Unnamed: 0
int64 0
7.84k
| id
stringlengths 1
79
| raw_text
stringlengths 15
171k
| vw_text
stringlengths 51
47.3k
|
|---|---|---|---|
3,400 | Economy_of_Kenya | Kenya's economy is market-based, with some state-owned infrastructure enterprises, and maintains a liberalized external trade system. The economy’s heavy dependence on rain-fed agriculture and the tourism sector leaves it vulnerable to cycles of boom and bust. The agricultural sector employs nearly 75 percent of the country’s 37 million people. Half of the sector’s output remains subsistence production. Kenya country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (June 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Kenya’s gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate declined continuously from a peak of about 6.5 percent per year during the first decade after independence to less than 4 percent per year in the following decade, to only about 1.5 percent per year during the 1990s. It has experienced an upturn to more than 5 percent per year since 2004. Several decades of declining economic performance, combined with rapid population growth, translated over time into reduced income per head, increased poverty, and worsening unemployment. Between the 1970s and 2000, the number of Kenyans classified as poor grew from 29 percent to about 57 percent. Kenya’s economic performance has been hampered by numerous interacting factors: heavy dependence on a few agricultural exports that are vulnerable to world price fluctuations, population growth that has outstripped economic growth, prolonged drought that has necessitated power rationing, deteriorating infrastructure, and extreme disparities of wealth that have limited the opportunities of most to develop their skills and knowledge. Poor governance and corruption also have had a negative impact on growth, making it expensive to do business in Kenya. According to Transparency International, Kenya ranks among the world’s half-dozen most corrupt countries. Bribery and fraud cost Kenya as much as US$1 billion a year. Kenyans, 23 percent living on less than US$1 per day, pay some 16 bribes a month—two in every three encounters with public officials. Another large drag on Kenya’s economy is the burden of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Prospects brightened somewhat under the Kibaki government, whose policy aims include budgetary reforms and debt restraint. Despite early disillusionment with the government, the economy has seen a broad-based expansion, led by strong performance in tourism and telecommunications, and acceptable post-drought results in agriculture, especially the vital tea sector. Nevertheless, risks to continuing robust growth remain, including weak infrastructure, drought, political instability in the run-up to the December 2007 elections, and diminution of financial flows from donors because of ongoing corruption allegations. Economic history After independence, Kenya promoted rapid economic growth through public investment, encouragement of smallholder agricultural production, and incentives for private (often foreign) industrial investment. Gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an annual average of 6.6% from 1963 to 1973. Agricultural production grew by 4.7% annually during the same period, stimulated by redistributing estates, diffusing new crop strains, and opening new areas to cultivation. Between 1974 and 1990, however, Kenya's economic performance declined. Inappropriate agricultural policies, inadequate credit, and poor international terms of trade contributed to the decline in agriculture. Kenya's inward-looking policy of import substitution and rising oil prices made Kenya's manufacturing sector uncompetitive. The government began a massive intrusion in the private sector. Lack of export incentives, tight import controls, and foreign exchange controls made the domestic environment for investment even less attractive. From 1991 to 1993, Kenya had its worst economic performance since independence. Growth in GDP stagnated, and agricultural production shrank at an annual rate of 3.9%. Inflation reached a record 100% in August 1993, and the government's budget deficit was over 10% of GDP. As a result of these combined problems, bilateral and multilateral donors suspended program aid to Kenya in 1991. In 1993, the Government of Kenya began a major program of economic reform and liberalization. A new minister of finance and a new governor of the central bank undertook a series of economic measures with the assistance of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). As part of this program, the government eliminated price controls and import licensing, removed foreign exchange controls, privatized a range of publicly owned companies, reduced the number of civil servants, and introduced conservative fiscal and monetary policies. From 1994-96, Kenya's real GDP growth rate averaged just over 4% a year. In 1997, however, the economy entered a period of slowing or stagnant growth, due in part to adverse weather conditions and reduced economic activity prior to general elections in December 1997. In July 1997, the Government of Kenya refused to meet commitments made earlier to the IMF on governance reforms. As a result, the IMF suspended lending for three years, and the World Bank also put a $90 million structural adjustment credit on hold. Although many economic reforms put in place in 1993-94 remained, Kenya needed further reforms, particularly in governance, in order to increase GDP growth and combat poverty among the majority of its population. Lack of progress in the Goldenberg scandal marked an unwillingness to deal with corruption. The Government of Kenya took some positive steps on reform, including the 1999 establishment of the Kenyan Anti-Corruption Authority, and measures to improve the transparency of government procurements and reduce the government payroll. In July 2000, the IMF signed a $150 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility, and the World Bank followed suit shortly after with a $157 million Economic and Public Sector Reform credit. By early 2001, however, the pace of reform appeared to be slowing again, and the IMF and World Bank programs were in abeyance as the government failed to meet its commitments under the programs. This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Kenya at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Kenyan Shillings. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange 1980 74,940 7.42 Shillings 1985 143,715 16.43 Shillings 1990 278,502 22.86 Shillings 1995 614,267 50.42 Shillings 2000 967,838 78.58 Shillings 2005 1,449,408 75.55 Shillings Gross Domestic Product (GDP) In 2006 Kenya’s GDP was about US$17.39 billion. Per capita GDP averages somewhat more than US$450 annually. Adjusted in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms, per capita GDP in 2006 was about US$1,200. The country’s real GDP growth picked up to 2.3 percent in early 2004 and to nearly 6 percent in 2005 and 2006, compared with a sluggish 1.4 percent in 2003 and throughout President Daniel arap Moi’s last term (1997–2002). Real GDP is expected to continue to improve, largely because of expansions in tourism, telecommunications, transport, and construction and a recovery in agriculture. The Kenya Central Bank forecast for 2007 is between 5 and 6 percent GDP growth. GDP composition by sector, according to 2004 estimates, was as follows: agriculture, 25.7 percent; manufacturing, 14.0 percent; trade, restaurants, and hotels, 13.8 percent; transport and communications, 6.9 percent; government services, 15.6 percent; and other, 24.0 percent. Industries Agriculture Cultivation on the slopes of Mount Kenya The agricultural sector continues to dominate Kenya’s economy, although only 15 percent of Kenya’s total land area has sufficient fertility and rainfall to be farmed, and only 7 or 8 percent can be classified as first-class land. In 2006 almost 75 percent of working Kenyans made their living on the land, compared with 80 percent in 1980. About one-half of total agricultural output is non-marketed subsistence production. Agriculture is the second largest contributor to Kenya’s gross domestic product (GDP), after the service sector. In 2005 agriculture, including forestry and fishing, accounted for about 24 percent of GDP, as well as for 18 percent of wage employment and 50 percent of revenue from exports. The principal cash crops are tea, horticultural produce, and coffee; horticultural produce and tea are the main growth sectors and the two most valuable of all of Kenya’s exports. In 2005 horticulture accounted for 23 percent and tea for 22 percent of total export earnings. Coffee has declined in importance with depressed world prices, accounting for just 5 percent of export receipts in 2005. The production of major food staples such as corn is subject to sharp weather-related fluctuations. Production downturns periodically necessitate food aid—for example, in 2004 aid for 1.8 million people⎯because of one of Kenya’s intermittent droughts. Tea, coffee, sisal, pyrethrum, corn, and wheat are grown in the fertile highlands, one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. Production is mainly on small African-owned farms formed from the division of formerly European-owned estates. Livestock predominates in the semi-arid savanna to the north and east. Coconuts, pineapples, cashew nuts, cotton, sugarcane, sisal, and corn are grown in the lower-lying areas. Forestry and fishing Resource degradation has reduced output from forestry. In 2004 roundwood removals came to 22,162,000 cubic meters. Fisheries are of local importance around Lake Victoria and have potential on Lake Turkana. Kenya’s total catch reported in 2004 was 128,000 metric tons. However, output from fishing has been declining because of ecological disruption. Pollution, overfishing, and the use of unauthorized fishing equipment have led to falling catches and have endangered local fish species. Mining and minerals Kenya has no significant mineral endowment. The mining and quarrying sector makes a negligible contribution to the economy, accounting for less than 1 percent of gross domestic product, the majority contributed by the soda ash operation at Lake Magadi in south-central Kenya. Thanks largely to rising soda ash output, Kenya’s mineral production in 2005 reached more than 1 million tons. One of Kenya’s largest foreign-investment projects in recent years is the planned expansion of Magadi Soda. Apart from soda ash, the chief minerals produced are limestone, gold, salt, and fluorspar. All unextracted minerals are government property, according to the Mining Act. The Department of Mines and Geology, under the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, controls exploration and exploitation of such minerals. Industry and manufacturing Although Kenya is the most industrially developed country in East Africa, manufacturing still accounts for only 14 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). This level of manufacturing GDP represents only a slight increase since independence. Expansion of the sector after independence, initially rapid, has stagnated since the 1980s, hampered by shortages in hydroelectric power, high energy costs, dilapidated transport infrastructure, and the dumping of cheap imports. Industrial activity, concentrated around the three largest urban centers, Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu, is dominated by food-processing industries such as grain milling, beer production, and sugarcane crushing, and the fabrication of consumer goods, e.g., vehicles from kits. Kenya also has an oil refinery that processes imported crude petroleum into petroleum products, mainly for the domestic market. In addition, a substantial and expanding informal sector engages in small-scale manufacturing of household goods, motor-vehicle parts, and farm implements. About half of the investment in the industrial sector is foreign, with the United Kingdom providing half. The United States is the second largest investor. Kenya’s inclusion among the beneficiaries of the U.S. Government’s African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) has given a boost to manufacturing in recent years. Since AGOA took effect in 2000, Kenya’s clothing sales to the United States increased from US$44 million to US$270 million (2006). Other initiatives to strengthen manufacturing have been the new government’s favorable tax measures, including the removal of duty on capital equipment and other raw materials. Energy The largest share of Kenya’s electricity supply comes from hydroelectric stations at dams along the upper Tana River, as well as the Turkwel Gorge Dam in the west. A petroleum-fired plant on the coast, geothermal facilities at Olkaria (near Nairobi), and electricity imported from Uganda make up the rest of the supply. Kenya’s installed capacity stood at 1,142 megawatts a year between 2001 and 2003. The state-owned Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen), established in 1997 under the name of Kenya Power Company, handles the generation of electricity, while the Kenya Power and Lighting Company (KPLC), which is slated for privatization, handles transmission and distribution. Shortfalls of electricity occur periodically, when drought reduces water flow. In 1997 and 2000, for example, drought prompted severe power rationing, with economically damaging 12-hour blackouts. Frequent outages, as well as high cost, remain serious obstacles to economic activity. Tax and other concessions are planned to encourage investment in hydroelectricity and in geothermal energy, in which Kenya is a pioneer. The government plans to open two new power stations in 2008, Sondu Miriu (hydroelectric) and Olkaria IV (geothermal), but power demand growth is strong, and demand is still expected to outpace supply during periods of drought. Kenya has yet to find hydrocarbon reserves on its territory, despite several decades of intermittent exploration. Although Australia continues the search off Kenya’s shore, Kenya currently imports all crude petroleum requirements. Petroleum accounts for 20 to 25 percent of the national import bill. Kenya Petroleum Refineries—a 50:50 joint venture between the government and several oil majors—operates the country’s sole oil refinery in Mombasa, which currently meets 60 percent of local demand for petroleum products. In 2004 oil consumption was estimated at 55,000 barrels a day. Most of the Mombasa refinery’s production is transported via Kenya’s Mombasa–Nairobi pipeline. Services Tourists on a safari in Kenya Kenya’s services sector, which contributes about 63 percent of GDP, is dominated by tourism. The tourism sector has exhibited steady growth in most years since independence and by the late 1980s had become the country’s principal source of foreign exchange. In the late 1990s, tourism relinquished this position to tea exports, because of a terrorism-related downturn. The downturn followed the 1998 bombing of the U.S Embassy in Nairobi and later negative travel advisories from Western governments. Tourists, the largest number from Germany and the United Kingdom, are attracted mainly to the coastal beaches and the game parks, notably, the expansive Tsavo National Park (20,808 square kilometers) in the southeast. The government and tourist industry organizations have taken steps to address the security problem and to reverse negative publicity. Such steps include establishing a tourist police and launching marketing campaigns in key tourist origin markets. Tourism has seen a substantial revival over the past several years and is the major contributor to the pick-up in the country’s economic growth. Tourism is now Kenya's largest foreign exchange earning sector, followed by flowers, tea, and coffee. In 2006 tourism generated US$803 million, up from US$699 million the previous year. Other elements of Kenya’s services sector face challenges of downsizing, in particular, the financial system. The Kenya banking system is supervised by the Central Bank of Kenya (CBK). As of late July 2004, the system consisted of 43 commercial banks (down from 48 in 2001), several non-bank financial institutions, including mortgage companies, four savings and loan associations, and several score foreign-exchange bureaus. Two of the four largest banks, the Kenya Commercial Bank (KCB) and the National Bank of Kenya (NBK), are partially government-owned, and the other two are majority foreign-owned (Barclays Bank and Standard Chartered). Most of the many smaller banks are family-owned and -operated. Labor In the early 2000s, agriculture remains the population’s main occupation and source of income. In 2006 Kenya’s labor force was estimated to include about 12 million workers, almost 75 percent in agriculture. The number employed outside small-scale agriculture and pastoralism was about 6 million. In 2004 about 15 percent of the labor force was officially classified as unemployed. Other estimates place Kenya’s unemployment much higher, even up to 40 percent. Currency, exchange rate, and inflation The value of the Kenyan shilling (KSh), Kenya’s unit of currency, declined during President Moi’s last term (1997–2002) from about KSh60 per US$1 in 1998 to KSh78.75 per US$1 in 2002. The exchange rate of the Kenya shilling between 2003 and 2005 averaged about KSh76 to US$1. As of June 1, 2007, the rate was KSh67=US$1. In 2006 the inflation rate for consumer prices was estimated at 14.5 percent. This rate was a significant rise from the previous year’s 10.3 percent, reflecting higher food prices, which carry a 50 percent weighting in the consumer price index. Government budget The budgets of the Moi era (1978–2002) carried increasingly worrisome deficits, and the Kibaki government’s first budget for fiscal year (FY) 2004 was similarly unbalanced. In 2006 Kenya’s revenues totaled US$4.448 billion, while its estimated expenditures totaled US$5.377 billion. Government budget balance as a percentage of gross domestic product⎯a low –5.5 percent in 2004⎯had improved to –2.1 percent in 2006. Foreign economic relations Since independence, Kenya, a nonaligned but pro-Western country, has seen both substantial foreign investment and significant amounts of development aid, some from the communist bloc, most from the West. Between 60 and 70 percent of industry is still owned from abroad. Development assistance has come from increasingly diverse sources in recent years. The share provided by the United Kingdom has fallen, while that of multilateral agencies, particularly the World Bank and the European Development Fund, has increased. When President Moi left office in December 2002, one of the major concerns of international donors was removed, and they prepared to step up aid. The International Monetary Fund resumed aid after a three-year gap, and others followed suit with pledges of US$4.1 billion from 2004 to 2006 for development and budgetary support. By February 2005, however, relations with donors were again deteriorating, and some promised aid was suspended because of disappointing progress in tackling corruption and in instituting economic reforms, including privatization. Aside from ties with advanced economies and donors, Kenya is active within regional trade blocs such as the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the East African Community (EAC), a partnership of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. The EAC, dissolved in 1977 because of political tensions, was revived in 1997. The ultimate aim of the EAC is to create a common market of the three states modeled on the European Union. Among the early steps toward integration is the customs union of 2004, which eventually will eliminate duties on goods and non-tariff trade barriers among the members. The question of how the EAC will relate to other regional trade blocs, including COMESA and the Southern African Development Community (SADC), is in flux. Kenyan exports in 2006 Kenya’s chief exports are horticultural products and tea. In 2005 the combined value of these commodities was US$1,150 million, about 10 times the value of Kenya’s third most valuable export, coffee. Kenya’s other significant exports are petroleum products, sold to near neighbors, fish, cement, pyrethrum, and sisal. The leading imports are crude petroleum, chemicals, manufactured goods, machinery, and transportation equipment. Africa is Kenya's largest export market, followed by the European Union. The major destinations for exports are the United Kingdom (UK), Tanzania, Uganda, and the Netherlands. Major suppliers are the UK, United Arab Emirates, Japan, and India. Kenya’s main exports to the United States are garments traded under the terms of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Despite AGOA, Kenya’s apparel industry is struggling to hold its ground against Asian competition and runs a trade deficit with the United States. Kenya typically has a substantial trade deficit. The trade balance fluctuates widely because Kenya’s main exports are primary commodities subject to the effects of both world prices and weather. In 2005 Kenya’s income from exports was about US$3.2 billion. The payment for imports was about US$5.7 billion, yielding a trade deficit of about US$2.5 billion. In 2006 Kenya had a current account deficit of US$1.5 billion. This figure was a significant increase over 2005, when the current account had a deficit of US$495 million. In 2006 the current account balance as a percentage of gross domestic product was –4.2. In 2006 Kenya’s external debt totaled US$6.7 billion. The debt is forecast to be a manageable 30 percent of gross domestic product in 2007. Kenyan policies on foreign investment generally have been favorable since independence, with occasional tightening of restrictions to promote the “Africanization” of enterprises. Foreign investors have been guaranteed ownership and the right to remit dividends, royalties, and capital. In the 1970s, the government disallowed foreign investment unless there was also some government participation in the ownership of an enterprise. Notwithstanding some restrictions, between 60 and 70 percent of industry is still owned from abroad. The most active investors have been the British. See also Economy of Africa Companies of Kenya References Further reading External links CBIK - the Center for Business Information in Kenya, a division of the Kenya Export Promotion Council KenInvest; the Kenya Investment Authority, formed by the government of Kenya in 2004 | Economy_of_Kenya |@lemmatized kenya:80 economy:9 market:8 base:2 state:7 owned:1 infrastructure:4 enterprise:3 maintain:1 liberalized:1 external:3 trade:11 system:4 heavy:2 dependence:2 rain:1 fed:1 agriculture:11 tourism:9 sector:19 leave:2 vulnerable:2 cycle:1 boom:1 bust:1 agricultural:9 employ:2 nearly:2 percent:44 country:9 million:15 people:2 half:5 output:5 remain:5 subsistence:2 production:12 profile:1 library:1 congress:1 federal:1 research:1 division:3 june:2 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:4 public:4 domain:1 gross:11 domestic:13 product:15 gdp:19 growth:20 rate:8 decline:7 continuously:1 peak:1 per:10 year:18 first:3 decade:4 independence:8 less:4 following:1 experience:1 upturn:1 since:8 several:6 economic:16 performance:5 combine:3 rapid:3 population:4 translate:1 time:2 reduced:2 income:3 head:1 increase:6 poverty:3 worsen:1 unemployment:2 number:4 kenyan:8 classify:3 poor:3 grow:5 hamper:2 numerous:1 interact:1 factor:1 export:17 world:9 price:9 fluctuation:2 outstrip:1 prolong:1 drought:7 necessitate:2 power:8 rationing:2 deteriorate:2 extreme:1 disparity:1 wealth:1 limit:1 opportunity:3 develop:1 skill:1 knowledge:1 governance:3 corruption:5 also:5 negative:3 impact:1 make:7 expensive:1 business:2 accord:3 transparency:2 international:6 rank:1 among:5 dozen:1 corrupt:1 bribery:1 fraud:1 cost:3 much:2 u:26 billion:10 live:1 day:2 pay:1 bribe:1 month:1 two:5 every:1 three:5 encounter:1 official:1 another:1 large:10 drag:1 burden:1 human:1 immunodeficiency:1 virus:1 acquire:1 immune:1 deficiency:1 syndrome:1 hiv:1 aid:8 prospect:1 brighten:1 somewhat:2 kibaki:2 government:26 whose:1 policy:5 aim:2 include:10 budgetary:2 reform:9 debt:3 restraint:1 despite:3 early:5 disillusionment:1 see:4 broad:1 expansion:4 lead:2 strong:2 telecommunication:2 acceptable:1 post:1 result:3 especially:1 vital:1 tea:8 nevertheless:1 risk:1 continue:4 robust:1 weak:1 political:2 instability:1 run:2 december:3 election:2 diminution:1 financial:3 flow:2 donor:5 ongoing:1 allegation:1 history:1 promote:2 investment:10 encouragement:1 smallholder:1 incentive:2 private:2 often:1 foreign:14 industrial:3 annual:2 average:4 annually:2 period:3 stimulate:1 redistribute:1 estate:2 diffuse:1 new:6 crop:2 strain:1 open:2 area:3 cultivation:2 however:5 inappropriate:1 inadequate:1 credit:3 term:5 contribute:3 inward:1 look:1 import:10 substitution:1 rise:3 oil:5 manufacturing:7 uncompetitive:1 begin:2 massive:1 intrusion:1 lack:2 tight:1 control:5 exchange:8 environment:2 even:2 attractive:1 bad:1 stagnate:2 shrank:1 inflation:3 reach:2 record:1 august:1 budget:5 deficit:7 problem:2 bilateral:1 multilateral:2 suspend:3 program:5 major:7 liberalization:1 minister:1 finance:1 governor:1 central:4 bank:15 undertake:1 series:1 measure:3 assistance:2 monetary:4 fund:4 imf:5 part:3 eliminate:2 licensing:1 remove:2 privatize:1 range:1 publicly:1 company:6 reduce:4 civil:1 servant:1 introduce:1 conservative:1 fiscal:2 real:3 enter:1 slow:2 stagnant:1 due:1 adverse:1 weather:3 condition:1 activity:3 prior:1 general:1 july:3 refuse:1 meet:3 commitment:2 earlier:1 lending:1 put:2 structural:1 adjustment:1 hold:2 although:4 many:2 place:2 need:1 far:2 particularly:2 order:1 combat:1 majority:3 progress:2 goldenberg:1 scandal:1 mark:1 unwillingness:1 deal:1 take:3 positive:1 step:5 establishment:1 anti:1 authority:2 improve:3 procurement:1 payroll:1 sign:1 reduction:1 facility:2 follow:6 suit:2 shortly:1 pace:1 appear:1 abeyance:1 fail:1 chart:1 trend:1 estimate:6 figure:2 shilling:8 dollar:1 caput:2 adjust:1 purchase:1 parity:1 ppp:1 pick:2 compare:2 sluggish:1 throughout:1 president:3 daniel:1 arap:1 moi:4 last:2 expect:2 largely:2 transport:4 construction:1 recovery:1 forecast:2 composition:1 restaurant:1 hotel:1 communication:1 service:5 industry:7 slope:1 mount:1 dominate:3 total:7 land:3 sufficient:1 fertility:1 rainfall:1 farm:3 class:1 almost:2 work:1 living:1 one:5 non:3 second:2 contributor:2 forestry:3 fishing:4 account:9 well:3 wage:1 employment:1 revenue:2 principal:2 cash:1 horticultural:3 produce:3 coffee:5 main:4 valuable:2 horticulture:1 earnings:1 importance:2 depressed:1 receipt:1 food:4 staple:1 corn:3 subject:2 sharp:1 related:2 downturns:1 periodically:2 example:2 intermittent:2 sisal:3 pyrethrum:2 wheat:1 fertile:1 highland:1 successful:1 region:1 africa:5 mainly:3 small:4 african:5 form:2 formerly:1 european:4 livestock:1 predominates:1 semi:1 arid:1 savanna:1 north:1 east:3 coconut:1 pineapple:1 cashew:1 nut:1 cotton:1 sugarcane:2 low:2 lie:1 resource:2 degradation:1 roundwood:1 removal:2 come:3 cubic:1 meter:1 fishery:1 local:3 around:2 lake:3 victoria:1 potential:1 turkana:1 catch:2 report:1 metric:1 ton:2 ecological:1 disruption:1 pollution:1 overfishing:1 use:1 unauthorized:1 equipment:3 fall:2 endanger:1 fish:2 specie:1 mining:3 mineral:6 significant:5 endowment:1 quarry:1 negligible:1 contribution:1 soda:4 ash:3 operation:1 magadi:2 south:1 thanks:1 project:1 recent:3 planned:1 apart:1 chief:2 limestone:1 gold:1 salt:1 fluorspar:1 unextracted:1 property:1 act:3 department:1 mine:1 geology:1 ministry:1 natural:1 exploration:2 exploitation:1 industrially:1 developed:1 still:4 level:1 manufacture:2 represent:1 slight:1 initially:1 shortage:1 hydroelectric:3 high:4 energy:3 dilapidate:1 dumping:1 cheap:1 concentrate:1 urban:1 center:2 nairobi:4 mombasa:4 kisumu:1 processing:1 grain:1 milling:1 beer:1 crushing:1 fabrication:1 consumer:3 good:4 e:1 g:1 vehicle:2 kit:1 refinery:4 process:1 crude:3 petroleum:9 addition:1 substantial:4 expand:1 informal:1 engage:1 scale:2 household:1 motor:1 implement:1 united:9 kingdom:4 provide:2 investor:3 inclusion:1 beneficiary:1 agoa:4 give:1 boost:1 effect:2 clothe:1 sale:1 initiative:1 strengthen:1 favorable:2 tax:2 duty:2 capital:2 raw:1 material:1 share:2 electricity:5 supply:3 station:2 dam:2 along:1 upper:1 tana:1 river:1 turkwel:1 gorge:1 west:2 fire:1 plant:1 coast:1 geothermal:3 olkaria:2 near:2 uganda:3 rest:1 instal:1 capacity:1 stand:1 megawatt:1 generate:2 kengen:1 establish:2 name:1 handle:2 generation:1 light:1 kplc:1 slat:1 privatization:2 transmission:1 distribution:1 shortfall:1 occur:1 water:1 prompt:1 severe:1 economically:1 damage:1 hour:1 blackout:1 frequent:1 outage:1 serious:1 obstacle:1 concession:1 plan:2 encourage:1 hydroelectricity:1 pioneer:1 sondu:1 miriu:1 iv:1 demand:3 outpace:1 yet:1 find:1 hydrocarbon:1 reserve:1 territory:1 australia:1 search:1 shore:1 currently:2 requirement:1 national:3 bill:1 joint:1 venture:1 operate:2 sole:1 consumption:1 barrel:1 via:1 pipeline:1 tourist:5 safari:1 exhibit:1 steady:1 late:3 become:1 relinquish:1 position:1 terrorism:1 downturn:2 bombing:1 embassy:1 later:1 travel:1 advisory:1 western:2 germany:1 attract:1 coastal:1 beach:1 game:1 park:2 notably:1 expansive:1 tsavo:1 square:1 kilometer:1 southeast:1 organization:1 address:1 security:1 reverse:1 publicity:1 police:1 launch:1 marketing:1 campaign:1 key:1 origin:1 revival:1 past:1 earn:1 flower:1 previous:2 element:1 face:1 challenge:1 downsizing:1 particular:1 banking:1 supervise:1 cbk:1 consist:1 commercial:2 institution:1 mortgage:1 four:2 saving:1 loan:1 association:1 score:1 bureau:1 kcb:1 nbk:1 partially:1 barclays:1 standard:1 charter:1 family:1 labor:3 occupation:1 force:2 worker:1 outside:1 pastoralism:1 officially:1 unemployed:1 currency:2 value:3 ksh:1 unit:1 shill:1 reflect:1 carry:2 weighting:1 index:1 era:1 increasingly:2 worrisome:1 fy:1 similarly:1 unbalanced:1 estimated:1 expenditure:1 balance:3 percentage:2 relation:2 nonaligned:1 pro:1 amount:1 development:5 communist:1 bloc:3 abroad:2 diverse:1 agency:1 office:1 concern:1 prepare:1 resume:1 gap:1 others:1 pledge:1 support:1 february:1 promise:1 disappointing:1 tackle:1 institute:1 aside:1 tie:1 advanced:1 active:2 within:1 regional:2 common:2 eastern:1 southern:2 comesa:2 community:2 eac:4 partnership:1 tanzania:2 dissolve:1 tension:1 revive:1 ultimate:1 create:1 model:1 union:3 toward:1 integration:1 custom:1 eventually:1 tariff:1 barrier:1 member:1 question:1 relate:1 sadc:1 flux:1 commodity:2 third:1 sell:1 neighbor:1 cement:1 leading:1 chemical:1 machinery:1 transportation:1 destination:1 uk:2 netherlands:1 supplier:1 arab:1 emirate:1 japan:1 india:1 garment:1 apparel:1 struggle:1 ground:1 asian:1 competition:1 typically:1 fluctuate:1 widely:1 primary:1 payment:1 yield:1 current:3 manageable:1 generally:1 occasional:1 tightening:1 restriction:2 africanization:1 guarantee:1 ownership:2 right:1 remit:1 dividend:1 royalty:1 disallow:1 unless:1 participation:1 notwithstanding:1 british:1 reference:1 read:1 link:1 cbik:1 information:1 promotion:1 council:1 keninvest:1 |@bigram rain_fed:1 boom_bust:1 gross_domestic:11 immunodeficiency_virus:1 immune_deficiency:1 hiv_aid:1 budget_deficit:1 bilateral_multilateral:1 monetary_fund:3 fund_imf:1 fiscal_monetary:1 structural_adjustment:1 shilling_shilling:5 per_caput:2 caput_gdp:2 parity_ppp:1 forestry_fishing:2 cash_crop:1 export_earnings:1 semi_arid:1 cotton_sugarcane:1 cubic_meter:1 metric_ton:1 soda_ash:3 oil_refinery:2 crude_petroleum:3 act_agoa:2 raw_material:1 gorge_dam:1 petroleum_refinery:1 joint_venture:1 square_kilometer:1 saving_loan:1 barclays_bank:1 kenya_uganda:1 uganda_tanzania:1 community_sadc:1 tanzania_uganda:1 arab_emirate:1 external_link:1 |
3,401 | Sampling_bias | A biased sample is a statistical sample of a population in which some members of the population are less likely to be included than others. If the bias makes estimation of population parameters impossible, the sample is a non-probability sample. An extreme form of biased sampling occurs when certain members of the population are totally excluded from the sample (that is, they have zero probability of being selected). For example, a survey of high school students to measure teenage use of illegal drugs will be a biased sample because it does not include home schooled students or dropouts. A sample is also biased if certain members are underrepresented or overrepresented relative to others in the population. For example, a "man on the street" interview which selects people who walk by a certain location is going to have an over-representation of healthy individuals who are more likely to be out of the home than individuals with a chronic illness. Problems caused by a biased negative sample A biased sample causes problems because any statistic computed from that sample has the potential to be consistently erroneous. The bias can lead to an over- or under-representation of the corresponding parameter in the population. Almost every sample in practice is biased because it is practically impossible to ensure a perfectly random sample. If the degree of under-representation is small, the sample can be treated as a reasonable approximation to a random sample. Also, if the group that is under-represented does not differ markedly from the other groups in the quantity being measured, then a random sample can still be a reasonable approximation. The word bias in common usage has a strong negative word connotation, and implies a deliberate intent to mislead. In statistical usage, bias represents a mathematical property. While some individuals might deliberately use a biased sample to produce misleading results, more often, a biased sample is just a reflection of the difficulty in obtaining a truly representative sample. Some samples use a biased statistical design which nevertheless allows the estimation of parameters. The U.S. National Center for Health Statistics. for example, deliberately oversamples from minority populations in many of its nationwide surveys in order to gain sufficient precision for estimates within these groups(NCHS 2007). These surveys require the use of sample weights (see below) to produce proper estimates across all racial and ethnic groups. Provided that certain conditions are met (chiefly that the sample is drawn randomly from the entire sample) these samples permit accurate estimation of population parameters. Examples of biased samples Example of biased sample, claiming as of June 2008, that only 54% of web browsers (Internet Explorer) in use do not pass the Acid2 test. The statistics are from visitors to one website comprising mostly web developers. Online and phone-in polls are biased samples because the respondents are self-selected. Those individuals who are highly motivated to respond, typically individuals who have strong opinions, are overrepresented, and individuals that are indifferent or apathetic are less likely to respond. This often leads to a polarization of responses with extreme perspectives being given a disproportionate weight in the summary. As a result, these types of polls are regarded as unscientific. A classic example of a biased sample and the misleading results it produced occurred in 1936. In the early days of opinion polling, the American Literary Digest magazine collected over two million postal surveys and predicted that the Republican candidate in the U.S. presidential election, Alf Landon, would beat the incumbent president, Franklin Roosevelt by a large margin. The result was the exact opposite. The Literary Digest survey represented a sample collected from readers of the magazine, supplemented by records of registered automobile owners and telephone users. This sample included an over-representation of individuals who were rich, who, as a group, were more likely to vote for the Republican candidate. In contrast, a poll of only 50 thousand citizens selected by George Gallup's organization successfully predicted the result, leading to the popularity of the Gallup poll. Another classic example occurred in the 1948 Presidential Election. On Election night, the Chicago Tribune printed the headline DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN, which turned out to be mistaken. In the morning the grinning President-Elect, Harry S. Truman, was photographed holding a newspaper bearing this headline. The reason the Tribune was mistaken is that their editor trusted the results of a phone survey. Survey research was then in its infancy, and few academics realized that a sample of telephone users was not representative of the general population. Telephones were not yet widespread, and those who had them tended to be prosperous and have stable addresses. (In many cities, the Bell System telephone directory contained the same names as the Social Register.) In addition, the Gallup poll that the Tribune based its headline on was over two weeks old at the time of the printing. based on http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1199.htm retrieved on September 29, 2007 Statistical corrections for a biased sample If entire segments of the population are excluded from a sample, then there are no adjustments that can produce estimates that are representative of the entire population. But if some groups are underrepresented and the degree of underrepresentation can be quantified, then sample weights can correct the bias. For example, a hypothetical population might include 10 million men and 10 million women. Suppose that a biased sample of 100 patients included 20 men and 80 women. A researcher could correct for this imbalance by attaching a weight of 2.5 for each male and 0.625 for each female. This would adjust any estimates to achieve the same expected value as a sample that included exactly 50 men and 50 women, unless men and women differed in their likelihood of taking part in the survey. Spotlight fallacy Examples I wouldn't like to go to America because of all the gun crime; we see it on the news all the time. People are always in the news blowing other people up; so all (or most) people are criminals. Doctor: Why don't patients make some effort to look after themselves? My surgery is full of people who eat, drink, smoke and don't get any exercise. Of course he may have many more patients who do look after themselves and don't often turn up in his surgery; there's also the possibility that the patients who do look after themselves will be less likely to turn up in his surgery because of the fact that they take care of themselves and are healthier than those who don't. Why do young people all take drugs and go around mugging old ladies? You read about it in the paper all the time! Child: When I grow up I want to be a singer. Have you seen how much money those pop-stars make?! References National Center for Health Statistics (2007). Minority Health. See also Cherry picking File drawer problem Spectrum bias | Sampling_bias |@lemmatized biased:13 sample:35 statistical:4 population:12 member:3 less:3 likely:5 include:6 others:2 bias:9 make:3 estimation:3 parameter:4 impossible:2 non:1 probability:2 extreme:2 form:1 sampling:1 occurs:1 certain:4 totally:1 exclude:2 zero:1 select:4 example:9 survey:8 high:1 school:1 student:2 measure:2 teenage:1 use:5 illegal:1 drug:2 home:2 schooled:1 dropout:1 also:4 underrepresented:2 overrepresented:2 relative:1 man:1 street:1 interview:1 people:6 walk:1 location:1 go:3 representation:4 healthy:2 individual:7 chronic:1 illness:1 problem:3 cause:2 negative:2 statistic:4 compute:1 potential:1 consistently:1 erroneous:1 lead:3 corresponding:1 almost:1 every:1 practice:1 practically:1 ensure:1 perfectly:1 random:3 degree:2 small:1 treat:1 reasonable:2 approximation:2 group:6 represent:3 differ:2 markedly:1 quantity:1 still:1 word:2 common:1 usage:2 strong:2 connotation:1 imply:1 deliberate:1 intent:1 mislead:1 mathematical:1 property:1 might:2 deliberately:2 produce:4 misleading:2 result:6 often:3 reflection:1 difficulty:1 obtain:1 truly:1 representative:3 design:1 nevertheless:1 allow:1 u:2 national:2 center:2 health:3 oversamples:1 minority:2 many:3 nationwide:1 order:1 gain:1 sufficient:1 precision:1 estimate:4 within:1 nchs:1 require:1 weight:4 see:4 proper:1 across:1 racial:1 ethnic:1 provide:1 condition:1 meet:1 chiefly:1 draw:1 randomly:1 entire:3 permit:1 accurate:1 claim:1 june:1 web:2 browser:1 internet:1 explorer:1 pass:1 test:1 visitor:1 one:1 website:1 comprise:1 mostly:1 developer:1 online:1 phone:2 poll:5 respondent:1 self:1 highly:1 motivate:1 respond:2 typically:1 opinion:2 indifferent:1 apathetic:1 polarization:1 response:1 perspective:1 give:1 disproportionate:1 summary:1 type:1 regard:1 unscientific:1 classic:2 occur:2 early:1 day:1 polling:1 american:1 literary:2 digest:2 magazine:2 collect:2 two:2 million:3 postal:1 predict:2 republican:2 candidate:2 presidential:2 election:3 alf:1 landon:1 would:2 beat:1 incumbent:1 president:2 franklin:1 roosevelt:1 large:1 margin:1 exact:1 opposite:1 reader:1 supplement:1 record:1 register:2 automobile:1 owner:1 telephone:4 user:2 rich:1 vote:1 contrast:1 thousand:1 citizen:1 george:1 gallup:3 organization:1 successfully:1 popularity:1 another:1 night:1 chicago:1 tribune:3 print:1 headline:3 dewey:1 defeat:1 truman:2 turn:3 mistake:2 morning:1 grinning:1 elect:1 harry:1 photograph:1 hold:1 newspaper:1 bearing:1 reason:1 editor:1 trust:1 research:1 infancy:1 academic:1 realize:1 general:1 yet:1 widespread:1 tend:1 prosperous:1 stable:1 address:1 city:1 bell:1 system:1 directory:1 contain:1 name:1 social:1 addition:1 base:2 week:1 old:2 time:3 printing:1 http:1 www:1 uh:1 edu:1 engine:1 htm:1 retrieve:1 september:1 correction:1 segment:1 adjustment:1 underrepresentation:1 quantify:1 correct:2 hypothetical:1 men:4 woman:4 suppose:1 patient:4 researcher:1 could:1 imbalance:1 attach:1 male:1 female:1 adjust:1 achieve:1 expect:1 value:1 exactly:1 unless:1 likelihood:1 take:3 part:1 spotlight:1 fallacy:1 like:1 america:1 gun:1 crime:1 news:2 always:1 blow:1 criminal:1 doctor:1 effort:1 look:3 surgery:3 full:1 eat:1 drink:1 smoke:1 get:1 exercise:1 course:1 may:1 possibility:1 fact:1 care:1 young:1 around:1 mug:1 lady:1 read:1 paper:1 child:1 grow:1 want:1 singer:1 much:1 money:1 pop:1 star:1 reference:1 cherry:1 pick:1 file:1 drawer:1 spectrum:1 |@bigram biased_sample:10 home_schooled:1 practically_impossible:1 differ_markedly:1 web_browser:1 internet_explorer:1 presidential_election:2 franklin_roosevelt:1 gallup_poll:2 chicago_tribune:1 harry_truman:1 http_www:1 male_female:1 |
3,402 | Microfluidics | Glass microfluidic devices Microfluidics deals with the behavior, precise control and manipulation of fluids that are geometrically constrained to a small, typically sub-millimeter, scale. Typically, micro means one of the following features: small volumes(nl, pl, fl) small size low energy consumption effects of the micro domain It is a multidisciplinary field intersecting engineering, physics, chemistry, microtechnology and biotechnology, with practical applications to the design of systems in which such small volumes of fluids will be used. Microfluidics has emerged in the beginning of the 1980s and is used in the development of inkjet printheads, DNA chips, lab-on-a-chip technology, micro-propulsion, and micro-thermal technologies. Microscale behavior of fluids Silicone rubber and glass microfluidic devices. Top: a photograph of the devices. Bottom: DIC micrographs of a serpentine channel ~15 μm wide. The behavior of fluids at the microscale can differ from 'macrofluidic' behavior in that factors such as surface tension, energy dissipation, and fluidic resistance start to dominate the system. Microfluidics studies how these behaviors change, and how they can be worked around, or exploited for new uses. At small scales (channel diameters of around 100 nanometers to several hundred micrometers) some interesting and sometimes unintuitive properties appear. In particular, the Reynolds number (which compares the effect of momentum of a fluid to the effect of viscosity) can become very low. A key consequence of this is that fluids, when side-by-side, do not necessarily mix in the traditional sense; molecular transport between them must often be through diffusion. This property is important in many microfluidic devices. Effects of micro domain laminar flow surface tension electrowetting fast thermal relaxation electrical surface charges diffusion Key application areas Microfluidic structures include micropneumatic systems, i.e. microsystems for the handling of off-chip fluids (liquid pumps, gas valves, etc), and microfluidic structures for the on-chip handling of nano- and picolitre volumes. The commercially most successful application today is the inkjet printhead. Advances in microfluidics technology are revolutionizing molecular biology procedures for enzymatic analysis (e.g., glucose and lactate assays), DNA analysis (e.g., polymerase chain reaction and high-throughput sequencing), and proteomics. The basic idea of microfluidic biochips is to integrate assay operations such as detection, as well as sample pre-treatment and sample preparation on one chip. An emerging application area for biochips is clinical pathology, especially the immediate point-of-care diagnosis of diseases. In addition, microfluidics-based devices, capable of continuous sampling and real-time testing of air/water samples for biochemical toxins and other dangerous pathogens, can serve as an always-on "bio-smoke alarm" for early warning. Continuous-flow microfluidics These technologies are based on the manipulation of continuous liquid flow through microfabricated channels. Actuation of liquid flow is implemented either by external pressure sources, external mechanical pumps, integrated mechanical micropumps, or by electrokinetic mechanisms. Continuous-flow microfluidic operation is the mainstream approach because it is easy to implement and less sensitive to protein fouling problems. Continuous-flow devices are adequate for many well-defined and simple biochemical applications, and for certain tasks such as chemical separation, but they are less suitable for tasks requiring a high degree of flexibility or complicated fluid manipulations. These closed-channel systems are inherently difficult to integrate and scale because the parameters that govern flow field vary along the flow path making the fluid flow at any one location dependent on the properties of the entire system. Permanently-etched microstructures also lead to limited reconfigurability and poor fault tolerance capability. Process monitoring capabilities in continuous-flow systems can be achieved with highly sensitive microfluidic flow sensors based on MEMS technology which offer resolutions down to the nanoliter range. Digital (droplet-based) microfluidics Alternatives to the above closed-channel continuous-flow systems include novel open structures, where discrete, independently controllable droplets are manipulated on a substrate. Following the analogy of digital microelectronics, this approach is referred to as digital microfluidics, which was pioneered at Duke University. By using discrete unit-volume droplets, a microfluidic function can be reduced to a set of repeated basic operations, i.e., moving one unit of fluid over one unit of distance. This "digitization" method facilitates the use of a hierarchical and cell-based approach for microfluidic biochip design. Therefore, digital microfluidics offers a flexible and scalable system architecture as well as high fault-tolerance capability. Moreover, because each droplet can be controlled independently, these systems also have dynamic reconfigurability, whereby groups of unit cells in a microfluidic array can be reconfigured to change their functionality during the concurrent execution of a set of bioassays. Although droplets are manipulated in confined microfluidic channels, since the control on droplets is not independent, it should not be confused as "digital microfluidics". One common actuation method for digital microfluidics is electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD). Many lab-on-a-chip applications have been demonstrated within the digital microfluidics paradigm using electrowetting. However, recently other techniques for droplet manipulation have also been demonstrated using Surface Acoustic Waves, optoelectrowetting etc. DNA chips (microarrays) Early biochips were based on the concept of a DNA microarray, e.g., the GeneChip DNAarray from Affymetrix, which is a piece of glass, plastic or silicon substrate on which pieces of DNA (probes) are affixed in a microscopic array. Similar to a DNA microarray, a protein array is a miniature array where a multitude of different capture agents, most frequently monoclonal antibodies, are deposited on a chip surface; they are used to determine the presence and/or amount of proteins in biological samples, e.g., blood. A drawback of DNA and protein arrays is that they are neither reconfigurable nor scalable after manufacture. Molecular biology In addition to microarrays biochips have been designed for two-dimensional electrophoresis , transcriptome analysis , and PCR amplification. Other applications include various electrophoresis and liquid chromatography applications for proteins and DNA, cell separation, in particular blood cell separation, protein analysis, cell manipulation and analysis including cell viability analysis and microorganism capturing. Optics Tuneable Microlens Array Liquid micro-lens array activated by selective electrowetting on lithium niobate substrates S. Grilli, L. Miccio, V. Vespini, A. Finizio, S. De Nicola, and P. Ferraro Optics Express 16, 8084-8093 (2008). http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.16.008084 P. Ferraro, L. Miccio, S. Grilli, A. Finizio, S. De Nicola, and V. Vespini, "Manipulating Thin Liquid Films for Tunable Microlens Arrays," Optics & Photonics News 19, 34-34 (2008) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=OPN-19-12-34 Acoustic droplet ejection (ADE) Acoustic droplet ejection uses a pulse of ultrasound to move low volumes of fluids (typically nanoliters or picoliters) without any physical contact. This technology focuses acoustic energy into a fluid sample in order to eject droplets as small as a millionth of a millionth of a liter (picoliter = 10-12 liter). ADE technology is a very gentle process, and it can be used to transfer proteins, high molecular weight DNA and live cells without damage or loss of viability. This feature makes the technology suitable for a wide variety of applications including proteomics and cell-based assays. Fuel cells Microfluidic fuel cells can use laminar flow to separate the fuel and its oxidant to control the interaction of the two fluids without a physical barrier as would be required in conventional fuel cells. Water Management in PEM Fuel Cells Building a Better Fuel Cell Using Microfluidics Fuel Cell Initiative at MnIT Microfluidics Laboratory See also Nanofluidics List of microfluidics research groups Lab on a chip Digital microfluidics μFluids@Home References Further reading Review Papers Whitesides, G. M.; "The origins and the future of microfluidics"; Nature 2006, 442, 368-373. Squires, T. M.; Quake, S. R.; Reviews of Modern Physics 2005, 77, 977-1026. Microfluidics: Fluid physics at the nanoliter scale Books External links Biomicrofluidics, an open-source peer-reviewed journal published by the American Institute of Physics Videos and animations of Microfluidic devices and their applications Tutorials and summaries MIFLUS - Microfluidics Terminology tree Living La Vida LOC(a): A Brief Insight into the World of "Lab on a Chip" and Microfluidics - Sacraficial Carbon Pastes and Tapes for the manufacture of Microchannels | Microfluidics |@lemmatized glass:3 microfluidic:14 device:7 microfluidics:20 deal:1 behavior:5 precise:1 control:4 manipulation:5 fluid:14 geometrically:1 constrain:1 small:6 typically:3 sub:1 millimeter:1 scale:4 micro:6 mean:1 one:6 following:1 feature:2 volume:5 nl:1 pl:1 fl:1 size:1 low:3 energy:3 consumption:1 effect:4 domain:2 multidisciplinary:1 field:2 intersect:1 engineering:1 physic:4 chemistry:1 microtechnology:1 biotechnology:1 practical:1 application:10 design:3 system:9 use:11 emerge:2 beginning:1 development:1 inkjet:2 printheads:1 dna:9 chip:10 lab:4 technology:8 propulsion:1 thermal:2 microscale:2 silicone:1 rubber:1 top:1 photograph:1 bottom:1 dic:1 micrographs:1 serpentine:1 channel:6 μm:1 wide:2 differ:1 macrofluidic:1 factor:1 surface:5 tension:2 dissipation:1 fluidic:1 resistance:1 start:1 dominate:1 study:1 change:2 work:1 around:2 exploit:1 new:1 us:1 diameter:1 nanometer:1 several:1 hundred:1 micrometer:1 interesting:1 sometimes:1 unintuitive:1 property:3 appear:1 particular:2 reynolds:1 number:1 compare:1 momentum:1 viscosity:1 become:1 key:2 consequence:1 side:2 necessarily:1 mix:1 traditional:1 sense:1 molecular:4 transport:1 must:1 often:1 diffusion:2 important:1 many:3 laminar:2 flow:13 electrowetting:4 fast:1 relaxation:1 electrical:1 charge:1 area:2 structure:3 include:5 micropneumatic:1 e:6 microsystems:1 handling:2 liquid:6 pump:2 gas:1 valve:1 etc:2 nano:1 picolitre:1 commercially:1 successful:1 today:1 printhead:1 advance:1 revolutionize:1 biology:2 procedure:1 enzymatic:1 analysis:6 g:5 glucose:1 lactate:1 assay:3 polymerase:1 chain:1 reaction:1 high:4 throughput:1 sequence:1 proteomics:2 basic:2 idea:1 biochip:5 integrate:3 operation:3 detection:1 well:3 sample:5 pre:1 treatment:1 preparation:1 clinical:1 pathology:1 especially:1 immediate:1 point:1 care:1 diagnosis:1 disease:1 addition:2 base:7 capable:1 continuous:7 sampling:1 real:1 time:1 testing:1 air:1 water:2 biochemical:2 toxin:1 dangerous:1 pathogen:1 serve:1 always:1 bio:1 smoke:1 alarm:1 early:2 warning:1 microfabricated:1 actuation:2 implement:2 either:1 external:3 pressure:1 source:2 mechanical:2 micropumps:1 electrokinetic:1 mechanism:1 mainstream:1 approach:3 easy:1 less:2 sensitive:2 protein:7 foul:1 problem:1 adequate:1 define:1 simple:1 certain:1 task:2 chemical:1 separation:3 suitable:2 require:2 degree:1 flexibility:1 complicate:1 close:2 inherently:1 difficult:1 parameter:1 govern:1 vary:1 along:1 path:1 make:2 location:1 dependent:1 entire:1 permanently:1 etched:1 microstructures:1 also:4 lead:1 limited:1 reconfigurability:2 poor:1 fault:2 tolerance:2 capability:3 process:2 monitor:1 achieve:1 highly:1 sensor:1 mem:1 offer:2 resolution:1 nanoliter:2 range:1 digital:8 droplet:10 alternative:1 novel:1 open:2 discrete:2 independently:2 controllable:1 manipulate:3 substrate:2 follow:1 analogy:1 microelectronics:1 refer:1 pioneer:1 duke:1 university:1 unit:4 function:1 reduce:1 set:2 repeated:1 move:2 distance:1 digitization:1 method:2 facilitate:1 hierarchical:1 cell:14 therefore:1 flexible:1 scalable:2 architecture:1 moreover:1 dynamic:1 whereby:1 group:2 array:8 reconfigured:1 functionality:1 concurrent:1 execution:1 bioassay:1 although:1 confined:1 since:1 independent:1 confuse:1 common:1 dielectric:1 ewod:1 demonstrate:2 within:1 paradigm:1 however:1 recently:1 technique:1 acoustic:4 wave:1 optoelectrowetting:1 microarrays:2 concept:1 microarray:2 genechip:1 dnaarray:1 affymetrix:1 piece:2 plastic:1 silicon:1 probe:1 affix:1 microscopic:1 similar:1 miniature:1 multitude:1 different:1 capture:1 agent:1 frequently:1 monoclonal:1 antibody:1 deposit:1 determine:1 presence:1 amount:1 biological:1 blood:2 drawback:1 neither:1 reconfigurable:1 manufacture:2 two:2 dimensional:1 electrophoresis:2 transcriptome:1 pcr:1 amplification:1 various:1 chromatography:1 viability:2 microorganism:1 capturing:1 optic:3 tuneable:1 microlens:2 lens:1 activate:1 selective:1 lithium:1 niobate:1 substrates:1 grilli:2 l:2 miccio:2 v:2 vespini:2 finizio:2 de:2 nicola:2 p:2 ferraro:2 express:1 http:2 dx:1 doi:1 org:2 oe:1 thin:1 film:1 tunable:1 photonics:1 news:1 www:1 opticsinfobase:1 abstract:1 cfm:1 uri:1 opn:1 ejection:2 ade:2 pulse:1 ultrasound:1 nanoliters:1 picoliters:1 without:3 physical:2 contact:1 focus:1 order:1 eject:1 millionth:2 liter:2 picoliter:1 gentle:1 transfer:1 weight:1 live:1 damage:1 loss:1 variety:1 fuel:7 separate:1 oxidant:1 interaction:1 barrier:1 would:1 conventional:1 management:1 pem:1 build:1 good:1 initiative:1 mnit:1 laboratory:1 see:1 nanofluidics:1 list:1 research:1 μfluids:1 home:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 review:3 paper:1 whitesides:1 origin:1 future:1 nature:1 squire:1 quake:1 r:1 modern:1 book:1 link:1 biomicrofluidics:1 peer:1 journal:1 publish:1 american:1 institute:1 video:1 animation:1 tutorial:1 summary:1 miflus:1 terminology:1 tree:1 living:1 la:1 vida:1 loc:1 brief:1 insight:1 world:1 sacraficial:1 carbon:1 paste:1 tape:1 microchannels:1 |@bigram microfluidic_device:4 silicone_rubber:1 laminar_flow:2 commercially_successful:1 molecular_biology:2 polymerase_chain:1 fault_tolerance:2 digital_microfluidics:6 dna_microarray:2 monoclonal_antibody:1 liquid_chromatography:1 lithium_niobate:1 dx_doi:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 peer_review:1 la_vida:1 |
3,403 | Microserfs | Microserfs, published by HarperCollins in 1995, is an epistolary novel by Douglas Coupland. It first appeared in short story form Wired 3.07, July 1995. Microserfs: Transhumanity as the cover article for the January 1994 issue of Wired magazine and was subsequently expanded to full novel length. Wired 2.01, January 1994. Microserfs Set in the early 1990s, it captures the state of the technology industry before Windows 95, and predicts the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s. The novel is presented in the form of diary entries maintained on a PowerBook by the narrator, Daniel. Because of this, as well as its formatting and usage of emoticons, this novel is similar to what emerged a decade later as the blog format. Coupland revisited many of the ideas in Microserfs in his 2006 novel jPod, which has been labeled "Microserfs for the Google generation". Plot The plot of the novel has two distinct movements: the events at Microsoft and in Redmond, Washington, and the movement to Silicon Valley and the "Oop!" project. The novel begins in Redmond as the characters are working on different projects at Microsoft's main campus. Life at the campus feels like a feudalistic society, with Bill Gates as the lord, and the employees the serfs. The majority of the main characters – Daniel (the narrator), Susan, Todd, Bug, Michael, and Abe – are living together in a "geek house", and their lives are dedicated to their projects and the company. Daniel's foundations are shaken when his father, a longtime employee of IBM, is laid off. The lifespan of a Microsoft coder weighs heavily on Daniel's mind. The second movement of the novel begins when the characters are offered jobs in Silicon Valley working on a project for Michael, who has by then left Redmond. All of the housemates – some immediately, some after thought – decide to move to the Valley. The characters' lives change drastically once they leave the limited sphere of the Microsoft campus and enter the world of "One-Point-Oh". They begin to work on a project called "Oop!" (a reference to object-oriented programming). Oop! is a Lego-like design program, allowing dynamic creation of many objects. (Coupland appears on the rear cover of the novel's hardcover versions photographed in Denmark's Legoland Billund, holding a Lego 747.) One of the undercurrents of the plot is Daniel and his family's relationship to Jed, Daniel's younger brother that died in a boating accident while they were children. Characters Daniel The book's narrator and main character. Initially a software tester for Microsoft. His thoughts are funneled into the book through the epistolary format of the novel, and also as he records stream of consciousness lists of terms that he believes exist in a computer's subconscious. Susan A programmer initially working for Microsoft. Throughout the novel, Susan attempts (not always successfully) to find and maintain a meaning to life outside of work. She eventually gains semi-celebrity status after founding Chyx, a support group for Valley women who code. Todd A tester and coworker of Daniel's who is obsessed with bodybuilding and is continually searching for something to believe in. His family is very Christian, while Todd has rejected his parent's faith. Bug A tester and coworker of Daniel's; "the World's Most Bitter Man". He is older than most of the other characters, and likes to remind them of his greater experience in the software industry. Eventually he comes out of the closet. His primary reason for leaving Microsoft for Oop! was to "leave the old me behind" and start over. Michael A gifted programmer with high-functioning autism initially working for Microsoft. Michael's decision to leave Microsoft and found a startup company is the impetus for the change in lives of the other characters. Michael lives on a "Flatlander" diet, meaning that he eats only things that are two dimensional; this began after a period during which he barred himself in his office, eating only what his co-workers slid under the door. His screen name is "Kraft Singles". Michael is addicted to Robitussin cough syrup, which contains the dissociative drug dextromethorphan. Karla A coder, coworker, and girlfriend of Daniel. Karla's relationship with her family is tense, and she actively avoids contact with them. She begins the story as a closed-off person, but as the novel unfolds her character begins to be more open and understanding. She has a history of an eating disorder. Abe MIT graduate coder who stays with Microsoft when the rest of the characters leave for California. His email conversations with Daniel appear throughout the novel. Anatole French coder who is Daniel's neighbor and used to work for Apple. Although not an Oop! employee, he visits the team often and accompanies them to Las Vegas for the CES convention. His accent becomes stronger around women. Ethan President and co-founder of Oop!. Primarily business-minded, he has been a millionaire three times over with various (eventually failed) projects. He devotes his time to seeking venture capital for the startup company. Ethan's personality is diametrically opposed to the other characters, in part because of his relative lack of technical knowledge. He suffers from bad dandruff and his skin is pocked by scars from procedures to remove cancerous growths. Dusty Female bodybuilder and coder who is introduced later in the novel. She is romantically involved with Todd, and they have a baby together (Lindsay). She becomes an employee at Oop!. She and Todd are obsessed with transforming their bodies into perfect "machines" by going to the gym every day and taking protein pills and drinks. Lindsay Dusty and Todd's infant daughter. Daniel's father A mid-level manager at IBM who represents an older generation of technical workers. After being laid off, he begins to work closely with Michael on a secret project that evokes feelings of jealousy from Daniel. Daniel's mother A librarian with little technical knowledge, she serves to give the group insight into what the laypeople understand about technology. Jed Daniel's younger brother who died in a childhood drowning accident. He is a looming presence in Daniel's mind throughout the novel. Misty The Underwoods' overweight dog. She was originally trained to be a seeing eye dog, but failed the exam because she was too affectionate. Influences Microsoft, Silicon Valley, and geek culture Coupland lived in Redmond, Washington for six weeks and Palo Alto, Silicon Valley for four months researching the lives of Microsoft workers. Soriano, Cesar G. "DATELINE: Cyberspace and New York" The Washington Times, June 28, 1995 Folmar, Kate. "Channeling the lives of Silicon Valley", The Globe & Mail, June 9, 1995. Grimwood, Jon Courtenay. "Nerds of the Cyberstocracy". The Independent, November 13, 1995. "It was a 'Gorillas in the Mist' kind of observation… What do they put in their glove compartments? What snack foods do they eat? What posters are on their bedroom walls?" The New York Times Interview, September 9, 1994 Friends from Microsoft and Apple also helped him with research. The novel was a radical departure from Coupland's previous novel, Life After God. "I wrote the two books under radically different mind-sets, and Serfs was a willful rerouting into a different realm". Cockerill, Matt. "Books: Serfs of Silicon Age". The Guardian, November 23, 1995. Coupland first noticed that his art school friends were working in computers in 1992. Mcclellan, Jim. "The Geek Factory". The Observer, November 12, 1995. Digital faith Coupland's research turned up links to the themes of Life After God. "What surprised me about Microsoft is that no one has any conception of an afterlife. There is so little thought given to eternal issues that their very absence make them pointedly there. These people are so locked into the world, by default some sort of transcendence is located elsewhere, and obviously machines become the totem they imbue with sacred properties, wishes, hopes, goals, desires, dreams. That sounds like 1940s SF, but it's become the world." Allusions to history, geography, and science The book takes place first at Microsoft in Redmond, Washington (near Seattle) and then Silicon Valley (near San Francisco). The time period is 1993–1995, at a time when Microsoft has reached dominance in the software industry and emerged victorious from the "Look & Feel" lawsuit by Apple Inc., a company that had at times seemed in danger of falling apart. The Northridge earthquake takes place during the story and has a profound effect on Ethan, who eventually constructs a replica highway interchange out of Lego pieces to honor the infrastructure destroyed by the earthquake. History Coupland's interest in the world of Microsoft and technology workers began with the publication of a short story in Wired magazine in 1994. The story would later be expanded into the novel. Shortly before the publication of Microserfs, Coupland began to distance himself from his label as spokesperson for Generation X. Coupland's novel predicted the outcome of the late-1990s dot-com bubble with his depiction of the Oop! project's search for capital. Coupland, Douglas. Microserfs. Harper Perennial, 1st Harper Perennial Canadian Edition, "About the Book" P. 6. The abridged audiobook for Microserfs was read by Matthew Perry. Coded messages Several coded messages are included within the text: Microserfs Mystery Messages On pages 104–105 there is an encoded binary message that reads, when decoded: This message is an adapted version of the Rifleman's Creed. On pages 308–309, consonants appear on one page and vowels on the other. This text is taken from a letter written by Patty Hearst to her parents when she was kidnapped. Release 1995, USA, Regan Books ISBN 0-06-039148-0, Pub date June 1995, Hardback 1995, Canada, HarperCollins ISBN 0-00-224404-7, Pub date June 1995, Hardback 1996, USA, Regan Books ISBN 0-06-098704-9, Pub date June 19, 1996, Paperback References External links David Louis Edelman's review of the book, published in the Baltimore Evening Sun, June 26, 1995 | Microserfs |@lemmatized microserfs:9 publish:2 harpercollins:2 epistolary:2 novel:19 douglas:2 coupland:11 first:3 appear:4 short:2 story:5 form:2 wire:2 july:1 transhumanity:1 cover:2 article:1 january:2 issue:2 wired:2 magazine:2 subsequently:1 expand:2 full:1 length:1 set:2 early:1 capture:1 state:1 technology:3 industry:3 window:1 predict:2 dot:2 com:2 bubble:2 late:2 present:1 diary:1 entry:1 maintain:2 powerbook:1 narrator:3 daniel:17 well:1 formatting:1 usage:1 emoticon:1 similar:1 emerge:2 decade:1 later:3 blog:1 format:2 revisit:1 many:2 idea:1 jpod:1 label:2 google:1 generation:3 plot:3 two:3 distinct:1 movement:3 event:1 microsoft:17 redmond:5 washington:4 silicon:7 valley:8 oop:8 project:8 begin:9 character:11 work:9 different:3 main:3 campus:3 life:9 feel:2 like:4 feudalistic:1 society:1 bill:1 gate:1 lord:1 employee:4 serf:3 majority:1 susan:3 todd:6 bug:2 michael:7 abe:2 live:3 together:2 geek:3 house:1 dedicate:1 company:4 foundation:1 shake:1 father:2 longtime:1 ibm:2 lay:2 lifespan:1 coder:5 weigh:1 heavily:1 mind:4 second:1 offer:1 job:1 leave:6 housemate:1 immediately:1 think:1 decide:1 move:1 change:2 drastically:1 limited:1 sphere:1 enter:1 world:5 one:4 point:1 oh:1 call:1 reference:2 object:2 orient:1 program:2 lego:3 design:1 allow:1 dynamic:1 creation:1 rear:1 hardcover:1 version:2 photograph:1 denmark:1 legoland:1 billund:1 hold:1 undercurrent:1 family:3 relationship:2 jed:2 young:2 brother:2 die:2 boating:1 accident:2 child:1 book:9 initially:3 software:3 tester:3 thought:2 funnel:1 also:2 record:1 stream:1 consciousness:1 list:1 term:1 believe:2 exist:1 computer:2 subconscious:1 programmer:2 throughout:3 attempt:1 always:1 successfully:1 find:2 meaning:2 outside:1 eventually:4 gain:1 semi:1 celebrity:1 status:1 found:1 chyx:1 support:1 group:2 woman:2 code:1 coworker:3 obsess:2 bodybuilding:1 continually:1 search:2 something:1 christian:1 reject:1 parent:2 faith:2 bitter:1 man:1 old:3 remind:1 great:1 experience:1 come:1 closet:1 primary:1 reason:1 behind:1 start:1 gifted:1 high:1 function:1 autism:1 decision:1 startup:2 impetus:1 flatlander:1 diet:1 eat:3 thing:1 dimensional:1 period:2 bar:1 office:1 co:2 worker:4 slid:1 door:1 screen:1 name:1 kraft:1 single:1 addict:1 robitussin:1 cough:1 syrup:1 contain:1 dissociative:1 drug:1 dextromethorphan:1 karla:2 girlfriend:1 tense:1 actively:1 avoid:1 contact:1 closed:1 person:1 unfold:1 open:1 understanding:1 history:3 eating:1 disorder:1 mit:1 graduate:1 stay:1 rest:1 california:1 email:1 conversation:1 anatole:1 french:1 neighbor:1 use:1 apple:3 although:1 visit:1 team:1 often:1 accompany:1 las:1 vega:1 ce:1 convention:1 accent:1 becomes:1 strong:1 around:1 ethan:3 president:1 founder:1 primarily:1 business:1 millionaire:1 three:1 time:7 various:1 fail:2 devote:1 seek:1 venture:1 capital:2 personality:1 diametrically:1 oppose:1 part:1 relative:1 lack:1 technical:3 knowledge:2 suffer:1 bad:1 dandruff:1 skin:1 pock:1 scar:1 procedure:1 remove:1 cancerous:1 growth:1 dusty:2 female:1 bodybuilder:1 introduce:1 romantically:1 involve:1 baby:1 lindsay:2 become:3 transform:1 body:1 perfect:1 machine:2 go:1 gym:1 every:1 day:1 take:4 protein:1 pill:1 drink:1 infant:1 daughter:1 mid:1 level:1 manager:1 represent:1 closely:1 secret:1 evoke:1 feeling:1 jealousy:1 mother:1 librarian:1 little:2 serve:1 give:2 insight:1 laypeople:1 understand:1 childhood:1 drown:1 loom:1 presence:1 misty:1 underwood:1 overweight:1 dog:2 originally:1 train:1 see:1 eye:1 exam:1 affectionate:1 influence:1 culture:1 six:1 week:1 palo:1 alto:1 four:1 month:1 research:3 soriano:1 cesar:1 g:1 dateline:1 cyberspace:1 new:2 york:2 june:6 folmar:1 kate:1 channel:1 globe:1 mail:1 grimwood:1 jon:1 courtenay:1 nerd:1 cyberstocracy:1 independent:1 november:3 gorilla:1 mist:1 kind:1 observation:1 put:1 glove:1 compartment:1 snack:1 food:1 poster:1 bedroom:1 wall:1 interview:1 september:1 friend:2 help:1 radical:1 departure:1 previous:1 god:2 write:2 radically:1 willful:1 rerouting:1 realm:1 cockerill:1 matt:1 age:1 guardian:1 notice:1 art:1 school:1 mcclellan:1 jim:1 factory:1 observer:1 digital:1 turn:1 link:2 theme:1 surprise:1 conception:1 afterlife:1 eternal:1 absence:1 make:1 pointedly:1 people:1 lock:1 default:1 sort:1 transcendence:1 locate:1 elsewhere:1 obviously:1 totem:1 imbue:1 sacred:1 property:1 wish:1 hope:1 goal:1 desire:1 dream:1 sound:1 sf:1 allusion:1 geography:1 science:1 place:2 near:2 seattle:1 san:1 francisco:1 reach:1 dominance:1 victorious:1 look:1 lawsuit:1 inc:1 seem:1 danger:1 fall:1 apart:1 northridge:1 earthquake:2 profound:1 effect:1 construct:1 replica:1 highway:1 interchange:1 piece:1 honor:1 infrastructure:1 destroy:1 interest:1 publication:2 would:1 shortly:1 distance:1 spokesperson:1 x:1 outcome:1 depiction:1 harper:2 perennial:2 canadian:1 edition:1 p:1 abridged:1 audiobook:1 read:2 matthew:1 perry:1 cod:2 message:5 several:1 include:1 within:1 text:2 mystery:1 page:3 encoded:1 binary:1 decode:1 adapted:1 rifleman:1 creed:1 consonant:1 vowel:1 letter:1 patty:1 hearst:1 kidnap:1 release:1 usa:2 regan:2 isbn:3 pub:3 date:3 hardback:2 canada:1 paperback:1 external:1 david:1 louis:1 edelman:1 review:1 baltimore:1 evening:1 sun:1 |@bigram epistolary_novel:1 wired_magazine:2 redmond_washington:3 silicon_valley:6 cough_syrup:1 las_vega:1 diametrically_oppose:1 romantically_involve:1 palo_alto:1 san_francisco:1 harper_perennial:2 patty_hearst:1 external_link:1 |
3,404 | Gordon_Banks | Gordon Banks, OBE (born 30 December 1937 in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England) is a former English footballer, elected in a poll by the IFFHS as the second best goalkeeper of the 20th Century - after Lev Yashin (1st) and before Dino Zoff (3rd). IFFHS' Century Elections - rsssf.com - by Karel Stokkermans, RSSSF. Banks was a member of the England national team that won the 1966 World Cup. Banks was named by Pelé as one of the top 125 greatest living footballers in March 2004. Early years Banks, born in Sheffield http://www.ifhof.com/hof/banks.asp and a Chesterfield F.C. fan, was a careful student of goalkeepers during childhood. Banks played in local colliery football as a boy and was offered an apprenticeship by Chesterfield after initially going to work as a coal bagger and then as a bricklayer on leaving school. After performances in the youth and A teams gained him promotion to the reserves, Banks was posted to Germany with the Royal Signals on National Service, winning the Rhine Cup with his regimental team. On his return he was offered a full-time contract by the Chesterfield manager, Teddy Davison. He reached the two-legged final of the FA Youth Cup with Chesterfield in 1956, losing 4-3 on aggregate to the Manchester United team of the famous Busby Babes. He made his debut for the first team at home in November 1958 against Colchester United in the newly formed Third Division. He played just 23 games for the club before First Division Leicester City offered Chesterfield £7,000 in the summer of 1959. Banks' career started to rise rapidly from this point. After four games for the reserves, he replaced the injured Dave McLaren for his Leicester City debut in a 1-1 draw against Blackpool on 9 September 1959 and retained his place for the 2-0 defeat against Newcastle 3 days later. With McLaren fit again, Banks was sent back to the reserves but, after the first team conceded 14 goals in the next 5 games, he was recalled and became the first-choice goalie for the remainder of the season. In 1961, Leicester City beat Sheffield United to reach the FA Cup final at Wembley, the first of three they would manage that decade. Their opponents were Tottenham Hotspur, who were a cut above everyone else having won the First Division title with ease and style. Banks played well, but with the right back Len Chalmers carrying an injury, was powerless to prevent second half goals from Bobby Smith and Terry Dyson giving Spurs a 2-0 win and the first "double" of the 20th century. At the time, Ron Springett was the goalkeeper for England, but after the 1962 World Cup in Chile, a new coach was appointed in former England right back Alf Ramsey. Ramsey demanded sole control of team and began looking towards the next World Cup. He knew that he just needed to find a squad for the final stages as England were hosting the event and didn't need to undergo a qualifying campaign. In goal, Banks was checked out by Ramsey for the first time in April 1963 against Scotland at Wembley. Though England lost 2-1, Banks gained plaudits and Ramsey was pleased with his performance. He played in 13 of the next 15 internationals, including a 1-1 draw against Brazil. Meanwhile, a month after his international bow, Banks was back at Wembley with Leicester for another FA Cup final, this time against Manchester United. United were looking for their first trophy since the Munich air disaster of five years earlier which had claimed the lives of eight of the Busby Babes whom Banks had faced as an adolescent. Banks failed to hold a Bobby Charlton shot from distance which gave a chance to David Herd. After that things got worse for England's newest keeper, when Denis Law wrong-footed Banks with a smart shot on the turn to put United 2-0 ahead. After Leicester had pulled one back through a diving header from Ken Keyworth, Banks leapt high in the air to claim a high cross from Johnny Giles, only to drop the ball at Herd's feet. Herd scored his second to conclude a 3-1 win. In 1964, Banks had some domestic success when Leicester beat Stoke City 4-3 in the League Cup final over two legs, though they lost the trophy a year later after a 3-2 defeat by Chelsea on aggregate in the final. The 1966 World Cup By 1965, Banks was indisputably the first-choice England goalkeeper. He was settling into the form of his life which would last for the next seven years; agile and alert, he was frequently seen making amazing reflex saves and possessed flawless positional sense and reading of attackers' movements and instincts. When the World Cup began, Banks was in goal as England got through their group containing Uruguay, Mexico and France, drawing 0-0 with the former and clinching 2-0 victories over the latter. Banks was not greatly tested, but it was hugely encouraging that he emerged from the group with three clean sheets from three games, a trend that continued when England beat a physical Argentina side 1-0 in the last eight, with Geoff Hurst scoring with a header. Bobby Charlton scored twice in the semi final against Portugal before a late penalty was conceded by Jack Charlton handling the ball. Banks was finally beaten after 43 minutes when Eusébio put away the spot kick to his right. That said, England had won 2-1 and were in the final, where West Germany awaited. It was England who dominated the final but it was Banks who was beaten first. A weak header from Ray Wilson handed a chance to Helmut Haller whose shot was not fierce but was on target and needed dealing with. Banks thought Jack Charlton was going to clear; Charlton in turn thought Banks had it covered. Neither went for it as a result, and the ball crept in the corner. England equalised through a Geoff Hurst header within six minutes and went ahead late in the second half through Martin Peters. Banks had little to do during the second half but his known powers of concentration were required when Jack Charlton gave away a dubious free kick 30 yards from goal. Banks duly organised a defensive wall and got into position. Lothar Emmerich slammed the ball into the wall, the ball ricocheted across goal and Banks struggled to follow it across his six yard box, such was the speed and unpredictability of its movement as it took deflections and swipes. Ultimately German defender Wolfgang Weber reached it at the far post and swept it into the net with Banks diving in vain to get his palms to the ball. The final whistle went seconds later to send the game into extra time. England took the lead in extra time with that hotly debated second goal from Hurst. Banks not troubled again until the final minute, when he saved a shot from Siggy Held and moments later could only watch as Uwe Seeler lunged for the ball and missed. Hurst then scored his hat-trick goal and the game was over. Gordon Banks had 33 England caps and was a world champion. But his career at club level was shortly to take an interesting and unexpected turn. 1966-1970 Coming through the ranks at Leicester City was a young local goalkeeper called Peter Shilton, who was given his debut as a 17-year-old in 1966. It was clear that Shilton was something special, yet the man he had to displace was now regarded as the world's number one goalkeeper. When Shilton told Leicester he would not sign a professional contract unless he was guaranteed first team football, Banks found himself available for transfer, just a year after winning the World Cup. Banks joined Stoke City and maintained his England place, while Shilton lost in Leicester's third FA Cup final of the 1960s (the 1969 game against Manchester City) and began to make his name. Ramsey gave the odd chance to Chelsea keeper Peter Bonetti, Everton's Gordon West and Manchester United's Alex Stepney, but when the big games came along, it was only Banks. During this time, Gordon Banks moved to Madeley, Staffordshire. In one of the more bizarre episodes in football history, in 1967, Banks played a season for the Cleveland Stokers of the American United Soccer Association (USA). The USA was a short lived attempt to build a first division U.S. league by importing clubs from around the world to play as U.S. teams. Stoke City, with Banks, came to the U.S. where it played in Cleveland, Ohio. England reached the last four of the 1968 European Championships where they lost to Yugoslavia in Florence. A year later, Banks picked up his 50th cap as England defeated Scotland 4-1 at Wembley. He played in nine more internationals prior to the start of the 1970 World Cup in Mexico, for which England once again had not needed to qualify, this time owing to their status as holders. Banks, who discovered just after arriving in Mexico that he had been awarded the OBE, played his 60th England game in the opening group victory over Romania before taking to the field for the keenly-awaited clash with Brazil. After just ten minutes, Banks wrote himself into football folklore. The 1970 save against Pelé Image describing Banks' save v Pelé in the 1970 World Cup, Mexico Playing at pace, Brazil were putting England under enormous pressure and an attack was begun by captain Carlos Alberto who sent a fizzing low ball down the right flank for the speedy Jairzinho to latch on to. The Brazilian winger sped past left back Terry Cooper and reached the byline. Stretching slightly, he managed to get his toes underneath the fast ball and deliver a high but dipping cross towards the far post. Banks, like all goalkeepers reliant on positional sensibility, had been at the near post and suddenly had to turn on his heels and follow the ball to its back post destination. Waiting for the ball was Pelé, who had arrived at speed and with perfect timing. He leapt hard at the ball above England right back Tommy Wright and thundered a harsh, pacy downward header towards Banks' near post corner. The striker, the world's greatest, shouted "Goal!" as he connected with the ball. Banks was still making his way across the line from Jairzinho's cross and in the split-second of assessment the incident allowed, it seemed impossible for him to get to the ball. He also had to dive slightly backwards and down at the same time which is almost physically impossible. Yet he hurled himself downwards and backwards and got the base of his thumb to the ball, with the momentum sending him cascading to the ground. It was only when he heard the applause and praise of captain Bobby Moore and then looked up and saw the ball trundling towards the advertising hoardings at the far corner, that he realised he'd managed to divert the ball over the bar - he'd known he got a touch but still assumed the ball had gone in. England were not being well received by the locals after cutting comments made about Mexico prior to the tournament by Ramsey, but spontaneous applause rang around the Guadalajara, Jalisco stadium as Banks got back into position to defend the resulting corner. Pelé, who'd begun to celebrate a goal when he headed the ball, would later describe the save as the greatest he'd ever seen. Brazil still won 1-0 - Jairzinho guided a shot past Banks in the second half - but England missed chances to get something, with Jeff Astle infamously putting the ball wide of an open goal and Alan Ball striking the crossbar. England ultimately joined Brazil in the last eight after a win in the final group game against Czechoslovakia. The reward was a rematch of the 1966 final against West Germany. England vs West Germany 1970 The day before the game Banks and England's hopes of making further inroads into the World Cup were dented when he started to complain of an upset stomach. He subsequently spent long periods in the bathroom and despite rest and medication, he did not seem to be recovering in time. But on the day of the game, he offered a glimmer of hope to Ramsey when he said he felt better and asked for a fitness test. He caught a few balls and did some short sprints but something was not right and Ramsey decided he couldn't risk him. Peter Bonetti was summoned to take his place. The overheard remark by Ramsey after Banks' absence from the game was confirmed as: "Of all the players to lose, we had to lose him." http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/pages/fame/Inductees/gordonbanks.htm Bonetti played fine for an hour and England went into a commanding 2-0 lead, with Peters scoring against the Germans again after Alan Mullery had put the defending champions ahead. Franz Beckenbauer then hit a low shot under the body of Bonetti, who had been slow to react. Beckenbauer would later claim that he would not have scored had Banks been the goalkeeper. The Germans had hope now, especially when Beckenbauer became more liberated in the game with Ramsey's decision to substitute Bobby Charlton. In the last ten minutes, veteran striker Uwe Seeler looped a back header over Bonetti to take the game into extra time; then Gerd Müller smashed home the winner in the added period. Conspiracies began to surface that Banks had been "nobbled" by someone in England's hotel and that his food had been somehow spiked. This was dismissed by Banks, who watched the game on his hotel TV and saw England go 2-0 ahead. After another visit to the bathroom, he returned to his bed and, feeling rough and sleepy, switched off his TV set to take a nap, assuming the match was won. He was woken by his second understudy, Stepney, who came to his room to signal the devastating final score with his fingers. West Germany had beaten England 3-2. England's No.1 (1970-1972) Banks did not play in England's first game after the World Cup, with Ramsey electing to give his old understudy Shilton a debut against East Germany at Wembley. This would be a sign of things to come, but not for a little while. Banks would play in ten of the next 12 internationals as England tried to qualify for the 1972 European Championships but lost yet again to West Germany prior to the finals stage. During this period, Banks was also involved in a notorious incident with Manchester United's George Best who, while playing against England for Northern Ireland, flicked the ball out of Banks' hands and headed it into the net as the protesting goalkeeper chased him. The goal was disallowed for ungentlemanly conduct and England won 1-0, but Banks was left feeling rather embarrassed. At club level, Banks came up with his second most famous save when spectacularly palming a vicious penalty from his England team-mate Hurst over the crossbar as Stoke defeated West Ham United in the semi final of the 1972 League Cup. Banks duly reached his third League Cup final and won it for the second time, when Stoke beat Chelsea 2-1 at Wembley. Having lost two FA Cup finals, Banks' attempts to be luckier with Stoke in the competition fell agonisingly short as Arsenal beat them in the semi finals of both the 1971 and 1972 competitions. Banks played his 73rd England game in a 1-0 win over Scotland at Hampden Park on 27 May 1972 and was awarded the Football Writers' Association Footballer Of The Year honour. He was 34-years-old and at the peak of his abilities and powers. He began the next season with Stoke in his usual unflappable manner, but then his top-flight career would be suddenly and violently brought to an end. A new life On 22 October 1972, while driving home from a session with the Stoke physiotherapist, Banks lost control of his car which ended up in a ditch. http://www.planetworldcup.com/LEGENDS/banks.html He lost consciousness and was rushed to hospital. When he came round, he was informed that though he had not suffered any life-threatening injury, he had lost the sight in his right eye. He considered trying to resume his career as a goalkeeper but even he had to accept that the loss of binocular vision was an obvious barrier to maintaining his goalkeeping livelihood. Shilton became England's number one and it was he whom Stoke bought in 1974 as Banks' long-term replacement. Banks went into scouting, managed non-league side Telford United and did some work on the commercial side of football. In October 1977 he played for League of Ireland side St. Patrick's Athletic F.C.; he played just the once – a home game at Richmond Park on 2 October 1977 against Shamrock Rovers, keeping a clean sheet in a 1-0 win. He then went to play as a named superstar in the NASL for Fort Lauderdale Strikers alongside his old nemesis Best. He later began a business which distributed tickets for big events to corporate clients, but this fell into a mini-scandal when he received a restricted ban on getting tickets for the FA Cup final after some attributed to his company fell into the wrong hands. In December 1978 he was appointed as a coach at Port Vale, being demoted to reserve coach in October 1978 as the team struggled, before being dismissed in 1979. Banks met his wife Ursula while on national service in Germany and they married after he returned to England. He now lives in quiet retirement but is still regarded, as a Channel 4 poll to find England's greatest XI showed recently, as the best goalkeeper England has ever produced, and many would claim no goalkeeper in the world has been better. Banks was an Inaugural Inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002. He was awarded an honorary doctorate from Keele University in February 2006. In 2001 Banks sold his World Cup Winners medal at Christie's auction house in London. The medal sold for £124,750 easily exceeding the initial estimate of £90,000. Banks said the decision to sell was difficult - the 4-2 cup final victory over West Germany at Wembley was the greatest day of his career. But the former Leicester and Stoke City keeper wanted to save his children the burden of deciding what to do with the medal after his death. The proceeds of the medal were divided between them. Banks's international cap from the same match was also sold in the same aution. It sold for £27,025. Sheffield Walk of Fame On Tuesday 9 May 2006, Gordon Banks was the first "legend" to be inducted into a new Walk of Fame, by having a plaque installed in the pavement in front of the Town Hall. Banks made a speech to an attendant crowd as to how thrilled he was to be given this honour. The plaque is made of bronze, and is a star set in a circle with a blue background, and the words "SHEFFIELD LEGEND" GORDON BANKS OBE. FOOTBALLER. Gordon Banks: A Hero Who Could Fly Best-selling Irish investigative author, Don Mullan, published a boyhood memoir in 2006 called GORDON BANKS: A Hero Who Could Fly in which he wrote about the influence of the England goalkeeper on his life. Mullan discovered at the age of 38 that he is dyslexic but learned to read and write through a giant 500-page scrapbook which he began shortly after seeing Banks play in the 1966 World Cup Final. The Irish author grew up in the famous Republican stronghold of the Creggan Estate, Derry, Northern Ireland, at the height of the troubles and was a schoolboy witness to the tragic events of Bloody Sunday, 30 January 1972. In his moving tribute to Gordon Banks he claims that his English hero was one of the reasons why he never choose the path of violence. Gordon Banks launched Mullan's book in Dublin, Derry and at the Britannia Stadium in Stoke in the Summer of 2006 and has described Mullan as 'my greatest fan'. GORDON BANKS: A Hero Who Could Fly was optioned by BBC Drama. Mullan was actively involved in the scheme to erect a monument to the England goalkeeper outside Stoke City FC's Britannia Stadium with the assistance of Banks' legendary teammate Terry Conroy and emerging local sculptor Andrew Edwards. Inspired by Mullan's book, Edwards named the monument A Hero Who Could Fly and used the following quote from the Irish author on the monument: ... we lived in an era when sporting heroes were ordinary and unassuming men whose very modesty was the oxygen of dreams. And across the water, on a neighbouring island with whom we Irish had been at war for centuries I had a hero who could fly. His name is GORDON BANKS. From being a timid, fearful young boy he taught me that impossible doesn't exist. Unknown to him he helped save a young fan from making choices that had brought too much sorrow and sadness to Irish and British alike. Who knows? Perhaps it was his best save ever. The 1st phase of the monument was unveiled by Pelé and Archbishop Desmond Tutu on 12 July 2008, followed by a Gordon Banks XI vs. Pelé XI celebrity charity football match. Archbishop Tutu was assistant manager to Pelé. "Save Recalled As Statue Unveiled", BBC News, 13th July 2008 The 2nd phase of the monument, which will feature a reference to Mullan's giant scrapbook, will be unveiled in late 2008 and will involve the legendary 1970 Brazilian World Cup winning captain, Carlos Alberto. Honours World Cup: 1966 OBE: 1970 Statistics |- |1955-56||rowspan="4"|Chesterfield||rowspan="4"|Third Division North||0||0|||||||| |- |1956-57||0||0|||||||| |- |1957-58||0||0|||||||| |- |1958-59||23||0|||||||| |- |1959-60||rowspan="8"|Leicester City||rowspan="8"|First Division||32||0|||||||| |- |1960-61||40||0|||||||| |- |1961-62||41||0|||||||| |- |1962-63||38||0|||||||| |- |1963-64||36||0|||||||| |- |1964-65||38||0|||||||| |- |1965-66||32||0|||||||| |- |1966-67||36||0|||||||| |- |1966-67||rowspan="7"|Stoke City||rowspan="7"|First Division||4||0|||||||| |- |1967-68||39||0|||||||| |- |1968-69||30||0|||||||| |- |1969-70||38||0|||||||| |- |1970-71||40||0|||||||| |- |1971-72||36||0|||||||| |- |1972-73||8||0|||||||| |- |1977||rowspan="2"|Fort Lauderdale Strikers||rowspan="2"|NASL||26||0|||||||| |- |1978||11||0|||||||| 511||0|||||||| 37||0|||||||| 548||0|||||||| |} References External links Banks @ Goalkeeping Greats | Gordon_Banks |@lemmatized gordon:13 bank:82 obe:4 born:1 december:2 sheffield:5 south:1 yorkshire:1 england:44 former:4 english:3 footballer:4 elect:2 poll:2 iffhs:2 second:12 best:6 goalkeeper:14 century:4 lev:1 yashin:1 dino:1 zoff:1 election:1 rsssf:2 com:4 karel:1 stokkermans:1 member:1 national:3 team:11 win:15 world:19 cup:25 name:5 pelé:8 one:6 top:2 great:7 living:1 march:1 early:1 year:9 bear:1 http:3 www:3 ifhof:1 hof:1 asp:1 chesterfield:6 f:2 c:2 fan:3 careful:1 student:1 childhood:1 play:18 local:4 colliery:1 football:8 boy:2 offer:4 apprenticeship:1 initially:1 go:10 work:2 coal:1 bagger:1 bricklayer:1 leave:3 school:1 performance:2 youth:2 gain:2 promotion:1 reserve:4 post:6 germany:9 royal:1 signal:2 service:2 rhine:1 regimental:1 return:3 full:1 time:12 contract:2 manager:2 teddy:1 davison:1 reach:6 two:3 legged:1 final:23 fa:6 lose:12 aggregate:2 manchester:5 unite:7 famous:3 busby:2 babe:2 make:9 debut:4 first:17 home:4 november:1 colchester:1 newly:1 form:2 third:4 division:7 game:19 club:4 leicester:11 city:12 summer:2 career:5 start:3 rise:1 rapidly:1 point:1 four:2 replace:1 injured:1 dave:1 mclaren:2 draw:3 blackpool:1 september:1 retain:1 place:3 defeat:4 newcastle:1 day:4 later:8 fit:1 send:4 back:10 concede:2 goal:12 next:6 recall:2 become:3 choice:3 goalie:1 remainder:1 season:3 beat:8 united:4 wembley:7 three:3 would:10 manage:4 decade:1 opponent:1 tottenham:1 hotspur:1 cut:2 everyone:1 else:1 title:1 ease:1 style:1 well:4 right:7 len:1 chalmers:1 carry:1 injury:2 powerless:1 prevent:1 half:4 bobby:5 smith:1 terry:3 dyson:1 give:7 spur:1 double:1 ron:1 springett:1 chile:1 new:4 coach:3 appoint:2 alf:1 ramsey:11 demand:1 sole:1 control:2 begin:9 look:3 towards:4 know:2 need:4 find:3 squad:1 stage:2 host:1 event:3 undergo:1 qualifying:1 campaign:1 check:1 april:1 scotland:3 though:3 plaudit:1 pleased:1 international:5 include:1 brazil:5 meanwhile:1 month:1 bow:1 another:2 trophy:2 since:1 munich:1 air:2 disaster:1 five:1 earlier:1 claim:5 life:5 eight:3 face:1 adolescent:1 fail:1 hold:2 charlton:7 shot:6 distance:1 chance:4 david:1 herd:3 thing:2 get:11 bad:1 keeper:3 denis:1 law:1 wrong:2 footed:1 smart:1 turn:4 put:5 ahead:4 pull:1 diving:1 header:6 ken:1 keyworth:1 leap:2 high:3 cross:3 johnny:1 giles:1 drop:1 ball:23 foot:1 score:7 conclude:1 domestic:1 success:1 stoke:13 league:6 leg:1 chelsea:3 indisputably:1 settle:1 last:5 seven:1 agile:1 alert:1 frequently:1 see:3 amazing:1 reflex:1 save:10 possess:1 flawless:1 positional:2 sense:1 reading:1 attacker:1 movement:2 instinct:1 group:4 contain:1 uruguay:1 mexico:5 france:1 clinch:1 victory:3 latter:1 greatly:1 test:2 hugely:1 encouraging:1 emerge:2 clean:2 sheet:2 trend:1 continue:1 physical:1 argentina:1 side:4 geoff:2 hurst:5 twice:1 semi:3 portugal:1 late:3 penalty:2 jack:3 handle:1 finally:1 minute:5 eusébio:1 away:2 spot:1 kick:2 say:3 west:8 await:1 dominate:1 weak:1 ray:1 wilson:1 hand:3 helmut:1 haller:1 whose:2 fierce:1 target:1 deal:1 think:1 clear:2 thought:1 cover:1 neither:1 result:1 crept:1 corner:4 equalise:1 within:1 six:2 martin:1 peter:5 little:2 known:2 power:2 concentration:1 require:1 dubious:1 free:1 yard:2 duly:2 organise:1 defensive:1 wall:2 position:2 lothar:1 emmerich:1 slam:1 ricochet:1 across:4 struggle:2 follow:3 box:1 speed:3 unpredictability:1 take:7 deflection:1 swipe:1 ultimately:2 german:3 defender:1 wolfgang:1 weber:1 far:3 sweep:1 net:2 dive:2 vain:1 palm:2 whistle:1 extra:3 lead:2 hotly:1 debate:1 trouble:2 siggy:1 moment:1 could:6 watch:2 uwe:2 seeler:2 lunge:1 miss:2 hat:1 trick:1 cap:3 champion:2 level:2 shortly:2 interesting:1 unexpected:1 come:7 rank:1 young:3 call:2 shilton:6 old:4 something:3 special:1 yet:3 man:1 displace:1 regard:2 number:2 tell:1 sign:2 professional:1 unless:1 guarantee:1 available:1 transfer:1 join:1 maintain:2 odd:1 bonetti:5 everton:1 alex:1 stepney:2 big:2 along:1 move:2 madeley:1 staffordshire:1 bizarre:1 episode:1 history:1 cleveland:2 stoker:1 american:1 soccer:1 association:2 usa:2 short:3 live:3 attempt:2 build:1 u:3 import:1 around:2 ohio:1 european:2 championship:2 yugoslavia:1 florence:1 pick:1 nine:1 prior:3 qualify:2 owe:1 status:1 holder:1 discover:2 arrive:2 award:3 opening:1 romania:1 field:1 keenly:1 awaited:1 clash:1 ten:3 write:3 folklore:1 image:1 describe:3 v:2 pace:1 enormous:1 pressure:1 attack:1 captain:3 carlos:2 alberto:2 fizzing:1 low:2 flank:1 speedy:1 jairzinho:3 latch:1 brazilian:2 winger:1 past:2 cooper:1 byline:1 stretch:1 slightly:2 toe:1 underneath:1 fast:1 deliver:1 dip:1 like:1 reliant:1 sensibility:1 near:2 suddenly:2 heel:1 destination:1 wait:1 perfect:1 timing:1 hard:1 tommy:1 wright:1 thunder:1 harsh:1 pacy:1 downward:1 striker:4 shout:1 connect:1 still:4 way:1 line:1 split:1 assessment:1 incident:2 allow:1 seem:2 impossible:3 also:3 backwards:2 almost:1 physically:1 hurl:1 downwards:1 base:1 thumb:1 momentum:1 cascade:1 ground:1 hear:1 applause:2 praise:1 moore:1 saw:2 trundling:1 advertising:1 hoarding:1 realise:1 divert:1 bar:1 touch:1 assume:2 receive:2 comment:1 tournament:1 spontaneous:1 rang:1 guadalajara:1 jalisco:1 stadium:3 defend:1 resulting:1 celebrate:1 head:2 ever:3 guide:1 jeff:1 astle:1 infamously:1 wide:1 open:1 alan:2 strike:1 crossbar:2 joined:1 czechoslovakia:1 reward:1 rematch:1 vs:1 hope:3 inroad:1 dent:1 complain:1 upset:1 stomach:1 subsequently:1 spend:1 long:2 period:3 bathroom:2 despite:1 rest:1 medication:1 recover:1 glimmer:1 felt:1 ask:1 fitness:1 catch:1 sprint:1 decide:2 risk:1 summon:1 overheard:1 remark:1 absence:1 confirm:1 player:1 nationalfootballmuseum:1 page:2 fame:4 inductee:2 gordonbanks:1 htm:1 played:1 fine:1 hour:1 commanding:1 mullery:1 defending:1 franz:1 beckenbauer:3 hit:1 body:1 slow:1 react:1 especially:1 liberate:1 decision:2 substitute:1 veteran:1 loop:1 gerd:1 müller:1 smash:1 winner:2 added:1 conspiracy:1 surface:1 nobbled:1 someone:1 hotel:2 food:1 somehow:1 spike:1 dismiss:2 tv:2 visit:1 bed:1 feel:2 rough:1 sleepy:1 switch:1 set:2 nap:1 match:3 wake:1 understudy:2 room:1 devastate:1 finger:1 east:1 try:2 involve:3 notorious:1 george:1 northern:2 ireland:3 flick:1 protest:1 chase:1 disallow:1 ungentlemanly:1 conduct:1 rather:1 embarrass:1 spectacularly:1 vicious:1 mate:1 ham:1 lucky:1 competition:2 fell:3 agonisingly:1 arsenal:1 hampden:1 park:2 may:2 writer:1 honour:2 peak:1 ability:1 usual:1 unflappable:1 manner:1 flight:1 violently:1 bring:2 end:2 october:4 drive:1 session:1 physiotherapist:1 car:1 ditch:1 planetworldcup:1 legends:1 html:1 consciousness:1 rush:1 hospital:1 round:1 inform:1 suffer:1 threatening:1 sight:1 eye:1 consider:1 resume:1 even:1 accept:1 loss:1 binocular:1 vision:1 obvious:1 barrier:1 goalkeeping:2 livelihood:1 buy:1 term:1 replacement:1 scouting:1 non:1 telford:1 commercial:1 st:1 patrick:1 athletic:1 richmond:1 shamrock:1 rover:1 keep:1 superstar:1 nasl:2 fort:2 lauderdale:2 alongside:1 nemesis:1 business:1 distribute:1 ticket:2 corporate:1 client:1 mini:1 scandal:1 restricted:1 ban:1 attribute:1 company:1 port:1 vale:1 demote:1 meet:1 wife:1 ursula:1 marry:1 quiet:1 retirement:1 channel:1 xi:3 show:1 recently:1 produce:1 many:1 inaugural:1 hall:2 honorary:1 doctorate:1 keele:1 university:1 february:1 sell:6 medal:4 christie:1 auction:1 house:1 london:1 easily:1 exceed:1 initial:1 estimate:1 difficult:1 want:1 child:1 burden:1 death:1 proceeds:1 divide:1 aution:1 walk:2 tuesday:1 legend:2 induct:1 plaque:2 instal:1 pavement:1 front:1 town:1 speech:1 attendant:1 crowd:1 thrilled:1 bronze:1 star:1 circle:1 blue:1 background:1 word:1 hero:7 fly:5 irish:5 investigative:1 author:3 mullan:7 publish:1 boyhood:1 memoir:1 influence:1 age:1 dyslexic:1 learn:1 read:1 giant:2 scrapbook:2 grow:1 republican:1 stronghold:1 creggan:1 estate:1 derry:2 height:1 schoolboy:1 witness:1 tragic:1 bloody:1 sunday:1 january:1 tribute:1 reason:1 never:1 choose:1 path:1 violence:1 launch:1 book:2 dublin:1 britannia:2 optioned:1 bbc:2 drama:1 actively:1 scheme:1 erect:1 monument:5 outside:1 fc:1 assistance:1 legendary:2 teammate:1 conroy:1 sculptor:1 andrew:1 edward:2 inspire:1 use:1 following:1 quote:1 era:1 sport:1 ordinary:1 unassuming:1 men:1 modesty:1 oxygen:1 dream:1 water:1 neighbouring:1 island:1 war:1 timid:1 fearful:1 teach:1 exist:1 unknown:1 help:1 much:1 sorrow:1 sadness:1 british:1 alike:1 perhaps:1 phase:2 unveil:3 archbishop:2 desmond:1 tutu:2 july:2 celebrity:1 charity:1 assistant:1 statue:1 news:1 feature:1 reference:2 honours:1 statistic:1 rowspan:8 north:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram dino_zoff:1 http_www:3 manchester_unite:3 fa_cup:5 tottenham_hotspur:1 everyone_else:1 bobby_charlton:3 geoff_hurst:2 hotly_debate:1 hat_trick:1 peter_shilton:1 carlos_alberto:2 advertising_hoarding:1 upset_stomach:1 fame_inductee:1 franz_beckenbauer:1 gerd_müller:1 hampden_park:1 binocular_vision:1 fort_lauderdale:2 hall_fame:1 honorary_doctorate:1 christie_auction:1 walk_fame:2 bloody_sunday:1 archbishop_desmond:1 desmond_tutu:1 bbc_news:1 external_link:1 |
