. Ben-Sasson, page 334: "...the story [of the Ten Martyrs] has come to include earlier events that belong to the period of the destruction of the Temple or of the revolt under Trajan ... But the core of the tradition relates to matters that occurred after the Bar Kokhba Revolt" . Audience Beginning of a Latin Gospel of Mark, Book of Durrow (7th century). The general theory is that Mark is a Hellenistic gospel, written primarily for an audience of Greek-speaking residents of the Roman Empire. Jewish traditions are explained, clearly for the benefit of non-Jews (e.g., ; ; ). Aramaic words and phrases are also expanded upon by the author, e.g., ταλιθα κουμ (talitha koum, ); κορβαν (Corban, ); αββα (abba, ). Alongside these Hellenistic influences, Mark makes use of the Old Testament in the form in which it had been translated into Greek, the Septuagint, for instance, ; ; ; ; also compare with Daniel . Those who seek to show the non-Hellenistic side of Mark note passages such as ; ("Son of the Most High God"; cf. Genesis ); ; and . These also indicate that the audience of Mark has kept at least some of its Jewish heritage, and also that the gospel might not be as Hellenistic as it first seems. The gospel of Mark contains many literary genres. Paul's letters were already surfacing around 40–60, and the Gospel of Mark came at a time when Christian faith was rising. Professor Dennis R MacDonald writes: Whether as a response to the Jewish War (66–70) or to the deaths of the earliest followers of Jesus, or to the need of a definitive version of Jesus' life, or to objectionable theological trends, the author of the Gospel of Mark recast traditional materials into a dramatic narrative climaxing in Jesus' death. It is not clear precisely what kind of book the author set out to compose, insofar as no document written prior to Mark exactly conforms with its literary properties. Its themes of travel, conflict with supernatural foes, suffering, and secrecy resonate with Homer's Odyssey and Greek romantic novels. Its focus on the character, identity, and death of a single individual reminds one of ancient biographies. Its dialogues, tragic outcome, and peculiar ending call to mind Greek drama. Some have suggested that the author created a new, mixed genre for narrating the life and death of Jesus. Dennis R MacDonald, Early Christian Literature Mark and the synoptic problem Contemporary scholars generally hold to some version of the two-source hypothesis, by which Mark is the first of the surviving gospels, used as an important source by Matthew and Luke. "Markan priority" was first proposed by G. Ch. Storr in 1786 and popularized by the critical scholarship that began in the mid-19th century. An indication that Matthew and Luke used Mark is that the two later gospels generally agree on the historical details of Jesus's life found in Mark (such as his baptism) and disagree on details not found in Mark (such as the birth narratives, genealogies and resurrection appearances). Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Birth & Infancy Stories" p. 497-526. The Two-Source hypothesis (2SH) posits that the gospels of Matthew and Luke also draw extensively from a now-lost "sayings" collection—called Q, after German Quelle, "source". Most supporters of the 2SH do not think there is a literary connection between Mark and Q, e.g. Udo Schnelle (1998 p 195), who wrote that "a direct literary connection between Mark and Q must be regarded as improbable" and looks to connections through the oral tradition. see: but a couple of active scholars, such as Burton Mack, Burton Mack (1993 pp 177–79); he discusses "a myriad of interesting points at which the so-called overlaps between Mark and Q show Mark's use of Q material for his own narrative designs. see: . have argued that Mark had some knowledge of Q. To further complicate the matter, in recent years there have been various hypotheses postulating other sources for Mark, generally proposed to explain certain difficulties with the two source hypothesis. It is argued that Mark gave an order and plot to the material found in his sources, and also added some parenthetical commentary. e.g. Daniel J. Harrington, who wrote, "Mark had various kinds of traditions at his disposal: sayings, parables, controversies, healing stories and other miracles, and probably a passion narrative. Some of these traditions may have been grouped: controversies (), seed parables (), miracles (), etc. Mark gave an order and a plot to these sayings and incidents, connected them with bridge passages, and added parenthetical comments for the sake of his readers." Brown et al. 597 Other scholars have argued that canonical Mark is a gospel harmony, composed of Antiochian and Asian pre-Markan sources also found in Matthew and Luke, respectively. e.g. Rolland, Philippe. Marc, premiere harmonie evangelique? Revue Biblique 90:23-79 (1983); The first gospels: A new look at the synoptic problem. Lectio Divina 116, Paris: Cerf. (1984) Losses and early editing Mark is the shortest canonical gospel. Manuscripts, both scrolls and codices, tend to lose text at the beginning and the end, not unlike a coverless paperback in a backpack. These losses are characteristically unconnected with excisions. For instance, has been found in two different forms. Most manuscripts of Mark, including the 4th-century Codex Vaticanus, have the text "son of God", Greek grammar and article use allow an English translation of the Son of God, a son of God, or merely Son of God. but three important manuscripts do not. Those three are: Codex Sinaiticus (01, א; dated 4th century), Codex Koridethi (038, Θ; 9th century), and the text called Minuscule 28(11th century). Novum Testamentum Graece Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament states: "Since the combination of B D W all in support of [Son of God] is extremely strong, it was not thought advisable to omit the words altogether, yet because of the antiquity of the shorter reading and the possibility of scribal expansion, it was decided to enclose the words within square brackets." Interpolations may not be editorial, either. It is a common experience that glosses written in the margins of manuscripts get incorporated into the text as copies are made. Any particular example is open to dispute, of course, but one may take note of , "Let anyone with ears to hear, listen," which is not found in early manuscripts. Revision and editorial error may also contribute. Of the many earliest versions of Mark that have survived no two agree in their wording. Most differences are trivial but , where the leper approached Jesus begging to be healed, is significant. Early (Western) manuscripts say that Jesus became angry with the leper while later (Byzantine) versions indicate that Jesus showed compassion. This is possibly a confusion between the Aramaic words ethraham (he had pity) and ethra'em (he was enraged). Modern translations follow the later manuscripts for this passage. The New Living Translation includes a footnote indicating that early manuscripts state that Jesus was angry. Ending Starting in the 19th century, textual critics have commonly asserted that , describing some disciples' encounters with the resurrected Jesus, was a later addition to the gospel. Mark 16:8 stops at the empty tomb without further explanation. The last twelve verses are missing from the oldest manuscripts of Mark's Gospel. The style of these verses differs from the rest of Mark, suggesting they were a later addition. In a handful of manuscripts, a "short ending" is included after 16:8, but before the "long ending", and exists by itself in one of the earliest Old Latin codices, Codex Bobiensis. By the 5th century, at least four different endings have been attested. (See Mark 16 for a more comprehensive treatment of this topic.) Most likely, the Long Ending (16:9-20) started as a summary of evidence for Jesus' resurrection and the apostles' divine mission, based on other gospels. May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. It was likely composed early in the second century and incorporated into the gospel around the middle of the second century. Mark might have originally ended abruptly at verse 8, the gospel might be unfinished, or (most likely) the original ending might be lost. Presumably, the ending would have featured Jesus' appearance to his disciples in Galilee. Irenaeus, c. 180, quoted from the long ending, specifically as part of Mark's gospel. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.10.5-6, "Furthermore, near the end of his Gospel, Mark says: 'thus, after the Lord Jesus had spoken to them, he was taken up into heaven, and sits on the right and of God.'" c.f. Mark 16:19 The 3rd-century theologian Origen of Alexandria quoted the resurrection stories in Matthew, Luke, and John but failed to quote anything after , suggesting that his copy of Mark stopped there. Eusebius and Jerome both mention the majority of texts available to them omitted the longer ending. Critics are divided over whether the original ending at 16:8 was intentional, whether it resulted from accidental loss, or even the author's death. Those who believe that 16:8 was not the intended ending argue that it would be very unusual syntax for the text to end with the conjunction gar (), as does Mark 16:8, and that thematically it would be strange for a book of good news to end with a note of fear (, "for they were afraid"). N. B. Stonehouse, The Witness of Matthew and Mark to Christ (1944) pp. 86-118; also J. B. Tyson, Journal of Biblical Literature 80 (1961) pp. 261-268. A relevant commentary: P. W. van Horst, "Can a book end with ? A note on Mark 16:8", in Journal of Theological Studies, new series 23 (1972) pp. 121-124. For an online overview, see this indopedia.org article Some of those who believe that the 16:8 ending was intentional suggest a connection to the theme of the "Messianic Secret". This abrupt ending is also used to support the identification of this book as an example of closet drama, which characteristically ended without resolution and often with a tragic or shocking event that prevents closure. Secret Gospel of Mark A Mar Saba letter ascribed to Clement of Alexandria, copied into a book at the Mar Saba monastery and published by Morton Smith in 1973, contains references to a previously unknown Secret Gospel of Mark that gives information about the Gospel of Mark's possible Roman origin. While most Clementine scholars agree that the letter sounds authentic, a number of scholars remain unconvinced that an early Secret Mark existed, asserting that the "Mar Saba letter" is a modern-day forgery. But other academics (philologists and historians) and theologians (Jewish, Christian, agnostic, atheist) conclude the likelihood of a hoax is very small, and that the Secret Gospel of Mark may be a legitimate Christian text. See the discussion in Grafton, Anthony. "Gospel Secrets: The Biblical Controversies of Morton Smith." The Nation. January 26, 2009. Grafton refers to the book Morton Smith and Gershom Scholem, Correspondence 1945-1982. Guy G. Stroumsa, ed. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2008. ISBN 9004168397 Whether it should be included in the history of the Gospel of Mark and, if so, where, is still debated. Characteristics The Gospel of Mark differs from the other gospels in content, language, and detail. Characteristics of Mark's content The narrative can be divided into three sections: the Galilean ministry, including the surrounding regions of Phoenicia, Decapolis, and Cæsarea Philippi (1-9); the Journey to Jerusalem (10); and the Events in Jerusalem (11-16). Unlike both Matthew and Luke, Mark does not offer any information about the life of Jesus before his baptism and ministry, including neither the nativity nor a genealogy. Jesus' baptism is understated, with John not identifying Jesus as the Son of God, nor initially declining to baptize him, nor sharing Jesus' vision of the dove and the Father's voice. Son of Man is the major title used of Jesus in Mark (, ; ; , , ; , ; , ). Many people have seen that this title is a very important one within Mark’s Gospel, and it has important implications for Mark’s Christology. Jesus raises a question that demonstrates the association in Mark between "Son of Man" (cf. Dan 7:13–14) and the suffering servant in —"How then is it written about the Son of Man, that he is to go through many sufferings and be treated with contempt?" (9:12b NRSV). Yet this comparison is not explicit; Mark's Gospel creates this link between Daniel and Isaiah, and applies it to Christ. It is postulated that this is because of the persecution of Christians; thus, Mark's Gospel encourages believers to stand firm () in the face of troubles. Jesus "explained everything in private to his disciples" () while only speaking in parables to the crowds. His use of parables obscures his message and fulfills prophecy (). The Messianic Secret, Jesus' command to unclean spirits and to his disciples that they not reveal his identity, is stronger in Mark than in the other gospels. Wrede, Wilhelm. The Messianic Secret in the Gospels. 1901. ISBN 0-227-67717-X To the question "Are You the Christ?", Jesus gives the direct answer, "I am": ; cf. , , , , , , , . Mark is the only gospel that has Jesus explicitly admit that he does not know when the end of the world will be (). The equivalent verse in the Byzantine manuscripts of Matthew does not contain the words "nor the Son" () (but it is present in most Alexandrian and Western text-type). On Matthew 24.36: "The omission of the words ["neither the Son"] because of the doctrinal difficulty they present is more probable than their addition by assimilation to Mk 13.32." See also Kenosis. "No sign will be given to this generation" ; Matthew and Luke include "except for the sign of Jonah" , . See also Typology (theology). Characteristics of Mark's language The phrase "and immediately" occurs nearly forty times in Mark; while in Luke, which is much longer, it is used only seven times, and in John only four times. Easton's Bible Dictionary: Mark, Gospel according to The word law () is never used, while it appears 8 times in Matthew, 9 times in Luke, 15 times in John, 19 times in Acts, many times in Romans. Latin loanwords are often used: speculator, sextarius, centurion, legion, quadrans, praetorium, caesar, census, flagello, modius, denarius. Bauer lexicon Mark has only a few direct Old Testament quotations: , , , , , , . Mark makes frequent use of the narrative present; Luke changes about 150 of these verbs to past tense. Complete Gospels, Miller, p.11 Mark frequently links sentences with (and); Matthew and Luke replace most of these with subordinate clauses. Extensive use of literary allusion The Gospel of Mark makes extensive use of literary allusion to the Tanakh, or Old Testament. In some cases these allusions exist in the other synoptic gospels as well, but this is generally due to the synoptic gospels sharing a significant amount of text. According to the two-source hypothesis, Mark was used as a source for the gospels of Matthew and Luke. Under this hypothesis, some literary allusion in the Gospel of Mark were lost when the scenes were copied by the other gospel writers. One case of literary allusion in the Gospel of Mark comes from the crucifixion scene, which is crafted from literary allusions to Psalm 22 and Amos 8. Some Christians consider these to be cases of prophecy fulfillment. Scholars, however, consider these to be cases of literary allusion, where the author used existing passages from the Jewish scriptures to craft the details of the scene and provide sub-textual meaning to the events. The passage from Amos 8 would be relevant after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 and implies that the meaning of the crucifixion according to the author is a justification for the destruction of the Jewish people by the Romans during the Jewish war of 67-72. To a large extent, the narrative of the Gospel of Mark is a running series of literary allusions to the Jewish scriptures. Price, Robert M. The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man p. 321-322 Harper Collins Study Bible, New Revised Standard Edition, p 1756. ISBN 13-978-0-06-078685-4 Other characteristics unique to Mark The testing of Jesus in the wilderness for forty days contains no discourse between Jesus and Satan, and only here are wild beasts mentioned (). The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath (). Similar to a rabbinical saying from the 2nd century BC, "The Sabbath is given over to you ["the son of man"], and not you to the Sabbath." Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament: Misunderstood Passages Not present in either or . This is also a so-called "Western non-interpolation". The passage is not found in the Western text of Mark. People were saying, "[Jesus] has gone out of his mind", see also Rejection of Jesus (). Mark is the only gospel with the combination , the other gospels split them up: Mark 4:24 being found in and ; Mark 4:25 being found in and , and . Parable of the Growing Seed (). Only Mark counts the possessed swine; there are about two thousand (). Two consecutive healing stories of women; both make use of the number twelve ( and ). Only Mark gives healing commands of Jesus in the (presumably original) Aramaic: Talitha koum (), Ephphatha (). See Aramaic of Jesus. Only place in the New Testament Jesus is addressed as "the son of Mary" (). Mark is the only gospel where Jesus himself is called a carpenter (). In Matthew he is called a carpenter's son (). Only place that both names his brothers and mentions his sisters (; Matthew has a slightly different name for one brother and no mention of sisters ). The taking of a staff and sandals is permitted in but prohibited in and . The longest version of the story of Herodias' daughter's dance and the beheading of John the Baptist (). Mark's literary cycles: - Feeding of the five thousand; - Crossing of the lake; - Dispute with the Pharisees; - Discourse about food defilement. Then: - Feeding of the four thousand; - Crossing of the lake; - Dispute with the Pharisees; - Incident of no bread and discourse about the leaven of the Pharisees. Customs that at that time were peculiar to Jews are explained (hand, produce, and utensil washing): . "Thus he declared all foods clean." The verb katharizo means both "to declare to be clean" and "to purify." The Scholars Version has: "This is how everything we eat is purified", Gaus' Unvarnished New Testament has: "purging all that is eaten." See also Strong's G2511 NRSV, not found in the Matthean parallel . Jesus heals using his fingers and spit at the same time: ; cf. , , , ; see also Exorcism. Jesus lays his hands on a blind man twice in curing him: ; cf. , , , , , laying on of hands. Jesus cites the Shema Yisrael: "Hear O Israel ..." (); in the parallels of and the first part of the Shema () is absent. Mark points out that the Mount of Olives is across from the temple (). When Jesus is arrested, a young naked man flees: . A young man in a robe also appears in , see also Secret Gospel of Mark. Mark doesn't name the High Priest, cf. , , , . Witness testimony against Jesus does not agree (, ). The cock crows "twice" as predicted (). See also Fayyum Fragment. The other Gospels simply record, "the cock crew". Early codices 01, W, and most Western texts have the simpler version. Pilate's position (Governor) isn't specified, , cf. , , . Simon of Cyrene's sons are named (). A summoned centurion is questioned (). The women ask each other who will roll away the stone (), cf. . A young man sits on the "right side" (), cf. , . Afraid, the women flee from the empty tomb. They "tell no one" what they have seen (), compare with , , , . Mark is the only canonical gospel with significant various alternate endings (see Mark 16, Possible Scenarios); however, most of the contents of the traditional "Longer Ending" () are found in other New Testament texts and are not unique to Mark, see Mark 16#The Longer Ending. The one significant exception is 16:18b "and if they drink any deadly thing", it will not harm those who believe, which is unique to Mark. Theology Some Christians consider Mark to be divinely inspired and will see the gospel's theology as consistent with that of the rest of the Bible. Each sees Mark as contributing a valuable voice to a wider Christian theology, though Christians sometimes disagree about the nature of this theology. However, Mark's contribution to a New Testament theology can be identified as unique in and of itself. Adoptionism The identity of Jesus as the Son of God is important in the gospel, occurring at the strategic points of 1:1 ("The beginning of the gospel about Jesus Christ, the Son of God") and 15:39 ("Surely this man was the Son of God!"). However, the phrase "Son of God" is not present in the original reading of the Codex Sinaiticus at 1:1. and Bart D. Ehrman uses this to support the notion that the title "Son of God" is not used of Jesus until his baptism, and that Mark reflects an adoptionist view. Ehrman, Bart D., Misquoting Jesus. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 2005. Adoptionism holds that the Father adopted Jesus as the Son, usually contrasted with trinitarianism, which holds that the Son is eternally one with the Father. Luke and Matthew portray Jesus as being the Son of God at the time of birth, while John portrays the Son as existing "in the beginning". Adoptionism was common in the early church but declared heretical at the end of the 2nd century. "Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptian Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)." Adolf von Harnack, History of Dogma Ehrman’s view that this textual variant is of theological significance has been rejected by Bruce Metzger and Ben Witherington III. Ben Witherington III, What Have They Done With Jesus? (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 2006), p. 7. Meaning of Jesus' death The only one explicit mention of the meaning of Jesus' death in Mark occurs in where Jesus says that the "Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom (lutron) for many (anti pollōn)." According to Barnabas Lindars, this refers to Isaiah's fourth servant song, with lutron referring to the "offering for sin" (Isaiah 53:10) and anti pollōn to the Servant "bearing the sin of many" in Isaiah 52:12. Lindars, Barnabas. "Salvation Proclaimed, VII: Mark 10:45 – A Ransom for Many" Expository Times 93 [1982], 293. The Greek word anti means "in the place of", which indicates a substitutionary death. Ladd, George Eldon. A Theology of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 188. The author of this gospel also speaks of Jesus' death through the metaphors of the departing bridegroom in , and of the rejected heir in . He views it as fulfilling Old Testament prophecy (, , and ). Many scholars believe that Mark structured his gospel in order to emphasise Jesus' death. For example, Alan Culpepper sees Mark 15:1-39 as developing in three acts, each containing an event and a response. Culpepper, R. Alan. "The Passion and Resurrection in Mark," Review and Expositor 75 [1978], 584. The first event is Jesus' trial, followed by the soldiers' mocking response; the second event is Jesus' crucifixion, followed by the spectators mocking him; the third and final event in this sequence is Jesus' death, followed by the veil being rent and the centurion confessing, "truly this man was the Son of God." In weaving these things into a triadic structure, Mark is thereby emphasising the importance of this confession, which provides a dramatic contrast to the two scenes of mocking which precede it. D. R. Bauer suggests that "by bringing his gospel to a climax with this christological confession at the cross, Mark indicates that Jesus is first and foremost Son of God, and that Jesus is Son of God as one who suffers and dies in obedience to God." Bauer, D. R. "Son of God" in Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight and I. Howard Marshall (eds.) Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (Downers Grove: IVP, 1992), 773. Joel Marcus notes that the other Evangelists "attenuate" Mark's emphasis on Jesus' suffering and death, and sees Mark as more strongly influenced than they are by Paul's "theology of the cross". See also Textual variants in the Gospel of Mark List of Gospels Apocalyptic literature Acts of the Apostles (genre) List of omitted Bible verses Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus(reference to Mark) Notes References Brown, R., et al. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Prentice Hall, 1990. Bultmann, R., History of the Synoptic Tradition, Harper & Row, 1963. Dewey, J., "The Survival of Mark’s Gospel: A Good Story?", JBL 123.3 (2004) 495-507. Ehrman, Bart D., Misquoting Jesus, Harper Collins, 2005. Grant, Robert M., A Historical Introduction to the New Testament Harper and Row, 1963: Chapter 8: The Gospel Of Mark Dormeyer, Detlev , Das Markusevangelium, Wiss. Buchgeselschaft Darmstadt 2005, ISBN 9783534156139 Guy, Harold A, The Origin of the Gospel of Mark, Hodder & Stoughton 1954 Holmes, M. W., "To Be Continued... The Many Endings of Mark", Bible Review 17.4 (2001). Ladd, George Eldon. A Theology of the New Testament Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987. Mack, Burton L., 1993. The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and Christian origins, HarperSanFrancisco. McKnight, E. V., What is Form Criticism?, 1997. Neill, Stephen and Wright, Tom, The Interpretation of The New Testament 1861-1986, Oxford University Press, 1990, 1989, 1964, ISBN 0192830570 Perrin, N., What is Redaction Criticism? Perrin, Norman & Duling, Dennis C., The New Testament: An Introduction, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1982, 1974 Schnelle, Udo, 1998. The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings (M. Eugene Boring translator), Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998. Telford, W. (ed.), The Interpretation of Mark, Fortress Press, 1985. Tuckett, C. (ed), The Messianic Secret, Fortress Press, 1983 External links Online translations of the Gospel of Mark: Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions at GospelCom.net Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions at Biola University Online Bible at gospelhall.org Early Christian Writings: Mark in numerous English translations, on-line scholarly resources Mark on Wikisource (King James version) Related articles: Resources for the Book of Mark at The Text This Week An Online Textual Commentary on the Greek Gospels by Wieland Willker, including detailed text-critical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 411 pages) and the variant endings (PDF, 17 pages). | Gospel_of_Mark |@lemmatized gospel:91 mark:144 gk:1 second:6 four:4 canonical:6 new:24 testament:21 believe:8 modern:3 scholar:22 first:15 write:23 two:16 synoptic:8 matthew:23 luke:22 partially:1 base:4 anonymously:1 harris:1 stephen:2 l:2 understand:5 bible:11 palo:1 alto:1 mayfield:1 traditionally:2 ascribe:2 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3,591 | Mazda | () is a Japanese automotive manufacturer based in Hiroshima, Japan. During 2007, Mazda produced almost 1.3 million vehicles for global sales. The majority of these (nearly 1 million) were produced in the company's Japanese plants, with the remainder coming from a variety of other plants worldwide. MAZDA:Mazda Production and Sales Results for December 2007 and for January through December 2007 (Flash Report) | Production and Sales Results Name It is said that Mazda coincides with the anglicized pronunciation of the founder's name, Jujiro Matsuda, who was interested in spirituality, and chose to rename the firm in honor of both his family and Zoroastrianism. Mazda - All about Mazda The word Mazda derives from Ahura Mazda, the Avestan language name for a divinity exalted by the ancient Iranian prophet Zoroaster, as the source of wisdom, intelligence and harmony. In Japanese, the company's name has always been pronounced and spelled as "Matsuda", the name of the founder. Television ads for Mazda automobiles in the United States use a pronunciation where the initial vowel sound is the 'a' in "father", while Canadian Mazda advertisements pronounce the company's name with the initial "a" sound of the word "has". The initial vowel sounds (in the American and Canadian advertisements) are references to the first and last A sounds in the original Persian pronunciation. History Mazda began as the Toyo Cork Kogyo Co., Ltd, founded in Japan in 1920. Toyo Cork Kogyo renamed itself to Toyo Kogyo Co., Ltd. in 1927. Toyo Kogyo moved from manufacturing machine tools to vehicles, with the introduction of the Mazda-Go in 1931. Toyo Kogyo produced weapons for the Japanese military throughout the Second World War, most notably the series 30 through 35 Type 99 rifle. The company formally adopted the Mazda name in 1984, though every automobile sold from the beginning bore that name. The Mazda R360 was introduced in 1960, followed by the Mazda Carol in 1962. Mazda Cosmo SportBeginning in the 1960s, Mazda put a major engineering effort into development of the Wankel rotary engine as a way of differentiating themselves from other Japanese auto companies. Beginning with the limited-production Cosmo Sport of 1967 and continuing to the present day with the RX-8, Mazda has become the sole manufacturer of Wankel-type engines mainly by way of attrition (NSU and Citroën both gave up on the design during the 1970s, and prototype efforts by General Motors never made it to production). This effort to bring attention to themselves apparently helped, as Mazda rapidly began to export its vehicles. Both piston-powered and rotary-powered models made their way around the world. The rotary models quickly became popular for their combination of good power and light weight when compared to piston-engined competitors that required a heavy V6 or V8 engine to produce the same power. The R100 and the famed RX series (RX-2, RX-3, and RX-4) led the company's export efforts. During 1970, Mazda formally entered the North American market (Mazda North American Operations) and was very successful there, going so far as to create the Mazda Rotary Pickup (based on the conventional piston-powered B-Series model) solely for North American buyers. To this day, Mazda remains the only automaker to have produced a Wankel-powered pickup truck. Additionally, they are also the only marque to have ever offered a rotary-powered bus (the Mazda Parkway, offered only in Japan) or station wagon (within the RX-3 line). Mazda's rotary success continued until the onset of the 1973 oil crisis. As American buyers (as well as those in other nations) quickly turned to vehicles with better fuel efficiency, the relatively thirsty rotary-powered models began to fall out of favor. Wisely, the company had not totally turned its back on piston engines, as they continued to produce a variety of four-cylinder models throughout the 1970s. The smaller Familia line in particular became very important to Mazda's worldwide sales after 1973, as did the somewhat larger Capella series. Mazda RX-7 (first generation)Not wishing to abandon the rotary engine entirely, Mazda refocused their efforts and made it a choice for the sporting motorist rather than a mainstream powerplant. Starting with the lightweight RX-7 in 1978 and continuing with the modern RX-8, Mazda has continued its dedication to this unique powerplant. This switch in focus also resulted in the development of another lightweight sports car, the piston-powered Mazda Roadster (perhaps better known by its worldwide names as the MX-5 or Miata), inspired by the concept 'jinba ittai'. Introduced in 1989 to worldwide acclaim, the Roadster has been widely credited with reviving the concept of the small sports car after its decline in the late 1970s. Partnership with Ford Motor Company Mazda's financial turmoil and decline during the 1960s resulted in a new corporate investor, Ford Motor Company. Starting in 1979 with a 7-percent financial stake, Ford began a partnership with Mazda resulting in various joint projects. During the 1980s, Ford gained another 20 percent financial stake. These included large and small efforts in all areas of the automotive landscape. This was most notable in the realm of pickup trucks (like the Mazda B-Series, which spawned a Ford Courier variant in North America) and smaller cars. For instance, Mazda's Familia platform was used for Ford models like the Laser and Escort, while the Capella architecture found its way into Ford's Telstar sedan and Probe sports models. In 2002 Ford gained an extra 5-percent financial stake. The Probe was built in a new Mazda assembly plant in Flat Rock, Michigan along with the mainstream 626 sedan (the North American version of the Capella) and a companion Mazda MX-6 sports coupe. (The plant is now a Ford-Mazda joint venture known as AutoAlliance International.) Ford has also loaned Mazda some of their capacity when needed: the Mazda 121 sold in Europe and South Africa was, for a time, a variant of the Ford Fiesta built in plants in Europe and South Africa. Mazda has also made an effort in the past to sell some of Ford's cars in Japan, mainly through their Autorama dealer group. The Ford Probe was made popular by Steven Bowers in the television show "The Wrong One". Mazda also helped Ford develop the 1991 Explorer, which Mazda sold as the 2-door only Mazda Navajo from 1991 through 1994. Ironically, Mazda's version was unsuccessful, while the Ford (available from the start as a 4-door or 2-door model) instantly became the best selling sport-utility vehicle in the United States and kept that title for over a decade. Mazda has used Ford's Ranger pickup as the basis for its North American-market B-Series trucks, starting in 1994 and continuing through to the present. Mazda MilleniaFollowing their long-held fascination with alternative engine technology, Mazda introduced the first Miller cycle engine for automotive use in the Millenia luxury sedan of 1995. Though the Millenia (and its Miller-type V6 engine) were discontinued in 2002, the company has recently introduced a much smaller Miller-cycle four-cylinder engine for use in their Demio starting in 2008. As with their leadership in Wankel technology, Mazda remains (so far) the only automaker to have used a Miller-cycle engine in the automotive realm. Further financial difficulties at Mazda during the 1990s (partly caused by losses related to the 1997 Asian financial crisis) caused Ford to increase its stake to a 33.9-percent controlling interest on 31 March 1997. In 1997, Henry Wallace was appointed President, and he set about restructuring Mazda and setting it on a new strategic direction. He laid out a new direction for the brand including the design of the present Mazda marque; he laid out a new product plan to achieve synergies with Ford, and he launched Mazda's digital innovation program to speed up the development of new products. At the same time, he started taking control of overseas distributors, rationalized dealerships and manufacturing facilities, and driving much needed efficiencies and cost reductions in Mazda's operations. Much of his early work put Mazda back into profitability and laid the foundations for future success. Ford executive Mark Fields, who took over as Mazda's CEO later, has been credited with expanding Mazda's new product lineup and leading the turnaround during the early 2000s. Ford's increased influence during the 1990s allowed Mazda to claim another distinction in history, having maintained the first foreign-born head of a Japanese car company (starting under Henry Wallace (Scottish)). The marque has since returned to a Japanese-born CEO, under Hisakazu Imaki since 2003. Mazda has also conducted research in hydrogen-powered vehicles for several decades. As a major step in this effort, the company plans to release a hydrogen-fueled hybrid car in 2008, the Premacy Hydrogen RE compact minivan. The prototype has so far proven capable of traveling up to 200 kilometers (120 miles). Bloomberg.com: Japan Amidst the world financial crisis in the fall of 2008, reports emerged that Ford was contemplating a sale of its stake in Mazda as a way of streamlining its asset base. http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20081011/AUTO01/810110432/1148/&source=nletter-business BusinessWeek explained the alliance between Ford and Mazda has been a very successful one, with Mazda saving perhaps $90 million a year in development costs and Ford "several times" that, and that a sale of its stake in Mazda would be a desperate measure. On November 18 2008 Ford announced that it would be selling a 20% stake in Mazda bringing its stake to 13.4%, and surrendering control of the company. The following day Mazda announced that, as part of the deal, it was buying back 6.8% of its shares from Ford. It was also reported that Hisakazu Imaki would be stepping down as chief executive, to be replaced by Takashi Yamanouchi. http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20081119/AUTO01/811190416/1148 Marques Mazda Motors square symbol based on Sumitomo family crest, and is an affiliated company of the Sumitomo Group Eunos logo Autozam logo Amati logo Mazda had previously used a number of different marques in the Japanese (and occasionally Australian) market, including Autozam, Eunos, and Efini, which have since been phased out. This diversification stressed the product development groups at Mazda past their limits. Instead of having a half-dozen variations on any given platform, they were asked to work on dozens of different models and consumers were confused as well by the explosion of similar new models. Today, the former marques exist in Japan as sales channels (specialized dealerships) but no longer have specialized branded vehicles. The Carol is sold at the Autozam store (which specializes in small cars), but it is sold with the Mazda marque, not as the Autozam Carol as it once was. In early 1992 Mazda planned to release a luxury marques, Amati, to challenge Acura, Infiniti, and Lexus in North