3,405 | Greece | Greece (, transliterated: Elláda , historically , Hellás, ), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Ellīnikī́ Dīmokratía, ), is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula. It has borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia See Macedonia naming dispute and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east and south of mainland Greece, while the Ionian Sea lies to the west. Both parts of the Eastern Mediterranean basin feature a vast number of islands, islets and rock islands. Modern Greece traces its roots to the civilization of ancient Greece, generally considered to be the cradle of Western civilization. As such, it is the birthplace of democracy, Finley, M. I. Democracy Ancient and Modern. 2d ed., 1985. London: Hogarth. Western philosophy, History of Philosophy, Volume 1 by Frederick Copleston the Olympic Games, Western literature and historiography, political science, major scientific and mathematical principles, and Western drama, Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre. sixth ed., 1991. Boston; London: Allyn and Bacon. including both tragedy and comedy. Greece is a developed country, a member of the European Union since 1981, a member of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union since 2001, NATO since 1952, On the 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980. the OECD since 1961, the WEU since 1995, a founding member of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and a member of ESA since 2005. Athens is the capital; Thessaloniki, Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Ioannina, Kavala, Rhodes and Serres are some of the country's other major cities. History The Parthenon in Athens. 25 March 1821: Germanos of Patras, blessing the Greek flag at Agia Lavra. Theodoros Vryzakis, 1865. Territorial expansion of the modern Greek state between 1830 and 1947 24 July 1974: Konstantinos Karamanlis arrives in Athens within hours after the fall of a 7-year-long military junta, in order to be sworn in as the new Prime Minister of the country. Greece was the first area in Europe where advanced early civilizations emerged, beginning with the Minoan civilization in Crete and then the Mycenean civilization on the mainland. Later, city-states emerged across the Greek peninsula and spread to the shores of Black Sea, South Italy and Asia Minor reaching great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, expressed in architecture, drama, science and philosophy, and nurtured in Athens under a democratic environment. Athens and Sparta led the way in repelling the Persian Empire in a series of battles. Both were later overshadowed by Thebes and eventually Macedon, with the latter under the guidance of Alexander the Great uniting and leading the Greek world to victory over the Persians, to presage the Hellenistic era, itself brought only partially to a close two centuries later with the establishment of Roman rule over Greek lands in 146 BC. The subsequent mixture of Roman and Hellenic cultures took form in the establishment of the Byzantine Empire in 330 AD around Constantinople, which remained a major cultural and military power for the next 1,123 years, until its fall at the hands of Ottomans in 1453. On the eve of the Ottoman era the Greek intelligentsia migrated to Western Europe, playing a significant role in the Western European Renaissance through the transferring of works of Ancient Greeks to Western Europe. Nevertheless, the Ottoman millet system contributed to the cohesion of the Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Empire based on religion, as the latter played an integral role in the formation of modern Greek identity. After the Greek War of Independence, successfully fought against the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1829, the nascent Greek state was finally recognized under the London Protocol. In 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, a noble Greek from the Ionian Islands, was chosen as the first governor of the new Republic. However, following his assassination, the Great Powers soon installed a monarchy under Otto, of the Bavarian House of Wittelsbach. In 1843, an uprising forced the King to grant a constitution and a representative assembly. Due to his unimpaired authoritarian rule, he was eventually dethroned in 1863 and replaced by Prince Vilhelm (William) of Denmark, who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift from Britain. In 1877, Charilaos Trikoupis, a dominant figure of the Greek political scene who is attributed with the significant improvement of the country's infrastructure, curbed the power of the monarchy to interfere in the assembly by issuing the rule of vote of confidence to any potential prime minister. As a result of the Balkan Wars, Greece successfully increased the extent of her territory and population, a challenging context both socially and economically. In the following years, the struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos over the country's foreign policy on the eve of World War I dominated the country's political scene, and divided the country into two opposed groups. In the aftermath of WW I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war which resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne. Instability and successive coups d'etat marked the following era, which was overshadowed by the massive task of incorporating 1.5 million Greek refugees from Asia Minor into Greek society. On 28 October 1940 Fascist Italy demanded the surrender of Greece, but Greek dictator Ioannis Metaxas refused and in the following Greco-Italian War, Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania, giving the Allies their first victory over Axis forces on land. The country would eventually fall to urgently dispatched German forces during the Battle of Greece. The German occupiers nevertheless met serious challenges from the Greek Resistance. After liberation, Greece experienced a bitter civil war between Royalist and Communist forces, which led to economic devastation and severe social tensions between its Rightists and largely Communist Leftists for the next 30 years. Mazower, Mark. After the War was Over The next 20 years were characterized by marginalisation of the left in the political and social spheres but also by a significant economic growth, propelled in part by the Marshall Plan. In 1965, a period of political turbulence led to a coup d’etat on 21 April 1967 by the US-backed Regime of the Colonels. On November 1973 the Athens Polytechnic Uprising sent shock waves across the regime, and a counter-coup established Brigadier Dimitrios Ioannides as dictator. On 20 July 1974, as Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus, the regime collapsed. Former premier Constantine Karamanlis was invited back from Paris where he had lived in self-exile since 1963, marking the beginning of the Metapolitefsi era. On the 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus. History, Editorial Consultant : Adam Hart-Davis, Dorling Kindersley Limited publisher, ISBN : 978 1 8561 3062 2 In 1975 a democratic republican constitution was activated and the monarchy abolished by a referendum held that same year. Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou founded the Panhellenic Socialist Party, or PASOK, in response to Constantine Karamanlis' New Democracy party, with the two political formations dominating Greek political affairs in the ensuing decades. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980. Relations with neighbouring Turkey have improved substantially over the last decade, since successive earthquakes hit both nations in the summer of 1999 (see Greece-Turkey earthquake diplomacy), and today Athens is an active supporter of Turkey's bid for EU membership. Greece became the tenth member of the European Union on 1 January 1981, and ever since the nation has experienced a remarkable and sustained economic growth. Widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenues from tourism, shipping and a fast growing service sector have raised the country's standard of living to unprecedented levels. The country adopted the Euro in 2001 and successfully organised the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. Government and politics The Greek Parliament in central Athens. Eleftherios Venizelos (1864–1936), one of the greatest political figures of modern Greece. Greece is a parliamentary republic. The Constitution of Greece: Article 1 The head of state is the President of the Republic, who is elected by the Parliament for a five-year term. The Constitution of Greece: Article 30 The current Constitution was drawn up and adopted by the Fifth Revisionary Parliament of the Hellenes and entered into force in 1975 after the fall of the military junta of 1967–1974. It has been revised twice since, in 1986 and in 2001. The Constitution, which consists of 120 articles, provides for a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and grants extensive specific guarantees (further reinforced in 2001) of civil liberties and social rights. P.D. Dagtoglou, Individual Rights, I, 21 & E. Venizelos, The "Acquis" of the Constitutional Revision, 131-132, 165-172 According to the Constitution, executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government. The Constitution of Greece: Article 26 From the Constitutional amendment of 1986 the President's duties were curtailed to a significant extent, and they are now largely ceremonial; most political power thus lies in the hands of the Prime Minister. K. Mavrias, Constitutional Law, 477-478, 486-487 The position of Prime Minister, Greece's head of government, belongs to the current leader of the political party that can obtain a vote of confidence by the Parliament. The President of the Republic formally appoints the Prime Minister and, on his recommendation, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Cabinet. The Constitution of Greece: Article 37 Legislative power is exercised by a 300-member elective unicameral Parliament. The Constitution of Greece: Articles 51, 53 Statutes passed by the Parliament are promulgated by the President of the Republic. The Constitution of Greece: Article 42 Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the President of the Republic is obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier on the proposal of the Cabinet, in view of dealing with a national issue of exceptional importance. The Constitution of Greece: Article 41 The President is also obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier, if the opposition manages to pass a motion of no confidence. The Constitution of Greece: Article 84 Women's suffrage was guaranteed with a 1952 Constitutional amendment. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the Court of Cassation (Άρειος Πάγος), the Council of State (Συμβούλιο της Επικρατείας) and the Court of Auditors (Ελεγκτικό Συνέδριο). The Judiciary system is also composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between the citizens and the Greek administrative authorities. Political Parties Since the restoration of democracy, the Greek two-party system is dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy (ND) and the social-democratic Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK). For a diachronic analysis of the Greek party system see T. Pappas, Transformation of the Greek Party System Since 1951, 90-114, who distinguishes three distinct types of party system which developed in consecutive order, namely, a predominant-party system (from 1952 to 1963), a system of polarised pluralism (between 1963 and 1981), and a two-party system (since 1981). Other significant parties include the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) and the Popular Orthodox Rally (LAOS). The current prime minister is Kostas Karamanlis, president of the New Democracy party and nephew of the late Constantine Karamanlis, who won a second term on 16 September 2007, acquiring a slimmer majority in the Parliament with only 152 out of 300 seats. Peripheries and prefectures Administratively, Greece consists of thirteen peripheries subdivided into a total of fifty-one prefectures (, singular ). There is also one autonomous area, Mount Athos (, "Holy Mountain"), which borders the periphery of Central Macedonia. Map Number Periphery Capital Area Population </tr> 1 Attica Athens 3,808 km²3,761,810 2 Central Greece Lamia 15,549 km²605,329 3 Central Macedonia Thessaloniki 18,811 km²1,871,952 4 Crete Heraklion 8,259 km²601,131 5 East Macedonia and Thrace Komotini 14,157 km²611,067 6 Epirus Ioannina 9,203 km²353,820 7 Ionian Islands Corfu 2,307 km²212,984 8 North Aegean Mytilene 3,836 km²206,121 9 Peloponnese Kalamata 15,490 km²638,942 10 South Aegean Ermoupoli 5,286 km²302,686 11 Thessaly Larissa 14.037 km²753,888 12 West Greece Patras 11,350 km²740,506 13 West Macedonia Kozani 9,451 km²301,522 - Mount Athos (Autonomous) Karyes 390 km²2,262 Foreign relations Greece is a member of the European Union since 1981, a member of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union since 2001, NATO since 1952, the OECD since 1961, the WEU since 1995, a founding member of Black Sea Economic Cooperation and a member of ESA since 2005. Prominent issues in Greek foreign policy include the enduring dispute over Cyprus, differences with Turkey over the Aegean sea, as well as the naming dispute with the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia ("FYROM"). Geography Pontikonisi and Vlaheraina monastery from the island of Corfu. View of Mount Olympus from the town of Litochoro. <div style="position: relative"> <span style="color: black;">Albania <span style="color: black;">Rep. Maced. <span style="color: black;">Bulgaria <span style="color: black;">Turkey <span style="color: black;">Greece ATHENS Thessaloniki Kavala Thasos Alexandroupoli Samothrace Corfu Igoumenitsa Larissa Volos Ioannina Chalcis Patras Corinth Nafplion Sparta Areopoli Piraeus Eleusina Laurium Heraklion Macedonia Thrace Epirus Thessaly Euboea Central Greece Peloponnese Mt. Olympus Lefkada Kefalonia Zakynthos Lemnos Lesbos Chios Samos Andros Tinos Mykonos Icaria Patmos Naxos Milos Santorini Kos Rhodes Karpathos Kassos Kythira Gavdos <span style="color:#09d;">Aegean <span style="color:#09d;">Sea <span style="color:#09d;">Sea of Crete <span style="color:#0088dd;">Myrtoan <span style="color:#0088dd;">Sea <span style="color:#0088dd;">Ionian <span style="color:#0088dd;">Sea <span style="color:#0088dd;">Mediterranean <span style="color:#0088dd;">Sea Crete <span style="color:#999;">Aegean <span style="color:#999;">Islands <span style="color:#999;">Cyclades <span style="color:#999;">Dodecanese <span style="color:#999;">Ionian <span style="color:#999;">Islands View of the Meteora in central Greece. Greece consists of a mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the sea at the southern end of the Balkans, the Peloponnesus peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth), and numerous islands (1400, 227 of which are inhabited), including Crete, Euboea, Lesbos, Chios, the Dodecanese and the Cycladic groups of the Aegean Sea as well as the Ionian Sea islands. Greece has the tenth longest coastline in the world with ; its land boundary is . Four fifths of Greece consist of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most mountainous in Europe. Mount Olympus, a focal point of Greek culture throughout history culminates at Mytikas peak , the highest in the country. Once considered the throne of the Gods, it is today extremely popular among hikers and climbers. Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the Pindus mountain range. The Pindus reaches a maximum elevation of at Mt. Smolikas and is essentially a prolongation of the Dinaric Alps. The Vikos-Aoos Gorge is yet another spectacular formation and a popular hotspot for those fond of extreme sports. The range continues through the central Peloponnese, crosses the islands of Kythera and Antikythera and find its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of Crete where it eventually ends. The islands of the Aegean are peaks of underwater mountains that once constituted an extension of the mainland. Pindus is characterized by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous canyons and a variety of other karstic landscapes. Most notably, the impressive Meteora formation consisting of high, steep boulders provides a breathtaking experience for the hundreds of thousands of tourists who visit the area each year. Northeastern Greece features another high-altitude mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across the periphery of East Macedonia and Thrace; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests. The famous Dadia forest is in the prefecture of Evros, in the far northeast of the country. Expansive plains are primarily located in the prefectures of Thessaly, Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few arable places in the country. Rare marine species such as the Pinniped Seals and the Loggerhead Sea Turtle live in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense forests are home to the endangered brown bear, the lynx, the Roe Deer and the Wild Goat. Phytogeographically, Greece belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the East Mediterranean province of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Environment Agency, the territory of Greece can be subdivided into six ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rodope montane mixed forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests and Crete Mediterranean forests. Climate The climate of Greece can be categorised into three types (the Mediterranean, the Alpine and the Temperate) that influence well-defined regions of its territory. The Pindus mountain range strongly affects the climate of the country by making the western side of it (areas prone to the south-westerlies) wetter on average than the areas lying to the east of it (lee side of the mountains). The Mediterranean type of climate features mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, Eastern Peloponessus and parts of the Sterea Ellada region are mostly affected by this particular type of climate. Temperatures rarely reach extreme values along the coasts, although, with Greece being a highly mountainous country, snowfalls occur frequently in winter. It sometimes snows even in the Cyclades or the Dodecanese. The Alpine type is dominant mainly in the mountainous areas of Northwestern Greece (Epirus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia) as well as in the central parts of Peloponnese, including the prefectures of Achaia, Arcadia and parts of Laconia, where extensions of the Pindus mountain range pass by. Finally, the Temperate type affects Central Macedonia and East Macedonia and Thrace; it features cold, damp winters and hot, dry summers. Athens is located in a transitional area featuring both the Mediterranean and the Temperate types. The city's northern suburbs are dominated by the temperate type while the downtown area and the southern suburbs enjoy a typical Mediterranean type. Economy GDP Growth of Greece compared to the Eurozone between 1996 - 2006. After World War II, Greece experienced the "Greek economic miracle"; GDP growth averaged 7% between 1950 and 1973. Since then Greece has implemented of a number of structural and fiscal reforms while receiving considerable European Union funding. In 2001, Greece joined the Economic and Monetary Union. Annual growth of Greek GDP has surpassed the respective levels of most of its partners. Today, the service industry makes up the largest, most vital and fastest-growing sector of the Greek economy, followed by industry and agriculture. The tourism industry is a major source of foreign exchange earnings and revenue accounting for 15% of Greece’s total GDP and employing ,directly or indirectly, 16.5% of the total workforce. Greece is a leading investor in all of her Balkan neighbors with the National Bank of Greece in 2006 acquiring the 46% of Turkish Finansbank and 99.44% of Serbia's Vojvođanska Bank.The manufacturing sector accounts for about 13% of GDP with the food industry leading in growth, profit and export potential. The public sector accounts for about 40% of GDP, with the government however taking measures to decrease it further. High-technology equipment production, especially for telecommunications, is also a fast-growing sector. Other important areas include textiles, building materials, machinery, transport equipment, and electrical appliances. At 10% of GDP, construction is one of the main pillars of the economy, with the sector experiencing a boom due to the Athens Olympics of 2004. Agriculture, at 7%, is the final important sector of Greek economic activity. The Greek labor force totals 4.9 million, and it is the second most industrious between OECD countries, after South Korea. The Groningen Growth & Development Centre has published a poll revealing that between 1995 - 2005, Greece was the country with the largest work/hour ratio among European nations; Greeks worked an average of 1,900 hours per year, followed by the Spanish (average of 1,800 hours/year). In 2007, the average worker made around 20 dollars, similar to Spain and slightly more than half of average U.S. hourly income. Immigrants make up nearly one-fifth of the work force, occupied mainly in agricultural and construction work. Greece's purchasing power-adjusted GDP per capita is the world's 28th highest. According to the International Monetary Fund it has an estimated average per capita income of $30,661 for the year 2008, comparable to that of Germany, France or Italy and approximately equal to the EU average. Greece ranks 18th in the 2006 HDI, 22nd on The Economist's 2005 world-wide quality-of-life index. According to a survey by the Economist, the cost of living in Athens is close to 90% of the costs in New York; in rural regions it is lower. Maritime industry Aerial view of the central districts of Thessaloniki, Greece's second largest city and a major economic and industrial center. The shipping industry is a key element of Greek economic activity dating back to ancient times. Today, shipping is one of the country's most important industries. It accounts for 4.5% of GDP, employs about 160,000 people (4% of the workforce), and represents 1/3 of the country's trade deficit. During the 1960s, the size of the Greek fleet nearly doubled, primarily through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates Onassis and Niarchos. The basis of the modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold to them by the United States Government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s. According to the BTS, the Greek-owned maritime fleet is today the largest in the world, with 3,079 vessels accounting for 18% of the world's fleet capacity (making it the largest of any other country) with a total dwt of 141,931 thousand (142 million dwt). In terms of ship categories, Greece ranks first in both tankers and dry bulk carriers, fourth in the number of containers, and fourth in other ships. However, today's fleet roster is smaller than an all-time high of 5,000 ships in the late 70's. Science and technology Thessaloniki Science Center & Technology Museum. Broadband internet availability is widespread in Greece ; approximately 13,4% of the general population have broadband connections to the internet, mainly ADSL2. Internet cafes that provide net access, office applications and multiplayer gaming are also a common sight in the country, while mobile internet on 3G cellphone networks and public wi-fi hotspots are existent, but not as extensive. Because of its strategic location, qualified workforce and political and economic stability, many multinational companies such as Ericsson, Siemens, SAP, Motorola and Coca-Cola have their regional R&D Headquarters in Greece. The General Secretariat for Research and Technology of the Hellenic Ministry of Development is responsible for designing, implementing and supervising national research and technological policy. In 2003, public spending on R&D was 456.37 million euros (12.6% increase from 2002). Total research and development (R&D) spending (both public and private) as a percentage of GDP has increased considerably since the beginning of the past decade, from 0.38% in 1989, to 0.65% in 2001. R&D spending in Greece remains lower than the EU average of 1.93%, but, according to Research DC, based on OECD and Eurostat data, between 1990 and 1998, total R&D expenditure in Greece enjoyed the third highest increase in Europe, after Finland and Ireland. Greece's technology parks with incubator facilities include the Science and Technology Park of Crete (Heraklion), the Thessaloniki Technology Park,the Lavrio Technology Park and the Patras Science Park.Greece has been a member of the European Space Agency (ESA) since 2005. Cooperation between ESA and the Hellenic National Space Committee began in the early 1990s. In 1994, Greece and ESA signed their first cooperation agreement. Having formally applied for full membership in 2003, Greece became ESA's sixteenth member on 16 March 2005. As member of the ESA, Greece participates in the agency's telecommunication and technology activities, and the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Initiative. Tourism Tourists at Loutraki beach. An important percentage of Greece's income comes from tourism. In 2004 Greece welcomed 16.5 million tourists. According to a survey conducted in China in 2005, Greece was voted as the Chinese people's number one choice as a tourist destination, and 6,088,287 tourists visited only the city of Athens, the capital city. In November 2006, Austria, like China, announced that Greece was the favourite destination. In 2007, Greece welcomed more than 19 million tourists, and climbed to the top ten tourist destinations worldwide. The island of Rhodes was announced the best European tourist destination. Other famous tourist hotspots include the capital Athens, the northern Chalkidiki peninsula, the Ionian island of Corfu and the island resorts of Myconos, Santorini, Paros and Crete. International relations Greece is a major participant in most large scale international bodies, with the geographic significance of the region proving advantageous for diplomatic, trade and political crossroads. BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECA (associate), ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, NATO, OECD, OSCE, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, WEU,WHO, WIPO, WMO. Most recently, Greece was elected by the United Nations General Assembly to the United Nations Security Council, on 15 October 2004, as a non-permanent member for 2005 and 2006. Numismatics The €10 New Acropolis Museum commemorative coin In Greece, the euro was introduced in 2002. As a preparation for this date, the minting of the new euro coins started as early as 2001, however all Greek euro coins introduced in 2002 have this year on it; unlike other countries of the Eurozone where mint year is minted in the coin. Eight different designs, one per face value, was selected for the Greek coins. In 2007, in order to adopt the new common map like the rest of the Eurozone countries, Greece changed the common side of their coins. Before adopting the Euro in 2002 Greece had maintained use of the Greek drachma from 1832. Greece has one of the richest collection of collectors' coins in the Eurozone, with face value ranging from 10 to 200 euro, mainly issued to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. These coins are a legacy of an old national practice of minting of silver and gold commemorative coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins are not legal tender in all the eurozone. For instance, a €10 Greek commemorative coin cannot be used in any other country. Transport The Rio-Antirio bridge near the city of Patras is the longest cable-stayed bridge in Europe and second in the world. Since the 1980s, the roads and rail network of Greece has been significantly modernised. Important works include the Egnatia highway that connects north west Greece (Igoumenitsa) with northern and north west Greece. The Rio-Antirio bridge (the longest suspension cable bridge in Europe) (2250 m long) connects the western Peloponnesus from Rio (7 km from Patras) with Antirion on the central Greek mainland. An expansion of the Patras-Athens national motorway towards Pyrgos in the western Peloponnese is scheduled to be completed by 2014. Most of the highway connection of Athens to Thessaloniki has also been upgraded. The metropolitan area of the capital Athens had a new international airport (opened in 2001), a new privately run suburban motorway Attiki Odos (opened 2001), and an expanded metro system (since 2000). Most of the Greek islands and many main cities of Greece are connecting by air mainly from the two major airlines of Greece, Olympic and Aegean air. Maritime connections have been improved with modern high-speed craft, including hydrofoils and catamarans. Railway connections play a somewhat lesser role than in many other European countries, but railways too have been expanded, with new suburban connections around Athens, a modern intercity connection between Athens and Thessaloniki, and upgrading to double lines in many parts of the 2500 km network. International railway lines connect Greek cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey. Demographics The Hermoupolis port in the island of Syros is the capital of the Cyclades. The official Statistical body of Greece is the National Statistical Service of Greece (NSSG). According to the NSSG, Greece's total population in 2001 was 10,964,020. That figure is divided into 5,427,682 males and 5,536,338 females. As statistics from 1971, 1981, and 2001 show, the Greek population has been aging the past several decades. The birth rate in 2003 stood 9.5 per 1,000 inhabitants (14.5 per 1,000 in 1981). At the same time the mortality rate increased slightly from 8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 9.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2003. In 2001, 16.71% of the population were 65 years old and older, 68.12% between the ages of 15 and 64 years old, and 15.18% were 14 years old and younger. Greek society has also rapidly changed with the passage of time. Marriage rates kept falling from almost 71 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 until 2002, only to increase slightly in 2003 to 61 per 1,000 and then fall again to 51 in 2004. Divorce rates on the other hand, have seen an increase – from 191.2 per 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 239.5 per 1,000 marriages in 2004. Almost two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas. Greece's largest municipalities in 2001 were: Athens, Thessaloniki, Piraeus, Patras, Iraklio, Larissa, and Volos. Throughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks had migrated to the US, UK, Australia and Germany, creating a thriving Greek diaspora that accounts today almost 6 million people. The migration trend however was reversed after the important improvements of Greek economy since the 80's. Immigration Due to the complexity of Greek immigration policy, practices and data collection, truly reliable data on immigrant populations in Greece is difficult to gather and therefore subject to much speculation. A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory maintains that the 2001 Census from the NSSG recorded 762,191 persons residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population and that, of these, 48,560 were EU or EFTA nationals and 17,426 Cypriots with privileged status. People from the Balkan countries of Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania make up almost two-thirds of the total foreign population. Migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Moldava, etc.) comprise 10% of the total. Greece: A History of Migration, Migration Information Source The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population is in the Municipality of Athens –some 132,000 immigrants, at 17% of local population. Thessaloniki is the second largest cluster, with 27,000, reaching 7% of local population. After this, the predominant areas of location are the big cities environs and the agricultural areas. At the same time, Albanians constituted some 56% of total immigrants, followed by Bulgarians (5%), Georgians (3%) and Romanians (3%). Americans, Cypriots, British and Germans appeared as sizeable foreign communities at around 2% each of total foreign population. The rest were around 690,000 persons of non-EU or non-homogeneis (of non-Greek heritage) status. According to the same study, the foreign population (documented and undocumented) residing in Greece may in reality figure upwards to 8.5% or 10.3%, that is approximately meaning 1.15 million - if immigrants with homogeneis cards are accounted for. Religion Stavronikita monastery, a Greek Orthodox monastery in Athos peninsula, northern Greece. The constitution of Greece recognizes the Greek Orthodox faith as the "prevailing" religion of the country, while guaranteeing freedom of religious belief for all. The Greek Government does not keep statistics on religious groups and censuses do not ask for religious affiliation. According to the State Department, an estimated 97% of Greek citizens identify themselves as Greek Orthodox. However, in the Eurostat - Eurobarometer poll of 2005, 81% of Greek citizens responded that they believe there is a God, which was the third highest percentage among EU members behind only Malta and Cyprus. Estimates of the recognized Muslim minority, which is mostly located in Thrace, range from 98,000 to 140,000, (between 0.9% and 1.2%) while the immigrant Muslim community numbers between 200,000 and 300,000. Albanian immigrants to Greece are usually associated with the Muslim faith, although most are secular in orientation. Judaism has existed in Greece for more than 2,000 years. Sephardi Jews used to have a large presence in the city of Thessaloniki, but nowadays the Greek-Jewish community who survived the Holocaust is estimated to number around 5,500 people. Greek members of Roman Catholic faith are estimated at 50,000 with the Roman Catholic immigrant community approximating 200,000. Old Calendarists account for 500,000 followers. Protestants, including Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at about 30,000. Assemblies of God, International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and other Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church has 12,000 members. Independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches. There are not official statistics about Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers in 20,000. The Jehovah's Witnesses report having 28,243 active members. There are also 653 Mormons, 501 Seventh-Day Adventists, and 30 Free Methodists. The ancient Greek religion has also reappeared as Hellenic Neopaganism, CNN, http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/01/21/ancient.gods.ap/index.html with estimates of approximately 2,000 adherents (comprising 0.02% of the general population). US Department of State, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71383.htm Languages Greece is today relatively homogeneous in linguistic terms, with a large majority of the native population using Greek as their first or only language. The Muslim minority in Thrace, which amounts to approximately 0.95% of the total population, consists of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomak) and Romani. Romani is also spoken by Christian Roma in other parts of the country. Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various parts of the country. Their use has decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek-speaking majority. This goes for the Arvanites, an Albanian-speaking group mostly located in the rural areas around the capital Athens, and for the Aromanians and Moglenites, also known as Vlachs, whose language is closely related to Romanian and who used to live scattered across several areas of mountaneous central Greece. Members of these groups ethnically identfiy as Greeks Greek Helsinki Monitor, Minority Rights Group, Greece, Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (along guidelines for state reports according to Article 25.1 of the Convention) 8 September 1999 and are today all at least bilingual in Greek. In many areas their traditional languages are today only maintained by the older generations and are on the verge of extinction. Near the northern Greek borders there are also some Slavic-speaking groups, whose members identify ethnically as Greeks in their majority. Their dialects can be linguistically classified as forms of either Macedonian (locally called Slavomacedonian or simply Slavic), or Bulgarian (distinguished as Pomak in the case of the Bulgarophone Muslims of Thrace. P. Trudgill, "Greece and European Turkey: From Religious to Linguistic Identity", in S Barbour, C Carmichael (eds.), Language and nationalism in Europe, Oxford University Press 2000. The Jewish community in Greece traditionally spoke Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), today maintained only by a small group of a few thousand speakers. Among the Greek-speaking population, speakers of the distinctive Pontic dialect came to Greece from Asia Minor after the Pontic Greek Genocide and constitute a sizable group. Education The building of the Faculty of Education at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Compulsory education in Greece comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, Dimotikó Scholeio) and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο). Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, Paidikós Stathmós) are popular but not compulsory. Kindergartens (Νηπιαγωγείο, Nipiagogeío) are now compulsory for any child above 4 years of age. Children start primary school aged 6 and remain there for six years. Attendance at gymnasia starts at age 12 and last for three years. Greece's post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Ενιαίο Λύκειο, Eniaia Lykeia) and technical-vocational educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά Εκπαιδευτήρια, "TEE"). Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (Ινστιτούτα Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης, "IEK") which provide a formal but unclassified level of education. As they can accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not classified as offering a particular level of education. Public higher education is divided into universities, "Highest Educational Institutions" (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, "ΑΕΙ") and "Highest Technological Educational Institutions" (Ανώτατα Τεχνολογικά Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, Anótata Technologiká Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, "ATEI"). Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students over twenty-two years old may be admitted to the Hellenic Open University through a form of lottery. The Capodistrian university of Athens is the oldest university in the eastern Mediterranean. The Greek education system also provides special kindergartens, primary and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning. Specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, theological and physical education also exist. Some of the main universities in Greece include: National and Capodistrian University of Athens National Technical University of Athens University of PiraeusAgricultural University of Athens University of Macedonia (in Thessaloniki) University of Crete Technical University of Crete Athens University of Economics and Business Aristotle University of Thessaloniki University of the Aegean (across the Aegean Islands) Democritus University of Thrace University of Ioannina University of Thessaly University of Western Macedonia Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences University of Patras Charokopeio University of Athens Ionian University (across the Ionian Islands) Culture Hermes bearing the infant Dionysus, by Praxiteles, Olympia Archaeological Museum. Greek salad with additional ingredients. The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, with its beginnings in the Mycenaean and Minoan Civilizations, continuing most notably into Classical Greece, the Hellenistic Period, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern successor the Byzantine Empire. The Ottoman Empire too had a significant influence on Greek culture, but the Greek war of independence is credited with revitalizing Greece and giving birth to a single entity of its multi-faceted culture throughout the ages. Philosophy Most western philosophical traditions began in ancient Greece in the 6th century bc. The first philosophers are called "Presocratics" which designates that they came before Socrates. The Presocratics were from the western or the eastern regions of the Greece and only fragments of the original writings of the presocratics survive, in some cases merely a single sentence. A new period of philosophy started with Socrates the Athenian, like the Sophists, he rejected entirely the physical speculations in which his predecessors had indulged, and made the thoughts and opinions of people his starting-point. Aspects of Socrates were first united from Plato, who also combined with them many of the principles established by earlier philosophers, and developed the whole of this material into the unity of a comprehensive system. Aristotle of Stagira the most important disciple of Plato shared with his teacher the title of the greatest philosopher of antiquity but while Plato had sought to elucidate and explain things from the supra-sensual standpoint of the forms, his pupil preferred to start from the facts given us by experience. Except from these three most significant Greek philosophers other known schools of Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Neoplatonism Cuisine Greek cuisine is often cited as an example of the healthy Mediterranean diet. Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients into a variety of local dishes such as moussaka, stifado, Greek Salad, spanakopita and the world famous Souvlaki. Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece like skordalia (a thick purée of potatoes, walnuts, almonds, crushed garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or rosé wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey). Throughout Greece people often enjoy eating from small dishes such as meze with various dips such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and small fish, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, currants and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives and cheese. Olive oil is added to almost every dish. Sweet desserts such as galaktoboureko, and drinks such as ouzo, metaxa and a variety of wines including retsina. Greek cuisine differs widely from different parts of the mainland and from island to island also uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines do: oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed. Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use "sweet" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews. Music Greek music extends far back into Ancient times were mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons, instruments during that time period included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music played an important role in the education system during ancient times were boys taught music from the age of six. Later it was influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe and the Byzantine Empire that changed Greek music. While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church resisted any type of change. Therefore, Byzantine music remained monophonic and without any form of instrumental accompaniment. As a result, Byzantine music was deprived of polyphony and instrumental accompaniment, elements of which in the West encouraged an unimpeded development of art. However, the isolation of Byzantium, which kept music away from polyphony, along with centuries of continuous culture, enabled monophonic music to develop to the greatest heights of perfection. Byzantium presented with a melodic treasury of inestimable value for its rhythmical variety and expressive power the monophonic Byzantine chant. Bouzouki, a stringed instrument and the mainstay of modern Greek music. Along with the Byzantine chant, a form of artistic musical creation, the Greek people also cultivated the Greek folk song which is divided into two cycles, the akritic and klephtic. The akritic was created between the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. and expressed the life and struggles of the akrites (frontier guards) of the Byzantine empire, the most well known being the stories associated with Digenes Akritas. The klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and the start of the Greek War of Independence struggle in 1821. The klephtic cycle, together with historical songs, paraloghes (narrative song or ballad), love songs, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks. There is a unity between the Greek people's struggles for freedom, their joys and sorrow and attitudes towards love and death. The Second World War, German occupation of Greece and the Greek Civil War decisively influenced the Greek folk song. After the first World War and the 1922 debacle, the trend towards urban living focused on Athens where popular musicians congregated and, in 1928, founded their own professional society: the Athens and Piraeus Musicians Society. Until the early years of this century, musical tradition was preserved in the villages where there was little contact with the outside world. The events and social changes of the 20th century changed the fate of the folk song in Greece. Once the seat of folk song was the village, now the reverse applies. The commercialized folk song spreads in all directions to the remotest villages. The authentic songs and dances have been replaced by the stylized modern "folk songs" written by contemporary musicians which they write new lyrics to authentic folk tunes, changing them enough to ensure copyright protection. Sports Inside the Athens Olympic Stadium. Greece, home to the first modern Olympics, holds a long tradition in sports. The Greek national football team, currently ranked 20th in the world, won the UEFA Euro 2004 in one of the biggest surprises in the history of the sport. The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league in the country comprising of 16 teams. The most successful of them are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, AEK Athens, PAOK and Aris. The Greek national basketball team has a decades-long tradition of excellence in the sport. As of August 2008 it is ranked 4th in the world. They have won the European Championship twice in 1987 and 2005, and have reached the final four in three of the last four FIBA World Championships, taking the second place in 2006. The domestic top basketball league, A1 Ethniki, is composed of fourteen teams. The most successful Greek teams are Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris, AEK Athens and PAOK. Water polo and volleyball are also practiced widely in Greece while cricket, handball are relatively popular in Corfu and Veroia respectively. As the birth place of the Olympic Games, Greece was most recently host of 2004 Summer Olympics and the first modern Olympics in 1896. Armed forces AH-64A+ Apache of the Hellenic Army Air Branch. Frigate Psara, MEKO-200 HN type of the Hellenic Navy branch. The Hellenic Armed Forces are overseen by the Hellenic National Defense General Staff (Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας - ΓΕΕΘΑ) and consists of three branches: Hellenic Army Hellenic Navy Hellenic Air Force The civilian authority for the Greek military is the Ministry of National Defence. Furthermore, Greece maintains the Hellenic Coast Guard for law enforcement in the sea and search and rescue. Greece currently has universal compulsory military service for males while females (who may serve in the military) are exempted from conscription. As of 2006, Greece has mandatory military service of 12 months for male citizens between the ages of 19 and 45. However, as the Armed forces had been gearing towards a complete professional army system, the government had promised that the mandatory military service would be cut or even abolished completely. Greek males between the age of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may be required to serve part-time in the National Guard, service in the Guard is paid. As a member of NATO, the Greek military participates in exercises and deployments under the auspices of the alliance. International rankings Organization Survey Ranking United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 2006 Human Development Index 2004 Human Development Index 2000 18 out of 177 24 out of 177 24 out of 177 International Monetary Fund GDP per capita (PPP) 18 out of 180 The Economist Worldwide Quality-of-life Index, 2005 22 out of 111 Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom 57 out of 157 Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2006 Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2005 Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2004 32 out of 168 18(tied) out of 168 33 out of 167 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2006 Corruption Perceptions Index 2005 Corruption Perceptions Index 2004 54 out of 163 47 out of 158 49 out of 145 World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 47 out of 125 Yale University/Columbia University Environmental Sustainability Index 2005 67 out of 146 Nationmaster Labor strikes 13 out of 27 A.T. Kearney / Foreign Policy Globalization Index 2006 Globalization Index 2005 Globalization Index 2004 32 out of 62 29 out of 62 28 out of 62 See also Notes References Further reading Richard Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press 2002. Minorities in Greece - historical issues and new perspectives. History and Culture of South Eastern Europe. An Annual Journal. München (Slavica) 2003. External links Government President of the Hellenic Republic Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic Chief of State and Cabinet Members Foreign missions in Greece Greek missions abroad (embassies, consulates, representations) Greek National Tourism Organisation Greek News Agenda Newsletter Hellenic Parliament Ministry of Foreign Affairs National Statistical Service of Greece General information Greece at Encyclopaedia Britannica Greece at National Geographic Greece at UCB Libraries GovPubs Greek Council for Refugees Hellenic History Hellenism.Net - Everything about Greece History of Greece: Primary Documents The Greek Heritage be-x-old:Грэцыя | Greece |@lemmatized greece:130 transliterate:1 elláda:1 historically:1 hellás:1 officially:1 hellenic:18 republic:12 ελληνική:1 δημοκρατία:1 ellīnikī:1 dīmokratía:1 country:34 southeastern:1 europe:13 situate:1 southern:3 end:3 balkan:7 peninsula:5 border:4 albania:4 macedonia:15 see:5 name:3 dispute:4 bulgaria:3 north:4 turkey:10 east:7 aegean:13 sea:17 lie:4 south:6 mainland:8 ionian:10 west:7 part:11 eastern:8 mediterranean:13 basin:1 feature:5 vast:2 number:8 island:23 islet:1 rock:1 modern:12 trace:2 root:1 civilization:6 ancient:12 generally:1 consider:2 cradle:1 western:16 birthplace:1 democracy:6 finley:1 ed:2 london:3 hogarth:1 philosophy:6 history:11 volume:1 frederick:1 copleston:1 olympic:5 game:3 literature:1 historiography:1 political:14 science:7 major:7 scientific:1 mathematical:1 principle:3 drama:2 brockett:1 oscar:1 g:2 theatre:1 sixth:1 boston:1 allyn:1 bacon:1 include:16 tragedy:1 comedy:1 developed:1 member:23 european:15 union:11 since:25 economic:16 monetary:5 nato:8 august:3 greek:108 force:14 withdraw:2 integrated:2 military:11 structure:2 protest:2 turkish:5 occupation:3 northern:8 cyprus:5 rejoin:2 oecd:5 weu:3 founding:2 black:8 cooperation:4 esa:7 athens:35 capital:7 thessaloniki:14 patras:10 heraklion:4 larissa:4 volos:3 ioannina:4 kavala:2 rhodes:3 serres:1 city:11 parthenon:1 march:2 germanos:1 bless:1 flag:1 agia:1 lavra:1 theodoros:1 vryzakis:1 territorial:1 expansion:2 state:11 july:2 konstantinos:1 karamanlis:5 arrive:1 within:2 hour:4 fall:6 year:24 long:7 junta:2 order:3 swear:1 new:16 prime:8 minister:8 first:11 area:19 advance:1 early:5 emerge:2 begin:3 minoan:2 crete:12 mycenean:1 later:4 across:6 spread:3 shore:1 italy:3 asia:3 minor:3 reach:5 great:7 level:6 prosperity:1 result:4 unprecedented:2 cultural:2 boom:2 express:3 architecture:1 nurture:1 democratic:3 environment:3 sparta:2 lead:7 way:2 repel:2 persian:2 empire:10 series:1 battle:2 overshadow:2 thebe:1 eventually:4 macedon:1 latter:2 guidance:1 alexander:1 uniting:1 world:20 victory:2 presage:1 hellenistic:2 era:4 bring:2 partially:1 close:2 two:12 century:8 establishment:2 roman:6 rule:3 land:3 bc:2 subsequent:1 mixture:1 culture:8 take:5 form:7 byzantine:9 ad:1 around:8 constantinople:1 remain:4 power:9 next:3 hand:3 ottoman:6 eve:2 intelligentsia:1 migrate:2 play:4 significant:7 role:4 renaissance:1 transferring:1 work:6 nevertheless:2 millet:1 system:14 contribute:1 cohesion:1 orthodox:7 segregate:1 various:4 people:12 base:2 religion:4 integral:1 formation:4 identity:2 war:14 independence:3 successfully:3 fight:1 nascent:1 finally:2 recognize:3 protocol:1 ioannis:2 kapodistrias:1 noble:1 choose:1 governor:1 however:8 follow:4 assassination:1 soon:1 instal:1 monarchy:3 otto:1 bavarian:1 house:1 wittelsbach:1 uprising:2 king:2 grant:2 constitution:14 representative:1 assembly:4 due:3 unimpaired:1 authoritarian:1 dethrone:1 replace:2 prince:1 vilhelm:1 william:1 denmark:1 george:1 coronation:1 gift:1 britain:1 charilaos:1 trikoupis:1 dominant:2 figure:4 scene:2 attribute:1 improvement:2 infrastructure:2 curb:1 interfere:1 issue:6 vote:3 confidence:3 potential:2 increase:7 extent:2 territory:3 population:20 challenge:2 context:1 socially:1 economically:1 following:3 struggle:4 constantine:4 charismatic:1 eleftherios:2 venizelos:3 foreign:11 policy:5 dominate:5 divide:4 opposed:1 group:10 aftermath:1 ww:1 fought:1 nationalist:1 mustafa:1 kemal:1 massive:2 exchange:2 treaty:1 lausanne:1 instability:1 successive:2 coup:3 etat:2 mark:3 task:1 incorporate:2 million:9 refugee:2 society:4 october:2 fascist:1 demand:1 surrender:1 dictator:2 metaxas:1 refuse:1 greco:1 italian:2 give:3 ally:1 axis:1 would:2 urgently:1 dispatched:1 german:4 occupier:1 meet:1 serious:1 resistance:1 liberation:1 experience:6 bitter:1 civil:5 royalist:1 communist:3 devastation:1 severe:1 social:6 tension:1 rightist:1 largely:2 leftist:1 mazower:1 characterize:2 marginalisation:1 left:2 sphere:1 also:21 growth:7 propel:1 marshall:1 plan:1 period:5 turbulence:1 april:1 u:5 back:5 regime:3 colonel:1 november:2 polytechnic:1 sent:1 shock:1 wave:1 counter:1 establish:2 brigadier:1 dimitrios:1 ioannides:1 invade:1 collapse:1 former:3 premier:1 invite:1 paris:1 live:5 self:1 exile:2 beginning:3 metapolitefsi:1 editorial:1 consultant:1 adam:1 hart:1 davis:1 dorling:1 kindersley:1 limit:1 publisher:1 isbn:1 republican:1 activate:1 abolish:2 referendum:1 hold:3 meanwhile:1 andreas:1 papandreou:1 found:2 panhellenic:2 socialist:2 party:13 pasok:2 response:1 affair:2 ensue:1 decade:5 relation:3 neighbour:1 improve:2 substantially:1 last:3 earthquake:2 hit:1 nation:6 summer:5 diplomacy:1 today:11 active:2 supporter:1 bid:1 eu:8 membership:2 become:2 tenth:2 january:1 ever:1 remarkable:1 sustained:1 widespread:2 investment:2 industrial:2 enterprise:1 heavy:1 well:6 fund:4 grow:3 revenue:2 tourism:5 shipping:5 fast:3 growing:1 service:8 sector:7 raise:1 standard:1 living:3 adopt:4 euro:8 organise:1 government:8 politics:1 parliament:10 central:14 one:11 parliamentary:2 article:10 head:2 president:9 elect:2 five:1 term:4 current:3 draw:1 fifth:3 revisionary:1 hellene:1 enter:1 revise:1 twice:2 consist:7 provide:5 separation:1 executive:3 legislative:2 judicial:1 branch:4 extensive:2 specific:1 guarantee:3 far:5 reinforce:1 liberty:1 right:3 p:2 dagtoglou:1 individual:1 e:1 acquis:1 constitutional:4 revision:1 accord:12 exercise:3 amendment:2 duty:1 curtail:1 ceremonial:1 thus:1 k:1 mavrias:1 law:2 position:2 belong:1 leader:1 obtain:1 formally:2 appoint:1 recommendation:1 appoints:1 dismiss:1 cabinet:3 elective:1 unicameral:1 statute:1 pass:2 promulgate:1 election:1 every:2 four:4 oblige:2 dissolve:2 earlier:2 proposal:1 view:4 deal:1 national:20 exceptional:1 importance:1 opposition:1 manage:1 motion:1 woman:1 suffrage:1 judiciary:2 independent:2 legislature:1 comprises:2 three:7 supreme:1 court:5 cassation:1 άρειος:1 πάγος:1 council:4 συμβούλιο:1 της:1 επικρατείας:1 auditor:1 ελεγκτικό:1 συνέδριο:1 compose:2 judge:2 penal:1 case:3 administrative:2 citizen:4 authority:2 restoration:1 liberal:1 conservative:1 nd:1 movement:1 diachronic:1 analysis:1 pappa:1 transformation:1 distinguish:2 distinct:1 type:12 develop:4 consecutive:1 namely:1 predominant:2 polarised:1 pluralism:1 kke:1 coalition:1 radical:1 syriza:1 popular:6 rally:1 laos:1 kostas:1 nephew:1 late:3 win:3 second:8 september:2 acquire:2 slim:1 majority:4 seat:2 periphery:5 prefecture:4 administratively:1 consists:1 thirteen:1 subdivide:2 total:14 fifty:1 prefectures:1 singular:1 autonomous:2 mount:4 athos:3 holy:1 mountain:9 map:2 tr:1 attica:1 lamia:1 thrace:9 komotini:1 epirus:3 corfu:5 mytilene:1 peloponnese:5 kalamata:1 ermoupoli:1 thessaly:5 kozani:1 karyes:1 prominent:1 endure:1 difference:1 yugoslav:1 fyrom:1 geography:1 pontikonisi:1 vlaheraina:1 monastery:3 olympus:3 town:1 litochoro:1 div:1 style:21 relative:1 span:20 color:20 rep:1 maced:1 thasos:1 alexandroupoli:1 samothrace:1 igoumenitsa:2 chalcis:1 corinth:2 nafplion:1 areopoli:1 piraeus:3 eleusina:1 laurium:1 euboea:2 mt:2 lefkada:1 kefalonia:1 zakynthos:1 lemnos:1 lesbos:2 chios:2 samos:1 andros:1 tinos:1 mykonos:1 icaria:1 patmos:1 naxos:1 milo:1 santorini:2 ko:1 karpathos:1 kassos:1 kythira:1 gavdos:1 myrtoan:1 cyclades:4 dodecanese:4 meteora:2 mountainous:4 peninsular:1 jut:1 peloponnesus:2 separate:1 canal:1 isthmus:1 numerous:2 inhabit:1 cycladic:1 coastline:1 boundary:1 hill:1 make:8 focal:1 point:2 throughout:4 culminates:1 mytikas:1 peak:3 high:15 throne:1 god:4 extremely:1 among:5 hiker:1 climber:1 contain:1 lake:1 wetland:1 pindus:6 range:8 maximum:1 elevation:1 smolikas:1 essentially:1 prolongation:1 dinaric:1 alp:1 vikos:1 aoos:1 gorge:1 yet:1 another:2 spectacular:1 hotspot:3 fond:1 extreme:2 sport:5 continue:2 cross:1 kythera:1 antikythera:1 find:1 southwestern:1 underwater:1 constitute:5 extension:2 steep:2 often:4 dissect:1 canyon:1 variety:4 karstic:1 landscape:1 notably:2 impressive:1 boulder:1 breathtaking:1 hundred:1 thousand:4 tourist:9 visit:2 northeastern:1 altitude:1 rhodope:1 cover:1 thick:2 forest:9 famous:3 dadia:1 evros:1 northeast:1 expansive:1 plain:1 primarily:2 locate:4 key:2 region:8 arable:1 place:4 rare:1 marine:1 specie:1 pinniped:1 seal:2 loggerhead:1 turtle:1 surround:1 dense:1 home:2 endanger:1 brown:1 bear:2 lynx:1 roe:1 deer:1 wild:1 goat:1 phytogeographically:1 belongs:1 boreal:1 kingdom:1 share:2 province:2 illyrian:2 circumboreal:1 wide:2 nature:1 agency:3 six:3 ecoregions:1 deciduous:1 mixed:5 rodope:1 montane:1 sclerophyllous:1 climate:5 categorise:1 alpine:2 temperate:4 influence:5 define:1 strongly:1 affect:3 side:3 prone:1 westerly:1 wetter:1 average:9 lee:1 mild:1 wet:1 winter:3 hot:2 dry:3 peloponessus:1 sterea:1 ellada:1 mostly:3 particular:2 temperature:1 rarely:1 value:4 along:4 coast:2 although:2 highly:1 snowfalls:1 occur:1 frequently:1 sometimes:1 snow:1 even:2 mainly:5 northwestern:1 achaia:1 arcadia:1 laconia:1 pas:1 cold:1 damp:1 transitional:1 suburb:2 downtown:1 enjoy:3 typical:1 economy:4 gdp:11 compare:1 eurozone:5 ii:2 miracle:1 implement:2 structural:1 fiscal:1 reform:1 receive:1 considerable:1 funding:1 join:1 annual:2 surpass:1 respective:1 partner:1 industry:8 large:10 vital:1 agriculture:2 source:2 earnings:1 accounting:1 employing:1 directly:1 indirectly:1 workforce:3 investor:1 neighbor:1 bank:2 finansbank:1 serbia:1 vojvođanska:1 manufacturing:1 account:7 food:1 profit:1 export:1 public:5 measure:1 decrease:2 technology:9 equipment:2 production:1 especially:3 telecommunication:2 important:8 textile:1 building:2 material:2 machinery:1 transport:2 electrical:1 appliance:1 construction:2 main:3 pillar:1 olympics:5 final:2 activity:3 labor:2 industrious:1 korea:1 groningen:1 development:8 centre:1 publish:1 poll:2 reveal:1 ratio:1 per:13 spanish:2 worker:1 dollar:1 similar:1 spain:1 slightly:3 half:1 hourly:1 income:3 immigrant:9 nearly:2 occupy:1 agricultural:2 purchase:1 adjust:1 caput:2 international:10 estimate:7 capita:1 comparable:1 germany:2 france:1 approximately:5 equal:1 rank:4 hdi:1 economist:3 quality:2 life:4 index:17 survey:3 cost:2 york:1 rural:2 low:3 maritime:5 aerial:1 district:1 center:2 element:2 date:2 time:10 employ:1 represent:1 trade:2 deficit:1 size:1 fleet:4 double:3 undertake:1 magnates:1 onassis:1 niarchos:1 basis:1 businessmen:1 able:1 amass:1 surplus:1 ship:5 sell:1 united:4 sale:1 act:1 bts:1 vessel:1 capacity:1 dwt:2 category:1 tanker:1 bulk:1 carrier:1 fourth:2 container:1 roster:1 small:4 museum:3 broadband:2 internet:4 availability:1 general:6 connection:6 cafe:1 net:2 access:1 office:1 application:1 multiplayer:1 gaming:1 common:4 sight:1 mobile:1 cellphone:1 network:3 wi:1 fi:1 existent:1 strategic:1 location:2 qualify:1 stability:1 many:7 multinational:1 company:1 ericsson:1 siemens:1 sap:1 motorola:1 coca:1 cola:1 regional:2 r:5 headquarters:1 secretariat:1 research:4 ministry:3 responsible:1 design:2 supervise:1 technological:2 spending:3 private:1 percentage:3 considerably:1 past:2 dc:1 eurostat:2 data:3 expenditure:1 third:5 finland:1 ireland:1 park:5 incubator:1 facility:1 lavrio:1 space:2 committee:1 sign:1 agreement:1 apply:1 full:1 sixteenth:1 participates:2 global:2 monitoring:1 security:3 initiative:1 loutraki:1 beach:1 come:4 welcome:2 conduct:1 china:2 chinese:1 choice:1 destination:4 austria:1 like:4 announce:2 favourite:1 climb:1 top:2 ten:1 worldwide:5 best:1 chalkidiki:1 resort:1 myconos:1 paros:1 participant:1 scale:1 body:2 geographic:2 significance:1 prove:1 advantageous:1 diplomatic:1 crossroad:1 bi:1 bsec:1 ccc:1 ce:1 eapc:1 ebrd:1 eca:1 associate:3 ece:1 eclac:1 eib:1 emu:1 fao:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 ida:1 iea:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ilo:1 imf:1 organization:2 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 osce:1 un:2 unctad:1 unesco:1 unhcr:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 recently:2 non:5 permanent:1 numismatics:1 acropolis:1 commemorative:3 coin:11 introduce:2 preparation:1 minting:2 start:7 unlike:2 mint:3 eight:1 different:2 face:2 select:1 rest:3 change:7 maintain:5 use:8 drachma:1 rich:1 collection:2 collector:1 commemorate:1 legacy:1 old:10 practice:3 silver:1 gold:1 normal:1 legal:1 tender:1 instance:1 cannot:1 rio:3 antirio:2 bridge:4 near:2 cable:2 stay:1 road:1 rail:1 significantly:1 modernise:1 egnatia:1 highway:2 connect:4 suspension:1 km:2 antirion:1 motorway:2 towards:4 pyrgos:1 schedule:1 complete:2 upgrade:2 metropolitan:1 airport:1 open:2 privately:1 run:1 suburban:2 attiki:1 odo:1 opened:1 expand:2 metro:1 air:4 airline:1 speed:1 craft:1 hydrofoil:1 catamaran:1 railway:3 somewhat:1 less:1 intercity:1 line:2 demographics:1 hermoupolis:1 port:1 syros:1 official:2 statistical:3 nssg:3 male:4 female:2 statistic:3 show:1 age:9 several:2 birth:3 rate:4 stand:2 inhabitant:4 mortality:1 young:1 rapidly:1 passage:1 marriage:3 keep:3 almost:5 divorce:1 urban:2 municipality:2 iraklio:1 uk:1 australia:1 create:2 thriving:1 diaspora:1 migration:4 trend:2 reverse:2 immigration:2 complexity:1 truly:1 reliable:1 difficult:1 gather:1 therefore:2 subject:1 much:1 speculation:2 study:2 observatory:1 census:2 record:1 person:2 reside:2 without:3 citizenship:1 efta:1 cypriot:2 privileged:1 status:2 romania:1 migrant:1 soviet:1 georgia:1 russia:1 ukraine:1 moldava:1 etc:1 comprise:2 information:2 cluster:2 local:3 big:3 environs:1 albanian:3 bulgarian:3 georgian:1 romanian:2 american:1 british:1 appear:1 sizeable:1 community:5 homogeneis:2 heritage:3 document:2 undocumented:1 may:4 reality:1 upwards:1 meaning:1 card:1 stavronikita:1 faith:3 prevail:1 freedom:6 religious:4 belief:1 ask:1 affiliation:1 department:2 identify:2 eurobarometer:1 respond:1 believe:1 behind:1 malta:1 muslim:5 minority:6 usually:1 secular:1 orientation:1 judaism:1 exist:2 sephardi:1 jew:1 presence:1 nowadays:1 jewish:2 survive:2 holocaust:1 catholic:2 approximate:1 calendarists:1 follower:2 protestant:2 evangelical:2 church:10 free:4 foursquare:1 gospel:1 pentecostal:1 synod:1 apostolic:3 pentecost:2 denomination:1 jehovah:1 witness:1 report:4 mormon:1 seventh:1 day:1 adventist:1 methodist:1 reappear:1 neopaganism:1 cnn:2 http:2 edition:2 com:1 ap:1 html:1 adherent:1 www:1 gov:1 drl:1 rls:1 irf:1 htm:1 language:6 relatively:2 homogeneous:1 linguistic:2 native:1 amount:1 speaker:3 pomak:2 romani:2 speak:5 christian:1 rom:1 traditionally:2 radically:1 course:1 assimilation:1 speaking:2 go:1 arvanites:1 aromanians:1 moglenites:1 know:2 vlachs:1 whose:2 closely:1 relate:1 scatter:1 mountaneous:1 ethnically:2 identfiy:1 helsinki:1 monitor:1 compliance:1 framework:1 convention:2 protection:2 guideline:1 least:1 bilingual:1 traditional:1 generation:1 verge:1 extinction:1 slavic:2 dialect:2 linguistically:1 classify:2 either:1 macedonian:1 locally:1 call:3 slavomacedonian:1 simply:1 bulgarophone:1 trudgill:1 barbour:1 c:1 carmichael:1 eds:1 nationalism:1 oxford:1 university:28 press:5 ladino:1 judeo:1 distinctive:1 pontic:2 genocide:1 sizable:1 education:11 faculty:1 aristotle:3 compulsory:6 primary:4 school:11 δημοτικό:1 σχολείο:1 dimotikó:1 scholeio:1 gymnasium:3 γυμνάσιο:1 nursery:1 παιδικός:1 σταθμός:1 paidikós:1 stathmós:1 kindergarten:2 νηπιαγωγείο:1 nipiagogeío:1 child:2 attendance:1 post:2 secondary:6 unify:1 upper:2 ενιαίο:1 λύκειο:1 eniaia:1 lykeia:1 technical:3 vocational:2 educational:3 τεχνικά:1 και:1 επαγγελματικά:1 εκπαιδευτήρια:1 tee:1 training:1 institute:3 ινστιτούτα:1 επαγγελματικής:1 κατάρτισης:1 iek:1 formal:1 unclassified:1 accept:1 gymnasio:1 lykeio:2 graduate:1 offer:2 institution:2 ανώτατα:2 εκπαιδευτικά:2 ιδρύματα:2 anótata:2 ekpaideytiká:2 idrýmata:2 αει:1 τεχνολογικά:1 technologiká:1 atei:1 student:2 admit:2 performance:1 examination:1 completion:1 grade:1 additionally:1 twenty:1 lottery:1 capodistrian:2 special:3 need:1 difficulty:1 learn:1 specialist:1 musical:3 theological:1 physical:2 piraeusagricultural:1 economics:1 business:1 democritus:1 panteion:1 charokopeio:1 hermes:1 infant:1 dionysus:1 praxiteles:1 olympia:1 archaeological:1 salad:2 additional:1 ingredient:2 evolve:1 mycenaean:1 classical:1 successor:1 credit:1 revitalize:1 single:2 entity:1 multi:1 faceted:1 philosophical:1 tradition:4 philosopher:4 presocratics:3 designate:1 socrates:3 fragment:1 original:1 writing:1 merely:1 sentence:1 athenian:1 sophist:1 reject:1 entirely:1 predecessor:1 indulge:1 thought:1 opinion:1 aspect:1 unite:1 plato:3 combine:1 whole:1 unity:2 comprehensive:1 stagira:1 disciple:1 teacher:1 title:1 antiquity:1 seek:1 elucidate:1 explain:1 thing:1 supra:1 sensual:1 standpoint:1 pupil:1 prefer:1 fact:1 except:1 known:1 founder:1 stoicism:1 epicureanism:1 skepticism:1 neoplatonism:1 cuisine:5 cite:1 example:2 healthy:1 diet:1 fresh:1 dish:4 moussaka:1 stifado:1 spanakopita:1 souvlaki:1 skordalia:1 purée:1 potato:1 walnut:1 almond:1 crush:1 garlic:2 olive:3 oil:2 lentil:1 soup:1 retsina:2 white:1 rosé:1 wine:2 pine:2 resin:1 pasteli:1 candy:1 bar:1 sesame:1 seed:2 bake:1 honey:1 eat:1 meze:1 dip:1 tzatziki:1 grill:1 octopus:1 fish:1 feta:1 cheese:2 dolmades:1 rice:1 currant:1 kernel:1 wrap:1 vine:1 leaf:2 pulse:1 add:1 sweet:2 dessert:1 galaktoboureko:1 drink:1 ouzo:1 metaxa:1 differs:1 widely:2 flavoring:1 oregano:1 onion:1 dill:1 bay:1 laurel:1 herb:1 spice:2 basil:1 thyme:1 fennel:1 recipe:1 combination:1 meat:1 cinnamon:1 clove:1 stew:1 music:10 extend:1 gender:1 chorus:1 perform:1 entertainment:1 celebration:1 spiritual:1 reason:1 instrument:3 reed:1 aulos:1 plucked:1 string:1 lyre:1 kind:1 kithara:1 boy:1 taught:1 technique:1 polyphony:3 resist:1 monophonic:3 instrumental:2 accompaniment:2 deprive:1 encourage:1 unimpeded:1 art:1 isolation:1 byzantium:2 away:1 continuous:1 enable:1 height:1 perfection:1 present:1 melodic:1 treasury:1 inestimable:1 rhythmical:1 expressive:1 chant:2 bouzouki:1 stringed:1 mainstay:1 artistic:1 creation:1 cultivate:1 folk:7 song:12 cycle:3 akritic:2 klephtic:3 akrites:1 frontier:1 guard:4 story:1 digenes:1 akritas:1 together:1 historical:2 paraloghes:1 narrative:1 ballad:1 love:2 wed:1 dirges:1 joy:1 sorrow:1 attitude:1 death:1 decisively:1 debacle:1 focus:1 musician:3 congregate:1 professional:3 preserve:1 village:3 little:1 contact:1 outside:1 event:1 fate:1 applies:1 commercialized:1 direction:1 remotest:1 authentic:2 dance:1 stylized:1 write:2 contemporary:1 lyric:1 tune:1 enough:1 ensure:1 copyright:1 inside:1 stadium:1 football:2 team:5 currently:2 uefa:1 surprise:1 super:1 league:3 comprising:1 successful:2 olympiacos:2 panathinaikos:2 aek:2 paok:2 aris:2 basketball:2 excellence:1 ranked:1 championship:2 fiba:1 domestic:1 ethniki:1 fourteen:1 water:1 polo:1 volleyball:1 cricket:1 handball:1 veroia:1 respectively:1 host:1 arm:2 ah:1 apache:1 army:3 frigate:1 psara:1 meko:1 hn:1 navy:2 overseen:1 defense:1 staff:1 γενικό:1 επιτελείο:1 εθνικής:1 άμυνας:1 γεεθα:1 civilian:1 defence:1 furthermore:1 enforcement:1 search:1 rescue:1 universal:1 serve:2 exempt:1 conscription:1 mandatory:2 month:1 armed:1 gear:1 promise:1 cut:1 completely:1 strategically:1 sensitive:1 require:1 pay:1 deployment:1 auspex:1 alliance:1 ranking:1 programme:1 human:3 ppp:1 foundation:1 wall:1 street:1 journal:2 reporter:1 tie:1 transparency:1 corruption:3 perception:3 forum:1 competitiveness:1 yale:1 columbia:1 environmental:1 sustainability:1 nationmaster:1 strike:1 kearney:1 globalization:3 note:1 reference:1 read:1 richard:1 clogg:1 concise:1 cambridge:1 perspective:1 münchen:1 slavica:1 external:1 links:1 chief:1 mission:2 abroad:1 embassy:1 consulate:1 representation:1 organisation:1 news:1 agenda:1 newsletter:1 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 ucb:1 library:1 govpubs:1 hellenism:1 everything:1 x:1 грэцыя:1 |@bigram balkan_peninsula:1 republic_macedonia:2 aegean_sea:3 allyn_bacon:1 parthenon_athens:1 prime_minister:8 minoan_civilization:2 athens_sparta:1 ottoman_empire:3 socially_economically:1 eleftherios_venizelos:2 mustafa_kemal:1 treaty_lausanne:1 coup_etat:2 ioannis_metaxas:1 shock_wave:1 constantine_karamanlis:3 dorling_kindersley:1 andreas_papandreou:1 fast_growing:1 judicial_branch:1 constitutional_amendment:2 unicameral_parliament:1 judiciary_independent:1 supreme_court:1 court_cassation:1 minister_kostas:1 kostas_karamanlis:1 mount_athos:2 macedonia_thrace:5 mount_olympus:2 athens_thessaloniki:4 mt_olympus:1 isthmus_corinth:1 dinaric_alp:1 hundred_thousand:1 roe_deer:1 boreal_kingdom:1 province_circumboreal:1 circumboreal_region:1 deciduous_forest:1 directly_indirectly:1 electrical_appliance:1 per_caput:2 monetary_fund:2 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 broadband_internet:1 multiplayer_gaming:1 wi_fi:1 coca_cola:1 tourist_destination:3 bi_bsec:1 ce_eapc:1 eapc_ebrd:1 eib_emu:1 fao_iaea:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_ida:1 ida_iea:1 iea_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ilo_imf:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unhcr:1 wipo_wmo:1 commemorative_coin:3 summer_olympics:2 legal_tender:1 tender_eurozone:1 attiki_odo:1 male_female:2 mortality_rate:1 soviet_union:1 religious_affiliation:1 eurobarometer_poll:1 sephardi_jew:1 old_calendarists:1 protestant_denomination:1 jehovah_witness:1 day_adventist:1 cnn_com:1 http_www:1 closely_relate:1 vocational_training:1 multi_faceted:1 olive_oil:2 sesame_seed:1 feta_cheese:1 garlic_onion:1 bay_laurel:1 herb_spice:1 fennel_seed:1 cinnamon_clove:1 plucked_string:1 eastern_orthodox:1 instrumental_accompaniment:2 stringed_instrument:1 uefa_euro:1 aek_athens:2 caput_ppp:1 corruption_perception:3 global_competitiveness:1 environmental_sustainability:1 external_links:1 foreign_affair:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 ucb_library:1 library_govpubs:1 |
3,406 | Christ | Christ the Saviour (Pantokrator), a 6th-century encaustic icon from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai. Christ is the English term for the Greek (Khristós) meaning "the anointed", Etymology Online: Christ which as a translation of the Hebrew (,), carries much of its original Jewish meaning of "Messiah" —ie. "one [who is] anointed" or appointed by God with a unique and special purpose (mission) on Earth. Etymology Online: messiah In the 3rd- to 1st-centuries BC, the Tanakh (what Christians would in later centuries come to call the Old Testament) was translated into a Greek version called the Septuagint, in which Khristós was used as a translation of "." Jewish traditional customs associated an appointment to a special purpose with the customary "anointment" of a person with holy anointing oil. In the first century C.E., a growing sect of religious converts believed that Jesus is "the Christ" (Messiah), and these became known as "Christians." This usage remains current and dominant, such that while the Hebrew term "Messiah" may specifically refer to the Jewish concept of "the Messiah" yet to come (hence excluding Jesus), or to the concept of such a being in general (such that would include Jesus and others), the term "Christ" is largely associated with Christianity and the belief that Jesus was the Jewish Messiah. In general theological usage, the term "Christ" is largely founded on the concept of the divine presence of God within each and all human beings. In Christian theological contexts, the term "Christ" is more specialized, referring to this same presence of God (cf. Holy Spirit), along with the messianic title, in particular within the 1st century human being "Jesus" (Hebrew Yeshua). Further, Christians since the 4th century C.E. have promoted the view that this divine "presence" was not altogether an identical presence of God as found in all beings, but a special and unique union such that God and Jesus together with the Holy Spirit form one being (either literally or mythically) in "The Christ" (cf. Nicene Creed). The area of Christian theology focusing on the nature of Jesus as the Christ, particularly with how the divine and human are related in his person, is known as Christology. A central doctrine within the Trinitarian (Nicene) interpretation is that God took human form in the body of Jesus, "the Christ," and accordingly "Christ" was or is both fully human and fully God. Following from this association between God and Jesus, many Christians believe that belief in Jesus either qualifies them as inheritors of a special privilege or else provides for them a conceptual interface to God's being, such that translates to having a greater "personal relationship" with God. Further, these concepts of personal connection with God have claimed relevance, in varied denominational doctrines, to fundamental spiritual concepts including God's love, divine providence, divine illumination and even salvation. "Incarnation." Online: http://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/theogloss/incarn-body.html Accessed 12-28-2008 Etymology The spelling Christ in English was standardized in the 17th century, when, in the spirit of the Enlightenment, spellings of certain words were changed to fit their Greek or Latin origins. Prior to this, in Old and Middle English, the word was usually spelled Crist, the i being pronounced either as (see Help:IPA for English), preserved in the names of churches such as St Katherine Cree, or as a short , preserved in the modern pronunciation of Christmas). The spelling "Christ" is attested from the 14th century. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. "Christ" The term Christ (or similar) appears in English and most European languages, owing to the Greek usage of Khristós (transcribed in Latin as Christus) in the New Testament as a description for Jesus. In the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible, it was used to translate into Greek the Hebrew mashiach (messiah), meaning "anointed." Khristós in classical Greek usage could mean covered in oil, and is thus a literal translation of messiah. The Greek term is thought to derive from the Proto-Indo-European root of *ghrei- ("to rub"), which in Germanic languages, such as English, mutated into gris- and grim-. Hence the English words grisly, grim, grime, and grease, are thought to be cognate with Christ, though these terms came to have a negative connotation, where the Greek word had a positive connotation. In French the Greek term mutated first to creŝme and then to crème, due to the loss of certain 's' usages in French, which was loaned into English as cream. Indian ghee, from Sanskrit घृत ("sprinkled") is another obvious cognate, and indeed, has a sacred role in Vedic and modern Hindu libation and anointment rituals. Christian views Christ the Otero, Palencia. The New Testament records that the Messiah, long awaited, had come and describes this savior as The Christ (Greek Genitive: , toú Christoú,; Nominative: , ho Christós). The apostle Peter, in what has become a famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the first century, said, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God" (). Teachings about Jesus and testimonies about what he accomplished during his three-year public ministry are found throughout the New Testament. Core biblical teachings about the person of Jesus Christ may be summarized that Jesus Christ was and forever is fully God (divine) and fully human in one sinless person at the same time.Grudem, Wayne A. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Zondervan, 1994. ISBN 0310286700 Scripture asserts that Jesus was conceived, by a miraculous work of the Holy Spirit, in the womb of his virgin mother Mary without a human father (, , ). The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews says: Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, Chapter 3, Section 3 However, the authenticity of this quote is in question. This 'quote' from JOSEPHUS is recognized to have been wholly or in part inserted by later persons in order to bolster the story of Jesus. JESUS INTERRUPTED, Ehrman, p.150, copyright 2009; JOSEPHUS, Bentwich, p. 241, copyright 1914. Various texts titled "Apostles' Creed", dating from the third century A.D., and still in current use among Christians, describe Jesus as the only son of God the Father having the Virgin Mary as mother crucified on the authority of Pontius Pilate having been dead and buried "descending into hell" or "descending to the dead" (sometimes omitted) rising from the dead after 3 days "ascending into heaven" sitting "at the right hand" of God destined to return to earth, and then to pass judgment on all humans who have ever lived. Esoteric views See also Second Coming and Esoteric Christianity Christian Science In the theology of Christian Science, Mary Baker Eddy, the religion's founder, wrote in her book, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, that: "The invisible Christ was imperceptible to the so-called personal senses, whereas Jesus appeared as a bodily existence. This dual personality of the unseen and the seen, the spiritual and material, the eternal Christ and the corporeal Jesus manifest in flesh, continued until the Master's ascension, when the human, material concept, or Jesus, disappeared, while the spiritual self, or Christ, continues to exist in the eternal order of divine Science, taking away the sins of the world, as the Christ has always done, even before the human Jesus was incarnate to mortal eyes." Science and Health 334 Eddy wrote that while Jesus, as a material man, was not the exact ontological or quantitative equivalent to God, he thoroughly embodied the spiritual sonship of God's nature. In Christian Science, the Christ, or divine manifestation of God, continues forever to enlighten humanity and to destroy sickness, sin, and death. Western Wisdom Teachings In the Rosicrucian writings of Max Heindel, also known as Western Wisdom Teachings, there is a distinction to be made between Jesus and the Christ. Max Heindel, The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception (Part III, Chapter XV: Christ and his Mission), November 1909, ISBN 0–911274–34–0 Jesus is considered a high Initiate of the human life wave (the cycle of rebirth) and of a singularly pure type of mind, vastly superior to the great majority of the present humanity. Gnostic The gnostics generally believed not in a Jesus who was a divine person with a human form, but in a spiritual christ who dwelt in Jesus. Through the spiritual path of gnosticism, followers of these schools believed that they could experience the same knowledge, or gnosis. Gnosticism, a non-hierarchical interpretation of the Christian message, was declared heresy by the formal, hierarchical Christian church at the first Ecumenical Council, which occurred at Nicaea in 325 A.D., although condemnation of such beliefs were held by orthodox church leaders for some time. Many of the Gnostic texts reveal that in order to be called worthy of the title "Christian" one must also be anointed with Holy oil and that the water baptism alone is incomplete. The Gospel of Philip states several such instances, one being; "The "Chrism" is superior to baptism, for it is from the word "Chrism" that we have been called "Christians," certainly not because of the word "baptism." And it is because of the "Chrism" that the "Christ" has his name. For the Father anointed the Son, the Son anointed the apostles, and the apostles anointed us. He who has been anointed possesses everything. He possesses the Resurrection, the Light, the Cross, the Holy Spirit. The Father gave him this in the bridal chamber, he merely accepted the gift. The Father was in the Son and the Son in the Father. This is the Kingdom of Heaven." This coincides with 1 John 2:18-29, Mark 6:13, and James 5:14 of the New Testament which also reveal the anointing. Gnostic texts with Jesus Christ include the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Mary, and many more which have been discovered throughout the centuries. Creation Spirituality In his book The Coming of the Cosmic Christ Matthew Fox wrote of "the Cosmic Christ." Islamic view Muslims believe Jesus (Isa or عيسى) to be the Messiah (Massih) and a prophet. Although they believe in the Virgin Birth, they do not consider Jesus to be "the son of God". They believe Jesus was neither crucified nor dead, but was raised to Heaven by God while still living. Islamic traditions narrate that he will return to earth near the day of judgement to restore justice and defeat al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl (lit. "the false messiah", also known as the Antichrist) and the enemies of Islam. Encyclopedia of Islam -- "Isa" Χ The use of "Χ," derived from Chi, the Greek alphabet initial, as an abbreviation for Christ (most commonly in the abbreviation "Χmas") is often misinterpreted as a modern secularization of the term. Thus understood, the centuries-old English word Χmas, is actually a shortened form of CHmas, which is, itself, a shortened form for Christmas. In fact, the use of "Χ" to represent the full word goes back to the earliest days of Greek Christianity. Slang usage The interjection "Christ!" is often used as a sign of surprise or anger, without a direct religious reference—that is, as an exclamation. Some Christians understand this usage to be in violation of the Commandment against taking the Lord's name in vain, although the severity of the transgression varies among different groups of believers. The prohibition against using interjections was taken more seriously in the past, to the point where it was not only considered socially improper, but a sin against God. This led to the creation of many circumlocutions which allowed the speaker to express the emotion while avoiding the transgression. Common euphemisms that have arisen for this usage include "For crying out loud!" (UK and US) and "Crikey" (UK, Aus.), used as an alternative by people reluctant to use "Christ". Further euphemisms would include "criminy", "jeepers creepers", and "jiminy cricket". Beginning in the latter half of the 20th century, the prohibition against using the name of the deity as an interjection has become much more relaxed. See also Anointing of Jesus Anointing Antichrist Chrism Christology Jewish Messiah Messiah Messianic prophecy Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament Son of Man References Further reading Harpur, Tom, The Pagan Christ: Recovering the Lost Light. Toronto: Thomas Allen Publishers, 2004. McDowell, Joshua and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions, Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983. Ott, Ludwig, Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, 1957. Michalopoulos, Dimitris (2006): "Islam and Christendom: The distorted relationship". Entelequia. Revista Interdisciplinar, 2, Otoño 2006. Págs. 201-206. External links Christ and Hermetic (Magi) teachings The Christ concept in Esoteric Christianity Hermes-Press.com Jesus and Jerusalem feeljerusalem.com The Gnostic Christ: Gnosticism vs. Christianity Paul A. Hughes Messianic prophecies fulfilled by Jesus About-Jesus.org Christ in Islam Islamic view of Messiah The Jewish Messiah: The Criteria. Jews for Judaism Linkages Between Two God-Men Saviors: Christ and Krishna religioustolerance.org Orthodox Outlet for Dogmatic Enquiries OODE Christ Consciousness | Christ |@lemmatized christ:44 saviour:1 pantokrator:1 century:13 encaustic:1 icon:1 saint:1 catherine:1 monastery:1 mount:1 sinai:1 english:10 term:10 greek:12 khristós:4 meaning:3 anointed:2 etymology:3 online:3 translation:3 hebrew:5 carry:1 much:2 original:1 jewish:7 messiah:15 ie:1 one:5 appoint:1 god:23 unique:2 special:4 purpose:2 mission:2 earth:3 bc:1 tanakh:1 christians:1 would:3 later:1 come:6 call:6 old:3 testament:6 translate:3 version:2 septuagint:2 use:10 traditional:1 custom:1 associate:2 appointment:1 customary:1 anointment:2 person:6 holy:6 anoint:9 oil:3 first:5 c:2 e:2 grow:1 sect:1 religious:2 convert:1 believe:7 jesus:37 become:3 know:4 christian:17 usage:8 remain:1 current:2 dominant:1 may:2 specifically:1 refer:2 concept:7 yet:1 hence:2 exclude:1 general:2 include:5 others:1 largely:2 christianity:5 belief:3 theological:2 found:1 divine:10 presence:4 within:3 human:12 context:1 specialized:1 cf:2 spirit:5 along:1 messianic:3 title:4 particular:1 yeshua:1 far:3 since:2 promote:1 view:5 altogether:1 identical:1 find:2 union:1 together:1 form:5 either:3 literally:1 mythically:1 nicene:2 creed:2 area:1 theology:3 focus:1 nature:2 particularly:1 relate:1 christology:2 central:1 doctrine:3 trinitarian:1 interpretation:2 take:4 body:2 accordingly:1 fully:4 follow:1 association:1 many:6 qualify:1 inheritor:1 privilege:1 else:1 provide:1 conceptual:1 interface:1 great:2 personal:3 relationship:2 connection:1 claim:1 relevance:1 varied:1 denominational:1 fundamental:2 spiritual:6 love:2 providence:1 illumination:1 even:2 salvation:1 incarnation:1 http:1 www:1 pb:1 org:3 faithandreason:1 theogloss:1 incarn:1 html:1 access:1 spell:2 standardize:1 enlightenment:1 spelling:2 certain:2 word:8 change:1 fit:1 latin:2 origin:1 prior:1 middle:1 usually:1 crist:1 pronounce:1 see:4 help:1 ipa:1 preserve:2 name:6 church:3 st:1 katherine:1 cree:1 short:1 modern:3 pronunciation:1 christmas:2 attest:1 oxford:1 dictionary:1 v:2 similar:1 appear:3 european:2 language:2 owe:1 transcribe:1 christus:1 new:5 description:1 bible:1 mashiach:1 classical:1 could:2 mean:1 cover:1 thus:2 literal:1 think:2 derive:2 proto:1 indo:1 root:1 ghrei:1 rub:1 germanic:1 mutate:2 gris:1 grim:2 grisly:1 grime:1 grease:1 cognate:2 though:1 negative:1 connotation:2 positive:1 french:2 creŝme:1 crème:1 due:1 loss:1 loan:1 cream:1 indian:1 ghee:1 sanskrit:1 घ:1 त:1 sprinkle:1 another:1 obvious:1 indeed:1 sacred:1 role:1 vedic:1 hindu:1 libation:1 ritual:1 otero:1 palencia:1 record:1 long:1 await:1 describe:2 savior:2 genitive:1 toú:1 christoú:1 nominative:1 ho:1 christós:1 apostle:4 peter:1 famous:1 proclamation:1 faith:1 among:3 say:2 son:8 living:1 teaching:4 testimony:1 accomplish:1 three:1 year:1 public:1 ministry:1 throughout:2 core:1 biblical:2 summarize:1 forever:2 sinless:1 time:3 grudem:1 wayne:1 systematic:1 introduction:1 zondervan:1 isbn:2 scripture:2 assert:1 conceive:1 miraculous:1 work:2 womb:1 virgin:3 mother:2 mary:4 without:2 father:6 historian:1 flavius:1 josephus:4 antiquity:2 jew:4 wise:1 man:4 lawful:1 doer:1 wonderful:2 teacher:1 men:3 receive:1 truth:1 pleasure:1 draw:1 gentile:1 pilate:2 suggestion:1 principal:1 amongst:1 u:3 condemn:1 cross:2 forsake:1 alive:1 third:2 day:5 prophet:2 foretell:1 ten:1 thousand:1 thing:1 concern:1 tribe:1 extinct:1 book:3 chapter:2 section:1 however:1 authenticity:1 quote:2 question:1 recognize:1 wholly:1 part:2 insert:1 late:1 order:3 bolster:1 story:1 interrupt:1 ehrman:1 p:2 copyright:2 bentwich:1 various:1 text:3 date:1 still:2 crucify:1 authority:1 pontius:1 dead:4 buried:1 descend:2 hell:1 sometimes:1 omit:1 rise:1 ascend:1 heaven:3 sit:1 right:1 hand:1 destine:1 return:2 pass:1 judgment:1 ever:1 live:2 esoteric:3 also:6 second:1 science:6 baker:1 eddy:2 religion:2 founder:1 write:3 health:2 key:1 invisible:1 imperceptible:1 sens:1 whereas:1 bodily:1 existence:1 dual:1 personality:1 unseen:1 material:3 eternal:2 corporeal:1 manifest:1 flesh:1 continue:3 master:1 ascension:1 disappear:1 self:1 exist:1 away:1 sin:3 world:1 always:1 incarnate:1 mortal:1 eye:1 exact:1 ontological:1 quantitative:1 equivalent:1 thoroughly:1 embody:1 sonship:1 manifestation:1 enlighten:1 humanity:2 destroy:1 sickness:1 death:1 western:2 wisdom:2 rosicrucian:2 writing:1 max:2 heindel:2 distinction:1 make:1 cosmo:1 conception:1 iii:1 xv:1 november:1 consider:3 high:1 initiate:1 life:1 wave:1 cycle:1 rebirth:1 singularly:1 pure:1 type:1 mind:1 vastly:1 superior:2 majority:1 present:1 gnostic:5 generally:1 dwell:1 path:1 gnosticism:3 follower:1 school:1 experience:1 knowledge:1 gnosis:1 non:1 hierarchical:2 message:1 declare:1 heresy:1 formal:1 ecumenical:1 council:1 occur:1 nicaea:1 although:3 condemnation:1 hold:1 orthodox:2 leader:1 reveal:2 worthy:1 must:1 water:1 baptism:3 alone:1 incomplete:1 gospel:3 philip:1 state:1 several:1 instance:1 chrism:4 certainly:1 posse:1 everything:1 possess:1 resurrection:1 light:2 give:1 bridal:1 chamber:1 merely:1 accept:1 gift:1 kingdom:1 coincide:1 john:1 mark:1 jam:1 anointing:1 thomas:3 discover:1 creation:2 spirituality:1 cosmic:2 matthew:1 fox:1 islamic:3 muslim:1 isa:2 عيسى:1 massih:1 birth:1 neither:1 crucified:1 raise:1 tradition:1 narrate:1 near:1 judgement:1 restore:1 justice:1 defeat:1 al:1 masīḥ:1 ad:1 dajjāl:1 lit:1 false:1 antichrist:2 enemy:1 islam:4 encyclopedia:1 χ:3 chi:1 alphabet:1 initial:1 abbreviation:2 commonly:1 χmas:2 often:2 misinterpret:1 secularization:1 understood:1 actually:1 shortened:2 chmas:1 fact:1 represent:1 full:1 go:1 back:1 early:1 slang:1 interjection:3 sign:1 surprise:1 anger:1 direct:1 reference:2 exclamation:1 understand:1 violation:1 commandment:1 lord:1 vain:1 severity:1 transgression:2 vary:1 different:1 group:1 believer:1 prohibition:2 seriously:1 past:1 point:1 socially:1 improper:1 lead:1 circumlocution:1 allow:1 speaker:1 express:1 emotion:1 avoid:1 common:1 euphemism:2 arise:1 cry:1 loud:1 uk:2 crikey:1 aus:1 alternative:1 people:1 reluctant:1 criminy:1 jeepers:1 creeper:1 jiminy:1 cricket:1 beginning:1 latter:1 half:1 deity:1 relaxed:1 prophecy:2 read:1 harpur:1 tom:1 pagan:1 recover:1 lose:1 toronto:1 allen:1 publisher:2 mcdowell:1 joshua:1 stewart:1 handbook:1 today:1 nashville:1 nelson:1 ott:1 ludwig:1 catholic:1 dogma:1 michalopoulos:1 dimitris:1 christendom:1 distorted:1 entelequia:1 revista:1 interdisciplinar:1 otoño:1 págs:1 external:1 link:1 hermetic:1 magi:1 teach:1 hermes:1 press:1 com:2 jerusalem:1 feeljerusalem:1 paul:1 hughes:1 fulfil:1 criterion:1 judaism:1 linkage:1 two:1 krishna:1 religioustolerance:1 outlet:1 dogmatic:1 enquiry:1 oode:1 consciousness:1 |@bigram mount_sinai:1 jesus_christ:7 holy_spirit:4 nicene_creed:1 divine_providence:1 http_www:1 hebrew_bible:1 literal_translation:1 proto_indo:1 indo_european:1 negative_connotation:1 grudem_wayne:1 flavius_josephus:1 josephus_antiquity:2 apostle_creed:1 virgin_mary:1 pontius_pilate:1 ascend_heaven:1 baker_eddy:1 vastly_superior:1 ecumenical_council:1 messianic_prophecy:2 external_link:1 prophecy_fulfil:1 religioustolerance_org:1 |
3,407 | Allegory | Allegory of Music by Filippino Lippi. The "Allegory of Music" is a popular theme in painting; in this example, Lippi uses symbols popular during the High Renaissance, many of which refer to Greek mythology. Allegory (from Greek: αλλος, allos, "other", and αγορευειν, agoreuein, "to speak in public") is a figurative mode of representation conveying a meaning other than the literal. Fictions with several possible interpretations are not allegories in the true sense. Not every fiction with general application is an allegory. Allegory communicates its message by means of symbolic figures, actions or symbolic representation. Allegory is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be expressed in language: it may be addressed to the eye, and is often found in realistic painting, sculpture or some other form of mimetic, or representative art. The etymological meaning of the word is broader than the common use of the word. Though it is similar to other rhetorical comparisons, an allegory is sustained longer and more fully in its details than a metaphor, and appeals to imagination, while an analogy appeals to reason or logic. The fable or parable is a short allegory with one definite moral. Since meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories, sometimes distorting their author's overt meaning. For instance, many people have suggested that The Lord of the Rings is an allegory for the World Wars, in spite of J. R. R. Tolkien's emphatic statement in the introduction to the second edition "It is neither allegorical nor topical....I cordially dislike allegory in all its manifestations, and always have done so since I grew old and wary enough to detect its presence." Northrop Frye discussed what he termed a "continuum of allegory", ranging from what he termed the "naive allegory" of The Faerie Queene, to the more private allegories of modern paradox literature. In this perspective, the characters in a "naive" allegory are not fully three-dimensional, for each aspect of their individual personalities and the events that befall them embodies some moral quality or other abstraction; the allegory has been selected first, and the details merely flesh it out. Denial of allegory The denial of medieval allegory as found in the eleventh-century works of Hugh of St Victor and Edward Topsell's Historie of Foure-footed Beastes (London, 1607, 1653) and its replacement in the study of nature with methods of categorization and mathematics by such figures as naturalist John Ray and the astronomer Galileo is thought to mark the beginnings of early modern science. Peter Harrison, The Bible, Protestantism, and the rise of natural science, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-59196-1, pages 1 to 10 ("Introduction") Examples Allegory has been a favorite form in the literature of nearly every nation. In classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the cave in Plato's Republic (Book VII) and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa (Livy ii. 32). In Late Antiquity Martianus Capella organized all the information a fifth-century upper-class male needed to know into an allegory of the wedding of Mercury and Philologia, with the seven liberal arts as guests; Capella's allegory was widely read through the Middle Ages. Medieval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as su facts of surface appearances. Thus, the bull Unam Sanctam (1302) presents themes of the unity of Christendom with the pope as its head in which the allegorical details of the metaphors are adduced as actual facts which take the place of a logical demonstration, yet employing the vocabulary of logic: "Therefore of this one and only Church there is one body and one head—not two heads as if it were a monster... If, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ" (complete text). In the late fifteenth century, the enigmatic Hypnerotomachia, with its elaborate woodcut illustrations, shows the influence of themed pageants and masques on contemporary allegorical representation, as humanist dialectic conveyed them. Titian's Allegory of Age Governed by Prudence, with three human heads symbolising age and the triple-headed beast (dog, lion, wolf) standing for prudence. Some elaborate and successful specimens of allegory are to be found in the following works, arranged in the approximate chronological order: Aesop – Fables Plato – The Republic (Plato's allegory of the cave) Plato – Phaedrus (Chariot Allegory) Euripides – The Trojan Women Book of Revelation (for allegory in Christian theology, see typology (theology)) Martianus Capella – De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii The Romance of the Rose Christine de Pizan – The Book of the City of Ladies William Langland – Piers Plowman Pearl William Golding - Lord of the Flies Dante Alighieri – The Divine Comedy Everyman George MacDonald – Phantastes Edmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene John Bunyan – Pilgrim's Progress Jonathan Swift – A Tale of a Tub Joseph Addison – Vision of Mirza E. T. A. Hoffmann – Princess Brambilla Nathaniel Hawthorne – "The Great Carbuncle" Herman Melville – The Confidence-Man Edgar Allan Poe – "The Masque of the Red Death" (though Poe did not believe in allegory, this story is generally assumed to be one) Roppolo, Joseph Patrick. "Meaning and 'The Masque of the Red Death'", collected in Poe: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Robert Regan. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. p. 134 C.S. Lewis – The Chronicles of Narnia: generic allegorical elements of good and evil, as well as many Christian themes, expressed in a narrative with strong fantasy fiction elements and credible characters: not fully an allegory. Modern allegories in fiction tend to operate under constraints of modern requirements for verisimilitude within conventional expectations of realism. Works of fiction with strong allegorical overtones include: Jan Vermeer's work, The Allegory of Painting. Jorge Luis Borges – The Library of Babel and The Babylon Lottery Peter S. Beagle – The Last Unicorn Albert Camus – The Plague, The Stranger John Irving – A Prayer for Owen Meany David Lindsay – A Voyage to Arcturus Naguib Mahfouz – Children of Gebelawi Hualing Nieh – Mulberry and Peach George Orwell – Animal Farm Philip Pullman – His Dark Materials Rex Warner – The Aerodrome J.M. Coetzee – Waiting for the Barbarians Cormac McCarthy – The Road Where some requirements of "realism", in its flexible meanings, are set aside, allegory can come more strongly to the surface, as in the work of Bertold Brecht or Franz Kafka on one hand, or on the other in science fiction and fantasy, where an element of universal application and allegorical overtones are common, as with Dune. Fictions that are not allegories may help define the genre by contrast: Arthur Miller – The Crucible: character-driven historical drama with contemporary relevance. Allegorical films include: Fritz Lang's Metropolis Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey El Topo Star Trek: The Undiscovered Country, The Cold War The Matrix, Plato's Allegory of the Cave The Virgin Suicides Casablanca, America's relationship with France in WWII In some films, allegorical interpretations may be applied after the fact: Gojira The English School's Allegory of Queen Elizabeth with Father Time at her right and Death looking over her left shoulder. Two cherubs are removing the weighty crown from her tired head. Some allegorical works of art include: Sandro Botticelli – La Primavera (Allegory of Spring) Albrecht Dürer – Melencolia I Artemisia Gentileschi – Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting; Allegory of Inclination Jan Vermeer – The Allegory of Painting Ambrogio Lorenzetti; "Good Government in the City" and "Bad Government in the City" The English School's "Allegory of Queen Elizabeth" painted circa 1610. See also Allegory in the Middle Ages Allegory in Renaissance literature Allegorical sculpture Cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain Roman à clef Semiotics References Further reading Frye, Northrop, 1957. Anatomy of Criticism Michel Foucault, The Order of Things External links Brief definition of Allegory Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Allegory in Literary history Electronic Antiquity, Richard Levis, "Allegory and the Eclogues" Roman definitions of allegoria and interpreting Vergil's Eclogues. | Allegory |@lemmatized allegory:49 music:2 filippino:1 lippi:2 popular:2 theme:3 painting:3 example:1 us:2 symbols:1 high:1 renaissance:2 many:4 refer:1 greek:3 mythology:1 αλλος:1 allos:1 αγορευειν:1 agoreuein:1 speak:1 public:1 figurative:1 mode:1 representation:3 convey:2 meaning:5 literal:1 fiction:7 several:1 possible:1 interpretation:2 true:2 sense:1 every:2 general:1 application:2 communicate:1 message:1 mean:1 symbolic:2 figure:3 action:1 generally:2 treat:1 rhetoric:1 express:2 language:1 may:4 address:1 eye:1 often:1 find:3 realistic:1 sculpture:2 form:2 mimetic:1 representative:1 art:3 etymological:1 word:2 broad:1 common:2 use:1 though:2 similar:1 rhetorical:2 comparison:1 sustain:1 long:1 fully:3 detail:3 metaphor:2 appeal:2 imagination:1 analogy:1 reason:1 logic:2 fable:2 parable:1 short:1 one:6 definite:1 moral:2 since:2 meaningful:1 story:4 nearly:2 always:2 applicable:1 large:1 issue:1 read:3 sometimes:1 distort:1 author:1 overt:1 instance:1 people:1 suggest:1 lord:2 ring:1 world:1 war:2 spite:1 j:2 r:2 tolkien:1 emphatic:1 statement:1 introduction:2 second:1 edition:1 neither:1 allegorical:10 topical:1 cordially:1 dislike:1 manifestation:1 grow:1 old:1 wary:1 enough:1 detect:1 presence:1 northrop:2 frye:2 discuss:1 term:2 continuum:1 range:1 naive:2 faerie:2 queene:2 private:1 modern:4 paradox:1 literature:4 perspective:1 character:3 three:2 dimensional:1 aspect:1 individual:1 personality:1 event:1 befall:1 embody:1 quality:1 abstraction:1 select:1 first:1 merely:1 flesh:1 denial:2 medieval:2 eleventh:1 century:3 work:6 hugh:1 st:1 victor:1 edward:1 topsell:1 historie:1 foure:1 foot:1 beastes:1 london:1 replacement:1 study:1 nature:1 method:1 categorization:1 mathematics:1 naturalist:1 john:3 ray:1 astronomer:1 galileo:1 think:2 mark:1 beginning:1 early:1 science:3 peter:3 harrison:1 bible:1 protestantism:1 rise:2 natural:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 page:1 examples:1 favorite:1 nation:1 classical:1 two:3 best:1 know:2 cave:3 plato:5 republic:2 book:3 vii:1 stomach:1 member:1 speech:1 menenius:1 agrippa:1 livy:1 ii:2 late:2 antiquity:2 martianus:2 capella:3 organize:1 information:1 fifth:1 upper:1 class:1 male:1 need:1 wedding:1 mercury:1 philologia:1 seven:1 liberal:1 guest:1 widely:1 middle:2 age:4 accepted:1 reality:1 underlie:1 fictional:1 su:1 fact:3 surface:2 appearance:1 thus:1 bull:1 unam:1 sanctam:1 present:1 unity:1 christendom:1 pope:1 head:6 adduce:1 actual:1 take:1 place:1 logical:1 demonstration:1 yet:1 employ:1 vocabulary:1 therefore:1 church:1 body:1 monster:1 others:1 say:1 commit:1 care:1 successor:1 necessarily:1 confess:1 sheep:1 christ:1 complete:1 text:1 fifteenth:1 enigmatic:1 hypnerotomachia:1 elaborate:2 woodcut:1 illustration:1 show:1 influence:1 themed:1 pageant:1 masque:3 contemporary:2 humanist:1 dialectic:1 titian:1 govern:1 prudence:2 human:1 symbolise:1 triple:1 beast:1 dog:1 lion:1 wolf:1 stand:1 successful:1 specimen:1 following:1 arrange:1 approximate:1 chronological:1 order:2 aesop:1 phaedrus:1 chariot:1 euripides:1 trojan:1 woman:1 revelation:1 christian:2 theology:2 see:2 typology:1 de:2 nuptiis:1 philologiæ:1 et:1 mercurii:1 romance:1 christine:1 pizan:1 city:3 lady:1 william:2 langland:1 pier:1 plowman:1 pearl:1 golding:1 fly:1 dante:1 alighieri:1 divine:1 comedy:1 everyman:1 george:2 macdonald:1 phantastes:1 edmund:1 spenser:1 bunyan:1 pilgrim:1 progress:1 jonathan:1 swift:1 tale:1 tub:1 joseph:2 addison:1 vision:1 mirza:1 e:1 hoffmann:1 princess:1 brambilla:1 nathaniel:1 hawthorne:1 great:1 carbuncle:1 herman:1 melville:1 confidence:1 man:1 edgar:1 allan:1 poe:3 red:2 death:3 believe:1 assume:1 roppolo:1 patrick:1 collect:1 collection:1 critical:1 essay:1 edit:1 robert:1 regan:1 englewood:1 cliff:1 nj:1 prentice:1 hall:1 inc:1 p:1 c:1 lewis:1 chronicle:1 narnia:1 generic:1 element:3 good:2 evil:1 well:1 narrative:1 strong:2 fantasy:2 credible:1 tend:1 operate:1 constraint:1 requirement:2 verisimilitude:1 within:1 conventional:1 expectation:1 realism:2 overtone:2 include:3 jan:2 vermeer:2 paint:3 jorge:1 luis:1 borges:1 library:1 babel:1 babylon:1 lottery:1 beagle:1 last:1 unicorn:1 albert:1 camus:1 plague:1 stranger:1 irving:1 prayer:1 owen:1 meany:1 david:1 lindsay:1 voyage:1 arcturus:1 naguib:1 mahfouz:1 child:1 gebelawi:1 hualing:1 nieh:1 mulberry:1 peach:1 orwell:1 animal:1 farm:1 philip:2 pullman:1 dark:1 material:1 rex:1 warner:1 aerodrome:1 coetzee:1 wait:1 barbarian:1 cormac:1 mccarthy:1 road:1 flexible:1 set:1 aside:1 come:1 strongly:1 bertold:1 brecht:1 franz:1 kafka:1 hand:1 universal:1 dune:1 help:1 define:1 genre:1 contrast:1 arthur:1 miller:1 crucible:1 driven:1 historical:1 drama:1 relevance:1 film:2 fritz:1 lang:1 metropolis:1 ingmar:1 bergman:1 seventh:1 seal:1 stanley:1 kubrick:1 space:1 odyssey:1 el:1 topo:1 star:1 trek:1 undiscovered:1 country:1 cold:1 matrix:1 virgin:1 suicides:1 casablanca:1 america:1 relationship:1 france:1 wwii:1 apply:1 gojira:1 english:2 school:2 queen:2 elizabeth:2 father:1 time:1 right:1 look:1 left:1 shoulder:1 cherub:1 remove:1 weighty:1 crown:1 tired:1 sandro:1 botticelli:1 la:1 primavera:1 spring:1 albrecht:1 dürer:1 melencolia:1 artemisia:1 gentileschi:1 self:1 portrait:1 inclination:1 ambrogio:1 lorenzetti:1 government:2 bad:1 circa:1 also:1 cultural:1 depiction:1 spain:1 roman:2 à:1 clef:1 semiotics:1 reference:1 far:1 anatomy:1 criticism:1 michel:1 foucault:1 thing:1 external:1 link:1 brief:1 definition:2 dictionary:1 history:2 idea:1 literary:1 electronic:1 richard:1 levi:1 eclogue:2 allegoria:1 interpret:1 vergil:1 |@bigram northrop_frye:1 faerie_queene:2 allegory_cave:3 martianus_capella:2 woodcut_illustration:1 aesop_fable:1 de_pizan:1 william_langland:1 william_golding:1 dante_alighieri:1 alighieri_divine:1 edmund_spenser:1 spenser_faerie:1 bunyan_pilgrim:1 pilgrim_progress:1 jonathan_swift:1 nathaniel_hawthorne:1 herman_melville:1 edgar_allan:1 allan_poe:1 englewood_cliff:1 cliff_nj:1 nj_prentice:1 prentice_hall:1 chronicle_narnia:1 jorge_luis:1 luis_borges:1 albert_camus:1 owen_meany:1 naguib_mahfouz:1 george_orwell:1 philip_pullman:1 j_coetzee:1 cormac_mccarthy:1 franz_kafka:1 science_fiction:1 fritz_lang:1 ingmar_bergman:1 stanley_kubrick:1 star_trek:1 allegorical_interpretation:1 queen_elizabeth:2 sandro_botticelli:1 albrecht_dürer:1 à_clef:1 michel_foucault:1 external_link:1 |
3,408 | Esperantujo | Esperantujo or Esperantio is a term (meaning "Esperantoland") used by speakers of the constructed international auxiliary language Esperanto to refer to the Esperanto community and the activities going on in the language. When two people are speaking Esperanto, they are said to be "in" Esperantujo. The word is formed analogously to country names. In Esperanto, the names of both lands and nation states were traditionally formed from the ethnic name of their inhabitants plus the suffix -ujo, so for example "France" was Francujo, from franco (a Frenchman). The term most analogous to Francujo would be Esperantistujo (Esperantist-land). However, that would convey the idea of the physical body of people, whereas using the name of the language as the basis of the word gives it the more abstract connotation of a cultural sphere. Currently, names of nation states are often formed with the suffix -io traditionally reserved for deriving country names from geographic features, so now Francio, and recently the form Esperantio has been used i.a. in the Pasporta Servo. | Esperantujo |@lemmatized esperantujo:2 esperantio:2 term:2 mean:1 esperantoland:1 use:3 speaker:1 constructed:1 international:1 auxiliary:1 language:3 esperanto:4 refer:1 community:1 activity:1 go:1 two:1 people:2 speak:1 say:1 word:2 form:4 analogously:1 country:2 name:6 land:2 nation:2 state:2 traditionally:2 ethnic:1 inhabitant:1 plus:1 suffix:2 ujo:1 example:1 france:1 francujo:2 franco:1 frenchman:1 analogous:1 would:2 esperantistujo:1 esperantist:1 however:1 convey:1 idea:1 physical:1 body:1 whereas:1 basis:1 give:1 abstract:1 connotation:1 cultural:1 sphere:1 currently:1 often:1 io:1 reserve:1 derive:1 geographic:1 feature:1 francio:1 recently:1 pasporta:1 servo:1 |@bigram pasporta_servo:1 |
3,409 | Politics_of_Eritrea | Politics of Eritrea takes place in a framework of a single-party presidential republic, whereby the President of Eritrea is both head of state and head of government and a single-party state, led by the People's Front for Democracy and Justice. The National Assembly of 150 seats, formed in 1993 shortly after independence, elected the current president, Isaias Afewerki. Following a successful referendum on independence for the Autonomous Region of Eritrea on 1993-04-23-1993-04-25, on 1993-05-19, the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) issued a Proclamation regarding the reorganization of the Government. It declared that during a four-year transition period, and sooner if possible, it would draft and ratify a constitution, prepare a law on political parties, prepare a press law, and carry out elections for a constitutional government. In March 1994, the PGE created a constitutional commission charged with drafting a constitution flexible enough to meet the current needs of a population suffering from 30 years of civil war as well as those of the future, when stability and prosperity change the political landscape. Commission members have traveled throughout the country and to Eritrean communities abroad holding meetings to explain constitutional options to the people and to solicit their input. A new constitution was promulgated in 1997 but has not yet been implemented, and general elections have been postponed. A National Assembly, composed entirely of the PFDJ, was established as a transitional legislature; elections have been postponed indefinitely following the start of the border conflict with Ethiopia. Independent local sources of political information on Eritrean domestic politics are scarce; in September 2001 the government closed down all of the nation's privately owned print media, and outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial, according to domestic and international observers, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. In 2004 the U.S. State Department declared Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC) for its alleged record of religious persecution. At independence, the government faced formidable challenges. Beginning with a nascent judicial system, and an education system in shambles, it has attempted to build the institutions of government from scratch, with varying success. Since then, the impact of the border war with Ethiopia, and continued army mobilisation, has contributed to the lack of a skilled workforce. The present government includes legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Executive branch |President |Isaias Afewerki |PFDJ |24 May 1993 |} The president nominates individuals to head the various ministries, authorities, commissions, and offices, and the National Assembly ratifies those nominations. The cabinet is the country's executive branch. It is composed of 18 ministries and chaired by the president. It implements policies, regulations, and laws and is, in theory, accountable to the National Assembly. The Ministries are: Agriculture Defence Education Energy & Mines Finance Fisheries & Maritime Resources Foreign Affairs Health Information Justice Labour & Human Welfare Land, Water, & Environment Local Government National Development Public Works Tourism Trade & Industry Transport & Communications Legislative branch The legislature, the National Assembly appointed in 1993, includes 75 members of the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) and 75 additional 'popularly elected' members. The National Assembly is the highest legal power in the government until the establishment of a democratic, constitutional government.Within the Eritrean Constitution the Legislature would remain the strongest arm of the government. The legislature sets the internal and external policies of the government, regulates implementation of those policies, approves the budget, and elects the president of the country. Its membership has not been renewed through national elections. Lower Regional Assemblies are also in each of Eritrea's six zones. These Assemblies are responsible setting a local agenda in the case that they are not overruled by the National Assembly. These Regional Assemblies are popularly elected within each region. Unlike the National Assembly however, the Regional administrator is not selected by the Regional Assembly. Political parties and elections Eritrea is a single-party state, run by the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ). No other political groups are allowed to organize, although the non-implemented Constitution of 1997 provided for the existence of multi-party politics. Eritrean National elections were set for 1997 and then postponed until 2001, it was then decided that because 20% of Eritrea's land was under occupation that elections would be postponed until the resolution of the conflict with Ethiopia. Local elections have continued in Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were held in May 2003. On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Ghebremeskel said, Illegal opposition Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ) Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), Abdullah Muhammed Eritrean Liberation Front-Revolutionary Council (ELF-RC), Ahmed Nasser Eritrean Liberation Front-United Organization (ELF-UO), Mohammed Said Nawd Eritrean People´s Democratic Front (EPDF), Tewelde Ghebreselassie Regional issues Eritrea has had rough relations with most of its neighbors in the 1990s and initiated both small scale and large scale battles against Sudan, Djibouti, Yemen and Ethiopia. Eritrea invaded the hanish islands of Yemen, Sudan blamed Eritrea for attacks in Eastern Sudan, UN commission accused Eritrea for invading Ethiopia and Djibouti officials accused Eritrea for shelling towns in Djibouti in 1996. Eritrea invades Yemen's hanish islands Eritrea attacks Sudan Djibouti blames Eritrea for shelling Djibouti town UN accuses Eritrea for Invading Ethiopia Since then, Eritrea has made efforts to solve relations with Sudan and Djibouti, though relations with Yemen and Ethiopia remain sour. Eritrea abandoned the regional bloc IGAD which is membered by the four nations and Kenya. Judicial branch The judiciary operates independently of both the legislative and executive bodies, with a court system that extends from the village through to the regional and national levels. The structure has three tiers, the local "community courts", the regional courts and the national High Court. Village judges are elected, though typically they are the village elders. A community court consists of three judges/magistrates. "There are a total of 683 community courts across the country with the number of magistrates totaling to 2,049, i.e. 55 in the Central Region, 213 in the South, 178 in Gash-Barka, 109 in Anseba, 98 in the Northern and 30 in the Southern Red Sea regions." The community courts work on the basis of the area, the local rules and customs. If a dispute cannot be resolved in the community courts it can be appealed to the next level of judicial administration, the regional courts. Administrative Divisions Regions of Eritrea Main articles: Regions of Eritrea, Districts of Eritrea Eritrea is divided into 6 regions (or zobas) and subdivided into approximately 55 districts or sub-zobas. The regions are based on the hydrological properties of area. This has the dual effect of providing each administration with ample control over its agricultural capacity and eliminating historical intra-regional conflicts. The regions are included followed by the Sub-region: Region (ዞባ) (location on map) Sub-region (ንዑስ ዞባ) Central (Maekel Zoba) (Al-Wasat) (1) Berikh, Ghala Nefhi, North Eastern, Serejaka, South Eastern, South Western Southern (Debub Zoba) (Al-Janobi) (2) Adi Keyh, Adi Quala, Areza, Debarwa, Dekemhare, Kudo Be'ur, Mai-Mne, Mendefera, Segeneiti, Senafe, Tserona Gash-Barka (3) Agordat City, Barentu City, Dghe, Forto, Gogne, Haykota, Logo Anseba, Mensura, Mogolo, Molki, Omhajer (Guluj), Shambuko, Tesseney, Upper Gash Anseba (4) Adi Teklezan, Asmat, Elabered, Geleb, Hagaz, Halhal, Habero, Keren City, Kerkebet, Sela Northern Red Sea (Semienawi-QeyH-Bahri Zoba) (Shamal Al-Bahar Al-Ahmar) (5) Afabet, Dahlak, Ghelalo, Foro, Ghinda, Karura, Massawa, Nakfa, She'eb Southern Red Sea (Debubawi-QeyH-Bahri Zoba) (Janob Al-Bahar Al-Ahmar) (6) Are'eta, Central Dankalia, Southern Dankalia Foreign relations External issues include an undemarcated border with the Sudan, a war with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996, and a recent border conflict with Ethiopia. The undemarcated border with Sudan poses a problem for Eritrean external relations . After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs ties are being normalized. While normalization of ties continues, Eritrea has been recognized as a broker for peace between the separate factions of the Sudanese civil war. "It is known that Eritrea played a role in bringing about the peace agreement [between the Southern Sudanese and Government]," while the Sudanese Government and Eastern Front rebels have requested Eritrea to mediate peace talks . A dispute with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996 resulted in a brief war. As part of an agreement to cease hostilities the two nations agreed to refer the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the the Hague. At the conclusion of the proceedings, both nations acquiesced to the decision. Since 1996 both governments have remained wary of one another but relations are relatively normal . The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue facing Eritrea. This led to a long and bloody border war between 1998 and 2000. As a result, the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) is occupying a 25 km by 900 km area on the border to help stabilize the region . Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war . Central to the continuation of the stalemate is Ethiopia's failure to abide by the border delimitation ruling and reneging on its commitment to demarcation. The stalemate has led the President of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia. This request is outlined in the Eleven Letters penned by the President to the United Nations Security Council. The situation is further escalated by the continued effort of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting each other's opposition. Somalia is also at risk of being drawn into a proxy war between Eritrea and Ethiopia, with Eritrea providing arms and ammunition to 'Islamic militias' based in Mogadishu, and Ethiopia backing the Transitional Federal Government, currently based in Baidoa. In August 2006, the BBC and other sources reported that Ethiopian army troops had entered Somalia. References External links | Politics_of_Eritrea |@lemmatized politics:3 eritrea:32 take:2 place:1 framework:1 single:3 party:6 presidential:1 republic:1 whereby:1 president:9 head:3 state:4 government:19 lead:3 people:5 front:8 democracy:3 justice:4 national:13 assembly:12 seat:1 form:1 shortly:1 independence:3 elect:5 current:2 isaias:2 afewerki:2 follow:4 successful:1 referendum:1 autonomous:1 region:13 provisional:1 pge:2 issue:5 proclamation:1 regard:1 reorganization:1 declare:2 four:2 year:2 transition:1 period:2 sooner:1 possible:1 would:3 draft:2 ratify:1 constitution:5 prepare:2 law:3 political:5 press:1 carry:1 election:10 constitutional:4 march:1 create:1 commission:4 charge:1 flexible:1 enough:1 meet:1 need:1 population:1 suffer:1 civil:2 war:9 well:1 future:1 stability:1 prosperity:1 change:1 landscape:1 member:3 travel:1 throughout:1 country:5 eritrean:12 community:6 abroad:1 hold:3 meeting:1 explain:1 option:1 solicit:1 input:1 new:1 promulgate:1 yet:1 implement:2 general:1 postpone:4 compose:2 entirely:1 pfdj:4 establish:1 transitional:2 legislature:4 indefinitely:1 start:1 border:9 conflict:4 ethiopia:14 independent:1 local:7 source:2 information:2 domestic:2 scarce:1 september:1 close:1 nation:6 privately:1 print:1 medium:1 outspoken:1 critic:1 arrest:1 without:1 trial:1 accord:1 international:2 observer:1 include:5 human:2 right:1 watch:1 amnesty:1 u:1 department:1 particular:1 concern:1 cpc:1 alleged:1 record:1 religious:1 persecution:1 face:2 formidable:1 challenge:1 begin:1 nascent:1 judicial:4 system:3 education:2 shamble:1 attempt:1 build:1 institution:1 scratch:1 vary:1 success:1 since:3 impact:1 continue:3 army:2 mobilisation:1 contribute:1 lack:1 skilled:1 workforce:1 present:1 legislative:3 executive:4 body:2 branch:4 may:2 nominate:1 individual:1 various:1 ministry:4 authority:1 office:1 ratifies:1 nomination:1 cabinet:1 chair:1 policy:3 regulation:1 theory:1 accountable:1 agriculture:1 defence:1 energy:1 mine:1 finance:1 fishery:1 maritime:1 resource:1 foreign:3 affair:2 health:1 labour:1 welfare:1 land:2 water:1 environment:1 development:1 public:1 work:2 tourism:1 trade:1 industry:1 transport:1 communication:1 appoint:1 additional:1 popularly:2 high:3 legal:1 power:1 establishment:1 democratic:2 within:2 remain:3 strong:1 arm:2 set:3 internal:1 external:5 regulate:1 implementation:1 approve:1 budget:1 membership:1 renew:2 low:1 regional:10 also:2 six:1 zone:1 responsible:1 agenda:1 case:1 overrule:1 unlike:1 however:1 administrator:1 select:1 run:1 group:1 allow:1 organize:1 although:1 non:1 implemented:1 provide:3 existence:1 multi:1 decide:1 occupation:1 resolution:1 recent:2 round:1 chief:1 staff:1 yemane:1 ghebremeskel:1 say:2 illegal:1 opposition:2 islamic:2 jihad:1 eij:1 liberation:3 elf:3 abdullah:1 muhammed:1 revolutionary:1 council:2 rc:1 ahmed:1 nasser:1 united:3 organization:1 uo:1 mohammed:1 nawd:1 epdf:1 tewelde:1 ghebreselassie:1 rough:1 relation:6 neighbor:1 initiate:1 small:1 scale:2 large:1 battle:1 sudan:8 djibouti:6 yemen:6 invade:3 hanish:4 island:4 blame:2 attack:2 eastern:4 un:3 accuse:3 official:1 shell:2 town:2 invades:1 make:1 effort:2 solve:1 though:2 sour:1 abandon:1 bloc:1 igad:1 membered:1 kenya:1 judiciary:1 operate:1 independently:1 court:10 extend:1 village:3 level:3 structure:1 three:2 tier:1 judge:2 typically:1 elder:1 consist:1 magistrate:2 total:2 across:1 number:1 e:1 central:4 south:3 gash:3 barka:2 anseba:3 northern:2 southern:5 red:3 sea:3 basis:1 area:3 rule:1 custom:1 dispute:2 cannot:1 resolve:1 appeal:1 next:1 administration:2 administrative:1 division:1 main:1 article:1 district:2 divide:1 zobas:2 subdivide:1 approximately:1 sub:3 base:3 hydrological:1 property:1 dual:1 effect:1 ample:1 control:1 agricultural:1 capacity:1 eliminate:1 historical:1 intra:1 ዞባ:2 location:1 map:1 ንዑስ:1 maekel:1 zoba:4 al:6 wasat:1 berikh:1 ghala:1 nefhi:1 north:1 serejaka:1 western:1 debub:1 janobi:1 adi:3 keyh:1 quala:1 areza:1 debarwa:1 dekemhare:1 kudo:1 ur:1 mai:1 mne:1 mendefera:1 segeneiti:1 senafe:1 tserona:1 agordat:1 city:3 barentu:1 dghe:1 forto:1 gogne:1 haykota:1 logo:1 mensura:1 mogolo:1 molki:1 omhajer:1 guluj:1 shambuko:1 tesseney:1 upper:1 teklezan:1 asmat:1 elabered:1 geleb:1 hagaz:1 halhal:1 habero:1 keren:1 kerkebet:1 sela:1 semienawi:1 qeyh:2 bahri:2 shamal:1 bahar:2 ahmar:2 afabet:1 dahlak:1 ghelalo:1 foro:1 ghinda:1 karura:1 massawa:1 nakfa:1 eb:1 debubawi:1 janob:1 eta:1 dankalia:2 undemarcated:3 pose:1 problem:1 delegation:1 tie:2 normalize:1 normalization:1 recognize:1 broker:1 peace:3 separate:1 faction:1 sudanese:3 know:1 play:1 role:1 bring:1 agreement:2 rebel:1 request:2 mediate:1 talk:1 result:3 brief:1 part:1 cease:1 hostility:1 two:1 agree:1 refer:1 permanent:1 arbitration:1 hague:1 conclusion:1 proceeding:1 acquiesce:1 decision:1 wary:1 one:1 another:1 relatively:1 normal:1 primary:1 long:1 bloody:1 mission:1 unmee:1 occupy:1 km:2 help:1 stabilize:1 disagreement:1 stalemate:3 punctuate:1 elevated:1 tension:1 threat:1 continuation:1 failure:1 abide:1 delimitation:1 ruling:1 renege:1 commitment:1 demarcation:1 urge:1 action:1 outline:1 eleven:1 letter:1 pen:1 security:1 situation:1 far:1 escalate:1 continued:1 ethiopian:2 leader:1 support:1 somalia:2 risk:1 draw:1 proxy:1 ammunition:1 militia:1 mogadishu:1 back:1 federal:1 currently:1 baidoa:1 august:1 bbc:1 report:1 troop:1 enter:1 reference:1 link:1 |@bigram constitution_promulgate:1 postpone_indefinitely:1 outspoken_critic:1 amnesty_international:1 skilled_workforce:1 foreign_affair:2 legislative_branch:1 chief_staff:1 eritrean_liberation:3 ethiopia_eritrea:3 hanish_island:4 judicial_branch:1 eritrea_eritrea:1 undemarcated_border:3 eritrea_unmee:1 eritrean_ethiopian:1 eritrea_ethiopia:1 external_link:1 |
3,410 | Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa | Agrippa redirects here. For other uses of the name, see Agrippa (disambiguation). Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (c. 63 BC–12 BC) was a Roman statesman and general. He was a close friend, son-in-law, lieutenant and minister to Octavian, the future emperor Caesar Augustus. He was responsible for most of Octavian’s military triumphs, most notably winning the naval Battle of Actium against the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt. Early Life Agrippa was born in 64–62 BC Dio 54.28.3 places Agrippa's death in late March of 12 BC, while Pliny the Elder 7.46 states that he died "in his fifty-first year". Depending on whether Pliny meant that Agrippa was aged 50 or 51 at his death, this gives a date of birth between March 64 and March 62. A calendar from Cyprus or Syria includes a month named after Agrippa beginning on November 1, which may reflect the month of his birth. See Reinhold, pp. 2–4; Roddaz, pp. 23–26. in an uncertain location. Reinhold, p. 9; Roddaz, p. 23. His father was perhaps called Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa. He had an elder brother whose name was also Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa, and a sister named Vipsania Polla. The family had not been prominent in Roman public life. Velleius Paterculus 2.96, 127. However, Agrippa was about the same age as Octavius (the future emperor Augustus), and the two were educated together and became close friends. Despite Agrippa's association with the family of Julius Caesar, his elder brother chose another side in the civil wars of the 40s BC, fighting under Cato against Caesar in Africa. When Cato's forces were defeated, Agrippa's brother was taken prisoner but freed after Octavius interceded on his behalf. Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus 7. It is not known whether Agrippa fought against his brother in Africa, but he probably served in Caesar's campaign of 46–45 BC against Gnaeus Pompeius, which culminated in the Battle of Munda. Reinhold, pp. 13–14. At any rate, Caesar regarded him highly enough to send him with Octavius in 45 BC to study in Apollonia with the Macedonian legions, while Caesar consolidated his power in Rome. Suetonius, Life of Augustus 94.12. It was in the fourth month of their stay in Apollonia that the news of Julius Caesar's assassination in March 44 BC reached them. Despite the advice of Agrippa and another friend, Quintus Salvidienus Rufus, that he march on Rome with the troops from Macedonia, Octavius decided to sail to Italy with a small retinue. After his arrival, he learnt that Caesar had adopted him as his legal heir. Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus 16–17; Velleius Paterculus 2.59.5. (Octavius now took over Caesar's name, but is referred to by modern historians as "Octavian" during this period.) Rise in power After Octavian's return to Rome, he and his supporters realized they needed the support of legions. Agrippa helped Octavian to levy troops in Campania. Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus 31. It has been speculated that Agrippa was among the negotiators who won over Antony's Macedonian legions to Octavian, but there is no direct evidence for this; see Reinhold, p. 16. Once Octavian had his legions, he made a pact with Mark Antony and Lepidus, legally established in 43 BC as the Second Triumvirate. Octavian and his consular colleague Quintus Pedius arranged for Caesar's assassins to be prosecuted in their absence, and Agrippa was entrusted with the case against Gaius Cassius Longinus. Velleius Paterculus 2.69.5; Plutarch, Life of Brutus 27.4. It may have been in the same year that Agrippa began his political career, holding the position of Tribune of the Plebs, which granted him entry to the Senate. Mentioned only by Servius auctus on Virgil, Aeneid 8.682, but a necessary preliminary to his position as urban praetor in 40 BC. Roddaz (p. 41) favours the 43 BC date. Bust of Agrippa, Louvre In 42 BC, Agrippa probably fought alongside Octavian and Antony in the Battle of Philippi. Pliny the Elder 7.148 cites him as an authority for Octavian's illness on the occasion. After their return to Rome, he played a major role in Octavian's war against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia Antonia, respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony, which began in 41 BC and ended in the capture of Perusia in 40 BC. However, Salvidienus remained Octavian's main general at this time. Reinhold, pp. 17–20. After the Perusine war, Octavian departed for Gaul, leaving Agrippa as urban praetor in Rome with instructions to defend Italy against Sextus Pompeius, an opponent of the Triumvirate who was now occupying Sicily. In July 40, while Agrippa was occupied with the Ludi Apollinares that were the praetor's responsibility, Sextus began a raid in southern Italy. Agrippa advanced on him, forcing him to withdraw. Dio 48.20; Reinhold, p. 22. However, the Triumvirate proved unstable, and in August 40 both Sextus and Antony invaded Italy (but not in an organized alliance). Agrippa's success in retaking Sipontum from Antony helped bring an end to the conflict. Dio 48.28; Reinhold, p. 23. Agrippa was among the intermediaries through whom Antony and Octavian agreed once more upon peace. During the discussions Octavian learned that Salvidienus had offered to betray him to Antony, with the result that Salvidienus was prosecuted and either executed or committed suicide. Agrippa was now Octavian's leading general. Reinhold, pp. 23–24. Agrippa depicted in a relief of the "Altar of Peace," the Ara Pacis. In 39 or 38 BC, Octavian appointed Agrippa governor of Transalpine Gaul, where in 38 he put down a rising of the Aquitanians. He also fought the Germanic tribes, becoming the next Roman general to cross the Rhine after Julius Caesar. He was summoned back to Rome by Octavian to assume the consulship for 37 BC. He was well below the usual minimum age of 43, but Octavian had suffered a humiliating naval defeat against Sextus Pompey and needed his friend to oversee the preparations for further warfare. Agrippa refused the offer of a triumph for his exploits in Gaul – on the grounds, says Dio, that he thought it improper to celebrate during a time of trouble for Octavian. Dio 48.49; Reinhold, pp. 25–29. Agrippa's youth is noted by Lendering, "From Philippi to Actium". Since Sextus Pompeius had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy, Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbor for his ships. He accomplished this by cutting through the strips of land which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming an outer harbor, while joining the lake Avernus to the Lucrinus to serve as an inner harbor. Reinhold, pp. 29–32. The new harbor-complex was named Portus Julius in Octavian's honour. Suetonius, Life of Augustus 16.1. Agrippa was also responsible for technological improvements, including larger ships and an improved form of grappling hook. Appian, Civil Wars 2.106, 118–119; Reinhold, pp. 33–35. About this time, he married Caecilia Pomponia Attica, daughter of Cicero's friend Titus Pomponius Atticus. Reinhold, pp. 35–37. In 36 BC Octavian and Agrippa set sail against Sextus. The fleet was badly damaged by storms and had to withdraw; Agrippa was left in charge of the second attempt. Thanks to superior technology and training, Agrippa and his men won decisive victories at Mylae and Naulochus, destroying all but seventeen of Sextus' ships and compelling most of his forces to surrender. Octavian, with his power increased, forced the triumvir Lepidus into retirement and entered Rome in triumph. Reinhold, pp. 37–42. Agrippa received the unprecedented honor of a naval crown decorated with the beaks of ships; as Dio remarks, this was "a decoration given to nobody before or since". Dio 49.14.3. Life in public service [[Image:Pantheon rome 2005may.jpg|thumb|left|Hadrian's Pantheon was built to Agrippa's design. It bears the legend M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT, which means Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, Consul for the third time, built this]] Agrippa participated in smaller military campaigns in 35 and 34 BC, but by the autumn of 34 he had returned to Rome. Reinhold, pp. 45–47. He rapidly set out on a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct known as the Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of the aediles (officials responsible for Rome's buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned out, while lavish public spectacles were put on. Dio 49.42–43. Agrippa signalized his tenure of office by effecting great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring and building aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the Cloaca Maxima, constructing baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. It was unusual for an ex-consul to hold the lower-ranking position of aedile, Lendering, "From Philippi to Actium". but Agrippa's success bore out this break with tradition. As emperor, Augustus would later boast that "he had found the city of brick but left it of marble", thanks in part to the great services provided by Agrippa under his reign. Agrippa's father-in-law Atticus, suffering from a serious illness, committed suicide in 32 BC. According to Atticus' friend and biographer Cornelius Nepos, this decision was a cause of serious grief to Agrippa. Cornelius Nepos, Life of Atticus 21–22. Antony and Cleopatra Agrippa was again called away to take command of the fleet when the war with Antony and Cleopatra broke out. He captured the strategically important city of Methone at the southwest of the Peloponnese, then sailed north, raiding the Greek coast and capturing Corcyra (modern Corfu). Octavian then brought his forces to Corcyra, occupying it as a naval base. Orosius, History Against the Pagans 6.19.6–7; Dio 50.11.1–12.3; Reinhold, pp. 53–54. Antony drew up his ships and troops at Actium, where Octavian moved to meet him. Agrippa meanwhile defeated Antony's supporter Quintus Nasidius in a naval battle at Patrae. Dio 50.13.5. Dio relates that as Agrippa moved to join Octavian near Actium, he encountered Gaius Sosius, one of Antony's lieutenants, who was making a surprise attack on the squadron of Lucius Tarius, a supporter of Octavian. Agrippa's unexpected arrival turned the battle around. Dio 50.14.1–2; cf. Velleius Paterculus 2.84.2 ("Agrippa ... before the final conflict had twice defeated the fleet of the enemy"). Dio is wrong to say that Sosius was killed, since he in fact fought at and survived the Battle of Actium (Reinhold, p. 54 n. 14; Roddaz, p. 163 n. 140). As the decisive battle approached, according to Dio, Octavian received intelligence that Antony and Cleopatra planned to break past his naval blockade and escape. At first he wished to allow the flagships past, arguing that he could overtake them with his lighter vessels and that the other opposing ships would surrender when they saw their leaders' cowardice. Agrippa objected that Antony's ships, although larger, could outrun Octavian's if they hoisted sails, and that Octavian ought to fight now because Antony's fleet had just been struck by storms. Octavian followed his friend's advice. Dio 50.31.1–3. On September 2 31 BC, the Battle of Actium was fought. Octavian's victory, which gave him the mastery of Rome and the empire, was mainly due to Agrippa. Reinhold, pp. 57–58; Roddaz, pp. 178–181. As a token of signal regard, Octavian bestowed upon him the hand of his niece Claudia Marcella Major in 28 BC. He also served a second consulship with Octavian the same year. In 27 BC, Agrippa held a third consulship with Octavian, and in that year, the senate also bestowed upon Octavian the imperial title of Augustus. In commemoration of the Battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated the building that served as the Roman Pantheon before its destruction in 80. Emperor Hadrian used Agrippa's design to build his own Pantheon, which survives in Rome. The inscription of the later building, which was built around 125, preserves the text of the inscription from Agrippa's building during his third consulship. The years following his third consulship, Agrippa spent in Gaul, reforming the provincial administration and taxation system, along with building an effective road system and aqueducts. Late life The theatre at Merida, Spain; it was promoted by Agrippa, built between 16 and 15 BC. His friendship with Augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of his brother-in-law Marcus Claudius Marcellus, which was probably fomented by the intrigues of Livia, the third wife of Augustus, who feared his influence over her husband. Traditionally it is said the result of such jealousy was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governorship of eastern provinces - a sort of honorable exile, but, he only sent his legate to Syria, while he himself remained at Lesbos and governed by proxy, though he may have been on a secret mission to negotiate with the Parthians about the return of the Roman legions standards which they held. David Magie, The Mission of Agrippa to the Orient in 23 BC, Classical Philology, Vol. 3, No. 2(Apr., 1908), pp. 145-152 On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a year of his exile, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could not dispense with his services. However, if one places the events in the context of the crisis in 23 BC it seems unlikely that, when facing significant opposition and about to make a major political climb down, the emperor Augustus would place a man in exile in charge of the largest body of Roman troops. What is far more likely is that Agrippa's 'exile' was actually the careful political positioning of a loyal lieutenant in command of a significant army as a back up plan in case the settlement plans of 23 BC failed and Augustus needed military support. It is said that Maecenas advised Augustus to attach Agrippa still more closely to him by making him his son-in-law. He accordingly induced him to divorce Marcella and marry his daughter Julia the Elder by 21 BC, the widow of the late Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty, abilities, and her shameless profligacy. In 19 BC, Agrippa was employed in putting down a rising of the Cantabrians in Hispania (Cantabrian Wars). He was appointed governor of the eastern provinces a second time in 17 BC, where his just and prudent administration won him the respect and good-will of the provincials, especially from the Jewish population. Agrippa also restored effective Roman control over the Cimmerian Chersonnese (modern-day Crimea) during his governorship. Agrippa’s last public service was his beginning of the conquest of the upper Danube River region, which would become the Roman province of Pannonia in 13 BC. He died at Campania in March of 12 BC at the age of 51. His posthumous son, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus, was named in his honor. Augustus honored his memory by a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning. Augustus personally oversaw all of Agrippa's children’s educations. Although Agrippa had built a tomb for himself, Augustus had Agrippa's remains placed in Augustus' own mausoleum, according to Dio 54.28.5. Legacy The Maison Carrée at Nîmes, modern France, built in 19 BC; Agrippa was its patron. Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on the subject of geography. Under his supervision, Julius Caesar's dream of having a complete survey of the empire made was carried out. He constructed a circular chart, which was later engraved on marble by Augustus, and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister Polla. Amongst his writings, an autobiography, now lost, is referred to. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, along with Gaius Maecenas and Octavian, was a central person in the establishing of the Principate system of emperors, which would govern the Roman Empire up until the Crisis of the Third Century and the birth of Dominate system. His grandson Gaius is known to history as the Emperor Caligula, and his great-grandson Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus would rule as the Emperor Nero. Marriages and issue Agrippa left several children; By his first wife, Caecilia Attica Vipsania Agrippina (first wife of Emperor Tiberius). By his second wife, Claudia Marcella Major Name unknown, perhaps "Vipsania Marcella" By his third wife, Julia the Elder (Daughter of Augustus) Gaius Caesar Vipsania Julia or Julia the Younger Lucius Caesar Agrippina the Elder (wife of Germanicus) Agrippa Postumus (a posthumous son) Agrippa in popular culture Drama Marcus Agrippa, a highly fictionalised character based on Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa's early life, is part of the BBC-HBO-RAI television series Rome. He is played by Allen Leech. The series creates a romantic relationship between Agrippa and Octavian's sister Octavia Minor, for which there is no historical evidence. A fictionalised version of Agrippa in his later life played a prominent role in the celebrated 1976 BBC Television series I, Claudius. Agrippa was portrayed as a much older man, though he would have only been 39 years old at the time of the first episode (24/23 BC). He was played by John Paul. Agrippa is also one of the principal characters in the British/Italian joint project Imperium: Augustus featuring flashbacks between Augustus and Julia about Agrippa, which shows him in his youth on serving in Caesar's army up until his victory at Actium and the defeat of Cleopatra. He is portrayed by Ken Duken. Agrippa appears in several of the Cleopatra films. He is normally portrayed as an old man rather than a young one. Among the people to portray him are Philip Locke, Alan Rowe and Andrew Keir. Literature Agrippa is a character in William Shakespeare's play Antony and Cleopatra and also a main character in the early part of Robert Graves novel I, Claudius. He is a main character in the later two novels of Colleen McCullough's Masters of Rome series. Agrippa is also mentioned in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone'' as one of the elusive and rare collectable chocolate frog cards. Video Games Agrippa is also a character in the video game Shadow of Rome, which has Agrippa as one of Octavian's friends and supporters. Although the game is highly inaccurate in its history, Agrippa does face Mark Antony in the final battle on a ship alongside Octavian. Television In the television series Babylon 5 one of the Earth Alliance Omega Class Destroyers sent to the Babylon 5 Space Station to seize control for the forces of President Clark in the Season 3 episode Severed Dreams was named Agrippa after Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. This is inline with many of the names for the Earth Alliance Destroyers being sourced from ancient Roman and Greek history/mythology. See also Julio-Claudian family tree Notes References Further reading Geoffrey Mottershead, The Constructions of Marcus Agrippa in the West, University of Merlbourne, 2005 Augustus' Funeral Oration for Agrippa Marcus Agrippa, article in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith | Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa |@lemmatized agrippa:93 redirects:1 us:1 name:10 see:4 disambiguation:1 marcus:10 vipsanius:7 c:1 bc:34 roman:10 statesman:1 general:4 close:2 friend:8 son:5 law:4 lieutenant:3 minister:1 octavian:40 future:2 emperor:9 caesar:15 augustus:24 responsible:3 military:3 triumph:3 notably:1 win:4 naval:6 battle:10 actium:9 force:7 mark:4 antony:19 cleopatra:7 vii:1 egypt:1 early:3 life:13 bear:2 dio:16 place:6 death:3 late:6 march:6 pliny:3 elder:7 state:1 die:2 fifty:1 first:6 year:7 depend:1 whether:2 mean:2 age:4 give:4 date:2 birth:3 calendar:1 cyprus:1 syria:2 include:3 month:4 begin:4 november:1 may:3 reflect:1 reinhold:17 pp:15 roddaz:5 uncertain:1 location:1 p:8 father:2 perhaps:2 call:2 lucius:7 brother:6 whose:1 also:13 sister:3 vipsania:4 polla:2 family:3 prominent:2 public:6 velleius:4 paterculus:4 however:4 octavius:5 two:2 educate:1 together:1 become:3 despite:2 association:1 julius:5 choose:1 another:2 side:1 civil:2 war:6 fight:7 cato:2 africa:2 defeat:5 take:5 prisoner:1 freed:1 intercede:1 behalf:1 nicolaus:3 damascus:3 know:4 probably:3 serve:5 campaign:3 gnaeus:1 pompeius:3 culminate:1 munda:1 rate:1 regard:2 highly:3 enough:1 send:3 study:1 apollonia:2 macedonian:2 legion:5 consolidate:1 power:3 rome:18 suetonius:2 fourth:1 stay:1 news:1 assassination:1 reach:1 advice:2 quintus:3 salvidienus:4 rufus:1 troop:4 macedonia:1 decide:1 sail:4 italy:5 small:2 retinue:1 arrival:2 learn:2 adopt:1 legal:1 heir:1 refer:2 modern:4 historian:1 period:1 rise:1 return:4 supporter:4 realize:1 need:2 support:2 help:2 levy:1 campania:2 speculate:1 among:3 negotiator:1 direct:1 evidence:2 make:5 pact:1 lepidus:2 legally:1 establish:1 second:5 triumvirate:3 consular:1 colleague:1 pedius:1 arrange:1 assassin:1 prosecute:2 absence:1 entrust:1 case:2 gaius:5 cassius:1 longinus:1 plutarch:1 brutus:1 political:3 career:1 hold:4 position:3 tribune:1 pleb:1 grant:1 entry:1 senate:2 mention:2 servius:1 auctus:1 virgil:1 aeneid:1 necessary:1 preliminary:1 urban:2 praetor:3 favour:1 bust:1 louvre:1 alongside:2 philippi:3 cite:1 authority:1 illness:2 occasion:1 play:5 major:4 role:2 antonius:1 fulvia:1 antonia:1 respectively:1 wife:7 end:2 capture:3 perusia:1 remain:2 main:3 time:6 perusine:1 depart:1 gaul:4 leave:5 instruction:1 defend:1 sextus:7 opponent:1 occupy:3 sicily:1 july:1 ludi:1 apollinares:1 responsibility:1 raid:2 southern:1 advance:1 withdraw:2 prove:1 unstable:1 august:1 invade:1 organized:1 alliance:3 success:2 retake:1 sipontum:1 bring:2 conflict:2 intermediary:1 agree:1 upon:3 peace:2 discussion:1 offer:2 betray:1 result:2 either:1 execute:1 committed:1 suicide:2 lead:1 depict:1 relief:1 altar:1 ara:1 pacis:1 appoint:2 governor:2 transalpine:1 put:3 rising:2 aquitanians:1 germanic:1 tribe:1 next:1 cross:1 rhine:1 summon:1 back:2 assume:1 consulship:5 well:1 usual:1 minimum:1 suffer:2 humiliate:1 pompey:1 oversee:2 preparation:1 warfare:1 refuse:1 exploit:1 ground:1 say:4 think:1 improper:1 celebrate:2 trouble:1 youth:2 note:2 lendering:2 since:3 command:3 sea:2 coast:2 care:1 provide:2 safe:1 harbor:4 ship:8 accomplish:1 cut:1 strip:1 land:1 separate:1 lacus:1 lucrinus:2 thus:1 form:2 outer:1 join:2 lake:1 avernus:1 inner:1 new:1 complex:1 portus:1 honour:1 technological:1 improvement:3 large:3 improved:1 grapple:1 hook:1 appian:1 marry:2 caecilia:2 pomponia:1 attica:2 daughter:3 cicero:1 titus:1 pomponius:1 atticus:4 set:2 fleet:4 badly:1 damage:1 storm:2 charge:2 attempt:1 thanks:2 superior:1 technology:1 training:1 men:1 decisive:2 victory:3 mylae:1 naulochus:1 destroy:1 seventeen:1 compel:1 surrender:2 increase:1 triumvir:1 retirement:1 enter:1 receive:2 unprecedented:1 honor:3 crown:1 decorate:1 beak:1 remark:1 decoration:1 nobody:1 service:4 image:1 pantheon:4 jpg:1 thumb:1 hadrian:2 build:10 design:2 legend:1 l:1 f:1 co:1 tertivm:1 fecit:1 consul:2 third:7 participate:1 autumn:1 rapidly:1 repair:2 renovation:1 aqueduct:3 aqua:1 marcia:1 extension:1 pipe:1 cover:1 city:4 action:1 elect:1 one:8 aediles:1 official:1 building:5 festival:1 street:1 sewer:1 clean:1 lavish:1 spectacle:1 signalize:1 tenure:1 office:1 effect:1 great:3 restore:2 enlarge:1 cleanse:1 cloaca:1 maximum:1 construct:2 bath:1 portico:1 lay:1 garden:1 stimulus:1 exhibition:1 work:1 art:1 unusual:1 ex:1 low:1 ranking:1 aedile:1 bore:1 break:3 tradition:1 would:7 later:2 boast:1 find:2 brick:1 marble:2 part:3 reign:1 serious:2 commit:1 accord:3 biographer:1 cornelius:2 nepos:2 decision:1 cause:1 grief:1 away:1 strategically:1 important:1 methone:1 southwest:1 peloponnese:1 north:1 greek:2 corcyra:2 corfu:1 base:2 orosius:1 history:4 pagan:1 draw:1 move:2 meet:1 meanwhile:1 nasidius:1 patrae:1 relate:1 near:1 encounter:1 sosius:2 surprise:1 attack:1 squadron:1 tarius:1 unexpected:1 turn:1 around:2 cf:1 final:2 twice:1 enemy:1 wrong:1 kill:1 fact:1 survive:2 n:2 approach:1 intelligence:1 plan:3 past:2 blockade:1 escape:1 wish:1 allow:1 flagship:1 argue:1 could:3 overtake:1 lighter:1 vessel:1 oppose:1 saw:1 leader:1 cowardice:1 object:1 although:3 outrun:1 hoist:1 ought:1 strike:1 follow:2 september:1 mastery:1 empire:3 mainly:1 due:1 token:1 signal:1 bestow:2 hand:1 niece:1 claudia:2 marcella:4 imperial:1 title:1 commemoration:1 dedicate:1 destruction:1 use:1 inscription:2 preserve:1 text:1 spent:1 reform:1 provincial:2 administration:2 taxation:1 system:4 along:2 effective:2 road:1 theatre:1 merida:1 spain:1 promote:1 friendship:1 seem:2 cloud:1 jealousy:2 claudius:3 marcellus:3 foment:1 intrigue:1 livia:1 fear:1 influence:1 husband:1 traditionally:1 ostensibly:1 governorship:2 eastern:2 province:2 sort:1 honorable:1 exile:4 legate:1 lesbos:1 govern:2 proxy:1 though:2 secret:1 mission:2 negotiate:1 parthian:1 standard:1 david:1 magie:1 orient:1 classical:1 philology:1 vol:1 apr:1 within:1 recall:1 dispense:1 event:1 context:1 crisis:2 unlikely:1 face:2 significant:2 opposition:1 climb:1 man:3 body:1 far:2 likely:1 actually:1 careful:1 positioning:1 loyal:1 army:2 settlement:1 fail:1 needed:1 maecenas:2 advise:1 attach:1 still:1 closely:1 accordingly:1 induce:1 divorce:1 julia:5 widow:1 equally:1 beauty:1 ability:1 shameless:1 profligacy:1 employ:1 cantabrians:1 hispania:1 cantabrian:1 provinces:1 prudent:1 respect:1 good:1 especially:2 jewish:1 population:1 control:2 cimmerian:1 chersonnese:1 day:1 crimea:1 last:1 beginning:1 conquest:1 upper:1 danube:1 river:1 region:1 pannonia:1 posthumous:2 postumus:2 memory:1 magnificent:1 funeral:2 spend:1 mourn:1 personally:1 child:2 education:1 tomb:1 remains:1 mausoleum:1 legacy:1 maison:1 carrée:1 nîmes:1 france:1 patron:1 writer:1 subject:1 geography:1 supervision:1 dream:2 complete:1 survey:1 carry:1 circular:1 chart:1 engrave:1 afterwards:1 colonnade:1 amongst:1 writing:1 autobiography:1 lose:1 central:1 person:1 establishing:1 principate:1 century:1 dominate:1 grandson:2 caligula:1 domitius:1 ahenobarbus:1 rule:1 nero:1 marriage:1 issue:1 left:1 several:2 agrippina:2 tiberius:1 unknown:1 young:2 germanicus:1 popular:1 culture:1 drama:1 fictionalise:1 character:6 bbc:2 hbo:1 rai:1 television:4 series:5 allen:1 leech:1 create:1 romantic:1 relationship:1 octavia:1 minor:1 historical:2 fictionalised:1 version:1 celebrated:1 portray:4 much:1 old:3 episode:2 john:1 paul:1 principal:1 british:1 italian:1 joint:1 project:1 imperium:1 feature:1 flashback:1 show:1 ken:1 duken:1 appear:1 film:1 normally:1 rather:1 people:1 philip:1 locke:1 alan:1 rowe:1 andrew:1 keir:1 literature:1 william:1 shakespeare:1 robert:1 graf:1 novel:2 colleen:1 mccullough:1 master:1 harry:1 potter:1 sorcerer:1 stone:1 elusive:1 rare:1 collectable:1 chocolate:1 frog:1 card:1 video:2 game:3 shadow:1 inaccurate:1 babylon:2 earth:2 omega:1 class:1 destroyer:2 space:1 station:1 seize:1 president:1 clark:1 season:1 sever:1 inline:1 many:1 source:1 ancient:1 mythology:1 julio:1 claudian:1 tree:1 reference:1 read:1 geoffrey:1 mottershead:1 construction:1 west:1 university:1 merlbourne:1 oration:1 article:1 sourcebook:1 mahlon:1 h:1 smith:1 |@bigram marcus_vipsanius:5 vipsanius_agrippa:7 battle_actium:4 antony_cleopatra:5 cleopatra_vii:1 pliny_elder:2 velleius_paterculus:4 julius_caesar:4 intercede_behalf:1 nicolaus_damascus:3 gnaeus_pompeius:1 triumvirate_octavian:1 gaius_cassius:1 cassius_longinus:1 tribune_pleb:1 virgil_aeneid:1 octavian_antony:1 sextus_pompeius:2 antony_octavian:1 committed_suicide:1 ara_pacis:1 transalpine_gaul:1 germanic_tribe:1 appian_civil:1 badly_damage:1 decisive_victory:1 jpg_thumb:1 marcus_agrippa:4 commit_suicide:1 cornelius_nepos:2 strategically_important:1 gaius_sosius:1 naval_blockade:1 claudius_marcellus:1 classical_philology:1 julia_elder:2 gaius_maecenas:1 lucius_domitius:1 domitius_ahenobarbus:1 vipsania_agrippina:1 agrippina_elder:1 octavia_minor:1 harry_potter:1 julio_claudian:1 funeral_oration:1 sourcebook_mahlon:1 mahlon_h:1 |
3,411 | Phenylketonuria | Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme hepatic phenylalanine hydroxylase. This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine to the amino acid tyrosine. When PAH is deficient, phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into phenylpyruvate (also known as phenylketone), which is detected in the urine. Left untreated, this condition can cause problems with brain development, leading to progressive mental retardation, brain damage, and seizures. However, PKU is one of the few genetic diseases that can be controlled by diet. A diet low in phenylalanine and high in tyrosine can be a very effective treatment. There is no cure. Damage done is irreversible so early detection is crucial. History Phenylketonuria was discovered by the Norwegian physician Ivar Asbjørn Følling in 1934 when he noticed that hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA) was associated with mental retardation. In Norway, this disorder is known as Følling's disease, named after its discoverer. Dr. Følling was one of the first physicians to apply detailed chemical analysis to the study of disease. His careful analysis of the urine of two affected siblings led him to request many physicians near Oslo to test the urine of other affected patients. This led to the discovery of the same substance that he had found in eight other patients. The substance found was subjected to much more basic and rudimentary chemical analysis (taste). He conducted tests and found reactions that gave rise to benzaldehyde and benzoic acid, which led him to conclude the compound contained a benzene ring. Further testing showed the melting point to be the same as phenylpyruvic acid, which indicated that the substance was in the urine. His careful science inspired many to pursue similar meticulous and painstaking research with other disorders. Screening and presentation Blood is taken from a two-week old infant to test for phenylketonuria PKU is normally detected using the HPLC test, but some clinics still use the Guthrie test, part of national biochemical screening programs. Most babies in developed countries are screened for PKU soon after birth. If a child is not screened during the routine Newborn Screening test (typically performed at least 12 hours and generally 24–28 hours after birth, using samples drawn by Neonatal heel prick), the disease may present clinically with seizures, albinism (excessively fair hair and skin), and a "musty odor" to the baby's sweat and urine (due to phenylacetate, one of the ketones produced). In most cases a repeat test should be done at approximately 2 weeks of age to verify the initial test and uncover any phenylketonuria that was initially missed. Untreated children are normal at birth, but fail to attain early developmental milestones, develop microcephaly, and demonstrate progressive impairment of cerebral function. Hyperactivity, EEG abnormalities and seizures, and severe learning disabilities are major clinical problems later in life. A "musty or mousy" odor of skin, hair, sweat and urine (due to phenylacetate accumulation); and a tendency to hypopigmentation and eczema are also observed. In contrast, affected children who are detected and treated are less likely to develop neurological problems and have seizures and mental retardation, though such clinical disorders are still possible. Pathophysiology Classical PKU is caused by a mutated gene for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH), which converts the amino acid phenylalanine to other essential compounds in the body. Other, non-PAH mutations can also cause PKU. Classical PKU The PAH gene is located on chromosome 12 in the bands 12q22-q24.1. More than four hundred disease-causing mutations have been found in the PAH gene. PAH deficiency causes a spectrum of disorders including classic phenylketonuria (PKU) and hyperphenylalaninemia (a less severe accumulation of phenylalanine). http://www.genenames.org Phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) gene summary, retrieved September 8, 2006 PKU is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder, meaning that each parent must have at least one mutated allele of the gene for PAH, and the child must inherit two mutated alleles, one from each parent. As a result, it is possible for a parent with PKU phenotype to have a child without PKU if the other parent possesses at least one functional allele of the PAH gene; but a child of two parents with PKU will always inherit two mutated alleles, and therefore the disease. Phenylketonuria can exist in mice, which have been extensively used in experiments into an effective treatment for PKU . The macaque monkey's genome was recently sequenced, and it was found that the gene encoding phenylalanine hydroxylase has the same sequence which in humans would be considered the PKU mutation. Tetrahydrobiopterin-deficient hyperphenylalaninemia A rarer form of the disease occurs when PAH is normal but there is a defect in the biosynthesis or recycling of the cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) by the patient. This cofactor is necessary for proper activity of the enzyme. Levels of dopamine can be used to distinguish between these two types. Tetrahydrobiopterin is required to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine, but it is also required to convert tyrosine to DOPA (via the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase), which in turn is converted to dopamine. Low levels of dopamine lead to high levels of prolactin. By contrast, in classical PKU, prolactin levels would be relatively normal. Tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency can be caused by defects in four different genes. These types are known as HPABH4A, HPABH4B, HPABH4C, and HPABH4D. Metabolic pathways The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase normally converts the amino acid phenylalanine into the amino acid tyrosine. If this reaction does not take place, phenylalanine accumulates and tyrosine is deficient. Excessive phenylalanine can be metabolized into phenylketones through the minor route, a transaminase pathway with glutamate. Metabolites include phenylacetate, phenylpyruvate and phenethylamine . Elevated blood phenylalanine and detection of phenylketones in the urine is diagnostic. Phenylalanine is a large, neutral amino acid (LNAA). LNAAs compete for transport across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) via the large neutral amino acid transporter (LNAAT). Excessive phenylalanine in the blood saturates the transporter. Thus, excessive levels of phenylalanine significantly decrease the levels of other LNAAs in the brain. But since these amino acids are required for protein and neurotransmitter synthesis, phenylalanine accumulation disrupts brain development, leading to mental retardation. Treatment If PKU is diagnosed early enough, an affected newborn can grow up with normal brain development, but only by eating a special diet low in phenylalanine for the rest of his or her life. This requires severely restricting or eliminating foods high in phenylalanine, such as meat, chicken, fish, nuts, cheese, legumes and other dairy products. Starchy foods such as potatoes, bread, pasta, and corn must be monitored. Infants may still be breastfed to provide all of the benefits of breastmilk, though the quantity must be monitored and supplementation will be required. Many diet foods and diet soft drinks that contain the sweetener aspartame must also be avoided, as aspartame consists of two amino acids: phenylalanine and aspartic acid. Supplementary infant formulas are used in these patients to provide the amino acids and other necessary nutrients that would otherwise be lacking in a low phenylalanine diet. These can continue in other forms as the child grows up such as pills, formulas, and specially formulated foods. (Since phenylalanine is necessary for the synthesis of many proteins, it is required but levels must be strictly controlled). In addition, tyrosine, which is normally derived from phenylalanine, must be supplemented.) The oral administration of tetrahydrobiopterin (a cofactor in the oxidation of phenylalanine) can reduce blood levels of the amino acid in certain patients. The company BioMarin Pharmaceutical has produced a tablet preparation of the compound sapropterin (Kuvan),which is a form of tetrahydrobiopterin. Kuvan is the first drug that can help BH4-responsive PKU patients (defined among clinicians as 1/4 to 1/2 of the PKU population) keep their phenylalanine levels low PKU patients who respond to Kuvan (20-56% of those who try it) may also be able to increase the amount of protein they can safely eat. After extensive clinical trials, Kuvan has been approved by the FDA for use in PKU therapy. Researchers and clinicians working with PKU are finding Kuvan a safe and effective addition to dietary treatment and beneficial in increasing quality of life for their patients. There are a number of other therapies currently under investigation, including gene therapy, and an injectable form of PAH. Previously, PKU-affected people were allowed to go off diet after approximately 8, then 18 years of age. However, most physicians now agree that this special diet should be followed throughout life. Maternal phenylketonuria Phenylketonuria is inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion For women affected with PKU, it is essential for the health of their child to maintain low phenylalanine levels before and during pregnancy. . Though the developing fetus may only be a carrier of the PKU gene, the intrauterine environment can have very high levels of phenylalanine, which can cross the placenta. The result is that the child may develop congenital heart disease, growth retardation, microcephaly and mental retardation. PKU-affected women themselves are not at risk from additional complications during pregnancy. In most countries, women with PKU who wish to have children are advised to lower their blood phenylalanine levels before they become pregnant and carefully control their phenylalanine levels throughout the pregnancy. This is achieved by performing regular blood tests and adhering very strictly to a diet, generally monitored on a day-to-day basis by a specialist metabolic dietitian. When low phenylalanine levels are maintained for the duration of pregnancy there are no elevated levels of risk of birth defects compared with a baby born to a non-PKU mother. lsuhsc.edu Genetics and Louisiana Families Babies with PKU may drink breast milk, while also taking their special metabolic formula. Some research has indicated that an exclusive diet of breast milk for PKU babies may alter the effects of the deficiency, though during breastfeeding the mother must maintain a strict diet to keep their phenylalanine levels low. More research is needed. Incidence The incidence of PKU is about 1 in 15,000 births, but the incidence varies widely in different human populations from 1 in 4,500 births among the population of Ireland to fewer than one in 100,000 births among the population of Finland. In relationships It was discovered in 2007 that those with this disorder will discharge a concentrated amount of phenylalanine in breast milk and semen. If these bodily fluids are transferred between two individual phenylketonurics, there is a significant health risk to the receiving partner. The risk, however, has been determined to be statistically insignificant (for each exchange of bodily fluid, the risk is 1 in 15,000 squared, or, 1 in 225,000,000.) Since there have been no reported cases, the risk is theoretical. It was noted, however, that since the rise of the internet, people coping with this disorder have sought each other out, so the increased social interaction may become a cause for concern. See also Tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency References External links National PKU News Videos, Blogs, PKU Community Online PKU Community | Phenylketonuria |@lemmatized phenylketonuria:8 pku:33 autosomal:3 recessive:3 genetic:3 disorder:8 characterize:1 deficiency:5 enzyme:6 hepatic:1 phenylalanine:34 hydroxylase:6 necessary:4 metabolize:2 amino:11 acid:14 tyrosine:8 pah:11 deficient:3 accumulates:2 convert:6 phenylpyruvate:2 also:8 know:3 phenylketone:1 detect:3 urine:7 leave:1 untreated:2 condition:1 cause:6 problem:3 brain:6 development:3 lead:6 progressive:2 mental:5 retardation:6 damage:2 seizure:4 however:4 one:7 disease:8 control:3 diet:11 low:8 high:4 effective:3 treatment:4 cure:1 irreversible:1 early:3 detection:2 crucial:1 history:1 discover:2 norwegian:1 physician:4 ivar:1 asbjørn:1 følling:3 notice:1 hyperphenylalaninemia:3 hpa:1 associate:1 norway:1 name:1 discoverer:1 dr:1 first:2 apply:1 detailed:1 chemical:2 analysis:3 study:1 careful:2 two:8 affected:6 sibling:1 request:1 many:4 near:1 oslo:1 test:9 patient:8 discovery:1 substance:3 find:6 eight:1 subject:1 much:1 basic:1 rudimentary:1 taste:1 conduct:1 reaction:2 give:1 rise:2 benzaldehyde:1 benzoic:1 conclude:1 compound:3 contain:2 benzene:1 ring:1 testing:1 show:1 melt:1 point:1 phenylpyruvic:1 indicate:2 science:1 inspire:1 pursue:1 similar:1 meticulous:1 painstaking:1 research:3 screening:2 presentation:1 blood:7 take:3 week:2 old:1 infant:3 normally:3 use:7 hplc:1 clinic:1 still:3 guthrie:1 part:1 national:2 biochemical:1 program:1 baby:5 developed:1 country:2 screen:3 soon:1 birth:7 child:10 routine:1 newborn:2 typically:1 perform:2 least:3 hour:2 generally:2 sample:1 draw:1 neonatal:1 heel:1 prick:1 may:8 present:1 clinically:1 albinism:1 excessively:1 fair:1 hair:2 skin:2 musty:2 odor:2 sweat:2 due:2 phenylacetate:3 ketone:1 produce:2 case:2 repeat:1 approximately:2 age:2 verify:1 initial:1 uncover:1 initially:1 miss:1 normal:4 fail:1 attain:1 developmental:1 milestone:1 develop:4 microcephaly:2 demonstrate:1 impairment:1 cerebral:1 function:1 hyperactivity:1 eeg:1 abnormality:1 severe:2 learning:1 disability:1 major:1 clinical:3 later:1 life:4 mousy:1 accumulation:3 tendency:1 hypopigmentation:1 eczema:1 observe:1 contrast:2 treat:1 less:2 likely:1 neurological:1 though:4 possible:2 pathophysiology:1 classical:3 mutated:3 gene:10 essential:2 body:1 non:2 mutation:3 locate:1 chromosome:1 band:1 four:2 hundred:1 causing:1 spectrum:1 include:3 classic:1 http:1 www:1 genenames:1 org:1 summary:1 retrieve:1 september:1 mean:1 parent:5 must:8 mutate:1 allele:4 inherit:3 result:2 phenotype:1 without:1 posse:1 functional:1 always:1 therefore:1 exist:1 mouse:1 extensively:1 experiment:1 macaque:1 monkey:1 genome:1 recently:1 sequence:2 encode:1 human:2 would:3 consider:1 tetrahydrobiopterin:7 rarer:1 form:4 occur:1 defect:3 biosynthesis:1 recycling:1 cofactor:3 proper:1 activity:1 level:16 dopamine:3 distinguish:1 type:2 require:6 dopa:1 via:2 turn:1 prolactin:2 relatively:1 different:2 metabolic:3 pathways:1 place:1 excessive:3 phenylketones:2 minor:1 route:1 transaminase:1 pathway:1 glutamate:1 metabolite:1 phenethylamine:1 elevate:1 diagnostic:1 large:2 neutral:2 lnaa:1 lnaas:2 compete:1 transport:1 across:1 barrier:1 bbb:1 transporter:2 lnaat:1 saturate:1 thus:1 significantly:1 decrease:1 since:4 protein:3 neurotransmitter:1 synthesis:2 disrupts:1 diagnose:1 enough:1 grow:2 eat:2 special:3 rest:1 severely:1 restricting:1 eliminate:1 food:4 meat:1 chicken:1 fish:1 nut:1 cheese:1 legume:1 dairy:1 product:1 starchy:1 potato:1 bread:1 pasta:1 corn:1 monitor:3 breastfed:1 provide:2 benefit:1 breastmilk:1 quantity:1 supplementation:1 soft:1 drink:2 sweetener:1 aspartame:2 avoid:1 consists:1 aspartic:1 supplementary:1 formula:3 nutrient:1 otherwise:1 lack:1 continue:1 pill:1 specially:1 formulate:1 strictly:2 addition:2 derive:1 supplement:1 oral:1 administration:1 oxidation:1 reduce:1 certain:1 company:1 biomarin:1 pharmaceutical:1 tablet:1 preparation:1 sapropterin:1 kuvan:5 drug:1 help:1 responsive:1 define:1 among:3 clinician:2 population:4 keep:2 respond:1 try:1 able:1 increase:3 amount:2 safely:1 extensive:1 trial:1 approve:1 fda:1 therapy:3 researcher:1 work:1 safe:1 dietary:1 beneficial:1 quality:1 number:1 currently:1 investigation:1 injectable:1 previously:1 people:2 allow:1 go:1 year:1 agree:1 follow:1 throughout:2 maternal:1 fashion:1 woman:3 affect:1 health:2 maintain:3 pregnancy:4 fetus:1 carrier:1 intrauterine:1 environment:1 cross:1 placenta:1 congenital:1 heart:1 growth:1 risk:6 additional:1 complication:1 wish:1 advise:1 lower:1 become:2 pregnant:1 carefully:1 achieve:1 regular:1 adhere:1 day:2 basis:1 specialist:1 dietitian:1 duration:1 elevated:1 compare:1 bear:1 mother:2 lsuhsc:1 edu:1 genetics:1 louisiana:1 family:1 breast:3 milk:3 exclusive:1 alter:1 effect:1 breastfeed:1 strict:1 need:1 incidence:3 varies:1 widely:1 ireland:1 finland:1 relationship:1 discharge:1 concentrated:1 semen:1 bodily:2 fluid:2 transfer:1 individual:1 phenylketonurics:1 significant:1 receiving:1 partner:1 determine:1 statistically:1 insignificant:1 exchange:1 square:1 reported:1 theoretical:1 note:1 internet:1 cop:1 seek:1 social:1 interaction:1 concern:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 news:1 video:1 blog:1 community:2 online:1 |@bigram autosomal_recessive:3 phenylalanine_hydroxylase:5 amino_acid:11 acid_phenylalanine:4 acid_tyrosine:2 mental_retardation:5 benzoic_acid:1 benzene_ring:1 disease_causing:1 http_www:1 dairy_product:1 soft_drink:1 aspartic_acid:1 clinical_trial:1 approve_fda:1 researcher_clinician:1 gene_therapy:1 complication_pregnancy:1 breast_milk:3 bodily_fluid:2 statistically_insignificant:1 external_link:1 |
3,412 | Crystal | Quartz crystal. The individual grains of this polycrystalline mineral sample are clearly visible. A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification. The word crystal is derived from the ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος (krustallos), which had the same meaning, but according to the ancient understanding of crystal. At root it means anything congealed by freezing, such as ice. . The word once referred particularly to quartz, or "rock crystal". Most metals encountered in everyday life are polycrystals. Crystals are often symmetrically intergrown to form crystal twins. Crystal structure Insulin crystals Halite (sodium chloride) - a single, large crystal The process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in the fluid is often referred to as crystallization. In the ancient example referenced by the root meaning of the word crystal, water being cooled undergoes a phase change from liquid to solid beginning with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a polycrystalline structure. The physical properties of the ice depend on the size and arrangement of the individual crystals, or grains, and the same may be said of metals solidifying from a molten state. Which crystal structure the fluid will form depends on the chemistry of the fluid, the conditions under which it is being solidified, and also on the ambient pressure. While the cooling process usually results in the generation of a crystalline material, under certain conditions, the fluid may be frozen in a noncrystalline state. In most cases, this involves cooling the fluid so rapidly that atoms cannot travel to their lattice sites before they lose mobility. A noncrystalline material, which has no long-range order, is called an amorphous, vitreous, or glassy material. It is also often referred to as an amorphous solid, although there are distinct differences between solids and glasses: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion. Crystalline structures occur in all classes of materials, with all types of chemical bonds. Almost all metal exists in a polycrystalline state; amorphous or single-crystal metals must be produced synthetically, often with great difficulty. Ionically bonded crystals can form upon solidification of salts, either from a molten fluid or when it condenses from a solution. Covalently bonded crystals are also very common, notable examples being diamond, silica, and graphite. Polymer materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization. Weak Van der Waals forces can also play a role in a crystal structure; for example, this type of bonding loosely holds together the hexagonal-patterned sheets in graphite. Most crystalline materials have a variety of crystallographic defects. The types and structures of these defects can have a profound effect on the properties of the materials. Crystal phases or forms See: Phase transformations in solids Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form Ice Ih, but can also exist as the cubic Ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. Amorphous phases are also possible with the same molecule, such as amorphous ice. In this case, the phenomenon is known as polyamorphism. For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond, graphite, and fullerenes are different allotropes of carbon. Other meanings and characteristics A large monocrystal of potassium dihydrogen phosphate grown from solution by Saint-Gobain for the megajoule laser of CEA. Gallium, a metal that easily forms large single crystals Since the initial discovery of crystal-like individual arrays of atoms that are not regularly repeated, made in 1982 by Dan Shechtman, the acceptance of the concept and the word quasicrystal have led the International Union of Crystallography to redefine the term crystal to mean "any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction diagram", thereby shifting the essential attribute of crystallinity from position space to Fourier space. Within the family of crystals one distinguishes between traditional crystals, which are periodic, or repeating, at the atomic scale, and aperiodic (incommensurate) crystals which are not. This broader definition adopted in 1996 reflects the current understanding that microscopic periodicity is a sufficient but not a necessary condition for crystals. Ice crystals While the term "crystal" has a precise meaning within materials science and solid-state physics, colloquially "crystal" refers to solid objects that exhibit well-defined and often pleasing geometric shapes. In this sense of the word, many types of crystals are found in nature. The shape of these crystals is dependent on the types of molecular bonds between the atoms to determine the structure, as well as on the conditions under which they formed. Snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt are common examples of crystals. Some crystalline materials may exhibit special electrical properties such as the ferroelectric effect or the piezoelectric effect. Additionally, light passing through a crystal is often refracted or bent in different directions, producing an array of colors; crystal optics is the study of these effects. In periodic dielectric structures a range of unique optical properties can be expected as seen in photonic crystals. Crystalline rocks Fossil shell with calcite crystals Inorganic matter, if free to take that physical state in which it is most stable, tends to crystallize. There is no practical limit to the size a crystal may attain under the right conditions, and selenite single crystals in excess of 10 m are found in the Crystal Cave of the Giants in Naica, Mexico. National Geographic, 2008. Cavern of Crystal Giants Crystalline rock masses have consolidated from aqueous solution or from molten magma. The vast majority of igneous rocks belong to this group and the degree of crystallization depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified. Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under great pressures, have completely crystallized, but many lavas were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly; in this latter group a small amount of amorphous or glassy matter is frequent. Other crystalline rocks, the evaporites such as rock salt, gypsum and some limestones have been deposited from aqueous solution, mostly owing to evaporation in arid climates. Still another group, the metamorphic rocks which includes the marbles, mica-schists and quartzites; are recrystallized, that is to say, they were at first fragmental rocks, like limestone, shale and sandstone and have never been in a molten condition nor entirely in solution. The high temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism have acted on them erasing their original structures, and inducing recrystallization in the solid state. Properties Crystal Particles Attractive forces Melting point Other properties Ionic Positive and negative ions Electrostatic attractions High Hard, brittle, good electrical conductor in molten state Molecular Polar molecules London force and dipole-dipole attraction Low Soft, non-conductor or extremely poor conductor of electricity in liquid state Molecular Non-polar molecules London force Low Soft conducter </div> See also Amorphous solid Artificial Snow Crystal Atomic packing factor Biomineralisation Colloidal crystal Crystal growth Crystal habit Crystal system Crystallite Crystallographic database Glass Physics of glass Inorganic Crystal Structure Database Laser Heated Pedestal Growth Lead crystal Liquid crystal Metallic crystal Micro-Pulling-Down Quasicrystal Seed crystal Single crystal References External links | Crystal |@lemmatized quartz:2 crystal:57 individual:3 grain:2 polycrystalline:3 mineral:1 sample:1 clearly:1 visible:1 crystalline:10 solid:12 material:11 whose:1 constituent:1 atom:4 molecule:5 ion:2 arrange:1 orderly:1 repeating:2 pattern:2 extend:1 three:1 spatial:1 dimension:1 scientific:1 study:2 formation:2 crystallography:2 process:4 via:1 mechanism:1 growth:3 call:2 crystallization:4 solidification:2 word:6 derive:1 ancient:3 greek:1 κρύσταλλος:1 krustallos:1 meaning:4 accord:1 understanding:2 root:2 mean:2 anything:1 congeal:1 freeze:2 ice:9 refer:3 particularly:1 rock:9 metal:5 encounter:1 everyday:1 life:1 polycrystals:1 often:6 symmetrically:1 intergrown:1 form:13 twin:1 structure:11 insulin:1 halite:1 sodium:1 chloride:1 single:5 large:3 fluid:7 dissolve:1 example:6 reference:2 water:2 cool:5 undergoes:1 phase:4 change:1 liquid:3 begin:1 small:2 grow:2 fuse:1 physical:2 property:6 depend:2 size:2 arrangement:1 may:4 say:2 solidify:3 molten:5 state:8 depends:1 chemistry:1 condition:8 also:7 ambient:1 pressure:3 usually:2 result:1 generation:1 certain:1 noncrystalline:2 case:2 involve:1 rapidly:2 cannot:1 travel:1 lattice:1 site:1 lose:1 mobility:1 long:1 range:2 order:1 amorphous:7 vitreous:1 glassy:2 although:1 distinct:1 difference:1 glass:4 notably:1 release:1 latent:1 heat:2 fusion:1 occur:1 class:1 type:5 chemical:2 bond:4 almost:1 exist:3 must:1 produce:2 synthetically:1 great:2 difficulty:1 ionically:1 bonded:1 upon:1 salt:3 either:1 condense:1 solution:5 covalently:1 common:2 notable:1 diamond:3 silica:1 graphite:3 polymer:1 generally:1 region:1 length:1 prevent:1 complete:1 weak:1 van:1 der:1 waals:1 force:4 play:1 role:1 loosely:1 hold:1 together:1 hexagonal:2 sheet:1 variety:1 crystallographic:2 defect:2 profound:1 effect:4 see:3 transformation:1 polymorphism:2 ability:1 one:2 ordinarily:1 find:3 ih:1 cubic:1 ic:1 rhombohedral:1 ii:1 many:3 possible:1 phenomenon:1 know:2 polyamorphism:1 pure:1 element:1 allotropy:1 fullerene:1 different:2 allotrope:1 carbon:1 characteristic:1 monocrystal:1 potassium:1 dihydrogen:1 phosphate:1 saint:1 gobain:1 megajoule:1 laser:2 cea:1 gallium:1 easily:1 since:1 initial:1 discovery:1 like:2 array:2 regularly:1 repeat:1 make:1 dan:1 shechtman:1 acceptance:1 concept:1 quasicrystal:2 lead:2 international:1 union:1 redefine:1 term:2 essentially:1 discrete:1 diffraction:1 diagram:1 thereby:1 shift:1 essential:1 attribute:1 crystallinity:1 position:1 space:2 fourier:1 within:2 family:1 distinguishes:1 traditional:1 periodic:2 atomic:2 scale:1 aperiodic:1 incommensurate:1 broad:1 definition:1 adopt:1 reflect:1 current:1 microscopic:1 periodicity:1 sufficient:1 necessary:1 precise:1 science:1 physic:2 colloquially:1 refers:1 object:1 exhibit:2 well:2 define:1 please:1 geometric:1 shape:2 sense:1 nature:1 dependent:1 molecular:3 determine:1 snowflake:1 table:1 special:1 electrical:2 ferroelectric:1 piezoelectric:1 additionally:1 light:1 pass:1 refract:1 bend:1 direction:1 color:1 optic:1 dielectric:1 unique:1 optical:1 expect:1 photonic:1 fossil:1 shell:1 calcite:1 inorganic:2 matter:2 free:1 take:1 stable:1 tend:1 crystallize:2 practical:1 limit:1 attain:1 right:1 selenite:1 excess:1 cave:1 giant:2 naica:1 mexico:1 national:1 geographic:1 cavern:1 mass:1 consolidate:1 aqueous:2 magma:1 vast:1 majority:1 igneous:1 belong:1 group:3 degree:1 primarily:1 granite:1 slowly:1 completely:1 lava:1 pour:1 surface:1 latter:1 amount:1 frequent:1 evaporite:1 gypsum:1 limestone:2 deposit:1 mostly:1 owe:1 evaporation:1 arid:1 climate:1 still:1 another:1 metamorphic:1 include:1 marble:1 mica:1 schist:1 quartzite:1 recrystallized:1 first:1 fragmental:1 shale:1 sandstone:1 never:1 entirely:1 high:2 temperature:1 metamorphism:1 act:1 erase:1 original:1 induce:1 recrystallization:1 particle:1 attractive:1 melt:1 point:1 ionic:1 positive:1 negative:1 electrostatic:1 attraction:2 hard:1 brittle:1 good:1 conductor:3 polar:2 london:2 dipole:2 low:2 soft:2 non:2 extremely:1 poor:1 electricity:1 conducter:1 div:1 artificial:1 snow:1 packing:1 factor:1 biomineralisation:1 colloidal:1 habit:1 system:1 crystallite:1 database:2 pedestal:1 metallic:1 micro:1 pull:1 seed:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram quartz_crystal:1 crystalline_solid:1 spatial_dimension:1 sodium_chloride:1 amorphous_solid:2 latent_heat:1 covalently_bond:1 van_der:1 der_waals:1 crystallographic_defect:1 ice_ih:1 allotrope_carbon:1 photonic_crystal:1 aqueous_solution:2 vast_majority:1 igneous_rock:1 metamorphic_rock:1 electrostatic_attraction:1 hard_brittle:1 dipole_dipole:1 colloidal_crystal:1 external_link:1 |