America, which was to begin selling in late 1993. The initial Amati range would have included the Amati 500 (which became the Eunos 800 in Japan and Australia, Mazda Millenia in the US, and Mazda Xedos 9 in Europe) and the Amati 1000 (a rear-wheel drive V12 successor to the Mazda 929). The Amati marque was eventually scrapped before any cars hit the market. In Europe, the Xedos name was also associated with the Mazda Xedos 6, the two models were in production from 1992 until 1997. The Xedos line was marketed under the Mazda marque, and used the Mazda badge from the corresponding years. Emblems 1962–19751975–19911991–19921992–19971997–presentSymbol1962 "M"Technical Mazda scriptDiamond flameRounded flame|Flying "M"Corporate markSymbol and corporate mark as seen on most Mazda cars from the Mazda R360 until 1975Between 1975 and 1991, Mazda did not have an official symbol, only a stylized version of their name; the previous blue "m" symbol was still used in some dealerships up until the 1980s, but later on a plain blue square next to the Mazda name was often used on dealer signs and documentationIn 1991, Mazda adopted a corporate symbol which was to represent a sun and a flame standing for heartfelt passion.Shortly after the release of the new symbol, the design was smoothed out to reduce its similarity to Renault's.A redesigned symbol was introduced in 1997; it is a stylized "M" meant to show Mazda stretching its wings for the future. The symbol is also representative of a tulip. Alternative Propulsion and Bio-Car Mazda is developing a rival to the plug-in hybrid Chevrolet Volt; Mazda tests are sufficiently advanced that Mazda has a working prototype in a Mazda 5 MPV bodyshell. On the other hand, the first stop-start Mazda will go on sale in Japan next year and the system is expected to be rolled out globally on a variety of models. Bio-Car Mazda is finding a host of other uses from plastic to fabrics in its vehicles as it aims to be more environmentally friendly. Mazda plans to introduce its innovations - bioplastic internal consoles and bio-fabric seats - in its Mazda5 model at EcoInnovasia 2008, at the Queen Sirikit National Convention Center in Bangkok. Up to 30% of the interior parts in the Mazda5 made of bio-material components. Auto racing In the racing world, Mazda has had substantial success with both their signature Wankel-engine cars (in two-rotor, three-rotor, and four-rotor forms) as well as their piston-engine models. Mazda vehicles and engines compete in a wide variety of disciplines and series around the world.It is also known that on any one day in the USA Mazda has the most cars on the race track, proving its popularity. International competition Mazda's competition debut was on October 20, 1968 when two Mazda Cosmo Sport 110S coupes entered the 84 hour Marathon de la Route ultra-endurance race at the Nürburgring, one finishing in fourth place and the other breaking an axle after 81 hours. The next year, Mazda raced Mazda Familia R100 M10A coupes. After winning the Singapore Grand Prix in April 1969 and coming in fifth and sixth in the Spa 24 Hours (beaten only by Porsche 911s), on October 19, 1969, Mazda again entered the 84 hour Nürburgring race with four Familias. Only one of these finished, taking fifth place. In 1976, Ray Walle, owner of Z&W Mazda, drove a Cosmo (Mazda RX-5) from the dealership in Princeton, New Jersey, to Daytona, won the Touring Class Under 2.5 Liters at the 24 Hours of Daytona, and drove the car back to New Jersey. The Cosmo placed 18th overall in a field of 72. The only modifications were racing brake pads, exhaust, and safety equipment. daytona rx5 After substantial successes by the Mazda RX-2 and Mazda RX-3, the Mazda RX-7 has won more IMSA races in its class than any other model of automobile, with its hundredth victory on September 2, 1990. Following that, the RX-7 won its class in the IMSA 24 Hours of Daytona race ten years in a row, starting in 1982. The RX-7 won the IMSA Grand Touring Under Two Liter (GTU) championship each year from 1980 through 1987, inclusive. The Mazda 787B, winner of the 1991 24 Hours of Le Mans race.In 1991, a four-rotor Mazda 787B (2622 cc actual, rated by FIA formula at 4708 cc) won the 24 Hours of Le Mans auto race outright. The 787B's triumph remains unparalleled, as it remains the only non-piston-engined car ever to win at Le Mans, and Mazda is still the only team from outside Western Europe or the United States to have won at Le Mans — ironically after Nissan had closed down its World Sportscar Championship programme and Toyota had opted to take a sabbatical for most of 1991 in order to develop its 3.5 litre TS010. This led to a ban on rotary engines in the Le Mans race starting in 1992, which has since been rescinded. After the 1991 race, the winning engine was publicly dismantled for internal examination, which demonstrated that despite 24 hours of extremely hard use it had accumulated very little wear. The Le Mans win in 1991 followed a decade of class wins from other Mazda prototypes, including the 757 and 767. The Sigma MC74 powered by a Mazda 12A engine was the first engine and team from outside Western Europe or the United States to finish the entire 24 hours of the Le Mans race, in 1974. Mazda is also the most reliable finisher at Le Mans (with the exception of Honda, who have entered only three cars in only one year), with 67% of entries finishing. Mazda will return to prototype racing in 2005 with the introduction of the Courage C65 LMP2 car at the American Le Mans Series race at Road Atlanta. This prototype racer uses the Renesis Wankel from the RX-8. Mazdas have also enjoyed substantial success in World Land Speed competition, SCCA competition, drag racing, pro rally competition (the Familia appeared in the WRC several times during the late '80s and early '90s), the One Lap of America race, and other venues. Wankel engines have been banned for some time from international Formula One racing, as well as from United States midget racing, after Gene Angelillo won the North East Midget Racing Association championship in 1985 with a car powered by a 13B engine, and again in 1986 in a car powered by a 12A engine. Spec series Formula Mazda Racing features open wheel race cars with Mazda engines, adaptable to both oval tracks and road courses, on several levels of competition. Since 1991, the professionally organized Star Mazda Series has been the most popular format for sponsors, spectators, and upward bound drivers. The engines are all built by one engine builder, certified to produce the prescribed power, and sealed to discourage tampering. They are in a relatively mild state of racing tune, so that they are extremely reliable and can go years between motor rebuilds. Spec Miata has become one of the most popular and most affordable road racing classes in North America. The Spec Miata (SM) class is intended to provide the opportunity to compete in low cost, production-based cars with limited modifications, suitable for racing competition. The rules are intentionally designed to be more open than the Showroom Stock class but more restricted than the Improved Touring class. Sponsorships Mazda is a major sponsor to several professional sports teams, including: Hometown teams: Hiroshima Toyo Carp (Nippon Professional Baseball): The "Toyo" part of the team's name is in honor of Mazda's part-ownership of the team since 1968 (when Mazda was still known as Toyo Kogyo). The Matsuda family, descended from the founder of Mazda, holds the majority share in team ownership. Sanfrecce Hiroshima (J. League): Originally known as Toyo Kogyo Soccer Club and founded in 1938, it was owned directly by Mazda until 1992 when Mazda reduced its share to professionalize the club for the new J. League. Teams abroad: Fremantle Football Club (Australian Football League) North Melbourne Football Club (Australian Football League) The company also sponsors various marathon and relay race events in Japan, such as the Hiroshima International Peace Marathon and the Hiroshima Prefectural Ekiden Race, along with numerous other sporting and charity endeavors in Hiroshima and Hofu. MAZDA:Basic Idea on Community and Social Contributions | With Communities and Society Mazda was also the league sponsor for the now-defunct Australian Rugby Championship. Mazda also maintains sponsorship of the Laguna Seca racing course in California, going so far as to use it for their own automotive testing purposes as well as the numerous racing events (including several Mazda-specific series) that it hosts. Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca | Track Sponsors Marketing Since 2000, Mazda has used the phrase "Zoom-Zoom" to describe what it calls the "emotion of motion" that it claims is inherent in its cars. Ford Motor Company - Featured Story - Mazda Challenges Consumers in Zoom-Zoom Contest Extremely successful and long-lasting (when compared to other automotive marketing taglines), the Zoom-Zoom campaign has now spread around the world from its initial use in North America. MAZDA:What's Zoom Zoom ? | Mazda Spirit The Zoom-Zoom campaign has been accompanied by the "Zoom Zoom Zoom" song in many television and radio advertisements. The original version, performed by Serapis Bey (used in commercials in Europe, Japan and South Africa), was recorded long before it became the official song for Mazda as part of a soundtrack to the movie Only The Strong (released in 1993). The Serapis Bey version is a cover of a traditional Capoeira song, called "Capoeira Mata Um". Early ads in the Zoom-Zoom campaign also featured a young (10 years old at the time) boy whispering the "Zoom-Zoom" tagline, who eventually was referred to as the "Zoom-Zoom Kid". Shufflingdead.com: Newbs' Knowledge of Life, the Universe and Everything The "Kid", now a teenager, is named Micah Kanters. Micah Kanters See also List of Mazda vehicles List of Mazda platforms List of Mazda engines List of Mazda facilities Mazdaspeed References External links Mazda Global Web Site - includes links to Mazda operations worldwide Mazdaspeed Motorsports Development Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca The Mazda3 Freighter Challenge ACT www.autoclubturkey.com - Turkey The Online Mazda forums MazdaSpeed.pl - Polish Mazda Club Peru Mazda Club OzMazdaClub.com Australia's Best Mazda Car Club and Forum MazdaClubTR www.mazdaclubtr.com - Turkish Mazda Owners and Lovers Site roastrianism be-x-old:Mazda | Mazda |@lemmatized japanese:8 automotive:6 manufacturer:2 base:5 hiroshima:6 japan:10 mazda:141 produce:7 almost:1 million:3 vehicle:10 global:2 sale:8 majority:2 nearly:1 company:16 plant:5 remainder:1 come:2 variety:4 worldwide:5 production:6 result:5 december:2 january:1 flash:1 report:3 name:13 say:1 coincides:1 anglicized:1 pronunciation:3 founder:3 jujiro:1 matsuda:3 interested:1 spirituality:1 choose:1 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3,592 | Indriidae | The Indridae (also spelled Indriidae) are a family of strepsirrhine primates. They are medium to large sized lemurs with only four teeth in the toothcomb instead of the usual six. Indriids, like all lemurs, live exclusively on the island of Madagascar. The group was once much larger, and, in addition to the thirteen species living today, also contains eleven extinct species in six genera. Most if not all were larger animals, called 'sloth lemurs'. These included the chimpanzee-sized Palaeopropithecus and the gorilla-sized Archaeoindris. Most went extinct within the last 1500 to 2000 years, after humans colonized Madagascar. Characteristics The ten extant indrid species vary considerably in size. Not counting the length of their tails, the avahis are only 30cm in length, while the Indri is the largest extant strepsirrhine. The tail of the Indri is only a stub, while avahi and the sifaka tails are as long as their bodies. Their fur is long and mostly from whitish over reddish up to grey. Their black faces, however, are always bald. The hind legs are longer than their fore limbs, their hands are long and thin, and their thumb cannot be opposed to the other fingers correctly. All species are arboreal, though they do come to the ground occasionally. When on the ground, they stand upright and move with short hops forward, with their arms held high. In the trees, though, they can make extraordinary leaps and are extremely agile, able to change direction from tree to tree. Like most leaf eaters they adjust for the low nutrient content of their food by long rests. Often it can be seen lying stretched on trees sunning themselves. Indrids live together in family federations from two to 15 animals, communicating with roars and also with facial expressions. Indrids are strict vegetarians, eating mostly leaves, fruits and flowers. Like some other herbivores, they have a large cecum, containing bacteria that ferment cellulose, allowing for more efficient digestion of plant matter. They have less premolar teeth than other lemurs, with the dental formula of: Females and males usually mate monogamously for many years. Mostly at the end of the dry season, their four to five-month gestation ends with the birth of a single offspring, which lives in the family for a while after its weaning (at the age of five to six months). Classification There are 19 living species in the family, divided into 3 genera. ORDER PRIMATES Suborder Strepsirrhini: non-tarsier prosimians Infraorder Lemuriformes Superfamily Lemuroidea Family Indriidae: woolly lemurs and allies Subfamily Indriinae Genus Indri Species Indri, Indri indri Genus Avahi Species Eastern Woolly Lemur, Avahi laniger Species Western Woolly Lemur, Avahi occidentalis Species Sambirano Woolly Lemur, Avahi unicolor Species Bemaraha Woolly Lemur, Avahi cleesei Species Peyrieras' Woolly Lemur, Avahi peyrierasi Species Southern Woolly Lemur, Avahi meridionalis Species Ramanantsoavana's Woolly Lemur, Avahi ramanantsoavana Species Betsileo Woolly Lemur, Avahi betsileo Species Moore's Woolly Lemur, Avahi mooreorum Genus Propithecus Species Diademed Sifaka, Propithecus diadema Species Silky Sifaka, Propithecus candidus Species Milne-Edwards' Sifaka, Propithecus edwardsi Species Perrier's Sifaka, Propithecus perrieri Species Golden-crowned Sifaka, Propithecus tattersalli Species Verreaux's Sifaka, Propithecus verreauxi Species Coquerel's Sifaka, Propithecus coquereli Species Van der Decken's Sifaka, Propithecus deckenii Species Crowned Sifaka, Propithecus coronatus Family †Archaeolemuridae Family Lemuridae: lemurs Family Lepilemuridae: sportive lemurs Family †Megaladapidae Family †Palaeopropithecidae Superfamily Cheirogaleoidea: dwarf and mouse lemurs Infraorder Chiromyiformes: Aye-aye Infraorder Lorisiformes: lorises, pottos, galagos and allies Suborder Haplorrhini: tarsiers, monkeys and apes See also Holocene extinction event References | Indriidae |@lemmatized indridae:1 also:4 spell:1 indriidae:2 family:10 strepsirrhine:2 primate:2 medium:1 large:5 sized:1 lemur:17 four:2 teeth:2 toothcomb:1 instead:1 usual:1 six:3 indriids:1 like:3 live:5 exclusively:1 island:1 madagascar:2 group:1 much:1 addition:1 thirteen:1 specie:24 today:1 contain:2 eleven:1 extinct:2 genus:5 animal:2 call:1 sloth:1 include:1 chimpanzee:1 size:3 palaeopropithecus:1 gorilla:1 archaeoindris:1 go:1 within:1 last:1 year:2 human:1 colonized:1 characteristic:1 ten:1 extant:2 indrid:1 vary:1 considerably:1 count:1 length:2 tail:3 avahi:12 indri:6 stub:1 sifaka:10 long:5 body:1 fur:1 mostly:3 whitish:1 reddish:1 grey:1 black:1 face:1 however:1 always:1 bald:1 hind:1 leg:1 fore:1 limb:1 hand:1 thin:1 thumb:1 cannot:1 oppose:1 finger:1 correctly:1 arboreal:1 though:2 come:1 ground:2 occasionally:1 stand:1 upright:1 move:1 short:1 hop:1 forward:1 arm:1 hold:1 high:1 tree:4 make:1 extraordinary:1 leap:1 extremely:1 agile:1 able:1 change:1 direction:1 leaf:1 eater:1 adjust:1 low:1 nutrient:1 content:1 food:1 rest:1 often:1 see:2 lie:1 stretch:1 sun:1 indrids:2 together:1 federation:1 two:1 communicate:1 roar:1 facial:1 expression:1 strict:1 vegetarian:1 eat:1 leave:1 fruit:1 flower:1 herbivore:1 cecum:1 bacteria:1 ferment:1 cellulose:1 allow:1 efficient:1 digestion:1 plant:1 matter:1 less:1 premolar:1 dental:1 formula:1 female:1 male:1 usually:1 mate:1 monogamously:1 many:1 end:2 dry:1 season:1 five:2 month:2 gestation:1 birth:1 single:1 offspring:1 weaning:1 age:1 classification:1 divide:1 order:1 suborder:2 strepsirrhini:1 non:1 tarsier:2 prosimian:1 infraorder:3 lemuriformes:1 superfamily:2 lemuroidea:1 woolly:10 ally:2 subfamily:1 indriinae:1 eastern:1 laniger:1 western:1 occidentalis:1 sambirano:1 unicolor:1 bemaraha:1 cleesei:1 peyrieras:1 peyrierasi:1 southern:1 meridionalis:1 ramanantsoavana:2 betsileo:2 moore:1 mooreorum:1 propithecus:10 diademed:1 diadema:1 silky:1 candidus:1 milne:1 edward:1 edwardsi:1 perrier:1 perrieri:1 golden:1 crown:2 tattersalli:1 verreaux:1 verreauxi:1 coquerel:1 coquereli:1 van:1 der:1 decken:1 deckenii:1 coronatus:1 archaeolemuridae:1 lemuridae:1 lepilemuridae:1 sportive:1 megaladapidae:1 palaeopropithecidae:1 cheirogaleoidea:1 dwarf:1 mouse:1 chiromyiformes:1 aye:2 lorisiformes:1 lorises:1 potto:1 galago:1 haplorrhini:1 monkey:1 ape:1 holocene:1 extinction:1 event:1 reference:1 |@bigram hind_leg:1 facial_expression:1 woolly_lemur:10 lemur_avahi:9 sifaka_propithecus:9 van_der:1 mouse_lemur:1 holocene_extinction:1 |