3,413 | Economy_of_Lebanon | Lebanon's economy and markets are best described at the dawn of the new millennium by a private and liberal economic activity and an openness to abroad with perfect capital and labor mobility. The private sector contributes to around 75% of aggregate demand, a well-diversified sector that covers the totality of economic sectors and is a major pillar for growth and recovery. The Lebanese economy is also a typical open economy with a large banking sector equivalent to more than 2.5 times its economic sector and providing an important support to aggregate demand. The Lebanese economy has been facing some signs of sluggishness over the past couple of years, but are mainly tied to short term challenges. Growth has contracted in real terms, due to a decline in aggregate demand in both its consumption and investment components. The newly appointed government launched a series of ambitious measures aimed at improving household and business sentiment and stimulating growth, drawing on a largely underutilized capacity estimated at close to 35% of potential. The expansionary government policies (deregulation, tariff reduction, launch of frozen capital spending, open sky policy, interest rate subsidies for productive lending, etc…) are expected to have a direct positive impact on economic activity, though at the detriment of a tougher fiscal consolidation in the near term. History The 1975-90 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Peace has strongly enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. As a result, current GDP per capita expanded 353% in the 1990s . However, since the 2006 Lebanon war, the country has set back economically. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange. Lebanon's economy has made impressive gains since the launch of "Horizon 2000," the government's $20 billion reconstruction program in 1993. Real GDP grew 8% in 1994 and 7% in 1995 before Israel's Operation Grapes of Wrath in April 1996 stunted economic activity. Real GDP grew at an average annual rate of less than 3% per year for 1997 and 1998 and only 1% in 1999. During 1992-98, annual inflation fell from more than 100% to 5%, and foreign exchange reserves jumped to more than $6 billion from $1.4 billion. Burgeoning capital inflows have generated foreign payments surpluses, and the Lebanese pound has remained relatively stable. Progress also has been made in rebuilding Lebanon's war-torn physical and financial infrastructure. Solidere, a $2-billion firm, is managing the reconstruction of Beirut's central business district; the stock market reopened in January 1996, and international banks and insurance companies are returning. The government nonetheless faces serious challenges in the economic arena. It has had to fund reconstruction by tapping foreign exchange reserves and boosting borrowing. Reducing the government budget deficit is a major goal of the current government. The gap between rich and poor has widened in the 1990s, resulting in grassroots dissatisfaction over the skewed distribution of the reconstruction's benefits and leading the government to shift its focus from rebuilding infrastructure to improving living conditions. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Lebanon at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Lebanese Pounds. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 14,000 3.43 Lebanese Pounds 0.071 1985 59,329 16.41 Lebanese Pounds 0.21 1990 1,973,000 695.20 Lebanese Pounds 18 1995 18,027,607 1,621.33 Lebanese Pounds 81 2000 25,143,000 1,507.46 Lebanese Pounds 100 2005 33,243,000 1,507.48 Lebanese Pounds 106 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 1,403.25 Lebanese Pounds only. Average wages in 2007 hover around $31-40 per day. Opportunity Cost of Conflict A report by Strategic Foresight Group has calculated the opportunity cost of conflict for the Middle East from 1991-2010 at a whopping $12 trillion (12,000,000,000,000). Had there been peace in the region, Lebanon’s share during this period would be almost a $100 billion (according to 2006 prices). In other words had there been peace and cooperation since 1991, every Lebanese citizen would be earning over $11,000 instead of the $5,600 in 2010 Excerpts from the Cost of Conflict Report by Strategic Foresight, January 2009 Group] . External trade Lebanese exports in 2006 Lebanon has a competitive and free market regime and a strong laissez-faire commercial tradition. The Lebanese economy is service-oriented; main growth sectors include banking and tourism. There are no restrictions on foreign exchange or capital movement, and bank secrecy is strictly enforced. Lebanon has recently adopted a law to combat money laundering. There are practically no restrictions on foreign investment. There are no country-specific U.S. trade sanctions against Lebanon. Lebanon benefits from its large, cohesive, and entrepreneurial diaspora. Lebanese abroad send money home to help relatives pay for needs. In 1961 "a sample year, income from emigre remittances equaled 92 million Lebanese pounds, or 40 percent of all of Lebanon's foreign-earned income." (source, Lebanon: Death of a Nation, Sandra Mackey, pg 88) Investment The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Lebanon was valued at $10,858 million in 2007 by the World Bank. Lebanon was unable to attract significant foreign aid to help it rebuild from both the long civil war (1975-89) and the Israeli occupation of the south (1978-2000). In addition, the delicate social balance and the near- dissolution of central government institutions during the civil war handicapped the state as it sought to capture revenues to fund the recovery effort. Thus it accumulated significant debt, which by 2001 had reached $28 billion, or nearly 150% of GDP. Unfortunately, economic performance was sluggish in 2000 and 2001 (zero growth in 2000, and estimates between 1.0-1.4% in 2001, largely attributed to slight increases in tourism, banking, industry, and construction). Unemployment is estimated at 14% for 2000 and 29% among the 15-24 year age group, with preliminary estimates of further increases in 2001. Reforms Lebanon's current program of reforms focuses on three main pillars: Economic revival and sustainable growth, with the private sector as the engine of growth; Fiscal consolidation and structural improvement in public sector finances; and Monetary, financial, and price stability. The government also has maintained a firm commitment to the Lebanese pound, which has been pegged to the dollar since September 1999. In late 2000, the government substantially reduced customs duties, adopted export promotion schemes for agriculture, decreased social security fees and restrictions on investment in real estate by foreigners, and adopted an open-skies policy,with positive effects on trade in 1991. Nonetheless, the relative appreciation of the Lebanese currency has undermined competitiveness, with merchandise exports falling from 23% of GDP in 1989 to 4% in 2000. In 2001, the government turned its focus to fiscal measures, increasing gasoline taxes, reducing expenditures, and approving a value-added-tax that became effective in February 2002. Slow money growth and dollarization of deposits have hampered the ability of commercial banks to finance the government, leaving more of the burden to the central bank. This monetization of the fiscal deficit has put enormous pressure on central bank reserves, mitigated only slightly with the issuance of new Eurobonds over the past 2 years. The central bank has maintained a stable currency by intervening directly in the market, as well as low inflation, and succeeded in maintaining investors' confidence in debt. It has done so at a cost, however, as international reserves declined by $2.4 billion in 2000 and by $1.6 billion in the first half of 2001. For 2002, the government has put primary emphasis on privatization, initially in the telecom sector and electricity, with continued planning for sales of the state airline, Beirut port, and water utilities. The government has pledged to apply the proceeds of sales to reducing the public debt and the budget deficit. In addition, it projects that privatization will bring new savings as government payrolls are pared, interest rates decline, and private sector growth and foreign investment are stimulated. The government also is tackling the daunting task of administrative reform, aiming to bring in qualified technocrats to address ambitious economic programs, and reviewing further savings that can be realized through reforms of the income tax system. The Lebanese Government faces major challenges in order to meet the requirements of a fiscal adjustment program focusing on tax reforms and modernization, expenditure rationalization, privatization, and improved debt management. The U.S. enjoys a strong exporter position with Lebanon, generally ranking as Lebanon's fourth-largest source of imported goods. More than 160 offices representing U.S. businesses currently operate in Lebanon. Since the lifting of the passport restriction in 1997 (see below), a number of large U.S. companies have opened branches or regional offices, including Microsoft, American Airlines, Arthur Andersen, Coca-Cola, FedEx, UPS, General Electric, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Cisco Systems, Eli Lilly, Computer Associates and Pepsi Cola. Mexico has also many enterprises run by ethnic Lebanese, such as Carlos Slim's Telmex. Solidere shares are the most actively traded in the Beirut Stock Exchange. Its share price in the Beirut Stock Exchange has risen sharply in the last year from around US$5.00 in early 2004 to close at US$ 17.50 on Friday, 23 December 2005. Effects of the 2008-2009 economic crisis Lebanon is one of the only seven countries in the world to have scored profits in 2008. Given the regular security turmoil it has faced in the past, its banks have adopted a conservative approach. The strict regulations imposed by the central bank were crafted to make the Lebanese economy immune to political crisis; and so far, this has applied to the global economic crisis as well. The Lebanese banks remain, under the current circumstances, high on liquidity and reputed for their security. Moody's has recently shifted Lebanon's sovereign rankings from stable to positive acknowledging its financial security. Moreover, with a Beirut stock market increase of 51%, the index provider MSCI, ranked Lebanon as the world's best performer in 2008. Analysts are, nonetheless, skeptic about the future indirect effects of the crisis, but so far, the direct consequences have proved to be positive. See also Beirut Stock Exchange Solidere References External links BSE trade sky high despite tensions - The Daily Star Embassy of Lebanon, Washington D.C. - Country Profile, The Economy | Economy_of_Lebanon |@lemmatized lebanon:24 economy:8 market:7 best:2 describe:1 dawn:1 new:3 millennium:1 private:4 liberal:1 economic:14 activity:3 openness:1 abroad:2 perfect:1 capital:4 labor:1 mobility:1 sector:10 contributes:1 around:3 aggregate:3 demand:3 well:3 diversify:1 cover:1 totality:1 major:3 pillar:2 growth:9 recovery:3 lebanese:22 also:6 typical:1 open:4 large:4 banking:6 equivalent:1 time:1 provide:1 important:1 support:1 face:4 sign:1 sluggishness:1 past:3 couple:1 year:7 mainly:1 tie:1 short:1 term:3 challenge:3 contract:1 real:4 due:1 decline:3 consumption:1 investment:5 component:1 newly:1 appoint:1 government:19 launch:3 series:1 ambitious:2 measure:2 aim:2 improve:2 household:1 business:3 sentiment:1 stimulating:1 draw:1 largely:2 underutilized:1 capacity:1 estimate:5 close:2 potential:1 expansionary:1 policy:3 deregulation:1 tariff:1 reduction:1 frozen:1 spending:1 sky:3 interest:2 rate:3 subsidy:1 productive:1 lending:1 etc:1 expect:1 direct:2 positive:4 impact:1 though:1 detriment:1 tough:1 fiscal:5 consolidation:2 near:2 history:1 civil:3 war:5 seriously:1 damage:1 infrastructure:3 cut:1 national:1 output:1 half:2 end:1 position:2 middle:2 eastern:1 entrepot:1 hub:1 peace:3 strongly:1 enable:1 central:7 restore:1 control:1 beirut:7 begin:1 collect:1 tax:5 regain:1 access:1 key:1 port:2 facility:1 result:2 current:4 gdp:5 per:3 caput:1 expand:1 however:2 since:5 country:4 set:1 back:1 economically:1 help:3 financially:1 sound:1 system:3 resilient:1 small:1 medium:1 scale:1 manufacturer:1 family:1 remittance:2 service:2 manufacture:1 farm:1 export:4 international:4 aid:2 main:3 source:3 foreign:9 exchange:9 make:3 impressive:1 gain:1 horizon:1 billion:8 reconstruction:4 program:4 grow:2 israel:1 operation:1 grape:1 wrath:1 april:1 stunted:1 average:2 annual:2 less:1 inflation:3 fell:1 reserve:4 jump:1 burgeon:1 inflow:1 generate:1 payment:1 surplus:1 pound:11 remain:2 relatively:1 stable:3 progress:1 rebuild:3 torn:1 physical:1 financial:3 solidere:3 firm:2 manage:1 district:1 stock:6 reopen:1 january:2 bank:10 insurance:1 company:3 return:1 nonetheless:3 serious:1 arena:1 fund:3 tap:1 boost:1 borrowing:1 reduce:4 budget:2 deficit:3 goal:1 gap:1 rich:1 poor:1 widen:1 grassroots:1 dissatisfaction:1 skewed:1 distribution:1 benefit:2 lead:1 shift:2 focus:3 living:1 condition:1 macro:1 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 domestic:2 product:2 price:4 monetary:2 figure:1 million:3 u:8 dollar:3 index:2 purchase:1 power:1 parity:1 comparison:1 wage:1 hover:1 day:1 opportunity:2 cost:4 conflict:3 report:2 strategic:2 foresight:2 group:3 calculate:1 east:1 whopping:1 trillion:1 region:1 share:3 period:1 would:2 almost:1 accord:1 word:1 cooperation:1 every:1 citizen:1 earn:1 instead:1 excerpt:1 external:2 trade:5 competitive:1 free:1 regime:1 strong:2 laissez:1 faire:1 commercial:2 tradition:1 orient:1 include:2 tourism:2 restriction:4 movement:1 secrecy:1 strictly:1 enforce:1 recently:2 adopt:4 law:1 combat:1 money:3 laundering:1 practically:1 specific:1 sanction:1 cohesive:1 entrepreneurial:1 diaspora:1 send:1 home:1 relative:2 pay:1 need:1 sample:1 income:3 emigre:1 equal:1 percent:1 earned:1 death:1 nation:1 sandra:1 mackey:1 pg:1 capitalisation:1 listed:1 value:2 world:3 unable:1 attract:1 significant:2 long:1 israeli:1 occupation:1 south:1 addition:2 delicate:1 social:2 balance:1 dissolution:1 institution:1 handicap:1 state:2 seek:1 capture:1 revenue:1 effort:1 thus:1 accumulate:1 debt:4 reach:1 nearly:1 unfortunately:1 performance:1 sluggish:1 zero:1 attribute:1 slight:1 increase:4 industry:1 construction:1 unemployment:1 among:1 age:1 preliminary:1 reform:5 three:1 revival:1 sustainable:1 engine:1 structural:1 improvement:1 public:2 finance:2 stability:1 maintain:3 commitment:1 peg:1 september:1 late:1 substantially:1 custom:1 duty:1 promotion:1 scheme:1 agriculture:1 decrease:1 security:4 fee:1 estate:1 foreigner:1 effect:3 appreciation:1 currency:2 undermine:1 competitiveness:1 merchandise:1 fall:1 turn:1 gasoline:1 expenditure:2 approve:1 add:1 become:1 effective:1 february:1 slow:1 dollarization:1 deposit:1 hamper:1 ability:1 leave:1 burden:1 monetization:1 put:2 enormous:1 pressure:1 mitigate:1 slightly:1 issuance:1 eurobonds:1 intervene:1 directly:1 low:1 succeed:1 investor:1 confidence:1 first:1 primary:1 emphasis:1 privatization:3 initially:1 telecom:1 electricity:1 continued:1 plan:1 sale:2 airline:2 water:1 utility:1 pledge:1 apply:2 proceeds:1 project:1 bring:2 saving:2 payroll:1 par:1 stimulate:1 tackle:1 daunt:1 task:1 administrative:1 qualified:1 technocrat:1 address:1 review:1 realize:1 order:1 meet:1 requirement:1 adjustment:1 focusing:1 modernization:1 rationalization:1 improved:1 management:1 enjoy:1 exporter:1 generally:1 rank:2 fourth:1 import:1 good:1 office:2 represent:1 currently:1 operate:1 lifting:1 passport:1 see:2 number:1 branch:1 regional:1 microsoft:1 american:1 arthur:1 andersen:1 coca:1 cola:2 fedex:1 ups:1 general:1 electric:1 parson:1 brinckerhoff:1 cisco:1 eli:1 lilly:1 computer:1 associate:1 pepsi:1 mexico:1 many:1 enterprise:1 run:1 ethnic:1 carlos:1 slim:1 telmex:1 actively:1 rise:1 sharply:1 last:1 early:1 friday:1 december:1 crisis:4 one:1 seven:1 score:1 profit:1 give:1 regular:1 turmoil:1 conservative:1 approach:1 strict:1 regulation:1 impose:1 craft:1 immune:1 political:1 far:2 global:1 circumstance:1 high:2 liquidity:1 repute:1 moody:1 sovereign:1 ranking:1 acknowledge:1 moreover:1 provider:1 msci:1 performer:1 analyst:1 skeptic:1 future:1 indirect:1 consequence:1 prove:1 reference:1 link:1 bse:1 despite:1 tension:1 daily:1 star:1 embassy:1 washington:1 c:1 profile:1 |@bigram fiscal_consolidation:2 per_caput:1 grape_wrath:1 budget_deficit:2 gross_domestic:2 monetary_fund:1 wage_hover:1 laissez_faire:1 money_laundering:1 earned_income:1 market_capitalisation:1 capitalisation_listed:1 real_estate:1 fiscal_deficit:1 daunt_task:1 income_tax:1 coca_cola:1 eli_lilly:1 pepsi_cola:1 stock_exchange:3 external_link:1 |
3,414 | Frank_Lloyd_Wright | Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright, June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, interior designer, writer and educator, who designed more than 1,000 projects, which resulted in more than 500 completed works. Wright promoted organic architecture (exemplified by Fallingwater), was a leader of the Prairie School movement of architecture (exemplified by the Robie House and the Westcott House), and developed the concept of the Usonian home (exemplified by the Rosenbaum House). His work includes original and innovative examples of many different building types, including offices, churches, schools, hotels, and museums. Wright also often designed many of the interior elements of his buildings, such as the furniture and stained glass. Wright authored 20 books and many articles, and was a popular lecturer in the United States and in Europe. His colorful personal life often made headlines, most notably for the 1914 fire and murders at his Taliesin studio. Already well-known during his lifetime, Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as "the greatest American architect of all time". Biography Early years Frank Lloyd Wright was born in the farming town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, United States, in 1867. Originally named Frank Lincoln Wright, he changed his name after his parents' divorce to honor his mother's Welsh family, the Lloyd Joneses. His father, William Carey Wright (1825 – 1904) was a locally admired orator, music teacher, occasional lawyer and itinerant minister. William Wright had met and married Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39 – 1923), a county school teacher, the previous year when he was employed as the superintendent of schools for Richland County. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister but he later joined his wife's family in the Unitarian faith. Anna was a member of the large, prosperous and well-known Lloyd Jones family of Unitarians, who had emigrated from Wales to southwestern Wisconsin. Both of Wright's parents were strong-willed individuals with idiosyncratic interests that they passed on to Frank. In his biography his mother declared, when she was expecting her first child, that he would grow up to build beautiful buildings. She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infant's ambition. The family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts in 1870 for William to minister a small congregation. In 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia and saw an exhibit of educational blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of his innovative kindergarten curriculum. A trained teacher, Anna was excited by the program and bought a set of blocks for her family. Young Frank spent much time playing with the blocks. These were geometrically-shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions. Wright's autobiography talks about the influence of these exercises on his approach to design. Many of his buildings are notable for the geometrical clarity they exhibit. Wright's home in Oak Park, Illinois The Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. Although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children. Soon after Frank turned 14 — in 1881 — his parents separated. Anna had been unhappy for some time with William's inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection. William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again. An Autobiography, by Frank Lloyd Wright, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, New York City, 1943, p. 51 At this time Frank's middle name was changed from Lincoln to Lloyd. As the only male left in the family, Frank assumed financial responsibility for his mother and two sisters. Wright attended a Madison high school but there is no evidence he ever graduated. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p.72 He was admitted to the University of Wisconsin-Madison as a special student in 1886. There he joined Phi Delta Theta fraternity, Phi Delta Theta list of Famous Phis, accessed on May 26. 2008 took classes part-time for two semesters, and worked with a professor of civil engineering, Allan D. Conover. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, p. 82 In 1887, Wright left the school without taking a degree (although he was granted an honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from the University in 1955). He moved to Chicago which was still rebuilding from the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, and he joined the architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbee. Within a year, he left Silsbee to work for the firm of Adler & Sullivan as an apprentice to Louis Sullivan. In 1889, he married his first wife, Catherine Lee "Kitty" Tobin (1871-1959), purchased land in Oak Park, Illinois, and built his first home, and eventually his studio there. His mother, Anna, soon followed Wright to the city, where he purchased a home adjacent to his newly built residence for her. His marriage to Kitty Tobin, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, raised his social status, and he became better known. Beginning in 1890, he was assigned all residential design work for the firm. In 1893, Louis Sullivan discovered that Wright had been accepting private commissions. Sullivan felt betrayed that his favored employee had designed houses "behind his back," and he asked Wright to leave the firm. Constantly in need of funds to support his growing family, Wright designed the homes to supplement his meager income. Wright referred to these houses as his "bootleg" designs and the homes are located near the Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, on Chicago Avenue in Oak Park. After leaving Sullivan, Wright established his own practice at his home. This practice was a remarkable collection of creative architectural designers. By 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park. As his son John Lloyd Wright wrote, “William Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur, Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts and George Willis were the draftsmen. Five men, two women. They wore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm. The men wore their hair like Papa, all except Albert, he didn’t have enough hair. They worshiped Papa! Papa liked them! I know that each one of them was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture for which my father gets the full glory, headaches and recognition today! ” My Father: Frank Lloyd Wright, by John Lloyd Wright; 1992; page 35 Prairie House Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York Between 1900 and 1917, his residential designs were "Prairie Houses", so-called because the design is considered to complement the land around Chicago. These houses featured extended low buildings with shallow, sloping roofs, clean sky lines, suppressed chimneys, overhangs and terraces, using unfinished materials. The houses are credited with being the first examples of the "open plan." The manipulation of interior space in residential and public buildings are hallmarks of his style. One such building is Unity Temple, the home of the Unitarian Universalist congregation in Oak Park. As a lifelong Unitarian and member of Unity Temple, Wright offered his services to the congregation after their church burned down in 1904. The community agreed to hire him and he worked on the building from 1905 to 1908. He believed that humanity should be central to all design. Hillside Home School, 1902, Taliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin Many examples of this work are in Buffalo, New York as a result of friendship between Wright and Darwin D. Martin, an executive from the Larkin Soap Company. In 1902, the Larkin Company decided to build a new administration building. Wright came to Buffalo and designed not only the first sketches for the Larkin Administration Building (completed in 1904, demolished in 1950), but also homes for three of the company's executives: Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo NY, 1904, William R. Heath House, Buffalo NY, 1905, Walter V. Davidson House, Buffalo NY, 1908, and also the George F. Barton House, Buffalo NY, 1903, for Martin's brother-in-law, part of the Martin House Complex, and later, the Graycliff estate, Derby NY, 1926, the Martin's summer residence. The Westcott House was built in Springfield, Ohio, sometime between 1907 and 1908. It not only embodies Wright’s innovative Prairie Style design, but also reflects his passion for Japanese art and culture in design traits characteristic of traditional Japanese design. It is the only Prairie house built in Ohio, and represents an important evolution of Wright’s Prairie concept. The house has an extensive 98-foot pergola, capped with an intricate wooden trellis, connecting a detached carriage house and garage to the main house—features of only a few of Wright’s later Prairie Style designs. It is not known exactly when Wright designed The Westcott House; it may have been several months before or more than a year after Wright returned from his first trip to Japan in 1905. Wright created two separate designs for the Westcott House; both are included in Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright, published by the distinguished Ernst Wasmuth (Germany, 1910-1911). This two-volume work contains more than 100 lithographs of Wright’s designs and is commonly known as the Wasmuth Portfolio. Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the late Prairie Period (1907–1909) are the Frederick Robie House in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois. The Robie House, with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a -long channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. This building had a profound influence on young European architects after World War I and is sometimes called the "cornerstone of modernism". However, Wright's work was not known to European architects until the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio. Europe and personal troubles Local gossips noticed Wright's flirtations, and he developed a reputation in Oak Park as a man-about-town. His family had grown to six children, and the brood required most of Catherine's attention. In 1903, Wright designed a house for Edwin Cheney, a neighbor in Oak Park, and immediately took a liking to Cheney's wife, Mamah Borthwick Cheney. Mamah Cheney was a modern woman with interests outside the home. She was an early feminist and Wright viewed her as his intellectual equal. The two fell in love, even though Wright had been married for almost 20 years. Often the two could be seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park, and they became the talk of the town. Wright's wife, Kitty, sure that this attachment would fade as the others had, refused to grant him a divorce. Neither would Edwin Cheney grant one to Mamah. In 1909, even before the Robie House was completed, Wright and Mamah Cheney eloped to Europe; leaving their own spouses and children behind. The scandal that erupted virtually destroyed Wright's ability to practice architecture in the United States. Scholars argue that he felt by 1907 that he had done everything he could do with the Prairie Style, particularly from the standpoint of the single family house. Wright was not getting larger commissions for commercial or public buildings, which frustrated him. What drew Wright to Europe was the chance to publish a portfolio of his work with Ernst Wasmuth, who had agreed in 1909 to publish his work there. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, Alfred A. Knopf, 1993, p. 202 This chance also allowed Wright to deepen his relationship with Mamah Cheney. Wright and Cheney left the United States separately in 1910, meeting in Berlin, where the offices of Wasmuth were located. The resulting two volumes, known as the Wasmuth Portfolio, were published in 1910 and 1911 in two editions, creating the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe. Wright remained in Europe for one year (though Mamah Cheney returned to the United States a few times) and set up home in Fiesole, Italy. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted her a divorce, though Kitty still refused to grant one to her husband. After Wright's return to the United States in late 1910, Wright persuaded his mother to buy land for him in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The land, bought on April 10, 1911, was adjacent to land held by his mother's family, the Lloyd-Joneses. Wright began to build himself a new home, which he called Taliesin, by May 1911. The recurring theme of Taliesin also came from his mother's side: Taliesin in Welsh mythology was a poet, magician and super-hero. The family motto was Y Gwir yn Erbyn y Byd which means "The Truth Against the World"; it was created by Iolo Morgannwg who interestingly enough also had a son called Taliesin, and the motto is still used today as the cry of the druids and chief bard of the Eisteddfod in Wales. Home Country More personal turmoil On August 15, 1914, while Wright was in Chicago completing a large project (Midway Gardens), Julian Carlton, a male servant whom he had hired several months earlier, set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and murdered seven people with an axe as the fire burned. The dead included Mamah; her two children, John and Martha; a gardener; a draftsman; a workman; and the workman’s son. Two people survived the mayhem, one of whom helped to put out the fire that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house. In 1922, Wright's first wife, Kitty, granted him a divorce, and Wright was required to wait one year until he married his then-partner, Maude "Miriam" Noel. In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna (Lloyd Jones) Wright, died. Wright wed Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to morphine led to the failure of the marriage in less than one year. In 1924, after the separation, but while still married, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg, at a Petrograd Ballet performance in Chicago. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, and soon Olgivanna's was pregnant with their daughter, Iovanna. (Iovanna was born December 2, 1925 and years later married and divorced Wright associate Arthur Pieper.) On April 22, 1925, another fire destroyed the living quarters of Taliesin. This appears to have been the result of a faulty electrical system. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, p. 315–317 Wright rebuilt the living quarters again, naming the home "Taliesin III". In 1926, Olga's ex-husband, Vlademar Hinzenburg, sought custody of his daughter, Svetlana. In Minnetonka, Minnesota, Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the Mann Act and arrested in October 1926 (the charges were later dropped). Wright and Miriam Noel's divorce was finalized in 1927, and once again, Wright was required to wait for one year until marrying again. Wright and Olgivanna married in 1928. Notable projects after the Prairie Period Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania (1939) First Unitarian Society Meeting House, Madison, WI (1947) During the turbulent 1920s, Wright designed Graycliff, one of his most innovative residences of the period, and a precursor to Fallingwater. The Graycliff estate was constructed from 1926 to 1929 for Isabelle and Darwin Martin on a bluff overlooking Lake Erie, just south of Buffalo, New York. Wright designed a complex of three buildings and extensive grounds and incorporates cantilevered balconies and terraces, "ribbons" of windows, and a transparent "screen" of windows allowing views of the lake through the largest building, the Isabelle R. Martin House. Graycliff's light-filled buildings were designed in Wright's "organic" style and were built of limestone from the beach below, warm ochre-colored stucco and striking red-stained roofs. Wright's designs for Graycliff's grounds incorporate water features that echo the lake beyond: a pond, a fountain, sunken gardens and stone walls in a "waterfall" pattern that surround the property. On the summer solstice, Graycliff aligns with the setting sun on Lake Erie, as Wright intended. One of Wright's most famous private residences was built from 1935 to 1939—Fallingwater—for Mr. and Mrs. Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr., at Bear Run, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh. It was designed according to Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural surroundings, with a stream and waterfall running under part of the building. The construction is a series of cantilevered balconies and terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the horizontals. The house cost $155,000, including the architect's fee of $8,000. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not sound. They were overruled by Wright, but the contractor secretly added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements. In 1994, Robert Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure. In the late 1990s, steel supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done. In March 2002, post-tensioning of the lowest terrace was completed. Also in the 1930s, Wright first designed Usonian houses. Intended to be highly practical houses for middle-class clients, the designs were based on a simple but elegant geometry. He would later use similar elementary forms in his First Unitarian Meeting House built in Madison, Wisconsin, between 1946 and 1951. First Unitarian Society - About the Meeting House Wright is responsible for a series of extremely original concepts of suburban development united under the term Broadacre City. He proposed the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932, and unveiled a square model of this community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years. He went on developing the idea until his death.Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York City, New York (1959) His Usonian homes set a new style for suburban design that was a feature of countless developers. Many features of modern American homes date back to Wright; open plans, slab-on-grade foundations, and simplified construction techniques that allowed more mechanization or at least efficiency in building. The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City occupied Wright for 16 years (1943–1959) Guggenheim Museum - History and is probably his most recognized masterpiece. The building rises as a warm beige spiral from its site on Fifth Avenue; its interior is similar to the inside of a seashell. Its unique central geometry was meant to allow visitors to easily experience Guggenheim's collection of nonobjective geometric paintings by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp, which features a floor embedded with circular shapes and triangular light fixtures to complement the geometric nature of the structure. Unfortunately, when the museum was completed, a number of important details of Wright's design were ignored, including his desire for the interior to be painted off-white. Furthermore, the Museum currently designs exhibits to be viewed by walking up the curved walkway rather than walking down from the top level. Wright's Price Tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma The only realized skyscraper designed by Wright is the Price Tower, a 19-story, -high tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. It is also one of the two existing vertically-oriented Wright structures (the other is the S.C. Johnson Wax Research Tower in Racine, Wisconsin). The Price Tower was commissioned by Harold C. Price of the H. C. Price Company, a local oil pipeline and chemical firm. It opened to the public in February 1956. On March 29, 2007, Price Tower was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior, one of only 20 such properties in the state of Oklahoma. National Park Service - National Historic Landmarks Designated, April 13, 2007 Other projects Wright designed over 400 built structures The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, by William Allin Storrer, University of Chicago Press, 1992 (third edition) of which about 300 survive as of 2005. Four have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L. Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Camille in August 1969; the Louis Sullivan Bungalow, and the James Charnley Bungalow of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Katrina in 2005; and the Arinobu Fukuhara House (1918) in Hakone, Japan, destroyed in the Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923. The Ennis House in California has also been damaged by earthquake and rain-induced ground movement. In January, 2006, the Wynant House in Gary, Indiana was destroyed by fire. Preservation Online: Today's News Archives: Fire Guts Rare FLW House in Indiana Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1923) In addition, other buildings were intentionally demolished during and after Wright's lifetime, such as: Midway Gardens (1913, Chicago, Illinois) and the Larkin Administration Building (1903, Buffalo, New York) were destroyed in 1929 and 1950 respectively; the Francis Apartments and Francisco Terrace Apartments (both located in Chicago and designed in 1895) were destroyed in 1971 and 1974, respectively; the Geneva Inn (1911) in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin was destroyed in 1970; and the Banff National Park Pavilion (1911) in Alberta, Canada was destroyed in 1939. The Imperial Hotel, in Tokyo (1913) survived the Great Kantō earthquake but was demolished in 1968 due to urban developmental pressures. Berstein, Fred A. "Near Nagoya, Architecture From When the East Looked West," New York Times. April 2, 2006. One of his projects, Monona Terrace, originally designed in 1937 as municipal offices for Madison, Wisconsin, was completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior with the interior design altered by its new purpose as a convention center. The "as-built" design was carried out by Wright's apprentice Tony Puttnam. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy throughout the 60 years between the original design and the completion of the structure. Monona Terrace Convention Center, history web page A lesser known project that never came to fruition was Wright's plan for Emerald Bay, Lake Tahoe. Frank Lloyd Wright Emerald Bay, Lake Tahoe Few Tahoe locals know of the iconic American architect's plan for their natural treasure. Wright also built several houses in the Los Angeles area. Currently open to the public are the Hollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence) in Hollywood and the shops at Anderton Court in Beverly Hills. Following the Hollyhock House, Wright used an innovative building process in 1923 and 1924, which he called the textile block system where buildings were constructed with precast concrete blocks with a patterned, squarish exterior surface: The Alice Millard House (Pasadena), the John Storer House (West Hollywood), the Samuel Freeman House (Hollywood) and the Ennis House in the Griffith Park area of Los Angeles. During the past two decades the Ennis House has become popular as an exotic, nearby shooting location to Hollywood TV and movie makers. He also designed a fifth textile block house for Aline Barnsdall, the Community Playhouse ("Little Dipper"), which was never constructed. Frank Lloyd Wright's son, Lloyd Wright, supervised construction for the Storer, Freeman and Ennis House. Most of these houses are private residences and closed to the public because of renovation, including the Sturgis House (Brentwood) and the Arch Oboler Gatehouse & Studio (Malibu). Oak Park, Illinois, a Chicago suburb, has the largest collection of Wright houses, as well as Wright's home and studio, which are open for public tours. Tours of certain homes occur during the year. The Unity Temple is located on Lake Street in Oak Park. The Cheney House, Edwin and Mamah Cheney's residence, has been a bed and breakfast for many years. Beside the home's beauty, it contains a stunning in-law suite on the lower level. Florida Southern College, located in Lakeland, Florida, constructed 12 (out of 18 planned) Frank Lloyd Wright buildings between 1941 and 1958 as part of the Child of the Sun project. Gordon House is Wright's last Usonian design which was completed in 1963. It is open for public access at the Oregon Garden. Wright's last design and first European project A design that Wright signed off on shortly before his death in 1959 – possibly his last completed design – was realised in late 2007 in the Republic of Ireland. Wright scholar and devotee Marc Coleman worked closely with the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, dealing with E. Thomas Casey, the last surviving Foundation architect who trained under Wright. Working with the Foundation, Coleman selected an unbuilt design that was originally commissioned for Mr. and Mrs. Gilbert Wieland and due to be built in Maryland, USA. However, the Wielands subsequently had financial problems and the design was shelved. The Foundation looked through its archive of 380 unbuilt designs and selected 4 for Coleman that were the closest fit for his site. In the end, he chose the Wieland house, largely because the topography of his site is virtually identical to that which the building was originally designed for. The completed house, Right On - Late 1950s Frank Lloyd Wright design realised in Wicklow in only the fourth country in which a Wright design has been realised, is attracting broad interest from the international architectural community. Casey visited the site in County Wicklow, but died before construction began. Community planning Frank Lloyd Wright was interested in site and community planning throughout his career. His commissions and theories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death. He has 41 commissions of a scale that can be considered community planning or urban design. Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs, Charles E. and Berdeana Aguar, McGraw-Hill, 2002, p.344 His thoughts on suburban design started in 1901 with an article in Ladies Home Journal. The article was designed to showcase “New Series of Model Suburban Houses Which Can Be Built at Moderate Cost”. Wright not only submitted a home design, but even proposed the Quadruple Block Plan as a proposed subdivision layout. Wrightscapes:Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs, Charles E. and Berdeana Aguar, McGraw-Hill, 2002, p.51–54 This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads. The houses were set toward the center of the block so that each maximized the yard space and included private space in the center. This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house. This design would have eliminated the straight rows of houses on parallel streets with boring views of the front of each house. His first commission using the Quadruple Block Plan was for Charles E. Roberts in 1903, and Wright continued to push his concept in many of his large scale designs through the end of his career. Wrightscapes:Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs, Charles E. and Berdeana Aguar, McGraw-Hill, 2002, p.56 The more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago Land Development Competition in 1913. The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section. This design expanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels. The design shows the placement of the upscale homes in the most desirable areas and the blue collar homes and apartments separated by parks and common spaces. The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc. "Undoing the City: Frank Lloyd Wright's Planned Communities," American Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct., 1972), p. 544 This view of decentralization was later reinforced by theoretical Broadacre City design. The philosophy behind his community planning was decentralization. The new development must be away from the cities. In this decentralized America, all services and facilities could coexist “factories side by side with farm and home.” "Undoing the City: Frank Lloyd Wright's Planned Communities," American Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct., 1972), p. 542 Notable Community Planning Designs: 1901 – Quadruple Block Plan – “Ladies Home Journal” February 1901, April 1901 1903 – Charles R. Roberts – 24 homes – Oak Park, IL 1909 – Bitter Root Town Plan – Town site development for new town in the Bitterroot Valley, MT 1913 – Chicago Land Development competition – Suburban Chicago quarter section 1934–1959 – Broadacre City – Theoretical decentralized city plan – exhibits of large scale model 1938 – Suntop Homes – low cost housing alternative to suburban development 1941 – Cloverleaf Housing Project – commission from Federal Works Agency, Division of Defense Housing – multifamily layout 1945 - Usonia Homes - 47 homes (3 designed by Wright himself) in Pleasantville, New York Japanese art Though most famous as an architect, Wright was an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily ukiyo-e woodblock prints. He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients; "he designed a home, then provided the art to fill it" Cotter, Holland. "Seeking Japan's Prints, Out of Love and Need." New York Times. 6 April 2001. . For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect. Wright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organize the world's first retrospective exhibition of works by Hiroshige, held at the Art Institute of Chicago. For many years, he was a major presence in the Japanese art world, selling a great number of works to prominent collectors such as John Spaulding of Boston, and to prominent museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. He penned a book on Japanese art in 1912. In 1920, however, rival art dealers began to spread rumors that Wright was selling retouched prints; this combined with Wright's tendency to live beyond his means, and other factors, to lead to great financial troubles for the architect. Though he provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, this marked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer. He was forced to sell off much of his art collection in 1927 to pay off outstanding debts; the Bank of Wisconsin claimed his Taliesin home the following year, and sold thousands of his prints, for only one dollar a piece, to collector Edward Burr Van Vleck. Wright continued to collect, and deal in, prints until his death in 1959, frequently using prints as collateral for loans, frequently relying upon his art business to remain financially solvent Reif, Rita. "Frank Lloyd Wright's Love of Japanese Prints Helped Pay the Bills." New York Times. 18 March 2001. The extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades until, in 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints. She discovered "a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from 1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller — 'F. L. Wright'" and a number of letters exchanged between Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz, in 1918 to 1922. These discoveries, and subsequent research, led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer. Death and legacy 1954 portrait by Al Ravenna, New York World-Telegram and the Sun staff photographer Turmoil followed Wright even many years after his death on April 9, 1959. His third wife, Olgivanna, ran the Fellowship after Wright's death, until her own death in Scottsdale, Arizona in 1985. In 1985, it was learned that her dying wish had been that Wright, she and her daughter by a first marriage all be cremated and relocated to Scottsdale, Arizona. By then, Wright's body had lain for nearly 30 years in the Lloyd-Jones cemetery, next to the Unity Chapel, near Taliesin, Wright's later-life home in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The Unity Chapel, designed by Joseph Silsbee, should not be confused with the much larger and vastly more famous Unity Temple, designed by Wright and located in Oak Park, IL. Wright was the draughtsman for the design of the Unity Chapel. Olgivanna's plan called for a memorial garden, already in the works, to be finished and prepared for their remains. Although the garden had yet to be finished, his remains were prepared and sent to Scottsdale where they waited in storage for an unidentified amount of time before being interred in the memorial area. Today, the small cemetery south of Spring Green, Wisconsin and a long stone's throw from Taliesin, contains a gravestone marked with Wright's name but its grave is empty. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, Meryle Secrest, University of Chicago Press, 1992. Personal style and concepts Wright practiced what is known as organic architecture, an architecture that evolves naturally out of the context, most importantly for him the relationship between the site and the building and the needs of the client. For example, houses in wooded regions made heavy use of wood, desert houses had rambling floor plans and heavy use of stone, and houses in rocky areas such as Los Angeles were built mainly of cinder block. Wright's creations took his concern with organic architecture down to the smallest details. From his largest commercial commissions to the relatively modest Usonian houses, Wright conceived virtually every detail of both the external design and the internal fixtures, including furniture, carpets, windows, doors, tables and chairs, light fittings and decorative elements. He was one of the first architects to design and supply custom-made, purpose-built furniture and fittings that functioned as integrated parts of the whole design, and he often returned to earlier commissions to redesign internal fittings. Some of the built-in furniture remains, while other restorations have included replacement pieces created using his plans. His Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets and other fittings. He made innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete blocks, glass bricks and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used Pyrex glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson Wax Headquarters. Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the very first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting). Wright-designed window in Robie House, Chicago (1906) As Wright's career progressed, so did the mechanization of the glass industry. Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that it fit well into his philosophy of organic architecture. Glass allowed for interaction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from the elements. In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which he compared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds. One of Wright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glass along whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join together solid walls. By utilizing this large amount of glass, Wright sought to achieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass and the solid, hard walls. Arguably, Wright's most well-known art glass is that of the Prairie style. The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornate and intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career. Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs, Carla Lind, Pomegranate Artbooks/Archetype Press, 1995. Wright responded to the transformation of domestic life that occurred at the turn of the 20th century, when servants became a less prominent or completely absent from most American households, by developing homes with progressively more open plans. This allowed the woman of the house to work in her 'workspace', as he often called the kitchen, yet keep track of and be available for the children and/or guests in the dining room. Much of modern architecture, including the early work of Mies van der Rohe, can be traced back to Wright's innovative work. Wright also designed some of his own clothing. His fashion sense was unique and he usually wore expensive suits, flowing neckties, and capes. He drove a custom yellow raceabout in the Prairie years, a red Cord convertible in the 1930s, and a famously customized 1940 Lincoln for many years, each of which earned him many speeding tickets. Colleagues and influences Wright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had five major influences: Louis Sullivan, whom he considered to be his 'Lieber Meister' (dear master), Nature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life, Music (his favorite composer was Ludwig van Beethoven), Japanese art, prints and buildings, Froebel Gifts He also routinely claimed the architects and architectural designers who were his employees' work as his own design and claimed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators and subordinates. "The Magic of America, Marion Mahony Griffin But, as with any architect, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others. In his earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the Chicago School, including Sullivan. In his Prairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects including William Eugene Drummond, John Van Bergen, Isabel Roberts, Francis Barry Byrne, Albert McArthur, Marion Mahony Griffin and Walter Burley Griffin. Rudolf Schindler worked for Wright on the Imperial hotel. His own work is often credited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses. Schindler's friend Richard Neutra also worked briefly for Wright and became an internationally successful architect. Later in the Taliesin days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as John Lautner, E. Fay Jones, Henry Klumb and Paolo Soleri in architecture and Santiago Martinez Delgado in the arts. As a young man, actor Anthony Quinn applied to study with Wright at Taliesin. However, Wright suggested that he first take voice lessons to help overcome a speech impediment. Bruce Goff never worked for Wright but maintained correspondence with him. Their works can be seen to parallel each other. Recognition 1966 U.S. postage stamp honoring Frank Lloyd Wright Later in his life and well after his death in 1959, Wright received much honorary recognition for his lifetime achievements. He received Gold Medal awards from The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) in 1941 and the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1949. He received honorary degrees from several universities (including his "alma mater", the University of Wisconsin) and several nations named him as an honorary board member to their national academies of art and/or architecture. In 2000, Fallingwater was named "The Building of the 20th century" in an unscientific "Top-Ten" poll taken by members attending the AIA annual convention in Philadelphia. On that list, Wright was listed along with many of the USA's other greatest architects including Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Phillip Johnson and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and he was the only architect who had more than one building on the list. The other three buildings were the Guggenheim Museum, the Frederick C. Robie House and the Johnson Wax Building. In 1992, The Madison Opera in Madison, Wisconsin commissioned and premiered the opera Shining Brow, by composer Daron Hagen and librettist Paul Muldoon based on events early in Wright's life. The work has since received numerous revivals. In 2000, Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright, a play based on the relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater. On June 8, 2005, Google's homepage displayed a Google Doodle celebrating Wright's birthday. Wright-designed houses available for rent Perhaps one of the most unique ways that Wright is recognized today is that several properties Frank Lloyd Wright houses for rent: Tech: mensvogue.com designed by him are available to house overnight guests who, more than simply touring his houses, want to "live" in one, albeit for a night or two. Some of the homes include the Louis Penfield House in Ohio, the Haynes House in Indiana, the Bernard Schwartz House in Wisconsin, the Muirhead Farmhouse in Illinois, the Duncan House in Pennsylvania and the Seth Peterson Cottage in Wisconsin. Family Frank Lloyd Wright was married three times and fathered seven children: four sons and three daughters. He also adopted Svetlana Wright Peters, the daughter of his third wife, Olgivanna Lloyd Wright. http://www.taliesinpreservation.org/frank/faq.htm#Wives_children His wives were: Catherine "Kitty" (Tobin) Wright (1871-1959). Socialite and Social Worker. Married June, 1889; divorced November, 1922. Maude "Miriam" (Noel) Wright (1869-1930). Artist. Married November, 1923; divorced August, 1927. Olga Ivanovna "Olgivanna" (Lazovich Milanoff) Lloyd Wright (1897-1985). Dancer and writer. Married August, 1928. Novelist TC Boyle wrote about Wright's marriages (and his relationship with his mistress, Mamah Borthwick) in the 2009 novel, The Women. One of Wright's sons, Frank Lloyd Wright Jr., known as Lloyd Wright, was also a notable architect in Los Angeles. Lloyd Wright's son (and Wright's grandson), Eric Lloyd Wright, is currently an architect in Malibu, California where he has a practice of mostly residences, but also civic and commercial buildings. Another son and architect, John Lloyd Wright, invented Lincoln Logs in 1918, and practiced extensively in the San Diego area. John's daughter, Elizabeth Ingraham, is an architect in Colorado. She is the mother of Christine, an interior designer in Connecticut, and Catherine, an architecture professor at the Pratt Institute. The Oscar-winning actress Anne Baxter was Wright's granddaughter. Baxter was the daughter of Catherine Baxter, a child born of Wright's first marriage. Anne's daughter, Melissa Galt, currently lives and works in Atlanta as an interior designer. A great-grandson of Wright, S. Lloyd Natof, currently lives and works in Chicago as a master woodworker who specializes in the design and creation of custom wood furniture. Archives Photographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The Herbert and Katherine Jacobs Residence and Frank Lloyd Wright Records, 1924-1974, Collection includes drawings, correspondence, and other materials documenting the construction of two homes for the Jacobs as well as research files on Wright's life. The Frank Lloyd Wright in Michigan Collection, 1945-1988, consists of research documents, including photocopied correspondence between Wright and his clients, used for the book "Frank Lloyd Wright in Michigan." The Wrightiana Collection, c. 1897-1997 (bulk 1949-1969), includes a variety of printed materials and photographs about Wright and his projects. The Joseph J. Bagley Cottage Collection, c. 1916-1925, contains photographs and drawings documenting the Bagley cottage which was completed in 1916. Selected works The Burton J. Westcott House, Springfield, Ohio The Robie House on the University of Chicago campus Taliesin West Panorama from the "prow" looking at the "ship" Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois, 1889-1909 William Herman Winslow Residence, River Forest, Illinois, 1894 Ward Winfield Willits Residence, and Gardener’s Cottage and Stables, Highland Park, Illinois, 1901 Dana-Thomas House State Historic Site, Springfield, Illinois, 1902 Larkin Administration Building, Buffalo, New York, 1903 Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1903-1905 Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1904 Burton J. Westcott Residence, Springfield, Ohio, 1908 Frederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, Illinois, 1909 Taliesin I, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911 Midway Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, 1913 Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, Japan, 1923. Demolished, 1968; Entrance hall reconstructed in 1976 at Meiji Mura, near Nagoya, Japan Hollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence), Los Angeles, California, 1919-21 Ennis House, Los Angeles, California, 1923 Graycliff (Darwin D. and Isabelle R. Martin summer estate), Buffalo, NY,1928 Fallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence), Bear Run, Pennsylvania, 1935 Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936 Herbert F. Johnson Residence ("Wingspread"), Wind Point, WI, 1937 Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1937 Bernard Schwartz House Two Rivers, Wisconsin, 1939 Usonian homes, various locations, 1930s-1940s Child of the Sun, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida, 1941-1958 First Unitarian Society of Madison, Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin, 1947 Herman T. Mossberg Residence, South Bend, Indiana, 1948 Thomas Keys Residence, Rochester, Minnesota, 1950 Muirhead Farmhouse, Hampshire, Illinois, 1950 Samara (John E. Christian House), West Lafayette, Indiana, 1954 Louis Penfield House, Willoughby Hills, Ohio, 1955 Frank S. Sander House, Stamford, Connecticut, 1955 Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1956 Kentuck Knob, Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania, 1956 The Illinois, mile-high tower in Chicago, 1956 (unbuilt) Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, designed in 1956, completed in 1961 Marin County Civic Center, (featured in the movies Gattaca & THX 1138), San Rafael, CA, 1957-66 Donald C. Duncan House, Acme, Pennsylvania, 1957 Gammage Auditorium, Tempe, Arizona, 1964 Cultural influence The design of the Vandamm House in the Hitchcock film North by Northwest is consciously based on Wright's architecture. Simon and Garfunkel recorded a song called "So Long, Frank Lloyd Wright" on their 1970 album Bridge over Troubled Water. Art Garfunkel is a longtime fan of architecture; it has been said that Paul Simon wrote the song as a farewell to his musical partner, using Wright's name to stand for Garfunkel. The Daily Aztec. Tempo. Christy Castellanos. Simon and Garfunkel. February 17, 2004. The architect hero Howard Roark of Ayn Rand's novel The Fountainhead is widely considered to have been based on Wright. Hoppen, Donald W. (1998). The Seven Ages of Frank Lloyd Wright: The Creative Process, p. 112; Johnson, Donald Leslie. (1994). Frank Lloyd Wright versus America: The 1930s, p. 61. A version of Frank Lloyd Wright appears in Dan Simmons' Hyperion Cantos. See also Frank Lloyd Wright buildings Wasmuth Portfolio Richard Bock Roman brick Jaroslav Joseph Polivka Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy Frank Lloyd Wright-Prairie School of Architecture Historic District List of Frank Lloyd Wright works List of Frank Lloyd Wright works by location Broadacre City Fallingwater References Works Cited in Article Selected books and articles on Wright’s philosophy An Autobiography, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1943, Duell, Sloan and Pearce / 2005, Pomegranate; ISBN 0-7649-3243-8) Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles, by Robert McCarter (1991, Princeton Architectural Press; ISBN 1878271261) Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes: Designs for Moderate Cost One-Family Homes, by John Sergeant (1984, Watson-Guptill; ISBN 0823071782) Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes (Wright at a Glance Series), by Carla Lind (1994, Pomegranate Communications; ISBN 1566409985) "In the Cause of Architecture," Architectural Record, March, 1908, by Frank Lloyd Wright. Published in Frank Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1 (1992, Rizzoli; ISBN 0-8478-1546-3) Natural House, The, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1954, Horizon Press; ISBN 0517020785) Taliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During, and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright, by Earl Nisbet (2006, Meridian Press; ISBN 0-9778951-0-6) Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture, ed. by Patrick Meehan (1987, Wiley; ISBN 0471845094) Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture, by Donald Hoffman (1995, Dover Publications; ISBN 048628364X) Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America, Alvin Rosenbaum (1993, Preservation Press; ISBN 0891332014) Biographies of Wright Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture, man in possession of his earth, by Iovanna Lloyd Wright (1962, Doubleday; ) Many Masks, by Brendan Gill (1987, Putnam; ISBN 0399132325) Frank Lloyd Wright, by Ada Louise Huxtable (2004, Lipper/Viking; ISBN 0670033421) Frank Lloyd Wright: a Biography, by Meryle Secrest (1992, Knopf; ISBN 0394564367) Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture, by Robert Twombly (1979, Wiley; ISBN 0471034002) Frank Lloyd Wright: by Vaccaro, Tony, (2002, Kultur-unterm-Schirm)The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship, by Roger Friedland and Harold Zellman (2006, Regan Books; ISBN 0060393882)Loving Frank, by Nancy Horan, (2008, Random House, Inc; ISBN 0345494997) Selected survey books on Wright’s workArchitecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, The, by Neil Levine (1996, Princeton University Press; ISBN 0691033714)Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, The, by William Allin Storrer (2007 updated 3rd. ed., University of Chicago Press; ISBN 0-226-77620-4)Frank Lloyd Wright, by Robert McCarter (1997, Phaidon, London; ISBN 0 7148 31484 (hardback), ISBN 0714838543 (paperback))Frank Lloyd Wright: America’s Master Architect, by Kathryn Smith (1998, Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.); ISBN 0789202875)Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect, by the Museum of Modern Art (1994, ISBN 087070642X)Frank Lloyd Wright Companion, The, by William Allin Storrer (2006 Rev. Ed., University of Chicago Press; ISBN 0-226-77621-2)Frank Lloyd Wright: Masterworks, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer (1993, Rizzoli; ISBN 0847817156)Frank Lloyd Wright: Building for Democracy, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer (2004, Taschen; ISBN 3-8228-2757-6)Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Landscape Designs, by Charles and Berdeana Aguar (2003, McGraw-Hill; ISBN 007140953X)Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses by Grant Hildebrand (1991, University of Washington Press; ISBN 0295970057)Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide, by Thomas A. Heinz (1999, Academy Editions; ISBN 0-8101-2244-8)Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs, by Carla Lind (1995, Pomegranate; ISBN 0876544685)Frank Lloyd Wright Complete Works 1943-1959, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer and Peter Gössel (editor) (2009, Taschen; ISBN 978-3-8228-5770-0). First in a series of three monographs featuring all of Wright's 1,100 designs, both realized and unrealized.Selected books about specific Wright projectsFallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America's Most Extraordinary House, by Franklin Toker (2003, Knopf; ISBN 1400040264) External links Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Official Website Frank Lloyd Wright, Wisconsin Historical Society Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy Frank Lloyd Wright YouTube Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust – FLW Home and Studio, Robie House Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture Frank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program Frank Lloyd Wright – PBS documentary by Ken Burns and resources Frank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922-1932 Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey Complete list of Wright buildings by location Sullivan, Wright, Prairie School, & Organic Architecture Audio interview with Martin Filler on Frank Lloyd Wright from The New York Review of Books'' | Frank_Lloyd_Wright |@lemmatized frank:96 lloyd:105 wright:268 born:2 lincoln:5 june:3 april:8 american:12 architect:33 interior:9 designer:5 writer:2 educator:1 design:94 project:11 result:4 complete:16 work:43 promote:1 organic:7 architecture:25 exemplify:4 fallingwater:7 leader:1 prairie:17 school:14 movement:2 robie:9 house:100 westcott:6 develop:5 concept:5 usonian:9 home:44 rosenbaum:2 include:23 original:4 innovative:7 example:4 many:17 different:1 building:41 type:1 office:4 church:3 hotel:5 museum:14 also:22 often:7 element:6 furniture:5 stain:2 glass:15 author:1 book:9 article:5 popular:2 lecturer:1 united:7 state:9 europe:6 colorful:1 personal:5 life:9 make:7 headline:1 notably:1 fire:8 murder:2 taliesin:20 studio:8 already:2 well:8 know:14 lifetime:3 recognize:3 institute:6 great:8 time:13 biography:9 early:8 year:23 bear:5 farm:2 town:6 richland:2 center:6 wisconsin:25 originally:5 name:8 change:2 parent:4 divorce:10 honor:2 mother:9 welsh:2 family:15 joneses:1 father:5 william:17 carey:1 locally:1 admired:1 orator:1 music:4 teacher:3 occasional:1 lawyer:1 itinerant:1 minister:3 meet:3 marry:10 anna:8 jones:7 county:4 previous:1 employ:2 superintendent:1 massachusetts:2 baptist:1 later:11 join:4 wife:8 unitarian:9 faith:1 member:4 large:10 prosperous:1 emigrate:1 wale:2 southwestern:1 strong:1 willed:1 individual:1 idiosyncratic:1 interest:3 pass:1 declare:1 expect:1 first:25 child:10 would:5 grow:3 build:17 beautiful:1 decorate:1 nursery:1 engraving:1 english:1 cathedral:1 tear:1 periodical:1 encourage:1 infant:1 ambition:1 move:3 weymouth:2 small:5 congregation:3 visit:2 centennial:1 exhibition:2 philadelphia:2 saw:2 exhibit:4 educational:1 block:15 create:6 friedrich:1 wilhelm:1 august:5 fröbel:1 froebel:2 gift:2 foundation:7 kindergarten:1 curriculum:1 trained:1 excite:1 program:2 buy:5 set:7 young:3 spend:1 much:5 play:2 geometrically:1 shaped:1 could:6 assemble:1 various:2 combination:1 form:6 three:9 dimensional:1 composition:1 autobiography:3 talk:2 influence:7 exercise:1 approach:1 notable:5 geometrical:1 clarity:1 oak:14 park:19 illinois:15 struggle:1 financially:2 return:5 spring:7 green:6 supportive:1 clan:1 help:5 find:2 employment:1 settle:1 madison:9 teach:1 lesson:2 serve:2 secretary:1 newly:2 society:5 although:3 distant:1 share:1 love:4 especially:1 johann:1 sebastian:1 bach:1 soon:3 turn:2 separate:3 unhappy:1 inability:1 provide:3 ask:2 leave:9 finalize:2 sue:1 lack:1 physical:2 affection:1 claim:4 never:4 duell:2 sloan:2 pearce:2 new:25 york:17 city:15 p:12 middle:2 male:2 assume:1 financial:3 responsibility:1 two:16 sister:1 attend:2 high:4 evidence:1 ever:1 graduate:1 meryle:6 secrest:6 university:12 chicago:27 press:13 admit:1 special:1 student:1 phi:3 delta:2 theta:2 fraternity:1 list:8 famous:4 access:2 may:3 take:8 class:2 part:5 semester:1 professor:2 civil:1 engineering:1 allan:1 conover:1 without:1 degree:2 grant:7 honorary:4 doctorate:1 fine:1 art:27 still:5 rebuild:2 architectural:7 firm:5 joseph:4 lyman:1 silsbee:3 within:1 adler:1 sullivan:9 apprentice:2 louis:7 catherine:5 lee:1 kitty:6 tobin:3 purchase:2 land:7 eventually:1 follow:3 adjacent:2 residence:18 marriage:5 daughter:9 wealthy:1 businessman:1 raise:1 social:3 status:1 become:6 begin:6 assign:1 residential:4 discover:2 accept:1 private:4 commission:11 felt:2 betray:1 favored:1 employee:2 behind:3 back:3 constantly:1 need:3 fund:1 support:3 supplement:1 meager:1 income:1 refer:1 bootleg:1 locate:6 near:5 avenue:2 establish:1 practice:6 remarkable:1 collection:9 creative:2 son:8 john:11 write:4 eugene:2 drummond:2 francis:3 barry:2 byrne:2 walter:3 burley:2 griffin:4 albert:3 chase:1 mcarthur:2 marion:3 mahony:3 isabel:2 robert:8 george:2 willis:1 draftsman:2 five:2 men:2 woman:4 wear:3 flow:2 tie:1 smock:1 suitable:1 realm:1 hair:2 like:2 papa:3 except:1 enough:2 worship:1 one:24 valuable:1 contribution:1 pioneering:1 modern:5 get:2 full:1 glory:1 headache:1 recognition:3 today:5 page:2 darwin:6 martin:11 buffalo:12 call:8 consider:5 complement:2 around:1 feature:8 extend:1 low:5 shallow:1 slop:1 roof:3 clean:1 sky:1 line:2 suppress:1 chimney:1 overhang:1 terrace:8 use:17 unfinished:1 material:5 credit:3 open:7 plan:19 manipulation:1 space:6 public:7 hallmark:1 style:8 unity:8 temple:5 universalist:1 lifelong:1 offer:1 service:3 burn:3 community:12 agree:3 hire:2 believe:1 humanity:1 central:3 hillside:1 friendship:1 executive:2 larkin:5 soap:1 company:4 decide:1 administration:4 come:3 sketch:1 demolish:4 ny:6 r:6 heath:1 v:1 davidson:1 f:3 barton:1 brother:1 law:2 complex:2 graycliff:7 estate:3 derby:1 summer:3 springfield:4 ohio:6 sometime:1 embody:1 reflect:1 passion:1 japanese:11 culture:1 trait:1 characteristic:1 traditional:3 represent:2 important:2 evolution:1 extensive:2 foot:1 pergola:1 cap:1 intricate:2 wooden:1 trellis:1 connect:1 detached:1 carriage:1 garage:1 main:1 exactly:1 several:8 month:2 trip:1 japan:6 study:2 execute:1 publish:6 distinguish:1 ernst:2 wasmuth:7 germany:1 volume:2 contain:4 lithograph:1 commonly:1 portfolio:5 masterpiece:2 late:5 period:3 frederick:3 avery:1 queene:1 coonley:1 riverside:1 soaring:1 cantilever:3 long:3 channel:1 steel:3 dramatic:1 living:4 din:1 area:7 virtually:4 uninterrupted:1 profound:1 european:3 world:6 war:1 sometimes:1 cornerstone:1 modernism:1 however:4 publication:2 trouble:2 local:3 gossip:1 notice:1 flirtation:1 reputation:1 man:3 six:1 brood:1 require:3 attention:1 edwin:4 cheney:12 neighbor:1 immediately:1 liking:1 mamah:9 borthwick:2 outside:1 feminist:1 view:8 intellectual:1 equal:2 fell:1 even:4 though:5 almost:2 see:3 ride:1 automobile:1 sure:1 attachment:1 fade:1 others:2 refuse:2 neither:1 elope:1 spouse:1 scandal:1 erupt:1 destroy:10 ability:1 scholar:3 argue:2 everything:1 particularly:2 standpoint:1 single:1 commercial:3 frustrate:1 draw:2 chance:2 alfred:1 knopf:3 allow:7 deepen:1 relationship:4 separately:1 berlin:1 edition:3 major:4 exposure:1 remain:2 fiesole:1 italy:1 husband:2 persuade:1 hold:3 recur:1 theme:2 side:4 mythology:1 poet:1 magician:1 super:1 hero:2 motto:2 gwir:1 yn:1 erbyn:1 byd:1 mean:3 truth:2 iolo:1 morgannwg:1 interestingly:1 cry:1 druid:1 chief:1 bard:1 eisteddfod:1 country:2 turmoil:2 midway:3 garden:7 julian:1 carlton:1 servant:2 earlier:2 quarter:5 seven:3 people:2 axe:1 dead:1 martha:1 gardener:2 workman:2 survive:3 mayhem:1 put:1 completely:2 consume:1 wing:1 wait:3 partner:2 maude:2 miriam:4 noel:4 die:3 wed:1 november:3 addiction:1 morphine:1 lead:4 failure:1 less:3 separation:1 olga:3 olgivanna:8 lazovich:2 hinzenburg:2 petrograd:1 ballet:1 performance:1 together:2 pregnant:1 iovanna:3 december:1 associate:3 arthur:1 pieper:1 another:2 appear:2 faulty:1 electrical:1 system:2 iii:1 ex:1 vlademar:1 seek:3 custody:1 svetlana:2 minnetonka:1 minnesota:2 accuse:2 violate:1 mann:1 act:1 arrest:1 october:1 charge:1 drop:1 run:5 pennsylvania:6 meeting:3 wi:2 turbulent:1 precursor:1 construct:4 isabelle:3 bluff:1 overlook:1 lake:9 erie:2 south:3 ground:3 incorporates:1 balcony:2 ribbon:1 window:7 transparent:1 screen:2 light:6 fill:2 limestone:2 beach:1 warm:2 ochre:1 color:2 stucco:1 striking:1 red:2 incorporate:1 water:2 echo:1 beyond:2 pond:2 fountain:1 sink:1 stone:3 wall:4 waterfall:2 pattern:4 surround:2 property:3 solstice:1 aligns:1 sun:4 intend:2 mr:4 edgar:2 j:6 kaufmann:4 sr:2 pittsburgh:1 accord:1 desire:2 place:1 occupant:1 close:3 natural:3 surroundings:1 stream:1 construction:5 series:5 cantilevered:1 vertical:1 concrete:4 horizontal:2 cost:4 fee:1 engineer:1 sound:1 overrule:1 contractor:1 secretly:1 add:2 extra:1 silman:1 examine:1 restore:1 structure:5 detailed:1 structural:1 analysis:1 march:4 post:1 tensioning:1 highly:1 practical:1 client:5 base:6 simple:2 elegant:1 geometry:2 similar:2 elementary:1 responsible:1 extremely:1 suburban:8 development:7 unite:1 term:1 broadacre:4 propose:3 idea:3 disappear:1 unveil:1 square:2 model:3 future:1 show:2 venue:1 following:3 go:2 death:9 solomon:2 guggenheim:5 countless:1 developer:1 date:1 slab:1 grade:1 simplify:1 technique:1 mechanization:2 least:1 efficiency:1 occupy:1 history:3 probably:1 rise:1 beige:1 spiral:2 site:9 fifth:2 inside:1 seashell:1 unique:3 visitor:1 easily:1 experience:1 nonobjective:1 geometric:3 painting:1 elevator:1 top:4 level:4 artwork:1 walk:3 slowly:1 descending:1 ramp:1 floor:3 embed:1 circular:1 shape:3 triangular:1 fixture:2 nature:4 unfortunately:1 number:3 detail:3 ignore:1 paint:1 white:1 furthermore:1 currently:5 curve:1 walkway:1 rather:1 price:7 tower:8 bartlesville:3 oklahoma:4 realize:2 skyscraper:1 story:2 exist:1 vertically:1 orient:1 c:9 johnson:7 wax:4 research:5 racine:2 harold:2 h:1 oil:1 pipeline:1 chemical:1 february:3 designate:2 national:5 historic:5 landmark:2 department:1 built:2 catalog:2 allin:3 storrer:3 third:3 four:3 lose:1 force:2 waterfront:1 w:2 l:2 fuller:1 pas:1 christian:2 mississippi:2 hurricane:2 camille:1 bungalow:2 james:1 charnley:1 ocean:1 katrina:1 arinobu:1 fukuhara:1 hakone:1 kantō:2 earthquake:3 ennis:5 california:4 damage:1 rain:1 induce:1 january:1 wynant:1 gary:1 indiana:5 preservation:3 online:1 news:1 archive:3 gut:1 rare:1 flw:2 imperial:4 tokyo:3 addition:1 intentionally:1 respectively:2 apartment:3 francisco:1 geneva:2 inn:1 banff:1 pavilion:1 alberta:1 canada:1 due:3 urban:3 developmental:1 pressure:1 berstein:1 fred:1 nagoya:2 east:1 look:3 west:5 monona:3 municipal:1 variation:1 final:1 exterior:2 alter:1 purpose:2 convention:3 carry:1 tony:2 puttnam:1 accompany:1 controversy:1 throughout:2 completion:1 web:1 fruition:1 emerald:2 bay:2 tahoe:3 iconic:1 treasure:1 los:6 angeles:6 hollyhock:3 aline:3 barnsdall:3 hollywood:4 shop:1 anderton:1 court:1 beverly:1 hill:7 process:3 textile:2 precast:2 squarish:1 surface:1 alice:1 millard:1 pasadena:1 storer:2 samuel:1 freeman:2 griffith:1 past:1 decade:2 exotic:1 nearby:1 shoot:1 location:4 tv:1 movie:2 maker:1 playhouse:1 little:1 dipper:1 supervised:1 renovation:1 sturgis:1 brentwood:1 arch:1 oboler:1 gatehouse:1 malibu:2 suburb:1 tour:3 certain:1 occur:2 street:2 bed:1 breakfast:1 beside:1 beauty:1 stunning:1 suite:1 florida:4 southern:2 college:2 lakeland:2 gordon:1 last:4 oregon:1 sign:1 shortly:1 possibly:1 completed:1 realise:3 republic:1 ireland:1 devotee:1 marc:1 coleman:3 closely:1 deal:2 e:9 thomas:4 casey:2 surviving:1 train:1 select:6 unbuilt:3 gilbert:1 wieland:3 maryland:1 usa:2 subsequently:1 problem:1 shelve:1 fit:2 end:3 choose:1 largely:2 topography:1 identical:1 right:1 wicklow:2 fourth:1 attract:1 broad:1 international:1 interested:1 planning:4 career:6 theory:1 continue:3 scale:3 wrightscapes:4 landscape:5 charles:6 berdeana:4 aguar:4 mcgraw:4 thought:1 start:1 lady:1 journal:2 showcase:1 moderate:2 submit:1 quadruple:4 subdivision:1 layout:3 stray:1 lot:2 size:1 road:1 toward:1 maximize:1 yard:1 far:2 interesting:1 eliminate:1 straight:1 row:1 parallel:2 boring:1 front:1 push:1 ambitious:1 entire:1 entry:1 club:1 competition:2 contest:1 section:2 expand:1 placement:1 upscale:1 desirable:1 blue:1 collar:1 common:1 amenity:1 market:1 etc:1 undo:2 quarterly:2 vol:3 oct:2 decentralization:2 reinforce:1 theoretical:2 philosophy:3 must:1 away:1 decentralize:2 america:6 facility:1 coexist:1 factory:1 ladies:1 il:2 bitter:1 root:1 bitterroot:1 valley:1 mt:1 suntop:1 housing:3 alternative:1 cloverleaf:1 federal:1 agency:1 division:1 defense:1 multifamily:1 usonia:2 pleasantville:1 active:1 dealer:5 primarily:1 ukiyo:1 woodblock:1 print:12 frequently:3 cotter:1 holland:1 sell:5 travel:1 hundred:1 organize:1 retrospective:1 hiroshige:1 presence:1 prominent:3 collector:2 spaulding:1 boston:1 metropolitan:2 pen:1 rival:1 spread:1 rumor:1 retouched:1 combine:1 tendency:1 live:5 factor:1 genuine:1 replacement:2 retouch:1 mark:2 point:2 pay:2 outstanding:1 debt:1 bank:1 thousand:1 dollar:1 piece:2 edward:1 burr:1 van:5 vleck:1 collect:1 collateral:1 loan:1 rely:1 upon:1 business:1 solvent:1 reif:1 rita:1 bill:1 extent:1 dealing:1 unknown:1 underestimated:1 among:1 historian:2 julia:1 meech:1 curator:2 inch:1 deep:1 clump:1 card:1 seller:1 letter:1 exchange:1 eastern:1 sigisbert:1 bosch:1 reitz:1 discovery:1 subsequent:1 renew:1 understanding:2 legacy:1 portrait:1 al:1 ravenna:1 telegram:1 staff:1 photographer:1 fellowship:3 scottsdale:4 arizona:4 learn:1 wish:1 cremate:1 relocate:1 body:1 lie:1 nearly:1 cemetery:2 next:1 chapel:3 confuse:1 vastly:1 draughtsman:1 memorial:2 finish:2 prepare:1 remains:3 yet:2 prepared:1 send:1 storage:1 unidentified:1 amount:2 inter:1 throw:1 gravestone:1 grave:1 empty:1 evolve:1 naturally:1 context:1 importantly:1 wooded:1 region:1 heavy:2 wood:2 desert:1 ramble:1 rocky:1 mainly:1 cinder:1 creation:2 concern:1 relatively:1 modest:1 conceive:1 every:1 external:2 internal:2 carpet:2 door:1 table:1 chair:1 fitting:5 decorative:1 supply:1 custom:4 function:1 integrated:1 whole:2 redesign:1 restoration:1 coordinate:1 plant:2 repeat:1 brick:2 zinc:1 cames:1 instead:1 leadlight:1 famously:2 pyrex:1 tubing:1 headquarters:2 install:1 electric:2 lamp:1 novel:3 spherical:1 lampshade:1 previously:1 possible:1 restriction:1 gas:1 progress:1 industry:1 fully:1 embraced:1 interaction:1 viewing:1 outdoors:1 protect:1 essay:1 compare:1 mirror:1 river:3 us:1 string:1 pane:1 along:2 attempt:1 solid:2 utilize:1 achieve:1 balance:1 lightness:1 airiness:1 hard:1 arguably:1 yield:1 ornate:1 integral:1 ornamentation:1 carla:3 lind:3 pomegranate:4 artbooks:1 archetype:1 respond:1 transformation:1 domestic:1 century:2 absent:1 household:1 progressively:1 workspace:1 kitchen:1 keep:1 track:1 available:3 guest:2 dining:1 room:1 mies:2 der:2 rohe:2 trace:1 clothing:1 fashion:1 sense:1 usually:1 expensive:1 suit:1 necktie:1 cape:1 drive:1 yellow:1 raceabout:1 cord:1 convertible:1 customized:1 earn:1 speed:1 ticket:1 colleague:1 rarely:1 lieber:1 meister:1 dear:1 master:3 favorite:1 composer:2 ludwig:2 beethoven:1 routinely:1 rest:1 merely:1 follower:1 imitator:1 subordinate:1 magic:1 collaborative:1 day:3 populate:1 talented:1 bergen:1 rudolf:1 schindler:2 friend:1 richard:2 neutra:1 briefly:1 internationally:1 successful:1 artist:2 lautner:1 fay:1 henry:1 klumb:1 paolo:1 soleri:1 santiago:1 martinez:1 delgado:1 actor:1 anthony:1 quinn:1 apply:1 suggest:1 voice:1 overcome:1 speech:1 impediment:1 bruce:4 goff:1 maintain:1 correspondence:3 u:1 postage:1 stamp:1 receive:4 achievement:1 gold:1 medal:1 award:1 royal:1 british:1 riba:1 aia:2 alma:1 mater:1 nation:1 board:1 academy:2 unscientific:1 ten:1 poll:1 annual:1 eero:1 saarinen:1 pei:1 kahn:1 phillip:1 opera:2 premier:1 shin:1 brow:1 daron:1 hagen:1 librettist:1 paul:2 muldoon:1 event:1 since:1 numerous:1 revival:1 song:3 aspect:1 debut:1 milwaukee:1 repertory:1 theater:1 google:2 homepage:1 display:1 doodle:1 celebrate:1 birthday:1 rent:2 perhaps:1 way:1 tech:1 mensvogue:1 com:1 overnight:1 simply:1 want:1 albeit:1 night:1 penfield:2 haynes:1 bernard:2 schwartz:2 muirhead:2 farmhouse:2 duncan:2 seth:1 peterson:1 cottage:4 adopt:1 peter:2 http:1 www:1 taliesinpreservation:1 org:1 faq:1 htm:1 socialite:1 worker:1 married:2 ivanovna:1 milanoff:1 dancer:1 novelist:1 tc:1 boyle:1 mistress:1 jr:1 grandson:2 eric:1 mostly:1 civic:2 invent:1 log:1 extensively:1 san:2 diego:1 elizabeth:1 ingraham:1 colorado:1 christine:1 connecticut:2 pratt:1 oscar:1 win:1 actress:1 anne:2 baxter:3 granddaughter:1 melissa:1 galt:1 atlanta:1 natof:1 woodworker:1 specialize:1 photograph:3 archival:1 ryerson:1 burnham:1 library:1 herbert:2 katherine:1 jacob:2 record:4 drawing:2 document:3 file:1 michigan:2 consist:1 photocopy:1 wrightiana:1 bulk:1 variety:1 printed:1 bagley:2 burton:2 campus:1 panorama:1 prow:1 ship:1 herman:2 winslow:1 forest:1 ward:1 winfield:1 willits:1 stable:1 highland:1 dana:1 entrance:1 hall:1 reconstruct:1 meiji:1 mura:1 wingspread:1 wind:1 shorewood:1 mossberg:1 bend:1 key:1 rochester:1 hampshire:1 samara:1 lafayette:1 willoughby:1 sander:1 stamford:1 kentuck:1 knob:1 ohiopyle:1 mile:1 annunciation:1 greek:1 orthodox:1 wauwatosa:1 marin:1 gattaca:1 thx:1 rafael:1 ca:1 donald:4 acme:1 gammage:1 auditorium:1 tempe:1 cultural:1 vandamm:1 hitchcock:1 film:1 north:1 northwest:1 consciously:1 simon:3 garfunkel:4 album:1 bridge:1 troubled:1 longtime:1 fan:1 say:1 farewell:1 musical:1 stand:1 daily:1 aztec:1 tempo:1 christy:1 castellanos:1 howard:1 roark:1 ayn:1 rand:1 fountainhead:1 widely:1 hoppen:1 age:1 leslie:1 versus:1 version:1 dan:1 simmons:1 hyperion:1 canto:1 bock:1 roman:1 jaroslav:1 polivka:1 conservancy:2 district:1 reference:1 cite:1 isbn:31 primer:1 principle:1 mccarter:2 princeton:2 sergeant:1 watson:1 guptill:1 glance:1 communication:1 cause:1 collected:1 writing:1 rizzoli:2 horizon:1 reflection:1 earl:1 nisbet:1 meridian:1 speaks:1 ed:3 patrick:1 meehan:1 wiley:2 hoffman:1 dover:1 alvin:1 possession:1 earth:1 doubleday:1 mask:1 brendan:1 gill:1 putnam:1 ada:1 louise:1 huxtable:1 lipper:1 viking:1 twombly:1 vaccaro:1 kultur:1 unterm:1 schirm:1 untold:1 roger:1 friedland:1 zellman:1 regan:1 loving:1 nancy:1 horan:1 random:1 inc:2 survey:2 workarchitecture:1 neil:1 levine:1 update:1 phaidon:1 london:1 hardback:1 paperback:1 kathryn:1 smith:1 abbeville:2 group:1 companion:1 rev:1 masterworks:1 brook:3 pfeiffer:3 democracy:1 taschen:2 meaning:1 hildebrand:1 washington:1 field:1 guide:1 heinz:1 gössel:1 editor:1 monograph:1 unrealized:1 specific:1 projectsfallingwater:1 rising:1 extraordinary:1 franklin:1 toker:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 historical:1 youtube:1 trust:1 heritage:1 tourism:1 pb:1 documentary:1 ken:1 resource:1 audio:1 interview:1 filler:1 review:1 |@bigram frank_lloyd:86 lloyd_wright:96 robie_house:8 usonian_home:5 friedrich_wilhelm:1 johann_sebastian:1 sebastian_bach:1 divorce_finalize:2 duell_sloan:2 sloan_pearce:2 biography_meryle:6 wisconsin_madison:1 phi_delta:2 delta_theta:2 honorary_doctorate:1 felt_betray:1 unitarian_universalist:1 buffalo_ny:5 mamah_cheney:5 alfred_knopf:1 recur_theme:1 madison_wi:1 lake_erie:2 summer_solstice:1 madison_wisconsin:3 guggenheim_museum:4 slab_grade:1 racine_wisconsin:2 historic_landmark:2 hurricane_katrina:1 great_kantō:2 kantō_earthquake:2 chicago_illinois:3 exterior_interior:1 come_fruition:1 lake_tahoe:2 los_angeles:6 beverly_hill:1 precast_concrete:2 bed_breakfast:1 county_wicklow:1 mcgraw_hill:4 ukiyo_e:1 woodblock_print:1 retrospective_exhibition:1 van_vleck:1 scottsdale_arizona:3 pane_glass:1 dining_room:1 mies_van:2 van_der:2 der_rohe:2 ludwig_van:1 van_beethoven:1 santiago_martinez:1 martinez_delgado:1 anthony_quinn:1 speech_impediment:1 postage_stamp:1 lifetime_achievement:1 gold_medal:1 alma_mater:1 eero_saarinen:1 ludwig_mies:1 http_www:1 malibu_california:1 san_diego:1 j_bagley:1 springfield_illinois:1 nagoya_japan:1 lafayette_indiana:1 stamford_connecticut:1 marin_county:1 tempe_arizona:1 simon_garfunkel:2 ayn_rand:1 dan_simmons:1 hyperion_canto:1 dover_publication:1 untold_story:1 abbeville_press:1 external_link:1 |