3,593 | Liberal_Party_(UK) | The Liberal Party was one of the two major British political parties from the mid 19th century until the rise of the Labour Party in the 1920s, and a third party of varying strength and importance up to 1988, when it merged with the Social Democratic Party (the SDP) to form a new party which would become known as the Liberal Democrats. Ideology During the 19th century the Liberal Party was broadly in favour of what would today be called classical liberalism: supporting laissez-faire economic policies such as free trade and minimal government interference in the economy (this doctrine was usually termed 'Gladstonian Liberalism' after the Victorian Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone). The Liberal Party favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England (many of them were Nonconformists) and an extension of the franchise (right to vote). Sir William Harcourt, a prominent Liberal politician in the Victorian era, said this about liberalism in 1873: Liberty does not consist in making others do what you think right. The difference between a free Government and a Government which is not free is principally this—that a Government which is not free interferes with everything it can, and a free Government interferes with nothing except what it must. A despotic Government tries to make everybody do what it wishes, a Liberal Government tries, so far as the safety of society will permit, to allow everybody to do what he wishes. It has been the function of the Liberal Party consistently to maintain the doctrine of individual liberty. It is because they have done so that England is the country where people can do more what they please than in any country in the world. Harold Cox, Economic Liberty (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1920), p. 170. The political terms of "modern", "progressive" or "new" Liberalism began to appear in the mid to late 1880s and became increasingly common to denote the recent tendency in the Liberal Party to favour an increased role for the state as more important than the classical liberal stress on self-help and freedom of choice. W. H. Greenleaf, The British Political Tradition. Volume II: The Ideological Heritage (London: Methuen, 1983), p. 143. By the early 20th century the Liberals stance began to shift towards "New Liberalism", what would today be called social liberalism: a belief in personal liberty with a support for government intervention to provide minimum levels of welfare. BBC - Education Scotland - Higher Bitesize Revision - History - Liberal - Impact: Revision 1 This shift was best exemplified by the Liberal government of Herbert Henry Asquith and his Chancellor David Lloyd George, whose Liberal reforms in the early 1900s created a basic welfare state. The Liberal Party was an early adopter of Keynesian economics: David Lloyd George adopted a Keynesian programme at the 1929 general election entitled We Can Conquer Unemployment!, although by this stage the Liberals had declined to third-party status. The Liberals now (as expressed in the Liberal Yellow Book) regarded opposition to state intervention as being a characteristic of right-wing extremists. Liberal Industrial Inquiry, Britain's Industrial Future (London, 1928), p. 453. After nearly becoming extinct in the 1940s and 50s, the Liberal Party revived its fortunes somewhat under the leadership of Jo Grimond in the 1960s, by positioning itself as a radical centrist non-socialist alternative to the Conservative government of the time. 1964 Liberal Party manifesto History See also :Category:Liberal MPs (UK) List of Liberal Party (UK) MPs Liberalism List of liberal theorists Liberalism worldwide List of liberal parties Liberal democracy Liberalism in the United Kingdom List of United Kingdom Liberal Party Leaders List of Liberal Chief Whips Politics of the United Kingdom Notes References Chris Cook, A Short History of the Liberal Party, 1900-2001 (6th edition). Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002. ISBN 0-333-91838-X. Jonathan Parry, The Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in Victorian Britain. Yale, 1993.ISBN 0-300-06718-6. David Dutton, A History of the Liberal Party in the 20th Century, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. ISBN 0-333-74656-2. External links Liberal Democrat History Group Catalogue of the Liberal Party papers (mostly dating from after 1945) at LSE Archives | Liberal_Party_(UK) |@lemmatized liberal:33 party:20 one:1 two:1 major:1 british:2 political:3 mid:2 century:4 rise:2 labour:1 third:2 vary:1 strength:1 importance:1 merge:1 social:3 democratic:1 sdp:1 form:1 new:3 would:3 become:3 know:1 democrat:2 ideology:1 broadly:1 favour:3 today:2 call:2 classical:2 liberalism:9 support:2 laissez:1 faire:1 economic:2 policy:1 free:5 trade:1 minimal:1 government:11 interference:1 economy:1 doctrine:2 usually:1 term:2 gladstonian:1 victorian:3 prime:1 minister:1 william:2 gladstone:1 reform:2 personal:2 liberty:5 reduce:1 power:1 crown:1 church:1 england:2 many:1 nonconformist:1 extension:1 franchise:1 right:3 vote:1 sir:1 harcourt:1 prominent:1 politician:1 era:1 say:1 consist:1 make:2 others:1 think:1 difference:1 principally:1 interferes:2 everything:1 nothing:1 except:1 must:1 despotic:1 try:2 everybody:2 wish:2 far:1 safety:1 society:1 permit:1 allow:1 function:1 consistently:1 maintain:1 individual:1 country:2 people:1 please:1 world:1 harold:1 cox:1 london:3 longmans:1 green:1 co:1 p:3 modern:1 progressive:1 begin:2 appear:1 late:1 increasingly:1 common:1 denote:1 recent:1 tendency:1 increased:1 role:1 state:3 important:1 stress:1 self:1 help:1 freedom:1 choice:1 w:1 h:1 greenleaf:1 tradition:1 volume:1 ii:1 ideological:1 heritage:1 methuen:1 early:3 stance:1 shift:2 towards:1 belief:1 intervention:2 provide:1 minimum:1 level:1 welfare:2 bbc:1 education:1 scotland:1 high:1 bitesize:1 revision:2 history:5 impact:1 best:1 exemplify:1 herbert:1 henry:1 asquith:1 chancellor:1 david:3 lloyd:2 george:2 whose:1 create:1 basic:1 adopter:1 keynesian:2 economics:1 adopt:1 programme:1 general:1 election:1 entitled:1 conquer:1 unemployment:1 although:1 stage:1 decline:1 status:1 express:1 yellow:1 book:1 regard:1 opposition:1 characteristic:1 wing:1 extremist:1 industrial:2 inquiry:1 britain:2 future:1 nearly:1 extinct:1 revive:1 fortune:1 somewhat:1 leadership:1 jo:1 grimond:1 position:1 radical:1 centrist:1 non:1 socialist:1 alternative:1 conservative:1 time:1 manifesto:1 see:1 also:1 category:1 mp:2 uk:2 list:5 theorist:1 worldwide:1 democracy:1 united:3 kingdom:3 leader:1 chief:1 whip:1 politics:1 note:1 reference:1 chris:1 cook:1 short:1 edition:1 basingstoke:1 palgrave:2 isbn:3 x:1 jonathan:1 parry:1 fall:1 yale:1 dutton:1 macmillan:1 external:1 link:1 group:1 catalogue:1 paper:1 mostly:1 date:1 lse:1 archive:1 |@bigram liberal_democrat:2 classical_liberalism:1 laissez_faire:1 prime_minister:1 victorian_era:1 longmans_green:1 london_methuen:1 keynesian_economics:1 basingstoke_palgrave:1 palgrave_macmillan:1 external_link:1 |
3,594 | Matthew_the_Apostle | Matthew the Evangelist (מתי/מתתיהו, "Gift of Yahweh", Standard Hebrew and Tiberian Hebrew: Mattay or Mattithyahu; Septuagint Greek: Ματθαίος, Matthaios, Modern Greek: Ματθαίος, Matthaíos), most often called Saint Matthew, is a Christian figure, and one of Jesus's Twelve Apostles. He is credited by tradition with writing the Gospel of Matthew, and is identified in that gospel as being the same person as Levi the publican (tax-collector). Identity Matthew the Evangelist is complex for a number of reasons. Both Epiphanius and Jerome state that Matthew wrote the Gospel according to the Hebrews. The gospel to bear the name "Matthew" was written anonymously, with tradition ascribing authorship to Matthew at a later date. Both the style of Greek used and the means of describing events leads a few to conclude that the author of the gospel was not a companion of the historic Jesus. Some use the designation "Matthew the Evangelist" to refer to the anonymous gospel author, and "Matthew the Apostle" to refer to the Biblical figure described. Christian tradition holds that they are the same person. Russian Orthodox icon of St. Matthew the Evangelist, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). Matthew's depiction in the New Testament is likewise complex. In the gospels of Mark and Luke, as well as in the Acts of the Apostles, Matthew is mentioned without any title, identifier, descriptions, or actions. Virtually nothing besides his apostleship can be determined from these accounts, and he is not mentioned at all in the Gospel of John or subsequent epistles. The Gospel of Matthew, on the other hand, names Matthew as the publican called by Jesus, whom the other gospels name "Levi". This gospel subsequently gives Matthew the title "the tax collector" in its list of the Twelve Apostles. Christian tradition holds that Matthew and Levi were, in fact, two names for the same person (similarly, tradition posits a "Jude Thaddeus" to reconcile the Jude of Luke and Acts with the Thaddeus of Matthew and Mark). Modern Biblical scholarship holds this position as highly unlikely, however. Anchor Bible Reference Library, 2001. p.130-133, 201 If one concludes that the Gospel of Matthew's stories of St. Matthew are based on Mark's stories of Levi, a different person, then one can say nothing about Matthew the Apostle besides the fact that he was one of the Twelve. However, the Catholic Encyclopedia asserts that Matthew once could have been called "Levi", according to . The Encyclopedia also states that "The fact of one man having two names is of frequent occurrence among the Jews." Other gospel passages that refer to Matthew or Levi are and . Levi is described in Mark (and synoptic parallels) as being a tax collector who was called by Jesus to follow him just as the Twelve Apostles were. He is called the "Son of Alphaeus", and his calling leads into a scene where Jesus is confronted by Pharisees for eating with tax-collectors and sinners. It is possible that James, son of Alphaeus, had been distinguished from James, son of Zebedee by the former's other name "Levi" and that James, son of Alphaeus was called to the Apostolate along with Luke. Winged angel, attribute of Matthew the Evangelist bronze by Lorenzo Maitani and his collaborators, Orvieto Cathedral, Italy Commemoration Matthew is recognized as a Saint in the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican churches. His feast day is celebrated on 21 September in the West, 16 November in the East (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 16 November currently falls on 29 November of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is also commemorated by the Orthodox, together with the other Apostles, on 30 June (13 July), the Synaxis of the Holy Apostles. Like the other evangelists, Matthew is often depicted in Christian art with one of the four living creatures of . The one that accompanies him is in the form of a winged man. The three paintings of Matthew by Caravaggio in the church of San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome, where he is depicted as called by Christ from his profession as gatherer, are among the landmarks of Western art. See also Gospel of Matthew Mark the Evangelist Luke the Evangelist John the Evangelist References External links St Matthew the Apostle from The Golden Legend Apostle and Evangelist Matthew Orthodox icon and synaxarion Synaxis of the Holy Apostles <center> {| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse" |- bgcolor="FFD700" |colspan=3|<Center>Calling of MatthewLife of Jesus: Ministry Events |- bgcolor="white" |<Center> |<Center>New TestamentEvents ||} | Matthew_the_Apostle |@lemmatized matthew:29 evangelist:10 מתי:1 מתתיהו:1 gift:1 yahweh:1 standard:1 hebrew:3 tiberian:1 mattay:1 mattithyahu:1 septuagint:1 greek:3 ματθαίος:2 matthaios:1 modern:3 matthaíos:1 often:2 call:9 saint:2 christian:4 figure:2 one:7 jesus:6 twelve:4 apostle:10 credit:1 tradition:5 write:3 gospel:14 identify:1 person:4 levi:8 publican:2 tax:4 collector:4 identity:1 complex:2 number:1 reason:1 epiphanius:1 jerome:1 state:2 accord:2 bear:1 name:5 anonymously:1 ascribe:1 authorship:1 late:1 date:1 style:2 use:2 mean:1 describe:3 event:2 lead:2 conclude:2 author:2 companion:1 historic:1 designation:1 refer:3 anonymous:1 biblical:2 hold:3 russian:1 orthodox:4 icon:2 st:3 century:1 iconostasis:1 transfiguration:1 church:4 kizhi:1 monastery:1 karelia:1 russia:1 depiction:1 new:2 testament:1 likewise:1 mark:5 luke:4 well:1 act:2 mention:2 without:1 title:2 identifier:1 description:1 action:1 virtually:1 nothing:2 besides:2 apostleship:1 determine:1 account:1 john:2 subsequent:1 epistle:1 hand:1 names:1 subsequently:1 give:1 list:1 fact:3 two:2 similarly:1 posit:1 jude:2 thaddeus:2 reconcile:1 scholarship:1 position:1 highly:1 unlikely:1 however:2 anchor:1 bible:1 reference:2 library:1 p:1 story:2 base:1 different:1 say:1 catholic:2 encyclopedia:2 assert:1 could:1 also:3 man:2 frequent:1 occurrence:1 among:2 jew:1 passage:1 synoptic:1 parallel:1 follow:2 son:4 alphaeus:3 scene:1 confront:1 pharisee:1 eat:1 sinner:1 possible:1 james:3 distinguish:1 zebedee:1 former:1 apostolate:1 along:1 wing:1 angel:1 attribute:1 bronze:1 lorenzo:1 maitani:1 collaborator:1 orvieto:1 cathedral:1 italy:1 commemoration:1 recognize:1 roman:1 eastern:1 lutheran:1 anglican:1 feast:1 day:1 celebrate:1 september:1 west:1 november:3 east:1 traditional:1 julian:1 calendar:2 currently:1 fall:1 gregorian:1 commemorate:1 together:1 june:1 july:1 synaxis:2 holy:2 like:1 depict:2 art:2 four:1 living:1 creature:1 accompany:1 form:1 winged:1 three:1 painting:1 caravaggio:1 san:1 luigi:1 dei:1 francesi:1 rome:1 christ:1 profession:1 gatherer:1 landmark:1 western:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 golden:1 legend:1 synaxarion:1 apostles:1 center:4 border:2 collapse:2 bgcolor:2 colspan:1 matthewlife:1 ministry:1 white:1 testamentevents:1 |@bigram matthew_evangelist:5 tiberian_hebrew:1 twelve_apostle:3 gospel_matthew:4 iconostasis_transfiguration:1 kizhi_monastery:1 monastery_karelia:1 karelia_russia:1 son_alphaeus:3 son_zebedee:1 eastern_orthodox:1 julian_calendar:1 gregorian_calendar:1 luigi_dei:1 dei_francesi:1 luke_evangelist:1 external_link:1 icon_synaxarion:1 |
3,595 | Identity_and_change | The relationship between identity and change in the philosophical field of metaphysics seems, at first glance, deceptively simple, and belies the complexity of the issues involved. This article explores "the problem of change and identity". Change When an object changes, it always changes in some particular way. A baby grows up, and so changes in respect of size and maturity; a snake sheds its skin, and so changes in respect of its skin. "Change" may therefore be defined as follows: An object, O, changes with respect to property, P, if and only if O has P at one time, and at a later time, O does not have P. That seems to be, in one way, what it means for a thing to change: it has a property at one time, and later it does not have that property. If a banana becomes brown, it can then be said: at one time, the banana is yellow; several days later, the banana is not yellow, but is instead brown. This appears fairly straightforward at this point, and there are no apparent problems as yet. Another way for an object to change is to change its parts. An object, O, changes with respect to its part, P, if and only if O has the part P at one time, and at a later time, O does not have P. Some philosophers believe that an object can't persist through a change of parts. They defend mereological essentialism. Problem of change The question then arises as to what sort of change happens after a thing is destroyed? When a person dies, one does not say that the person's life has changed. Neither does one go around saying, "Harry just isn't the same sort of guy since he died." Instead, one says that Harry's life has ended. Similarly, when a building is demolished, one does not say that the building 'changes'; one says that it is destroyed. So what sort of events, on the one hand, result in a mere change, and what sort of events, on the other hand, result in a thing's destruction — in the state of its existence? This is one aspect of the problem that will be considered here. It is called "the problem of change and identity". The Ship of Theseus The "problem of change and identity" is generally explained with the story of the Ship of Theseus: In ancient times, there was a ship, called the "Theseus" after its famous former owner. As the years wore on, the Theseus started getting weak and creaky. The old boards were removed, put into a warehouse, and replaced with new ones. Then, the masts started tottering, and soon they, too, were warehoused and replaced. And in this way, after fifty years, this ship now has all new boards, masts, and everything. The question then arises: Is the ship in the harbor, now called S2, the same ship as the ship that was in the harbor, fifty years ago (called S1, for convenience)? In other words, is S2 really the "Theseus"? There is one answer which is a little too easy and quick. One might say: "No, of course not. The Theseus has changed a lot, so it's not the same ship. At the end of your life, you're not going to be the same person as you were, when you were a teenager. You're going to change a lot in the meantime." However, this is not quite answering the intended question. What is intended by the question is the sense of the word, "same", in which an old woman is the same person at the end of her life as she is, at the beginning of her life. Certainly, the word, "same", has such a sense. After all, one implicitly depends on it when one says, for example, "She has changed a lot". In order for someone to change a lot, there has to be one person who underwent the change. (One could perhaps reject that sense, saying that objects do not change over time.) Going back to the definition of "change", an object changes with respect to a property if the object has that property at one time, and at a later time, the object does not have the property. What changes is the fact that the object has a particular property. The only way that that fact can change is if the object remains in existence. One can therefore think of a continuing object as the ground of change, or the arena where change occurs, as it were. To get back to the Theseus, the question is: Has the Theseus merely changed a lot, or is the Theseus gone, being replaced by a new ship? One may say, "Sure, it's just a refurbished Theseus, greatly changed to be sure, but still the Theseus". If one thinks in this manner, then consider what happens when the story is extended further. Suppose someone buys all the planks, masts and whatever that is stored in the warehouse, and out of all of those materials, and absolutely no others, he builds a ship according to the same plans that were used to build the ship, christened "the Theseus". And this ship, called S3, is launched and sits on the other side of the harbor where S2 is. Is S3 the same as S1? In other words, is this recently-constructed ship, the same ship as the ship originally called the "Theseus", considering that S3 was built out of the same materials, and according to the same plans as S1. One could take this concept even further by not only the properties but also its subject matter of the "ship". What if instead the warehoused planks, masts, and other materials were used to build something completely different from a ship, like a house. (A concept explored by the artist Simon Starling, who turned a shed into a working boat and then back into a shed, winning him the 2005 Turner Prize.) The same materials and supplies are being used; yet they have taken on a new form. This relates to the concept of recreation vs. destruction. Inevitably, the problem arises: How can one ever say that both S2 and S3 are the same ship as S1, the original Theseus? This is because if they were both the same as S1, then they would have to be the same as each other. This follows from transitivity, which states that if x = y and x = z, then y = z. With S2 and S3 being clearly different ships, sitting on opposite sides of the harbor, three choices present themselves: S2 is the same ship as S1; S3 is the same ship as S1; or neither is the same ship as S1, and S1 has ceased to exist. How does one then decide which is the correct answer in this case? It is difficult to tell. Whenever one makes an identity claim (i.e. a claim which states that two things are the same), one almost always uses two different descriptions. Sometimes, one may say, "x = x", like "I am I", but such claims are not particularly interesting or informative. The interesting identity claims are claims where two different descriptions are used for one and the same thing. As an example, take these two descriptions: "the Morning Star", and "the Evening Star". Sometimes, one can look in the sky just before dawn, and see a very bright point of light — that has been called "the Morning Star". And then also, one can look in the sky just after sunset, and see a very similar point — that has been called "the Evening Star". The Morning Star is, in fact, identical to the Evening Star — both are the planet Venus. As such, they are "two" things, only in description, but in actuality, are one and the same thing under two different descriptions. It is a similar case with S1, S2, and S3, those being three different abbreviations, standing for the following descriptions: "S1", referring to the ship which sat in the harbor fifty years ago, newly christened "the Theseus"; "S2", referring to the ship which sits in the harbor now, with the new planks; and "S3", referring to the ship which sits in the harbor, recently constructed out of the old planks. When one, therefore, asks a question like, "Is S2 the same as S1?", one can be understood to mean this: "Is the ship which sits in the harbor now, with the new planks, the same ship as the ship which sat in the harbor fifty years ago, newly christened "the Theseus"?" Do those two descriptions refer to the same thing, or do they not? Philosophers are not interested in the "Ship of Theseus" problem per se, but to a more basic problem which is this: How does one decide that X is the same as Y, where X describes something at one time, and Y describes another thing at a later time? This is called the "problem of identity over time", or alternatively, the "problem of change". Leibniz's solution The German philosopher, Gottfried Leibniz, came up with what is now called Leibniz's law (see Identity of indiscernibles) that may have some bearing on the question. Leibniz's law states: X is the same as Y if, and only if, X and Y have all the same properties and relations; thus, whatever is true of X is also true of Y, and vice-versa. Applying Leibniz's Law to the Ship of Theseus problem, S2 is the same as S1 if, and only if, S2 and S1 have all the same properties and relations. Does the ship now in the harbor have all the same properties and relations as the ship that was in the harbor fifty years ago? One might be tempted to say, "Clearly not! They have lots of different properties. So they can't be the same ship." Does that sound convincing? To answer this question, let us consider the property, "contains mast #1". Mast #1 is one of the masts that the original Ship of Theseus had. S1 definitely had this property, but S2 is not so equipped, but has mast #2, instead. It follows that S2 must therefore be different from S1. Many philosophers strongly oppose this view. For if this argument works, then any property that has changed from the last time we looked at a thing would mean that the thing does not exist anymore, and there is a new thing in its place. Every little change in every little property would mean the whole thing is destroyed. Suppose we look at S1 just a couple of years after it was built. If just one plank has been replaced, will we say that the ship is a different ship? Many philosophers would say surely not, as would common sense. But the ship that is floating on the ocean for a couple of years does have different properties from the original. Leibniz's Law would have us say that it is a different ship. One might see all this and conclude, "Well, Leibniz's Law must not be a law at all, but a false claim! X and Y do not need to have all the same properties to be the same thing." Leibniz's Law can be saved, by saying: Properties are to be described as occurring at particular times, i.e. they are indexed to times. A property that is described as at a particular time is said to be "temporally-indexed". For example, we can say that S1 has mast #1 in 600 BC. If we say what time the ship has the mast, then we have indexed the property of having the mast to that time. We say the ship has the mast then, using the word, "has", tenselessly. That means we do not say that it, at present, has the mast, but rather, we say it "has" the mast in 600 BC. We are not claiming that the ship has the mast at any other time; just at that time. But if it were a later time, say 550 BC, that very same ship could "have" mast #1 in 600 BC, considering that we are talking about a tenseless "have". That is, it always has the same properties, but the properties are of the form P-at-T. This gives us a way to save Leibniz's Law from the objection we gave, but at the same time, brings up the issue of whether change really occurs. After all, we defined "change" as something having one property at one time, and not at some later time. By this solution though, any given object always has all the properties throughout time, and the properties are merely temporally-specific. Putting this in plain English, S1 now has the property that it will have mast #2; and S2 now has the property that it did have mast #1. We can then say that S1 and S2 have all the same temporally-indexed properties. According to Leibniz's Law, therefore, they would be the same ship. One might also say, through the same sorts of contortions that S1 and S3 might have the same temporally-indexed properties. It then follows from Leibniz's Law that they instead would be the same ship. Can Leibniz's Law help us decide whether it is S2 or S3 that is the same as the original Theseus? Perhaps not by itself. Leibniz's Law says that some ships are the same, just in case, they have all the same properties and relations — or, rather, the same temporally-indexed properties and relations. How then is one to decide that they have all the same temporally-indexed properties and relations? Leibniz's Law seems to offer little or no help when it comes to that decision. Pragmatic solution One popular solution to the problem of the Ship of Theseus is to say that the meaning of "same" depends on what purpose the word is being used for. If, supposing it turns out that the original Ship of Theseus, S1, was actually stolen property, and the rightful owner demands its return, should the police give him S2 or S3? Instead of figuring out which ship, if either, is the "same", and then declaring that it should be returned, the pragmatic solution is to figure out which ship should be returned, and then declare that it is the "same". The current owner of S2 could argue that the original owner did not pay for any of the labor or materials of S2, but did provide at least the materials for S3. Thus, the original owner should not be entitled to S2, but rather, some or all of S3. For the purpose of legal entitlement, therefore, part or all of S3 is the same as S1. Now, let us say that the purpose is not legal entitlement, but rather, the following situation: The admiral of the fleet believes that captains and crews who have fought alongside each other are more effective than captains and crews who are strangers to each other. The admiral then declares that captains must serve at least one year on the same ship. One day, Captain Hercules takes command of the Theseus, and then transfers 18 months later. During this time, the ship's materials are completely replaced as in the previous example, but the crew stays the same. Is S2 = S1, S3 = S1, both, or neither? For the admiral's purpose, S2 = S1 because S2 has the same crew as S1, and Captain Hercules has thus fulfilled the admiral's objective. Thus, whether S2, S3, both, or neither is the same ship as S1 is a matter of convention and what purposes we have for considering things to be the same or different. Two objects may be considered the same for one purpose, and yet different for another. Is a watch, received as a gift, still the same after it hits the chain saw? For the purpose of returning it, no. But it will always have that same sentimental value. See pragmatism. The ship of Theseus problem: a non-receivable question One way of thinking about the Ship of Theseus problem is as follows: It is a question that is not receivable because of the mismatch between the domain of the question and the domain of the subject matter it is applied to. Let us review the three main knowledge domains of concern here: A, the real ontological universe that exists and happens by itself; B, our reality or how we experience the real universe, A; and C, or our scientific analysis of our reality, B. The distinction between B and C is demonstrated in the following example: In the evening, one can go out and see at the same moment the sun setting, the moon and a few stars; this is our reality or B. In the scientific domain C, however, the analysis of B reveals that the stars are thousands of light years away, the sun is eight light minutes away, and the moon is about a light second away. Since one cannot logically consider these subjects to be both "at the same moment" and "away in time", an exclusive choice has to be made that defines these two separate domains, B and C. Our reality or domain B is created by the complex, but consistent transformation of A by our biological and mental makeup. Therefore, domain B, or our reality, is internally logical. The scientific knowledge, or domain C, is created by the application of a consistent methodology of analysis of our reality, B. Therefore, the scientific domain is internally logical. Domains B and C each have their own internal logic, derived from a consistent approach respecting both processes and subject matter. Using the questions or processes of one domain on the subject matter of another domain will logically produce puzzles, paradoxes, and inconsistencies. The Ship of Theseus problem is an example of such an inconsistency created by the use of the question of identity proper to the ontology of domain A, applied to the subject matter of domain B, our reality. The question about the identity of the Ship of Theseus is simply not receivable and comes from the poor practice of not respecting the proper correspondence of the question domain to the subject matter domain. The problem of identity is an ontological problem, and should therefore be applied to the (metaphysical) subject matter of domain A, the real universe. Persistence over time Common-sense tells us that objects persist across time, that there is some sense in which you are the same person you were yesterday, in which the oak is the same as the acorn, in which you perhaps even can step into the same river twice. Philosophers have developed two rival theories for how this happens, called endurantism and perdurantism. Broadly speaking, endurantists hold that a whole object exists at each moment of its history, and the same object exists at each moment, while perdurantists believe that objects are 4-dimensional entities made up of a series of temporal parts like the frames of a movie. Identity and change in conscious beings The problem of personal identity relates to change as applied to people. The molecules that make up each individual change almost completely over a period of years. Usually, there is no trouble in saying that a little girl in 1920, for example, is the same as an old woman in 1998, even though they share a relatively small number of molecules in common. The same person is just described in two different ways, first as a little girl, and second, as an old woman. In fact, we are confident enough of our ability to reidentify people over time that we are given names that are supposed to last us from when we get them until we die many years later. The question is exactly why we call the old woman in 1998 the same person as that little girl in 1920. But thought experiments can reveal problems with our intuitions about personal identity. Aune gives a typical sort of example of such a case, and one which is perhaps more accessible than those involving teleportation or mind transplants. Aune's case goes something like this: Someone is out flying and crashes his plane. The doctors think he is a very important person. Armed with some new-fangled bionics technology, they reconstruct him. All that remains of the original pilot is the top of his head. The reconstruction is a success; the top of the pilot's head continues to function, with a totally new body. The question then is: Is this newly-constructed human being the same human being as the original pilot? Since we rarely encounter cases that are as difficult to deal with as this, it is not surprising that we are not quite sure what to say about them. These thought experiments seem to many to land us in the grey area between the subject being or not being the same person. These are cases in which our ordinary concept is just not clear enough to let us decide whether the concept does or does not apply. Thus, in the case of the reconstructed pilot, it may be that our notion of "being the same human being" is just not clear enough to let us rule definitively that the reconstructed human being is, or is not, the same as the original pilot. The same can be said of the Ship of Theseus. Our concept of "being the same ship" is perhaps just not clear enough to let us rule definitively that S2 is the same as S1; thus, if we find it convenient, we might just arbitrarily say that they are the same ship. Update The sentence, "S1 now has the property that it will have mast #2 contains in itself the assumption that S1 now, and S1 later, are the very same ship. It is a little like trying to prove theorem A using theorem A, is it not? An example, very similar to the "pilot" example, but perhaps more realistic is: It is said that all the particles (atoms) that form a human body change during a period of seven years (although this is not actually so). This means that seven years ago, almost all our atoms were not the same as those of our current body. Does this mean that we are not the same (identical) person as we were, seven years ago? Having observed this, an allowance for accumulated phenomenological experience attached to identity also defines that identity is independent of change. Another example are the transporters (teleporters) in "Star Trek", which either deconstruct and reconstruct the constituent molecules of the person being teleported, or replicate them in the exact order at the receiving end. In the first mechanism, even though the product is identical, the teleportee is still being destroyed, at least temporarily. In the second the eerie sense of separation is stronger. Not only is the teleportee completely destroyed, but nothing of him or her is actually transported, a copy simply being made. In this second case the lack of identity between the two copies appears even clearer if the teleporter does not deconstruct the original model as happens, for example, in The Prestige. See also Ship of Theseus Perdurantism External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy on temporal parts Carsten Korfmacher, 'Personal Identity', in "The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy" | Identity_and_change |@lemmatized relationship:1 identity:18 change:45 philosophical:1 field:1 metaphysics:1 seem:4 first:3 glance:1 deceptively:1 simple:1 belie:1 complexity:1 issue:2 involve:2 article:1 explore:2 problem:20 object:18 always:5 particular:4 way:8 baby:1 grow:1 respect:7 size:1 maturity:1 snake:1 shed:3 skin:2 may:6 therefore:9 define:4 follow:5 property:35 p:7 one:54 time:31 late:6 mean:7 thing:15 later:5 banana:3 become:1 brown:2 say:34 yellow:2 several:1 day:2 instead:6 appear:2 fairly:1 straightforward:1 point:3 apparent:1 yet:3 another:5 part:7 philosopher:6 believe:3 persist:2 defend:1 mereological:1 essentialism:1 question:17 arise:3 sort:6 happens:2 destroy:5 person:12 die:3 life:5 neither:4 go:7 around:1 harry:2 guy:1 since:3 end:4 similarly:1 building:2 demolish:1 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distinction:1 demonstrate:1 moment:4 sun:2 setting:1 moon:2 reveals:1 thousand:1 away:4 eight:1 minute:1 second:4 cannot:1 logically:2 exclusive:1 separate:1 create:3 complex:1 consistent:3 transformation:1 biological:1 mental:1 makeup:1 internally:2 logical:2 application:1 methodology:1 internal:1 logic:1 derive:1 approach:1 process:2 produce:1 puzzle:1 paradox:1 inconsistency:2 proper:2 ontology:1 simply:2 poor:1 practice:1 correspondence:1 metaphysical:1 persistence:1 across:1 yesterday:1 oak:1 acorn:1 step:1 river:1 twice:1 develop:1 rival:1 theory:1 endurantism:1 perdurantism:2 broadly:1 speak:1 endurantists:1 hold:1 history:1 exists:1 perdurantists:1 dimensional:1 entity:1 series:1 temporal:2 frame:1 movie:1 conscious:1 personal:3 people:2 molecule:3 individual:1 period:2 usually:1 trouble:1 girl:3 share:1 relatively:1 small:1 number:1 confident:1 enough:4 ability:1 reidentify:1 name:1 exactly:1 experiment:2 reveal:1 intuition:1 aune:2 typical:1 accessible:1 teleportation:1 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3,596 | Dual-tone_multi-frequency_signaling | A DTMF telephone keypad Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling is used for telecommunication signaling over analog telephone lines in the voice-frequency band between telephone handsets and other communications devices and the switching center. The version of DTMF used for telephone tone dialing is known by the trademarked term Touch-Tone (canceled March 13, 1984), and is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23. It is also known in the UK as MF4. Other multi-frequency systems are used for signaling internal to the telephone network. As a method of in-band signaling, DTMF tones were also used by cable television broadcasters to indicate the start and stop times of local commercial insertion points during station breaks for the benefit of cable companies. Until better out-of-band signaling equipment was developed in the 1990s, fast, unacknowledged, and loud DTMF tone sequences could be heard during the commercial breaks of cable channels in the United States and elsewhere. History In the time preceding the development of DTMF, telephone systems employed a system commonly referred to as pulse (Dial Pulse or DP in the U.S.) or loop disconnect (LD) signaling to dial numbers, which functions by rapidly disconnecting and connecting the calling party's telephone line, similar to flicking a light switch on and off. The repeated connection and disconnection, as the dial spins, sounds like a series of clicks. The exchange equipment counts those clicks or dial pulses to determine the called number. Loop disconnect range was restricted by telegraphic distortion and other technical problems, and placing calls over longer distances required either operator assistance (operators used an earlier kind of multi-frequency dial) or the provision of subscriber trunk dialing equipment. Dual Tone Multi-Frequency, or DTMF, is a method for instructing a telephone switching system of the telephone number to be dialed, or to issue commands to switching systems or related telephony equipment. The DTMF dialing system traces its roots to a technique developed by Bell Labs in the 1940s called MF (Multi-Frequency) which was deployed within the AT&T telephone network to direct calls between switching facilities using in-band signaling. In the early 1960s, a derivative technique was offered by AT&T through its Bell System telephone companies as a "modern" way for network customers to place calls. In AT&Ts Compatibility Bulletin No. 105, AT&T described the product as "a method for pushbutton signaling from customer stations using the voice transmission path." The consumer product was marketed by AT&T under the registered trade name Touch-Tone. Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called this same system "Tone" dialing or "DTMF," or used their own registered trade names such as the "Digitone" of Northern Electric (now known as Nortel Networks). The DTMF system uses eight different frequency signals transmitted in pairs to represent sixteen different numbers, symbols and letters - as detailed below. #, *, A, B, C, and D The engineers had envisioned phones being used to access computers, and surveyed a number of companies to see what they would need for this role. This led to the addition of the number sign (#, sometimes called 'octothorpe' in this context) and asterisk or "star" (*) keys as well as a group of keys for menu selection: A, B, C and D. In the end, the lettered keys were dropped from most phones, and it was many years before these keys became widely used for vertical service codes such as *67 in the United States and Canada to suppress caller ID. Public payphones that accept credit cards use these additional codes to send the information from the magnetic strip. The U.S. military also used the letters, relabeled, in their now defunct Autovon phone system "What are the ABCD tones?" - Tech FAQ . Here they were used before dialing the phone in order to give some calls priority, cutting in over existing calls if need be. The idea was to allow important traffic to get through every time. The levels of priority available were Flash Override (A), Flash (B), Immediate (C), and Priority (D), with Flash Override being the highest priority. Pressing one of these keys gave your call priority, overriding other conversations on the network. Pressing C, Immediate, before dialing would make the switch first look for any free lines, and if all lines were in use, it would disconnect any non-priority calls, and then any priority calls. Flash Override will kick every other call off the trunks between the origin and destination. Consequently, it was limited to the White House Communications Agency. Precedence dialing is still done on the military phone networks, but using number combinations (Example: Entering 93 before a number is a priority call) rather than the separate tones and the Government Emergency Telecommunications Service has superseded Autovon for any civilian priority telco access. Present-day uses of the A, B, C and D keys on telephone networks are few, and exclusive to network control. For example, the A key is used on some networks to cycle through different carriers at will (thereby listening in on calls). Their use is probably prohibited by most carriers. The A, B, C and D tones are used in amateur radio phone patch and repeater operations to allow, among other uses, control of the repeater while connected to an active phone line. DTMF tones are also used by some cable television networks and radio networks to signal the local cable company/network station to insert a local advertisement or station identification. These tones were often heard during a station ID preceding a local ad insert. Previously, terrestrial television stations also used DTMF tones to shut off and turn on remote transmitters. DTMF tones are also sometimes used in caller ID systems to transfer the caller ID information, however in the USA only Bell 202 modulated FSK signaling is used to transfer the data. A DTMF can be heard on most Whelen Outdoor Warning systems. Keypad The DTMF keypad is laid out in a 4×4 matrix, with each row representing a low frequency, and each column representing a high frequency. Pressing a single key (such as '1' ) will send a sinusoidal tone for each of the two frequencies (697 and 1209 hertz (Hz)). The original keypads had levers inside, so each button activated two contacts. The multiple tones are the reason for calling the system multifrequency. These tones are then decoded by the switching center to determine which key was pressed. + DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips) 1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz 697 Hz 1 2 3 A 770 Hz 4 5 6 B 852 Hz 7 8 9 C 941 Hz * 0 # D DTMF event frequencies + Event Low frequency High frequency Busy signal 480 Hz 620 Hz Dial tone 350 Hz 440 Hz Ringback tone (US) 440 Hz 480 Hz The tone frequencies, as defined by the Precise Tone Plan, are selected such that harmonics and intermodulation products will not cause an unreliable signal. No frequency is a multiple of another, the difference between any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies, and the sum of any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies. The frequencies were initially designed with a ratio of 21/19, which is slightly less than a whole tone. The frequencies may not vary more than ±1.8% from their nominal frequency, or the switching center will ignore the signal. The high frequencies may be the same volume or louder as the low frequencies when sent across the line. The loudness difference between the high and low frequencies can be as large as 3 decibels (dB) and is referred to as "twist." The minimum duration of the tone should be at least 70 msec, although in some countries and applications DTMF receivers must be able to reliably detect DTMF tones as short as 45ms. As with other multi-frequency receivers, DTMF was originally decoded by tuned filter banks. Late in the 20th century most were replaced with digital signal processors. DTMF can be decoded using the Goertzel algorithm. Synonyms include multifrequency pulsing and multifrequency signaling. See also Selective calling (use of DTMF in two-way radio) Pulse dialing Rotary dial Telephone keypad Goertzel algorithm (used for DTMF detection/decoding) Multi-frequency References . External links ITU-T Recommendation Q.23 - Technical features of push-button telephone sets (PDF) ITU's recommendations for implementing DTMF services (PDF) Pushbutton Calling with a Two-Group Voice-Frequency Code - The Bell system technical journal (ISSN 0005-8580) Schenker yr:1960 vol:39 iss:1 pg:235-255 | Dual-tone_multi-frequency_signaling |@lemmatized dtmf:24 telephone:15 keypad:6 dual:2 tone:25 multi:7 frequency:29 signaling:5 use:27 telecommunication:2 analog:1 line:6 voice:3 band:4 handset:1 communication:2 device:1 switching:3 center:3 version:1 dialing:2 know:3 trademarked:1 term:1 touch:2 cancel:1 march:1 standardize:1 itu:3 recommendation:3 q:2 also:7 uk:1 system:14 signal:11 internal:1 network:12 method:3 cable:5 television:3 broadcaster:1 indicate:1 start:1 stop:1 time:3 local:4 commercial:2 insertion:1 point:1 station:6 break:2 benefit:1 company:4 good:1 equipment:5 develop:2 fast:1 unacknowledged:1 loud:1 sequence:1 could:1 hear:3 channel:1 united:2 state:2 elsewhere:1 history:1 precede:2 development:1 employ:1 commonly:1 refer:2 pulse:4 dial:14 dp:1 u:3 loop:2 disconnect:4 ld:1 number:8 function:1 rapidly:1 connect:2 call:19 party:1 similar:1 flick:1 light:1 switch:5 repeated:1 connection:1 disconnection:1 spin:1 sound:2 like:1 series:1 click:2 exchange:1 count:1 determine:2 range:1 restrict:1 telegraphic:1 distortion:1 technical:3 problem:1 place:2 long:1 distance:1 require:1 either:1 operator:2 assistance:1 early:2 kind:1 provision:1 subscriber:1 trunk:2 instruct:1 issue:1 command:1 relate:1 telephony:1 trace:1 root:1 technique:2 bell:4 lab:1 mf:1 deploy:1 within:1 direct:1 facility:1 derivative:1 offer:1 modern:1 way:2 customer:2 ts:1 compatibility:1 bulletin:1 describe:1 product:3 pushbutton:2 transmission:1 path:1 consumer:1 market:1 registered:1 trade:2 name:2 vendor:1 compatible:1 register:1 digitone:1 northern:1 electric:1 nortel:1 eight:1 different:3 transmit:1 pair:1 represent:3 sixteen:1 symbol:1 letter:2 detail:1 b:6 c:7 engineer:1 envision:1 phone:7 access:2 computer:1 survey:1 see:2 would:3 need:2 role:1 lead:1 addition:1 sign:1 sometimes:2 octothorpe:1 context:1 asterisk:1 star:1 key:9 well:1 group:2 menu:1 selection:1 end:1 lettered:1 drop:1 many:1 year:1 become:1 widely:1 vertical:1 service:3 code:3 canada:1 suppress:1 caller:3 id:4 public:1 payphones:1 accept:1 credit:1 card:1 additional:1 send:2 information:2 magnetic:1 strip:1 military:2 relabeled:1 defunct:1 autovon:2 abcd:1 tech:1 faq:1 order:1 give:2 priority:9 cut:1 exist:1 idea:1 allow:2 important:1 traffic:1 get:1 every:2 level:1 available:1 flash:4 override:4 immediate:2 high:5 press:4 one:1 conversation:1 make:1 first:1 look:1 free:1 non:1 kick:1 origin:1 destination:1 consequently:1 limit:1 white:1 house:1 agency:1 precedence:1 still:1 combination:1 example:2 enter:1 rather:1 separate:1 government:1 emergency:1 supersede:1 civilian:1 telco:1 present:1 day:1 exclusive:1 control:2 cycle:1 carrier:2 thereby:1 listen:1 probably:1 prohibit:1 amateur:1 radio:3 patch:1 repeater:2 operation:1 among:1 us:1 active:1 insert:2 advertisement:1 identification:1 often:1 ad:1 previously:1 terrestrial:1 shut:1 turn:1 remote:1 transmitter:1 transfer:2 however:1 usa:1 modulate:1 fsk:1 data:1 whelen:1 outdoor:1 warn:1 lay:1 matrix:1 row:1 low:4 column:1 single:1 sinusoidal:1 two:6 hertz:1 hz:15 original:1 lever:1 inside:1 button:2 activate:1 contact:1 multiple:2 reason:1 multifrequency:3 decode:3 clip:1 event:2 busy:1 ringback:1 define:1 precise:1 plan:1 select:1 harmonic:1 intermodulation:1 cause:1 unreliable:1 another:1 difference:2 equal:2 sum:1 initially:1 design:1 ratio:1 slightly:1 less:1 whole:1 may:2 vary:1 nominal:1 ignore:1 volume:1 louder:1 sent:1 across:1 loudness:1 large:1 decibel:1 db:1 twist:1 minimum:1 duration:1 least:1 msec:1 although:1 country:1 application:1 receiver:2 must:1 able:1 reliably:1 detect:1 short:1 originally:1 tuned:1 filter:1 bank:1 late:1 century:1 replace:1 digital:1 processor:1 goertzel:2 algorithm:2 synonyms:1 include:1 pulsing:1 selective:1 rotary:1 detection:1 decoding:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 feature:1 push:1 set:1 pdf:2 implement:1 journal:1 issn:1 schenker:1 yr:1 vol:1 pg:1 |@bigram itu_recommendation:3 dtmf_tone:6 bell_lab:1 caller_id:3 hertz_hz:1 hz_hz:8 decibel_db:1 external_link:1 |
3,597 | Brian_Aldiss | Brian Wilson Aldiss, OBE (born August 18, 1925 in East Dereham, Norfolk, England) is a prolific English author of both general fiction and science fiction. His byline reads either Brian W. Aldiss or simply Brian Aldiss. Greatly influenced by SF pioneer H. G. Wells, Aldiss is a vice-president of the international H. G. Wells Society. He is also (with Harry Harrison) co-president of the Birmingham Science Fiction Group. His writings have been compared to those of Isaac Asimov, Greg Bear and Arthur C Clarke. Biography Aldiss's father ran a department store that his grandfather had established, and the family lived above it. At the age of 6, Brian was sent to board at West Buckland School in Devon, which he attended until his late teens. In 1943, he joined the Royal Signals regiment, and saw action in Burma; his encounters with tropical rainforests at that time may have been at least a partial inspiration for Hothouse, as his Army experience inspired the Horatio Stubbs second and third books. After World War II, he worked as a bookseller in Oxford. Besides short science fiction for various magazines, he wrote a number of short pieces for a booksellers trade journal about life in a fictitious bookshop, and this attracted the attention of Charles Monteith, an editor at the British publishers Faber and Faber. As a result of this, Aldiss's first book was The Brightfount Diaries (1955), a novel in diary form about the life of a sales assistant in a bookshop. In 1955, The Observer newspaper ran a competition for a short story set in the year 2500, which Aldiss won with a story entitled "Not For An Age". The Brightfount Diaries had been a minor success, and Faber asked Aldiss if he had any more writing that they could look at with a view to publishing. Aldiss confessed to being a science fiction author, to the delight of the publishers, who had a number of science fiction fans in high places, and so his first science fiction book, a collection of short stories entitled Space, Time and Nathaniel was published. By this time, his earnings from writing equalled the wages he got in the bookshop, so he made the decision to become a full-time writer. He was voted the Most Promising New Author at the World Science Fiction Convention in 1958, and elected President of the British Science Fiction Association in 1960. He was the literary editor of the Oxford Mail newspaper during the 1960s. Around 1964 he and his long-time collaborator Harry Harrison started the first ever journal of science fiction criticism, Science Fiction Horizons, which during its brief span of two issues published articles and reviews by such authors as James Blish, and featured a discussion among Aldiss, C. S. Lewis, and Kingsley Amis in the first issues, and an interview with William S. Burroughs in the second. Besides his own writings, he has had great success as an anthologist. For Faber he edited Introducing SF, a collection of stories typifying various themes of science fiction, and Best Fantasy Stories. In 1961 he edited an anthology of reprinted short science fiction for the British paperback publisher Penguin Books under the title Penguin Science Fiction. This was remarkably successful, going into numerous reprints, and was followed up by two further anthologies, More Penguin Science Fiction (1963), and Yet More Penguin Science Fiction (1964). The later anthologies enjoyed the same success as the first, and all three were eventually published together as The Penguin Science Fiction Omnibus (1973), which also went into a number of reprints. In the 1970s, he produced several large collections of classic grand-scale science fiction, under the titles Space Opera (1974), Space Odysseys (1975), Galactic Empires (1976), Evil Earths (1976), and Perilous Planets (1978) which were quite successful. Around this time, he edited a large-format volume Science Fiction Art (1975), with selections of artwork from the magazines and pulps. In response to the results from the planetary probes of the 1960s and 1970s, which showed that Venus was completely unlike the hot, tropical jungle usually depicted in science fiction, he and Harry Harrison edited an anthology Farewell, Fantastic Venus!, reprinting stories based on the pre-probe ideas of Venus. He also edited, with Harrison, a series of anthologies The Year's Best Science Fiction (1968-1976?) He travelled to Yugoslavia, met Yugoslav fans in Ljubljana, Slovenia, published a travel book about Yugoslavia, published an alternative-history fantasy story about Serbian kings in the Middle Ages, and, most importantly, wrote a novel, perhaps in one way his best, or most accomplished as a work of literature: a dreamy, visionary, atmospheric work of fantasy, but with many SF elements, The Malacia Tapestry, about an alternative Dalmatia, stopped in time, where some of the people are genetically related to dinosaurs (who still exist), some are winged, progress is sometimes attempted but never really achieved, and Turks may attack in the hope of enslaving Venice or Zadar at any time. The book gives you a feeling that, in Aldiss’s words, “we all stand condemned in the terrible forests of the Universe”, but it is, above all, beautiful. He has achieved the honor of "Permanent Special Guest" at ICFA, the conference for the International Association for the Fantastic in the Arts, which he attends annually. He was awarded the title of Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to literature in HM Queen Elizabeth II's Birthday Honours list, announced on 11 June 2005. In January 2007 he appeared on Desert Island Discs. His choice of record to 'save' was Old Rivers sung by Walter Brennan, his choice of book was John Halpern’s biography of John Osborne, and his luxury a banjo. The full selection of eight favourite records is on the BBC website . On July 1st 2008 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Liverpool in recognition of his contribution to literature . Books Fiction The Brightfount Diaries (1955) Space, Time and Nathaniel (1957) Short story collection; all his published science fiction to that date, including "T", his first published story, and "Not For an Age". Aldiss had only had thirteen stories published at that time, and a fourteenth was hurriedly written to make up the numbers. Non-Stop (1958) A story of a small tribe in a very strange jungle, who make unsettling discoveries about the nature of their world. This was published in the US as Starship. Equator (1958) The Canopy of Time (1959) Short story collection: published in slightly different format in the US as Galaxies like Grains of Sand The Interpreter (1960; US title Bow down to Nul) A short novel about the huge, old galactic empire of Nuls, a giant, three-limbed, civilized alien race. Earth is just a lesser-than-third-class colony ruled by a Nul tyrant whose deceiving devices together with good willing but ineffective attempts of a Nul signatory to clarify the abuses and with the disorganized earthling resistance reflect the complex relationship existing between imperialists and subject races which Aldiss himself had the chance of seeing at first hand when serving in India and Indonesia in the forties. The Male Response (US: 1959, UK 1961) The Primal Urge (1961) Hothouse (1962) Set in a far future Earth, where the earth has stopped rotating, the Sun has increased output, and plants are engaged in a constant frenzy of growth and decay, like a tropical forest enhanced a thousandfold; a few small groups of humans still live, on the edge of extinction, beneath the giant banyan tree that covers the day side of the earth. The Airs of Earth (1963 - short story collection; American title Starswarm) The Dark Light Years (1964): the encounter of humans with the utods, gentle aliens whose physical and mental health requires wallowing in mud and filth, who are not even recognised as intelligent by the humans. Greybeard (1964) Set decades after the Earth's population has been sterilised as a result of nuclear bomb tests conducted in Earth's orbit, the book shows an emptying world, occupied by an ageing, childless population. Best SF stories of Brian Aldiss (1965); Published in the US as But who can replace a Man? Earthworks (1965) The Impossible Smile (1965); Serial in Science Fantasy magazine, under the pseudonym "Jael Cracken" The Saliva Tree and other strange growths (1966) Story collection. The title story of the collection, The Saliva Tree was written to mark the centenary of H.G. Wells's birth, and received the 1965 Nebula award for the best short novel An Age (1967: also published in the US as Cryptozoic!) a dystopic time-travel novel. Report On Probability A (1968) Described by Aldiss as an 'anti-novel', this book had its origins some years earlier, before being serialised in