3,415 | Bolivia | {{Infobox Country |native_name = Estado Plurinacional de BoliviaBulibya RepublikaWuliwya Suyu(and 34 other official names) |conventional_long_name = Plurinational State of Bolivia |common_name = Bolivia |image_flag = Flag of Bolivia.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Bolivia.svg |image_map = South_America_location_BOL.png |national_motto = "¡La unión es la fuerza!""Unity is strength!"</small> |national_anthem = Bolivianos, el hado propicio |capital = Bolivia, officially Plurinational State of Bolivia ( Decreto supremo Nº 0048 del 18 de marzo de 2009 , ), is a landlocked country in central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay and Argentina to the south, and Chile and Peru to the west. Prior to European colonization, the Bolivian territory was a part of the Incan Empire, which was the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the administration of the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of Spain's South American colonies. After declaring independence in 1809, 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on August 6, 1825. Bolivia has struggled through periods of political instability, dictatorships and economic woes. Bolivia is a democratic republic, divided into 9 departments. Its geography is varied from the peaks of the Andes in the west, to the eastern lowlands, situated within the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country, with a medium Human Development Index score, and a poverty level around 60%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, and fishing, mining and manufacturing goods such as textiles, clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. The Bolivian population, estimated at 9 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Asians and Africans. The main language spoken is Spanish, although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common. The large number of different cultures within Bolivia has contributed greatly to a wide diversity in fields such as art, cuisine, literature and music. History Tiwanaku at its largest territorial extent, AD 950 The region that is now known as Bolivia has been constantly occupied for over 2000 years, when the Aymara arrived in the region, eventually settling in Western Bolivia, Southern Peru and Northern Chile. The Aymara associate themselves with an advanced civilization situated at Tiwanaku, in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates as early as 1500 BC as a small agriculturally-based village. Fagan, Brian M. 'The Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World: Unlocking the Secrets of Past Civilizations'. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2001. The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes. According to early estimates, at its maximum extent, the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometers, and had between 15,000 - 30,000 inhabitants. Kolata, Alan L. 'The Tiwankau: Portrait of an Andean Civilization'. Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, 1993. p. 145 However, satellite imaging was used recently to map the extent of fossilized suka kollus across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people. Kolata, Alan L. Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the Aymara. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, 1996. Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. However, Tiwanaku was not a violent culture in many aspects. In order to expand its reach Tiwanaku became very political creating colonies, trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependant), and state cults. McAndrews, Timothy L. et al. 'Regional Settlement Patterns in the Tiwanaku Valley of Bolivia'. Journal of Field Archaeology 24 (1997): 67-83. The empire continued to grow with no end in sight. William H. Isbell states that "Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population." Isbell, William H. 'Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon'. 731-751. Tiwanaku continued to absorb cultures rather than eradicate them. Archaeologists have seen a dramatic adoption of Tiwanaku ceramics in the cultures who became part of the Tiwanaku empire. Tiwanaku gained its power through the trade it implemented between all of the cities within its empire. McAndrews, Timothy L. et al. 'Regional Settlement Patterns in the Tiwanaku Valley of Bolivia'. Journal of Field Archaeology 24 (1997): 67-83. The elites gained their status by the surplus of food they gained from all of the regions and then by having the ability to redistribute the food among all the people. This is where the control of llama herds became very significant to Tiwanaku. The llama herds were essential for carrying goods back and forth between the center and the periphery as well as symbolizing the distance between the commoners and the elites. Their power continued to grow in this manner of a surplus of resources until about AD 950. At this time a dramatic shift in climate occurred. Kolata, Alan L. 'The Tiwankau: Portrait of an Andean Civilization'. Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, 1993. At this point in time there was a significant drop in precipitation for the Titicaca Basin. Some archaeologists even venture to say that a great drought occurred. As the rain became less and less many of the cities further away from Lake Titicaca began to produce less crops to give to the elites. As the surplus of food ran out for the elites their power began to fall. The capital city became the last place of production, due to the resiliency of the raised fields, but in the end even the intelligent design of the fields was no match for the weather. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000 because food production, their main source of power, dried up. The land was not inhabited for many years after that. Inca expansion (1438–1527) Between 1438 and 1527, the Incan empire, on a mass expansion, acquired much of what is now western Bolivia. The Incans wouldn't maintain control of the region for long however, as the rapidly expanding Inca Empire was internally weak. As such, the Spanish conquest would be remarkably easy. Colonial period The Spanish conquest began in 1524 and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was then known as "Upper Peru" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern Sucre). By the late 16th century Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish empire. MSN Encarta, Conquest in the Americas. A steady stream of natives served as labor force (the Spanish employed the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita). Bolivia - Ethnic Groups Upper Peru was bounded to Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew. Independence and subsequent wars The struggle for independence started in 1809, and after 16 years of war the republic was proclaimed on August 6, 1825, named for Simón Bolívar. In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andres de Santa Cruz, invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, General Luis Orbegoso. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. Following tension between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on December 28, 1836. Argentina, Chile's ally, declared war on the Confederation on May 9, 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the Argentinian expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa. On the same field the Paucarpata Treaty was signed with the unconditional surrender of the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army. The treaty stipulated that Chile withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. Public outrage over the treaty forced the government to reject it. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat, Santa Cruz fled to Ecuador, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved. Following the independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustín Gamarra invaded Bolivia. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Ingaví on November 20, 1841, where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian army under General José Ballivián then mounted a counter-offensive managing to capture the Peruvian port of Arica. Later, both sides signed a peace treaty in 1842 putting a final end to the war. Economic instability and continued wars A period of political and economic instability in the early to mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. Then in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) against Chile, it lost its access to the sea and the adjoining rich Salitre ("Chile Saltpeter") fields, together with the port of Antofagasta. Since its independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries in wars. It also lost the state of Acre (known for its production of rubber) when Brazil persuaded the state of Acre to secede from Bolivia in 1903. In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability. During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first thirty years of the 20th century. Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population, remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access to education, economic opportunity, and political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–35) marked a turning-point. (PDF), University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Geography Nationalist Revolutionary Movement The llama is one of the icons of the Bolivian altiplano. The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR, having strong popular pressure, introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines. Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño, a former member of the junta elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder and the rising Popular Assembly, the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as president in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but human rights violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in 1978, and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil. Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups d'état, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo," or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]." Ireland.com - Astroturfing all the way to No 1 He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human-rights-abuses, narcotics-trafficking, and economic mismanagement; during his presidency, the inflation that later crippled the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for various crimes, including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year sentence in 1995. After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, Hernán Siles Zuazo again became president, 22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60). Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state oil corporation, telecommunications system, airlines, railroads, and electric utilities, in return for agreed upon capital investments. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996. The de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca, and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca that was being processed into cocaine. During this time, the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers. The state also used selective martial law to keep the disruptions caused by the teachers to a minimum. The teachers were led by Trotskyites, and were considered to be the most militant union in the COB. Their downfall was a major blow to the COB, which also became mired in internal corruption and infighting in 1996. In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer, leader of the Nationalist Democratic Action party (ADN) and former dictator (1971-1978), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. General Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties, which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president, and he was inaugurated on August 6, 1997. During the election-campaign, Banzer had promised to suspend the privatization of the state-owned oil-company, YPFB. But this seemed unlikely to happen, considering Bolivia's weak position globally. The Banzer government basically continued the free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for export-commodities, and reduced employment in the coca-sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public-sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic four-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca-crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. Those left unemployed by coca-eradication streamed into the cities, especially El Alto, the slum-neighborhood of La Paz. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan). On August 6, 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez completed the final year of his term. In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%. Morales edged out populist candidate Manfred Reyes Villa of the New Republican Force (NFR) by just 700 votes nationwide, earning a spot in the congressional run-off against Sánchez de Lozada on August 4, 2002. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on August 6 he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion. In 2003 the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On October 12, 2003 the government imposed martial law in El Alto after sixteen people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes which erupted when a caravan of oil trucks escorted by police and soldiers deploying tanks and heavy-caliber machine guns tried to breach a barricade. On 17 October, 2003 Evo Morales' supporters from Cochabamba tried to march into Santa Cruz, the largest city of the eastern lowlands where support was strong for the president. They were turned back. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed, Sanchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted and his vice president, Carlos Mesa, invested, he left on a commercially scheduled flight for the United States. In March 2004, the new president Carlos Mesa he announced that his government would hold a series of rallies around the country, and at its embassies abroad, demanding that Chile return to Bolivia a stretch of seacoast that the country lost in 1884 after the end of the War of the Pacific. Chile has traditionally refused to negotiate on the issue, but Mesa nonetheless made this policy a central point of his administration. However, the country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On March 22, 2005, after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered his resignation to Congress, which was accepted on June 10. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, Eduardo Rodríguez, was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing Carlos Mesa. The Morales Era The 2005 Bolivian presidential election was held on December 18, 2005. The two main candidates were Juan Evo Morales Ayma of the MASParty and Jorge Quiroga, leader of the Democratic and Social Power (PODEMOS) Party and former head of the Acción Democrática Nacionalista (ADN) Party. Morales won the election with 53.7% of the votes, an absolute majority, unusual in Bolivian elections. He was sworn in on January 22, 2006, for a five-year term. Prior to his official inauguration in La Paz, he was inaugurated in an Aymara ritual at the archeological site of Tiwanaku before a crowd of thousands of Aymara people and representatives of leftist movements from across Latin America. Though highly symbolic, this ritual was not historically based and primarily represented native Aymaras — not the main Quechua-speaking population. Since the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century, this region of South America, with a majority native population, has been ruled mostly by descendants of European immigrants, with only a few mestizo (mixed European and indigenous) rulers. Morales, an Aymara, has stated that the 500 years of colonialism are now over and that the era of autonomy has begun. Current President Evo Morales On May 1, 2006, Morales announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets. While stating that the initiative would not be an expropriation, Morales sent Bolivian troops to occupy 56 gas installations simultaneously. Troops were also sent to the two Petrobras-owned refineries in Bolivia, which provide over 90% of Bolivia's refining-capacity. A deadline of 180 days was announced, by which all foreign energy firms were required to sign new contracts giving Bolivia majority ownership and as much as 82% of revenues (the latter for the largest natural gas fields). All such firms signed contracts. Reports from the Bolivian government and the companies involved are contradictory as to plans for future investment. By far the biggest customer for Bolivian hydrocarbons has been Brazil, which imports two-thirds of Bolivia's natural gas via pipelines operated by the semi-private Petrobras. Since gas can only be exported from landlocked Bolivia via Petrobras' large (and expensive) pipelines, the supplier and customer are strongly linked. Petrobras has announced plans to produce enough natural gas by 2011 to replace that now supplied by Bolivia. Bolivia's position is strengthened by the knowledge that hydrocarbon reserves are more highly valued now than at the times of previous nationalizations, and by the pledged support of President Hugo Chávez of Venezuela. Fulfilling a campaign promise, Morales opened on August 6, 2006, the Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority. BBC News - Push for new Bolivia constitution Problems immediately arose when, unable to garner the two-thirds votes needed to include controversial provisions in the constitutional draft, Morales' party announced that only a simple majority would be needed to draft individual articles while two-thirds needed to pass the document in full. Violent protests arose in December 2006 in parts of the country for both two-thirds and departmental autonomy, mostly in the eastern third of the country, where much of the hydrocarbon wealth is located. Conservative sectors in this region threaten to secede from the nation if their demands are not met. MAS and its supports believed two-thirds voting rules would give an effective veto for all constitutional changes to the conservative minority. In August 2007, more conflicts arose in Sucre, as the city demanded the discussion of the seat of government inside the assembly, hoping the executive and legislative branch could return to the city, but assembly and the government said this demand was overwhelmingly impractical and politically undesirable. The conflict turned into violence, and the assembly was moved to a military area in Oruro. Although the main opposition party boycotted the session, a constitutional draft was approved on November 24. Subsequent riots, started by opposition mercenary groups, left three dead. Geography Map of Bolivia from the CIA World Factbook At 1,098,580 km² (424,135 mi²), Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html. Bolivia has been a landlocked nation since 1879, when it lost its coastal department of Litoral to Chile in the War of the Pacific. However, it does have access to the Atlantic via the Paraguay River. Many ecological zones are represented within Bolivia's territory. The western highlands of the country are situated in the Andes Mountains and include the Bolivian Altiplano. The eastern lowlands include large sections of Amazonian rainforests and Chaco. The highest peak is Nevado Sajama at 6,542 metres (21,463 ft) located in the department of Oruro. Lake Titicaca is located on the border between Bolivia and Peru. The Salar de Uyuni, the world's largest salt flat, lies in the southwest corner of the country, in the department of Potosí. Major cities are La Paz, El Alto, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Cochabamba. Departments and provinces Map of the departments of Bolivia Bolivia is divided into nine departments (departamentos); capitals in parentheses: Beni (Trinidad) Chuquisaca (Sucre) Cochabamba (Cochabamba) La Paz (La Paz) Oruro (Oruro) Pando (Cobija) Potosí (Potosí) Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz de la Sierra) Tarija (Tarija) Additionally, the departments are further divided into 100 provinces (provincias), and the provinces are each divided into municipalities (municipios) and cantons (cantones), which handle local affairs. Economy Bolivia has the lowest GDP per capita in South America. However, the country is rich in natural resources. Bolivia's 2002 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled USD $7.9 billion. Economic growth is about 2.5% per year, and inflation was expected to be between 3% and 4% in 2002 (it was under 2% in 2001). Bolivia’s current lackluster economic situation can be linked to several factors from the past three decades. The first major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a dramatic fall in the price of tin during the early 1980s, which impacted one of Bolivia’s main sources of income and one of its major mining-industries. The second major economic blow came at the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s as economic aid was withdrawn by western countries who had previously tried to keep a market-liberal regime in power through financial support. Since 1985, the government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs service in recent years has significantly improved transparency in this area. Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market-liberal policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies enjoys virtually no restrictions in Bolivia. The Central Bank of Bolivia Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America. Anti-Morales protests hit Bolivia The government has a long-term sales-agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The government expects to hold a binding referendum in 2004 on plans to export natural gas. In April 2000, Bechtel signed a contract with Hugo Banzer, the former President of Bolivia, to privatize the water supply in Bolivia's third-largest city, Cochabamba. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in protests and rioting among those who could no longer afford clean water. Drawing water from community wells or gathering rainwater was made illegal. Jennifer Hattam, ""Who Owns Water?" Sierra, Sept 2001, v.86, iss.5, p.16. PBS Frontline/World "Leasing the Rain", Video, June 2002 Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract. Bolivian exports were $1.3 billion in 2002, from a low of $652 million in 1991. Imports were $1.7 billion in 2002. Bolivian tariffs are a uniformly low 10%, with capital equipment charged only 5%. Bolivia's trade-deficit was $460 million in 2002. Salt mounds in Salar de Uyuni. Each mound is about a meter high. Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing, in part because of several regional preferential trade agreements it has negotiated. Bolivia is a member of the Andean Community and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries. The United States remains Bolivia's largest trading partner. In 2002, the United States exported $283 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $162 million. Camino a Samaipata Santa Cruz Bolivia Agriculture accounts for roughly 15% of Bolivia's GDP. Soybeans are the major cash crop, sold into the Andean Community market. Bolivia's government remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign creditors, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development banks. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the Paris Club mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises in recent years have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. The rescheduling of agreements granted by the Paris Club has allowed the individual creditor countries to apply very soft terms to the rescheduled debt. As a result, some countries have forgiven substantial amounts of Bolivia's bilateral debt. The U.S. government reached an agreement at the Paris Club meeting in December 1995 that reduced by 67% Bolivia's existing debt stock. The Bolivian government continues to pay its debts to the multilateral development banks on time. Bolivia is a beneficiary of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and Enhanced HIPC debt relief programs, which by agreement restricts Bolivia's access to new soft loans. Demographics People in La Paz city centre Cristo de la Concordia in Cochabamba. Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 30% Quechua-speaking and 25% Aymara-speaking Amerindians. The largest of the approximately three dozen native groups are the Quechuas (2.5 million), Aymaras (2 million), then Chiquitano (180,000), and Guaraní (125,000). So the full Amerindian population is at 55%; the remaining 30% is Mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European), and around 15% are Whites. Bolivian people The white population consists mostly of criollos, which in turn consist of families of relatively unmixed Spanish ancestry, descended from the early Spanish colonists. These have formed much of the aristocracy since independence. Other smaller groups within the white population are Germans who founded the national airline Lloyd Aereo Boliviano, as well as Italian, American, Basque, Croatian, Russian, Polish and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations. Miners at work in Potosí The Afro-Bolivian community numbers more than 0.5% of the population, descended from African slaves that were transported to work in Brazil and then migrated westward into Bolivia. They are mostly concentrated in the Yungas region (Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas provinces) in the department of La Paz. There are also Japanese who are concentrated mostly in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Middle Easterners who became prosperous in commerce. Bolivia is one of the least developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about ten per square kilometer (twenty-five per sq. mi) in the central highlands. As of 2006, the population is increasing about 1.45% per year. Religion Aymara woman praying The great majority of Bolivians are Roman Catholic, although Protestant denominations are expanding rapidly. According to a 2001 survey conducted by the National Statistical Institute, 78% of the population is Roman Catholic, 16% is Protestant and 3% follow other religions of Christian origin. Bolivia religion Islam practiced by the descendants of Middle Easterners is almost nonexistent. There is also a small Jewish community that is almost all Ashkenazi in origin. The state has no official religion. There are colonies of Mennonites in the Santa Cruz Department. Many Native communities interweave pre-Columbian and Christian symbols in their worship. About 80% of the people speak Spanish as their first language, although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary-school but often for a year or less. The literacy rate is low in many rural areas, but, according to the CIA, the literacy rate is 87% nationwide, a rate similar to Brazil's but below the South American average. Politics Santa Cruz de la Sierra The 1967 constitution, amended in 1994, provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive branch tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes. Bolivia's nine departments received greater autonomy under the Administrative Decentralization law of 1995. Departmental autonomy further increased with the first popular elections for departmental governors (prefectos) on 18 December 2005, after long protests by pro-autonomy leader department of Santa Cruz. Bolivian cities and towns are governed by directly elected mayors and councils. Municipal elections were held on 5 December 2004, with councils elected to five year terms. The Popular Participation Law of April 1994, which distributes a significant portion of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make striking improvements in their facilities and services. The departments of Tarija, Beni, Pando and Santa Cruz are sometimes known as the "half moon" because of the crescent shape of the departments when looked at together in the east of the country. They also have in common conservative politics and rich fossil fuel deposits. Legislative branch The government building of the National Congress of Bolivia at the Plaza Murillo in central La Paz Bolivia's government is a republic. The Congreso Nacional (National Congress) has two chambers. The Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) has 130 members elected to five year terms, seventy from single-member districts (circunscripciones) and sixty by proportional representation. The Cámara de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) has twenty-seven members (three per department), elected to five year terms. Bolivia has had a total of 193 coups d'état from independence until 1981, thereby averaging a change of government once every ten months. Credit for the past quarter century of relative political stability is largely attributed to President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, who ceded power peacefully after cutting hyperinflation which reached as high as 14,000 percent. Bolivia: National History. Retrieved August 4, 2007. Military A SK-105, the main battle tank of the Bolivian army. The Bolivian military comprises three branches: an Army, Navy and Air Force. The legal age for voluntary admissions is 18; however, when the numbers are small the government recruits anyone as young as 14. CIA -The World Factbook - Bolivia It is estimated that 20% of the Bolivian army is between the ages 14 and 16 while another 20% is from 16 to 18. The tour of duty is generally 12 months. The Bolivian government annually spends $130 million on defense. Culture Festival time in Sucre Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the Quechua, the Aymara, as well as by the popular cultures of Latin America as a whole. The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: precolumbian, colonial, and republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, Samaipata, Incallajta, and Iskanawaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration. Carnaval de Oruro 2007 The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local native and mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture, painting, and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of native baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994. Bolivian artists of stature in the twentieth century include Guzmán de Rojas, Arturo Borda, María Luisa Pacheco, Roberto Mamani Mamani, Alejandro Mario Yllanes, and Marina Núñez del Prado. Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco. The best known of the various festivals found in the country is the "Carnaval de Oruro", which was among the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity," as proclaimed by the UNESCO in May 2001. Entertainment includes football, which is the national sport, as well as table football, which is played on street corners by both children and adults. See also References Further reading Brusco, Elizabeth 1995 Reformation of Machismo: Evangelical Conversion and Gender in Colombia. Austin: University of Texas Press. Batalla, Guiellermo Bonfil 1996 México Profundo: Reclaiming a Civilization. Austin: University of Texas Press. Burdick, John 1993 Looking for God in Brazil: The Progressive Catholic Church in Urban Brazil’s Religious Arena. Berkeley: University of California Press. Corten, André 1999 Pentecostalism in Brazil: Emotion of the Poor and Theological Romanticism. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Gill, Lesley 1990 “Like a Veil to Cover Them”: Women and the Pentecostal Movement in La Paz. American Ethnologist 17(4): 708-721. Gill, Lesley 2000 Teetering on the Rim: Global Restructuring, Daily Life, and the Armed Retreat of the Bolivian State. New York: Columbia University Press. Guillermoprieto, Alma: "Bolivia's new order" National Geographic Magazine July 2008 Kray, Christine A.2002 The Pentecostal Re-Formation of Self: Opting for Orthodoxy in Yucatan. Ethos. 29(4):395-429. Martin, David.1990 Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of Protestantism in Latin America. Oxford: Blackwell. Morales, Waltraud Queiser 1992 Bolivia: Land of Struggle. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Stoll, David 1990 Is Latin America Turning Protestant? The Politics of Evangelical Growth. Berkeley: University of California Press. Weber, Max 1930 [1984] The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Trans. Talcott Preston. London:Counterpoint. External links CIA World Factbook: Bolivia BBC News: Country Profile - Bolivia World Health Organization: Bolivia Lonely Planet: Introducing Bolivia U.S. State Department: Bolivia World Trade Organization: Bolivia World Atlas: Map of Bolivia The Carter Center: Bolivia Embassy World: Maps of Bolivia The New York Times: Bolivia News The Washington Post: Bolivia Country Guide Languages of Bolivia Bolivian Information Forum Bolivia Web Interactive Explore Bolivia Bolivia Rising The Che Trail in Bolivia be-x-old:Балівія | Bolivia |@lemmatized infobox:1 country:27 estado:1 plurinacional:1 de:27 boliviabulibya:1 republikawuliwya:1 suyu:1 official:3 name:3 plurinational:2 state:20 bolivia:105 flag:1 svg:2 coat:1 arm:1 png:1 la:19 unión:1 e:1 fuerza:1 unity:1 strength:1 small:6 boliviano:2 el:4 hado:1 propicio:1 capital:6 officially:1 decreto:1 supremo:1 nº:1 del:2 marzo:1 landlocked:3 central:7 south:9 america:12 border:2 brazil:11 north:1 east:2 paraguay:3 argentina:3 chile:14 peru:13 west:2 prior:2 european:5 colonization:1 bolivian:38 territory:5 part:4 incan:3 empire:8 large:15 pre:4 columbian:4 spanish:13 conquer:1 region:11 century:9 colonial:6 period:8 call:5 upper:3 charcas:2 administration:2 viceroyalty:2 include:11 spain:1 american:4 colony:3 declare:3 independence:7 year:25 war:15 follow:6 establishment:1 republic:4 simón:2 bolívar:2 august:9 struggle:4 political:10 instability:3 dictatorship:1 economic:19 woe:1 democratic:3 divide:6 department:17 geography:3 vary:1 peak:2 andes:3 eastern:4 lowland:1 situate:3 within:5 amazon:1 basin:2 developing:1 medium:1 human:3 development:5 index:1 score:1 poverty:2 level:1 around:5 main:8 activity:2 agriculture:2 forestry:1 fishing:1 mining:2 manufacture:1 good:3 textile:1 clothing:1 refine:3 metal:1 petroleum:1 population:13 estimate:5 million:8 multiethnic:1 amerindian:4 asian:1 african:2 language:5 speak:2 although:4 aymara:11 quechua:6 also:12 common:3 number:3 different:1 culture:11 contribute:3 greatly:2 wide:2 diversity:1 field:9 art:2 cuisine:1 literature:1 music:3 history:2 tiwanaku:19 territorial:1 extent:3 ad:7 know:5 constantly:1 occupy:2 arrive:2 eventually:1 settle:1 western:5 southern:2 northern:1 associate:1 advanced:1 civilization:5 city:15 date:1 early:8 bc:1 agriculturally:1 base:3 village:1 fagan:1 brian:1 seventy:2 great:5 mystery:1 ancient:1 world:16 unlock:1 secret:1 past:3 new:14 york:4 thames:1 hudson:1 community:8 grow:9 urban:2 proportion:1 become:12 important:6 regional:6 power:11 accord:3 maximum:1 cover:2 approximately:3 square:3 kilometer:3 inhabitant:1 kolata:3 alan:3 l:5 tiwankau:2 portrait:2 andean:5 blackwell:3 publisher:2 cambridge:2 p:2 however:7 satellite:1 imaging:1 use:4 recently:1 map:5 fossilized:1 suka:1 kollus:1 across:2 three:9 primary:2 valley:4 carry:4 capacity:2 anywhere:1 people:10 spirit:2 journey:1 lost:1 realm:1 john:2 wiley:1 son:1 hoboken:1 go:1 locally:1 dominant:1 force:11 predatory:1 expand:4 reach:7 yungas:4 bring:3 way:2 life:2 many:10 violent:5 aspect:1 order:2 create:2 trade:7 agreement:7 make:4 rather:2 dependant:1 cult:1 mcandrews:2 timothy:2 et:2 al:2 settlement:2 pattern:2 journal:2 archaeology:2 continue:6 end:8 sight:1 william:2 h:2 isbell:2 tiahuanaco:1 underwent:1 dramatic:6 transformation:1 establish:1 monumental:1 standard:1 civic:1 architecture:2 increase:5 resident:1 wari:1 international:2 identity:1 middle:3 horizon:1 absorb:1 eradicate:2 archaeologist:2 see:3 adoption:1 ceramic:2 gain:3 implement:2 elite:5 status:2 surplus:3 food:4 ability:1 redistribute:1 among:3 control:4 llama:3 herd:2 significant:4 essential:1 back:2 forth:1 center:2 periphery:1 well:5 symbolize:1 distance:1 commoner:1 manner:1 resource:2 time:8 shift:1 climate:1 occur:2 point:4 drop:1 precipitation:1 titicaca:3 even:2 venture:1 say:2 drought:1 rain:2 less:7 far:6 away:1 lake:2 begin:6 produce:5 crop:3 give:4 run:3 fall:2 last:1 place:4 production:3 due:1 resiliency:1 raise:1 intelligent:1 design:1 match:1 weather:1 disappear:1 source:4 dry:1 land:3 inhabit:1 inca:2 expansion:2 mass:1 acquire:2 much:4 maintain:2 long:4 rapidly:2 internally:1 weak:3 conquest:4 would:7 remarkably:1 easy:1 mostly:6 complete:2 authority:2 viceroy:1 lima:1 local:3 government:35 come:3 audiencia:1 locate:4 chuquisaca:2 plata:2 modern:1 sucre:4 late:3 silver:4 revenue:3 msn:1 encarta:1 steady:1 stream:2 native:9 serve:2 labor:2 employ:1 draft:4 system:3 mita:1 ethnic:2 group:4 bound:1 río:1 royal:1 weaken:2 napoleonic:1 sentiment:1 rule:6 subsequent:3 start:2 proclaim:2 marshal:2 andres:1 santa:13 cruz:13 invade:2 reinstall:1 deposed:1 president:21 general:7 luis:2 orbegoso:1 form:3 confederation:7 supreme:3 protector:1 tension:1 december:6 ally:1 may:3 peruvian:7 achieve:2 several:7 major:9 victory:2 defeat:7 argentinian:1 expedition:2 first:8 chilean:2 paucarpata:2 near:1 arequipa:1 treaty:4 sign:5 unconditional:1 surrender:1 rebel:1 army:6 stipulate:1 withdraw:3 return:4 capture:2 confederate:1 ship:1 relation:1 normalize:1 pay:2 debt:6 public:5 outrage:1 reject:1 organize:1 second:5 attack:1 battle:3 yungay:1 flee:1 ecuador:1 dissolve:1 agustín:1 gamarra:2 decisively:1 ingaví:1 november:2 kill:1 josé:1 ballivián:1 mount:1 counter:2 offensive:1 managing:1 port:2 arica:1 later:5 side:1 peace:1 put:1 final:2 continued:1 mid:3 pacific:3 lose:5 access:4 sea:1 adjoining:1 rich:5 salitre:1 saltpeter:1 together:2 antofagasta:1 since:9 half:3 neighbor:1 acre:2 rubber:1 persuade:1 secede:2 price:4 relative:2 prosperity:1 stability:3 tin:3 replace:3 wealth:2 succession:2 social:5 laissez:1 faire:1 capitalist:1 policy:10 thirty:1 live:3 condition:3 constitute:1 remain:7 deplorable:1 work:4 opportunity:2 limit:2 primitive:1 mine:2 estate:1 nearly:1 feudal:1 education:2 participation:2 chaco:2 mark:2 turn:5 pdf:1 university:6 wisconsin:1 madison:1 nationalist:3 revolutionary:2 movement:5 one:8 icon:1 altiplano:2 mnr:10 emerge:1 broadly:1 party:7 deny:1 presidential:2 election:13 lead:4 successful:1 revolution:1 víctor:2 paz:14 estenssoro:3 strong:3 popular:7 pressure:1 introduce:1 universal:1 suffrage:1 platform:2 sweeping:1 reform:8 promote:1 rural:2 nationalization:2 twelve:1 tumultuous:1 leave:4 military:9 junta:2 overthrow:1 outset:2 third:11 term:11 death:1 rené:1 barrientos:1 ortuño:1 former:6 member:9 elect:7 alarm:1 disorder:1 rise:2 assembly:5 others:2 instal:1 colonel:1 hugo:4 banzer:13 suárez:1 support:10 impatient:1 schism:1 coalition:3 civilian:1 armed:2 suspended:1 economy:7 impressively:1 presidency:2 right:3 violation:1 eventual:1 fiscal:2 crisis:3 undercut:2 enter:1 turmoil:1 garcía:3 meza:4 siles:2 zuazo:2 inconclusive:1 fraud:1 coup:4 état:3 caretaker:1 tejada:1 ruthless:1 pacify:1 promise:3 stag:1 televise:1 rally:2 claim:1 announce:6 bueno:1 quedo:1 stay:1 office:4 ireland:1 com:1 astroturfing:1 depose:1 shortly:2 thereafter:2 notorious:1 abuse:1 narcotic:1 trafficking:1 mismanagement:1 inflation:2 cripple:1 could:4 already:1 felt:1 convict:1 absentia:1 various:2 crime:1 murder:1 extradite:1 sentence:1 rebellion:1 month:3 problem:2 unrest:2 convoke:1 congress:9 allow:2 choose:1 chief:2 executive:5 october:3 hernán:1 sánchez:5 lozada:7 liberalize:1 pursue:2 aggressive:1 agenda:1 capitalization:1 program:4 investor:2 typically:1 foreign:6 ownership:3 management:1 enterprise:1 oil:3 corporation:1 telecommunication:2 airline:2 railroad:1 electric:1 utility:1 agree:1 upon:1 investment:3 restructuring:2 strongly:2 oppose:1 certain:1 segment:1 society:1 instigate:1 frequent:1 sometimes:2 protest:8 particularly:1 chapare:3 coca:10 offer:4 monetary:2 compensation:1 voluntary:2 eradication:2 illegal:4 grower:1 little:2 net:1 reduction:1 account:2 process:2 cocaine:2 umbrella:1 organization:4 obrera:1 boliviana:1 cob:4 increasingly:1 unable:2 effectively:1 challenge:1 teacher:3 strike:1 construction:1 factory:1 worker:1 selective:1 martial:2 law:5 keep:2 disruption:1 cause:1 minimum:1 trotskyite:1 consider:2 militant:1 union:1 downfall:1 blow:3 mire:1 internal:2 corruption:4 infighting:1 leader:4 action:3 adn:3 dictator:1 win:3 vote:5 candidate:3 mir:3 ucs:1 condepa:1 hold:5 majority:7 seat:2 inaugurate:2 campaign:2 suspend:1 privatization:2 company:4 ypfb:1 seem:1 unlikely:1 happen:1 position:2 globally:1 basically:1 free:2 market:4 predecessor:1 relatively:3 robust:1 growth:5 global:2 domestic:2 factor:3 decline:2 financial:2 low:6 export:5 commodity:1 reduced:1 employment:1 sector:4 depress:1 perceive:1 amount:3 launch:1 special:1 police:3 unit:1 physically:1 sudden:1 four:1 supplier:2 unemployed:1 especially:2 alto:3 slum:1 neighborhood:1 jaime:2 zamora:2 partner:2 throughout:1 dignity:1 plan:4 resign:3 diagnose:1 cancer:1 die:1 vice:2 jorge:2 fernando:1 quiroga:2 ramírez:1 june:3 national:11 gonzalo:1 advocate:1 peasant:1 evo:4 morale:14 toward:1 socialism:1 edge:1 populist:1 manfred:1 reyes:1 villa:1 republican:2 nfr:1 nationwide:3 earn:1 spot:1 congressional:2 july:2 fourth:1 virtually:2 ensure:1 swear:3 feature:1 overarch:1 objective:1 reactivation:1 job:1 creation:1 anti:2 inclusion:1 gas:10 conflict:3 break:1 impose:1 sixteen:1 shoot:1 dozen:2 wound:1 clash:1 erupt:1 caravan:1 truck:1 escort:1 soldier:1 deploy:1 tank:2 heavy:1 caliber:1 machine:1 gun:1 try:3 breach:1 barricade:1 supporter:1 cochabamba:6 march:3 lowlands:2 face:1 option:1 bloodshed:1 sanchez:1 resignation:3 letter:1 emergency:1 session:2 accept:2 carlos:4 mesa:7 invest:1 commercially:1 schedule:1 flight:1 united:3 series:1 embassy:2 abroad:1 demand:4 stretch:1 seacoast:1 traditionally:2 refuse:2 negotiate:2 issue:1 nonetheless:1 situation:2 unfavorable:1 stage:1 resurgence:1 attempt:1 january:2 week:1 street:2 accuse:1 bow:1 u:3 corporate:1 interest:1 justice:1 court:3 eduardo:1 rodríguez:1 interim:1 succeed:1 outgo:1 era:2 two:9 juan:1 ayma:1 masparty:1 podemos:1 head:1 acción:1 democrática:1 nacionalista:1 absolute:1 unusual:1 five:5 inauguration:1 ritual:2 archeological:1 site:2 crowd:1 thousand:1 representative:1 leftist:1 latin:4 though:2 highly:2 symbolic:1 historically:1 primarily:1 represent:2 aymaras:2 speaking:3 descendant:2 immigrant:1 mestizo:4 mixed:2 indigenous:2 ruler:1 colonialism:1 autonomy:5 current:2 intent:1 nationalize:1 hydrocarbon:5 asset:1 initiative:1 expropriation:1 send:2 troop:2 installation:1 simultaneously:1 petrobras:4 refinery:1 provide:2 deadline:1 day:1 energy:1 firm:2 require:1 contract:4 latter:1 natural:7 report:1 involve:1 contradictory:1 future:1 big:1 customer:2 import:3 via:3 pipeline:2 operate:1 semi:1 private:2 expensive:1 link:3 enough:1 supply:2 strengthen:1 knowledge:1 reserve:2 value:1 previous:1 pledged:1 chávez:1 venezuela:1 fulfil:1 open:1 constituent:1 write:1 constitution:4 aim:2 bbc:2 news:3 push:1 immediately:1 arise:3 garner:1 need:3 controversial:1 provision:1 constitutional:3 simple:1 individual:2 article:1 pass:1 document:1 full:2 departmental:4 conservative:3 threaten:1 nation:2 meet:1 believe:1 voting:1 effective:1 veto:1 change:2 minority:2 discussion:1 inside:1 hop:1 legislative:4 branch:4 overwhelmingly:1 impractical:1 politically:1 undesirable:1 violence:1 move:1 area:3 oruro:7 opposition:2 boycott:1 approve:2 riot:1 mercenary:1 dead:1 cia:6 factbook:5 retrieve:2 http:1 www:1 gov:1 library:1 publication:1 rankorder:1 html:1 coastal:1 litoral:1 atlantic:1 river:1 ecological:1 zone:1 highland:2 mountain:1 section:1 amazonian:1 rainforest:1 high:3 nevado:1 sajama:1 metre:1 ft:1 salar:2 uyuni:2 salt:2 flat:1 lie:1 southwest:1 corner:2 potosí:4 sierra:5 province:4 nine:2 departamentos:1 parenthesis:1 beni:2 trinidad:1 pando:2 cobija:1 tarija:3 additionally:1 provincias:1 municipality:2 municipios:1 canton:1 cantones:1 handle:1 affair:1 gdp:3 per:7 caput:1 gross:1 product:1 total:2 usd:1 billion:5 expect:2 lackluster:1 decade:1 impact:1 income:1 industry:1 cold:1 aid:1 previously:2 liberal:2 regime:1 macroeconomic:1 stabilization:1 structural:1 sustained:1 alleviate:1 scarcity:1 custom:1 service:2 recent:3 significantly:1 improve:1 transparency:1 parallel:1 lock:1 encourage:1 accorded:1 treatment:1 enjoy:2 restriction:1 bank:3 hit:1 sale:1 sell:2 binding:1 referendum:1 april:2 bechtel:1 privatize:1 water:6 triple:1 rate:4 result:2 rioting:1 longer:1 afford:1 clean:1 draw:1 gather:1 rainwater:1 jennifer:1 hattam:1 sept:1 v:1 pbs:1 frontline:1 lease:1 video:1 amidst:1 collapse:1 tariff:1 uniformly:1 equipment:1 charge:1 deficit:1 mound:2 meter:1 neighboring:1 preferential:1 nominally:1 trading:1 merchandise:1 camino:1 samaipata:2 roughly:1 soybean:1 cash:1 heavily:3 dependent:1 assistance:1 finance:1 project:1 owe:3 creditor:3 balance:1 multilateral:2 payment:1 reschedule:1 occasion:1 paris:3 club:3 mechanism:1 external:2 willing:1 generally:3 target:1 set:1 imf:1 normally:1 record:1 rescheduling:1 grant:1 apply:1 soft:2 rescheduled:1 forgive:1 substantial:1 bilateral:1 meeting:1 reduce:1 exist:1 stock:1 beneficiary:1 indebted:1 poor:2 hipc:2 enhance:1 relief:1 restricts:1 loan:1 demographic:1 centre:1 cristo:1 concordia:1 distribution:1 chiquitano:1 guaraní:1 white:3 consist:3 criollo:1 family:2 unmixed:1 ancestry:1 descend:3 colonist:1 aristocracy:1 german:1 found:1 lloyd:1 aereo:1 italian:1 basque:1 croatian:1 russian:1 polish:1 whose:2 generation:1 miner:1 afro:1 slave:1 transport:1 migrate:1 westward:1 concentrate:2 sud:1 japanese:1 easterner:2 prosperous:1 commerce:1 least:1 developed:1 almost:3 subsistence:1 farmer:1 density:1 range:1 person:1 southeastern:1 plain:1 ten:2 twenty:2 sq:1 mi:1 religion:4 woman:2 pray:1 roman:2 catholic:3 protestant:4 denomination:1 survey:1 conduct:1 statistical:1 institute:1 christian:2 origin:2 islam:1 practice:1 nonexistent:1 jewish:1 ashkenazi:1 mennonite:1 interweave:1 symbol:1 worship:1 child:2 attend:1 school:1 often:1 literacy:2 similar:1 average:2 politics:3 amend:1 balanced:1 judicial:2 tend:1 overshadow:1 role:1 debate:1 legislation:1 initiate:2 judiciary:1 riddle:1 inefficiency:1 revision:1 potentially:1 receive:1 administrative:1 decentralization:1 governor:1 prefectos:1 pro:1 town:1 govern:1 directly:1 mayor:1 council:2 municipal:1 distribute:1 portion:1 discretionary:1 enable:1 neglect:1 striking:1 improvement:1 facility:1 moon:1 crescent:1 shape:1 look:2 fossil:1 fuel:1 deposit:1 building:1 plaza:1 murillo:1 congreso:1 nacional:1 chamber:3 cámara:2 diputados:1 deputy:1 single:1 district:1 circunscripciones:1 sixty:1 proportional:1 representation:1 senadores:1 senator:1 seven:1 thereby:1 every:1 credit:1 quarter:1 largely:1 attribute:1 cede:1 peacefully:1 cut:1 hyperinflation:1 percent:1 sk:1 comprises:1 navy:1 air:1 legal:1 age:2 admission:1 recruit:1 anyone:1 young:1 another:1 tour:1 duty:1 annually:1 spend:1 defense:1 festival:2 influence:1 whole:1 cultural:1 distinct:1 precolumbian:1 archaeological:2 ruin:2 gold:1 ornament:1 stone:1 monument:1 weaving:1 incallajta:1 iskanawaya:1 abound:1 difficult:1 exploration:1 carnaval:2 tradition:1 religious:3 hand:1 builder:1 artisan:1 develop:1 distinctive:2 style:1 painting:2 sculpture:1 baroque:2 pérez:1 holguín:1 flores:1 bitti:1 skilled:1 unknown:1 stonecutter:1 woodcarver:1 goldsmith:1 silversmith:1 body:1 recover:1 perform:1 internationally:1 acclaim:1 artist:1 stature:1 twentieth:1 guzmán:1 rojas:1 arturo:1 borda:1 maría:1 luisa:1 pacheco:1 roberto:1 mamani:2 alejandro:1 mario:1 yllanes:1 marina:1 núñez:1 prado:1 folklore:1 folk:1 varied:1 devil:1 dance:1 annual:1 carnival:2 folkloric:1 event:1 known:2 tarabuco:1 best:1 find:1 masterpiece:1 oral:1 intangible:1 heritage:1 humanity:1 unesco:1 entertainment:1 football:2 sport:1 table:1 play:1 adult:1 reference:1 reading:1 brusco:1 elizabeth:1 reformation:1 machismo:1 evangelical:2 conversion:1 gender:1 colombia:1 austin:2 texas:2 press:7 batalla:1 guiellermo:1 bonfil:1 méxico:1 profundo:1 reclaim:1 burdick:1 god:1 progressive:1 church:1 arena:1 berkeley:2 california:2 corten:1 andré:1 pentecostalism:1 emotion:1 theological:1 romanticism:1 st:1 martin:2 gill:2 lesley:2 like:1 veil:1 pentecostal:2 ethnologist:1 teeter:1 rim:1 daily:1 retreat:1 columbia:1 guillermoprieto:1 alma:1 geographic:1 magazine:1 kray:1 christine:1 formation:1 self:1 opting:1 orthodoxy:1 yucatan:1 ethos:1 david:2 tongue:1 fire:1 explosion:1 protestantism:1 oxford:1 waltraud:1 queiser:1 boulder:1 co:1 westview:1 stoll:1 weber:1 max:1 ethic:1 capitalism:1 trans:1 talcott:1 preston:1 london:1 counterpoint:1 profile:1 health:1 lonely:1 planet:1 introducing:1 atlas:1 carter:1 washington:1 post:1 guide:1 information:1 forum:1 web:1 interactive:1 explore:1 che:1 trail:1 x:1 old:1 балівія:1 |@bigram bolivia_bolivia:5 svg_coat:1 coat_arm:1 la_fuerza:1 pre_columbian:4 viceroyalty_peru:1 simón_bolívar:2 amazon_basin:1 agriculture_forestry:1 forestry_fishing:1 textile_clothing:1 thames_hudson:1 square_kilometer:3 blackwell_publisher:2 wiley_son:1 peru_bolivia:3 bolivia_chile:1 et_al:2 lake_titicaca:2 intelligent_design:1 la_plata:2 msn_encarta:1 steady_stream:1 santa_cruz:13 unconditional_surrender:1 decisively_defeat:1 laissez_faire:1 wisconsin_madison:1 presidential_election:2 universal_suffrage:1 hugo_banzer:3 coup_état:3 shortly_thereafter:2 convict_absentia:1 de_lozada:7 la_paz:10 monetary_compensation:1 export_commodity:1 vice_president:2 evo_morale:4 supreme_court:2 mestizo_mixed:2 hugo_chávez:1 chávez_venezuela:1 constituent_assembly:1 bbc_news:2 legislative_branch:2 http_www:1 cia_gov:1 factbook_rankorder:1 rankorder_html:1 andes_mountain:1 metre_ft:1 bolivia_peru:1 province_provincias:1 municipality_municipios:1 per_caput:1 gross_domestic:1 usd_billion:1 macroeconomic_stabilization:1 pbs_frontline:1 trading_partner:1 cash_crop:1 monetary_fiscal:1 heavily_indebted:1 indebted_poor:1 mixed_amerindian:1 migrate_westward:1 middle_easterner:2 subsistence_farmer:1 sq_mi:1 protestant_denomination:1 fossil_fuel:1 paz_bolivia:1 congreso_nacional:1 cámara_de:2 chamber_deputy:1 proportional_representation:1 quechua_aymara:1 gold_silver:1 twentieth_century:1 del_prado:1 oxford_blackwell:1 westview_press:1 external_link:1 lonely_planet:1 |
3,416 | Black_and_Tans | The term Black and Tans () refers to the Royal Irish Constabulary Reserve Force (Fórsa Chúltaca Constáblachta Ríoga na hÉireann), which was one of two paramilitary forces employed by the Royal Irish Constabulary from 1920 to 1921, to suppress revolution in Ireland. Although it was established to target the Irish Republican Army, it became notorious through its numerous attacks on the Irish civilian population. However, Black and Tans is very often used to refer to both the RIC Reserve Force and the other RIC force raised for the Irish War of Independence, the RIC Auxiliary Division. p120 Improving the law Enforcement-Intelligence Community Relationship Foundation The late 19th and early 20th centuries in Ireland were dominated by the Irish pursuit of Home Rule or independence from the United Kingdom. Home Rule — limited self government — was passed by the British parliament in 1914, but postponed because of the outbreak of the First World War. Some Irish republicans saw Home Rule as being too limited a form of independence. After the Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916 when armed Irish nationalists staged a rebellion against British rule of Ireland, Irish nationalism was greatly radicalised and after public outrage at the execution of the rising's leaders and the threatened imposition of conscription on Ireland for the First World War, it was channelled into the revolutionary Sinn Féin movement. Sinn Féin won 73 out of 105 seats in Ireland at the 1918 general election, and in January 1919 the First Dáil declared an independent Irish Republic. In the same month, the Irish Volunteers, or Irish Republican Army, began the guerrilla campaign known as Irish War of Independence, which in 1919 consisted of attacks on the Royal Irish Constabulary. These attacks escalated during 1919 and in September the British administration outlawed the Dáil. Starting work on its next Home Rule Act, it had to plan for a growing loss of morale in the RIC with an interim solution until the Act was ready. In January 1920, the British government started advertising in British cities for men willing to "face a rough and dangerous task", helping to boost the ranks of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) in policing an increasingly anti-British Ireland. There was no shortage of recruits, many of them First World War army veterans, and by November 1921 about 9,500 men had joined. This sudden influx of men led to a shortage of RIC uniforms, and the new recruits were issued with khaki army uniforms (usually only trousers) and dark green RIC or blue British police surplus tunics, caps and belts. This mixture gave rise to their nickname, the Black and Tans (in Irish, na Dúchrónaigh), from the name of a famous pack of foxhounds from Limerick, the Scarteen Black and Tans, whose colours were and are similar. The name stuck even after the men received full RIC uniforms. The new recruits received three months' hurried training, and were rapidly posted to RIC barracks, mostly in Dublin, Munster and eastern Connacht. The first men arrived on 25 March 1920. The government also raised another unit, the Auxiliary Division of the constabulary, known as the Auxiliaries or Auxies. This group was made up of ex-army officers. The Black and Tans acted with the Auxiliaries in the government's attempts to break the IRA. Conduct in Ireland Members of the Black and Tans were paid the relatively good wage of 10 shillings a day plus full board and lodging. With minimal police training, their main role was to strengthen the military might of police posts, where they functioned as sentries, guards, escorts for government agents, reinforcement to the regular police, and crowd control, and mounted a determined counter-insurgency campaign. The Black and Tans and the Auxies became known as Tudor's Toughs after the police commander, Major-General Sir Henry Hugh Tudor. They were viewed by Republicans as an army of occupation because of these duties. They soon gained a reputation for brutality Royal Irish Constabulary Reserve Force "a byword for brutality" - The Guardian, October 12 1921 , as the RIC campaign against the IRA and Sinn Féin members was stepped up and police reprisals for IRA attacks were condoned by the government. Constable Alexander Will RIC Record , from Forfar in Scotland, was the first Black and Tan to die in the conflict, during an IRA attack on the RIC barracks in Rathmore, County Kerry, on 11 July 1920. The Black and Tans were not subject to strict discipline in their early months in Ireland and as a result, the deaths of Black and Tans at the hands of the IRA in 1920 were often repaid with arbitrary reprisals against the civilian population. In the summer of 1920, the Black and Tans burned and sacked many small towns and villages in Ireland, beginning with Tuam in County Galway in July 1920 and also including Trim, Balbriggan, Thurles and Templemore amongst many others. In November 1920, the Tans "besieged" Tralee in revenge for the IRA abduction and killing of two local RIC men. They closed all the businesses in the town and let no food in for a week. In addition they shot dead three local people. On 14 November, the Tans abducted and murdered a Roman Catholic priest, Fr Michael Griffin, in Galway. His body was found in a bog in Barna a week later. Finally, the Black and Tans sacked Cork city, on the night of 11 December 1920, the centre of which was burned out. In January 1921, the British Labour Commission produced a report on the situation in Ireland which was highly critical of the government's security policy. It said the government, in forming the Black and Tans, had "liberated forces which it is not at present able to dominate". However since 29 December 1920, the British government had sanctioned "official reprisals" in Ireland — usually meaning burning property of IRA men and their suspected sympathisers. Taken together with an increased emphasis on discipline in the RIC, this helped to curb the random atrocities the Black and Tans committed since March 1920 for the remainder of the war, if only because reprisals were now directed from above rather than being the result of a spontaneous desire for revenge. (see also Chronology of the Irish War of Independence). However, many of the atrocities popularly attributed to the Black and Tans were probably committed by the far more brutal Auxiliary Division; some were committed by Irish RIC men. For instance, Tomás Mac Curtain, the mayor of Cork, was assassinated in March 1920 by local RIC men and the massacre of 13 civilians at Croke Park on Bloody Sunday was also carried out by the RIC although a small detachment of Auxiliaries were also present. Moreover, the regular British Army also committed atrocities, burning the towns of Mallow and Fermoy for example. However most Republicans did not make a distinction, and "Black and Tans" was often used as a catch-all term for all police and army groups. The actions of the Black and Tans alienated public opinion in both Ireland and Britain. The violent tactics of the Black and Tans encouraged both sides to move towards a peaceful resolution. Edward Wood MP, a future Foreign Secretary, rejected force and urged the British government to offer the Irish an offer "conceived on the most generous lines". Lord Birkenhead, Halifax (Hamish Hamilton, 1965), p. 122. Sir John Simon MP, another future Foreign Secretary, was also horrified at the tactics being used. Lionel Curtis, writing in the imperialist journal The Round Table, wrote: "If the British Commonwealth can only be preserved by such means, it would become a negation of the principle for which it has stood". Lionel Curtis, The Round Table, Vol. XI, No. 43 (June 1921), p. 505. The King, senior Anglican bishops, MPs from the Liberal and Labour parties, Oswald Mosley, Jan Smuts, the Trades Union Congress and parts of the press were increasingly critical of the actions of the Black and Tans. Mahatma Gandhi said of the British peace offer: "It is not fear of losing more lives that has compelled a reluctant offer from England but it is the shame of any further imposition of agony upon a people that loves liberty above everything else". Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (Abacus, 1998), p. 384. About 7,000 Black and Tans served in Ireland in 1920-22. More than one-third of the Black and Tans died or left the service before they were disbanded along with the rest of the RIC in 1922, an extremely high wastage rate, and well over half received government pensions. A total of 404 members of the Royal Irish Constabulary died in the conflict and more than 600 were wounded but it is not clear how many of these were pre-war RIC men and how many were Black and Tans or Auxiliaries. Those who returned to civilian life sometimes had problems re-integrating. At least two former Black and Tans were hanged for murder in Britain and another wanted for murder committed suicide before the police could arrest him The Black and Tans - Bennet, Richard - 1959, Page 222 . Legacy Due to the ferocity of the Tans' behaviour in Ireland and the atrocities committed, feelings continue to run high regarding their actions. "Black and Tan" or "Tan" remains a pejorative term for British in Ireland, and they are still despised by many in Ireland. One of the most famous Irish Republican songs is Dominic Behan's "Come out Ye Black and Tans." The Irish War of Independence is sometimes referred to as the "Tan War" or "Black-and-Tan War." This term was preferred by those who fought on the Anti-Treaty side in the Irish Civil War. The "Cogadh na Saoirse" medal, which was awarded to IRA Volunteers after 1941, bears a ribbon with two vertical stripes in black and tan. 1919 - 1921 War of Independence Quote References Sources Improving the law Enforcement-Intelligence Community Relationship National Defense Intelligence College Washington, DC June 2007 See also Royal Ulster Constabulary Ulster Special Constabulary Counties of Ireland The Wind That Shakes the Barley (film) External links BBC News Northern Ireland 1917-20 The Road to Partition posted March 18, 1999 "The Black & Tans and Auxiliaries in Ireland, 1920-1921: Their Origins, Roles and Legacy", by John Ainsworth, 2001 Account of the Burning of Abbeydorney, Co. Kerry Chronology of Irish History 1919 - 1923 British Security Policy in Ireland, 1920-1921 Ainsworth, John S. (2001) Australian Journal of Irish Studies, 1. pp. 176-190 | Black_and_Tans |@lemmatized term:4 black:29 tan:34 refers:1 royal:7 irish:26 constabulary:9 reserve:3 force:7 fórsa:1 chúltaca:1 constáblachta:1 ríoga:1 na:3 héireann:1 one:3 two:4 paramilitary:1 employ:1 suppress:1 revolution:1 ireland:20 although:2 establish:1 target:1 republican:6 army:8 become:3 notorious:1 numerous:1 attack:5 civilian:4 population:2 however:4 often:3 use:3 refer:2 ric:19 raise:2 war:13 independence:7 auxiliary:8 division:3 improve:2 law:2 enforcement:2 intelligence:3 community:2 relationship:2 foundation:1 late:1 early:2 century:1 dominate:2 pursuit:1 home:4 rule:5 united:1 kingdom:1 limit:2 self:1 government:11 pass:1 british:16 parliament:1 postpone:1 outbreak:1 first:6 world:3 saw:1 form:2 easter:1 rise:4 dublin:2 arm:1 nationalist:1 stag:1 rebellion:1 nationalism:1 greatly:1 radicalised:1 public:2 outrage:1 execution:1 leader:1 threatened:1 imposition:2 conscription:1 channel:1 revolutionary:1 sinn:3 féin:3 movement:1 win:1 seat:1 general:2 election:1 january:3 dáil:2 declare:1 independent:1 republic:1 month:3 volunteer:2 begin:2 guerrilla:1 campaign:3 know:3 consisted:1 escalate:1 september:1 administration:1 outlaw:1 start:2 work:1 next:1 act:3 plan:1 grow:1 loss:1 morale:1 interim:1 solution:1 ready:1 advertising:1 city:2 men:10 willing:1 face:1 rough:1 dangerous:1 task:1 help:2 boost:1 rank:1 police:9 increasingly:2 anti:2 shortage:2 recruit:3 many:7 veteran:1 november:3 join:1 sudden:1 influx:1 lead:1 uniform:3 new:2 issue:1 khaki:1 usually:2 trouser:1 dark:1 green:1 blue:1 surplus:1 tunic:1 cap:1 belt:1 mixture:1 give:1 nickname:1 dúchrónaigh:1 name:2 famous:2 pack:1 foxhound:1 limerick:1 scarteen:1 whose:1 colour:1 similar:1 stick:1 even:1 receive:2 full:2 three:2 hurried:1 training:1 rapidly:1 post:3 barrack:2 mostly:1 munster:1 eastern:1 connacht:1 arrive:1 march:4 also:8 another:3 unit:1 auxies:2 group:2 make:2 ex:1 officer:1 attempt:1 break:1 ira:8 conduct:1 member:3 pay:1 relatively:1 good:1 wage:1 shilling:1 day:1 plus:1 board:1 lodge:1 minimal:1 train:1 main:1 role:2 strengthen:1 military:1 might:1 function:1 sentry:1 guard:1 escort:1 agent:1 reinforcement:1 regular:2 crowd:1 control:1 mount:1 determined:1 counter:1 insurgency:1 tudor:2 tough:1 commander:1 major:1 sir:2 henry:1 hugh:1 view:1 occupation:1 duty:1 soon:1 gain:1 reputation:1 brutality:2 byword:1 guardian:1 october:1 step:1 reprisal:4 condone:1 constable:1 alexander:1 record:1 forfar:1 scotland:1 die:3 conflict:2 rathmore:1 county:3 kerry:2 july:2 subject:1 strict:1 discipline:2 result:2 death:1 hand:1 repay:1 arbitrary:1 summer:1 burn:4 sack:2 small:2 town:3 village:1 tuam:1 galway:2 include:1 trim:1 balbriggan:1 thurles:1 templemore:1 amongst:1 others:1 besiege:1 tralee:1 revenge:2 abduction:1 killing:1 local:3 close:1 business:1 let:1 food:1 week:2 addition:1 shoot:1 dead:1 people:2 abduct:1 murder:3 roman:1 catholic:1 priest:1 fr:1 michael:1 griffin:1 body:1 find:1 bog:1 barna:1 later:1 finally:1 cork:2 night:1 december:2 centre:1 labour:2 commission:1 produce:1 report:1 situation:1 highly:1 critical:2 security:2 policy:2 say:2 liberate:1 present:2 able:1 since:2 sanction:1 official:1 mean:2 property:1 suspected:1 sympathiser:1 take:1 together:1 increase:1 emphasis:1 curb:1 random:1 atrocities:1 commit:6 remainder:1 direct:1 rather:1 spontaneous:1 desire:1 see:2 chronology:2 atrocity:3 popularly:1 attribute:1 probably:1 far:1 brutal:1 instance:1 tomás:1 mac:1 curtain:1 mayor:1 assassinate:1 massacre:1 croke:1 park:1 bloody:1 sunday:1 carry:1 detachment:1 moreover:1 mallow:1 fermoy:1 example:1 distinction:1 catch:1 action:3 alienate:1 opinion:1 britain:2 violent:1 tactic:2 encourage:1 side:2 move:1 towards:1 peaceful:1 resolution:1 edward:1 wood:1 mp:3 future:2 foreign:2 secretary:2 reject:1 urge:1 offer:4 conceive:1 generous:1 line:1 lord:1 birkenhead:1 halifax:1 hamish:1 hamilton:1 p:3 john:3 simon:1 horrify:1 lionel:2 curtis:2 write:2 imperialist:1 journal:2 round:2 table:2 commonwealth:1 preserve:1 would:1 negation:1 principle:1 stand:1 vol:1 xi:1 june:2 king:1 senior:1 anglican:1 bishop:1 liberal:1 party:1 oswald:1 mosley:1 jan:1 smut:1 trade:1 union:1 congress:1 part:1 press:1 mahatma:1 gandhi:1 peace:1 fear:1 lose:1 life:2 compel:1 reluctant:1 england:1 shame:1 agony:1 upon:1 love:1 liberty:1 everything:1 else:1 lawrence:1 james:1 fall:1 empire:1 abacus:1 serve:1 third:1 leave:1 service:1 disband:1 along:1 rest:1 extremely:1 high:2 wastage:1 rate:1 well:1 half:1 received:1 pension:1 total:1 wound:1 clear:1 pre:1 return:1 sometimes:2 problem:1 integrating:1 least:1 former:1 hang:1 want:1 suicide:1 could:1 arrest:1 bennet:1 richard:1 page:1 legacy:2 due:1 ferocity:1 behaviour:1 feeling:1 continue:1 run:1 regard:1 remain:1 pejorative:1 still:1 despise:1 song:1 dominic:1 behan:1 come:1 ye:1 prefer:1 fight:1 treaty:1 civil:1 cogadh:1 saoirse:1 medal:1 award:1 bear:1 ribbon:1 vertical:1 stripe:1 quote:1 reference:1 source:1 national:1 defense:1 college:1 washington:1 dc:1 ulster:2 special:1 wind:1 shake:1 barley:1 film:1 external:1 link:1 bbc:1 news:1 northern:1 road:1 partition:1 origin:1 ainsworth:2 account:1 burning:1 abbeydorney:1 co:1 history:1 australian:1 study:1 pp:1 |@bigram irish_constabulary:6 na_héireann:1 sinn_féin:3 sudden_influx:1 ric_barrack:2 counter_insurgency:1 ira_sinn:1 croke_park:1 bloody_sunday:1 hamish_hamilton:1 oswald_mosley:1 mahatma_gandhi:1 everything_else:1 commit_suicide:1 atrocity_commit:1 tan_tan:1 vertical_stripe:1 washington_dc:1 ulster_constabulary:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
3,417 | Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons | Participation in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT or NNPT) is a treaty to limit the spread of nuclear weapons, opened for signature on July 1, 1968. There are currently 189 countries party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons: the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and the People's Republic of China (the permanent members of the UN Security Council). Only four recognized sovereign states are not parties to the treaty: India, Israel, Pakistan and North Korea. India, Pakistan and North Korea have openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons. Israel has had a policy of opacity regarding its own nuclear weapons program. North Korea acceded to the treaty, violated it, and later withdrew. The treaty was proposed by Ireland and Finland and they were the first to sign. The signing parties decided by consensus to extend the treaty indefinitely and without conditions upon meeting in New York City on May 11, 1995. The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of "pillars" appears nowhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as having three pillars: non-proliferation, disarmament, and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology. Ambassador Sudjadnan Parnohadiningrat, 26 April 2004, United Nations, New York, Third Session of the Preparatory Committee for the 2005 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, furnished by the Permanent Mission of the Republic of Indonesia to the United Nations (indonesiamission-ny.org) Treaty "pillars" The NPT is commonly described as having three main "pillars": non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful use. See, for example, the Canadian government NPT web site The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. This "pillars" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that "three pillars" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance. This view was expressed by Christopher Ford, the U.S. NPT representative at the end of the Bush Administration. See "The 2010 Review Cycle So Far: A View from the United States of America," presented at Wilton Park, United Kingdom, December 20, 2007. First pillar: non-proliferation Five states are recognized by the NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): France (signed 1992), the People's Republic of China (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by Russia), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968) (The U.S., UK, and Soviet Union were the only states openly possessing such weapons among the original ratifiers of the treaty, which entered into force in 1970). These five nations are also the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer "nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices" and "not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to "receive," "manufacture" or "acquire" nuclear weapons or to "seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS state, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United Kingdom Secretary of State for Defence, Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a non-conventional attack by "rogue states" UK 'prepared to use nuclear weapons' BBC article dated 20 March, 2002 . In January 2006, President Jacques Chirac of France indicated that an incident of state-sponsored terrorism on France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the "rogue state's" power centers. France 'would use nuclear arms', BBC article dated 19 January, 2006 Chirac: Nuclear Response to Terrorism Is Possible, Washington Post article dated 20 January, 2006 Second pillar: disarmament The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, "Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament." NPT background Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them "to negotiate in good faith." U.S. Compliance With Article VI of the NPT On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to the Non-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as being anything but vague. In their view, Article VI constitutes a formal and specific obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation. Some government delegations to the Conference on Disarmament have put forth proposals for a complete and universal disarmament, but no disarmament treaty has emerged from these proposals. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in the post-Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals. Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems See, e.g., Disarmament, the United States, and the NPT, Christopher Ford, U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation, delivered at the Conference on "Preparing for 2010: Getting the Process Right," Annecy, France, March 17, 2007; Nuclear Disarmament Progress and Challenges in the Post-Cold War World, U.S. statement to the Second Session of the Preparatory Committee for the 2010 NPT Review Conference, Geneva (April 30, 2008) —could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007, "logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament’s hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge." U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation Christopher Ford, "Disarmament and Non-Nuclear Stability in Tomorrow's World," remarks to the Conference on Disarmament and Nonproliferation Issues, Nagasaki, Japan (August 31, 2007). Peter Pella (Gettysburg College), a former William Foster Fellow who worked with the Arms Control Disarmament Agency on the NPT, maintained that countries will pursue nuclear disarmament as a goal only if they feel it is in their national interests to do so, and that the permanence of NPT along with other measures will enhance security and speed up the disarmament process. Third pillar: peaceful use of nuclear energy The third pillar allows for and agrees upon the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT signatory countries for the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, as long as they can demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. Since very few of the states with nuclear energy programs are willing to abandon the use of nuclear energy, the third pillar of the NPT under Article IV provides other states with the possibility to do the same, but under conditions intended to make it difficult to develop nuclear weapons. The treaty recognizes the inalienable right of sovereign states to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, but restricts this right for NPT parties to be exercised "in conformity with Articles I and II" (the basic nonproliferation obligations that constitute the "first pillar" of the Treaty). As the commercially popular light water reactor nuclear power station uses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market. Mohamed ElBaradei, Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the "Achilles' heel" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007 13 states have an enrichment capability. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered the principal obstacle to, and "pacing element" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. "ENR") technology. See Remarks by President Bush at the National Defense University (February 11, 2004), available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/02/20040211-4.html (announcing initiative to stop spread of ENR technology). Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a "virtual" nuclear weapons program. The degree to which NPT members have a "right" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the Treaty. Countries that have signed the treaty as Non-Nuclear Weapons States and maintained that status have an unbroken record of not building nuclear weapons. However, Iraq was cited by the IAEA and sanctioned by the UN Security Council for violating its NPT safeguards obligations; North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations, http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/IaeaDprk/dprk.pdf and http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/MediaAdvisory/2003/med-advise_048.shtml and later withdrew from the NPT and tested a nuclear device; Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it "failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time" to report aspects of its enrichment program; and Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. In 1991 Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. Mohamed ElBaradei, Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), has said that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. Key articles Article I: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (PDF) - IAEA Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. Article VI. The states undertake to pursue "negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament", and towards a "Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control". Article X. Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). History The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that the cold war deterrent relationship between just the United States and Soviet Union was fragile. More nuclear players reduced security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accident or unauthorized use, or through the escalation of a small nuclear conflict. The NPT process was launched by Frank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the first State to sign. By 1992 all five then-declared nuclear powers had signed the treaty, and the treaty was renewed in 1995 (and followed by the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996). Several NPT signatories have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, allegedly with the assistance of Israel in the 1970s, and may have conducted a nuclear test in the Atlantic ocean in 1979, but has since renounced its nuclear program and signed the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nuclear arsenal. Several former Soviet Republics destroyed or transferred to Russia the nuclear weapons inherited from the Soviet Union. United States-NATO nuclear weapons sharing At the time the treaty was being negotiated, NATO had in place secret nuclear weapons sharing agreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended "unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling", so there is no breach of the NPT. These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including the Soviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time Otfried Nassauer, Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (ieer.org), Science for Democratic Action Volume 9 Number 3, May 2001, Nuclear Sharing in NATO: Is it Legal? . As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs for use by Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Turkey under these NATO agreements Hans M. Kristensen, National Resources Defence Council (nrdc.org), February 2005, U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe: A Review of Post-Cold War Policy, Force Levels, and War Planning . Many states, and the Non-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its "nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political". NATO (nato.int), NATO's Nuclear Forces in the New Security Environment NATO officials also point out that no nuclear weapons have ever been given over to non-U.S. control by the United States, so therefore there cannot have been a violation of Article I (which prohibits transferring "nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or control over such weapons or explosive devices") or Article II (which bars "receiv[ing] the transfer from any transferor whatsoever of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or of control over such weapons or explosive devices"). It is also worth noting that U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons -- not least by persuading the then West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain "safely" in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route. See, e.g., U.S. Director of Central Intelligence, Likelihood and Consequences of a Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Systems, declassified U.S. National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 4-63 (June 28, 1963), at p.17, paragraph 40. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met. See, e.g., U.S. Director of Central Intelligence, Annex to National Intelligence Estimate No. 100-2-58: Development of Nuclear Capabilities by Fourth Countries: Likelihood and Consequences, declassified U.S. National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 100-2-58 (July 1, 1958), at p.4, paragraphs 18-19; U.S. Director of Central Intelligence, Likelihood and Consequences of the Development of Nuclear Capabilities by Additional Countries, declassified U.S. National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 100-4-60 (September 20, 1960), at p. 2, paragraph 4, & p.8, paragraphs 27-29. ) India, Israel and Pakistan Three states—India, Israel, and Pakistan—have declined to sign the treaty. India and Pakistan are confirmed nuclear powers, and Israel has a long-standing policy of deliberate ambiguity (see List of countries with nuclear weapons). These countries argue that the NPT creates a club of "nuclear haves" and a larger group of "nuclear have-nots" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India and Pakistan have publicly announced possession of nuclear weapons and have detonated nuclear devices in tests, India having first done so in 1974 and Pakistan following suit in 1998 in response to another Indian test. India is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheads. Pakistan reportedly has between 80 and 120 warheads according to the former head of its strategic arms division. Impact of US wargames on Pakistan N-arms ‘negative’ -DAWN - Top Stories; December 03, 2007 India is one of the few countries to have a no first use policy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons. The main reason India cites for not signing the NPT and for possessing nuclear weapons is that China is one of the "nuclear haves." India's External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee said during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: "If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognise the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment." India seeks Japan's support, calls NPT 'flawed' China and India have a longstanding border dispute, including a border war in 1962. According to leaked intelligence, Israel has been developing nuclear weapons at its Dimona site in the Negev since 1958, and many nonproliferation analysts like David Albright estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 to 200 warheads using the plutonium reprocessed from Dimona. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli low level nuclear technician Mordechai Vanunu—later abducted and jailed by Israel—revealed the program to the British Sunday Times in 1986. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized a deal, having critics in both countries, to provide India with US civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them under IAEA safeguards. Mohamed ElBaradei, the Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India "an important partner in the non-proliferation regime." In December 2006, United States Congress approved the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act that was cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in the year. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, India was granted these transactions on the basis of its clean proliferation record, and India's unusually high need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On August 1, 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreement IAEA Board Approves India-Safeguards Agreement and on September 6, 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries, the deal needed to be passed by the US Congress before nuclear trade between India and the United States could begin. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/11/AR2008091103099.html The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and the President signed it on 8 October, 2008. President Bush Signs H.R. 7081, the United States-India Nuclear Cooperation Approval and Nonproliferation Enhancement Act The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan and Israel, with very narrow exceptions, since neither has full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Attempts by Pakistan to reach a similar agreement have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members. The argument put forth is that not only does Pakistan lack the same energy requirements but that the track record of Pakistan as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. BBC (bbc.co.uk), 2 March 2006, US and India seal nuclear accord North Korea North Korea ratified the treaty on December 12, 1985, but gave notice of withdrawal from the treaty on January 10, 2003 following U.S. allegations that it had started an illegal enriched uranium weapons program, and the U.S. subsequently stopping fuel oil shipments under the Agreed Framework Text of Agreed Framework which had resolved plutonium weapons issues in 1994 Korean News Service, Tokyo (kcna.co.jp), 10 January 2003, Statement of DPRK Government on its withdrawal from NPT . The withdrawal became effective April 10, 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation (wagingpeace.org), 10 April 2003, North Korea’s Withdrawal from Nonproliferation Treaty Official North Korea had once before announced withdrawal, on March 12, 1993, but suspended that notice before it came into effect. International Atomic Energy Agency (iaea.org), May 2003, Fact Sheet on DPRK Nuclear Safeguards On February 10, 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks hosted by China to find a diplomatic solution to the issue. "We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK [Democratic People's Republic of Korea]," a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue Korean News Service, Tokyo (kcna.co.jp), February 2005, DPRK FM on Its Stand to Suspend Its Participation in Six-party Talks for Indefinite Period . Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On September 19, 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply of light water reactors to replace North Korea's indigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions Joseph Khan, New York Times (nytimes.com), 19 September 2005, North Korea Says It Will Abandon Nuclear Efforts . On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT Agence France Presse, 2006, N.Korea raises stakes on nuclear deal with reactor demand, furnished by Media Corp News (channelnewsasia.com), 20 September 2005 . On October 2, 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test "in the future", although it did not state when. BBC (news.bbc.co.uk), 3 October 2006, N Korea 'to conduct nuclear test' On Monday, October 9, 2006 at 01:35:27 (UTC) the United States Geological Survey detected a magnitude 4.2 seismic event 70 km (45 miles) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test. The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completed a successful underground test of a nuclear fission device. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002 CIA reports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence. On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations -- which some critics worry could have been planted in order to justify the United States giving up trying to verify the dismantlement of Pyongyang's uranium program in the face of North Korean intransigence -- there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok Ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that the A.Q. Khan proliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantling Libya’s WMD programs points toward North Korea as the source for Libya's uranium hexafluoride (UF6) -- which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment. See generally U.S. Department of State, “Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments,” August 2005, pp. 87-92, www.state.gov/documents/organization/52113.pdf; Anthony Faiola, “N. Korea Declares Itself a Nuclear Power,” The Washington Post, February 10, 2005, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12836-2005Feb10.html; “Khan ‘Gave N. Korea Centrifuges,’” BBC News, August 24, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4180286.stm; “Pakistan and North Korea: Dangerous Counter-Trades,” IISS Strategic Comments, Vol. 8, No. 9 (November 2002). Iran Iran is a signatory state of the NPT and has recently (as of 2006) resumed development of a uranium enrichment program. The Iranian government states its enrichment program is part of its civilian nuclear energy program. This is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. In 2005, the IAEA Board of Governors found Iran in noncompliance with its NPT safeguards agreement in an unusual non-consensus decision, after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment. UN Security Council Resolution 1737 In November 2003 IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei reported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations, including by failing to declare its uranium enrichment program. After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program, EU and Iran Avert Nuclear Deadlock the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement. Iran resumed its enrichment program after being referred to the Security Council. BBC: Iran 'resumes' nuclear enrichment The United States concluded on this basis that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations. Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments, Bureau of Verification and Compliance, U.S. Department of State, August 30, 2005 The November 2007 US National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's "Key Judgments," however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was only "nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work" -- namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities (National Intelligence Estimate) Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz -- and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production -- began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary "pacing element" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much. See, e.g., U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation Christopher A. Ford, "The 2020 NPT Review Cycle So Far: A View from the United States of America," remarks at Wilton Park, UK (December 20, 2007), http://www.state.gov/t/isn/rls/rm/98382.htm ("Given that possession of the necessary quantity of fissile material is the most difficult challenge in developing a nuclear weapon, the recently-released U.S. National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) hardly alleviates our concerns about Iran’s nuclear work."). As U.S. Director of National Intelligence Mike McConnell has put it, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus "probably the least significant part of the program." Mark Mazetti, "Intelligence Chief Cites Qaeda Threat to U.S.," New York Times (February 6, 2008), http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/06/washington/06intel.html?n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/Z/Zawahri,%20Ayman%20Al-. Iran states it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it "has constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency". IAEA Information Circular 724 (March 2008): Communication from the Permanent Mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Agency The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities. Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant provisions of Security Council resolutions 1737 (2006) and 1747 (2007) in the Islamic Republic of Iran As recently as October 2007, IAEA Director General ElBaradei reported that IAEA inspections had not found any evidence that Iran was making nuclear weapons. IAEA chief sees no evidence of Iran making nuclear weapons Russia further said in November 2007 that it had not seen any evidence of Iran trying to build a nuclear weapon. No evidence of Iranian nuclear bomb plan: Putin In February 2008, the IAEA reported that all declared nuclear material remained accounted for. However, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address "alleged studies" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as "baseless" and the documents as "fabrications." Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant provisions of Security Council resolutions 1737 (2006) and 1747 (2007) in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 22 February 2008 In May 2008, the IAEA reported that these alleged studies remained "a matter of serious concern" and requests for clarification from Iran remained outstanding. The IAEA further reported that it had "not detected the actual use of nuclear material in connection with the alleged studies" and that Iran had agreed to address the alleged studies. Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant provisions of Security Council resolutions 1737 (2006), 1747 (2007) and 1803 (2008) in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 26 May 2008 The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. XV Ministerial Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (July 2008): Statement on the Islamic Republic of Iran's Nuclear Issue UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has welcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA, and has called for a peaceful resolution to the issue. OIC (March 2008): UN Secretary-General's address to the 11th Summit of the Organization of the Islamic Conference South Africa South Africa also deserves a special mention as the only country that developed nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them - unlike the former Soviet states Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the former USSR, and also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days of apartheid, the white South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility at Pelindaba near Pretoria where uranium was enriched to fuel grade for the nuclear power plant at Koeberg as well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United States Harry Schwarz signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then president Frederik Willem de Klerk openly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled prior to accession to the NPT. South Africa then opened itself up to IAEA for inspection. In 1994 the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. Libya Libya had signed and ratified the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by the A.Q. Khan proliferation network -- including actual nuclear weapons designed allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating its WMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring. In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment -- including prototypes for improved SCUD ballistic missiles -- were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining the Chemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed. See generally Assistant Secretary of State Paula DeSutter, "Libya Renounces Weapons of Mass Destruction, http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/0305/ijpe/desutter.htm; DeSutter, "Completion of Verification Work in Libya," testimony before the Subcommittee on International Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Human Rights (September 22, 2004), http://www.state.gov/t/vci/rls/rm/2004/37220.htm; DeSutter, "U.S. Government's Assistance to Libya in the Elimination of its Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)," testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (February 26, 2004), http://www.state.gov/t/vci/rls/rm/2004/29945.htm. Leaving the treaty Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if "extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATO states argue that when there is a state of "general war" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATO nuclear weapons sharing policy, but a troubling one for the logic of the treaty. NATO's argument is based on the phrase "the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding. Many states do not accept this argument. See United States-NATO nuclear weapons sharing above. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of "supreme interests of its country". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under the Agreed Framework and "suspended" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on January 10, 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. North Korea Profile - Nuclear Overview The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation. Media Advisory 2003/48 - IAEA Board of Governors Adopts Resolution on Safeguards in North Korea - 12 February . Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the "extraordinary events" and "supreme interests" requirements of the Treaty. The Joint Statement of September 19, 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of the Six-Party Talks called for North Korea to "return" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. Future The inclusion of (civilian) nuclear power in the July 2005 Asia-Pacific Partnership for Clean Development and Climate is politically sensitive, as India, which tested its first atomic bomb in 1974, refuses to sign the NPT. Prior to the announcement of the Asia-Pacific Partnership, on 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush had met Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India. The Associated Press, 2005, Bush opens energy door to India, furnished by CNN (cnn.com), 18 July 2005 Some, such as British columnist George Monbiot, argue that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, may destroy the NPT regime George Monbiot, The Guardian (guardian.co.uk), 2 August 2005, The treaty wreckers , while others contend that such a move will likely bring India, an NPT non-signatory, under closer international scrutiny. Every five years, there is a Review Conference on the treaty. At the seventh Review Conference in May 2005, there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of serious nuclear disarmament by the nuclear powers. The non-aligned countries reiterated their position Syed Hamid Albar, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia, United Nations (un.org), New York, 2 May 2005, The General Debate of the 2005 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons that NATO's nuclear sharing arrangement violates the treaty. Criticism and Responses Gamal Abdel Nasser once said "basically they did whatever they wanted to do before the introduction of NPT and then devised it to prevent others from doing what they had themselves been doing before". In addition, some argue that the NWS have not fully complied, in practice, with their commitments mentioned in NPT. Article VI of the treaty requires NPT parties to "pursue negotiations" on an end to the arms race, "nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament." Yet thousands of nuclear weapons remain, some on high alert, long after the end of the cold war. In January 2002, a report by the Defense Department following the U.S. Nuclear Posture Review recommended the development of nuclear weapons designed to destroy hardened and deeply-buried targets, Nuclear Posture Review Excerpts but the resulting Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator never gained full Congressional support and was canceled in 2005. Hersh: U.S. mulls nuclear option for Iran The representative of Ghana, on behalf of the Non-Aligned Movement and the African Group said disarmament and non-proliferation were complementary and mutually reinforcing and that, "Without tangible progress in disarmament, the current emphasis on non-proliferation cannot be sustained." Thousands of Nuclear Weapons on High Alert Makes Mockery of Disarmament Progress, with Non-Proliferation Threatened by Lopsided Approach, First Committee Told The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that since the end of the Cold War it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the processing eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the United States' ongoing -- and, throughout 2007, sharply accelerating -- work to dismantle nuclear warheads. When current accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush have been completed, the U.S. arsenal will be less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it has been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel. See. e.g., "Disarmament, the United States, and the NPT," http://www.state.gov/t/isn/rls/other/81946.htm; U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation Christopher Ford, "Procedure and Substance in the NPT Review Cycle: The Example of Nuclear Disarmament," remarks to the Conference on "Preparing for 2010: Getting the Process Right," Annecy, France (March 17, 2007), http://www.state.gov/t/isn/rls/rm/81940.htm; "The United States and Article VI: A Record of Accomplishment," http://geneva.usmission.gov/CD/updates/05-06-08%20Article%20VI%20Briefing.pdf. (As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War. Remarks by U.S. National Security Advisor Stephen Hadley at the Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford University (February 8, 2008), http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2008/02/20080211-6.html. ) The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult. Disarmament, the United States, and the NPT The United Kingdom, FCO fact sheet on nuclear weapons , France The 2005 NPT Review Conference: A French Perspective and Russia Statement by Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Kislyak at the 2005 NPT Review Conference likewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. Statement of the P5 to the 2008 NPT PrepCom As discussed above, the precise nature of nuclear weapons state obligations, if any, under Article VI of the Treaty is sharply contested. See also Nuclear-free world 13 steps (an important section in the Final Document of the 2000 Review Conference of the Treaty) Nuclear warfare List of countries with nuclear weapons Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion Nuclear peace Nuclear energy phase-out Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) Missile Technology Control Regime References External links Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (PDF) - IAEA Text of the treaty Text of the treaty at the Center for a World in Balance Video Interviews from Non-Proliferation Treaty Conferences at npt-tv.net Abolition 2000 Europe People vs. The Bomb: Showdown at the UN (Video) NuclearFiles.org Summary and text from the nuclear NPT Membership/Signatories Overview of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime at the Center for a World in Balance The Nonproliferation Policy Education Center (NPEC)- A not-for-profit organization based in Washington, D.C., and founded in 1994 to promote a better understanding of strategic weapons proliferation issues among policymakers, scholars and the media. Annotated Bibliography on the NPT from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty Turns 40 Today in 2008. George Perkovich, "Principles for Reforming the Nuclear Order", Proliferation Papers, Paris, Ifri, Fall 2008. U.S. Department of State, website compiling speeches and papers relevant to NPT Review Cycle, http://www.state.gov/t/isn/wmd/nnp/. | Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons |@lemmatized participation:2 nuclear:251 non:55 proliferation:37 treaty:81 weapon:130 also:21 npt:86 nnpt:1 limit:2 spread:5 open:5 signature:2 july:7 currently:2 country:31 party:22 five:10 united:43 state:107 kingdom:6 france:9 russia:5 people:5 republic:10 china:6 permanent:4 member:5 un:7 security:16 council:12 four:1 recognize:7 sovereign:2 india:35 israel:10 pakistan:15 north:40 korea:39 openly:3 test:13 declare:9 possess:5 policy:10 opacity:1 regard:3 program:37 accede:2 violate:8 later:5 withdraw:6 propose:1 ireland:2 finland:2 first:11 sign:15 signing:1 decide:1 consensus:5 extend:1 indefinitely:1 without:4 condition:3 upon:2 meeting:1 new:8 york:5 city:1 may:12 consist:1 preamble:3 eleven:1 article:41 although:3 concept:2 pillar:12 appear:1 nowhere:1 nevertheless:1 sometimes:2 interpret:3 three:8 disarmament:40 right:13 peacefully:1 use:24 technology:11 ambassador:2 sudjadnan:1 parnohadiningrat:1 april:4 nation:5 third:4 session:2 preparatory:2 committee:4 review:15 conference:16 furnish:3 mission:2 indonesia:1 indonesiamission:1 ny:1 org:9 commonly:1 describe:1 main:2 peaceful:13 see:15 example:2 canadian:1 government:11 web:1 site:3 question:3 believe:2 name:1 suggest:5 principally:1 nonproliferation:19 worry:3 language:3 misleadingly:1 imply:1 element:3 equivalent:2 importance:1 view:6 express:2 christopher:5 ford:5 u:57 representative:7 end:7 bush:8 administration:3 cycle:4 far:6 america:2 present:1 wilton:2 park:2 december:7 nws:5 signed:1 soviet:9 union:6 obligation:13 assume:1 uk:7 among:2 original:1 ratifier:1 enter:1 force:4 nw:5 agree:10 transfer:9 explosive:9 device:14 way:2 assist:3 encourage:1 induce:1 nnw:2 acquire:5 nnws:1 receive:4 manufacture:6 seek:2 assistance:4 ii:10 accept:2 safeguard:22 international:16 atomic:7 energy:22 agency:7 iaea:42 verify:5 divert:1 us:3 iii:4 make:12 undertaking:2 except:1 response:6 attack:4 conventional:2 alliance:1 however:6 incorporate:1 formally:1 exact:1 detail:1 vary:1 time:8 warhead:9 target:3 previous:2 secretary:4 defence:3 geoff:1 hoon:1 explicitly:1 invoke:1 possibility:2 rogue:2 prepared:1 bbc:9 date:5 march:9 january:7 president:9 jacques:1 chirac:2 indicate:3 incident:1 sponsor:1 terrorism:3 could:7 trigger:1 small:5 scale:1 retaliation:1 aim:1 destroy:6 power:12 center:5 would:15 arm:10 possible:2 washington:5 post:5 second:2 contains:1 affirm:1 desire:1 signatory:10 ease:1 tension:1 strengthen:1 trust:1 create:4 someday:1 halt:3 production:6 general:15 complete:8 liquidate:1 particular:1 delivery:3 vehicle:1 national:13 arsenal:6 wording:1 vi:10 arguably:1 impose:1 vague:2 move:2 direction:1 total:2 say:10 undertakes:3 pursue:6 negotiation:4 good:4 faith:3 effective:4 measure:3 relate:4 cessation:2 race:3 early:3 background:1 interpretation:4 strictly:1 require:6 actually:2 conclude:4 rather:1 negotiate:3 compliance:9 hand:3 especially:4 belong:1 align:5 movement:5 anything:1 constitute:3 formal:1 specific:1 disarm:2 argue:10 fail:5 meet:6 delegation:1 put:3 forth:2 proposal:2 universal:2 emerge:1 critic:4 failure:4 cold:8 war:17 era:1 anger:1 add:1 provide:9 justification:1 quit:1 develop:14 observer:3 linkage:1 work:16 e:7 resolve:3 threat:3 iran:43 instance:2 cripple:1 prospect:1 current:3 argument:6 go:3 seriously:1 consider:3 eliminate:6 last:1 high:4 confidence:1 even:4 progress:4 superpower:1 lead:4 elimination:2 thousand:4 system:3 g:5 special:6 deliver:3 preparing:2 get:2 process:5 annecy:2 challenge:2 world:7 statement:8 geneva:2 eventually:1 possession:5 attractive:1 increase:2 perceive:1 strategic:8 value:1 one:8 official:6 expert:1 warn:1 logic:2 number:5 decrease:1 marginal:1 utility:2 instrument:1 military:1 extreme:1 precisely:1 hope:1 two:2 huge:1 stability:1 tomorrow:1 remark:5 issue:10 nagasaki:1 japan:2 august:6 peter:1 pella:1 gettysburg:1 college:1 former:6 william:1 foster:1 fellow:1 control:11 maintain:2 goal:1 feel:2 interest:4 permanence:1 along:1 enhance:1 speed:1 allows:1 material:15 development:13 civilian:8 long:6 demonstrate:1 since:7 willing:2 abandon:3 iv:4 intend:2 difficult:4 inalienable:2 purpose:6 restrict:2 exercise:1 conformity:2 basic:1 commercially:1 popular:1 light:3 water:4 reactor:6 station:1 enriched:3 uranium:22 fuel:8 follow:5 must:2 able:3 either:1 enrich:3 purchase:2 market:1 mohamed:4 elbaradei:5 director:9 call:5 enrichment:19 reprocess:2 capability:11 achilles:1 heel:1 regime:6 availability:2 fissile:6 principal:2 obstacle:2 pace:2 effort:8 major:2 emphasis:2 prevent:4 plutonium:4 reprocessing:1 k:1 enr:4 defense:4 university:2 february:11 available:1 http:15 georgewbush:1 whitehouse:2 archive:1 gov:11 news:8 release:3 html:5 announce:8 initiative:2 stop:3 fear:2 effect:3 option:2 produce:2 demand:3 thus:3 give:14 term:1 virtual:1 degree:1 notwithstanding:1 potentially:2 grave:1 implication:1 therefore:3 cut:1 edge:1 legal:4 debate:2 surround:1 meaning:1 relation:2 status:2 unbroken:1 record:7 build:4 iraq:1 cite:5 sanction:1 never:3 come:2 agreement:20 repeatedly:2 violation:3 www:13 newscenter:2 focus:2 iaeadprk:1 dprk:5 pdf:5 mediaadvisory:1 med:1 shtml:1 find:6 unusual:2 decision:4 extended:2 period:3 report:14 aspect:3 libya:15 clandestine:1 romania:1 previously:2 undeclared:2 activity:4 information:5 region:1 fact:5 neighbor:2 verifiably:1 free:2 reduce:3 pressure:3 individual:1 might:2 know:2 otherwise:2 suspicious:1 design:8 estimate:13 thirty:1 forty:1 knowledge:1 key:2 undertake:5 recipient:1 source:2 application:2 diversion:2 nothing:1 shall:2 affect:1 research:3 discrimination:1 facilitate:1 participate:1 full:3 exchange:1 equipment:3 scientific:1 technological:1 position:2 co:7 operate:1 contribute:1 alone:1 together:1 organization:4 territory:1 due:1 consideration:1 need:5 area:1 towards:1 strict:1 x:3 establish:2 month:4 notice:11 duration:1 year:6 extension:1 history:1 impetus:1 behind:1 concern:3 safety:1 many:6 deterrent:2 relationship:1 fragile:1 player:1 multiply:1 risk:2 miscalculation:1 accident:1 unauthorized:1 escalation:1 conflict:1 launch:1 frank:1 aiken:1 irish:1 minister:7 external:3 affair:3 renew:1 comprehensive:2 ban:3 several:2 south:7 africa:5 allegedly:3 conduct:3 atlantic:1 ocean:1 renounce:1 inherit:2 nato:19 share:6 place:2 secret:6 whereby:1 deploy:2 store:1 act:4 counter:2 storage:1 within:1 unless:2 longer:2 breach:1 disclose:1 include:5 otfried:1 nassauer:1 institute:1 environmental:1 ieer:1 science:1 democratic:2 action:3 volume:1 sharing:1 still:1 tactical:1 bomb:8 belgium:1 germany:4 italy:1 netherlands:1 turkey:1 hans:1 kristensen:1 resource:1 nrdc:1 europe:2 level:2 planning:1 apply:1 diplomatic:3 terminate:1 point:11 pilot:1 staff:1 practice:2 handling:1 warplane:1 adapt:1 involve:2 technical:1 continue:6 play:1 essential:1 role:2 prevention:1 fundamentally:1 political:1 int:1 environment:2 ever:2 cannot:2 prohibit:2 bar:1 receiv:1 ing:1 transferor:1 whatsoever:1 worth:2 note:2 originally:1 help:2 least:2 persuade:1 west:3 independent:1 assure:1 event:4 warsaw:1 pact:1 wield:1 self:2 remain:7 safely:1 ensure:1 ally:3 choose:1 route:1 central:3 intelligence:15 likelihood:3 consequence:4 declassified:1 nie:7 june:1 p:4 paragraph:4 discuss:3 potential:1 bonn:1 convince:1 annex:1 fourth:2 declassify:2 additional:1 september:7 decline:1 confirm:2 standing:1 deliberate:1 ambiguity:1 list:2 club:1 large:2 group:3 nots:1 explain:1 ethical:1 ground:1 distinction:1 valid:1 publicly:2 detonate:1 suit:1 another:1 indian:2 enough:1 reportedly:2 accord:5 head:1 division:1 impact:1 wargames:1 n:7 negative:1 dawn:1 top:2 story:1 pledge:1 adversary:1 reason:2 pranab:1 mukherjee:1 visit:2 tokyo:3 lack:3 commitment:5 flaw:2 recognise:1 discriminatory:1 verification:4 treatment:1 support:3 longstanding:1 border:2 dispute:1 leak:2 dimona:2 negev:1 analyst:1 like:1 david:1 albright:1 stockpile:1 israeli:2 refuse:2 deny:2 low:1 technician:1 mordechai:1 vanunu:1 abduct:1 jail:1 reveal:2 british:3 sunday:1 finalize:1 deal:7 commit:1 classify:1 plant:4 welcome:4 important:2 partner:1 unite:1 congress:3 approve:4 cooperation:4 cement:1 earlier:1 legislation:1 allow:4 despite:1 outside:1 grant:2 transaction:1 basis:2 clean:2 unusually:1 rapid:1 industrialization:1 billion:1 plus:1 population:1 board:5 waiver:1 supplier:2 nsg:3 hold:2 vienna:1 austria:2 arrive:1 overcome:1 misgiving:1 zealand:1 unprecedented:1 step:2 exemption:1 ctbt:1 commence:1 trade:4 pass:2 begin:3 washingtonpost:2 com:6 wp:2 dyn:2 content:1 october:7 h:1 r:1 approval:1 enhancement:1 guideline:1 rule:2 export:1 narrow:1 exception:1 neither:1 scope:1 attempt:2 reach:2 similar:1 rebuff:1 requirement:2 track:1 proliferator:1 impossible:1 sort:2 near:2 future:4 seal:1 ratify:2 withdrawal:9 allegation:4 start:1 illegal:1 subsequently:2 oil:2 shipment:3 agreed:3 framework:5 text:4 korean:7 service:2 kcna:2 jp:2 become:2 age:1 peace:2 foundation:1 wagingpeace:1 suspend:8 sheet:2 pull:2 six:4 talk:4 host:1 solution:1 already:2 take:2 resolute:1 cope:1 evermore:1 undisguised:1 isolate:1 stifle:1 foreign:5 ministry:1 fm:1 stand:1 indefinite:1 resume:4 preliminary:1 scrap:1 exist:1 facility:3 rejoin:2 readmit:1 inspector:3 supply:3 replace:1 indigenous:1 per:1 leave:6 discussion:1 joseph:1 khan:5 nytimes:2 next:1 day:6 reiterate:2 known:1 dismantle:6 agence:1 presse:1 raise:1 stake:1 medium:3 corp:1 channelnewsasia:1 plan:2 monday:1 utc:1 geological:1 survey:1 detect:2 magnitude:1 seismic:1 km:1 mile:1 kimchaek:1 shortly:1 afterward:1 successful:1 underground:1 fission:2 cia:1 overstate:1 misread:1 apart:2 press:4 order:3 justify:1 try:2 dismantlement:2 pyongyang:1 face:1 intransigence:1 public:1 existence:2 quite:1 vice:1 kang:1 sok:1 ju:1 admit:2 musharraf:1 q:3 network:2 gas:2 centrifuge:5 additionally:1 evidence:6 obtain:1 wmd:5 toward:1 hexafluoride:1 true:1 mean:2 conversion:3 feedstock:1 generally:2 department:4 adherence:2 pp:1 document:4 anthony:1 faiola:1 hi:1 stm:1 dangerous:1 iiss:1 comment:1 vol:1 november:4 recently:3 iranian:2 part:4 governor:4 noncompliance:2 resolution:7 temporarily:1 eu:1 avert:2 deadlock:1 xii:1 c:2 statute:2 rare:1 abstention:1 refer:1 base:4 circumstantial:1 bureau:1 active:1 fall:2 mid:1 judgment:1 clear:1 weaponization:4 covert:1 related:1 namely:1 subject:3 investigation:1 intention:1 natanz:1 heavy:2 arak:1 ideal:1 secretly:1 conjunction:1 distinctly:1 particularly:1 understand:1 primary:1 much:1 rls:5 rm:4 htm:6 necessary:2 quantity:1 hardly:1 alleviate:1 mike:1 mcconnell:1 probably:1 significant:1 mark:1 mazetti:1 chief:2 qaeda:1 reference:2 z:1 zawahri:1 constantly:1 comply:2 circular:1 communication:1 islamic:6 declared:1 absence:1 implementation:3 relevant:4 provision:4 inspection:3 putin:1 accounted:1 address:3 alleged:3 study:4 certain:1 claim:1 originate:2 reject:2 baseless:1 fabrication:1 allege:1 matter:2 serious:2 request:1 clarification:1 outstanding:1 actual:2 connection:1 reaffirm:2 xv:1 ministerial:1 ki:1 moon:1 dialogue:1 oic:1 summit:1 deserve:1 mention:2 unlike:1 ukraine:1 belarus:1 kazakhstan:1 ussr:1 apartheid:1 white:1 african:3 deep:1 black:1 uprising:1 communism:1 ultimate:1 mine:2 gold:1 pelindaba:1 pretoria:1 grade:2 koeberg:1 well:3 change:2 imminent:1 harry:1 schwarz:1 frederik:1 willem:1 de:1 klerk:1 limited:1 prior:2 accession:1 fully:2 embarrass:1 interdiction:1 pakistani:1 send:1 malaysia:2 ring:1 permit:2 team:1 completion:2 prototype:1 improved:1 scud:1 ballistic:1 missile:2 remove:2 libyan:1 chemical:3 stock:1 join:1 convention:1 return:2 assistant:1 paula:1 desutter:4 renounces:1 mass:2 destruction:2 usinfo:1 journal:1 itps:1 ijpe:1 testimony:2 subcommittee:1 human:1 vci:2 senate:1 extraordinary:2 jeopardize:1 supreme:3 ninety:1 applies:1 effectively:1 trouble:1 phrase:1 consequent:1 every:3 danger:1 insert:1 behest:1 diplomat:1 fulfill:1 function:1 bind:1 cause:1 uproar:1 freeze:1 accuse:1 expel:1 disable:1 suspension:1 notification:2 sufficient:1 profile:1 overview:2 advisory:1 adopt:1 whether:1 joint:2 round:1 implicitly:1 acknowledge:1 inclusion:1 asia:2 pacific:2 partnership:2 climate:1 politically:1 sensitive:1 announcement:1 george:5 w:2 prime:1 manmohan:1 singh:1 law:1 associated:1 door:1 cnn:2 columnist:1 monbiot:2 combination:1 making:1 guardian:2 wrecker:1 others:2 contend:1 likely:1 bring:1 close:1 scrutiny:1 seventh:1 stark:1 difference:1 want:2 emphasize:1 aligned:1 syed:1 hamid:1 albar:1 arrangement:1 criticism:2 gamal:1 abdel:1 nasser:1 basically:1 whatever:1 introduction:1 devise:1 addition:1 yet:1 alert:2 posture:2 recommend:1 harden:1 deeply:1 bury:1 excerpt:1 result:1 robust:1 earth:1 penetrator:1 gain:1 congressional:1 cancel:1 hersh:1 mull:1 ghana:1 behalf:1 complementary:1 mutually:2 reinforce:2 tangible:1 sustain:1 mockery:1 threaten:1 lopsided:1 approach:1 tell:1 respond:1 deployed:1 processing:1 whole:1 category:1 reliance:1 ongoing:1 throughout:1 sharply:2 accelerate:2 less:1 quarter:1 size:1 eisenhower:1 drafting:1 formerly:1 procedure:1 substance:1 accomplishment:1 usmission:1 cd:1 update:1 latter:1 lightbulb:1 ten:1 advisor:1 stephen:1 hadley:1 stanford:1 link:2 grow:1 fco:1 french:1 perspective:1 russian:1 deputy:1 kislyak:1 likewise:1 defend:1 prepcom:1 precise:1 nature:1 contested:1 section:1 final:1 warfare:1 fusion:1 phase:1 offensive:1 reduction:1 balance:2 video:2 interview:1 tv:1 net:1 abolition:1 vs:1 showdown:1 nuclearfiles:1 summary:1 membership:1 signatories:1 education:1 npec:1 profit:1 found:1 promote:1 understanding:1 policymakers:1 scholar:1 annotate:1 bibliography:1 alsos:1 digital:1 library:1 turn:1 today:1 perkovich:1 principle:1 reform:1 paper:2 paris:1 ifri:1 website:1 compiling:1 speech:1 nnp:1 |@bigram nuclear_weapon:106 soviet_union:6 agency_iaea:5 nuclear_warhead:2 geoff_hoon:1 jacques_chirac:1 npt_signatory:5 nuclear_disarmament:8 nuclear_nonproliferation:7 marginal_utility:1 enriched_uranium:3 enrich_uranium:2 mohamed_elbaradei:4 achilles_heel:1 fissile_material:6 uranium_enrichment:9 npt_safeguard:8 safeguard_obligation:4 http_www:11 withdraw_npt:2 undeclared_nuclear:1 frank_aiken:1 atlantic_ocean:1 warsaw_pact:1 estimate_nie:5 iaea_safeguard:4 rapid_industrialization:1 treaty_ctbt:1 www_washingtonpost:2 washingtonpost_com:2 com_wp:2 wp_dyn:2 dyn_content:1 agreed_framework:3 nonproliferation_treaty:2 iaea_inspector:3 nytimes_com:2 agence_france:1 france_presse:1 bbc_news:2 geological_survey:1 shortly_afterward:1 nuclear_fission:2 uk_hi:1 hi_stm:1 temporarily_suspend:1 iaea_statute:1 circumstantial_evidence:1 www_nytimes:1 ban_ki:1 ukraine_belarus:1 uranium_enrich:1 de_klerk:1 ballistic_missile:1 atomic_bomb:1 w_bush:2 prime_minister:1 minister_manmohan:1 manmohan_singh:1 cnn_com:1 george_monbiot:2 non_aligned:1 foreign_affair:1 gamal_abdel:1 abdel_nasser:1 whitehouse_gov:1 external_link:1 annotate_bibliography:1 alsos_digital:1 |
3,418 | Abadeh | Abadeh () is a city in Fars province, Iran, situated at an elevation of in a fertile plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, from the former and from the latter. The population is 59,241 (est. 2007), World Gazetteer showing a growth of 45% from 1985 to 2005. The city is the capital of Abadeh County. It is the largest city in the Abadeh-Eghlid district, which is famed for its carved wood-work, made of the wood of pear and box trees. Sesame oil, castor oil, grain, and various fruits are also produced there. The area is famous for its Abadeh rugs. Notes References External links Abadeh | Abadeh |@lemmatized abadeh:5 city:3 far:1 province:1 iran:1 situate:1 elevation:1 fertile:1 plain:1 high:1 road:1 isfahan:1 shiraz:1 former:1 latter:1 population:1 est:1 world:1 gazetteer:1 show:1 growth:1 capital:1 county:1 large:1 eghlid:1 district:1 famed:1 carve:1 wood:2 work:1 make:1 pear:1 box:1 tree:1 sesame:1 oil:2 castor:1 grain:1 various:1 fruit:1 also:1 produce:1 area:1 famous:1 rug:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram castor_oil:1 external_link:1 |
3,419 | Exodus | Exodus is the second book of the Torah and the Christian Bible. Exodus or The Exodus may also refer to: In modern history Operation Exodus , an Allied operation to bring back European prisoners of War to Britain in Second World War , the ship carrying thousands of Jewish refugees that was refused entry into Palestine Jewish exodus from Arab lands, the twentieth century emigration of Jews from Arab lands German exodus from Eastern Europe, the exodus of Germans to the east of Germany's and Austria's post-World War II borders Istrian exodus, the exodus of Italians from Istria, Fiume and Dalmatia after World War II The exodus of ethnic Macedonians from Greece, the exodus of Ethnic Macedonians following the Greek Civil War 1948 Palestinian exodus, the exodus of Palestinian Arabs during the 1948 Palestine war 1959 Tibetan exodus, 80.000 Tibetans crossed the Himalaya for India 1967 Palestinian exodus, the exodus of Palestinian Arabs during the 1967 Six-Day War Mormon pioneers, members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who migrated across the United States from the Midwest to the Salt Lake Valley in what is today the U.S. state of Utah The Kansas Exodus (the Exodus of 1879), in which black Americans known as Exodusters fled the Southern United States for Kansas In literature Exodus (poem), an Anglo-Saxon literature piece about the Biblical departure Exodus (novel), a 1958 novel by Leon Uris, based partly on the story of the above Jewish refugee ship Exodus (2002 novel), a 2002 children's novel by Julie Bertagna In film Exodus (1960 film), a film by Otto Preminger based on the novel by Leon Uris Exodus Decoded, a 2006 documentary produced by Simcha Jacobovici claiming to verify the biblical story Exodus (2007 British film), a contemporary retelling of the Biblical story of Exodus Exodus (2007 Hong Kong film), a film directed by Pang Ho-Cheung In music Exodus (band), a thrash metal band from California Exodus (Polish band), a Polish symphonic rock band Exodus (album), a 1977 album by Bob Marley and the Wailers "Exodus" is a song by Bob Marley and the Wailers from the above album Exodus (Andy Hunter album), a 2002 album by DJ Andy Hunter Exodus (Ja Rule album), a 2005 greatest-hits album by Ja Rule Exodus (New Power Generation album), a 1995 album by the New Power Generation Exodus (Samael album), a 1998 EP by Samael Exodus (compilation album), a 1998 album featuring various Christian artists Exodus (Utada Hikaru album), a 2004 album by Utada Exodus (Plus One album), final album by Christian rock band Plus One Exodus Records, semi-independent label started in 1966 Exodus (soundtrack), soundtrack album by Ernest Gold from the 1960 film "Theme of Exodus", Grammy-award winning piece by Ernest Gold from the 1960 film In entertainment Exodus (comics), a Marvel Comics character and former leader of the Acolytes Exodus (Magic: The Gathering), an expansion to the Magic: The Gathering collectible card game Ultima III: Exodus, a 1983 computer role-playing game in the Ultima series Ground Control II: Operation Exodus, a 2004 real-time tactical game in the Ground Control series Exodus (role-playing game), a post-apocalyptic role-playing game by Glutton Creeper Games Exodus (pro-wrestler), a British professional wrestler that competed in the NWA UK Central Counties Championship Exodus, the ninth episode and first season finale of the revived MMO game, Myst Online: Uru Live In television "Exodus" (Battlestar Galactica), a two part episode of Battlestar Galactica "Exodus" (Entourage), an episode of Entourage "Exodus" (Stargate SG-1), an episode of Stargate SG-1 "Exodus" (Lost), a 2-part episode of the TV series Lost "Exodus" (ER), an episode of the TV series ER "Exodus" (Smallville), an episode of Smallville "The Exodus", an episode of Sliders, see List of Sliders episodes Exodus, the original subtitle of the third volume of Heroes (TV series) In sociology Rural exodus, the migratory patterns that normally occur in a region following the mechanisation of agriculture Emigration, the action and the phenomenon of leaving one's native country to settle abroad In other fields Exodus Refugee Immigration, a refugee resettlement agency in Indianapolis, Indiana. Exodus (instant messaging client), an open source instant messaging client Exodus Collective, a British organisation formed in Luton Exodus International, an ex-gay organization Christian Exodus, a group promoting mass emigration of Christian fundamentalists to South Carolina EXODUS (NGO), an organization to bring international fugitive Jung Myung Seok to justice Exodus Communications, a failed internet hosting company See also Hijra Diaspora (disambiguation) Human migration | Exodus |@lemmatized exodus:63 second:2 book:1 torah:1 christian:5 bible:1 may:1 also:2 refer:1 modern:1 history:1 operation:3 allied:1 bring:2 back:1 european:1 prisoner:1 war:7 britain:1 world:3 ship:2 carry:1 thousand:1 jewish:3 refugee:4 refuse:1 entry:1 palestine:2 arab:4 land:1 twentieth:1 century:1 emigration:3 jew:1 lands:1 german:2 eastern:1 europe:1 east:1 germany:1 austria:1 post:2 ii:3 border:1 istrian:1 italian:1 istria:1 fiume:1 dalmatia:1 ethnic:2 macedonian:2 greece:1 follow:2 greek:1 civil:1 palestinian:4 tibetan:2 cross:1 himalaya:1 india:1 six:1 day:2 mormon:1 pioneer:1 member:1 church:1 jesus:1 christ:1 latter:1 saint:1 migrate:1 across:1 united:2 state:3 midwest:1 salt:1 lake:1 valley:1 today:1 u:1 utah:1 kansa:2 black:1 american:1 know:1 exodusters:1 flee:1 southern:1 literature:2 poem:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 piece:2 biblical:3 departure:1 novel:5 leon:2 uris:2 base:2 partly:1 story:3 child:1 julie:1 bertagna:1 film:8 otto:1 preminger:1 decode:1 documentary:1 produce:1 simcha:1 jacobovici:1 claim:1 verify:1 british:3 contemporary:1 retelling:1 hong:1 kong:1 direct:1 pang:1 ho:1 cheung:1 music:1 band:5 thrash:1 metal:1 california:1 polish:2 symphonic:1 rock:2 album:17 bob:2 marley:2 wailer:2 song:1 andy:2 hunter:2 dj:1 ja:2 rule:2 great:1 hit:1 new:2 power:2 generation:2 samael:2 ep:1 compilation:1 feature:1 various:1 artist:1 utada:2 hikaru:1 plus:2 one:3 final:1 record:1 semi:1 independent:1 label:1 start:1 soundtrack:2 ernest:2 gold:2 theme:1 grammy:1 award:1 win:1 entertainment:1 comic:2 marvel:1 character:1 former:1 leader:1 acolyte:1 magic:2 gathering:2 expansion:1 collectible:1 card:1 game:7 ultima:2 iii:1 computer:1 role:3 playing:3 series:5 ground:2 control:2 real:1 time:1 tactical:1 apocalyptic:1 glutton:1 creeper:1 pro:1 wrestler:2 professional:1 compete:1 nwa:1 uk:1 central:1 county:1 championship:1 ninth:1 episode:9 first:1 season:1 finale:1 revive:1 mmo:1 myst:1 online:1 uru:1 live:1 television:1 battlestar:2 galactica:2 two:1 part:2 entourage:2 stargate:2 sg:2 lose:2 tv:3 er:2 smallville:2 slider:2 see:2 list:1 original:1 subtitle:1 third:1 volume:1 hero:1 sociology:1 rural:1 migratory:1 pattern:1 normally:1 occur:1 region:1 mechanisation:1 agriculture:1 action:1 phenomenon:1 leave:1 native:1 country:1 settle:1 abroad:1 field:1 immigration:1 resettlement:1 agency:1 indianapolis:1 indiana:1 instant:2 messaging:1 client:2 open:1 source:1 message:1 collective:1 organisation:1 form:1 luton:1 international:2 ex:1 gay:1 organization:2 group:1 promote:1 mass:1 fundamentalist:1 south:1 carolina:1 ngo:1 fugitive:1 jung:1 myung:1 seok:1 justice:1 communication:1 failed:1 internet:1 host:1 company:1 hijra:1 diaspora:1 disambiguation:1 human:1 migration:1 |@bigram exodus_exodus:6 twentieth_century:1 jesus_christ:1 anglo_saxon:1 leon_uris:2 otto_preminger:1 hong_kong:1 thrash_metal:1 bob_marley:2 soundtrack_soundtrack:1 grammy_award:1 marvel_comic:1 magic_gathering:2 collectible_card:1 post_apocalyptic:1 professional_wrestler:1 battlestar_galactica:2 stargate_sg:2 indianapolis_indiana:1 instant_messaging:1 messaging_client:1 |
3,420 | AIM-54_Phoenix | The AIM-54 Phoenix is a radar-guided, long-range air-to-air missile, carried in clusters of up to six missiles — formerly on the U.S. Navy's and currently on the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force's F-14 Tomcat interceptors/multi-role fighters: which is the only aircraft capable of carrying it. The AIM-54 was originally developed in the early 1960s for the canceled F-111B naval variant, and based on the Eagle project for the canceled F6D Missileer. Both were based on the idea of long-range, slow-cruise, non-maneuvering missile carriers to counter long-range bombers carrying low-flying cruise missiles. It had no use for close-range air superiority. History The Phoenix missile was the United States' only long-range air-to-air missile, and its first missile capable of multiple-launch against more than one target. Most other U.S. aircraft relied on the smaller, less-expensive AIM-7 Sparrow; classified as a Medium Range Missile (MRM). Guidance for the Sparrow required that the launching aircraft use its radar to continuously illuminate a single target for the missile seeker to track, or guidance would be lost. This method meant the aircraft no longer had a search capability while supporting the launched Sparrow, effectively reducing situational awareness. An AIM-54A launched from the NA-3A-testbed in 1966 The Tomcat's AWG-9 radar was capable of tracking up to 24 targets in Track-While-Scan mode, with the AWG-9 selecting up to six priority targets for potential launch by the AIM-54. The pilot or Radar Intercept Officer (RIO) could then launch the AIM-54 Phoenix missiles when launch parameters were met. The large Tactical Information Display (TID) in the RIO's cockpit gave an unprecedented amount of information to the aircrew (the pilot had the ability to monitor the RIO's display) and, importantly, the AWG-9 could continually search and track multiple targets after Phoenix missiles were launched, thereby maintaining situational awareness of the Battlespace. Link-4 datalink capability allowed U.S. Navy Tomcats to share information with the E-2C Hawkeye AEW aircraft, and during Desert Shield in 1990, the Link-4A was introduced and allowed the Tomcats to have a fighter-to-fighter datalink capability, further enhancing overall situational awareness. The F-14D entered service with the JTIDS that brought the even better Link-16 datalink "picture" to the cockpit. Active guidance The Phoenix has several guidance modes and achieves its longest range by using mid-course updates from the F-14A's AWG-9 radar (APG-71 radar in the F-14B and F-14D versions) as it climbs to cruise between and at close to Mach 5. Utilizing its high altitude to gain kinetic energy, the missile dives towards its target and activates its terminal phase, active radar system for the final phase of the flight. By comparison, the AIM-120 AMRAAM radar-guided, medium-range air-to-air missile uses an on-board computer, made possible by digital technology, to compute a collision course to the target. It can be updated by the launching aircraft, before also using an active seeker in its final phase. The AIM-54/AWG-9 combination was the first to have multiple track capability (up to 24 targets) and launch (up to 6 Phoenixes can be launched nearly simultaneously); the large missile is equipped with a conventional warhead. The airframe is a scaled-up version of the USAF AIM-47 Falcon with 4 cruciform fins. 4 can be carried under the fuselage tunnel attached to special aerodynamic pallets, and 1 under each glove station. A full load of 6 Phoenix missiles and the unique launch rails weigh in at over , about twice the weight of Sparrows, so it was more common to carry a mixed load of 4 Phoenix, 2 Sparrow and 2 Sidewinder missiles. Depending on the source, there are reports that an F-14 could not be recovered on a carrier with all 6 missiles, but only 2 or 4. Long range fleet defense missile AIM-54 Phoenix moments after launch (1991) The Phoenix was designed to defend the Carrier Battle Group against a variety of threats including cruise missiles, and its range and loiter capability provided defense in depth. During the height of the Cold War, the threat included regimental-size raids of Tu-16 Badger and Tu-22M Backfire bombers equipped with high-speed cruise missiles and considerable Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) of various types. The upgraded Phoenix, the AIM-54C, was developed to better counter projected threats from tactical aircraft and cruise missiles, and its final upgrade included a re-programmable memory capability to keep pace with emerging threat ECM. It is thought that the Phoenix was based on the similar AIM-47 missile. The AIM-47 was developed for the experimental Mach-3 Lockheed YF-12 interceptor version of their venerable SR-71 Blackbird. The U.S. Air Force adopted neither the AIM-47, nor the AIM-54, operationally. The Air Force had no similar capability with the F-15 Eagle until the introduction of the AIM-120 AMRAAM. The latest model, AIM-120C-7, has a range of , still significantly less than the retired AIM-54. The associated AWG-9 radar system carried by the F-111B and F-14 Tomcat was one of largest and most powerful ever fitted to a fighter. Legacy The AIM-54 Phoenix was retired from USN service on September 30, 2004. F-14 Tomcats were retired on September 22, 2006. They were replaced by shorter-range AIM-120 AMRAAMs, employed on the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. Both the F-14 Tomcat and AIM-54 Phoenix missile continue in the service of the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, although the operational abilities of these aircraft and the missiles are questionable, since the United States refused to supply spare parts and maintenance after the 1979 revolution; except for a brief period during the Iran-Contra Affair (see F-14 Tomcat for more details). An AIM-54 Phoenix being attached to an F-14 wing pylon. Note the forward wings have not been installed yet (2003) Despite the much-vaunted capabilities, the Phoenix was rarely used in combat, with only two confirmed launches and no confirmed targets destroyed in U.S. Navy service, though a large number of kills were claimed by Iranian F-14s during the Iran–Iraq War. The USAF F-15 Eagle had responsibility for overland Combat Air Patrol (CAP) duties in Desert Storm in 1991, primarily because of the onboard F-15 IFF capabilities; the Tomcat did not have the requisite IFF capability mandated by the JFACC to satisfy the Rules of Engagement (ROE) in order to utilize the Phoenix capability at Beyond Visual Range (BVR). From an engineering and service standpoint, the Phoenix could be said to be a notable success. However, as the only surviving member of the Falcon missile family, it was not adopted by any other nation (besides Iran), any other U.S. armed service, or even supported by any other aircraft. It was heavy, large, expensive and not practical in close combat compared to the Sparrow or AMRAAM. Versions AIM-54A The original version to become operational, in 1974 and exported to Iran. AIM-54C Improved version, better able to counter cruise missiles. Superseded the AIM-54A from 1986. AIM-54 ECCM/Sealed Improved to include electronic counter-countermeasure capabilities, does not require coolant conditioning during captive flight. Used from 1988 onwards. Because the AIM-54 ECCM/Sealed receives no coolant, Tomcats carrying this version of the missile may not exceed a certain airspeed. In recent years, Iran claims to have developed its own version of the Phoenix, equivalent to the AIM-54C version. There were also test, evaluation, ground training and captive air training versions of the missile; designated ATM-54, AEM-54, DATM-54A, and CATM-54. The flight versions had A and C versions. The DATM-54 was not made in a C version as there was no change in the ground handling characteristics. Iranian combat experiences with the AIM-54 Phoenix An F-14A Tomcat fighter aircraft from the U.S. Navy "Top Gun" Fighter Weapons School, San Diego, painted like an Iranian fighter for adversary training. Little to nothing is known about Iran's use of its 79 F-14A Tomcats (delivered prior to 1979) in most western outlets; the exception being a book released by Osprey Publishing titled "Iranian F-14 Tomcats in Combat" authored by Tom Cooper and Farzad Bishop. Book: Iranian F-14 Tomcat Units in Combat Most of the research contained in the book was based on pilot interviews and though it may be the only book devoted to the topic of Iranian F-14s, it is not without its critics. Reports on the use of the 285 missiles supplied to Iran Aerospaceweb.org | Ask Us - Iranian Air Force F-14 , during the Iran–Iraq War, from 1980-88 vary. It is rumored that U.S. technical personnel sabotaged the aircraft and weapons before they left the country following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, making it impossible to fire the missile. However, the IRIAF was able to repair the sabotage and the damage only affected a limited number of planes; not the entire fleet. Some western sources claim that it is unlikely that the Phoenix was used operationally. First, as difficult as the missile and fire control systems were to operate, Iran had hired many American technicians. Upon leaving, they took most of the knowledge about how to operate and maintain these complex weapon systems with them. Also, without a steady supply of engineering support from Hughes Aircraft Missile Systems Group and corresponding spares and upgrades, even a technically competent operator would have extreme difficulty fielding operational weapons. Most informed sources claim that the primary use of the F-14 was as an airborne early warning aircraft, guarded by other fighters. However, Cooper claims that the IRIAF used the F-14 actively as a fighter-interceptor, and at times as an escort fighter with the AIM-54 scoring 60-70 kills. F-14s were often used to protect IRIAF tankers supporting strike packages into Iraq, and scanned over the border with their radars, often engaging detected Iraqi flights. Also, some F-14s were modified into specialized airborne early warning aircraft. Supporters of these claims point to the fact that, in the 1991 Gulf War, Iraqi fighter pilots consistently turned and fled as soon as American F-14 pilots turned on their fighters' very distinctive AN/AWG-9 radars, which suggests that Iraqi pilots had learned to avoid the F-14. The counter-argument is that virtually all Iraqi fighters turned and fled when confronted, regardless of the type of aircraft facing them, although the USAF had much better success engaging Iraqi fighters with their F-15 Eagles in the same vicinity where Tomcats operated. According to Cooper, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force was able to keep its F-14 fighters and AIM-54 missiles in regular use during the whole of the Iran–Iraq War, though periodic lack of spares grounded at times large parts of the fleet. At worst, during late 1987, the stock of AIM-54 missiles was at its lowest, with less than 50 operational missiles available. The missiles needed fresh thermal batteries that could only be purchased from the USA. Iran managed finally, to find a clandestine buyer that supplied it with batteries - though those did cost up to $10,000 USD each. Iran did receive spares and parts for both the F-14s and AIM-54s from various sources during the Iran–Iraq War, and has received more spares after the conflict. Iran started a heavy industrial program to build spares for the planes and missiles, and although there are claims that it no longer relies on outside sources to keep its F-14s and AIM-54s operational, there is evidence that Iran continues to procure parts clandestinely. American combat experience The Gulf of Sidra incident (1981), in which American F-14s shot down 2 Libyan Su-22s, is sometimes thought to have involved AIM-54s. However, the engagement was conducted at short ranges using the AIM-9 Sidewinder. The other U.S. F-14 fighter to fighter engagement, the Gulf of Sidra incident (1989), used AIM-7 Sparrow and Sidewinder missiles, but not the Phoenix. In training, the Phoenix hit a target drone at a range of 212 km (in January 1979, in Iran). On January 5, 1999, pair of U.S. F-14s fired two AIM-54 at Iraqi MiG-25s southeast of Baghdad (both missed). DoD News Briefing January 5, 1999 On September 9, 1999 another U.S. F-14 launched an AIM-54 at an Iraqi MiG-23 that was heading south into the No-Fly Zone from Al Taqaddum air base west of Baghdad. The missile eventually went into the ground. Tony Holmes, "US Navy F-14 Tomcat Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom", Osprey Publishing Limited (2005). Chapter One – OSW, p. 16 and 17. Characteristics (Source Navy Fact file. AIM-54 Phoenix Missile. ) Primary function: Long-range air-launched air intercept missile Contractor: Hughes Aircraft Company and Raytheon Corporation Unit cost: US$477,131 Power Plant: Solid propellant rocket motor built by Hercules Length: Weight: Diameter: Wing span: Range: In excess of ¹ Speed: 3,000+ mph (4,680+ km/h) Guidance system: Semi-active and active radar homing Warheads: Proximity fuze, high explosive Warhead weight: Users: USA (U.S. Navy), Iran (IRIAF) Date deployed: 1974 Date retired (U.S.): September 30 2004 Note 1: Actual range classified References See also AIM-47 Falcon Medium range air-to-air missiles: AIM-7 Sparrow, MBDA Meteor, AIM-120 AMRAAM Short range air-to-air missiles: AIM-9 Sidewinder Vympel R-33 (AA-9 Amos), the Russian air-to-air missile most similar to the AIM-54 Phoenix List of missiles Missile designation Combat history of the F-14 External links Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles: AIM-54 FAS AIM-54 page NASA Dryden Flight Research Center - Phoenix Missile Hypersonic Testbed | AIM-54_Phoenix |@lemmatized aim:47 phoenix:26 radar:12 guide:2 long:7 range:20 air:24 missile:48 carry:7 cluster:1 six:2 formerly:1 u:17 navy:7 currently:1 islamic:3 republic:3 iran:20 force:6 f:41 tomcat:15 interceptor:3 multi:1 role:1 fighter:17 aircraft:16 capable:3 originally:1 develop:4 early:3 cancel:2 naval:1 variant:1 base:5 eagle:4 project:2 missileer:1 idea:1 slow:1 cruise:7 non:1 maneuver:1 carrier:3 counter:6 bomber:2 low:2 fly:2 use:16 close:3 superiority:1 history:2 united:2 state:2 first:3 multiple:3 launch:14 one:3 target:10 rely:1 small:1 less:3 expensive:2 sparrow:8 classify:2 medium:3 mrm:1 guidance:5 require:2 launching:2 continuously:1 illuminate:1 single:1 seeker:2 track:5 would:2 lose:1 method:1 mean:1 longer:2 search:2 capability:12 support:4 effectively:1 reduce:1 situational:3 awareness:3 na:1 testbed:2 awg:7 scan:2 mode:2 select:1 priority:1 potential:1 pilot:6 intercept:2 officer:1 rio:3 could:5 parameter:1 meet:1 large:6 tactical:2 information:3 display:2 tid:1 cockpit:2 give:1 unprecedented:1 amount:1 aircrew:1 ability:2 monitor:1 importantly:1 continually:1 thereby:1 maintain:2 battlespace:1 link:4 datalink:3 allow:2 share:1 e:1 hawkeye:1 aew:1 desert:2 shield:1 introduce:1 enhance:1 overall:1 enter:1 service:6 jtids:1 bring:1 even:3 well:3 picture:1 active:5 several:1 achieve:1 mid:1 course:2 update:2 apg:1 version:13 climb:1 mach:2 utilize:2 high:3 altitude:1 gain:1 kinetic:1 energy:1 dive:1 towards:1 activate:1 terminal:1 phase:3 system:6 final:3 flight:5 comparison:1 amraam:4 board:1 computer:1 make:3 possible:1 digital:1 technology:1 compute:1 collision:1 also:5 combination:1 nearly:1 simultaneously:1 equip:2 conventional:1 warhead:3 airframe:1 scaled:1 usaf:3 falcon:3 cruciform:1 fin:1 fuselage:1 tunnel:1 attach:2 special:1 aerodynamic:1 pallet:1 glove:1 station:1 full:1 load:2 unique:1 rail:1 weigh:1 twice:1 weight:3 common:1 mixed:1 sidewinder:4 depend:1 source:6 report:2 recover:1 fleet:3 defense:2 moment:1 design:1 defend:1 battle:1 group:2 variety:1 threat:4 include:4 loiter:1 provide:1 depth:1 height:1 cold:1 war:6 regimental:1 size:1 raid:1 tu:2 badger:1 backfire:1 speed:2 considerable:1 electronic:2 measure:1 ecm:2 various:2 type:2 upgraded:1 upgrade:2 programmable:1 memory:1 keep:3 pace:1 emerge:1 think:2 similar:3 experimental:1 lockheed:1 yf:1 venerable:1 sr:1 blackbird:1 adopt:2 neither:1 operationally:2 introduction:1 late:2 model:1 still:1 significantly:1 retired:1 associated:1 powerful:1 ever:1 fit:1 legacy:1 retire:3 usn:1 september:4 replace:1 short:3 amraams:1 employ:1 super:1 hornet:1 continue:2 although:3 operational:5 questionable:1 since:1 refuse:1 supply:4 spare:6 part:4 maintenance:1 revolution:2 except:1 brief:2 period:1 contra:1 affair:1 see:2 detail:1 wing:3 pylon:1 note:2 forward:1 instal:1 yet:1 despite:1 much:2 vaunted:1 rarely:1 combat:8 two:2 confirm:1 confirmed:1 destroy:1 though:4 number:2 kill:2 claim:7 iranian:8 iraq:5 responsibility:1 overland:1 patrol:1 cap:1 duty:1 storm:1 primarily:1 onboard:1 iff:2 requisite:1 mandate:1 jfacc:1 satisfy:1 rule:1 engagement:3 roe:1 order:1 beyond:1 visual:1 bvr:1 engineering:2 standpoint:1 say:1 notable:1 success:2 however:4 survive:1 member:1 family:1 nation:1 besides:1 arm:1 heavy:2 practical:1 compare:1 original:1 become:1 export:1 improved:1 able:3 supersede:1 eccm:2 seal:2 improve:1 countermeasure:1 coolant:2 conditioning:1 captive:2 onwards:1 receive:3 tomcats:1 may:2 exceed:1 certain:1 airspeed:1 recent:1 year:1 equivalent:1 test:1 evaluation:1 ground:4 training:3 train:1 designate:1 atm:1 aem:1 datm:2 catm:1 c:2 change:1 handle:1 characteristic:2 experience:2 top:1 gun:1 weapon:4 school:1 san:1 diego:1 paint:1 like:1 adversary:1 little:1 nothing:1 know:1 deliver:1 prior:1 western:2 outlet:1 exception:1 book:4 release:1 osprey:2 publishing:1 title:1 author:1 tom:1 cooper:3 farzad:1 bishop:1 unit:3 research:2 contain:1 interview:1 devote:1 topic:1 without:2 critic:1 aerospaceweb:1 org:1 ask:1 vary:1 rumor:1 technical:1 personnel:1 sabotage:2 leave:2 country:1 follow:1 impossible:1 fire:3 iriaf:4 repair:1 damage:1 affect:1 limited:1 plane:2 entire:1 unlikely:1 difficult:1 control:1 operate:3 hire:1 many:1 american:4 technician:1 upon:1 take:1 knowledge:1 complex:1 steady:1 hughes:2 corresponding:1 technically:1 competent:1 operator:1 extreme:1 difficulty:1 field:1 informed:1 primary:2 airborne:2 warning:2 guard:1 actively:1 time:2 escort:1 score:1 often:2 protect:1 tanker:1 strike:1 package:1 border:1 engage:2 detect:1 iraqi:8 modify:1 specialized:1 supporter:1 point:1 fact:2 gulf:3 consistently:1 turn:3 flee:2 soon:1 distinctive:1 suggest:1 learn:1 avoid:1 argument:1 virtually:1 confront:1 regardless:1 face:1 good:1 vicinity:1 accord:1 regular:1 whole:1 periodic:1 lack:1 bad:1 stock:1 available:1 need:1 fresh:1 thermal:1 battery:2 purchase:1 usa:2 manage:1 finally:1 find:1 clandestine:1 buyer:1 cost:2 usd:1 conflict:1 start:1 industrial:1 program:1 build:2 relies:1 outside:1 evidence:1 procure:1 clandestinely:1 sidra:2 incident:2 shoot:1 libyan:1 su:1 sometimes:1 involve:1 conduct:1 hit:1 drone:1 km:2 january:3 pair:1 mig:2 southeast:1 baghdad:2 miss:1 dod:1 news:1 another:1 head:1 south:1 zone:1 al:1 taqaddum:1 west:1 eventually:1 go:1 tony:1 holmes:1 operation:1 freedom:1 publish:1 limit:1 chapter:1 osw:1 p:1 file:1 function:1 contractor:1 company:1 raytheon:1 corporation:1 power:1 plant:1 solid:1 propellant:1 rocket:2 motor:1 hercules:1 length:1 diameter:1 span:1 excess:1 mph:1 h:1 semi:1 home:1 proximity:1 fuze:1 explosive:1 user:1 date:2 deploy:1 actual:1 reference:1 mbda:1 meteor:1 vympel:1 r:1 aa:1 amos:1 russian:1 list:1 designation:1 external:1 directory:1 military:1 fa:1 page:1 nasa:1 dryden:1 center:1 hypersonic:1 |@bigram f_tomcat:10 cruise_missile:5 aim_sparrow:3 launching_aircraft:2 situational_awareness:3 awg_radar:4 apg_radar:1 kinetic_energy:1 aim_amraam:3 conventional_warhead:1 sparrow_sidewinder:2 sidewinder_missile:2 super_hornet:1 iran_contra:1 range_bvr:1 san_diego:1 osprey_publishing:1 aerospaceweb_org:1 gulf_sidra:2 sidra_incident:2 aim_sidewinder:2 iraqi_mig:2 solid_propellant:1 mph_km:1 proximity_fuze:1 vympel_r:1 external_link:1 nasa_dryden:1 dryden_flight:1 |
3,421 | Canchim | A Canchim bull The Canchim breed is a breed of beef cattle developed in Central Brazil by crossing European Charolais cattle with Indubrazil cattle already kept in Brazil where Asian Zebu type cattle are best suited to the tropical conditions. When compared with Zebu bulls, Canchim bulls produce the same number of calves, but heavier and of superior quality. Compared to European breeds, the Canchim bull produces calves with the same weight but in larger numbers. The fast growing progeny, from crossbred zebu cows with Canchim bulls, can be slaughtered at 18 months old from feedlots after weaning, up to 24 months old from feedlots after grazing and at 30 months from grazing on the range. Origin Zebu cattle (Bos Indicus), introduced to Brazil in the last century, were extensively crossbred with herds of native cattle. The Indian breed, well known for its ability to survive in the tropics, adapted quickly to Brazil, and soon populated large areas, considerably improving Brazilian beef cattle breeding. Zebu cattle were however found to be inferior to the European breeds in growth rate and yield of meat. It became clear that the beef cattle population required genetic improvement. Simply placing European beef cattle (Bos Taurus), highly productive in temperate climates, in Central Brazil, would not produce good results, due to their inability to adapt to a tropical environment. Besides the climate, other factors such as the high occurrence of parasites, diseases and the very low nutritional value of the native forage were problems. Formation of the breed The European breed used in the formation of Canchim cattle was Charolais. Oklahoma State University breed profile In 1922 the Ministry of Agriculture imported Charolais cattle to the State of Goias, where they remained till 1936, when they were transferred to São Carlos in the State of São Paulo, to the Canchim Farm of the Government Research Station, EMBRAPA. From this herd originated the dams and sires utilised in the program of crossbreeding. The main Zebu breed which contributed to the formation to the Canchim was the Indubrazil, although Guzerá and Nelore cattle where also used. Preference was given to the Indubrasil breed, due to the ease of obtaining large herds at reasonable prices, which would have been difficult with Gir, Nelore or Guzerá. The alternative crossbreeding programs initiated in 1940 by Dr. Antonio Teixeira Viana had the objective of obtaining first, crossbreeds 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu and second, 3/8 Charolais x 5/8 Zebu, to evaluate which of the two was the most successful. The total number of Zebu cows utilized to produce the half-breeds was 368, of which 292 were Indubrasil, 44 Guzerá and 32 Nelore. All the animals produced were reared exclusively on the range. Control of parasites was done every 15 days and the animals were weighed at birth and monthly. The females were weighed up to 30 months and the males up to 40 months. The data collected during various years of work, permitted an evaluation of the various degrees of crossbreeding. The conclusion was that the 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu was the most suitable, presenting an excellent frame for meat, precocious, resistance to heat and parasites, and a uniform coat. EMBRAPA website The first crossbred animals, 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu, were born in 1953. Thus was born a new type of beef cattle for Central Brazil, with the name CANCHIM, derived from the name of a tree very common in the region where the breed was developed. It was not until 1971 that the Brazilian Association of Canchim Cattle Breeders (ABCCAN) was formed, and on 11 November 1972 the Herd Book was initiated. On 18 May 1983 the Ministry of Agriculture, recognized Canchim type cattle as a Breed. New bloodlines The Canchim breed, being a synthetic breed, permits breeders, in the development of new crossbreeding systems, to use the breeds used to form the Canchim breed, besides the breed itself, in its development. There are many Canchim breeders forming new blood lines. Today the Nelore breed totally dominates the Zebu breed in the formation of Canchim. American and French Charolais semen, from carefully selected bulls is also used and recommended by the ABCCAN to form new bloodlines. Past Presidents of the Brazilian Association of Canchim Cattle Breeders Roberto Luiz de Souza Barros; 1971-1978 Francisco Jacintho da Silveira; 1978-1982 Diogo Antonio de Barros; 1984-1992 João Paulo Marques Canto Porto; 1992-1997 Peter Anthony Baines; 1997-2001 Deniz Ferreira Ribeiro; 2001-2007 Luiz Adelar Scheuer; 2007-2009 References External links Extensive article at Embryoplus.com Breed society site in Portuguese | Canchim |@lemmatized canchim:16 bull:6 breed:22 beef:5 cattle:17 develop:2 central:3 brazil:6 cross:1 european:5 charolais:8 indubrazil:2 already:1 keep:1 asian:1 zebu:12 type:3 best:1 suit:1 tropical:2 condition:1 compare:2 produce:5 number:3 calf:2 heavy:1 superior:1 quality:1 weight:1 large:3 fast:1 growing:1 progeny:1 crossbreed:6 cow:2 slaughter:1 month:5 old:2 feedlot:2 wean:1 graze:2 range:2 origin:1 bos:2 indicus:1 introduce:1 last:1 century:1 extensively:1 herd:4 native:2 indian:1 well:1 know:1 ability:1 survive:1 tropic:1 adapt:2 quickly:1 soon:1 populate:1 area:1 considerably:1 improve:1 brazilian:3 however:1 find:1 inferior:1 growth:1 rate:1 yield:1 meat:2 become:1 clear:1 population:1 require:1 genetic:1 improvement:1 simply:1 place:1 taurus:1 highly:1 productive:1 temperate:1 climate:2 would:2 good:1 result:1 due:2 inability:1 environment:1 besides:2 factor:1 high:1 occurrence:1 parasite:3 disease:1 low:1 nutritional:1 value:1 forage:1 problem:1 formation:4 use:5 oklahoma:1 state:3 university:1 profile:1 ministry:2 agriculture:2 import:1 goias:1 remain:1 till:1 transfer:1 são:2 carlos:1 paulo:2 farm:1 government:1 research:1 station:1 embrapa:2 originate:1 dam:1 sire:1 utilise:1 program:2 main:1 contribute:1 although:1 guzerá:3 nelore:4 also:2 preference:1 give:1 indubrasil:2 ease:1 obtain:2 reasonable:1 price:1 difficult:1 gir:1 alternative:1 crossbreeding:1 initiate:2 dr:1 antonio:2 teixeira:1 viana:1 objective:1 first:2 second:1 x:1 evaluate:1 two:1 successful:1 total:1 utilize:1 half:1 animal:3 rear:1 exclusively:1 control:1 every:1 day:1 weigh:2 birth:1 monthly:1 female:1 male:1 data:1 collect:1 various:2 year:1 work:1 permit:2 evaluation:1 degree:1 conclusion:1 suitable:1 present:1 excellent:1 frame:1 precocious:1 resistance:1 heat:1 uniform:1 coat:1 website:1 crossbred:1 bear:2 thus:1 new:5 name:2 derive:1 tree:1 common:1 region:1 association:2 breeder:4 abccan:2 form:4 november:1 book:1 may:1 recognize:1 bloodline:2 synthetic:1 development:2 system:1 many:1 blood:1 line:1 today:1 totally:1 dominate:1 american:1 french:1 semen:1 carefully:1 select:1 recommend:1 past:1 president:1 roberto:1 luiz:2 de:2 souza:1 barros:2 francisco:1 jacintho:1 da:1 silveira:1 diogo:1 joão:1 marque:1 canto:1 porto:1 peter:1 anthony:1 baines:1 deniz:1 ferreira:1 ribeiro:1 adelar:1 scheuer:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 extensive:1 article:1 embryoplus:1 com:1 society:1 site:1 portuguese:1 |@bigram beef_cattle:5 fast_growing:1 bos_taurus:1 temperate_climate:1 são_paulo:1 external_link:1 |
3,422 | Bureaucracy | Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity, usually in large organizations and government. As opposed to adhocracy, it is represented by standardized procedure (rule-following) that dictates the execution of most or all processes within the body, formal division of powers, hierarchy, and relationships. In practice the interpretation and execution of policy can lead to informal influence. Definition Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science referring to the way that the administrative execution and enforcement of legal rules are socially organized. Four structural concepts are central to any definition of bureaucracy: a well-defined division of administrative labour among persons and offices, a personnel system with consistent patterns of recruitment and stable linear careers, a hierarchy among offices, such that the authority and status are differentially distributed among actors, and formal and informal networks that connect organizational actors to one another through flows of information and patterns of cooperation. Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, armed forces, corporations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), hospitals, courts, ministries and schools. Origins While the concept as such existed at least from the early forms of nationhood in ancient times, the word "bureaucracy" itself stems from the word "bureau", used from the early 18th century in Western Europe not just to refer to a writing desk, but to an office, i.e., a workplace, where officials worked. The original French meaning of the word bureau was the baize used to cover desks. The term bureaucracy came into use shortly before the French Revolution of 1789, and from there rapidly spread to other countries. The Greek suffix - kratia or kratos - means "power" or "rule". In a letter of July 1, 1790, the German Baron von Grimm declared: "We are obsessed by the idea of regulation, and our Masters of Requests refuse to understand that there is an infinity of things in a great state with which a government should not concern itself." Jean Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay sometimes used to say, "We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called bureaumania." Sometimes he used to refer to a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of "bureaucracy". In another letter of July 15, 1765 Baron Grimm wrote also, "The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and intendants are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist." Baron de Grimm and Diderot, Correspondence littéraire, philosophique et critique, 1753-69, 1813 edition, Vol. 4, p. 146 & 508 - cited by Martin Albrow, Bureaucracy. London: Pall Mall Press, 1970, p. 16 This quote refers to a traditional controversy about bureaucracy, namely the perversion of means and ends so that means become ends in themselves, and the greater good is lost sight of; as a corollary, the substitution of sectional interests for the general interest. The suggestion here is that, left uncontrolled, the bureaucracy will become increasingly self-serving and corrupt, rather than serving society. Development Perhaps the early example of a bureaucrat is the scribe, who first arose as a professional on the early cities of Sumer. The Sumerian script was so complicated that it required specialists who had trained for their entire lives in the discipline of writing to manipulate it. These scribes could wield significant power, as they had a total monopoly on the keeping of records and creation of inscriptions on monuments to kings. In later, larger empires like Achaemenid Persia, bureaucracies quickly expanded as government expanded and increased its functions. In the Persian Empire, the central government was divided into administrative provinces led by satraps. The satraps were appointed by the Shah to control the provinces. In addition, a general and a royal secretary were stationed in each province to supervise troop recruitment and keep records, respectively. The Achaemenid Great Kings also sent royal inspectors to tour the empire and report on local conditions. The most modernesque of all ancient bureaucracies, however, was the Chinese bureaucracy. During the chaos of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States, Confucius recognized the need for a stable system of administrators to lend good governance even when the leaders were inept. Chinese bureaucracy, first implemented during the Qin dynasty but under more Confucian lines under the Han, calls for the appointment of bureaucratic positions based on merit via a system of examinations. Although the power of the Chinese bureaucrats waxed and waned throughout China's long history, the imperial examination system lasted as late as 1905, and modern China still employs a formidable bureaucracy in its daily workings. Modern bureaucracies arose as the government of states grew larger during the modern period, and especially following the Industrial Revolution. Tax collectors, perhaps the most reviled of all bureaucrats, became increasingly necessary as states began to take in more and more revenue, while the role of administrators increased as the functions of government multiplied. Along with this expansion, though, came the recognition of the corruption and nepotism often inherent within the managerial system, leading to civil service reform on a large scale in many countries towards the end of the 19th century. Views on the concept Karl Marx In Karl Marx's and Friedrich Engels's theory of historical materialism, the historical origin of bureaucracy is to be found in four sources: religion, the formation of the state, commerce, and technology. Thus, the earliest bureaucracies consisted of castes of religious clergy, officials and scribes operating various rituals, and armed functionaries specifically delegated to keep order. In the historical transition from primitive egalitarian communities to a civil society divided into social classes and estates, beginning from about 10,000 years ago, authority is increasingly centralized in, and enforced by a state apparatus existing separately from society. This state formulates, imposes and enforces laws, and levies taxes, giving rise to an officialdom enacting these functions. Thus, the state mediates in conflicts among the people and keeps those conflicts within acceptable bounds; it also organizes the defense of territory. Most importantly, the right of ordinary people to carry and use weapons of force becomes increasingly restricted; in civil society, forcing other people to do things becomes increasingly the legal right of the state authorities only. Friedrich Engels; The origin of the family, private property and the state. But the growth of trade and commerce adds a new, distinctive dimension to bureaucracy, insofar as it requires the keeping of accounts and the processing/recording of transactions, as well as the enforcement of legal rules governing trade. If resources are increasingly distributed by prices in markets, this requires extensive and complex systems of record-keeping, management and calculation, conforming to legal standards. Eventually, this means that the total amount of work involved in commercial administration outgrows the total amount of work involved in government administration. In modern capitalist society, private sector bureaucracy is larger than government bureaucracy, if measured by the number of administrative workers in the division of labor as a whole. Some corporations nowadays have a turnover larger than the national income of whole countries, with large administrations supervising operations. A fourth source of bureaucracy Marxists have commented on inheres in the technologies of mass production, which require many standardized routines and procedures to be performed. Even if mechanization replaces people with machinery, people are still necessary to design, control, supervise and operate the machinery. The technologies chosen may not be the ones that are best for everybody, but which create incomes for a particular class of people or maintain their power. This type of bureaucracy is nowadays often called a technocracy, which owes its power to control over specialized technical knowledge or control over critical information. In Marx's theory, bureaucracy rarely creates new wealth by itself, but rather controls, co-ordinates and governs the production, distribution and consumption of wealth. The bureaucracy as a social stratum derives its income from the appropriation of part of the social surplus product of human labor. Wealth is appropriated by the bureaucracy by law through fees, taxes, levies, tributes, licensing etc. Bureaucracy is therefore always a cost to society, but this cost may be accepted insofar as it makes social order possible, and maintains it by enforcing the rule of law. Nevertheless there are constant conflicts about this cost, because it has the big effect on the distribution of incomes; all producers will try to get the maximum return from what they produce, and minimize administrative costs. Typically, in epochs of strong economic growth, bureaucracies proliferate; when economic growth declines, a fight breaks out to cut back bureaucratic costs. Whether or not a bureaucracy as a social stratum can become a genuine ruling class depends greatly on the prevailing property relations and the mode of production of wealth. In capitalist society, the state typically lacks an independent economic base, finances many activities on credit, and is heavily dependent on levying taxes as a source of income. Therefore, its power is limited by the costs which private owners of the productive assets will tolerate. If, however, the state owns the means of production itself, defended by military power, the state bureaucracy can become much more powerful, and act as a ruling class or power elite. Because in that case, it directly controls the sources of new wealth, and manages or distributes the social product. This is the subject of Marxist theories of bureaucratic collectivism. Marx himself however never theorized this possibility in detail, and it has been the subject of much controversy among Marxists. The core organizational issue in these disputes concerns the degree to which the administrative allocation of resources by government authorities and the market allocation of resources can achieve the social goal of creating a more free, just and prosperous society. Which decisions should be made by whom, at what level, so that an optimal allocation of resources results? This is just as much a moral-political issue as an economic issue. Central to the Marxian concept of socialism is the idea of workers' self-management, which assumes the internalization of a morality and self-discipline among people that would make bureaucratic supervision and control redundant, together with a drastic reorganization of the division of labor in society. Bureaucracies emerge to mediate conflicts of interest on the basis of laws, but if those conflicts of interest disappear (because resources are allocated directly in a fair way), bureaucracies would also be redundant. Marx's critics are however skeptical of the feasibility of this kind of socialism, given the continuing need for administration and the rule of law, as well as the propensity of people to put their own self-interest before the communal interest. That is, the argument is that self-interest and the communal interest might never coincide, or, at any rate, can always diverge significantly. Max Weber Max Weber has probably been one of the most influential users of the word in its social science sense. He is well-known for his study of bureaucratization of society; many aspects of modern public administration go back to him; a classic, hierarchically organized civil service of the continental type is — if perhaps mistakenly — called Weberian civil service several different years between 1818 and 1860, prior to Weber's birth in 1864. Weber described the ideal type bureaucracy in positive terms, considering it to be a more rational and efficient form of organization than the alternatives that preceded it, which he characterized as charismatic domination and traditional domination. According to his terminology, bureaucracy is part of legal domination. However, he also emphasized that bureaucracy becomes inefficient when a decision must be adopted to an individual case. According to Weber, the attributes of modern bureaucracy include its impersonality, concentration of the means of administration, a leveling effect on social and economic differences and implementation of a system of authority that is practically indestructible. Weber's analysis of bureaucracy concerns: the historical and administrative reasons for the process of bureaucratization (especially in the Western civilisation) the impact of the rule of law upon the functioning of bureaucratic organisations the typical personal orientation and occupational position of a bureaucratic officials as a status group the most important attributes and consequences of bureaucracy in the modern world A bureaucratic organization is governed by the following seven principles: official business is conducted on a continuous basis official business is conducted with strict accordance to the following rules: the duty of each official to do certain types of work is delimited in terms of impersonal criteria the official is given the authority necessary to carry out his assigned functions the means of coercion at his disposal are strictly limited and conditions of their use strictly defined every official's responsibilities and authority are part of a vertical hierarchy of authority, with respective rights of supervision and appeal officials do not own the resources necessary for the performance of their assigned functions but are accountable for their use of these resources official and private business and income are strictly separated offices cannot be appropriated by their incumbents (inherited, sold, etc.) official business is conducted on the basis of written documents A bureaucratic official: is personally free and appointed to his position on the basis of conduct exercises the authority delegated to him in accordance with impersonal rules, and his or her loyalty is enlisted on behalf of the faithful execution of his official duties appointment and job placement are dependent upon his or her technical qualifications administrative work is a full-time occupation work is rewarded by a regular salary and prospects of advancement in a lifetime career An official must exercise his or her judgment and his or her skills, but his or her duty is to place these at the service of a higher authority; ultimately he/she is responsible only for the impartial execution of assigned tasks and must sacrifice his or her personal judgment if it runs counter to his or her official duties. Weber's work has been continued by many, like Robert Michels with his Iron Law of Oligarchy. Criticism As Max Weber himself noted, real bureaucracy will be less optimal and effective than his ideal type model. Each of Weber's seven principles can degenerate: Competences can be unclear and used contrary to the spirit of the law; sometimes a decision itself may be considered more important than its effect; Nepotism, corruption, political infighting and other degenerations can counter the rule of impersonality and can create a recruitment and promotion system not based on meritocracy but rather on oligarchy; Even a non-degenerated bureaucracy can be affected by common problems: Overspecialization, making individual officials not aware of larger consequences of their actions Rigidity and inertia of procedures, making decision-making slow or even impossible when facing some unusual case, and similarly delaying change, evolution and adaptation of old procedures to new circumstances; A phenomenon of group thinking - zealotry, loyalty and lack of critical thinking regarding the organisation which is perfect and always correct by definition, making the organisation unable to change and realise its own mistakes and limitations; Disregard for dissenting opinions, even when such views suit the available data better than the opinion of the majority; A phenomenon of Catch-22 (named after a famous book by Joseph Heller) - as bureaucracy creates more and more rules and procedures, their complexity rises and coordination diminishes, facilitating creation of contradictory and recursive rules Not allowing people to use common sense, as everything must be as is written by the law. In the most common examples bureaucracy can lead to the treatment of individual human beings as impersonal objects. This process has been criticised by many philosophers and writers (Aldous Huxley, George Orwell, Hannah Arendt) and satirized in the comic strip Dilbert,TV show The Office, Franz Kafka's novels The Trial and The Castle , Douglas Adams' story The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, and the films Brazil and Office Space. Michel Crozier Michel Crozier wrote The Bureaucratic Phenomenon Crozier, M. (1964). The Bureaucratic Phenomenon (M. Crozier, Trans.). London: Tavistock Publications. (1964) as a re-examination of Weber's (1922) concept of the efficient ideal bureaucracy in the light of the way that bureaucratic organizations had actually developed. Where as for Weber, bureaucracy was the ultimate expression of a trend toward the efficient, rational organization, Crozier examined bureaucracy as a form of organization that evokes: "... the slowness, the ponderousness, the routine, the complication of procedures and the maladapted responses of the bureaucratic organization to the needs which they should satisfy" (Crozier, 1964, p 3) He examined a number of culturally specific examples of bureaucratic organizations in an attempt to understand why bureaucracies so often became dysfunctional. After reviewing the different ways in which the term is used, Crozier describes the sense in which he uses the term bureaucracy thus: "A bureaucratic organization is an organization that can not correct its behaviour by learning from its errors" (Crozier, 1964, p 187) Adding: "... not only a system that does not correct its behaviour in view of its errors; it is also too rigid to adjust, without crises, to the transformations that the accelerated evolution of the industrial society makes more and more imperative" (Crozier, 1964, p 198) In essence, Crozier presents an argument against the Tayloristic notion of 'the one best way' to organize an activity and Weber's view of bureaucracy as the ultimate expression of rationality and efficiency. He notes that in 1964 'advanced organizations' had already: "... been obliged to discard completely the notion of the one best way [and] are beginning to understand that the illusion of perfect rationality has to long persisted, weakening the possibilities of action by insisting on rigorous logic and immediate coherence" (Crozier, 1964, p 159) From his analysis of his case studies, he develops a theory of bureaucratic dysfunction based on his observations. Although he later extends his ideas to cover other settings, the two main cases on which he bases his theory are both located in France: "The Clerical Agency" and "The Industrial Monopoly". Crozier chose these examples not only because he was French, but also because he claims that socially and culturally France has developed in such a way that it created organizations that closely resembled the Weberian notion of an ideal bureaucracy. His theory is based on the observation that in situations where almost every outcome has been decided in advance according to a set of impersonal and predefined rules and regulations, the only way in which people are able to gain some control over their lives is to exploit 'zones of uncertainty' where the outcomes are not already known. "[an] unintended consequence of rationalisation [is] the predictability of ones behaviour is the sure test of ones own inferiority" (Crozier, 1964, p158) For Crozier, organizations are not autonomous entities but social constructs that are: "... man made and socially created [and] the indirect result of the power struggles within the organization" (Crozier, 1964, p 162) Attacking both the rationalists and the human relations school for ignoring the role that such power struggles play in the shaping of an organization he argues that organizational relations are in fact a series of strategic games where the protagonists attempt either to exploit any areas of discretion for their own ends, or to prevent others from gaining an advantage: "Each group fights to preserve and enlarge the area upon which it has some discretion, attempts to limit its dependence upon other groups and accept such dependence only insofar as it is a safeguard ... [preferring] retreatisim if there is no other choice but submission" (Crozier, 1964, p 156) The result of this is that goals are subverted and the organization becomes locked into a series of inward looking power struggles. Thus, paradoxically, the result of attempting to design an efficient organization that runs on rational and impersonal lines is to create a situation where the opposite to is true. Theory of bureaucratic dysfunction Crozier argues that: "... the bureaucratic system of organization is primarily characterized by the existence of a series of relatively stable vicious circles that stem from centralisation and impersonality" (Crozier, 1964, p 193) He outlines four such 'vicious circles' that he observed in the organizations he studied. The development of impersonal rules In an attempt to be rational and egalitarian, bureaucracies attempt to come up with a set of abstract impersonal rules to cover all possible events. Crozier gives the example of the concours (competitive examinations) which mean that, one the exams are passed, promotion become simply a matter of seniority and avoiding damaging conflicts. The result, he argues, is that hierarchical relationships decline in importance or disappear completely which means that higher level in the bureaucracy have effectively lost the power to govern the lower levels. The centralization of decisions If one wishes to maintain the impersonal nature of decision making, it is necessary to ensure that decision are made at a level where those who make them are protected from the influence of those who are affected by them. The effect of this is that problems are resolved by people who have no direct knowledge of the problems they are called upon to solve, and so, priority is given to the resolution of internal political problems instead. In this case, the power to influence events over which one has direct experience is lost and it is passed to some impartial central body. The isolation of strata and group pressure within strata The suppression of the possibility of exercising discretion among superiors and the removal of opportunities for bargaining from subordinates results in an organization that consists of a series of isolated strata. The notional equality within the strata becomes the only defence for the individual against demands form other parts of the organization and allows groups some degree of control over their own domain. The result is very strong per group pressure to conform to the norms of the strata regardless of individual beliefs or the wider goals of the organization. The development of parallel power relationships It is impossible to account for every eventuality, even by the constant addition of impersonal rules and the progressive centralisation of decision making; consequently, individuals or groups that control the remaining zones of uncertainty, wield a considerable amount of power. This can lead to the creation of parallel power structures that give certain groups or individuals in certain situations, disproportionate power in an otherwise regulated and egalitarian organization. Once again, this can lead to decisions being made based on factors separate from the overall goals of the organization. American Usage Woodrow Wilson, writing as an academic, professed: Wilson, Woodrow. The Study of Administration Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Jun., 1887), pp. 197-222 ...[A]dministration in the United States must be at all points sensitive to public opinion. A body of thoroughly trained officials serving during good behavior we must have in any case: that is a plain business necessity. But the apprehension that such a body will be anything un-American clears away the moment it is asked. What is to constitute good behavior? For that question obviously carries its own answer on its head. Steady, hearty allegiance to the policy of the government they serve will constitute good behavior. That policy will have no taint of officialism about it. It will not be the creation of permanent officials, but of statesmen whose responsibility to public opinion will be direct and inevitable. Bureaucracy can exist only where the whole service of the state is removed from the common political life of the people, its chiefs as well as its rank and file. Its motives, its objects, its policy, its standards, must be bureaucratic. Nevertheless, American colloquial usage is usually derogatory unless established otherwise. An example might be that an organization which puts its own comfort, convenience and longevity ahead of its mission could be called a bureaucracy. Popular dictionary definitions tend to show a profound dislike for bureaucracy. The American Heritage Dictionary the third and last definition of bureaucracy reads in part: "numerous offices and adherence to inflexible rules of operation;... any unwieldy administration." According to Webster's New world Dictionary of the American Language, one of the definitions reads in part "bureaucracy is governmental officialism or inflexible routine." Roget's Thesaurus gives among the synonyms for bureaucracy: "officialism", "officiousness", and "red tape". American science fiction writer Jerry Pournelle has proposed a theory he refers to as "Pournelle's Iron Law of Bureaucracy"''', which states: "In any bureaucracy, the people devoted to the benefit of the bureaucracy itself always get in control and those dedicated to the goals the bureaucracy is supposed to accomplish have less and less influence, and sometimes are eliminated entirely." This robust tendency is purported to operate to the effect that: "...in any bureaucratic organization there will be two kinds of people: those who work to further the actual goals of the organization, and those who work for the organization itself. Examples in education would be teachers who work and sacrifice to teach children, vs. union representative who work to protect any teacher including the most incompetent. The Iron Law states that in all cases, the second type of person will always gain control of the organization, and will always write the rules under which the organization functions." Austrian School Analysis The analysis of bureaucracy by the Austrian school reflects its characteristic focus on economics, and emphasizes the distinction between bureaucratic management and profit management. Current academic debates Modern academic research has debated the extent to which elected officials can control their bureaucratic agents. Because bureaucrats have more information than elected officials about what they are doing and what they should be doing, bureaucrats might have the ability to implement policies or regulations that go against the public interest. In the American context, these concerns led to the "Congressional abdication" hypotheses--the claim that Congress had abdicated its authority over public policy to appointed bureaucrats. Theodore Lowi initiated this debate by concluding in a 1979 book that the U.S. Congress does not exercise effective oversight of bureaucratic agencies. Instead, policies are made by "iron triangles", consisting of interest groups, appointed bureaucrats, and Congressional subcommittees (who, according to Lowi, were likely to have more extreme views than the Congress as a whole). Lowi. 1979. The end of liberalism. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. It is thought that since 1979 interest groups have taken a large role and now do not only effect bureaucracy, but also the money in congress. The idea of "iron triangles" has since evolved to "iron hexagons" and then to a "hollow sphere." The relationships between the Legislatures, the Interest Groups, Bureaucrats, and the general public all have an effect on each other. Without one of these pieces the entire structure would completely change. This relationship is considered "mu", or such that not one single piece can describe or control the entire process. The public votes in the legislatures and the interest groups provide information, but the legislature and bureaucrats also have an effect on the interest groups and the public. The entire system is codependent on each other. William Niskanen's earlier (1971) 'budget-maximizing' model complemented Lowi's claims; where Lowi claimed that Congress (and legislatures more generally) failed to exercise oversight, Niskanen argued that rational bureaucrats will always and everywhere seek to increase their budgets, thereby contributing strongly to state growth. Niskanen went on to serve on the U.S. Council of Economic Advisors under President Reagan, and his model provided a strong underpinning for the worldwide move towards cutbacks of public spending and the introduction of privatization in the 1980s and '90s. Two branches of theorizing have arisen in response to these claims. The first focuses on bureaucratic motivations; Niskanen's universalist approach was critiqued by a range of pluralist authors who argued that officials' motivations are more public interest-orientated than Niskanen allowed. The bureau-shaping model (put forward by Patrick Dunleavy) also argues against Niskanen that rational bureaucrats should only maximize the part of their budget that they spend on their own agency's operations or give to contractors or powerful interest groups (that are able to organize a flowback of benefits to senior officials). For instance, rational officials will get no benefit from paying out larger welfare checks to millions of poor people, since the bureaucrats' own utilities are not improved. Consequently we should expect bureaucracies to significantly maximize budgets in areas like police forces and defense, but not in areas like welfare state spending. A second branch of responses has focused more on Lowi's claims, asking whether legislatures (and usually the American Congress in particular) can control bureaucrats. This empirical research is motivated by a normative concern: If we wish to believe that we live in a democracy, then it must be true that appointed bureaucrats cannot act contrary to elected officials' interests. (This claim is itself debatable; if we fully trusted elected officials, we would not spend so much time implementing constitutional checks and balances. Scholz and Wood. 1988. Controlling the IRS: Principals, principles, and public administration. American Journal of Political Science 42 (January): 141-162. ) Within this second branch, scholars have published numerous studies debating the circumstances under which elected officials can control bureaucratic outputs. Most of these studies examine the American case, though their findings have been generalized elsewhere as well. Huber and Shipan. 2002. Deliberate discretion: The institutional foundations of bureaucratic autonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ramseyer and Rosenbluth. 1993. Japan's political marketplace. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. These studies argue that legislatures have a variety of oversight means at their disposal, and they use many of them regularly. These oversight mechanisms have been classified into two types: "Police patrols" (actively auditing agencies and looking for misbehavior) and "fire alarms" (imposing open administrative procedures on bureaucrats to make it easier for adversely affected groups to detect bureaucratic malfeasance and bring it to the legislature's attention). McCubbins and Schwartz. 1984. Congressional oversight overlooked: Police patrols versus fire alarms. American Journal of Political Science 28: 16-79. A third concept of self-interested bureaucracy and its effect on the production of public goods has been forwarded by Faizul Latif Chowdhury. In contrast to Niskanen and Dunleavy, who primarily focused on the self-interested behaviour of only the top-level bureaucrats involved in policy making, Chowdhury in his thesis submitted to the London School of Economics in 1997 drew attention to the impact of the low level civil servants whose rent-seeking behaviour pushes up the cost of production of public goods. Particularly, it was shown with reference to the tax officials how rent-seeking by them causes loss in government revenue. Chowdhury’s model of rent-seeking bureaucracy captures the case of administrative corruption whereby public money is directly expropriated by public servants in general. See also Bureaucrat PoliticsThe Unknown Citizen (poem) References Further reading On Karl Marx: Hal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Volume 1: State and Bureaucracy. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979. Marx comments on the state bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right and Engels discusses the origins of the state in Origins of the Family. Ernest Mandel, Power and Money: A Marxist Theory of Bureaucracy. London: Verso, 1992. On Weber: Neil Garston (ed.), Bureaucracy: Three Paradigms. Boston: Kluwer, 1993. Chowdhury, Faizul Latif (2006), Corrupt Bureaucracy and Privatization of Tax Enforcement. Dhaka: Pathak Samabesh, ISBN 984-8120-62-9. External links Abstracts of academic books and articles about bureaucracy Kevin R. Kosar, "What Ought a Bureaucrat Do?" Claremont.org, (A review piece that ponders the values that should guide bureaucrats in their work.) Scientific Management and the Bureaucratic Organization Summary of key concepts from on-line course. Corrupt Bureaucracy and Privatization of Tax Enforcement in Bangladesh by Faizul Latif Chowdhury | Bureaucracy |@lemmatized bureaucracy:74 structure:3 set:3 regulation:4 place:2 control:18 activity:3 usually:3 large:10 organization:32 government:13 oppose:1 adhocracy:1 represent:1 standardized:2 procedure:7 rule:18 follow:3 dictate:1 execution:5 process:4 within:7 body:4 formal:2 division:4 power:19 hierarchy:3 relationship:5 practice:1 interpretation:1 policy:8 lead:7 informal:2 influence:4 definition:6 concept:8 sociology:1 political:9 science:6 refer:5 way:8 administrative:10 enforcement:4 legal:5 socially:3 organize:5 four:3 structural:1 central:4 well:7 define:2 labour:1 among:8 person:2 office:9 personnel:1 system:11 consistent:1 pattern:2 recruitment:3 stable:3 linear:1 career:2 authority:11 status:2 differentially:1 distribute:3 actor:2 network:1 connect:1 organizational:3 one:13 another:2 flow:1 information:4 cooperation:1 example:8 everyday:1 include:3 arm:2 force:4 corporation:2 non:2 governmental:2 ngos:1 hospital:1 court:1 ministry:1 school:5 origin:5 exist:4 least:1 early:5 form:5 nationhood:1 ancient:2 time:3 word:4 stem:2 bureau:3 use:14 century:2 western:2 europe:1 writing:1 desk:2 e:1 workplace:1 official:27 work:12 original:1 french:3 meaning:1 baize:1 cover:3 term:5 come:3 shortly:1 revolution:3 rapidly:1 spread:1 country:3 greek:1 suffix:1 kratia:1 kratos:1 mean:10 letter:2 july:2 german:1 baron:3 von:1 grimm:3 declare:1 obsess:1 idea:4 master:1 request:1 refuse:1 understand:3 infinity:1 thing:2 great:3 state:22 concern:5 jean:1 claude:1 marie:1 vincent:1 de:3 gournay:2 sometimes:4 say:1 illness:2 france:4 bid:1 fair:2 play:2 havoc:1 u:3 call:6 bureaumania:1 fourth:2 fifth:1 heading:1 write:7 also:11 real:2 spirit:2 law:12 late:2 monsieur:1 complain:1 greatly:2 clerk:1 secretary:2 inspector:2 intendants:1 appoint:6 benefit:4 public:17 interest:19 indeed:1 appear:1 establish:2 might:4 diderot:1 correspondence:1 littéraire:1 philosophique:1 et:1 critique:3 edition:1 vol:2 p:9 cite:1 martin:1 albrow:1 london:4 pall:1 mall:1 press:4 quote:1 traditional:2 controversy:2 namely:1 perversion:1 end:5 become:10 good:7 lose:3 sight:1 corollary:1 substitution:1 sectional:1 general:4 suggestion:1 leave:1 uncontrolled:1 increasingly:6 self:7 serving:1 corrupt:3 rather:3 serve:4 society:11 development:3 perhaps:3 bureaucrat:19 scribe:3 first:3 arise:3 professional:1 city:1 sumer:1 sumerian:1 script:1 complicate:1 require:4 specialist:1 train:2 entire:4 life:3 discipline:2 manipulate:1 could:2 wield:2 significant:1 total:3 monopoly:2 keep:6 record:3 creation:4 inscription:1 monument:1 king:2 later:2 empire:3 like:4 achaemenid:2 persia:1 quickly:1 expand:2 increase:3 function:6 persian:1 divide:2 province:3 satrap:2 shah:1 addition:2 royal:2 station:1 supervise:3 troop:1 respectively:1 send:1 tour:1 report:1 local:1 condition:2 modernesque:1 however:5 chinese:3 chaos:1 spring:1 autumn:1 period:2 warring:1 confucius:1 recognize:1 need:3 administrator:2 lend:1 governance:1 even:6 leader:1 inept:1 implement:3 qin:1 dynasty:1 confucian:1 line:3 han:1 appointment:2 bureaucratic:27 position:3 base:7 merit:1 via:1 examination:4 although:2 wax:1 wan:1 throughout:1 china:2 long:2 history:1 imperial:1 last:2 modern:8 still:2 employ:1 formidable:1 daily:1 working:1 grow:1 especially:2 industrial:3 tax:7 collector:1 reviled:1 necessary:5 begin:3 take:2 revenue:2 role:3 multiply:1 along:1 expansion:1 though:2 recognition:1 corruption:3 nepotism:2 often:3 inherent:1 managerial:1 civil:6 service:5 reform:1 scale:1 many:7 towards:2 view:5 karl:4 marx:8 friedrich:2 engels:3 theory:10 historical:4 materialism:1 find:1 source:4 religion:1 formation:1 commerce:2 technology:3 thus:4 consist:3 caste:1 religious:1 clergy:1 operate:3 various:1 ritual:1 functionary:1 specifically:1 delegate:2 order:2 transition:1 primitive:1 egalitarian:3 community:1 social:10 class:4 estate:1 year:2 ago:1 centralize:1 enforce:2 apparatus:1 separately:1 formulate:1 imposes:1 enforces:1 levy:3 give:8 rise:2 officialdom:1 enact:1 mediates:1 conflict:6 people:15 acceptable:1 bound:1 defense:2 territory:1 importantly:1 right:4 ordinary:1 carry:3 weapon:1 becomes:2 restrict:1 family:2 private:4 property:2 growth:4 trade:2 add:2 new:7 distinctive:1 dimension:1 insofar:3 account:2 processing:1 recording:1 transaction:1 govern:4 resource:7 price:1 market:2 extensive:1 complex:1 management:5 calculation:1 conform:2 standard:2 eventually:1 amount:3 involve:3 commercial:1 administration:9 outgrow:1 capitalist:2 sector:1 measure:1 number:2 worker:2 labor:3 whole:4 nowadays:2 turnover:1 national:1 income:6 operation:3 marxist:4 comment:2 inheres:1 mass:1 production:6 routine:3 perform:1 mechanization:1 replaces:1 machinery:2 design:2 choose:2 may:3 best:3 everybody:1 create:8 particular:2 maintain:3 type:7 technocracy:1 owe:1 specialized:1 technical:2 knowledge:2 critical:2 rarely:1 wealth:5 co:1 ordinate:1 distribution:2 consumption:1 stratum:7 derive:1 appropriation:1 part:7 surplus:1 product:2 human:3 appropriate:2 fee:1 tribute:1 license:1 etc:2 therefore:2 always:7 cost:7 accept:2 make:14 possible:2 nevertheless:2 constant:2 big:1 effect:9 producer:1 try:1 get:3 maximum:1 return:1 produce:1 minimize:1 typically:2 epoch:1 strong:3 economic:6 proliferate:1 decline:2 fight:2 break:1 cut:1 back:2 whether:2 genuine:1 ruling:2 depend:1 prevail:1 relation:3 mode:1 lack:2 independent:1 finance:1 credit:1 heavily:1 dependent:2 limit:2 owner:1 productive:1 asset:1 tolerate:1 defend:1 military:1 much:4 powerful:2 act:2 elite:1 case:10 directly:3 manage:1 subject:2 collectivism:1 never:2 theorize:2 possibility:3 detail:1 core:1 issue:3 dispute:1 degree:2 allocation:3 achieve:1 goal:6 free:2 prosperous:1 decision:9 level:6 optimal:2 result:7 moral:1 marxian:1 socialism:2 assume:1 internalization:1 morality:1 would:5 supervision:2 redundant:2 together:1 drastic:1 reorganization:1 emerge:1 mediate:1 basis:4 disappear:2 allocate:1 critic:1 skeptical:1 feasibility:1 kind:2 continue:2 propensity:1 put:3 communal:2 argument:2 coincide:1 rate:1 diverge:1 significantly:2 max:3 weber:13 probably:1 influential:1 user:1 sense:3 know:2 study:7 bureaucratization:2 aspect:1 go:3 classic:1 hierarchically:1 continental:1 mistakenly:1 weberian:2 several:1 different:2 prior:1 birth:1 describe:3 ideal:4 positive:1 consider:3 rational:7 efficient:4 alternative:1 precede:1 characterize:2 charismatic:1 domination:3 accord:5 terminology:1 emphasize:2 inefficient:1 must:8 adopt:1 individual:7 attribute:2 impersonality:3 concentration:1 leveling:1 difference:1 implementation:1 practically:1 indestructible:1 analysis:4 reason:1 civilisation:1 impact:2 upon:5 functioning:1 organisation:3 typical:1 personal:2 orientation:1 occupational:1 group:16 important:2 consequence:3 world:2 seven:2 principle:3 business:5 conduct:4 continuous:1 strict:1 accordance:2 following:1 duty:4 certain:3 delimit:1 impersonal:9 criterion:1 assigned:3 coercion:1 disposal:2 strictly:3 limited:1 every:3 responsibility:2 vertical:1 respective:1 appeal:1 performance:1 accountable:1 separate:2 cannot:2 incumbent:1 inherit:1 sell:1 document:1 personally:1 exercise:5 loyalty:2 enlist:1 behalf:1 faithful:1 job:1 placement:1 qualification:1 full:1 occupation:1 reward:1 regular:1 salary:1 prospect:1 advancement:1 lifetime:1 judgment:2 skill:1 high:2 ultimately:1 responsible:1 impartial:2 task:1 sacrifice:2 run:2 counter:2 robert:1 michels:1 iron:6 oligarchy:2 criticism:1 note:2 less:3 effective:2 model:5 degenerate:1 competence:1 unclear:1 contrary:2 infighting:1 degeneration:1 promotion:2 meritocracy:1 degenerated:1 affect:2 common:4 problem:4 overspecialization:1 aware:1 action:2 rigidity:1 inertia:1 slow:1 impossible:2 face:1 unusual:1 similarly:1 delay:1 change:3 evolution:2 adaptation:1 old:1 circumstance:2 phenomenon:4 think:2 zealotry:1 thinking:1 regard:1 perfect:2 correct:3 unable:1 realise:1 mistake:1 limitation:1 disregard:1 dissent:1 opinion:4 suit:1 available:1 data:1 majority:1 catch:1 name:1 famous:1 book:3 joseph:1 heller:1 complexity:1 coordination:1 diminishes:1 facilitate:1 contradictory:1 recursive:1 allow:3 everything:1 treatment:1 object:2 criticise:1 philosopher:1 writer:2 aldous:1 huxley:1 george:1 orwell:1 hannah:1 arendt:1 satirize:1 comic:1 strip:1 dilbert:1 tv:1 show:3 franz:1 kafka:1 novel:1 trial:1 castle:1 douglas:1 adam:1 story:1 hitchhiker:1 guide:2 galaxy:1 film:1 brazil:1 space:1 michel:2 crozier:19 trans:1 tavistock:1 publication:1 light:1 actually:1 develop:3 ultimate:2 expression:2 trend:1 toward:1 examine:3 evoke:1 slowness:1 ponderousness:1 complication:1 maladapted:1 response:3 satisfy:1 culturally:2 specific:1 attempt:6 dysfunctional:1 review:3 behaviour:5 learn:1 error:2 rigid:1 adjust:1 without:2 crisis:1 transformation:1 accelerated:1 imperative:1 essence:1 present:1 tayloristic:1 notion:3 rationality:2 efficiency:1 advanced:1 already:2 oblige:1 discard:1 completely:3 illusion:1 persisted:1 weaken:1 insist:1 rigorous:1 logic:1 immediate:1 coherence:1 dysfunction:2 observation:2 extend:1 setting:1 two:4 main:1 locate:1 clerical:1 agency:4 claim:7 closely:1 resemble:1 situation:3 almost:1 outcome:2 decide:1 advance:1 predefined:1 able:2 gain:3 exploit:2 zone:2 uncertainty:2 unintended:1 rationalisation:1 predictability:1 sure:1 test:1 inferiority:1 autonomous:1 entity:1 construct:1 man:1 indirect:1 struggle:3 attack:1 rationalist:1 ignore:1 shaping:2 argue:7 fact:1 series:4 strategic:1 game:1 protagonist:1 either:1 area:4 discretion:4 prevent:1 others:1 advantage:1 preserve:1 enlarge:1 dependence:2 safeguard:1 prefer:1 retreatisim:1 choice:1 submission:1 subvert:1 lock:1 inward:1 look:2 paradoxically:1 opposite:1 true:2 primarily:2 existence:1 relatively:1 vicious:2 circle:2 centralisation:2 outline:1 observe:1 abstract:2 event:2 concours:1 competitive:1 exam:1 pass:2 simply:1 matter:1 seniority:1 avoid:1 damaging:1 hierarchical:1 importance:1 effectively:1 low:2 centralization:1 wish:2 nature:1 making:3 ensure:1 protect:2 resolve:1 direct:3 solve:1 priority:1 resolution:1 internal:1 instead:2 experience:1 isolation:1 pressure:2 suppression:1 superior:1 removal:1 opportunity:1 bargain:1 subordinate:1 isolated:1 notional:1 equality:1 defence:1 demand:1 domain:1 per:1 norm:1 regardless:1 belief:1 wider:1 parallel:2 eventuality:1 progressive:1 consequently:2 remain:1 considerable:1 disproportionate:1 otherwise:2 regulate:1 factor:1 overall:1 american:11 usage:2 woodrow:2 wilson:2 academic:4 profess:1 quarterly:1 jun:1 pp:1 dministration:1 united:1 point:1 sensitive:1 thoroughly:1 behavior:3 plain:1 necessity:1 apprehension:1 anything:1 un:1 clear:1 away:1 moment:1 ask:2 constitute:2 question:1 obviously:1 answer:1 head:1 steady:1 hearty:1 allegiance:1 taint:1 officialism:3 permanent:1 statesman:1 whose:2 inevitable:1 remove:1 chief:1 rank:1 file:1 motif:1 colloquial:1 derogatory:1 unless:1 comfort:1 convenience:1 longevity:1 ahead:1 mission:1 popular:1 dictionary:3 tend:1 profound:1 dislike:1 heritage:1 third:2 read:2 numerous:2 adherence:1 inflexible:2 unwieldy:1 webster:1 language:1 roget:1 thesaurus:1 synonym:1 officiousness:1 red:1 tape:1 fiction:1 jerry:1 pournelle:2 propose:1 devote:1 dedicate:1 suppose:1 accomplish:1 eliminate:1 entirely:1 robust:1 tendency:1 purport:1 actual:1 education:1 teacher:2 teach:1 child:1 v:1 union:1 representative:1 incompetent:1 second:3 austrian:2 reflect:1 characteristic:1 focus:4 economics:2 distinction:1 profit:1 current:1 debate:4 research:2 extent:1 elect:5 agent:1 ability:1 context:1 congressional:3 abdication:1 hypothesis:1 congress:6 abdicate:1 theodore:1 lowi:6 initiate:1 conclude:1 oversight:5 triangle:2 subcommittee:1 likely:1 extreme:1 liberalism:1 york:2 w:2 norton:1 company:1 since:3 money:3 evolve:1 hexagon:1 hollow:1 sphere:1 legislature:6 piece:3 mu:1 single:1 vote:1 provide:2 codependent:1 william:1 niskanen:7 earlier:1 budget:4 maximize:3 complement:1 legislatures:1 generally:1 fail:1 everywhere:1 seek:4 thereby:1 contribute:1 strongly:1 council:1 advisor:1 president:1 reagan:1 underpinning:1 worldwide:1 move:1 cutback:1 spending:2 introduction:1 privatization:3 branch:3 motivation:2 universalist:1 approach:1 range:1 pluralist:1 author:1 orientate:1 forward:2 patrick:1 dunleavy:2 spend:2 contractor:1 flowback:1 senior:1 instance:1 pay:1 welfare:2 check:2 million:1 poor:1 utility:1 improve:1 expect:1 police:3 empirical:1 motivate:1 normative:1 believe:1 live:1 democracy:1 debatable:1 fully:1 trust:1 constitutional:1 balance:1 scholz:1 wood:1 irs:1 principal:1 journal:2 january:1 scholar:1 publish:1 output:1 finding:1 generalize:1 elsewhere:1 huber:1 shipan:1 deliberate:1 institutional:1 foundation:1 autonomy:1 cambridge:3 university:2 ramseyer:1 rosenbluth:1 japan:1 marketplace:1 harvard:1 variety:1 regularly:1 mechanism:1 classify:1 patrol:2 actively:1 audit:1 misbehavior:1 fire:2 alarm:2 impose:1 open:1 easy:1 adversely:1 affected:1 detect:1 malfeasance:1 bring:1 attention:2 mccubbins:1 schwartz:1 overlook:1 versus:1 interested:2 faizul:3 latif:3 chowdhury:5 contrast:1 top:1 thesis:1 submit:1 draw:1 servant:2 rent:3 push:1 particularly:1 reference:2 cause:1 loss:1 capture:1 whereby:1 expropriate:1 see:1 politicsthe:1 unknown:1 citizen:1 poem:1 reading:1 hal:1 draper:1 volume:1 monthly:1 hegel:1 philosophy:1 discuss:1 ernest:1 mandel:1 verso:1 neil:1 garston:1 ed:1 three:1 paradigm:1 boston:1 kluwer:1 dhaka:1 pathak:1 samabesh:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 kevin:1 r:1 kosar:1 ought:1 claremont:1 org:1 ponder:1 value:1 scientific:1 summary:1 key:1 course:1 bangladesh:1 |@bigram jean_claude:1 pall_mall:1 qin_dynasty:1 wax_wan:1 karl_marx:4 friedrich_engels:2 co_ordinate:1 optimal_allocation:1 max_weber:3 joseph_heller:1 aldous_huxley:1 george_orwell:1 hannah_arendt:1 comic_strip:1 franz_kafka:1 hitchhiker_guide:1 socially_culturally:1 closely_resemble:1 unintended_consequence:1 vicious_circle:2 decision_making:2 woodrow_wilson:1 science_fiction:1 jerry_pournelle:1 w_norton:1 adversely_affected:1 corrupt_bureaucracy:2 external_link:1 |