New Worlds under Michael Moorcock's editorship. The bulk of the book is the Report, describing in minute, obsessive and often repetitive detail, three characters G, S, and C as they secretly watch a house, each from a separate outbuilding with peripheral views of the house's windows, catching occasional glimpses of its occupant, Mrs Mary. As the Report is being read by a character called "Domoladossa'", he is secretly being observed from other universes, and these observers in their turn are being observed, all of them engaged in futile speculation about the exact nature of Probability A, and the exact meaning of the Victorian painting, The Hireling Shepherd (by Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt), which occurs in the Report. Later we learn that Mrs. Mary is watching a screen of her own, although this may just be a television set, and it is suggested that the painting may be a window into a world where time is standing still. note: Holman Hunt's paintings also feature in Aldiss's short story The Secret of Holman Hunt and the Crude Death Rate (1975). ed. Farewell Fantastic Venus (1968) Barefoot in the Head (1969) Perhaps Aldiss's most experimental work, this first appeared in several parts as the 'Acid Head War' series in New Worlds. Set in a Europe some years after a flare-up in the Middle East led to Europe being attacked with bombs releasing huge quantities of long-lived hallucinogenic drugs. Into an England with a population barely maintaining a grip on reality comes a young Serb, who himself starts coming under the influence of the ambient aerosols, and finds himself leading a messianic crusade. The narration and dialogue reflects the shattering of language under the influence of the drugs, in mutating phrases and puns and allusions, in a deliberate echo of Finnegans Wake. Neanderthal Planet (1969) Collection of four short stories - 'Neanderthal Planet, Danger: Religion, Intangibles, Inc. and Since the Assassination, first printed, respectively, in 1958, 1960,1962, and 1969. The Horatio Stubbs saga The Hand-Reared Boy (1970) A Soldier Erect (1970) A Rude Awakening (1978) The Moment of Eclipse (1971: short story collection) The Book of Brian Aldiss (1972) (UK title The Comic Inferno) Short story collection Frankenstein Unbound (1973) A 21st century scientist, a creator of a technological monster himself, is transported to 19th century Switzerland where he encounters both Frankenstein and Mary Shelley. It was the basis for the 1990 film of the same title, directed by Roger Corman. The 80 minute Hour (1974) The Malacia Tapestry (1976) Brothers of the Head (1977) This was a large-format book, illustrated by Ian Pollock, telling the strange story of the rock stars Tom and Barry Howe, Siamese twins with a third, dormant head, which eventually starts to awaken. Also adapted for film by Keith Fulton and Lou Pepe, released in 2006. Last Orders and Other Stories (1977) Pile (1979; Poem) New Arrivals, Old Encounters (1979) Moreau's Other Island (1980) The Squire Quartet Life In The West (1980) Forgotten Life (1988) Remembrance Day (1993) Somewhere East Of Life (1994) The Helliconia Trilogy Helliconia Spring (1982) Helliconia Summer (1983) Helliconia Winter (1985) Seasons in Flight (1984) Courageous New Planet (c. 1984) The Year before Yesterday (1987); A fix-up of Equator from 1958 combined with The Impossible Smile from 1965. Ruins (1987) Dracula Unbound (1990) A Tupolev too Far (1994) Somewhere East of Life: Another European Fantasia (1994) The Secret of This Book (1995) (Common Clay: 20-Odd Stories US) (with Roger Penrose) White Mars Or, The Mind Set Free (1999) Super-Toys Last All Summer Long and Other Stories of Future Time (2001) The title story was the basis for the Steven Spielberg film A.I. Super-State (2002) The Cretan Teat (2002) Affairs at Hampden Ferrers (2004) Jocasta (2005); A re-telling of Sophocles' Theban tragedies concerning Oedipus and Antigone. In Aldiss' novel, myth and magic are vibrantly real, experienced through an evolving human consciousness. Amidst various competing interpretations of reality, including the appearance of a time-travelling Sophocles, Aldiss provides an engaging alternative explanation of the Sphinx' riddle. Sanity and the Lady (2005) HARM (2007) Poetry Home Life With Cats (1992) At The Caligula Hotel (1995) Songs From The Steppes Of Central Asia (1995) A Plutonian Monologue on His Wife's Death (The Frogmore Papers, 2000) At A Bigger House (2002) The Dark Sun Rises (2002) A Prehistory of Mind (2008) Non-Fiction Cities and Stones - A Traveller's Yugoslavia (1966) The Shape of Further Things (1970) Item Eighty Three (with Margaret Aldiss) (1972): a comprehensive bibliography of all books and short works published to that date. (The book is number 83 in its own list). Billion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction (1973) in which he argues that Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was the first true science fiction novel. Revised and expanded as Trillion Year Spree (with David Wingrove)(1986) Hell's Cartographers (1975, edited with Harry Harrison): a collection of short autobiographical pieces by a number of science fiction writers, including Aldiss. The title is a reference to Kingsley Amis's book about science fiction, New Maps of Hell The Pale Shadow Of Science (1986) This World and Nearer Ones: Essays exploring the familiar (1979) The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy (1995) The Twinkling of an Eye or My Life as an Englishman (1998) When the Feast is Finished (with Margaret Aldiss) (1999) Art after Apogee: The Relationships between an Idea, a Story, a Painting (with Rosemary Phipps) (2000) Bury My Heart at W.H. Smith's - A Writing Life (1990) - an autobiography References External links Brian W. Aldiss - his official site Supertoys Last All Summer Long story Brian Aldiss's online fiction at Free Speculative Fiction Online'' Guardian newspaper profile | Brian_Aldiss |@lemmatized brian:8 wilson:1 aldiss:25 obe:2 bear:2 august:1 east:4 dereham:1 norfolk:1 england:2 prolific:1 english:1 author:4 general:1 fiction:30 science:27 byline:1 read:2 either:1 w:3 simply:1 greatly:1 influence:3 sf:5 pioneer:1 h:4 g:4 well:3 vice:1 president:3 international:2 society:1 also:6 harry:4 harrison:5 co:1 birmingham:1 group:2 writing:4 compare:1 isaac:1 asimov:1 greg:1 arthur:1 c:4 clarke:1 biography:2 father:1 run:2 department:1 store:1 grandfather:1 establish:1 family:1 live:3 age:5 send:1 board:1 west:2 buckland:1 school:1 devon:1 attend:2 late:2 teen:1 join:1 royal:1 signal:1 regiment:1 saw:1 action:1 burma:1 encounter:4 tropical:3 rainforest:1 time:15 may:4 least:1 partial:1 inspiration:1 hothouse:2 army:1 experience:2 inspire:1 horatio:2 stubbs:2 second:2 third:3 book:17 world:8 war:2 ii:2 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3,598 | Open-source_license | An open source license is a copyright license for computer software that makes the source code available under terms that allow for modification and redistribution without having to pay the original author. Such licenses may have additional restrictions such as a requirement to preserve the name of the authors and the copyright statement within the code. One popular (and sometimes considered normative) set of open source software licenses are those approved by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) based on their Open Source Definition (OSD). Comparisons The Free Software Foundation has related but distinct criteria for evaluating whether or not a license qualifies a program as free software. All licenses qualified as free software are also considered open source licenses. Likewise, the Debian project has its own criteria, the Debian Free Software Guidelines, on which the Open Source Definition is based. There are also shared source licenses which have some similarities with open source, such as the Microsoft Reference License (MS-RL), but are not compatible with the Open Source Definition. OSI approved licenses OSI logoSoftware in the public domain (that is, with all copyright renounced), meets those criteria as long as all source code is made available, and is therefore recognized by the OSI and entitled to use their service mark. In addition, OSI has approved the following licenses : The categories below were created by a license proliferation committee in 2006 to lessen or remove issues caused by license proliferation. Report of License Proliferation Committee and draft FAQ Licenses that are popular and widely used or with strong communities (9) Apache Software License 2.0 New and Simplified BSD Licenses. 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Katzer -- U.S. ruling upholding the enforceability of open source licenses Open Source Initiative Software license References External links The Open Source Initiative — an online version of Lawrence Rosen's book Open Source Licensing: Software Freedom and Intellectual Property Law (ISBN 0-13-148787-6). Open Source License Quick Reference Chart — a chart comparing various aspects of Open Source licenses, with the option to select your bias. Based on Zooko's document, Open Source Reference for Choosing a Free Software License. Open Source Licenses Comparition Understanding Open Source Software - by Red Hat's Mark Webbink, Esq. — an excellent overview of copyright and open source. 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3,599 | Alexander_I_of_Russia | Alexander I of Russia (, Aleksandr I Pavlovich) (23 December 1777 – 19 November 1825), also known as Alexander the Blessed (, Aleksandr Blagoslovlennyi) served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and Ruler of Poland from 1815 to 1825, as well as the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and Lithuania. He was born in Saint Petersburg to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, later Emperor Paul I, and Maria Feodorovna, daughter of the Duke of Württemberg. Alexander was the eldest of four brothers. He succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars. In the first half of his reign Alexander tried to introduce liberal reforms, while in the second half he turned to a much more arbitrary manner of conduct, which led to the revoking of many early reforms. In foreign policy Alexander gained certain successes, mainly by winning several military campaigns. In particular under his rule Russia acquired Finland and part of Poland. The strange contradictions of his character make Alexander one of the most interesting Tsars. Adding to this, his death was shrouded in mystery, and the location of his body remains unknown. Early life Alexander and his younger brother Constantine were raised by their grandmother, Catherine the Great. Some sources allege that she created the plan to remove her son (Alexander's father) Paul I from succession altogether. Both she and his father tried to use Alexander for their own purposes, and he was torn emotionally between them. This taught Alexander very early on how to manipulate those who loved him, and he became like a chameleon, changing his views and personality depending on whom he was with at the time. From the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of Catherine and his Swiss tutor, Frédéric-César de La Harpe, he imbibed the principles of Rousseau's gospel of humanity. But from his military governor, Nikolay Saltykov, he imbibed the traditions of Russian autocracy. Andrey Afanasyevich Samborsky, whom his grandmother chose for his religious upbringing, was an atypical, unbearded Orthodox priest, who had long lived in England and taught Alexander (and Constantine) excellent English. Young Alexander sympathised with French and Polish revolutionaries, but his father seems to have taught him to combine a theoretical love of humankind with a practical contempt for humankind. These contradictory tendencies remained with him through life and are observed in his dualism in domestic and military policy. On 9 October, 1793 when Alexander was still 15 years old, he married 14 year old Louise of Baden, who took the name Elizabeth Alexeievna. Meanwhile, the death of Catherine in November 1796, before she could appoint Alexander as her successor, brought his father, Paul I, to the throne. Paul's attempts at reform were met with hostility and many of his closest advisers as well as Alexander were against his proposed changes. Paul I was murdered in March, 1801. Succession to the throne Alexander I succeeded to the throne on 24 March 1801 . , and was crowned in the Kremlin on 15 September of that year. Historians still debate about Alexander’s role in his father's murder. The most common opinion is that he was let into the conspirators' secret and was willing to take the throne but insisted that his father should not be killed. Alexander's having become Tsar through a crime that cost his father's life would give him a strong sense of remorse and shame, which explains his increasing religiosity after the Napoleonic Wars. At first, the Orthodox Church exercised little influence on the Emperor’s life. The young tsar was determined to reform the outdated, centralised systems of government that Russia relied upon. While retaining for a time the old ministers who had served and overthrown Emperor Paul, one of the first acts of his reign was to appoint the Private Committee, also called ironically the "Comité de salut public", comprising young and enthusiastic friends of his own — Victor Kochubey, Nikolay Novosiltsev, Pavel Stroganov and Adam Jerzy Czartoryski — to draw up a plan of domestic reform, which was supposed to result in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in accordance with the teachings of the Age of Enlightenment. Also Alexander wanted to resolve another crucial issue in Russia — the future of the serfs, although this was not achieved until 1861. At the very beginning of Alexander's reign, several notable steps were made, including establishing freedom for publishing houses, the winding down of activities in the intelligence services and prohibition of torture. In a few years the liberal Mikhail Speransky became one of the Tsar’s closest advisors, and drew up many plans for elaborate reforms. The reformers' aims far outstripped the possibilities of the time, and even after they had been raised to regular ministerial positions little of their program could come to pass. Russia was not ready for a more liberal society; and Alexander, the disciple of the progressive teacher Laharpe, was — as he himself said — but "a happy accident" on the throne of the tsars. He spoke, indeed, bitterly of "the state of barbarism in which the country had been left by the traffic in men." Legal reform Bust of Alexander I, by Thorvaldsen. The codification of the laws initiated in 1801 was never carried out during his reign; nothing was done to improve the intolerable status of the Russian peasantry; the constitution drawn up by Mikhail Speransky, and approved by the emperor, remained unsigned. Finally elaborate intrigues against Speransky initiated by his political rivals led to his loss of Alexander's support and subsequent removal in March 1812. Alexander, who, without being consciously tyrannical, possessed in full measure the tyrant's characteristic distrust of men of ability and independent judgement, in fact lacked the first requisite for a reforming sovereign: confidence in his people; and it was this want that vitiated such reforms as were actually realised. He experimented in the outlying provinces of his Empire; and the Russians noted with open murmurs that, not content with governing through foreign instruments, he was conferring on Poland, Finland and the Baltic provinces benefits denied to themselves. Social reforms In Russia, too, certain reforms were carried out, but they could not survive the suspicious interference of the autocrat and his officials. The State Council and the Governing Senate, new bodies endowed for the first time with certain (theoretical) powers, became slavish instruments of the Tsar and his favourites of the moment. The elaborate system of education, culminating in the reconstituted, or newly founded, universities of Dorpat (Tartu), Vilna (Vilnius), Kazan and Kharkiv, was strangled in the supposed interests of "order" and of the Russian Orthodox Church; while the military settlements which Alexander proclaimed as a blessing to both soldiers and state were forced on the unwilling peasantry and army with pitiless cruelty. Though they were supposed to improve living conditions of soldiers, the economic effect in fact was poor and harsh military discipline caused frequent unrest. Even the Bible Society, through which the emperor in his later mood of evangelical zeal proposed to bless his people, was conducted on the same ruthless lines. The Roman Catholic archbishop and the Orthodox metropolitans were forced to serve on its committee side by side with Protestant pastors; and village priests, trained to regard any tampering with the letter of the traditional documents of the church as a mortal sin, became the unwilling instruments for the propagation of what they regarded as works of the devil. Influence on European Politics Views held by his contemporaries Autocrat and "Jacobin", man of the world and mystic, he appeared to his contemporaries as a riddle which each read according to his own temperament. Napoleon I thought him a "shifty Byzantine", and called him the Talma of the North, as ready to play any conspicuous part. To Metternich he was a madman to be humoured. Castlereagh, writing of him to Lord Liverpool, gives him credit for "grand qualities", but adds that he is "suspicious and undecided". Alexander's grandiose imagination was, however, more strongly attracted by the great questions of European politics than by attempts at domestic reform which, on the whole, wounded his pride by proving to him the narrow limits of absolute power. Alliances with other powers Upon his accession, Alexander reversed the policy of his father, Paul, denounced the League of Neutrals, and made peace with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (April 1801). At the same time he opened negotiations with Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire. Soon afterwards at Memel he entered into a close alliance with Prussia, not as he boasted from motives of policy, but in the spirit of true chivalry, out of friendship for the young King Frederick William III and his beautiful wife Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The development of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of October 1801; and for a while it seemed as though France and Russia might come to an understanding. Carried away by the enthusiasm of La Harpe, who had returned to Russia from Paris, Alexander began openly to proclaim his admiration for French institutions and for the person of Napoléon Bonaparte. Soon, however, came a change. La Harpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to the Tsar his Reflections on the True Nature of the Consul for Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his eyes, and revealed Bonaparte "as not a true patriot", but only as "the most famous tyrant the world has produced." Alexander's disillusionment was completed by the murder of the duc d'Enghien. The Russian court went into mourning for the last member of the House of Condé, and diplomatic relations with France were broken off. Opposition to Napoleon The events of the Napoleonic Wars that followed belong to the general history of Europe; but Alexander's attitude throughout is personal to himself, though pregnant with issues momentous for the world. In opposing Napoleon I, "the oppressor of Europe and the disturber of the world's peace," Alexander in fact already believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission. In his instructions to Novosiltsov, his special envoy in London, the Tsar elaborated the motives of his policy in language which appealed as little to the common sense of the prime minister, Pitt, as did later the treaty of the Holy Alliance to that of the foreign minister, Castlereagh. Yet the document is of great interest, as in it we find formulated for the first time in an official dispatch those exalted ideals of international policy which were to play so conspicuous a part in the affairs of the world at the close of the revolutionary epoch, and issued at the end of the 19th century in the Rescript of Nicholas II and the conference of the Hague. Alexander argued that the outcome of the war was not to be only the liberation of France, but the universal triumph of "the sacred rights of humanity". To attain this it would be necessary "after having attached the nations to their government by making these incapable of acting save in the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is to their interest to respect." A general treaty was to become the basis of the relations of the states forming "the European Confederation"; and this, though "it was no question of realising the dream of universal peace, would attain some of its results if, at the conclusion of the general war, it were possible to establish on clear principles the prescriptions of the rights of nations." "Why could not one submit to it", the Tsar continued, "the positive rights of nations, assure the privilege of neutrality, insert the obligation of never beginning war until all the resources which the mediation of a third party could offer have been exhausted, having by this means brought to light the respective grievances, and tried to remove them? It is on such principles as these that one could proceed to a general pacification, and give birth to a league of which the stipulations would form, so to speak, a new code of the law of nations, which, sanctioned by the greater part of the nations of Europe, would without difficulty become the immutable rule of the cabinets, while those who should try to infringe it would risk bringing upon themselves the forces of the new union." 