3,423 | Cell_nucleus | HeLa cells stained for DNA with the Blue Hoechst dye. The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, thus their entire nuclei are labeled. On the left a cell is going through mitosis and its DNA has condensed ready for division. Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) smooth ER (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin or , or kernel), also sometimes referred to as the "control center", is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome. The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression - the nucleus is therefore the control center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and separates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the nuclear lamina, a meshwork within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton supports the cell as a whole. Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to most molecules, nuclear pores are required to allow movement of molecules across the envelope. These pores cross both of the membranes, providing a channel that allows free movement of small molecules and ions. The movement of larger molecules such as proteins is carefully controlled, and requires active transport regulated by carrier proteins. Nuclear transport is crucial to cell function, as movement through the pores is required for both gene expression and chromosomal maintenance. Although the interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane-bound subcompartments, its contents are not uniform, and a number of subnuclear bodies exist, made up of unique proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of the chromosomes. The best known of these is the nucleolus, which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA. History A drawing of a cell nucleus published by Walther Flemming The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered, and was first described by Franz Bauer in 1804. It was later described in more detail by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in 1831 in a talk at the Linnean Society of London. Brown was studying orchids microscopically when he observed an opaque area, which he called the areola or nucleus, in the cells of the flower's outer layer. He did not suggest a potential function. In 1838 Matthias Schleiden proposed that the nucleus plays a role in generating cells, thus he introduced the name "Cytoblast" (cell builder). He believed that he had observed new cells assembling around "cytoblasts". Franz Meyen was a strong opponent of this view having already described cells multiplying by division and believing that many cells would have no nuclei. The idea that cells can be generated de novo, by the "cytoblast" or otherwise, contradicted work by Robert Remak (1852) and Rudolf Virchow (1855) who decisively propagated the new paradigm that cells are generated solely by cells ("Omnis cellula e cellula"). The function of the nucleus remained unclear. Online Version here Between 1876 and 1878 Oscar Hertwig published several studies on the fertilization of sea urchin eggs, showing that the nucleus of the sperm enters the oocyte and fuses with its nucleus. This was the first time it was suggested that an individual develops from a (single) nucleated cell. This was in contradiction to Ernst Haeckel's theory that the complete phylogeny of a species would be repeated during embryonic development, including generation of the first nucleated cell from a "Monerula", a structureless mass of primordial mucus ("Urschleim"). Therefore, the necessity of the sperm nucleus for fertilization was discussed for quite some time. However, Hertwig confirmed his observation in other animal groups, e.g. amphibians and molluscs. Eduard Strasburger produced the same results for plants (1884). This paved the way to assign the nucleus an important role in heredity. In 1873 August Weismann postulated the equivalence of the maternal and paternal germ cells for heredity. The function of the nucleus as carrier of genetic information became clear only later, after mitosis was discovered and the Mendelian rules were rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century; the chromosome theory of heredity was developed. Structures The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle in animals. In mammalian cells, the average diameter of the nucleus is approximately 6 micrometers (μm), which occupies about 10% of the total cell volume. The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm, and is similar in composition to the cytosol found outside the nucleus. It appears as a dense, roughly spherical organelle. Nuclear envelope and pores The eukaryotic cell nucleus. Visible in this diagram are the ribosome-studded double membranes of the nuclear envelope, the DNA (complexed as chromatin), and the nucleolus. Within the cell nucleus is a viscous liquid called nucleoplasm, similar to the cytoplasm found outside the nucleus. A cross section of a nuclear pore on the surface of the nuclear envelope (1). Other diagram labels show (2) the outer ring, (3) spokes, (4) basket, and (5) filaments. The nuclear envelope otherwise known as nuclear membrane consists of two cellular membranes, an inner and an outer membrane, arranged parallel to one another and separated by 10 to 50 nanometers (nm). The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus and separates the cell's genetic material from the surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to prevent macromolecules from diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and is similarly studded with ribosomes. The space between the membranes is called the perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER lumen. Nuclear pores, which provide aqueous channels through the envelope, are composed of multiple proteins, collectively referred to as nucleoporins. The pores are about 125 million daltons in molecular weight and consist of around 50 (in yeast) to 100 proteins (in vertebrates). The pores are 100 nm in total diameter; however, the gap through which molecules freely diffuse is only about 9 nm wide, due to the presence of regulatory systems within the center of the pore. This size allows the free passage of small water-soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules, such as nucleic acids and larger proteins, from inappropriately entering or exiting the nucleus. These large molecules must be actively transported into the nucleus instead. The nucleus of a typical mammalian cell will have about 3000 to 4000 pores throughout its envelope, each of which contains a donut-shaped, eightfold-symmetric ring-shaped structure at a position where the inner and outer membranes fuse. Attached to the ring is a structure called the nuclear basket that extends into the nucleoplasm, and a series of filamentous extensions that reach into the cytoplasm. Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear transport proteins. Most proteins, ribosomal subunits, and some RNAs are transported through the pore complexes in a process mediated by a family of transport factors known as karyopherins. Those karyopherins that mediate movement into the nucleus are also called importins, while those that mediate movement out of the nucleus are called exportins. Most karyopherins interact directly with their cargo, although some use adaptor proteins. Steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone, as well as other small lipid-soluble molecules involved in intercellular signaling can diffuse through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm, where they bind nuclear receptor proteins that are trafficked into the nucleus. There they serve as transcription factors when bound to their ligand; in the absence of ligand many such receptors function as histone deacetylases that repress gene expression. Nuclear lamina In animal cells, two networks of intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with mechanical support: the nuclear lamina forms an organized meshwork on the internal face of the envelope, while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic face of the envelope. Both systems provide structural support for the nuclear envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and nuclear pores. The nuclear lamina is mostly composed of lamin proteins. Like all proteins, lamins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and later transported into the nucleus interior, where they are assembled before being incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina. Lamins are also found inside the nucleoplasm where they form another regular structure, known as the nucleoplasmic veil, that is visible using fluorescence microscopy. The actual function of the veil is not clear, although it is excluded from the nucleolus and is present during interphase. The lamin structures that make up the veil bind chromatin and disrupting their structure inhibits transcription of protein-coding genes. Like the components of other intermediate filaments, the lamin monomer contains an alpha-helical domain used by two monomers to coil around each other, forming a dimer structure called a coiled coil. Two of these dimer structures then join side by side, in an antiparallel arrangement, to form a tetramer called a protofilament. Eight of these protofilaments form a lateral arrangement that is twisted to form a ropelike filament. These filaments can be assembled or disassembled in a dynamic manner, meaning that changes in the length of the filament depend on the competing rates of filament addition and removal. Mutations in lamin genes leading to defects in filament assembly are known as laminopathies. The most notable laminopathy is the family of diseases known as progeria, which causes the appearance of premature aging in its sufferers. The exact mechanism by which the associated biochemical changes give rise to the aged phenotype is not well understood. Chromosomes A mouse fibroblast nucleus in which DNA is stained blue. The distinct chromosome territories of chromosome 2 (red) and chromosome 9 (green) are visible stained with fluorescent in situ hybridization. The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell's genetic material, in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes. During most of the cell cycle these are organized in a DNA-protein complex known as chromatin, and during cell division the chromatin can be seen to form the well defined chromosomes familiar from a karyotype. A small fraction of the cell's genes are located instead in the mitochondria. There are two types of chromatin. Euchromatin is the less compact DNA form, and contains genes that are frequently expressed by the cell. The other type, heterochromatin, is the more compact form, and contains DNA that are infrequently transcribed. This structure is further categorized into facultative heterochromatin, consisting of genes that are organized as heterochromatin only in certain cell types or at certain stages of development, and constitutive heterochromatin that consists of chromosome structural components such as telomeres and centromeres. During interphase the chromatin organizes itself into discrete individual patches, called chromosome territories. Active genes, which are generally found in the euchromatic region of the chromosome, tend to be located towards the chromosome's territory boundary. Antibodies to certain types of chromatin organization, particularly nucleosomes, have been associated with a number of autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus. These are known as anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) and have also been observed in concert with multiple sclerosis as part of general immune system dysfunction. As in the case of progeria, the role played by the antibodies in inducing the symptoms of autoimmune diseases is not obvious. Nucleolus An electron micrograph of a cell nucleus, showing the darkly stained nucleolus. The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus. It is not surrounded by a membrane, and is sometimes called a suborganelle. It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA, DNA coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These regions are called nucleolar organizer regions (NOR). The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes. The structural cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity, as ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus results in the transient association of nucleolar components, facilitating further ribosomal assembly, and hence further association. This model is supported by observations that inactivation of rDNA results in intermingling of nucleolar structures. The first step in ribosomal assembly is transcription of the rDNA, by a protein called RNA polymerase I, forming a large pre-rRNA precursor. This is cleaved into the subunits 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rRNA. The transcription, post-transcriptional processing, and assembly of rRNA occurs in the nucleolus, aided by small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) molecules, some of which are derived from spliced introns from messenger RNAs encoding genes related to ribosomal function. The assembled ribosomal subunits are the largest structures passed through the nuclear pores. When observed under the electron microscope, the nucleolus can be seen to consist of three distinguishable regions: the innermost fibrillar centers (FCs), surrounded by the dense fibrillar component (DFC), which in turn is bordered by the granular component (GC). Transcription of the rDNA occurs either in the FC or at the FC-DFC boundary, and therefore when rDNA transcription in the cell is increased more FCs are detected. Most of the cleavage and modification of rRNAs occurs in the DFC, while the latter steps involving protein assembly onto the ribosomal subunits occurs in the GC. Other subnuclear bodies + Subnuclear structure sizesStructure nameStructure diameter Cajal bodies 0.2–2.0 µm PIKA 5 µm PML bodies 0.2–1.0 µm Paraspeckles 0.2–1.0 µm Speckles 20–25 nm Besides the nucleolus, the nucleus contains a number of other non-membrane delineated bodies. These include Cajal bodies, Gemini of coiled bodies, polymorphic interphase karyosomal association (PIKA), promyelocytic leukaemia (PML) bodies, paraspeckles and splicing speckles. Although little is known about a number of these domains, they are significant in that they show that the nucleoplasm is not uniform mixture, but rather contains organized functional subdomains. Other subnuclear structures appear as part of abnormal disease processes. For example, the presence of small intranuclear rods have been reported in some cases of nemaline myopathy. This condition typically results from mutations in actin, and the rods themselves consist of mutant actin as well as other cytoskeletal proteins. Cajal bodies and gems A nucleus typically contains between 1 and 10 compact structures called Cajal bodies or coiled bodies (CB), whose diameter measures between 0.2 µm and 2.0 µm depending on the cell type and species. When seen under an electron microscope, they resemble balls of tangled thread and are dense foci of distribution for the protein coilin. CBs are involved in a number of different roles relating to RNA processing, specifically small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and small nuclear RNA (snRNA) maturation, and histone mRNA modification. Similar to Cajal bodies are Gemini of coiled bodies, or gems, whose name is derived from the Gemini constellation in reference to their close "twin" relationship with CBs. Gems are similar in size and shape to CBs, and in fact are virtually indistinguishable under the microscope. Unlike CBs, gems do not contain small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), but do contain a protein called survivor of motor neurons (SMN) whose function relates to snRNP biogenesis. Gems are believed to assist CBs in snRNP biogenesis, though it has also been suggested from microscopy evidence that CBs and gems are different manifestations of the same structure. PIKA and PTF domains PIKA domains, or polymorphic interphase karyosomal associations, were first described in microscopy studies in 1991. Their function was and remains unclear, though they were not thought to be associated with active DNA replication, transcription, or RNA processing. PMID 1955462 They have been found to often associate with discrete domains defined by dense localization of the transcription factor PTF, which promotes transcription of snRNA. PML bodies Promyelocytic leukaemia bodies (PML bodies) are spherical bodies found scattered throughout the nucleoplasm, measuring around 0.2–1.0 µm. They are known by a number of other names, including nuclear domain 10 (ND10), Kremer bodies, and PML oncogenic domains. They are often seen in the nucleus in association with Cajal bodies and cleavage bodies. It has been suggested that they play a role in regulating transcription. Paraspeckles Discovered by Fox et al. in 2002, paraspeckles are irregularly shaped compartments in the nucleus' interchromatin space. First documented in HeLa cells, where there are generally 10–30 per nucleus, paraspeckles are now known to also exist in all human primary cells, transformed cell lines and tissue sections. PMID 16148043 Their name is derived from their distribution in the nucleus; the "para" is short for parallel and the "speckles" refers to the splicing speckles to which they are always in close proximity. Paraspeckles are dynamic structures that are altered in response to changes in cellular metabolic activity. They are transcription dependent and in the absence of RNA Pol II transcription, the paraspeckle disappears and all of its associated protein components (PSP1, p54nrb, PSP2, CFI(m)68 and PSF) form a crescent shaped perinucleolar cap in the nucleolus. This phenomenon is demonstrated during the cell cycle. In the cell cycle, paraspeckles are present during interphase and during all of mitosis except for telophase. During telophase, when the two daughter nuclei are formed, there is no RNA Pol II transcription so the protein components instead form a perinucleolar cap. Splicing speckles Sometimes referred to as interchromatin granule clusters or as splicing-factor compartments, speckles are rich in splicing snRNPs and other splicing proteins necessary for pre-mRNA processing. Because of a cell's changing requirements, the composition and location of these bodies changes according to mRNA transcription and regulation via phosphorylation of specific proteins. Function The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle. The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the location of translation in the cytoplasm, allowing levels of gene regulation that are not available to prokaryotes. Cell compartmentalization The nuclear envelope allows the nucleus to control its contents, and separate them from the rest of the cytoplasm where necessary. This is important for controlling processes on either side of the nuclear membrane. In some cases where a cytoplasmic process needs to be restricted, a key participant is removed to the nucleus, where it interacts with transcription factors to downregulate the production of certain enzymes in the pathway. This regulatory mechanism occurs in the case of glycolysis, a cellular pathway for breaking down glucose to produce energy. Hexokinase is an enzyme responsible for the first the step of glycolysis, forming glucose-6-phosphate from glucose. At high concentrations of fructose-6-phosphate, a molecule made later from glucose-6-phosphate, a regulator protein removes hexokinase to the nucleus, where it forms a transcriptional repressor complex with nuclear proteins to reduce the expression of genes involved in glycolysis. PMID 15667322 In order to control which genes are being transcribed, the cell separates some transcription factor proteins responsible for regulating gene expression from physical access to the DNA until they are activated by other signaling pathways. This prevents even low levels of inappropriate gene expression. For example in the case of NF-κB-controlled genes, which are involved in most inflammatory responses, transcription is induced in response to a signal pathway such as that initiated by the signaling molecule TNF-α, binds to a cell membrane receptor, resulting in the recruitment of signalling proteins, and eventually activating the transcription factor NF-κB. A nuclear localisation signal on the NF-κB protein allows it to be transported through the nuclear pore and into the nucleus, where it stimulates the transcription of the target genes. The compartmentalization allows the cell to prevent translation of unspliced mRNA. Eukaryotic mRNA contains introns that must be removed before being translated to produce functional proteins. The splicing is done inside the nucleus before the mRNA can be accessed by ribosomes for translation. Without the nucleus ribosomes would translate newly transcribed (unprocessed) mRNA resulting in misformed and nonfunctional proteins. Gene expression |A micrograph of ongoing gene transcription of ribosomal RNA illustrating the growing primary transcripts. "Begin" indicates the 3' end of the DNA, where new RNA synthesis begins; "end" indicates the 5' end, where the primary transcripts are almost complete. Gene expression first involves transcription, in which DNA is used as a template to produce RNA. In the case of genes encoding proteins, that RNA produced from this process is messenger RNA (mRNA), which then needs to be translated by ribosomes to form a protein. As ribosomes are located outside the nucleus, mRNA produced needs to be exported. Since the nucleus is the site of transcription, it also contains a variety of proteins which either directly mediate transcription or are involved in regulating the process. These proteins include helicases that unwind the double-stranded DNA molecule to facilitate access to it, RNA polymerases that synthesize the growing RNA molecule, topoisomerases that change the amount of supercoiling in DNA, helping it wind and unwind, as well as a large variety of transcription factors that regulate expression. Processing of pre-mRNA Newly synthesized mRNA molecules are known as primary transcripts or pre-mRNA. They must undergo post-transcriptional modification in the nucleus before being exported to the cytoplasm; mRNA that appears in the nucleus without these modifications is degraded rather than used for protein translation. The three main modifications are 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and RNA splicing. While in the nucleus, pre-mRNA is associated with a variety of proteins in complexes known as heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particles (hnRNPs). Addition of the 5' cap occurs co-transcriptionally and is the first step in post-transcriptional modification. The 3' poly-adenine tail is only added after transcription is complete. RNA splicing, carried out by a complex called the spliceosome, is the process by which introns, or regions of DNA that do not code for protein, are removed from the pre-mRNA and the remaining exons connected to re-form a single continuous molecule. This process normally occurs after 5' capping and 3' polyadenylation but can begin before synthesis is complete in transcripts with many exons. Many pre-mRNAs, including those encoding antibodies, can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences. This process is known as alternative splicing, and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA. Dynamics and regulation Nuclear transport Right|Macromolecules, such as RNA and proteins, are actively transported across the nuclear membrane in a process called the Ran-GTP nuclear transport cycle. The entry and exit of large molecules from the nucleus is tightly controlled by the nuclear pore complexes. Although small molecules can enter the nucleus without regulation, macromolecules such as RNA and proteins require association karyopherins called importins to enter the nucleus and exportins to exit. "Cargo" proteins that must be translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus contain short amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals which are bound by importins, while those transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm carry nuclear export signals bound by exportins. The ability of importins and exportins to transport their cargo is regulated by GTPases, enzymes that hydrolyze the molecule guanosine triphosphate to release energy. The key GTPase in nuclear transport is Ran, which can bind either GTP or GDP (guanosine diphosphate) depending on whether it is located in the nucleus or the cytoplasm. Whereas importins depend on RanGTP to dissociate from their cargo, exportins require RanGTP in order to bind to their cargo. Nuclear import depends on the importin binding its cargo in the cytoplasm and carrying it through the nuclear pore into the nucleus. Inside the nucleus, RanGTP acts to separate the cargo from the importin, allowing the importin to exit the nucleus and be reused. Nuclear export is similar, as the exportin binds the cargo inside the nucleus in a process facilitated by RanGTP, exits through the nuclear pore, and separates from its cargo in the cytoplasm. Specialized export proteins exist for translocation of mature mRNA and tRNA to the cytoplasm after post-transcriptional modification is complete. This quality-control mechanism is important due to the these molecules' central role in protein translation; mis-expression of a protein due to incomplete excision of exons or mis-incorporation of amino acids could have negative consequences for the cell; thus incompletely modified RNA that reaches the cytoplasm is degraded rather than used in translation. Assembly and disassembly An image of a newt lung cell stained with fluorescent dyes during metaphase. The mitotic spindle can be seen, stained green, attached to the two sets of chromosomes, stained light blue. All chromosomes but one are already at the metaphase plate. During its lifetime a nucleus may be broken down, either in the process of cell division or as a consequence of apoptosis, a regulated form of cell death. During these events, the structural components of the nucleus—the envelope and lamina—are systematically degraded. During the cell cycle the cell divides to form two cells. In order for this process to be possible, each of the new daughter cells must have a full set of genes, a process requiring replication of the chromosomes as well as segregation of the separate sets. This occurs by the replicated chromosomes, the sister chromatids, attaching to microtubules, which in turn are attached to different centrosomes. The sister chromatids can then be pulled to separate locations in the cell. However, in many cells the centrosome is located in the cytoplasm, outside the nucleus, the microtubules would be unable to attach to the chromatids in the presence of the nuclear envelope. Therefore the early stages in the cell cycle, beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase, the nuclear membrane is dismantled. Likewise, during the same period, the nuclear lamina is also disassembled, a process regulated by phosphorylation of the lamins. Towards the end of the cell cycle, the nuclear membrane is reformed, and around the same time, the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins. Apoptosis is a controlled process in which the cell's structural components are destroyed, resulting in death of the cell. Changes associated with apoptosis directly affect the nucleus and its contents, for example in the condensation of chromatin and the disintegration of the nuclear envelope and lamina. The destruction of the lamin networks is controlled by specialized apoptotic proteases called caspases, which cleave the lamin proteins and thus degrade the nucleus' structural integrity. Lamin cleavage is sometimes used as a laboratory indicator of caspase activity in assays for early apoptotic activity. Cells that express mutant caspase-resistant lamins are deficient in nuclear changes related to apoptosis, suggesting that lamins play a role in initiating the events that lead to apoptotic degradation of the nucleus. Inhibition of lamin assembly itself is an inducer of apoptosis. The nuclear envelope acts as a barrier that prevents both DNA and RNA viruses from entering the nucleus. Some viruses require access to proteins inside the nucleus in order to replicate and/or assemble. DNA viruses, such as herpesvirus replicate and assemble in the cell nucleus, and exit by budding through the inner nuclear membrane. This process is accompanied by disassembly of the lamina on the nuclear face of the inner membrane. Anucleated and polynucleated cells Human red blood cells, like those of other mammals, lack nuclei. This occurs as a normal part of the cells' development. Although most cells have a single nucleus, some eukaryotic cell types have no nucleus, and others have many nuclei. This can be a normal process, as in the maturation of mammalian red blood cells, or a result of faulty cell division. Anucleated cells contain no nucleus and are therefore incapable of dividing to produce daughter cells. The best-known anucleated cell is the mammalian red blood cell, or erythrocyte, which also lacks other organelles such as mitochondria and serves primarily as a transport vessel to ferry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues. Erythrocytes mature through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow, where they lose their nuclei, organelles, and ribosomes. The nucleus is expelled during the process of differentiation from an erythroblast to a reticulocyte, which is the immediate precursor of the mature erythrocyte. The presence of mutagens may induce the release of some immature "micronucleated" erythrocytes into the bloodstream. Anucleated cells can also arise from flawed cell division in which one daughter lacks a nucleus and the other has two nuclei. Polynucleated cells contain multiple nuclei. Most Acantharean species of protozoa and some fungi in mycorrhizae have naturally polynucleated cells. Other examples include the intestinal parasites in the genus Giardia, which have two nuclei per cell. In humans, skeletal muscle cells, called myocytes, become polynucleated during development; the resulting arrangement of nuclei near the periphery of the cells allows maximal intracellular space for myofibrils. Multinucleated cells can also be abnormal in humans; for example, cells arising from the fusion of monocytes and macrophages, known as giant multinucleated cells, sometimes accompany inflammation and are also implicated in tumor formation. Evolution As the major defining characteristic of the eukaryotic cell, the nucleus' evolutionary origin has been the subject of much speculation. Four major theories have been proposed to explain the existence of the nucleus, although none have yet earned widespread support. The theory known as the "syntrophic model" proposes that a symbiotic relationship between the archaea and bacteria created the nucleus-containing eukaryotic cell. It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea, similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria, eventually forming the early nucleus. This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto-eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria. The archaeal origin of the nucleus is supported by observations that archaea and eukarya have similar genes for certain proteins, including histones. Observations that myxobacteria are motile, can form multicellular complexes, and possess kinases and G proteins similar to eukarya, support a bacterial origin for the eukaryotic cell. A second model proposes that proto-eukaryotic cells evolved from bacteria without an endosymbiotic stage. This model is based on the existence of modern planctomycetes bacteria that possess a nuclear structure with primitive pores and other compartmentalized membrane structures. A similar proposal states that a eukaryote-like cell, the chronocyte, evolved first and phagocytosed archaea and bacteria to generate the nucleus and the eukaryotic cell. The most controversial model, known as viral eukaryogenesis, posits that the membrane-bound nucleus, along with other eukaryotic features, originated from the infection of a prokaryote by a virus. The suggestion is based on similarities between eukaryotes and viruses such as linear DNA strands, mRNA capping, and tight binding to proteins (analogizing histones to viral envelopes). One version of the proposal suggests that the nucleus evolved in concert with phagocytosis to form an early cellular "predator". Bell PJ. (2001). "Viral eukaryogenesis: was the ancestor of the nucleus a complex DNA virus?" J Mol Biol Sep;53(3):251–256. PMID 11523012 Another variant proposes that eukaryotes originated from early archaea infected by poxviruses, on the basis of observed similarity between the DNA polymerases in modern poxviruses and eukaryotes. Takemura M. (2001). Poxviruses and the origin of the eukaryotic nucleus. J Mol Evol 52(5):419–425. PMID 11443345 It has been suggested that the unresolved question of the evolution of sex could be related to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis. Bell PJ. (2006). "Sex and the eukaryotic cell cycle is consistent with a viral ancestry for the eukaryotic nucleus." J Theor Biol 2006 November 7;243(1):54–63. PMID 16846615 Finally, a very recent proposal suggests that traditional variants of the endosymbiont theory are insufficiently powerful to explain the origin of the eukaryotic nucleus. This model, termed the exomembrane hypothesis, suggests that the nucleus instead originated from a single ancestral cell that evolved a second exterior cell membrane; the interior membrane enclosing the original cell then became the nuclear membrane and evolved increasingly elaborate pore structures for passage of internally synthesized cellular components such as ribosomal subunits. References Further reading A review article about nuclear lamins, explaining their structure and various roles A review article about nuclear transport, explains the principles of the mechanism, and the various transport pathways A review article about the nucleus, explaining the structure of chromosomes within the organelle, and describing the nucleolus and other subnuclear bodies A review article about the evolution of the nucleus, explaining a number of different theories A university level textbook focusing on cell biology. Contains information on nucleus structure and function, including nuclear transport, and subnuclear domains External links cellnucleus.com Website covering structure and function of the nucleus from the Department of Oncology at the University of Alberta. The Nuclear Protein Database Information on nuclear components. The Nucleus Collection in the Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology contains peer-reviewed still images and video clips that illustrate the nucleus. Nuclear Envelope and Nuclear Import Section from Landmark Papers in Cell Biology], Joseph G. Gall, J. Richard McIntosh, eds., contains digitized commentaries and links to seminal research papers on the nucleus. Published online in the [http://cellimages.ascb.org/ Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology Cytoplasmic patterns generated by human antibodies Gallery of nucleus images | Cell_nucleus |@lemmatized hela:2 cell:106 stain:7 dna:24 blue:3 hoechst:1 dye:2 central:2 rightmost:1 interphase:6 thus:4 entire:2 nucleus:109 label:2 left:1 go:1 mitosis:3 condense:1 ready:1 division:6 schematic:1 typical:2 animal:4 show:5 subcellular:1 component:12 organelle:9 nucleolus:16 ribosome:11 vesicle:1 rough:2 endoplasmic:2 reticulum:2 er:2 golgi:1 apparatus:1 cytoskeleton:2 smooth:1 mitochondrion:4 vacuole:1 cytoplasm:20 lysosome:1 centriole:1 biology:5 pl:1 latin:1 kernel:1 also:12 sometimes:5 refer:3 control:12 center:4 membrane:28 enclose:4 find:8 eukaryotic:15 contain:19 genetic:5 material:3 organize:7 multiple:6 long:1 linear:3 molecule:23 complex:9 large:11 variety:5 protein:49 histone:5 form:25 chromosome:19 gene:26 within:7 nuclear:64 genome:1 function:14 maintain:1 integrity:2 activity:5 regulate:8 expression:11 therefore:5 main:4 structure:27 make:4 envelope:19 double:3 separate:9 content:4 cellular:7 lamina:10 meshwork:2 add:1 mechanical:2 support:9 much:2 like:5 whole:1 impermeable:1 pore:19 require:7 allow:10 movement:6 across:2 cross:2 provide:6 channel:2 free:2 small:10 ion:1 carefully:1 active:3 transport:18 carrier:2 crucial:1 chromosomal:1 maintenance:1 although:7 interior:3 bound:3 subcompartments:1 uniform:2 number:7 subnuclear:6 body:23 exist:4 unique:1 rna:25 particular:1 part:4 best:2 known:1 mainly:1 involve:8 assembly:9 produce:9 export:6 translate:4 mrna:20 history:1 drawing:1 publish:3 walther:1 flemming:1 first:11 discover:3 describe:5 franz:2 bauer:1 later:4 detail:1 scottish:1 botanist:1 robert:2 brown:2 talk:1 linnean:1 society:3 london:1 study:3 orchid:1 microscopically:1 observe:4 opaque:1 area:1 call:21 areola:1 flower:1 outer:4 layer:1 suggest:9 potential:1 matthias:1 schleiden:1 propose:5 play:4 role:9 generate:5 introduce:1 name:4 cytoblast:2 builder:1 believe:3 new:4 assemble:6 around:7 cytoblasts:1 meyen:1 strong:1 opponent:1 view:1 already:2 multiply:1 many:6 would:4 idea:1 de:1 novo:1 otherwise:2 contradict:1 work:1 remak:1 rudolf:1 virchow:1 decisively:1 propagate:1 paradigm:1 solely:1 omnis:1 cellula:2 e:2 remain:3 unclear:2 online:2 version:2 oscar:1 hertwig:2 several:1 fertilization:2 sea:1 urchin:1 egg:1 sperm:2 enter:5 oocyte:1 fuse:2 time:3 individual:2 develops:1 single:4 nucleate:2 contradiction:1 ernst:1 haeckel:1 theory:8 complete:5 phylogeny:1 specie:3 repeat:2 embryonic:1 development:4 include:8 generation:1 monerula:1 structureless:1 mass:1 primordial:1 mucus:1 urschleim:1 necessity:1 discuss:1 quite:1 however:3 confirm:1 observation:4 group:1 g:3 amphibian:1 mollusc:1 eduard:1 strasburger:1 result:9 plant:1 pave:1 way:2 assign:1 important:3 heredity:3 august:1 weismann:1 postulate:1 equivalence:1 maternal:1 paternal:1 germ:1 information:3 become:3 clear:2 mendelian:1 rule:1 rediscover:1 beginning:1 century:1 develop:2 mammalian:4 average:1 diameter:4 approximately:1 micrometer:1 μm:1 occupy:1 total:2 volume:1 viscous:2 liquid:2 nucleoplasm:7 similar:11 composition:2 cytosol:1 outside:4 appear:3 dense:4 roughly:1 spherical:2 visible:3 diagram:2 stud:2 complexed:1 chromatin:8 section:3 surface:1 ring:3 spoke:1 basket:2 filament:8 know:18 consists:1 two:10 inner:4 arrange:1 parallel:2 one:4 another:3 nanometer:1 nm:4 completely:1 surround:3 serve:3 barrier:2 prevent:5 macromolecule:3 diffuse:3 freely:2 continuous:3 rer:2 similarly:1 space:4 perinuclear:1 lumen:1 aqueous:1 compose:2 collectively:1 nucleoporins:1 million:1 dalton:1 molecular:1 weight:1 consist:5 yeast:1 vertebrate:1 gap:1 wide:1 due:3 presence:4 regulatory:2 system:3 size:2 passage:2 water:1 soluble:2 nucleic:1 acid:3 inappropriately:1 exit:6 must:5 actively:2 instead:4 throughout:2 donut:1 shaped:3 eightfold:1 symmetric:1 position:1 attach:5 extend:1 series:1 filamentous:1 extension:1 reach:2 mediate:6 binding:1 ribosomal:10 subunit:5 process:19 family:2 factor:8 karyopherins:4 importins:5 exportins:5 interact:2 directly:3 cargo:9 use:7 adaptor:1 steroid:1 hormone:1 cortisol:1 aldosterone:1 well:6 lipid:1 intercellular:1 signaling:1 bind:10 receptor:3 traffic:1 transcription:26 ligand:2 absence:2 deacetylases:1 repress:1 network:3 intermediate:2 internal:1 face:3 less:2 organized:1 cytosolic:1 structural:6 anchor:1 site:3 mostly:1 lamin:8 lamins:7 synthesize:5 incorporate:1 inside:5 regular:1 nucleoplasmic:1 veil:3 fluorescence:1 microscopy:3 actual:1 exclude:1 present:2 disrupt:1 inhibit:1 coding:1 monomer:2 alpha:1 helical:1 domain:8 coil:3 dimer:2 coiled:3 join:1 side:3 antiparallel:1 arrangement:3 tetramer:1 protofilament:1 eight:1 protofilaments:1 lateral:1 twist:1 ropelike:1 disassemble:2 dynamic:3 manner:1 mean:1 change:7 length:1 depend:6 compete:1 rate:1 addition:2 removal:1 mutation:2 lead:2 defect:1 laminopathies:1 notable:1 laminopathy:1 disease:4 progeria:2 cause:1 appearance:1 premature:1 age:2 sufferer:1 exact:1 mechanism:4 associate:7 biochemical:1 give:1 rise:1 phenotype:1 understood:1 chromosomes:1 mouse:1 fibroblast:1 distinct:1 territory:3 red:4 green:2 fluorescent:2 situ:1 hybridization:1 majority:1 cycle:9 see:5 define:3 familiar:1 karyotype:1 fraction:1 locate:5 type:6 euchromatin:1 compact:3 frequently:1 express:2 heterochromatin:4 infrequently:1 transcribe:3 categorize:1 facultative:1 certain:5 stage:3 constitutive:1 telomere:1 centromere:1 discrete:3 patch:1 generally:2 euchromatic:1 region:5 tend:1 towards:2 boundary:2 antibody:5 organization:1 particularly:1 nucleosomes:1 autoimmune:2 systemic:1 lupus:1 erythematosus:1 anti:1 ana:1 concert:2 sclerosis:1 general:1 immune:1 dysfunction:1 case:6 induce:3 symptom:1 obvious:1 electron:3 micrograph:2 darkly:1 densely:1 stained:1 suborganelle:1 tandem:1 rdna:5 cod:1 rrna:5 nucleolar:5 organizer:1 cohesion:1 transient:1 association:6 facilitate:3 hence:1 model:6 inactivation:1 intermingling:1 step:4 polymerase:2 pre:7 precursor:2 cleave:2 post:4 transcriptional:5 processing:5 occurs:2 aid:1 snorna:2 derive:3 spliced:1 intron:3 messenger:2 encode:4 relate:5 assembled:1 pass:1 microscope:3 three:2 distinguishable:1 innermost:1 fibrillar:2 fcs:2 dfc:3 turn:2 border:1 granular:1 gc:2 occur:7 either:5 fc:2 increase:1 detect:1 cleavage:3 modification:7 rrnas:1 latter:1 onto:1 sizesstructure:1 namestructure:1 cajal:6 µm:7 pika:4 pml:5 paraspeckles:7 speckle:6 besides:1 non:1 delineated:1 gemini:3 polymorphic:2 karyosomal:2 promyelocytic:2 leukaemia:2 splice:7 little:1 significant:1 mixture:1 rather:3 functional:2 subdomains:1 abnormal:2 example:5 intranuclear:1 rod:2 report:1 nemaline:1 myopathy:1 condition:1 typically:2 actin:2 mutant:2 cytoskeletal:1 gems:1 cb:1 whose:3 measure:2 resemble:1 ball:1 tangle:1 thread:1 focus:2 distribution:2 coilin:1 cbs:6 different:6 specifically:1 snrna:2 maturation:2 gem:5 constellation:1 reference:2 close:2 twin:1 relationship:3 shape:2 fact:1 virtually:1 indistinguishable:1 unlike:1 ribonucleoproteins:1 snrnps:2 survivor:1 motor:1 neuron:1 smn:1 snrnp:2 biogenesis:2 assist:1 though:2 evidence:1 manifestation:1 ptf:2 think:2 replication:3 pmid:6 often:2 localization:2 promote:1 scatter:1 kremer:1 oncogenic:1 fox:1 et:1 al:1 irregularly:1 compartment:2 interchromatin:2 document:1 per:2 human:5 primary:4 transform:1 line:1 tissue:2 para:1 short:2 refers:1 always:1 proximity:1 alter:1 response:3 metabolic:1 dependent:1 pol:2 ii:2 paraspeckle:1 disappears:1 cfi:1 psf:1 crescent:1 perinucleolar:2 cap:3 phenomenon:1 demonstrate:1 except:1 telophase:2 daughter:4 granule:1 cluster:1 rich:1 necessary:2 changing:1 requirement:1 location:3 accord:1 regulation:4 via:1 phosphorylation:2 specific:1 segregate:1 translation:6 level:3 available:1 prokaryote:2 compartmentalization:2 rest:1 cytoplasmic:2 need:3 restrict:1 key:2 participant:1 remove:4 downregulate:1 production:2 enzyme:3 pathway:4 glycolysis:3 break:2 glucose:4 energy:2 hexokinase:2 responsible:2 phosphate:3 high:1 concentration:1 fructose:1 regulator:1 repressor:1 reduce:1 order:4 proteins:3 physical:1 access:4 activate:2 signal:7 even:1 low:1 inappropriate:1 nf:3 κb:3 inflammatory:1 initiate:2 tnf:1 α:1 recruitment:1 eventually:2 localisation:1 stimulate:1 target:1 unspliced:1 contains:2 splicing:4 without:4 newly:2 unprocessed:1 misformed:1 nonfunctional:1 ongoing:1 illustrate:2 grow:2 transcript:4 begin:4 indicate:2 end:4 synthesis:2 almost:1 template:1 since:1 helicases:1 unwind:2 strand:2 topoisomerases:1 amount:2 supercoiling:1 help:1 wind:1 undergo:1 degrade:4 capping:3 polyadenylation:2 heterogeneous:1 ribonucleoprotein:1 particle:1 hnrnps:1 co:1 transcriptionally:1 poly:1 adenine:1 tail:1 added:1 carry:3 spliceosome:1 code:1 exon:3 connect:1 normally:1 mature:4 sequence:2 alternative:1 limited:1 right:1 ran:2 gtp:2 entry:1 tightly:1 translocate:1 amino:2 ability:1 gtpases:1 hydrolyze:1 guanosine:2 triphosphate:1 release:2 gtpase:1 gdp:1 diphosphate:1 whether:1 whereas:1 rangtp:4 dissociate:1 import:2 importin:3 act:2 reuse:1 exportin:1 specialize:1 translocation:1 trna:1 quality:1 mi:2 incomplete:1 excision:1 incorporation:1 could:2 negative:1 consequence:2 incompletely:1 modify:1 disassembly:2 image:5 newt:1 lung:2 metaphase:2 mitotic:1 spindle:1 set:3 light:1 plate:1 lifetime:1 may:2 apoptosis:5 regulated:1 death:2 event:2 systematically:1 divide:2 possible:1 full:1 segregation:1 replicated:1 sister:2 chromatid:3 microtubule:2 centrosome:2 pull:1 unable:1 early:5 prophase:1 prometaphase:1 dismantle:1 likewise:1 period:1 reform:1 reassemble:1 dephosphorylating:1 controlled:1 destroy:1 affect:1 condensation:1 disintegration:1 destruction:1 specialized:1 apoptotic:3 protease:1 caspase:3 laboratory:1 indicator:1 assay:1 resistant:1 deficient:1 degradation:1 inhibition:1 inducer:1 virus:6 replicate:2 herpesvirus:1 bud:1 accompany:2 anucleated:4 polynucleated:4 blood:3 mammal:1 lack:3 normal:2 others:1 nuclei:2 faulty:1 incapable:1 erythrocyte:4 serf:1 primarily:1 vessel:1 ferry:1 oxygen:1 erythropoiesis:1 bone:1 marrow:1 lose:1 expel:1 differentiation:1 erythroblast:1 reticulocyte:1 immediate:1 mutagen:1 immature:1 micronucleated:1 bloodstream:1 arise:2 flaw:1 acantharean:1 protozoa:1 fungi:1 mycorrhizae:1 naturally:1 intestinal:1 parasite:1 genus:1 giardia:1 skeletal:1 muscle:1 myocytes:1 near:1 periphery:1 maximal:1 intracellular:1 myofibril:1 multinucleated:2 fusion:1 monocyte:1 macrophage:1 giant:1 inflammation:1 implicate:1 tumor:1 formation:1 evolution:3 major:2 characteristic:1 evolutionary:1 origin:6 subject:1 speculation:1 four:1 explain:6 existence:2 none:1 yet:1 earn:1 widespread:1 syntrophic:1 symbiotic:1 archaea:6 bacteria:6 create:1 hypothesize:1 symbiosis:1 originate:4 ancient:1 modern:4 methanogenic:1 invade:1 live:1 myxobacteria:2 analogous:1 accepted:1 chloroplast:1 endosymbiotic:2 proto:2 eukaryote:5 aerobic:1 archaeal:1 eukarya:2 motile:1 multicellular:1 posse:2 kinase:1 bacterial:1 second:2 evolve:5 base:2 planctomycetes:1 primitive:1 compartmentalize:1 proposal:3 state:1 chronocyte:1 phagocytosed:1 controversial:1 viral:5 eukaryogenesis:3 posit:1 along:1 feature:1 infection:1 suggestion:1 similarity:2 tight:1 analogize:1 phagocytosis:1 predator:1 bell:2 pj:2 ancestor:1 j:4 mol:2 biol:2 sep:1 variant:2 infect:1 poxvirus:3 basis:1 observed:1 polymerases:1 takemura:1 evol:1 unresolved:1 question:1 sex:2 hypothesis:2 consistent:1 ancestry:1 theor:1 november:1 finally:1 recent:1 traditional:1 endosymbiont:1 insufficiently:1 powerful:1 term:1 exomembrane:1 ancestral:1 exterior:1 original:1 increasingly:1 elaborate:1 internally:1 far:1 read:1 review:5 article:4 various:2 principle:1 pathways:1 university:2 textbook:1 external:1 link:2 cellnucleus:1 com:1 website:1 covering:1 department:1 oncology:1 alberta:1 database:1 collection:1 video:3 library:2 american:2 peer:1 still:1 clip:1 landmark:1 paper:2 joseph:1 gall:1 richard:1 mcintosh:1 eds:1 digitized:1 commentary:1 seminal:1 research:1 http:1 cellimages:1 ascb:1 org:1 pattern:1 gallery:1 |@bigram subcellular_component:1 organelle_nucleolus:1 nucleolus_nucleus:2 nucleus_ribosome:2 vesicle_rough:1 rough_endoplasmic:2 endoplasmic_reticulum:2 reticulum_er:1 er_golgi:1 golgi_apparatus:1 apparatus_cytoskeleton:1 cytoskeleton_smooth:1 smooth_er:1 mitochondrion_vacuole:1 vacuole_cytoplasm:1 cytoplasm_lysosome:1 lysosome_centriole:1 eukaryotic_cell:9 nuclear_envelope:12 nuclear_lamina:7 nuclear_pore:9 linnean_society:1 rudolf_virchow:1 sea_urchin:1 ernst_haeckel:1 august_weismann:1 maternal_paternal:1 outer_membrane:2 nucleic_acid:1 ribosomal_subunit:4 steroid_hormone:1 lipid_soluble:1 fluorescence_microscopy:1 inhibit_transcription:1 coiled_coil:1 stain_fluorescent:2 situ_hybridization:1 autoimmune_disease:2 systemic_lupus:1 lupus_erythematosus:1 multiple_sclerosis:1 electron_micrograph:1 ribosomal_rna:2 rna_polymerase:2 post_transcriptional:4 messenger_rna:2 electron_microscope:2 fc_fc:1 cajal_body:6 motor_neuron:1 dna_replication:1 replication_transcription:1 et_al:1 irregularly_shaped:1 rna_pol:2 pre_mrna:6 glucose_phosphate:2 nf_κb:3 eukaryotic_mrna:1 rna_mrna:1 strand_dna:1 transcriptional_modification:3 mature_mrna:2 alternative_splicing:1 amino_acid:2 nucleus_cytoplasm:2 guanosine_triphosphate:1 fluorescent_dye:1 mitotic_spindle:1 metaphase_plate:1 sister_chromatid:2 structural_integrity:1 dna_rna:1 organelle_mitochondrion:1 bone_marrow:1 skeletal_muscle:1 symbiotic_relationship:1 archaea_bacteria:2 methanogenic_archaea:1 mitochondrion_chloroplast:1 aerobic_bacteria:1 viral_envelope:1 mol_biol:1 external_link:1 peer_review:1 video_clip:1 |
3,424 | Malachi | The Prophet Malachi, painting by Duccio di Buoninsegna, c. 1310 (Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Siena Cathedral). Malachi, Malachias or Mal'achi () was a prophet in the Bible, the Jewish Tanakh and Christian Old Testament . He was the last of the minor prophets of David, and the writer of the Book of Malachi, the last book of the Christian edition Old Testament canon (Book of Malachi ), and is the last book of the Neviim (prophets) section in the Jewish Tanakh. No allusion is made to him by Ezra, however, and he does not directly mention the restoration of the temple. The editors of the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia inferred that he prophesied after Haggai and Zechariah (; , ) and speculated that he delivered his prophecies about 420 BC, after the second return of Nehemiah from Persia (Book of Nehemiah), or possibly before his return, comparing with ; with ). In Rabbinic Judaism Malachi is identified with Mordecai by Rav Nachman and with Ezra by Joshua b. Karcha (Meg. 15a). The Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel to the words "By the hand of Malachi" (i. 1) gives the gloss "Whose name is called Ezra the scribe. According to Soṭah 48b, when Malachi died ruach hakodesh departed from Israel. According to the tractate Rosh Hashanah 19b, he was one of the three prophets. In Christianity Russian Orthodox icon of the prophet Malachi, 18th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). Early Christian writings Jerome,in his preface to his commentary on Malachi Prefaces to the Commentaries on the Minor Prophets, Jerome, 406: The Jews, the Preface says, believe Malachi to be a name for Ezra. Origen and his followers believe that (according to his name) he was an angel. But we reject this view altogether, lest we be compelled to accept the doctrine of the fall of souls from heaven. , mentions that in his day the belief was current that Malachi was identical with Ezra ("Malachi Hebræi Esdram Existimant"). He also rejects and attributes to Origen the view that Malachi was an angel according to his name. A tradition preserved in pseudo-Epiphanius (De Vitis Proph.) relates that Malachi was of the tribe of Zebulun, and was born after the Captivity. According to the same apocryphal story he died young, and was buried in his own country with his fathers. Christian liturgy On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, his feast day is January 3. He is commemorated with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. In contemporary Biblical criticism According to the editors of the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary Malachi at the Easton's Bible Dictionary , the name is not a "nomen proprium" and is assumed to be an abbreviation of ("messenger of Yhwh"), which conforms to the Μαλαχίας of the Septuagint and the "Malachias" of the Vulgate. The Septuagint superscription is ὲν χειρὶ ἀγγήλου αὐτοῦ, (by the hand of his messenger). References External links Prophet Malachi Orthodox icon and synaxarion | Malachi |@lemmatized prophet:9 malachi:16 painting:1 duccio:1 di:1 buoninsegna:1 c:1 museo:1 dell:1 opera:1 del:1 duomo:1 siena:1 cathedral:1 malachias:2 mal:1 achi:1 bible:3 jewish:3 tanakh:2 christian:4 old:2 testament:2 last:3 minor:3 david:1 writer:1 book:5 edition:1 canon:1 neviim:1 section:1 allusion:1 make:1 ezra:5 however:1 directly:1 mention:2 restoration:1 temple:1 editor:2 encyclopedia:1 infer:1 prophesy:1 haggai:1 zechariah:1 speculate:1 deliver:1 prophecy:1 bc:1 second:1 return:2 nehemiah:2 persia:1 possibly:1 compare:1 rabbinic:1 judaism:1 identify:1 mordecai:1 rav:1 nachman:1 joshua:1 b:1 karcha:1 meg:1 targum:1 jonathan:1 ben:1 uzziel:1 word:1 hand:2 give:1 gloss:1 whose:1 name:5 call:1 scribe:1 accord:6 soṭah:1 die:2 ruach:1 hakodesh:1 depart:1 israel:1 tractate:1 rosh:1 hashanah:1 one:1 three:1 christianity:1 russian:1 orthodox:3 icon:2 century:1 iconostasis:1 kizhi:1 monastery:1 karelia:1 russia:1 early:1 writing:1 jerome:2 preface:3 commentary:2 jew:1 say:1 believe:2 origen:2 follower:1 angel:2 reject:2 view:2 altogether:1 l:1 compel:1 accept:1 doctrine:1 fall:1 soul:1 heaven:1 day:2 belief:1 current:1 identical:1 hebræi:1 esdram:1 existimant:1 also:1 attribute:1 tradition:1 preserve:1 pseudo:1 epiphanius:1 de:1 vitis:1 proph:1 relate:1 tribe:1 zebulun:1 bear:1 captivity:1 apocryphal:1 story:1 young:1 bury:1 country:1 father:1 liturgy:1 eastern:1 liturgical:1 calendar:2 feast:1 january:1 commemorate:1 saint:1 armenian:1 apostolic:1 church:1 july:1 contemporary:1 biblical:1 criticism:1 easton:2 dictionary:2 nomen:1 proprium:1 assume:1 abbreviation:1 messenger:2 yhwh:1 conform:1 μαλαχίας:1 septuagint:2 vulgate:1 superscription:1 ὲν:1 χειρὶ:1 ἀγγήλου:1 αὐτοῦ:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 synaxarion:1 |@bigram del_duomo:1 haggai_zechariah:1 rabbinic_judaism:1 ezra_scribe:1 rosh_hashanah:1 iconostasis_kizhi:1 kizhi_monastery:1 monastery_karelia:1 karelia_russia:1 eastern_orthodox:1 liturgical_calendar:1 armenian_apostolic:1 easton_bible:2 external_link:1 icon_synaxarion:1 |
3,425 | Condensed_matter_physics | Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding and electromagnetic force between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include the superfluid and the Bose-Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperatures, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices. Condensed matter physics is that branch of physics which deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter namely, solid and liquid, when their constituents are large and strong. Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics. Much progress has also been made in theoretical condensed matter physics. By one estimate, one third of all United States physicists identify themselves as condensed matter physicists. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term "condensed matter physics" was apparently coined in 1967 by Philip Anderson and Volker Heine when they renamed their research group at Cavendish Laboratory - previously "solid-state theory". In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics at the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics. Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering. One of the reasons for calling the field "condensed matter physics" is that many of the concepts and techniques developed for studying solids actually apply to fluid systems. For instance, the conduction electrons in an electrical conductor form a type of quantum fluid with essentially the same properties as fluids made up of atoms. In fact, the phenomenon of superconductivity, in which the electrons condense into a new fluid phase in which they can flow without dissipation, is very closely analogous to the superfluid phase found in He 4 at low temperatures and He 3 when two of these atoms pair and thus take on boson properties. Topics in condensed matter physics Phases Generic phases - Gas(* uncondensed); Liquid; Solid Low temperature phases - Bose-Einstein condensate; Fermi gas; Fermi liquid; Fermionic condensate; Luttinger liquid; Superfluid; Composite fermions; Supersolid Phase phenomena - Order parameter; Phase transition; Cooling curve Interfaces Surface tension Domain growth - Nucleation; Spinodal decomposition Interfacial growth - Dendritic growth; Solidification fronts; Viscous fingering Crystalline solids Types - Insulator; Metal; Semiconductor; Semimetal Electronic properties - Band gap; Bloch wave; Conduction band; Effective mass (solid-state physics); Electrical conduction; Electron hole; Valence band Electronic phenomena - Kondo effect; Plasmon; Quantum Hall effect; Superconductivity; Wigner crystal; Thermoelectricity Lattice phenomena - Antiferromagnet; Ferroelectric effect; Ferromagnet; Magnon; Phonon; Spin glass; Topological defect; Multiferroics Non-crystalline solids Types -Amorphous solid; Granular matter; Quasicrystals Soft condensed matter Types - Liquid crystals; Polymers; Complex fluids; Gels; Foams; Emulsions; Colloids Nanotechnology Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) Magnetic Resonance Force Microscopy Heat Transport in Nanoscale Systems Spin Transport'' See also Quantum field theory Green–Kubo relations Green's function (many-body theory) Materials Science Physics of glass Molecular modeling software Transparent materials References | Condensed_matter_physics |@lemmatized condensed:9 matter:15 physic:17 field:4 deal:2 macroscopic:2 microscopic:1 physical:3 property:5 particular:1 concern:1 condense:7 phase:12 appear:1 whenever:1 number:1 constituent:3 system:5 extremely:1 large:4 interaction:1 strong:2 familiar:1 example:1 solid:11 liquid:6 arise:1 bonding:1 electromagnetic:1 force:2 atom:3 exotic:1 include:1 superfluid:3 bose:2 einstein:2 condensate:3 find:2 certain:2 atomic:2 low:3 temperature:3 superconducting:1 exhibit:1 conduction:4 electron:4 material:4 ferromagnetic:1 antiferromagnetic:1 spin:3 lattice:2 branch:1 namely:1 far:1 contemporary:1 much:1 progress:1 also:2 make:2 theoretical:1 one:4 estimate:1 third:1 united:1 state:5 physicist:2 identify:1 historically:1 grow:1 consider:1 main:1 subfields:1 term:1 apparently:1 coin:1 philip:1 anderson:1 volker:1 heine:1 rename:2 research:1 group:1 cavendish:1 laboratory:1 previously:1 theory:3 division:2 american:1 society:1 overlap:1 chemistry:1 science:2 nanotechnology:2 engineering:1 reason:1 call:1 many:2 concept:1 technique:1 develop:1 study:1 actually:1 apply:1 fluid:5 instance:1 electrical:2 conductor:1 form:1 type:4 quantum:3 essentially:1 fact:1 phenomenon:4 superconductivity:2 new:1 flow:1 without:1 dissipation:1 closely:1 analogous:1 two:1 pair:1 thus:1 take:1 boson:1 topic:1 generic:1 gas:2 uncondensed:1 fermi:2 fermionic:1 luttinger:1 composite:1 fermion:1 supersolid:1 order:1 parameter:1 transition:1 cool:1 curve:1 interface:1 surface:1 tension:1 domain:1 growth:3 nucleation:1 spinodal:1 decomposition:1 interfacial:1 dendritic:1 solidification:1 front:1 viscous:1 finger:1 crystalline:2 insulator:1 metal:1 semiconductor:1 semimetal:1 electronic:2 band:3 gap:1 bloch:1 wave:1 effective:1 mass:1 hole:1 valence:1 kondo:1 effect:3 plasmon:1 hall:1 wigner:1 crystal:2 thermoelectricity:1 antiferromagnet:1 ferroelectric:1 ferromagnet:1 magnon:1 phonon:1 glass:2 topological:1 defect:1 multiferroics:1 non:1 amorphous:1 granular:1 quasicrystals:1 soft:1 polymer:1 complex:1 gel:1 foam:1 emulsion:1 colloid:1 nanoelectromechanical:1 nems:1 magnetic:1 resonance:1 microscopy:1 heat:1 transport:2 nanoscale:1 see:1 green:2 kubo:1 relation:1 function:1 body:1 molecular:1 modeling:1 software:1 transparent:1 reference:1 |@bigram condensed_matter:7 bose_einstein:2 einstein_condensate:2 conduction_electron:3 cavendish_laboratory:1 superfluid_phase:1 crystalline_solid:2 electrical_conduction:1 amorphous_solid:1 magnetic_resonance:1 |
3,426 | Aelianus_Tacticus | Aelianus Tacticus (Gr. ) was a Greek military writer of the 2nd century, resident at Rome. Aelian's military treatise in fifty-three chapters on the tactics of the Greeks, titled "On Tactical Arrays of the Greeks" (), is dedicated to Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the most important of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of , and in the fullness of his technical details in matters of drill. He also gives a brief account of the constitution of a Roman army at that time. The work arose, he says, from a conversation he had with the emperor Nerva at Frontinus's house at Formiae. He promises a work on Naval Tactics also; but this, if it was written, is lost. Critics of the 18th century — Guichard Folard and the Prince de Ligne — were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and later on the Arabs, (who translated the text for their own use), Aelian exercised a great influence. Emperor Leo VI the Wise incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own work on the military art (Τέχνη Τακτική). The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350. It was first translated into Latin by Theorodus of Thessalonica, published in 1487. In spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organizers of the 16th century, who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of pikemen and the squadrons of cavalry of the Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics. Moreover, his works, with those of Xenophon, Polybius, Onasander, Aeneas Tacticus and Arrian, were minutely studied by every soldier of the 16th and 17th centuries who wished to be master of his profession. It has been suggested that Aelian was the real author of most of Arrian's Tactica, and that the Taktike Theoria is a later revision of this original, but the theory is not generally accepted. References Other sources | Aelianus_Tacticus |@lemmatized aelianus:1 tacticus:2 gr:1 greek:4 military:4 writer:1 century:5 resident:1 rome:1 aelian:8 treatise:3 fifty:1 three:1 chapter:1 tactic:4 title:1 tactical:1 array:1 dedicate:1 hadrian:1 though:1 probably:1 mistake:1 trajan:1 date:1 assign:1 handbook:1 e:1 macedonian:2 drill:3 practice:1 hellenistic:1 successor:2 alexander:1 great:2 author:2 claim:1 consult:1 best:1 authority:1 important:1 lost:1 subject:1 polybius:2 perhaps:1 chief:1 value:2 work:6 lie:1 critical:1 account:2 precede:1 art:2 fullness:1 technical:1 detail:2 matter:1 also:2 give:1 brief:1 constitution:1 roman:1 army:2 time:1 arose:1 say:1 conversation:1 emperor:2 nerva:1 frontinus:1 house:1 formiae:1 promise:1 naval:1 write:1 lose:1 critic:1 guichard:1 folard:1 prince:1 de:1 ligne:1 unanimous:1 think:1 greatly:1 inferior:1 arrian:3 immediate:1 byzantine:1 later:1 arab:1 translate:2 text:2 use:1 exercise:1 influence:1 leo:1 vi:1 wise:1 incorporate:1 much:1 τέχνη:1 τακτική:1 arabic:1 version:1 make:2 first:1 latin:1 theorodus:1 thessalonica:1 publish:1 spite:1 academic:1 nature:1 copious:1 find:1 render:1 high:1 organizer:1 engage:1 fashion:1 regular:1 system:3 semi:1 feudal:1 previous:1 generation:1 phalanx:1 many:1 point:1 resemblance:1 solid:1 mass:1 pikemen:1 squadron:1 cavalry:1 spanish:1 dutch:1 translation:1 form:1 groundwork:1 numerous:1 book:1 moreover:1 xenophon:1 onasander:1 aeneas:1 minutely:1 study:1 every:1 soldier:1 wish:1 master:1 profession:1 suggest:1 real:1 tactica:1 taktike:1 theoria:1 late:1 revision:1 original:1 theory:1 generally:1 accept:1 reference:1 source:1 |@bigram |
3,427 | Gambler's_fallacy | The gambler's fallacy, also known as the Monte Carlo fallacy or the fallacy of the maturity of chances, is the belief that if deviations from expected behaviour are observed in repeated independent trials of some random process then these deviations are likely to be evened out by opposite deviations in the future. For example, if a fair coin is tossed repeatedly and tails comes up a larger number of times than is expected, a gambler may incorrectly believe that this means that heads is more likely in future tosses. Such an expectation could be mistakenly referred to as being "due". This is an informal fallacy. The gambler's fallacy implicitly involves an assertion of negative correlation between trials of the random process and therefore involves a denial of the exchangeability of outcomes of the random process. The inverse gambler's fallacy is the belief that an unlikely outcome of a random process (such as rolling double sixes on a pair of dice) implies that the process is likely to have occurred many times before reaching that outcome. An example: coin-tossing The gambler's fallacy can be illustrated by considering the repeated toss of a fair coin. With a fair coin, the outcomes in different tosses are statistically independent and the probability of getting heads on a single toss is exactly (one in two). It follows that the probability of getting two heads in two tosses is (one in four) and the probability of getting three heads in three tosses is (one in eight). In general, if we let be the event that toss of a fair coin comes up heads, then we have, . Now suppose that we have just tossed four heads in a row, so that if the next coin toss were also to come up heads, it would complete a run of five successive heads. Since the probability of a run of five successive heads is only (one in thirty-two), a believer in the gambler's fallacy might believe that this next flip is less likely to be heads than to be tails. However, this is not correct, and is a manifestation of the gambler's fallacy. The probability that the next toss is a head is in fact, . While a run of five heads is only 1 in 32 (0.03125), it is 1 in 32 before the coin is first tossed. After the first four tosses the results are no longer unknown, so they do not count. Reasoning that it is more likely that the next toss will be a tail than a head due to the past tosses—that a run of luck in the past somehow influences the odds in the future—is the fallacy. Explaining why the probability is 1/2 for a fair coin We can see from the above that, if one flips a fair coin 21 times, then the probability of 21 heads is 1 in 2,097,152. However, the probability of flipping a head after having already flipped 20 heads in a row is simply 1 in 2. This is an example of Bayes' theorem. This can also be seen without knowing that 20 heads have occurred for certain (without applying of Bayes' theorem). Consider the following two probabilities, assuming a fair coin: probability of 20 heads, then 1 tail = 0.520 * 0.5 = 0.521 probability of 20 heads, then 1 head = 0.520 * 0.5 = 0.521 The probability of getting 20 heads then 1 tail, and the probability of getting 20 heads then another head are both 1 in 2,097,152. Therefore, it is equally likely to flip 21 heads as it is to flip 20 heads and then 1 tail when flipping a fair coin 21 times. Furthermore, these two probabilities are as equally likely as any other 21-flip combinations that can be obtained (there are 2,097,152 total); all 21-flip combinations will have probabilities equal to 0.521, or 1 in 2,097,152. From these observations, there is no reason to assume at any point that a "change of luck" is warranted based on prior trials (flips), because every outcome observed will always have been equally as likely as the other outcomes that were not observed for that particular trial, given a fair coin. Therefore, just as Bayes' theorem shows, the result of each trial comes down to the base probability of the fair coin: 50%. Other examples There is another way to emphasize the fallacy. As already mentioned, the fallacy is built on the notion that previous failures indicate an increased probability of success on subsequent attempts. This is, in fact, the inverse of what actually happens, even on a fair chance of a successful event, given a set number of iterations. Assume you have a fair 16-sided dice, and a "win" is defined as rolling a 1. Assume a player is given 16 rolls to obtain at least one win (1 - p(rolling no ones)). The low winning odds are just to make the change in probability more noticeable. The probability of having at least one win in the 16 rolls is: 1-(15/16)^16 = 64.4% However, assume now that the first roll was not a win (93.8% chance of that, 15/16). The player now only has 15 rolls left and, according to the fallacy, should have a higher chance of obtaining the "win" since one "loss" has occurred. His chances of having at least one win are now: 1-(15/16)^15 = 62.2% Simply by losing one toss the player's probability of winning dropped by 2%. By the time this reaches 5 losses (11 rolls left), his probability of winning on one of the remaining rolls will have dropped to ~50%. The player's odds for at least one win in those 16 rolls has not increased given a series of losses; his odds have decreased because he has fewer iterations left to pull a "win." In other words, the previous losses in no way contribute to the odds of the remaining attempts, but there are fewer remaining attempts to gain a win, which results in a lower probability of obtaining it. The player becomes more likely to lose in a set number of iterations as he fails to win, and eventually his probability of winning will again equal the probability of winning a single toss, when only one toss is left: 6.2% in this instance. Some lottery players will choose the same numbers every time, or intentionally change their numbers, but both are equally likely to win any individual lottery draw. Copying the numbers that won the previous lottery draw gives an equal probability, although a rational gambler might attempt to predict other players' choices and then deliberately avoid these numbers. Low numbers (below 31 and especially below 12) are popular because people play birthdays as their "lucky numbers"; hence a win in which these numbers are overrepresented is more likely to result in a shared payout. A joke told among mathematicians demonstrates the nature of the fallacy. When flying on an aircraft, a man decides always to bring a bomb with him. "The chances of an aircraft having a bomb on it are very small," he reasons, "and certainly the chances of having two are almost none!" A similar example is in the book The World According to Garp when the hero Garp decides to buy a house a moment after a small plane crashes into it, reasoning that the chances of another plane hitting the house have just dropped to zero. Non-examples of the fallacy There are many scenarios where the gambler's fallacy might superficially seem to apply but does not. When the probability of different events is not independent, the probability of future events can change based on the outcome of past events (see statistical permutation). Formally, the system is said to have memory. An example of this is cards drawn without replacement. For example, once a jack is removed from the deck, the next draw is less likely to be a jack and more likely to be of another rank. Thus, the odds for drawing a jack, assuming that it was the first card drawn and that there are no jokers, have decreased from 4/52 (7.69%) to 3/51 (5.88%), while the odds for each other rank have increased from 4/52 (7.69%) to 4/51 (7.84%). This is how counting cards really works, when playing the game of blackjack. The outcome of future events can be affected if external factors are allowed to change the probability of the events (e.g. changes in the rules of a game affecting a sports team's performance levels). Additionally, an inexperienced player's success may decrease after opposing teams discover his or her weaknesses and exploit them. The player must then attempt to compensate and randomize his strategy. See Game Theory. Many riddles trick the reader into believing that they are an example of Gambler's Fallacy, such as the Monty Hall problem. Non-example: unknown probability of event When the probability of repeated events are not known outcomes may not be equally probable. In the case of coin tossing, as a run of heads gets longer and longer, the likelihood that the coin is biased towards heads increases. If one flips a coin 21 times in a row and obtains 21 heads, one might rationally conclude a high probability of bias towards heads, and hence conclude that future flips of this coin are also highly likely to be heads. In fact, Bayesian inference can be used to show that when the long-run proportion of different outcomes are unknown but exchangeable (meaning that the random process from which they are generated may be biased but is equally likely to be biased in any direction) previous observations demonstrate the likely direction of the bias, such that the outcome which has occurred the most in the observed data is the most likely to occur again O'Neill, B. and Puza, B.D. (2004) Dice have no memories but I do: A defence of the reverse gambler's belief. . Reprinted in abridged form as O'Neill, B. and Puza, B.D. (2005) In defence of the reverse gambler's belief. The Mathematical Scientist 30(1), pp. 13–16. . This is a different situation than the Gambler's Fallacy entirely because this exercise addresses a different question, even though all the parameters of the set may be the same. This exercise is geared to find the posterior probability that the coin being tossed is unfair (biased towards heads) given that we have observed multiple heads. The previous exercises are designed to estimate the posterior probability that a coin will be heads, given that previous tosses were tails and assuming that the coin is in fact fair, as stated in the assumptions of the section. The difference, using Bayes' Theorem on the current (1.) and previous (2.) examples: 1. p(unfair | heads^x) or the probability that a coin is unfair given you see x many heads 2. p(heads | fair, !heads^x) or the probability that you will get a heads given you already got x tails The equation for 2. will always reduce to: p(heads | fair,!heads^x) = p(heads)/p(!heads^x) * p(!heads^x | heads) Now, since p(!heads^x) and p(heads) are mutually independent: p(!heads^x | heads) = p(heads)*p(!heads^x)/p(heads) Therefore, the equation cancels out everything except the term p(heads), leaving only: p(heads | fair,!heads^x) = p(heads) or the probability of getting a heads, given a fair coin that previously rolled x tails is equal to the probability of getting a heads. This equation is also readily adapted to disprove the Inverse Gambler's Fallacy using the same proof. Performing the same operations on equation 1. yields: p(unfair | !heads^x) = p(unfair)/p(!heads^x) * p(!heads^x | unfair) However, equation 1 does not simplify in the same manner because of the definition of p(!heads^x|unfair). Namely, because unfairness is defined by the presence of biased streaks. Therefore, the components !heads^x and unfairness are not mutually independent events. They share information; knowing one of the two tells you something about the other. Therefore, observing streaks of bias lend evidence to the notion that the coin itself is unfair. The accuracy of this prediction depends on the sample size. This shows that the presented problem is not the same as Gambler's Fallacy (previous failures indicate increased probability of winning given a fair coin) or Inverse Gambler's Fallacy (a rare win occurring implies previous occurrences given a fair coin). This exercise is an estimation of the probability that the coin itself is indeed fair given a string of observances. Psychology behind the fallacy Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman proposed that the gambler's fallacy is a cognitive bias produced by a psychological heuristic called the representativeness heuristic . According to this view, "after observing a long run of red on the roulette wheel, for example, most people erroneously believe that black will result in a more representative sequence than the occurrence of an additional red," Tversky & Kahneman, 1974. so people expect that a short run of random outcomes should share properties of a longer run, specifically in that deviations from average should balance out. When people are asked to make up a random-looking sequence of coin tosses, they tend to make sequences where the proportion of heads to tails stays close to 0.5 in any short segment more so than would be predicted by chance ; Kahneman and Tversky interpret this to mean that people believe short sequences of random events should be representative of longer ones Tversky & Kahneman, 1971. . The representativeness heuristic is also cited behind the related phenomenon of the clustering illusion, according to which people see streaks of random events as being non-random when such streaks are actually much more likely to occur in small samples than people expect . See also Availability heuristic Illusion of control Gambler's conceit Gambler's ruin Martingale (betting system) Law of averages Statistical regularity References | Gambler's_fallacy |@lemmatized gambler:19 fallacy:23 also:7 know:4 monte:1 carlo:1 maturity:1 chance:9 belief:4 deviation:4 expect:4 behaviour:1 observe:6 repeated:2 independent:5 trial:5 random:10 process:6 likely:18 even:3 opposite:1 future:6 example:12 fair:20 coin:27 toss:22 repeatedly:1 tail:10 come:4 large:1 number:10 time:7 may:5 incorrectly:1 believe:5 mean:3 head:63 expectation:1 could:1 mistakenly:1 refer:1 due:2 informal:1 implicitly:1 involve:2 assertion:1 negative:1 correlation:1 therefore:6 denial:1 exchangeability:1 outcome:12 inverse:4 unlikely:1 roll:11 double:1 six:1 pair:1 dice:3 imply:1 occur:7 many:4 reach:2 illustrate:1 consider:2 repeat:1 different:5 statistically:1 probability:39 get:10 single:2 exactly:1 one:18 two:8 follow:2 four:3 three:2 eight:1 general:1 let:1 event:12 suppose:1 row:3 next:5 would:2 complete:1 run:9 five:3 successive:2 since:3 thirty:1 believer:1 might:4 flip:12 less:2 however:4 correct:1 manifestation:1 fact:4 first:4 result:5 longer:3 unknown:3 count:1 reason:4 past:3 luck:2 somehow:1 influence:1 odds:7 explain:1 see:7 already:3 simply:2 bayes:4 theorem:4 without:3 certain:1 apply:2 assume:7 another:4 equally:6 furthermore:1 combination:2 obtain:5 total:1 equal:4 observation:2 point:1 change:6 warrant:1 base:3 prior:1 every:2 always:3 particular:1 give:13 show:3 way:2 emphasize:1 mention:1 build:1 notion:2 previous:9 failure:2 indicate:2 increased:1 success:2 subsequent:1 attempt:5 actually:2 happen:1 successful:1 set:3 iteration:3 side:1 win:19 define:2 player:9 least:4 p:21 low:3 winning:1 make:3 noticeable:1 leave:5 accord:4 high:2 loss:4 lose:2 drop:3 remain:3 increase:4 series:1 decrease:3 pull:1 word:1 contribute:1 gain:1 become:1 fail:1 eventually:1 instance:1 lottery:3 choose:1 intentionally:1 individual:1 draw:5 copy:1 although:1 rational:1 predict:2 choice:1 deliberately:1 avoid:1 especially:1 popular:1 people:7 play:2 birthday:1 lucky:1 hence:2 overrepresented:1 share:3 payout:1 joke:1 tell:2 among:1 mathematician:1 demonstrate:2 nature:1 fly:1 aircraft:2 man:1 decide:2 bring:1 bomb:2 small:3 certainly:1 almost:1 none:1 similar:1 book:1 world:1 garp:2 hero:1 buy:1 house:2 moment:1 plane:2 crash:1 hit:1 zero:1 non:3 scenario:1 superficially:1 seem:1 statistical:2 permutation:1 formally:1 system:2 say:1 memory:2 card:3 replacement:1 jack:3 remove:1 deck:1 rank:2 thus:1 drawn:1 joker:1 counting:1 really:1 work:1 game:3 blackjack:1 affect:2 external:1 factor:1 allow:1 e:1 g:1 rule:1 sport:1 team:2 performance:1 level:1 additionally:1 inexperienced:1 oppose:1 discover:1 weakness:1 exploit:1 must:1 compensate:1 randomize:1 strategy:1 theory:1 riddle:1 trick:1 reader:1 monty:1 hall:1 problem:2 probable:1 case:1 tossing:1 long:4 likelihood:1 bias:7 towards:3 rationally:1 conclude:2 highly:1 bayesian:1 inference:1 use:3 proportion:2 exchangeable:1 generate:1 direction:2 observed:1 data:1 neill:2 b:4 puza:2 defence:2 reverse:2 reprint:1 abridged:1 form:1 mathematical:1 scientist:1 pp:1 situation:1 entirely:1 exercise:4 address:1 question:1 though:1 parameter:1 gear:1 find:1 posterior:2 unfair:8 biased:2 multiple:1 design:1 estimate:1 state:1 assumption:1 section:1 difference:1 current:1 x:17 equation:5 reduce:1 mutually:2 cancel:1 everything:1 except:1 term:1 previously:1 readily:1 adapt:1 disprove:1 proof:1 perform:1 operation:1 yield:1 simplify:1 manner:1 definition:1 namely:1 unfairness:2 presence:1 streak:4 component:1 information:1 something:1 lend:1 evidence:1 accuracy:1 prediction:1 depend:1 sample:2 size:1 present:1 rare:1 implies:1 occurrence:2 estimation:1 indeed:1 string:1 observance:1 psychology:1 behind:2 amos:1 tversky:4 daniel:1 kahneman:4 propose:1 cognitive:1 produce:1 psychological:1 heuristic:4 call:1 representativeness:2 view:1 red:2 roulette:1 wheel:1 erroneously:1 black:1 representative:2 sequence:4 additional:1 short:3 property:1 specifically:1 average:2 balance:1 ask:1 look:1 tend:1 stay:1 close:1 segment:1 interpret:1 cite:1 related:1 phenomenon:1 cluster:1 illusion:2 much:1 availability:1 control:1 conceit:1 ruin:1 martingale:1 bet:1 law:1 regularity:1 reference:1 |@bigram gambler_fallacy:13 monte_carlo:1 coin_toss:5 informal_fallacy:1 inverse_gambler:3 bayes_theorem:4 accord_garp:1 equally_probable:1 bayesian_inference:1 posterior_probability:2 roulette_wheel:1 |
3,428 | Geography_of_the_Central_African_Republic | |Map Of Central African Republic Topography of Central African Republic Location: Central Africa, north of Democratic Republic of the Congo Geographic coordinates: Map references: Africa Area: total: 622,984 km² land: 622,984 km² water: 0 km² Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas Land boundaries: total: 5,203 km border countries: Cameroon 797 km, Chad 1,197 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,577 km, Republic of the Congo 467 km, Sudan 1,165 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Climate: Tropical; hot, dry winters; mild to hot, wet summers Terrain: vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest Elevation extremes: lowest point: Oubangui River 335 m highest point: Mont Ngaoui 1,420 m Natural resources: diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, petroleum, hydropower Land use: arable land: 3% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 5% forests and woodland: 75% other: 17% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: NA km² Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common Environment - current issues: tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea Geography - note: landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa The Central African Republic is a land-locked nation within the interior of the African continent. It is bordered by the countries of Cameroon, Chad, the Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo. Much of the country consists of flat, or rolling plateau savanna, typically about 1,640 feet (500 m) above sea level. In the northeast are the Fertit Hills, and there are scattered hills in southwest part of the country. To the northwest is the Yade Massif, a granite plateau with an altitude of 3,750 feet (1,143 m). At 240,519 mi² (622,984 km²), the Central African Republic is the world's 43rd-largest country (after Somalia). It is comparable in size to Ukraine, and is somewhat smaller than the US state of Texas. Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the Congo River, with the Mbomou River in the east merging with the Uele River to form the Ubangi River. In the west, the Sangha River flows through part of the country. The eastern border lies along the edge of the Nile river watershed. Estimates of the amount of the country covered by forest ranges up to 8%, with the densest parts in the south. The forest is highly diverse, and includes commercially important species of Ayous, Sapelli and Sipo.[10] The deforestation rate is 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace. The climate of the C.A.R. is generally tropical. The northern areas are subject to harmattan winds, which are hot, dry, and carry dust. The northern regions have been subject to desertification, and the northeast is desert. The remainder of the country is prone to flooding from nearby rivers. See also Central African Republic | Geography_of_the_Central_African_Republic |@lemmatized map:2 central:6 african:6 republic:10 topography:1 location:1 africa:3 north:1 democratic:3 congo:6 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:1 area:4 total:2 land:6 water:2 comparative:1 slightly:1 small:2 texas:2 boundary:1 km:7 border:4 country:8 cameroon:2 chad:2 sudan:2 coastline:1 landlocked:3 maritime:1 claim:1 none:1 climate:3 tropical:3 hot:4 dry:3 winter:1 mild:1 wet:1 summer:1 terrain:1 vast:1 flat:2 roll:2 monotonous:1 plateau:3 scatter:1 hill:3 northeast:3 southwest:2 elevation:1 extreme:1 low:1 point:2 oubangui:1 river:8 high:1 mont:1 ngaoui:1 natural:2 resource:1 diamond:1 uranium:1 timber:2 gold:1 petroleum:1 hydropower:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:3 woodland:1 est:1 irrigated:1 na:1 hazard:1 dusty:1 harmattan:2 wind:2 affect:1 northern:3 flood:2 common:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 tap:1 potable:1 poaching:2 diminish:1 reputation:1 one:1 last:1 great:1 wildlife:1 refuge:1 desertification:3 deforestation:2 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 endanger:1 specie:2 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 sign:1 ratify:1 law:1 sea:2 geography:1 note:1 almost:1 precise:1 center:1 lock:1 nation:1 within:1 interior:1 continent:1 much:2 consist:1 savanna:1 typically:1 foot:2 level:1 fertit:1 scattered:1 part:3 northwest:1 yade:1 massif:1 granite:1 altitude:1 world:1 large:1 somalia:1 comparable:1 size:1 ukraine:1 somewhat:1 u:1 state:1 southern:1 form:2 tributary:1 mbomou:1 east:1 merging:1 uele:1 ubangi:1 west:1 sangha:1 flow:1 eastern:1 lie:1 along:1 edge:1 nile:1 watershed:1 estimate:1 amount:1 cover:1 range:1 densest:1 south:1 highly:1 diverse:1 include:1 commercially:1 important:1 ayous:1 sapelli:1 sipo:1 rate:1 per:1 annum:1 lumber:1 commonplace:1 c:1 r:1 generally:1 subject:2 carry:1 dust:1 region:1 desert:1 remainder:1 prone:1 nearby:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram republic_congo:5 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 landlocked_maritime:1 none_landlocked:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 dry_dusty:1 dusty_harmattan:1 harmattan_wind:2 wildlife_refuge:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 ozone_layer:1 tropical_timber:1 ubangi_river:1 per_annum:1 |
3,429 | Arteriovenous_malformation | Arteriovenous malformation or AVM is an abnormal connection between veins and arteries, usually congenital. This pathology is widely known because of its occurrence in the central nervous system, but can appear in any location. The genetic transmission patterns of AVM, if any, are unknown. AVM is not generally thought to be an inherited disorder, unless in the context of a specific hereditary syndrome. Signs and symptoms Symptoms of AVM vary according to the location of the malformation. Roughly 88% National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke of people affected with AVM are asymptomatic; often the malformation is discovered as part of an autopsy or during treatment of an unrelated disorder (called in medicine an incidental finding); in rare cases its expansion or a micro-bleed from it can cause epilepsy, deficit or pain. The most general symptoms include headache and epilepsy, with more specific symptoms occurring that normally depend on the location of the malformation and the individual. Such possible symptoms include: Difficulties with movement or coordination, including muscle weakness and even paralysis; vertigo (dizziness); Difficulties of speech (dysarthria) and communication, such as alogia; Difficulties with everyday activities, such as apraxia; Abnormal sensations (numbness, tingling, or spontaneous pain); Memory and thought-related problems, such as confusion, dementia or hallucinations. Pathophysiology Arteries and veins are part of the human cardiovascular system. Normally, the arteries in the vascular system carry oxygen-rich blood. Structurally, arteries divide and sub-divide repeatedly, eventually forming a sponge-like capillary bed. Blood moves through the capillaries, giving up oxygen and taking up waste products, including , from the surrounding cells. Capillaries in turn successively join together to form veins that carry blood away. The heart acts to pump blood through arteries and uptake the venous blood. If the capillary bed is thought of as a sponge, then an AVM is the rough equivalent of jamming a tangle of flexible soda straws through that sponge from artery to vein. On arteriogram films, an AVM often resembles a tangle of spaghetti noodles. This tangle of blood vessels, often called a nidus (Latin for "nest") has no capillaries and abnormally direct connections between high-pressure arteries and low-pressure veins. It can be extremely fragile and prone to bleeding. Diagnosis AVMs can occur in various parts of the body brain, causing a cerebral arteriovenous malformation spleen lung kidney spinal cord liver intercostal space iris spermatic cord AVMs may occur in isolation or as a part of another disease (e.g. Von Hippel-Lindau disease or hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia). Bleeding from an AVM can be devastating, particularly in the brain. It can cause severe and often fatal strokes. If a cerebral AVM is detected before a stroke occurs, usually the arteries feeding blood into the nidus can be closed off to avert the danger. Treatment Treatment can be symptomatic, or it can involve surgery or radiation therapy. Embolization, that is, cutting off the blood supply to the AVM with coils or particles or glue introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, can be used in addition to either, but is rarely successful in isolation. Epidemiology An estimated 300,000 Americans have AVMs, of whom 12% (approximately 36,000) will exhibit symptoms of greatly varying severity. Society and culture On December 13, 2006, Senator Tim Johnson was diagnosed with AVM and treated at George Washington University Hospital. "Sen. Johnson recovering after brain surgery", AP, December 14, 2006. Cases in fiction The plot of William Finn's 1998 Off-Broadway musical A New Brain revolves around the main character's battle with AVM. The character Nate Fisher on the HBO television show Six Feet Under suffers from AVM. Patients with AVM appeared in an episode of the series House entitled "DNR" as well as in a fictional British medical show called Harley Street. The protagonist of Robert J. Sawyer's novel Mindscan suffers from an AVM that threatens to reduce him to a permanent vegetative state. Research directions Despite many years of research, the central question of whether to treat AVMs has not been answered. All treatments, whether involving surgery, radiation, or drugs, have risks and side-effects. Therefore it might be better in some cases to avoid treatment altogether and simply accept a small risk of coming to harm from the AVM itself. This question is currently being addressed in clinical trials Research trials in arterio-venous malformations; Rustam Al-Shahi Salman . See also Foix-Alajouanine syndrome References External links AVM Support Groups from the DMOZ Open Directory. University of California San Francisco AVM research. | Arteriovenous_malformation |@lemmatized arteriovenous:2 malformation:6 avm:18 abnormal:2 connection:2 vein:5 artery:8 usually:2 congenital:1 pathology:1 widely:1 know:1 occurrence:1 central:2 nervous:1 system:3 appear:2 location:3 genetic:1 transmission:1 pattern:1 unknown:1 generally:1 think:3 inherited:1 disorder:3 unless:1 context:1 specific:2 hereditary:2 syndrome:2 sign:1 symptom:6 vary:2 accord:1 roughly:1 national:1 institute:1 neurological:1 stroke:3 people:1 affect:1 asymptomatic:1 often:4 discover:1 part:4 autopsy:1 treatment:5 unrelated:1 call:3 medicine:1 incidental:1 finding:1 rare:1 case:3 expansion:1 micro:1 bleed:2 cause:3 epilepsy:2 deficit:1 pain:2 general:1 include:4 headache:1 occur:4 normally:2 depend:1 individual:1 possible:1 difficulty:3 movement:1 coordination:1 muscle:1 weakness:1 even:1 paralysis:1 vertigo:1 dizziness:1 speech:1 dysarthria:1 communication:1 alogia:1 everyday:1 activity:1 apraxia:1 sensation:1 numbness:1 tingle:1 spontaneous:1 memory:1 relate:1 problem:1 confusion:1 dementia:1 hallucination:1 pathophysiology:1 human:1 cardiovascular:1 vascular:1 carry:2 oxygen:2 rich:1 blood:8 structurally:1 divide:2 sub:1 repeatedly:1 eventually:1 form:2 sponge:3 like:1 capillary:5 bed:2 move:1 give:1 take:1 waste:1 product:1 surround:1 cell:1 turn:1 successively:1 join:1 together:1 away:1 heart:1 act:1 pump:1 uptake:1 venous:2 rough:1 equivalent:1 jam:1 tangle:3 flexible:1 soda:1 straw:1 arteriogram:1 film:1 resemble:1 spaghetti:1 noodle:1 vessel:1 nidus:2 latin:1 nest:1 abnormally:1 direct:1 high:1 pressure:2 low:1 extremely:1 fragile:1 prone:1 bleeding:1 diagnosis:1 avms:4 various:1 body:1 brain:4 cerebral:2 spleen:1 lung:1 kidney:1 spinal:1 cord:2 liver:1 intercostal:1 space:1 iris:1 spermatic:1 may:1 isolation:2 another:1 disease:2 e:1 g:1 von:1 hippel:1 lindau:1 hemorrhagic:1 telangiectasia:1 devastating:1 particularly:1 severe:1 fatal:1 detect:1 feed:1 close:1 avert:1 danger:1 symptomatic:1 involve:2 surgery:3 radiation:2 therapy:1 embolization:1 cut:1 supply:1 coil:1 particle:1 glue:1 introduce:1 radiographically:1 guide:1 catheter:1 use:1 addition:1 either:1 rarely:1 successful:1 epidemiology:1 estimated:1 american:1 approximately:1 exhibit:1 greatly:1 severity:1 society:1 culture:1 december:2 senator:1 tim:1 johnson:2 diagnose:1 treat:2 george:1 washington:1 university:2 hospital:1 sen:1 recover:1 ap:1 fiction:1 plot:1 william:1 finn:1 broadway:1 musical:1 new:1 revolves:1 around:1 main:1 character:2 battle:1 nate:1 fisher:1 hbo:1 television:1 show:2 six:1 foot:1 suffers:2 patient:1 episode:1 series:1 house:1 entitle:1 dnr:1 well:2 fictional:1 british:1 medical:1 harley:1 street:1 protagonist:1 robert:1 j:1 sawyer:1 novel:1 mindscan:1 threaten:1 reduce:1 permanent:1 vegetative:1 state:1 research:4 direction:1 despite:1 many:1 year:1 question:2 whether:2 answer:1 drug:1 risk:2 side:1 effect:1 therefore:1 might:1 avoid:1 altogether:1 simply:1 accept:1 small:1 come:1 harm:1 currently:1 address:1 clinical:1 trial:2 arterio:1 rustam:1 al:1 shahi:1 salman:1 see:1 also:1 foix:1 alajouanine:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 support:1 group:1 dmoz:1 open:1 directory:1 california:1 san:1 francisco:1 |@bigram arteriovenous_malformation:2 vein_artery:1 neurological_disorder:1 muscle_weakness:1 artery_vein:2 venous_blood:1 spinal_cord:1 revolves_around:1 clinical_trial:1 external_link:1 san_francisco:1 |