1807 loss to French forces Equestrian portrait of Alexander I (1812) Meanwhile Napoleon, a little deterred by the Russian autocrat's youthful ideology, never gave up hope of detaching him from the coalition. He had no sooner entered Vienna in triumph than he opened negotiations with him; he resumed them after the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December, 1805). Imperial Russia and France, he urged, were "geographical allies"; there was, and could be, between them no true conflict of interests; together they might rule the world. But Alexander was still determined "to persist in the system of disinterestedness in respect of all the states of Europe which he had thus far followed", and he again allied himself with the Kingdom of Prussia. The campaign of Jena and the battle of Eylau followed; and Napoleon, though still intent on the Russian alliance, stirred up Poles, Turks and Persians to break the obstinacy of the Tsar. A party too in Russia itself, headed by the Tsar's brother Constantine Pavlovich, was clamorous for peace; but Alexander, after a vain attempt to form a new coalition, summoned the Russian nation to a holy war against Napoleon as the enemy of the Orthodox faith. The outcome was the rout of Friedland (June 13/14, 1807). Napoleon saw his chance and seized it. Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the chastened autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory. The two Emperors met at Tilsit on 25 June 1807. Alexander, dazzled by Napoleon's genius and overwhelmed by his apparent generosity, was completely won over. Napoleon knew well how to appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found friend. He would divide with Alexander the Empire of the world; as a first step he would leave him in possession of the Danubian principalities and give him a free hand to deal with Finland; and, afterwards, the Emperors of the East and West, when the time should be ripe, would drive the Turks from Europe and march across Asia to the conquest of India. A programme so stupendous awoke in Alexander's impressionable mind an ambition to which he had hitherto been a stranger. The interests of Europe were forgotten. "What is Europe?" he exclaimed to the French ambassador. "Where is it, if it is not you and we?" Prussia The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind Alexander to the obligations of friendship; and he refused to retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a further dismemberment of Prussia. "We have made loyal war", he said, "we must make a loyal peace." It was not long before the first enthusiasm of Tilsit began to wane. The French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube; and each accused the other of breach of faith. Meanwhile, however, the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the most cordial character; and it was hoped that a fresh meeting might adjust all differences between them. The meeting took place at Erfurt in October 1808 and resulted in a treaty which defined the common policy of the two Emperors. But Alexander's relations with Napoleon nonetheless suffered a change. He realised that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his proposed "grand enterprise" seriously, and had only used it to preoccupy the mind of the Tsar while he consolidated his own power in Central Europe. From this moment the French alliance was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the world, but an affair of pure policy. He used it, in the first instance, to remove "the geographical enemy" from the gates of Saint Petersburg by wresting Finland from the Sweden (1809); and he hoped by means of it to make the Danube the southern frontier of Russia. Franco-Russian Alliance Events were in fact rapidly tending to the rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance. Alexander, indeed, assisted Napoleon in the war of 1809, but he declared plainly that he would not allow the Austrian Empire to be crushed out of existence; and Napoleon complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian troops during the campaign. The Tsar in his turn protested against Napoleon's encouragement of the Poles. In the matter of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. "I don't want anything for myself", he said to the French ambassador, "therefore the world is not large enough to come to an understanding on the affairs of Poland, if it is a question of its restoration." The Treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the Duchy of Warsaw, he complained had "ill requited him for his loyalty". The annexation of Oldenburg, of which the Duke of Oldenburg (3 January, 1754–2 July, 1823) was the Tsar's uncle, to France in December, 1810, added another to the personal grievances of Alexander against Napoleon; while the ruinous reaction of "the continental system" on Russian trade made it impossible for the Tsar to maintain a policy which was Napoleon's chief motive for the alliance. An acid correspondence followed, and ill-concealed armaments, which culminated in the summer of 1812 with Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Yet, even after the French had passed the frontier, Alexander still protested that his personal sentiments towards the Emperor were unaltered; "but", he added, "God Himself cannot undo the past". It was the occupation of Moscow and the desecration of the Kremlin, the sacred centre of Holy Russia, that changed his sentiment for Napoleon into passionate hatred. In vain the French Emperor, within eight days of his entry into Moscow, wrote to the Tsar a letter, which was one long cry of distress, revealing the desperate straits of the Grand Army, and appealed to "any remnant of his former sentiments". Alexander returned no answer to these "fanfaronnades". "No more peace with Napoleon!" he cried, "He or I, I or He: we cannot longer reign together!" Liberal political views Once a supporter of limited liberalism, as seen in his approval of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, from the end of the year 1818 Alexander's views began to change. A revolutionary conspiracy among the officers of the guard, and a foolish plot to kidnap him on his way to the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, are said to have shaken the foundations of his Liberalism. At Aix he came for the first time into intimate contact with Metternich. From this time dates the ascendancy of Metternich over the mind of the Russian Emperor and in the councils of Europe. It was, however, no case of sudden conversion. Though alarmed by the revolutionary agitation in Germany, which culminated in the murder of his agent, the dramatist August von Kotzebue (23 March, 1819), Alexander approved of Castlereagh's protest against Metternich's policy of "the governments contracting an alliance against the peoples", as formulated in the Carlsbad Decrees of July 1819, and deprecated any intervention of Europe to support "a league of which the sole object is the absurd pretensions of absolute power." He still declared his belief in "free institutions, though not in such as age forced from feebleness, nor contracts ordered by popular leaders from their sovereigns, nor constitutions granted in difficult circumstances to tide over a crisis. "Liberty", he maintained, "should be confined within just limits. And the limits of liberty are the principles of order." It was the apparent triumph of the principles of disorder in the revolutions of Naples and Piedmont, combined with increasingly disquieting symptoms of discontent in France, Germany, and among his own people, that completed Alexander's conversion. In the seclusion of the little town of Troppau, where in October 1820 the powers met in conference, Metternich found an opportunity for cementing his influence over Alexander, which had been wanting amid the turmoil and feminine intrigues of Vienna and Aix. Here, in confidence begotten of friendly chats over afternoon tea, the disillusioned autocrat confessed his mistake. "You have nothing to regret," he said sadly to the exultant chancellor, "but I have!" The issue was momentous. In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal of a free confederation of the European states, symbolised by the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship of the great powers, symbolised by the Quadruple Treaty; he had still protested against the claims of collective Europe to interfere in the internal concerns of the sovereign states. On 19 November he signed the Troppau Protocol, which consecrated the principle of intervention and wrecked the harmony of the concert. Revolt of the Greeks At Congress of Laibach, whither in the spring of 1821 the congress had been adjourned, Alexander first heard of the Revolt of the Greeks. From this time until his death his mind was torn between his anxiety to realise his dream of a confederation of Europe and his traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against the Ottoman Empire. At first, under the careful nursing of Metternich, the former motive prevailed. He struck the name of Alexander Ypsilanti from the Russian army list, and directed his foreign minister, Giovanni, Count Capo d'Istria, himself a Greek, to disavow all sympathy of Russia with his enterprise; and, next year, a deputation of the Morea the Congress of Verona was turned back by his orders on the road. He made some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his mind. He offered to surrender the claim, successfully asserted when the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II had been excluded from the Holy Alliance and the affairs of the Ottoman empire from the deliberations of Vienna, that the affairs of the East were the "domestic concerns of Russia," and to march into the Ottoman Empire, as Austria had marched into Naples, "as the mandatory of Europe." Metternich's opposition to this, illogical, but natural from the Austrian point of view, first opened his eyes to the true character of Austria's attitude towards his ideals. Once more in Russia, far from the fascination of Metternich's personality, the immemorial spirit of his people drew him back into itself; and when, in the autumn of 1825, he took his dying Empress Louise of Baden (24 January, 1779–26 May, 1826) for change of air to the south of Russia, in order—as all Europe supposed—to place himself at the head of the great army concentrated near the Ottoman frontiers, his language was no longer that of "the peace-maker of Europe," but of the Orthodox Tsar determined to take the interests of his people and of his religion "into his own hands." Before the momentous issue could be decided, however, Alexander died, "crushed," to use his own words, "beneath the terrible burden of a crown" which he had more than once declared his intention of resigning. Private life On 9 October, 1793, Alexander married Louise of Baden, known as Elisabeth Alexeyevna after her conversion to the Orthodox Church. He later told his friend Frederick William III that the marriage, a political match devised by his grandmother, Catherine the Great, regrettably proved to be a misfortune for him and his wife. Their two children of the marriage died young. Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (29 May 1799 - 8 July 1800) - rumoured to be the child of Adam Czartoryski Grand Duchess Elizabeth Alexeievna of Russia (16 November 1806 - 12 May 1808); died of infection Their common sorrow drew husband and wife closer together. Towards the close of his life their reconciliation was completed by the wise charity of the Empress in sympathising deeply with him over the death of his beloved daughter Sophia, by Princess Maria Naryshkina. Alexander had 9 illegitimate children. With Sophia Vsevolojsky (1775-1848) Nikolai Loukache (11 December 1796 - 20 January 1868) With Maria Naryshkina (1779-1854) Zenaida Naryshkina (1806 - 18 May 1810) Sophia Naryshkina (1808 - 18 June 1824) Emanuel Naryshkin (30 July 1813 - 31 December 1901) With Marguerite-Josephine Weimer (1787-1867) Maria Alexandrovna Parijskaia (19 March 1814 - 1874) Wilhelmine Alexandrine Pauline Alexandrov (1816 - 4 June 1863) With Veronica Dzierzanowska Gustave Ehrenberg (14 February 1818 - 28 September 1895) With Princess Barbara Tourkestanova (1775 - 20 March 1819) Maria Tourkestanova (20 March 1819 - 19 December 1843) With Maria Ivanovna Katatcharova (1796-1824) Nikolai Vassilievich Isakov (10 February 1821 - 25 February 1891) Ancestry Ancestors of Alexander I of Russia Mysterious death The Palace of Alexander I in Taganrog, where the Russian Emperor died in 1825. Tsar Alexander I became increasingly involved in and increasingly more suspicious of those around him. On the way to the conference in Aachen, Germany an attempt had been made to kidnap him which made him even more suspicious of the people around him. In the autumn of 1825 the Emperor undertook a voyage to the south of Russia due to the increasing illness of Alexander's wife. During his trip he himself caught a cold which developed into typhus from which he died in the southern city of Taganrog on 19 November (O.S.)/1 December, 1825. His wife died a few months later as the emperor's body was transported to Saint Petersburg for the funeral. He was interred at the Sts. Peter and Paul Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg on 13 March, 1826. The unexpected death of the Emperor of Russia far from the capital caused persistent rumors that his death and funeral were staged while the emperor allegedly renounced the crown and retired to spend the rest of his life in solitude. It is rumored that a "soldier" was buried as Alexander or that the grave was empty or that a British ambassador at the Russian court said he had seen Alexander boarding a ship. Some say the former emperor became a monk in either Pochaev Lavra or Kievo-Pecherskaya Lavra or elsewhere. Many people, including some historians, supposed that a mysterious hermit Feodor Kuzmich (or Kozmich) who emerged in Siberia in 1836 and died in the vicinity of Tomsk in 1864 was in fact Alexander I under an assumed identity. While there are testimonies that "Feodor Kozmich" in his earlier life might have belonged to a higher level of society, his identity as Alexander I was never established beyond reasonable doubt. In 1925 the Soviets opened Alexander's tomb and did not find a body. The immediate aftermath of Alexander's death was also marked by confusion regarding the order of succession and by the attempt of military coup-d'etat by liberal-minded officers. The heir presumptive, Tsesarevich and Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich had in 1822 renounced his rights of succession, but this act was not publicly announced, nor known to anybody outside of few people within the tsar's family. For this reason, on 27 November (O.S.), 1825 the population, including Constantine's younger brother Nicholas, swore allegiance to Constantine. After the true order of succession was disclosed to the imperial family and general public, Nicholas I ordered that the allegiance to him to be sworn on 14 December (O.S.), 1825. Seizing the opportunity, the Decembrists revolted, allegedly to defend Constantine's rights to the throne, but in fact in order to initiate the change of regime in Russia. Nicholas I brutally suppressed the rebellion and sent the ringleaders to the gallows and Siberia. Some confidantes of Alexander I reported that in the last years the Emperor was aware that the secret societies of future Decembrists were plotting the revolt, but chose not to act against them, remarking that these officers were sharing "the delusions of his own youth." Historians believe that these secret societies appeared after the Russian officers returned from their Napoleonic campaigns in Europe in 1815. Other Alexander I was the godfather of future Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom who was christened Alexandrina Victoria in honour of the tsar. In the TV miniseries Napoleon, Alexander was played by British actor Toby Stephens See also Tsars of Russia family tree References Ghervas, Stella. Réinventer la tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance. Paris, Honoré Champion, 2008. 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