3,430 | Franklin_D._Roosevelt | Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States. He was a central figure of the 20th century during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war. Elected to four terms in office, he served from 1933 to 1945 and is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Theodore Roosevelt were fifth cousins but were close. FDR's wife Eleanor Roosevelt was Theodore's orphaned niece who he gave away in marriage to "cousin Franklin" in 1905. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Roosevelt created the New Deal to provide relief for the unemployed, recovery of the economy, and reform of the economic and banking systems, through various agencies, such as the Works Project Administration (WPA), National Recovery Administration (NRA), and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). Although recovery of the economy was incomplete until World War II, several programs he initiated, such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), continue to have instrumental roles in the nation's commerce. Some of his other legacies include the Social Security system and the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). As Britain warred with the Axis nations, Roosevelt provided Lend-Lease aid to Winston Churchill and the British war effort before the United States' entry into World War II in December 1941. On the home front, he introduced price controls and rationing. After the attack on Pearl Harbor by forces of the Japanese Empire and after the declaration of war on the United States by Nazi Germany and by Fascist Italy, Roosevelt introduced internment of Japanese Americans, German Americans, and Italian Americans. Roosevelt led the United States as it became the 'Arsenal of Democracy'. Roosevelt, working closely with his aide Harry Hopkins, made the United States the principal arms supplier and financier of the Allies. The United States had a vast expansion of industry, the achievement of full employment, and new opportunities opened for African Americans and women. The new Conservative coalition, arguing disappearing unemployment, closed most relief programs like the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and Civilian Conservation Corps. As the Allies neared victory, Roosevelt played a critical role in shaping the post-war world, particularly through the Yalta Conference and the creation of the United Nations. Later, with the United States, the Allies defeated Germany, Italy, and Japan. Roosevelt's election to the presidency brought about a realignment political scientists call the Fifth Party System. His aggressive use of the federal government created a New Deal coalition which dominated the Democratic Party until the late 1960s. Roosevelt introduced new taxes that affected all income groups. Conservatives vehemently fought back, but Roosevelt usually prevailed until he tried to pack the Supreme Court in 1937. He and his wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, remain touchstones for modern American liberalism. Roosevelt's administration redefined American liberalism and realigned the Democratic Party based on his New Deal coalition of labor unions; farmers; ethnic, religious and racial minorities; intellectuals; Rorty, R. (1997). Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth Century America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. the South; big city machines; and the poor and workers on relief. Roosevelt has been consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S. Presidents. Personal life The family name Roosevelt is an anglicized form of the Dutch surname 'van Rosevelt,' or 'van Rosenvelt', meaning 'field of roses.' Although some use an Anglicized spelling pronunciation of , that is, with the vowels of rue and felt, Franklin used , with the vowel of the English rose. One of the wealthiest and oldest families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in areas other than politics. Franklin's first cousin, Ellen Roosevelt, was the 1890 U.S. Open Championships women's singles and doubles tennis champion and is a member of the International Tennis Hall of Fame. His mother named him after her favorite uncle Franklin Delano. Smith, Jean Edward FDR, p. 17, Random House, 2007 ISBN 978-1-4000-6121-1 The progenitor of the Delano family in the Americas of 1621 was Philippe de la Noye, the first Huguenot to land in the New World, whose family name was anglicized to Delano. Smith, Jean Edward FDR, p. 10, Random House, 2007 ISBN 978-1-4000-6121-1 Early life Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882 in the Hudson Valley town of Hyde Park, New York. His father, James Roosevelt, and his mother, Sara, were each from wealthy old New York families, of Dutch and French ancestry respectively. Franklin was their only child. His paternal grandmother, Mary Rebecca Aspinwall, was a first cousin of Elizabeth Monroe, wife of the fifth U.S. President, James Monroe. One of his ancestors was John Lothropp, also an ancestor of Benedict Arnold and Joseph Smith, Jr. One of his distant relatives from his mother's side is the author Laura Ingalls Wilder. His maternal grandfather Warren Delano II, a descendant of Mayflower passengers Richard Warren, Isaac Allerton, Degory Priest, and Francis Cooke, during a period of twelve years in China made more than a million dollars in the tea trade in Macau, Canton, and Hong Kong, but upon returning to the United States, he lost it all in the Panic of 1857. In 1860, he returned to China and made a fortune in the notorious but highly profitable opium trade Patrick D. Reagan, Designing a New America: The Origins of New Deal Planning, 1890–1943 (2000) p. 29 supplying opium-based medication to the U. S. War Department during the American Civil War but not exclusively. Smith, Jean Edward FDR, pp. 10-13, Random House, 2007 ISBN 978-1--4000-6121-1 Young Franklin Roosevelt, with his father and Helen R. Roosevelt, sailing in 1899. Roosevelt grew up in an atmosphere of privilege. Sara was a possessive mother, while James was an elderly and remote father (he was 54 when Franklin was born). Sara was the dominant influence in Franklin's early years. Eleanor and Franklin, Lash (1971), 111 et seq. Frequent trips to Europe made Roosevelt conversant in German and French. He learned to ride, shoot, row, and play polo and lawn tennis. Roosevelt went to Groton School, an Episcopal boarding school in Massachusetts. He was heavily influenced by its headmaster, Endicott Peabody, who preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Roosevelt went to Harvard, where he lived in luxurious quarters and was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity. He was also president of The Harvard Crimson daily newspaper. While he was at Harvard, his fifth cousin Theodore Roosevelt became president, and Theodore's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero. In 1902, he met his future wife Eleanor Roosevelt, Theodore's niece, at a White House reception (they had previously met as children, but this was their first serious encounter). Eleanor and Franklin were fifth cousins, once removed. They were both descended from Claes Martensz van Rosenvelt (Roosevelt), who arrived in New Amsterdam (Manhattan) from the Netherlands in the 1640s. Roosevelt's two grandsons, Johannes and Jacobus, began the Long Island and Hudson River branches of the Roosevelt family, respectively. Eleanor and Theodore Roosevelt were descended from the Johannes branch, while FDR came from the Jacobus branch. Roosevelt entered Columbia Law School in 1905, but dropped out (never to graduate) in 1907 because he had passed the New York State Bar exam. In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious Wall Street firm of Carter Ledyard & Milburn, dealing mainly with corporate law. On October 11, 1911 Roosevelt was initiated into Freemasonry at Holland Lodge Nr. 8 in New York City. Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania The Masonic Presidents Tour, Retrieved May 6, 2009 Roosevelt was also present when his sons became Masons in 1933 and 1935. Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania The Masonic Presidents Tour, Retrieved May 6, 2009 Marriage and family life On March 17, 1905, Roosevelt married Eleanor despite the fierce resistance of his mother. Eleanor's uncle, Theodore Roosevelt, stood in at the wedding for Eleanor's deceased father Elliott. The young couple moved into Springwood, his family's estate, where FDR's mother became a frequent house guest, much to Eleanor's chagrin. Franklin was a charismatic, handsome, and socially active man. In contrast, Eleanor was shy and disliked social life, and at first stayed at home to raise their children. They had six children in rapid succession: Anna Eleanor (1906–1975; age 69) James (1907–1991; age 84) Franklin Delano, Jr. (March 3, 1909–November 7, 1909; age 249 days) Elliott (1910–1990; age 80) a second Franklin Delano, Jr. (1914–1988; age 74) John Aspinwall (1916–1981; age 65). Franklin and Eleanor at Campobello Island, Canada, in 1905. Roosevelt had affairs outside his marriage, including one with Eleanor's social secretary Lucy Mercer which began soon after she was hired in early 1914. In September 1918, Eleanor found letters revealing the affair in Roosevelt's luggage, when he returned from World War I. According to the Roosevelt family, Eleanor offered Franklin a divorce so that he could be with the woman he loved, but Lucy, being Catholic, could not bring herself to marry a divorced man with five children. According to FDR's biographer Jean Edward Smith it is generally accepted that Eleanor indeed offered "to give Franklin his freedom." Smith, p. 160 However, they reconciled after a fashion with the informal mediation of Roosevelt's adviser Louis McHenry Howe, and FDR promised never to see Lucy again. Sara also intervened, and told Franklin that if he divorced his wife, he would bring scandal upon the family, and she "would not give him another dollar." Eleanor established a separate house in Hyde Park at Valkill. Franklin and Lucy maintained a formal correspondence, but they did not begin to see each other again until 1941. Lucy was then given the code name "Mrs. Johnson" by the Secret Service. Smith, p. 163 Not until the 1960s was the affair publicly known. In 1919 the Roosevelts lived next door to Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, and were present when a Galleanist anarchist was killed in the botched bombing that was an attempt to assassinate Palmer. Also in 1919, Franklin Roosevelt helped Éamon de Valera and his fledgling Irish Republican Army get around export laws for shipping arms used against British troops in the Irish War of Independence. The five surviving Roosevelt children all led tumultuous lives overshadowed by their famous parents. They had among them nineteen marriages, fifteen divorces, and twenty-nine children. All four sons were officers in World War II and were decorated, on merit, for bravery. Two of them were elected to the U.S. House of Representatives—FDR, Jr. served three terms representing the Upper West Side of Manhattan, and James served six terms representing the 26th district in California—but none were elected to higher office despite several attempts. Roosevelt's dog, Fala, also became well-known as a companion of Roosevelt's during his time in the White House, and was called the "most photographed dog in the world." Early political career State Senator In 1910, Roosevelt ran for the New York State Senate from the district around Hyde Park in Dutchess County, which had not elected a Democrat since 1884. He entered the Roosevelt name, with its associated wealth, prestige, and influence in the Hudson Valley, and the Democratic landslide that year carried him to the state capital of Albany, New York. Roosevelt entered the state house, January 1, 1911. He became a leader of a group of reformers who opposed Manhattan's Tammany Hall machine which dominated the state Democratic Party. Roosevelt soon became a popular figure among New York Democrats. He was reelected for a second term November 5, 1912, and resigned from the New York State Senate on March 17, 1913. Assistant Secretary of the Navy FDR as Assistant Secretary for the Navy. Franklin D. Roosevelt was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy by Woodrow Wilson in 1913. He served under Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels. In 1914, he was defeated in the Democratic primary election for the United States Senate by Tammany Hall-backed James W. Gerard. As assistant secretary, Roosevelt worked to expand the Navy and founded the United States Navy Reserve. Wilson sent the Navy and Marines to intervene in Central American and Caribbean countries. In a series of speeches in his 1920 campaign for Vice President, Roosevelt claimed that he, as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, wrote the constitution which the U.S. imposed on Haiti in 1915. Arthur Schlesinger, The Crisis of the Old Order, 364, citing to 1920 Roosevelt Papers for speeches in Spokane, San Francisco, and Centralia. The remark was at best a politically awkward overstatement and caused some controversy in the campaign. Roosevelt developed a life-long affection for the Navy. Roosevelt negotiated with Congressional leaders and other government departments to get budgets approved. He became an enthusiastic advocate of the submarine and also of means to combat the German submarine menace to Allied shipping: he proposed building a mine barrier across the North Sea from Norway to Scotland. In 1918, he visited Britain and France to inspect American naval facilities; during this visit he met Winston Churchill for the first time. With the end of World War I in November 1918, he was in charge of demobilization, although he opposed plans to completely dismantle the Navy. In July 1920, Roosevelt resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Campaign for Vice-President Cox/Roosevelt poster The 1920 Democratic National Convention chose Roosevelt as the candidate for Vice President of the United States on the ticket headed by Governor James M. Cox of Ohio, helping build a national base, but the Cox-Roosevelt ticket was heavily defeated by Republican Warren G. Harding in the presidential election. Roosevelt then retired to a New York legal practice and joined the newly organized New York Civitan Club, but few doubted that he would soon run for public office again. Paralytic illness One of only a few known photographs of Roosevelt in a wheelchair In August 1921, while the Roosevelts were vacationing at Campobello Island, New Brunswick, Roosevelt contracted an illness, at the time believed to be polio, which resulted in his total and permanent paralysis from the waist down. For the rest of his life, Roosevelt refused to accept that he was permanently paralyzed. He tried a wide range of therapies, including hydrotherapy, and, in 1926, he purchased a resort at Warm Springs, Georgia, where he founded a hydrotherapy center for the treatment of polio patients which still operates as the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation. After he became President, he helped to found the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (now known as the March of Dimes). His leadership in this organization is one reason he is commemorated on the dime. At the time, Roosevelt was able to convince many people that he was in fact getting better, which he believed was essential if he was to run for public office again. Fitting his hips and legs with iron braces, he laboriously taught himself to walk a short distance by swiveling his torso while supporting himself with a cane. In private, he used a wheelchair, but he was careful never to be seen in it in public. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons. In 2003, a peer-reviewed study found that it was more likely that Roosevelt's paralytic illness was actually Guillain-Barré syndrome, not poliomyelitis. Goldman, AS et al., What was the cause of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's paralytic illness?. J Med Biogr. 11: 232–240 (2003) Governor of New York, 1929–1932 Governor Roosevelt poses with Al Smith for a publicity shot in Albany, New York, 1930. Roosevelt maintained contacts and mended fences with the Democratic Party during the 1920s, especially in New York. Although he made his name as an opponent of New York City's Tammany Hall machine, Roosevelt moderated his stance. He helped Alfred E. Smith win the election for governor of New York in 1922. Roosevelt gave nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic conventions. Morgan, pp. 267, 269-72, 286-87. In 1928, as the Democratic Party presidential nominee in the 1928 election, Smith in turn asked Roosevelt to run for governor. While Smith lost the Presidency in a landslide, and was even defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was narrowly elected governor. As a reform governor, he established a number of new social programs, and he was advised by Frances Perkins and Harry Hopkins. In the 1930 election campaign, to be re-elected, Roosevelt needed the good will of the Tammany Hall machine in New York City; however, his Republican opponent, Charles H. Tuttle, was using Tammany Hall's corruption as an election issue. As the election approached, Roosevelt initiated investigations of the sale of judicial offices. He was elected to a second term by a margin of more than 700,000 votes. Boy Scout supporter Roosevelt was a strong supporter of scouting, beginning in 1915. In 1924, he became president of the New York City Boy Scout Foundation and led the development of Ten Mile River Boy Scout Camp between 1924–1928 to serve the Scouts of New York City. As governor in 1930, the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) honored him with their highest award for adults, the Silver Buffalo Award, which is conferred in recognition of distinguished support of youth on a national level. Later, as U.S. president, Roosevelt was honorary president of the BSA and attended the first national jamboree in Washington, D.C. in 1937. 1932 presidential election Roosevelt's strong base in the most populous state made him an obvious candidate for the Democratic nomination, which was hotly contested since it seemed that incumbent Herbert Hoover would be vulnerable in the 1932 election. Al Smith was supported by some city bosses, but had lost control of the New York Democratic party to Roosevelt. Roosevelt built his own national coalition with personal allies such as newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst, Irish leader Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., and California leader William Gibbs McAdoo. When Texas leader John Nance Garner switched to FDR, he was given the presidential nomination. In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared: The election campaign was conducted under the shadow of the Great Depression in the United States, and the new alliances which it created. Roosevelt and the Democratic Party mobilized the expanded ranks of the poor as well as organized labor, ethnic minorities, urbanites, and Southern whites, crafting the New Deal coalition. During the campaign, Roosevelt said: "I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people", coining a slogan that was later adopted for his legislative program as well as his new coalition. Great Speeches, Franklin D Roosevelt (1999) at 17. Economist Marriner Eccles observed that "given later developments, the campaign speeches often read like a giant misprint, in which Roosevelt and Hoover speak each other's lines." Kennedy, 102. Roosevelt denounced Hoover's failures to restore prosperity or even halt the downward slide, and he ridiculed Hoover's huge deficits. Roosevelt campaigned on the Democratic platform advocating "immediate and drastic reductions of all public expenditures," "abolishing useless commissions and offices, consolidating bureaus and eliminating extravagances reductions in bureaucracy," and for a "sound currency to be maintained at all hazards." On September 23, Roosevelt made the gloomy evaluation that, "Our industrial plant is built; the problem just now is whether under existing conditions it is not overbuilt. Our last frontier has long since been reached." Great Speeches, Franklin D Roosevelt (1999). Hoover damned that pessimism as a denial of "the promise of American life ... the counsel of despair." More, The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America, (2002) p. 5. The prohibition issue solidified the wet vote for Roosevelt, who noted that repeal would bring in new tax revenues. Roosevelt won 57% of the vote and carried all but six states. Historians and political scientists consider the 1932-36 elections a realigning election that created a new majority coalition for the Democrats, thus transforming American politics and starting what is called the "New Deal Party System" or (by political scientists) the Fifth Party System. Bernard Sternsher, "The Emergence of the New Deal Party System: A Problem in Historical Analysis of Voter Behavior," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Summer, 1975), pp. 127-149 After the election, Roosevelt refused Hoover's requests for a meeting to come up with a joint program to stop the downward spiral and calm investors, claiming it would tie his hands. The economy spiralled downward until the banking system began a complete nationwide shutdown as Hoover's term ended. In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt by Giuseppe Zangara (which killed Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak sitting next to him). Freidel (1973) 3:170–73 Roosevelt leaned heavily on his "Brain Trust" of academic advisors, especially Raymond Moley when designing his policies; he offered cabinet positions to numerous candidates (sometimes two at a time), but most declined. The cabinet member with the strongest independent base was Cordell Hull at State. William Hartman Woodin at Treasury, was soon replaced by the much more powerful Henry Morgenthau, Jr. Freidel (1973) v. 4:145ff First term, 1933–1937 President and Mrs. Roosevelt on Inauguration Day, 1933. When Roosevelt was inaugurated in March 1933, the U.S. was at the nadir of the worst depression in its history. A quarter of the workforce was unemployed. Farmers were in deep trouble as prices fell by 60%. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. Two million were homeless. By the evening of March 4, 32 of the 48 states, as well as the District of Columbia had closed their banks. Jonathan Alter, The Defining Moment (2006), p. 190. The New York Federal Reserve Bank was unable to open on the 5th, as huge sums had been withdrawn by panicky customers in previous days. Beginning with his inauguration address, Roosevelt began blaming the economic crisis on bankers and financiers, the quest for profit, and the self-interest basis of capitalism: Historians categorized Roosevelt's program as "relief, recovery and reform." Relief was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal. Reform meant long-term fixes of what was wrong, especially with the financial and banking systems. Roosevelt's series of radio talks, known as fireside chats, presented his proposals directly to the American public. Leuchtenburg, (1963) ch 1, 2 On April 13, 1934 Roosevelt was made Masonic Grand Master of the Order of DeMolay at the White House. Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania The Masonic Presidents Tour, Retrieved May 6, 2009 First New Deal, 1933–1934 Roosevelt's "First 100 Days" concentrated on the first part of his strategy: immediate relief. From March 9 to June 16, 1933, he sent Congress a record number of bills, all of which passed easily. To propose programs, Roosevelt relied on leading Senators such as George Norris, Robert F. Wagner and Hugo Black, as well as his Brain Trust of academic advisers. Like Hoover, he saw the Depression caused in part by people no longer spending or investing because they were afraid. His inauguration on March 4, 1933 occurred in the middle of a bank panic, hence the backdrop for his famous words: "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." The very next day Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act which declared a "bank holiday" and announced a plan to allow banks to reopen. However, the number of banks that opened their doors after the "holiday" was less than the number that had been open before. Samuelson, Paul Anthony (1964). Readings in Economics. McGraw-Hill. p. 140 This was his first proposed step to recovery. To give Americans confidence in the banks, Roosevelt signed the Glass-Stegall Act that created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. Dorothea Lange's Migrant Mother depicts destitute pea pickers during the depression in California, centering on Florence Owens Thompson, a mother of seven children at age 32, March 1936. Relief measures included the continuation of Hoover's major relief program for the unemployed under the new name, Federal Emergency Relief Administration. The most popular of all New Deal agencies, and Roosevelt's favorite, was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed young men to work on rural local projects. Congress also gave the Federal Trade Commission broad new regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners. Roosevelt expanded a Hoover agency, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, making it a major source of financing to railroads and industry. Roosevelt made agriculture relief a high priority and set up the first Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). The AAA tried to force higher prices for commodities by paying farmers to take land out of crops and to cut herds. Reform of the economy was the goal of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933. It tried to end cutthroat competition by forcing industries to come up with codes that established the rules of operation for all firms within specific industries, such as minimum prices, agreements not to compete, and production restrictions. Industry leaders negotiated the codes which were then approved by NIRA officials. Industry needed to raise wages as a condition for approval. Provisions encouraged unions and suspended anti-trust laws. The NIRA was found to be unconstitutional by unanimous decision of the U.S. Supreme Court on May 27, 1935. Roosevelt opposed the decision, saying "The fundamental purposes and principles of the NIRA are sound. To abandon them is unthinkable. It would spell the return to industrial and labor chaos." Ellis Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (1966) p. 124 In 1933, major new banking regulations were passed. In 1934, the Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate Wall Street, with 1932 campaign fundraiser Joseph P. Kennedy in charge. Recovery was pursued through "pump-priming" (that is, federal spending). The NIRA included $3.3 billion of spending through the Public Works Administration to stimulate the economy, which was to be handled by Interior Secretary Harold Ickes. Roosevelt worked with Republican Senator George Norris to create the largest government-owned industrial enterprise in American history, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty-stricken Tennessee Valley. The repeal of prohibition also brought in new tax revenues and helped him keep a major campaign promise. In a controversial move, Roosevelt gave Executive Order 6102 which made all privately held gold of American citizens property of the US Treasury. This gold confiscation by executive order was argued to be unconstitutional, but Roosevelt's executive order asserts authority to do so based on the "War Time Powers Act" of 1917. Gold bullion remained illegal for Americans to own until President Ford rescinded the order in 1974. Roosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the regular federal budget, including 40% cuts to veterans' benefits and cuts in overall military spending. He removed 500,000 veterans and widows from the pension rolls and slashed benefits for the remainder. Protests erupted, led by the Veterans of Foreign Wars. Roosevelt held his ground, but when the angry veterans formed a coalition with Senator Huey Long and passed a huge bonus bill over his veto, he was defeated. He succeeded in cutting federal salaries and the military and naval budgets. He reduced spending on research and education. Roosevelt also kept his promise to push for repeal of Prohibition. In April 1933, he issued an Executive Order redefining 3.2% alcohol as the maximum allowed. That order was preceded by Congressional action in the drafting and passage of the 21st Amendment, which was ratified later that year. Second New Deal, 1935–1936 Dust storms were frequent during the 30s; this one occurred in Texas in 1935. See the Dust Bowl.After the 1934 Congressional elections, which gave Roosevelt large majorities in both houses, there was a fresh surge of New Deal legislation. These measures included the Works Progress Administration (WPA) which set up a national relief agency that employed two million family heads. However, even at the height of WPA employment in 1938, unemployment was still 12.5% according to figures from Michael Darby. Darby, Michael R.Three and a half million U.S. Employees have been mislaid: or, an Explanation of Unemployment, 1934–1941. Journal of Political Economy 84, no. 1 (1976): 1–16. The Social Security Act, established Social Security and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor and the sick. Senator Robert Wagner wrote the Wagner Act, which officially became the National Labor Relations Act. The act established the federal rights of workers to organize unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to take part in strikes. While the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community. Conservative Democrats, led by Al Smith, fought back with the American Liberty League, savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with Marx and Lenin. Fried, Roosevelt and his Enemies (2001), p. 120-123. But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, setting Roosevelt up for the 1936 landslide. Id. By contrast, the labor unions, energized by the Wagner Act, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's reelections in 1936, 1940 and 1944. Leuchtenburg 1963 Economic environment Government spending increased from 8.0% of gross national product (GNP) under Hoover in 1932 to 10.2% of the GNP in 1936. Because of the depression, the national debt as a percentage of the GNP had doubled under Hoover from 16% to 33.6% of the GNP in 1932. While Roosevelt balanced the "regular" budget, the emergency budget was funded by debt, which increased to 40.9% in 1936, and then remained level until World War II, at which time it escalated rapidly. The national debt rose under Hoover, and held steady under FDR until the war began, as shown on chart 1. Historical Statistics (1976) series Y457, Y493, F32. National debt from four years before Roosevelt took office to five years after the time that he died in office Deficit spending had been recommended by some economists, most notably by John Maynard Keynes of Britain. Some economists in retrospect have argued that the National Labor Relations Act and Agricultural Adjustment Administration were ineffective policies because they relied on price fixing. Parker. The GNP was 34% higher in 1936 than in 1932 and 58% higher in 1940 on the eve of war. That is, the economy grew 58% from 1932 to 1940 in 8 years of peacetime, and then grew 56% from 1940 to 1945 in 5 years of wartime. However, the economic recovery did not absorb all the unemployment Roosevelt inherited. Unemployment fell dramatically in Roosevelt's first term, from 25% when he took office to 14.3% in 1937. Afterward, however, it increased to 19.0% in 1938 ('a depression within a depression'), 17.2% in 1939 because of various added taxation (Undistributed profits tax in Mar. 1936, and the Social Security Payroll Tax 1937, plus the effects of the Wagner Act; the Fair Labor Standards Act and a blizzard of other federal regulations), and stayed high until it almost vanished during World War II when the previously unemployed were conscripted, taking them out of the potential labor supply number. Smiley 1983. During the war, the economy operated under such different conditions that comparison with peacetime is impossible. However, Roosevelt saw the New Deal policies as central to his legacy, and in his 1944 State of the Union Address, he advocated that Americans should think of basic economic rights as a Second Bill of Rights. The U.S. economy grew rapidly during Roosevelt's term. Historical Stats. U.S. (1976) series F31 However, coming out of the depression, this growth was accompanied by continuing high levels of unemployment; as the median joblessness rate during the New Deal was 17.2%. Throughout his entire term, including the war years, average unemployment was 13%. Historical Statistics US (1976) series D-86; Smiley 1983 Smiley, Gene, "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s," Journal of Economic History, June 1983, 43, 487–93. Total employment during Roosevelt's term expanded by 18.31 million jobs, with an average annual increase in jobs during his administration of 5.3%. Roosevelt did not raise income taxes before World War II began; however payroll taxes were also introduced to fund the new Social Security program in 1937. He also got Congress to spend more on many various programs and projects never before seen in American history. However, under the revenue pressures brought on by the depression, most states added or increased taxes, including sales as well as income taxes. Roosevelt's proposal for new taxes on corporate savings were highly controversial in 1936–37, and were rejected by Congress. During the war he pushed for even higher income tax rates for individuals (reaching a marginal tax rate of 91%) and corporations and a cap on high salaries for executives. In order to fund the war, Congress broadened the base so that almost every employee paid federal income taxes, and introduced withholding taxes in 1943. GDP in United States January 1929 to January 1941 Unemployment (% labor force) Year Lebergott Darby Derby counts WPA workers as employed; Lebergott as unemployed source: Historical Statistics US (1976) series D-86; Smiley 1983 Smiley, Gene, "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s," Journal of Economic History, June 1983, 43, 487–93. 1933 24.9 20.6 1934 21.7 16.0 1935 20.1 14.2 1936 16.9 9.9 1937 14.3 9.1 1938 19.0 12.5 1939 17.2 11.3 1940 14.6 9.5 1941 9.9 8.0 1942 4.7 4.7 1943 1.9 1.9 1944 1.2 1.2 1945 1.9 1.9 Foreign policy, 1933–37 The rejection of the League of Nations treaty in 1919 marked the dominance of isolationism from world organizations in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and Secretary of State Cordell Hull acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. Roosevelt's "bombshell" message to the world monetary conference in 1933 effectively ended any major efforts by the world powers to collaborate on ending the worldwide depression, and allowed Roosevelt a free hand in economic policy. Leuchtenburg (1963) pp 199–203. The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the Good Neighbor Policy, which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy towards Latin America. Since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, this area had been seen as an American sphere of influence. American forces were withdrawn from Haiti, and new treaties with Cuba and Panama ended their status as United States protectorates. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries. Leuchtenburg (1963) pp 203–210. Landslide re-election, 1936 In the 1936 presidential election, Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs against Kansas Governor Alf Landon, who accepted much of the New Deal but objected that it was hostile to business and involved too much waste. Roosevelt and Garner won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont. The New Deal Democrats won even larger majorities in Congress. Roosevelt was backed by a coalition of voters which included traditional Democrats across the country, small farmers, the "Solid South," Catholics, big city machines, labor unions, northern African Americans, Jews, intellectuals and political liberals. This coalition, frequently referred to as the New Deal coalition, remained largely intact for the Democratic Party until the 1960s. Leuchtenburg (1963) pp 183–196. Second term, 1937–1941 In dramatic contrast to the first term, very little major legislation was passed in the second term. There was a United States Housing Authority (1937), a second Agricultural Adjustment Act and the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which created the minimum wage. When the economy began to deteriorate again in late 1937, Roosevelt responded with an aggressive program of stimulation, asking Congress for $5 billion for WPA relief and public works. This managed to eventually create a peak of 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938. The Supreme Court was the main obstacle to Roosevelt's programs during his second term, overturning many of his programs. In particular in 1935 the Court unanimously ruled that the National Recovery Act (NRA) was an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power to the president. Roosevelt stunned Congress in early 1937 by proposing a law allowing him to appoint five new justices, a "persistent infusion of new blood." Pusey, Merlo J. F.D.R. vs. the Supreme Court, American Heritage Magazine, April 1958,Volume 9, Issue 3 This "court packing" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner, since it seemed to upset the separation of powers and give the President control over the Court. Roosevelt's proposals were defeated. The Court also drew back from confrontation with the administration by finding the Labor Relations and Social Security Acts to be constitutional. Deaths and retirements on the Supreme Court soon allowed Roosevelt to make his own appointments to the bench with little controversy. Between 1937 and 1941, he appointed eight justices to the court. Leuchtenburg (1963) pp 231–39 Roosevelt had massive support from the rapidly growing labor unions, but now they split into bitterly feuding AFL and CIO factions, the latter led by John L. Lewis. Roosevelt pronounced a "plague on both your houses," but the disunity weakened the party in the elections from 1938 through 1946. Leuchtenburg (1963) pp 239–43. Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress (mostly from the South), Roosevelt involved himself in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. His targets denounced Roosevelt for trying to take over the Democratic party and used the argument that they were independent to win reelection. Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one target, a conservative Democrat from New York City. Leuchtenburg (1963) In the November 1938 election, Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats. Losses were concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats. When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans under Senator Robert Taft formed a Conservative coalition with Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt's ability to get his domestic proposals enacted into law. The minimum wage law of 1938 was the last substantial New Deal reform act passed by Congress. Leuchtenburg (1963) ch 11. Foreign policy, 1937–1941 President Roosevelt welcomed President Manuel L. Quezon, the 2nd President of the Philippines, in Washington, D.C. The rise to power of dictator Adolf Hitler in Germany aroused fears of a new world war. In 1935, at the time of Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, Congress passed the Neutrality Act, applying a mandatory ban on the shipment of arms from the U.S. to any combatant nation. Roosevelt opposed the act on the grounds that it penalized the victims of aggression such as Ethiopia, and that it restricted his right as President to assist friendly countries, but public support was overwhelming so he signed it. In 1937, Congress passed an even more stringent act, but when the Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937, public opinion favored China, and Roosevelt found various ways to assist that nation. Leuchtenburg (1963) ch 12. In October 1937, he gave the Quarantine Speech aiming to contain aggressor nations. He proposed that warmongering states be treated as a public health menace and be "quarantined." Meanwhile he secretly stepped up a program to build long range submarines that could blockade Japan. In May 1938, there occurred a failed coup by the fascist Integralista movement in Brazil. After the failed coup, the Brazilian government claimed that the German Ambassador, Dr. Karl Ritter had been involved in the coup attempt and declared him persona non grata. The Brazilian allegation of German support for the Integralista coup had a galvanizing impact on the Roosevelt administration as it led to fears that German ambitions were not confined to Europe, but rather to the whole world. This in turn led the Roosevelt administration to change its previous view of the Nazi regime as an unpleasant regime that was however basically not an American problem. On September 4, 1938 in the midst of the great crisis in Europe that was to culminate in the Munich Agreement, during the unveiling of a plaque in France honoring Franco-American friendship, the American Ambassador, and close friend of Roosevelt’s William C. Bullitt stated that "France and the United States were united in war and peace," leading to much speculation in the press that if war did break over Czechoslovakia, then the United States would join the war on the Allied side. Adamthwaite, Anthony France and the Coming of the Second World War 1936-1939, London: Frank Cass, 1977 page 209. Roosevelt disallowed this interpretation of Bullitt’s remarks in a press conference on September 9, stating it was “100% wrong”, and that the U.S. would not join a “stop-Hitler bloc” under any circumstances, and he made it quite clear in the event of German aggression against Czechoslovakia, the U.S. would remain neutral. Upon Neville Chamberlain’s return to London from the Munich Conference, Roosevelt sent him a two word telegram reading “Good Man”, which has been the subject of much debate, with the majority opinion arguing that the telegram was meant to be congratulatory with the minority opinion opposing that interpretation. Caputi, Robert Neville Chamberlain and Appeasement, Associated University Press, London, 2000 page 176 In October 1938, Roosevelt opened secret talks with the French on how to bypass American neutrality laws and allowed the French to buy American aircraft to make up for productivity deficiencies in the French aircraft industry. Keylor, William "France and the Illusion of American Support, 1919-1940" pages 204-244 from The French Defeat of 1940 Reassessments edited by Joel Blatt Berghahn Books: Providence 1998 pages 234-235 The French Premier Édouard Daladier commented in October 1938 that "If I had three or four thousand aircraft Munich would never have happened", and was most anxious to buy American war planes as the only way of strengthening the French Air Force. Keylor, William "France and the Illusion of American Support, 1919-1940" pages 204-244 from The French Defeat of 1940 Reassessments edited by Joel Blatt Berghahn Books: Providence 1998 page 234 A major problem in the Franco-American talks was how the French were to pay for the American planes, and how to bypass the American neutrality acts Keylor, William "France and the Illusion of American Support, 1919-1940" pages 204-244 from The French Defeat of 1940 Reassessments edited by Joel Blatt Berghahn Books: Providence 1998 pages 235-236 In addition, the American Johnson Act of 1934 which forbade loans to the nations that had defaulted on their World War I debts was a further complicating factor (France had defaulted on its World War I debts in 1932). Keylor, William "France and the Illusion of American Support, 1919-1940" pages 204-244 from The French Defeat of 1940 Reassessments edited by Joel Blatt Berghahn Books: Providence 1998 page 237 In February 1939, the French offered to cede their possessions in the Caribbean and the Pacific together with a lump sum payment of ten billion francs, in exchange for the unlimited right to buy on credit American aircraft. Keylor, William "France and the Illusion of American Support, 1919-1940" pages 204-244 from The French Defeat of 1940 Reassessments edited by Joel Blatt Berghahn Books: Providence 1998 page 238 After torturous negotiations, an arrangement was worked out in the spring of 1939 allowing the French to place huge orders with the American aircraft industry; though most of the aircraft ordered had not arrived in France by 1940, Roosevelt arranged for French orders to be diverted to the British. Keylor, William "France and the Illusion of American Support, 1919-1940" pages 204-244 from The French Defeat of 1940 Reassessments edited by Joel Blatt Berghahn Books: Providence 1998 pages 233-244 When World War II broke out in 1939, Roosevelt rejected the Wilsonian neutrality stance and sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily. He began a regular secret correspondence with the First Lord of Admiralty Winston Churchill in September 1939 discussing ways of supporting Britain. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became Prime Minister of the UK in May 1940. In April 1940 Germany invaded Denmark and Norway, followed by invasions of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France in May. The German victories in Western Europe left Britain vulnerable to invasion. Roosevelt, who was determined that Britain not be defeated, took advantage of the rapid shifts of public opinion. The fall of Paris shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. A consensus was clear that military spending had to be dramatically expanded. There was no consensus on how much the U.S. should risk war in helping Britain. In July 1940, FDR appointed two interventionist Republican leaders, Henry L. Stimson and Frank Knox, as Secretaries of War and the Navy respectively. Both parties gave support to his plans to rapidly build up the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany. He successfully urged Congress to enact the first peacetime draft in United States history in 1940 (it was renewed in 1941 by one vote in Congress). Roosevelt was supported by the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies, and opposed by the America First Committee. Roosevelt used his personal charisma to build support for intervention. America should be the "Arsenal of Democracy," he told his fireside audience. Full text of the speech from Wikisource. On September 2, 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by passing the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, which gave 50 American destroyers to Britain in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean islands and Newfoundland. This was a precursor of the March 1941 Lend-Lease agreement which began to direct massive military and economic aid to Britain, the Republic of China, and later the Soviet Union. For foreign policy advice, Roosevelt turned to Harry Hopkins, who became his chief wartime advisor. They sought innovative ways to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940. Congress, where isolationist sentiment was in retreat, passed the Lend-Lease Act in March 1941, allowing the U.S. to give Britain, China and later the Soviet Union military supplies. Congress voted to commit to spend $50 billion on military supplies from 1941–45. In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war. Roosevelt was a lifelong free trader and anti-imperialist, and ending European colonialism was one of his objectives. Third term, 1941–1945 Election of 1940 The two-term tradition had been an unwritten rule (until the 22nd Amendment after his presidency) since George Washington declined to run for a third term in 1796, and both Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt were attacked for trying to obtain a third non-consecutive term. FDR systematically undercut prominent Democrats who were angling for the nomination, including two cabinet members, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and James Farley, Roosevelt's campaign manager in 1932 and 1936, Postmaster General and Democratic Party chairman. Roosevelt moved the convention to Chicago where he had strong support from the city machine (which controlled the auditorium sound system). At the convention the opposition was poorly organized but Farley had packed the galleries. Roosevelt sent a message saying that he would not run, unless he was drafted, and that the delegates were free to vote for anyone. The delegates were stunned; then the loudspeaker screamed "We want Roosevelt... The world wants Roosevelt!" The delegates went wild and he was nominated by 946 to 147. The new vice presidential nominee was Henry A. Wallace, the liberal intellectual who was Secretary of Agriculture. Burns 1:408–15, 422–30; Freidel (1990) 343–6 In his campaign against Republican Wendell Willkie, Roosevelt stressed both his proven leadership experience and his intention to do everything possible to keep the United States out of war. He won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote and 38 of the 48 states. A shift to the left within the Administration was shown by the naming of Henry A. Wallace as Vice President in place of the conservative Texan John Nance Garner, who had become a bitter enemy of Roosevelt after 1937. Policies Roosevelt and Winston Churchill meet at Argentia, Newfoundland aboard HMS Prince of Wales during their 1941 secret meeting to develop the Atlantic Charter.Roosevelt's third term was dominated by World War II, in Europe and in the Pacific. Roosevelt slowly began re-armament in 1938 since he was facing strong isolationist sentiment from leaders like Senators William Borah and Robert Taft who supported re-armament. By 1940, it was in high gear, with bipartisan support, partly to expand and re-equip the United States Army and Navy and partly to become the "Arsenal of Democracy" supporting the United Kingdom, French Third Republic, the Republic of China and (after June 1941), the Soviet Union. As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against the Axis Powers, American isolationists—including Charles Lindbergh and America First—attacked the President as an irresponsible warmonger. Unfazed by these criticisms and confident in the wisdom of his foreign policy initiatives, FDR continued his twin policies of preparedness and aid to the Allied coalition. On December 29, 1940, he delivered his Arsenal of Democracy fireside chat, in which he made the case for involvement directly to the American people, and a week later he delivered his famous Four Freedoms speech in January 1941, further laying out the case for an American defense of basic rights throughout the world. The military buildup spurred economic growth. By 1941, unemployment had fallen to under 1 million. There was a growing labor shortage in all the nation's major manufacturing centers, accelerating the Great Migration of African Americans workers from the Southern United States, and of underemployed farmers and workers from all rural areas and small towns. The homefront was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concerns. When Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease to the Soviets. During 1941, Roosevelt also agreed that the U.S. Navy would escort Allied convoys as far east as Great Britain and would fire upon German ships or submarines (U-boats) of the Kriegsmarine if they attacked Allied shipping within the U.S. Navy zone. Moreover, by 1941, U.S. Navy aircraft carriers were secretly ferrying British fighter planes between the UK and the Mediterranean war zones, and the British Royal Navy was receiving supply and repair assistance at American naval bases in the United States. Thus, by mid-1941, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of "all aid short of war." Churchill, The Grand Alliance (1977) at 119. Roosevelt met with Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on August 14, 1941, to develop the Atlantic Charter in what was to be the first of several wartime conferences. In July 1941, Roosevelt ordered Henry Stimson, Secretary of War to begin planning for total American military involvement. The resulting "Victory Program," under the direction of Albert Wedemeyer, provided the President with the estimates necessary for the total mobilization of manpower, industry, and logistics to defeat the "potential enemies" of the United States. The Victory Program, Mark Skinner Watson (1950), 331–366. The program also planned to dramatically increase aid to the Allied nations and to have ten million men in arms, half of whom would be ready for deployment abroad in 1943. Roosevelt was firmly committed to the Allied cause and these plans had been formulated before the Attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan. Wedemeyer Reports!, Albert C. Wedemeyer (1958), 63 et seq. Pearl Harbor Roosevelt signing the declaration of war against Japan, December 8, 1941. After Japan occupied northern French Indochina in late 1940, he authorized increased aid to the Republic of China. In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of Indo-China, he cut off the sales of oil. Japan thus lost more than 95% of its oil supply. Roosevelt continued negotiations with the Japanese government. Meanwhile he started shifting the long-range B-17 bomber force to the Philippines. On December 4, 1941, The Chicago Tribune revealed "Rainbow Five," a top-secret war plan drawn up at President Franklin Roosevelt's order. "Rainbow Five" called for a 10-million man army invading Europe in 1943 on the side of Britain and Russia. On December 6, 1941, President Roosevelt read an intercepted Japanese message and told his assistant Harry Hopkins, "This means war." He never warned Admiral Husband Kimmel or Lt. Gen. Walter Short after reception of the message before the Pearl Harbor attack. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, destroying or damaging 16 warships, including most of the fleet's battleships, and killing more than 2,400 American military personnel and civilians. In the weeks after the attack the Japanese conquered the Philippines and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia, taking Singapore in February 1942 and advancing through Burma to the borders of British India by May, cutting off the overland supply route to the Republic of China. Antiwar sentiment in the United States evaporated overnight and the country united behind Roosevelt. It is at this time Roosevelt gave the famous "Infamy Speech" in which he said this:"Yesterday, December 7, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy — the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." Despite the wave of anger that swept across the U.S. in the wake of Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt decided from the start that the defeat of Nazi Germany had to take priority. On December 11, 1941, this strategic Europe First decision was made easier to implement when Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. Churchill and Roosevelt at War: The War They Fought and the Peace They Hoped to Make, Sainsbury. Roosevelt met with Churchill in late December and planned a broad informal alliance between the U.S., Britain, China and the Soviet Union, with the objectives of halting the German advances in the Soviet Union and in North Africa; launching an invasion of western Europe with the aim of crushing Nazi Germany between two fronts; and saving China and defeating Japan. Internment of Germans, Japanese, and Italians There was some pressure to intern German Americans and Italian Americans even while the United States declared its neutrality. After the attack on Pearl Harbor by forces of the Japanese Empire, there was growing pressure to imprison Japanese and Japanese-Americans on the West Coast of the United States. This pressure grew due to fears of terrorism, espionage, and/or sabotage. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which imprisoned the "Issei" (first generation of Japanese who immigrated to the US) and their children, "Nisei" (who were US citizens). After both Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy unilaterally declared war on the United States, German Americans and Italian Americans were also interned more widely. War strategy Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek of China (left), Roosevelt (middle), and Winston Churchill (right) at the Cairo Conference in 1943 The "Big Three" (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Joseph Stalin), together with Chiang Kai-shek cooperated informally in which American and British troops concentrated in the West, Russian troops fought on the Eastern front, and Chinese, British and American troops fought in the Pacific. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high profile conferences as well as contact through diplomatic and military channels. Roosevelt guaranteed that the U.S. would be the "Arsenal of Democracy" by shipping $50 billion of Lend Lease supplies, primarily to Britain and also to the USSR, China and other Allies. Roosevelt acknowledged that the U.S. had a traditional antipathy towards the British Empire. In One Christmas in Washington, Bercuson, David, and Herwig, Holger H., One Christmas in Washington, Overlook Hardcover, 2005 a dinner meeting between Roosevelt and Churchill is described, in which Roosevelt is quoted as saying: "It's in the American tradition, this distrust, this dislike and even hatred of Britain the Revolution, you know, and 1812; and India and the Boer War, and all that. There are many kinds of Americans of course, but as a people, as a country, we're opposed to Imperialism—we can't stomach it." The U.S. War Department took the view that the quickest way to defeat Germany was to invade France across the English Channel. Churchill, wary of the casualties he feared this would entail, favored a more indirect approach, advancing northwards from the Mediterranean Sea. Roosevelt rejected this plan. Stalin advocated opening a Western front at the earliest possible time, as the bulk of the land fighting in 1942–44 was on Soviet soil. The Allies undertook the invasions of French Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch) in November 1942, of Sicily (Operation Husky) in July 1943, and of Italy (Operation Avalanche) in September 1943. The strategic bombing campaign was escalated in 1944, pulverizing all major German cities and cutting off oil supplies. It was a 50-50 British-American operation. Roosevelt picked Dwight D. Eisenhower, and not George Marshall, to head the Allied cross-channel invasion, Operation Overlord that began on D-Day, June 6, 1944. Some of the most costly battles of the war ensued after the invasion, and the Allies were blocked on the German border in the "Battle of the Bulge" in December 1944. When Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, Allied forces were closing in on Berlin. Meanwhile, in the Pacific, the Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Midway. American and Australian forces then began a slow and costly progress called island hopping or leapfrogging through the Pacific islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. Roosevelt gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan; he always insisted on Germany first. Post-war planning The "Big Three" Allied leaders (left to right) at Yalta in February, 1945: Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin. By late 1943, it was apparent that the Allies would ultimately defeat Nazi Germany, and it became increasingly important to make high-level political decisions about the course of the war and the postwar future of Europe. Roosevelt met with Churchill and the Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek at the Cairo Conference in November 1943, and then went to Tehran to confer with Churchill and Stalin. At the Tehran Conference, Roosevelt and Churchill told Stalin about the plan to invade France in 1944, and Roosevelt also discussed his plans for a postwar international organization. For his part, Stalin insisted on the redrawing the frontiers of Poland. Stalin supported Roosevelt's plan for the United Nations and promised to enter the war against Japan 90 days after Germany was defeated. By the beginning of 1945, however, with the Allied armies advancing into Germany and the Soviets in control of Poland, the issues had to come out into the open. In February, Roosevelt, despite his steadily deteriorating health, traveled to Yalta, in the Soviet Crimea, to meet again with Stalin and Churchill. After the war Polish Americans criticized the Yalta Conference for legitimizing Soviet control of Eastern Europe. However, Roosevelt had already lost control of the situation, and put all his hopes on postwar deals with Stalin. A desire to maintain a good working relationship with Stalin during the war may have been a factor in Roosevelt's reluctance to agree with Churchill's proposal to aid the Poles in the Warsaw Uprising against Stalin's wishes and suppressing a report by George Earle that assigned responsibility for the Katyń Massacre to the Soviets. Fourth term and death, 1945 Election of 1944 Roosevelt, only 62 in 1944, was in declining health since at least 1940. The strain of his paralysis and the physical exertion needed to compensate for it for over 20 years had taken their toll, as had many years of stress and a lifetime of chain-smoking. By this time, Roosevelt had numerous ailments including chronic high blood pressure, emphysema, atherosclerosis, angina pectoris and end-stage heart disease. Dr. Emanuel Libman, then an assistant pathologist at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, reacting to Roosevelt's appearance in newsreels, remarked, "It doesn't matter whether Roosevelt is re-elected or not, he'll die of a cerebral hemorrhage within 6 months." Patient.co.uk: Libman-Sacks Endocarditis Retrieved 2008-08-11 Aware of the risk that Roosevelt would die during his fourth term, the party regulars insisted that Henry A. Wallace, who was seen as too pro-Soviet, be dropped as Vice President. After considering James F. Byrnes of South Carolina, and being turned down by Indiana Governor Henry F. Schricker, Roosevelt replaced Wallace with the little-known Senator Harry S. Truman. In the 1944 election, Roosevelt and Truman won 53% of the vote and carried 36 states, against New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey. Last days, death and memorial The President left the Yalta Conference on February 12, 1945, and flew to Egypt and boarded the USS Quincy operating on the Great Bitter Lake near the Suez Canal. Aboard Quincy, the next day he met with Farouk I, king of Egypt, and Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia. On February 14, he held a historic meeting with King Abdulaziz, the founder of Saudi Arabia, a meeting which holds profound significance in U.S.-Saudi relations even today. After a final meeting between Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Quincy steamed for Algiers, arriving February 18, at which time Roosevelt conferred with American ambassadors to Britain, France and Italy. At Yalta, Lord Moran, Winston Churchill's physician, commented on Roosevelt's ill health: "He is a very sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage, so that I give him only a few months to live". Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Conrad Black. 2005, Public Affairs. ISBN 9781586482824. Page 1075. Roosevelt meets with King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia onboard the USS Quincy at the Great Bitter Lake When he returned to the United States, he addressed Congress on March 1 about the Yalta Conference, and many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity. (He opened his speech by saying, "I hope that you will pardon me for this unusual posture of sitting down during the presentation of what I want to say, but...it makes it a lot easier for me not to have to carry about ten pounds of steel around on the bottom of my legs." This was his only public mention of his disability.) But mentally he was still in full command. "The Crimean Conference," he said firmly, "ought to spell the end of a system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the spheres of influence, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that have been tried for centuries and have always failed. We propose to substitute for all these, a universal organization in which all peace-loving nations will finally have a chance to join." Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945, Robert Dallek (1995) at 520. During March 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, prisoners of war and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting a separate peace with Hitler behind his back, Roosevelt replied: "I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates." War in Italy 1943–1945, Richard Lamb (1996) at 287. On March 30, 1945, Roosevelt went to Warm Springs to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the United Nations. On the afternoon of April 12, Roosevelt said, "I have a terrific headache" and was carried into his bedroom. The doctor diagnosed that he had suffered a massive cerebral hemorrhage. At 3:35 p.m. that day, he died. As Allen Drury later said, “so ended an era, and so began another.” An editorial by The New York Times declared, "Men will thank God on their knees a hundred years from now that Franklin D. Roosevelt was in the White House," after Roosevelt's death. At the time he collapsed, Roosevelt had been sitting for a portrait painting by the artist Elizabeth Shoumatoff, resulting in the famous Unfinished Portrait of FDR. Roosevelt's funeral procession In his latter years at the White House, Roosevelt was increasingly overworked and his daughter Anna Roosevelt Boettiger had moved in to provide her father companionship and support. Anna had also arranged for her father to meet with his former mistress, the now widowed Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd. Shoumatoff, who maintained close friendships with both Roosevelt and Mercer, rushed Mercer away to avoid negative publicity and implications of infidelity. When Eleanor heard about her husband's death, she was also faced with the news that Anna had been arranging these meetings with Mercer and that Mercer had been with Franklin when he died. Roosevelt's death was met with shock and grief across the U.S. and around the world. His declining health had not been known to the general public. Roosevelt had been president for more than 12 years, longer than any other person, and had led the country through some of its greatest crises to the impending defeat of Nazi Germany and to within sight of the defeat of Japan as well. As was his wish, Roosevelt was buried in the Rose Garden of the Springwood estate, the Roosevelt family home in Hyde Park. After her death in November 1962, Eleanor was buried next to him. Less than a month after his death, on May 8, came the moment Roosevelt fought for: V-E Day. President Harry Truman, who turned 61 that day, dedicated V-E Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory, paying tribute to his commitment to ending the war in Europe. He also kept flags across the U.S. at half-staff for the remainder of the 30-day mourning period, again to pay tribute to Roosevelt's commitment to ending the war in Europe. Civil rights issues Roosevelt's record on civil rights has been the subject of much controversy. He was a hero to large minority groups, especially African-Americans, Catholics, and Jews. African-Americans and Native Americans fared well in the New Deal relief programs although they were not allowed to hold significant leadership roles in the WPA and CCC. Roosevelt needed the support of Southern Democrats for his New Deal programs, and he therefore decided not to push for anti-lynching legislation that might threaten his ability to pass his highest priority programs. Roosevelt was highly successful in attracting large majorities of African-Americans, Jews, and Catholics into his New Deal coalition. Beginning in 1941 Roosevelt issued a series of executive orders designed to guarantee racial, religious, and ethnic minorities a fair share of the new wartime jobs. He pushed for admission of African-Americans into better positions in the military. In 1942 Roosevelt made the final decision in ordering the internment of Japanese, Italian, and German Americans (many not released until well after the War's end) during World War II. Beginning in the 1960s he was charged In works such as Arthur Morse's While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy (New York, 1968), David S. Wyman's Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938–1941 (Boston, 1968), and Henry L. Feingold's The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938–1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970) with not acting decisively enough to prevent or stop the Holocaust which killed 6 million Jews. Critics cite episodes such as when, in 1939, the 936 Jewish refugees on board the SS St. Louis were denied asylum and not allowed into the United States. Administration, Cabinet, and Supreme Court appointments 1933–1945 The FDR CabinetOFFICENAMETERMPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt 1933–1945Vice President John Nance Garner 1933–1941 Henry A. Wallace 1941–1945 Harry S. Truman 1945State Cordell Hull 1933–1944 Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. 1944–1945War George H. Dern 1933–1936 Harry H. Woodring 1936–1940 Henry L. Stimson 1940–1945Treasury William H. Woodin 1933–1934 Henry Morgenthau, Jr. 1934–1945Justice Homer S. Cummings 1933–1939 Frank Murphy 1939–1940 Robert H. Jackson 1940–1941 Francis B. Biddle 1941–1945Post James A. Farley 1933–1940 Frank C. Walker 1940–1945Navy Claude A. Swanson 1933–1939 Charles Edison 1940 Frank Knox 1940–1944 James V. Forrestal 1944–1945Interior Harold L. Ickes 1933–1945Agriculture Henry A. Wallace 1933–1940 Claude R. Wickard 1940–1945Commerce Daniel C. Roper 1933–1938 Harry L. Hopkins 1939–1940 Jesse H. Jones 1940–1945 Henry A. Wallace 1945Labor Frances C. Perkins 1933–1945 Official White House portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt President Roosevelt appointed eight Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States, more than any other President except George Washington, who appointed ten. By 1941, eight of the nine Justices were Roosevelt appointees. Harlan Fiske Stone was elevated to Chief Justice from the position of Associate Justice by Roosevelt. Hugo Black 1937 Stanley Forman Reed 1938 Felix Frankfurter 1939 William O. Douglas 1939 Frank Murphy 1940 Harlan Fiske Stone (Chief Justice) 1941 James Francis Byrnes 1941 Robert H. Jackson 1941 Wiley Blount Rutledge 1943 Roosevelt's appointees would not share ideologies, and some, like Hugo Black and Felix Frankfurter, would become "lifelong adversaries." Ball, Howard. Hugo L. Black: Cold Steel Warrior. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-507814-4. Page 9. Frankfurter even labeled his more liberal colleagues Rutledge, Murphy, Black, and Douglas as part of an "Axis" of opposition to his judicially conservative agenda. Ball, Howard. Hugo L. Black: Cold Steel Warrior. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-507814-4. Page 14. Legacy The Four Freedoms engraved on a wall at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial in Washington Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt's gravesite in the Rose Garden in their Hyde Park home. Roosevelt has been consistently ranked as one of the greatest U.S. presidents in historical rankings, alongside Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. Thomas A. Bailey, Presidential Greatness (1966), a non quantitative appraisal by leading historian; Degregorio, William A. The Complete Book of U.S. Presidents. 4th ed. New York: Avenel, 1993. Contains the results of the 1962 and 1982 surveys; Charles and Richard Faber The American Presidents Ranked by Performance (2000); Felzenberg, Alvin S. “There You Go Again: Liberal Historians and the New York Times Deny Ronald Reagan His Due,” Policy Review, March—April 1997.; Melvin G. Holli. The American Mayor: The Best & the Worst Big-City Leaders (1999); Miller, Nathan. Star-Spangled Men America's Ten Worst Presidents (1999); Murray, Robert K. and Tim H. Blessing. Greatness in the White House: Rating the Presidents, from Washington Through Ronald Reagan (1994); Pfiffner, James P. ; "Ranking the Presidents: Continuity and Volatility" White House Studies, Vol. 3, 2003 pp 23+; Ridings, William J., Jr. and Stuart B. McIver. Rating the Presidents: A Ranking of U.S. leaders, from the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent. Secaucus, NJ: Carol Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-8065-1799-9.; Schlesinger, Jr. Arthur M. "Ranking the Presidents: From Washington to Clinton," Political Science Quarterly (1997) 112:179-90; Skidmore, Max J. Presidential Performance: A Comprehensive Review (2004); Skidmore, Max J. "Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt" White House Studies. Volume: 1. Issue: 4. 2001. pp 495+.; Taranto, James and Leonard Leo, eds. Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and Worst in the White House. New York: Wall Street Journal Books, 2004. ISBN 0-7432-5433-3, for Federalist Society surveys.; Vedder, Richard and Gallaway, Lowell, "Rating Presidential Performance" in Reassessing the Presidency: The Rise of the Executive State and the Decline of Freedom ed. John V. Denson, Mises Institute, 2001. ISBN 0-945466-29-3 A 1999 survey by C-SPAN found that by a wide margin academic historians consider Abraham Lincoln, George Washington and Roosevelt the three greatest presidents, consistent with other surveys. American Presidents For example, see: Opinion Journal Gvsu.edu, website of Grand Valley State University The Washington Post found Washington, Lincoln and Roosevelt to be the only "great" presidents. Roosevelt is the sixth most admired person from the 20th century by US citizens, according to Gallup. Leuchtenburg, William E. The FDR Years: On Roosevelt and His Legacy, Chapter 1, Columbia University Press, 1997 A bottle from Wheaton Glass Industries' presidential bottles collection recognizing FDR, with his iconic pipe in his mouth. The reverse side is inscribed "...we have nothing to fear but fear itself." Both during and after his terms, critics of Roosevelt questioned not only his policies and positions, but also the consolidation of power that occurred because of his lengthy tenure as president, his service during two major crises, and his enormous popularity. The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations. Schlesinger, Arthur Jr, Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans from The Politics of Hope, Riverside Press, Boston, 1962. Roosevelt firmly established the United States' leadership role on the world stage, with pronouncements such as his Four Freedoms speech, forming a basis for the active role of the United States in the war and beyond. After Franklin's death, Eleanor Roosevelt continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights. Many members of his administration played leading roles in the administrations of Truman, Kennedy and Johnson, each of whom embraced Roosevelt's political legacy. William E Leuchtenburg, In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to George W. Bush (2001) Roosevelt's home in Hyde Park is now a National historic site and home to his Presidential library. His retreat at Warm Springs, Georgia is a museum operated by the state of Georgia. His summer retreat on Campobello Island is maintained by the governments of both Canada and the United States as Roosevelt Campobello International Park; the island is accessible via the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge. The Roosevelt Memorial is located in Washington, D.C. next to the Jefferson Memorial on the Tidal Basin, and Roosevelt's image appears on the Roosevelt dime. Many parks and schools, as well as an aircraft carrier and a Paris subway station and hundreds of streets and squares both across the US and the rest of the world have been named in his honor. Reflecting on Roosevelt's presidency, "which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future", said FDR's biographer Jean Edward Smith in 2007, "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees." Jean Edward Smith, FDR. New York: Random House, 2007 (ISBN 978-1-4000-6121-1). Media Collection of video clips of the president See also Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt Sunrise at Campobello List of coupled cousins List of United States Presidents who died in office Arthurdale Warm Springs Great Depression in the United States World War II Historical rankings of United States Presidents Business plot References Notes Primary sources Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1951 (1951) full of useful data; online Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (1976) Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds.; Public Opinion, 1935–1946 (1951), massive compilation of many public opinion polls from USA Gallup, George Horace, ed. The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935–1971 3 vol (1972) summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers. Loewenheim, Francis L. and Harold D. Langley, eds; Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence (1975) Moley, Raymond. After Seven Years (1939), memoir by key Brain Truster Nixon, Edgar B. ed. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs (3 vol 1969), covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries. Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Rosenman, Samuel Irving, ed. The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt (13 vol, 1938, 1945); public material only (no letters); covers 1928–1945. Zevin, B. D. ed.; Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932–1945 (1946) selected speeches Documentary History of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration 20 vol. available in some large academic libraries. Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Myron C. Taylor, ed. Wartime Correspondence Between President Roosevelt and Pope Pius XII. Prefaces by Pius XII and Harry Truman. Kessinger Publishing (1947, reprinted, 2005). ISBN 1-4191-6654-9 Biographies Black, Conrad. Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom, 2003. Burns, James MacGregor. Roosevelt (1956, 1970), 2 vol; interpretive scholarly biography, emphasis on politics; vol 2 is on war years Coker, Jeffrey W. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Biography. Greenwood, 2005. 172 pp. Freidel, Frank. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny (1990), One-volume scholarly biography; covers entire life Freidel, Frank. Franklin D. Roosevelt (4 vol 1952–73), the most detailed scholarly biography; ends in 1934. Davis, Kenneth S. FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 1982–1928 (1972) Goodwin, Doris Kearns. No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (1995) Jenkins, Roy. Franklin Delano Roosevelt (2003) short bio from British perspective Lash, Joseph P. Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers (1971), history of a marriage. Morgan, Ted, FDR: A biography, (1985), a popular biography Ward, Geoffrey C. Before The Trumpet: Young Franklin Roosevelt, 1882–1905 (1985); A First Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt, (1992), covers 1905–1932. Scholarly secondary sources Alter, Jonathan. The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope (2006), popular history Beasley, Maurine, et al. eds. The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia (2001) online Bellush, Bernard; Franklin D. Roosevelt as Governor of New York (1955) online Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times. (1985). encyclopedia Kennedy, David M. Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. (1999), wide-ranging survey of national affairs Leuchtenburg, William E. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940. (1963). A standard interpretive history of era. Leuchtenburg, William E. In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman (2001), his long-term influence Leuchtenburg, William E. "Showdown on the Court." Smithsonian 2005 36(2): 106–113. Issn: 0037-7333 Fulltext: at Ebsco McMahon, Kevin J. Reconsidering Roosevelt on Race: How the Presidency Paved the Road to Brown. U. of Chicago Press, 2004. 298 pp. Parmet, Herbert S. and Marie B. Hecht; Never Again: A President Runs for a Third Term (1968) on 1940 election Ritchie, Donald A,; Electing FDR: The New Deal Campaign of 1932 U. Press of Kansas, 2007. Rosen, Elliot A. Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of Recovery. U. Press of Virginia, 2005. 308 pp. Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, 3 vols, (1957–1960), the classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR. Online at vol 2 vol 3 Shaw, Stephen K.; Pederson, William D.; and Williams, Frank J., eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Transformation of the Supreme Court. Sharpe, 2004. Sitkoff, Harvard, ed. Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated (1985) Foreign policy and World War II Beschloss, Michael R. The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945 (2002). Burns, James MacGregor. Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom (1970), vol 2 covers the war years. Wayne S. Cole, "American Entry into World War II: A Historiographical Appraisal," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 43, No. 4. (Mar., 1957), pp. 595–617. Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945 (2nd ed. 1995) broad survey of foreign policy Glantz, Mary E. FDR and the Soviet Union: The President's Battles over Foreign Policy. U. Press of Kansas, 2005. 253 pp. Heinrichs, Waldo. Threshold of War. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and American Entry into World War II (1988). Kimball, Warren. The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as World Statesman (1991) Langer, William and S. Everett Gleason. The Challenge to Isolation, 1937–1940 (1952). The Undeclared War, 1940–1941 (1953). highly influential two-volume semi-official history Larrabee, Eric. Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War. History of how FDR handled the war Weinberg, Gerhard L. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (1994). Overall history of the war; strong on diplomacy of FDR and other main leaders Woods, Randall Bennett. A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941–1946 (1990) Criticisms Barnes, Harry Elmer. Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace: A Critical Examination of the Foreign Policy of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Its Aftermath (1953). "revisionist" blames FDR for inciting Japan to attack. Best, Gary Dean. The Retreat from Liberalism: Collectivists versus Progressives in the New Deal Years (2002) criticizes intellectuals who supported FDR Best, Gary Dean. Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938 Praeger Publishers. 1991; summarizes newspaper editorials Conkin, Paul K. New Deal (1975), critique from the left Doenecke, Justus D. and Stoler, Mark A. Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 248 pp. Flynn, John T. The Roosevelt Myth (1948), former Socialist condemns all aspects of FDR Moley, Raymond. After Seven Years (1939) insider memoir by Brain Truster who became conservative Russett, Bruce M. No Clear and Present Danger: A Skeptical View of the United States Entry into World War II 2nd ed. (1997) says US should have let USSR and Germany destroy each other Plaud, Joseph J. Historical Perspectives on Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Foreign Policy, and the Holocaust (2005).Archived at the FDR American Heritage Center Museum Website Powell, Jim. FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression. (2003) ISBN 0761501657 Robinson, Greg. By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (2001) says FDR's racism was primarily to blame. Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933–1939 (2006) compares populist and paternalist features Smiley, Gene. Rethinking the Great Depression (1993) short essay by economist who blames both Hoover and FDR Wyman, David S. The Abandonment Of The Jews: America and the Holocaust Pantheon Books, 1984. Attacks Roosevelt for passive complicity in allowing Holocaust to happen FDR's rhetoric Braden, Waldo W., and Earnest Brandenburg. "Roosevelt's Fireside Chats." Communication Monographs''' 22 (1955): 290–302. Buhite, Russell D. and David W. Levy, eds. FDR's Fireside Chats (1993) Craig, Douglas B. Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920–1940 (2005) Crowell, Laura. "Building the "Four Freedoms" Speech." Communication Monographs 22 (1952): 266–283. Crowell, Laura. "Franklin D. Roosevelt's Audience Persuasion in the 1936 Campaign." Communication Monographs 17 (1950): 48–64 Houck, Davis W. F. D. R. and Fear Itself: The First Inaugural Address. Texas A&M UP, 2002. Houck, Davis W. Rhetoric as Currency: Hoover, Roosevelt, and the Great Depression. Texas A&M UP, 2001. Ryan, Halford Ross. "Roosevelt's First Inaugural: A Study of Technique." Quarterly Journal of Speech 65 (1979): 137–149. Ryan, Halford Ross. Franklin D. Roosevelt's Rhetorical Presidency. Greenwood Press, 1988. Stelzner, Hermann G. "'War Message,' December 8, 1941: An Approach to Language." Communication Monographs'' 33 (1966): 419–437. External links Franklin Delano Roosevelt: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress New Deal Network massive collection of photos and primary sources Interview with Erika Herbrig about the policy of FDR FDR cartoon archive Hyde Park NY Home of FDR Campobello Island Summer Home of FDR Warm Springs GA FDR Retreat FDR Memorial Washington DC The Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum Audio Archive Academic Data Related to the Roosevelt Administration TIME Magazine Cover: Franklin D. Roosevelt, May 28, 1923 Roosevelt at Warm Springs "American Experience: The Presidents: FDR", TV documentary, Public Broadcasting Service, 1994, iTunes Free Download Extensive essay on FDR and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs Interactive Site on President Franklin Delano Roosevelt Franklin D. Roosevelt American Heritage Center Museum One of the largest FDR-related resources in the world Photographs of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1913-1945 Photographic collection from the National Archives Speeches and quotations: audio and transcripts Full audio of over 40 Roosevelt speeches (including a full set of fireside chats) via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa) Roosevelt's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa) famous quotes The American Presidency Project at University of California at Santa Barbara Public Papers of the Presidents: Franklin D. Roosevelt State of the Union Addresses 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1944 State of the Union Written Messages 1945 Inaugural Addresses 1933, 1937, 1941, 1945 Fireside Chats Presidential Elections 1932, 1936, 1940, 1944 32 Audio/Video Clips of FDR FDR - Day of Infamy video clip (2 min.) Audio clips of speeches First Inaugural Address, via Yale University Second Inaugural Address, via Yale University Third Inaugural Address, via Yale University Fourth Inaugural Address, via Yale University Court "Packing" Speech March 9, 1937 University of Virginia graduating class speech ("Stab in the Back" speech) June 10, 1940 Other IPL POTUS Franklin Delano Roosevelt An archive of political cartoons from the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt FDR at the Atlantic Conference Franklin D. Roosevelt Links On Franklin Roosevelt's progressive vision from the Roosevelt Institution, a student think tank inspired in part by Franklin Roosevelt. The Happy Warrior a biography of Alfred Smith by Franklin D. Roosevelt | Franklin_D._Roosevelt |@lemmatized franklin:80 delano:21 roosevelt:343 january:6 april:8 often:2 refer:2 initial:1 fdr:54 president:61 united:50 state:73 central:3 figure:3 century:4 time:21 worldwide:2 economic:13 crisis:7 world:41 war:86 elect:9 four:8 term:29 office:10 serve:7 u:51 two:13 theodore:9 fifth:6 cousin:7 close:7 wife:5 eleanor:26 orphan:1 niece:2 give:19 away:2 marriage:5 great:22 depression:18 create:9 new:93 deal:38 provide:4 relief:14 unemployed:7 recovery:12 economy:11 reform:8 bank:9 system:10 various:4 agency:4 work:11 project:4 administration:21 wpa:8 national:20 nra:2 agricultural:4 adjustment:4 aaa:3 although:5 incomplete:1 ii:18 several:3 program:23 initiate:2 federal:12 deposit:2 insurance:2 corporation:4 fdic:1 tennessee:3 valley:7 authority:4 tva:2 security:9 exchange:4 commission:4 sec:1 continue:5 instrumental:2 role:8 nation:16 commerce:1 legacy:5 include:15 social:11 labor:15 relation:6 board:3 nlrb:1 britain:18 axis:3 lend:5 lease:5 aid:8 winston:8 churchill:22 british:13 effort:3 entry:4 december:12 home:11 front:5 introduce:5 price:5 control:8 ration:1 attack:13 pearl:7 harbor:7 force:11 japanese:15 empire:5 declaration:2 nazi:8 germany:20 fascist:3 italy:9 internment:4 american:89 german:16 italian:5 lead:14 become:19 arsenal:5 democracy:5 closely:1 aide:2 harry:13 hopkins:5 make:21 principal:1 arm:5 supplier:1 financier:2 ally:14 vast:1 expansion:2 industry:10 achievement:1 full:6 employment:3 opportunity:1 open:9 african:7 woman:3 conservative:9 coalition:14 argue:4 disappear:1 unemployment:11 like:5 progress:3 civilian:3 conservation:2 corp:2 near:2 victory:5 play:3 critical:2 shape:1 post:3 particularly:1 yalta:8 conference:16 creation:1 later:10 defeat:22 japan:15 election:25 presidency:9 bring:8 realignment:1 political:12 scientist:3 call:5 party:18 aggressive:2 use:8 government:10 dominate:3 democratic:17 late:5 tax:14 affect:1 income:5 group:3 vehemently:1 fight:6 back:8 usually:2 prevail:1 try:7 pack:4 supreme:8 court:15 remain:5 touchstone:1 modern:1 liberalism:5 redefine:4 realign:2 base:12 union:16 farmer:6 ethnic:3 religious:2 racial:2 minority:5 intellectual:4 rorty:1 r:8 achieve:1 country:8 leftist:1 thought:1 twentieth:1 america:16 cambridge:1 harvard:5 university:12 press:13 south:4 big:5 city:13 machine:6 poor:3 worker:5 consistently:2 rank:6 scholar:1 one:18 personal:4 life:10 family:12 name:8 anglicized:2 form:4 dutch:3 surname:1 van:3 rosevelt:1 rosenvelt:2 mean:5 field:1 rose:1 spelling:1 pronunciation:1 vowel:2 rue:1 felt:1 english:2 rise:6 wealthy:3 old:4 york:31 distinguish:1 area:3 politics:9 first:30 ellen:1 championship:1 single:1 double:2 tennis:3 champion:3 member:7 international:3 hall:6 fame:1 mother:8 favorite:2 uncle:2 smith:18 jean:6 edward:7 p:15 random:4 house:23 isbn:12 progenitor:1 philippe:1 de:2 la:1 noye:1 huguenot:1 land:3 whose:2 anglicize:1 early:6 bear:3 hudson:3 town:2 hyde:7 park:9 father:6 james:15 sara:4 french:20 ancestry:1 respectively:3 child:9 paternal:1 grandmother:1 mary:2 rebecca:1 aspinwall:2 elizabeth:2 monroe:3 jam:1 ancestor:2 john:9 lothropp:1 also:23 benedict:1 arnold:1 joseph:6 jr:11 distant:1 relative:1 side:7 author:1 laura:3 ingalls:1 wilder:1 maternal:1 grandfather:1 warren:4 descendant:1 mayflower:1 passenger:1 richard:4 isaac:1 allerton:1 degory:1 priest:1 francis:4 cooke:1 period:2 twelve:1 year:22 china:13 million:14 dollar:2 tea:1 trade:3 macau:1 canton:1 hong:1 kong:1 upon:4 return:6 lose:6 panic:2 fortune:1 notorious:1 highly:4 profitable:1 opium:2 patrick:1 reagan:3 design:3 origin:1 planning:1 supply:9 medication:1 department:3 civil:4 exclusively:1 pp:16 young:4 helen:1 sail:1 grow:8 atmosphere:1 privilege:1 possessive:1 elderly:2 remote:1 dominant:1 influence:6 lash:2 et:4 seq:2 frequent:3 trip:1 europe:12 conversant:1 learn:1 ride:1 shoot:1 row:1 polo:1 lawn:1 go:6 groton:1 school:4 episcopal:1 boarding:1 massachusetts:1 heavily:3 headmaster:1 endicott:1 peabody:1 preach:1 duty:2 christian:1 help:8 less:3 fortunate:1 urge:2 student:2 enter:5 public:27 service:4 live:4 luxurious:1 quarter:2 alpha:1 delta:1 phi:1 fraternity:1 crimson:1 daily:1 newspaper:4 vigorous:1 leadership:6 style:1 zeal:1 model:1 hero:2 meet:12 future:3 white:12 reception:2 previously:2 serious:1 encounter:1 remove:2 descend:2 claes:1 martensz:1 arrive:3 amsterdam:1 manhattan:3 netherlands:2 grandson:1 johannes:2 jacobus:2 begin:19 long:10 island:9 river:2 branch:3 come:7 columbia:3 law:8 drop:2 never:7 graduate:2 pass:12 bar:1 exam:1 take:13 job:5 prestigious:1 wall:5 street:4 firm:3 carter:1 ledyard:1 milburn:1 mainly:1 corporate:2 october:4 freemasonry:1 holland:1 lodge:4 nr:1 grand:6 pennsylvania:3 masonic:4 tour:3 retrieve:3 may:11 present:4 son:3 mason:1 march:16 marry:2 despite:5 fierce:1 resistance:1 stand:1 wedding:1 decease:1 elliott:2 couple:1 move:4 springwood:2 estate:2 guest:1 much:8 chagrin:1 charismatic:1 handsome:1 socially:1 active:2 man:5 contrast:4 shy:1 dislike:2 stay:1 raise:3 six:5 rapid:3 succession:1 anna:4 age:8 november:7 day:16 second:12 campobello:6 canada:2 affair:10 outside:1 secretary:14 lucy:6 mercer:6 soon:5 hire:2 september:7 find:8 letter:2 reveal:2 luggage:1 accord:4 offer:4 divorce:3 could:5 love:1 catholic:4 divorced:1 five:6 biographer:2 generally:1 accept:3 indeed:1 freedom:9 however:13 reconcile:1 fashion:1 informal:2 mediation:1 adviser:2 louis:2 mchenry:1 howe:1 promise:6 see:10 intervene:3 tell:4 would:23 scandal:1 another:2 establish:7 separate:2 valkill:1 maintain:6 formal:1 correspondence:4 code:3 mr:2 johnson:3 secret:7 publicly:1 know:7 next:6 door:2 attorney:1 general:3 mitchell:1 palmer:2 galleanist:1 anarchist:1 kill:4 botched:1 bombing:2 attempt:4 assassinate:1 éamon:1 valera:1 fledgling:1 irish:3 republican:6 army:4 get:6 around:4 export:1 shipping:3 troop:4 independence:1 survive:1 tumultuous:1 overshadow:1 famous:6 parent:1 among:3 nineteen:1 fifteen:1 twenty:1 nine:2 officer:1 decorate:1 merit:1 bravery:1 representative:1 three:7 represent:2 upper:1 west:3 district:3 california:4 none:1 high:15 dog:2 fala:1 well:12 companion:1 photographed:1 career:1 senator:8 ran:1 senate:4 dutchess:1 county:1 democrat:11 since:9 associated:1 wealth:1 prestige:1 landslide:4 carry:6 capital:1 albany:2 leader:13 reformer:1 oppose:8 tammany:5 popular:5 reelect:1 resign:2 assistant:8 navy:18 appoint:6 woodrow:1 wilson:2 josephus:1 daniel:2 primary:4 w:7 gerard:1 expand:5 found:3 reserve:2 send:5 marine:1 caribbean:3 series:9 speech:22 campaign:18 vice:7 claim:3 write:3 constitution:1 impose:1 haiti:2 arthur:5 schlesinger:4 order:18 cite:2 paper:5 spokane:1 san:1 francisco:1 centralia:1 remark:3 best:5 politically:1 awkward:1 overstatement:1 cause:4 controversy:3 develop:3 affection:1 negotiate:2 congressional:3 budget:5 approve:2 enthusiastic:1 advocate:4 submarine:4 combat:1 menace:2 allied:9 propose:6 build:9 mine:1 barrier:1 across:7 north:2 sea:2 norway:2 scotland:1 visit:2 france:19 inspect:1 naval:4 facility:1 end:16 charge:3 demobilization:1 plan:14 completely:1 dismantle:1 july:5 cox:3 poster:1 convention:5 choose:1 candidate:3 ticket:2 head:3 governor:12 ohio:1 g:3 harding:1 presidential:14 retire:1 legal:1 practice:1 join:4 newly:1 organize:4 civitan:1 club:1 doubt:1 run:7 paralytic:3 illness:4 known:1 photograph:2 wheelchair:3 august:2 vacation:1 brunswick:2 contract:1 believe:2 polio:2 result:5 total:4 permanent:1 paralysis:3 waist:1 rest:3 refuse:2 permanently:1 paralyze:1 wide:3 range:4 therapy:1 hydrotherapy:2 purchase:1 resort:1 warm:7 spring:8 georgia:3 center:8 treatment:1 patient:2 still:3 operate:4 institute:2 rehabilitation:1 foundation:2 infantile:1 dime:3 organization:4 reason:1 commemorate:1 able:1 convince:1 many:10 people:6 fact:1 good:6 essential:1 fit:1 hip:1 leg:1 iron:1 brace:1 laboriously:1 teach:1 walk:1 short:6 distance:1 swivel:1 torso:1 support:27 cane:1 private:2 careful:1 appear:2 standing:1 upright:1 peer:1 review:4 study:4 likely:1 actually:1 guillain:1 barré:1 syndrome:1 poliomyelitis:1 goldman:1 al:5 j:8 med:1 biogr:1 pose:1 publicity:2 shot:1 contact:2 mend:1 fence:1 especially:4 opponent:3 moderate:1 stance:3 alfred:2 e:10 win:7 nominating:1 morgan:2 nominee:2 turn:5 ask:2 even:10 narrowly:1 number:5 advise:1 perkins:2 need:5 charles:4 h:9 tuttle:1 corruption:1 issue:10 approach:3 initiated:1 investigation:1 sale:3 judicial:1 margin:2 vote:9 boy:4 scout:5 supporter:2 strong:6 scouting:1 development:2 ten:7 mile:1 camp:1 bsa:2 honor:2 award:2 adult:1 silver:1 buffalo:1 confer:3 recognition:1 distinguished:1 youth:1 level:4 honorary:1 attend:1 jamboree:1 washington:15 c:11 populous:1 obvious:1 nomination:3 hotly:1 contest:1 seem:2 incumbent:1 herbert:2 hoover:15 vulnerable:2 boss:1 magnate:1 william:22 randolph:1 hearst:1 kennedy:5 sr:1 gibbs:1 mcadoo:1 texas:4 nance:3 garner:5 switch:1 acceptance:1 declare:7 conduct:1 shadow:3 alliance:4 mobilize:1 expanded:1 urbanites:1 southern:4 craft:1 say:13 pledge:2 coin:1 slogan:1 adopt:1 legislative:2 economist:4 marriner:1 eccles:1 observe:1 read:2 giant:1 misprint:1 speak:2 line:1 denounce:2 failure:1 restore:1 prosperity:1 halt:2 downward:3 slide:1 ridicule:1 huge:4 deficit:2 platform:1 immediate:2 drastic:1 reduction:2 expenditure:1 abolish:1 useless:1 consolidate:1 bureau:3 eliminate:1 extravagance:1 bureaucracy:1 sound:3 currency:2 hazard:1 gloomy:1 evaluation:2 industrial:5 plant:1 problem:5 whether:2 exist:1 condition:4 overbuilt:1 last:3 frontier:2 reach:3 damn:1 pessimism:1 denial:1 counsel:1 despair:1 growth:3 postwar:4 prohibition:3 solidify:1 wet:1 note:3 repeal:3 revenue:3 historian:5 consider:3 majority:5 thus:3 transform:1 start:3 bernard:2 sternsher:1 emergence:2 historical:10 analysis:1 voter:2 behavior:1 journal:7 interdisciplinary:1 history:16 vol:14 summer:3 request:1 meeting:7 joint:1 stop:3 spiral:2 calm:1 investor:1 tie:1 hand:3 banking:3 complete:2 nationwide:1 shutdown:1 february:9 escape:1 assassination:1 giuseppe:1 zangara:1 chicago:4 mayor:2 anton:1 cermak:1 sit:3 freidel:5 lean:1 brain:5 trust:3 academic:6 advisor:2 raymond:3 moley:3 policy:27 cabinet:5 position:4 numerous:2 sometimes:1 decline:6 independent:2 cordell:4 hull:4 hartman:1 woodin:2 treasury:2 replace:2 powerful:1 henry:13 morgenthau:2 v:6 inauguration:3 inaugurate:1 nadir:1 bad:4 workforce:1 deep:1 trouble:1 fell:2 production:2 fall:3 half:4 homeless:1 evening:1 jonathan:2 alter:2 define:2 moment:3 unable:1 sum:2 withdraw:2 panicky:1 customer:1 previous:2 address:12 blame:4 banker:1 quest:1 profit:2 self:1 interest:2 basis:2 capitalism:1 categorize:1 urgently:1 boost:1 normal:1 meant:1 fix:1 wrong:2 financial:2 radio:2 talk:3 fireside:8 chat:6 proposal:5 directly:2 leuchtenburg:15 ch:3 master:1 demolay:1 concentrate:3 part:7 strategy:3 june:8 congress:21 record:2 bill:3 easily:1 rely:2 george:11 norris:2 robert:10 f:5 wagner:5 hugo:5 black:8 saw:2 longer:1 spending:8 invest:1 afraid:1 occur:5 middle:2 hence:1 backdrop:1 word:3 thing:1 fear:11 emergency:3 act:26 holiday:2 announce:1 allow:11 reopen:1 samuelson:1 paul:2 anthony:2 reading:2 economics:2 mcgraw:1 hill:1 step:2 confidence:1 sign:6 glass:2 stegall:1 dorothea:1 lange:1 migrant:1 depict:1 destitute:1 pea:1 picker:1 florence:1 owen:1 thompson:1 seven:3 measure:2 continuation:1 major:11 ccc:2 men:4 rural:2 local:1 broad:4 regulatory:1 power:10 provided:1 mortgage:1 homeowner:1 reconstruction:1 finance:1 source:5 financing:1 railroad:1 agriculture:3 priority:3 set:4 commodity:1 pay:5 crop:1 cut:8 herd:1 goal:1 nira:5 cutthroat:1 competition:1 rule:3 operation:6 within:6 specific:1 minimum:3 agreement:4 compete:1 restriction:1 official:3 wage:3 approval:1 provision:1 encourage:1 suspend:1 anti:3 unconstitutional:3 unanimous:1 decision:5 fundamental:1 purpose:1 principle:1 abandon:1 unthinkable:1 spell:2 chaos:1 elli:1 hawley:1 monopoly:1 regulation:2 regulate:1 fundraiser:1 pursue:1 pump:1 priming:1 billion:5 stimulate:1 handle:2 interior:1 harold:3 ickes:2 large:7 enterprise:1 dam:1 station:2 flood:1 modernized:1 poverty:1 stricken:1 keep:5 controversial:2 executive:8 privately:1 hold:6 gold:3 citizen:3 property:1 confiscation:1 assert:1 bullion:1 illegal:1 ford:1 rescind:1 tried:1 regular:4 veteran:4 benefit:2 overall:2 military:13 widow:2 pension:1 roll:1 slash:1 remainder:3 protest:1 erupt:1 foreign:16 ground:2 angry:1 huey:1 bonus:1 veto:1 succeed:1 salary:2 reduce:1 research:1 education:1 push:4 alcohol:1 maximum:2 precede:1 action:3 drafting:1 passage:1 amendment:2 ratify:1 dust:2 storm:1 bowl:1 fresh:1 surge:1 legislation:3 employ:2 height:1 michael:3 darby:3 employee:2 mislay:1 explanation:1 promised:1 sick:2 officially:1 right:14 engage:1 collective:1 bargaining:1 strike:1 sector:1 challenge:2 business:3 community:1 liberty:1 league:2 savagely:1 equate:1 marx:1 lenin:1 fry:1 enemy:3 overplay:1 boisterous:1 rhetoric:3 let:2 isolate:1 identify:1 vested:1 id:1 energize:1 backer:1 reelection:2 environment:1 increase:6 gross:1 product:1 gnp:5 debt:6 percentage:1 balance:2 fund:3 escalate:2 rapidly:4 steady:1 show:2 chart:1 statistic:4 die:8 recommend:1 notably:1 maynard:1 keynes:1 retrospect:1 ineffective:1 fixing:1 parker:1 eve:1 peacetime:3 wartime:6 absorb:1 inherit:1 dramatically:3 afterward:1 added:1 taxation:1 undistributed:1 mar:2 payroll:2 plus:1 effect:1 fair:3 standard:3 blizzard:1 stayed:1 almost:2 vanish:1 conscript:1 potential:2 smiley:6 different:1 comparison:1 impossible:1 think:2 basic:2 stats:1 accompany:1 median:1 joblessness:1 rate:5 throughout:3 entire:2 average:2 gene:3 recent:2 estimate:3 annual:1 spend:2 pressure:5 add:1 increased:1 saving:1 reject:3 individual:1 marginal:1 cap:1 broaden:1 every:2 withhold:1 gdp:1 lebergott:2 derby:1 count:1 rejection:1 treaty:2 mark:3 dominance:1 isolationism:1 wilsonian:2 background:1 care:1 provoke:1 isolationist:6 sentiment:5 bombshell:1 message:7 monetary:1 effectively:1 collaborate:1 free:4 main:3 initiative:2 neighbor:1 towards:3 latin:2 doctrine:1 sphere:2 cuba:1 panama:1 status:1 protectorate:1 montevideo:1 renounce:1 unilaterally:2 kansa:3 alf:1 landon:1 object:1 hostile:1 involve:3 waste:1 except:2 maine:1 vermont:1 democrats:2 traditional:2 small:2 solid:1 northern:2 jew:5 liberal:4 frequently:1 largely:1 intact:1 dramatic:1 little:3 housing:1 flsa:1 deteriorate:2 respond:1 stimulation:1 manage:2 eventually:1 peak:1 obstacle:1 overturn:1 particular:1 unanimously:1 delegation:1 stun:2 justice:7 persistent:1 infusion:1 blood:2 pusey:1 merlo:1 heritage:3 magazine:2 volume:4 intense:1 opposition:4 upset:1 separation:1 draw:2 confrontation:1 constitutional:1 death:9 retirement:1 appointment:2 bench:1 eight:3 massive:5 split:1 bitterly:1 feud:1 afl:1 cio:1 faction:1 latter:2 l:12 lewis:1 pronounce:1 plague:1 disunity:1 weaken:1 determine:2 overcome:1 mostly:1 actively:1 challenger:1 supportive:1 target:2 argument:1 fail:3 badly:1 seat:3 loss:1 pro:2 reconvene:1 republicans:1 taft:2 virtually:1 ability:2 domestic:2 enact:2 substantial:1 welcomed:1 manuel:1 quezon:1 philippine:3 dictator:1 adolf:1 hitler:5 arouse:1 invasion:7 ethiopia:3 neutrality:6 apply:1 mandatory:1 ban:1 shipment:1 combatant:1 penalize:1 victim:1 aggression:2 restrict:1 assist:3 friendly:1 overwhelm:1 stringent:1 sino:1 break:4 opinion:9 favor:2 way:7 quarantine:1 aim:2 contain:2 aggressor:1 warmongering:1 treat:1 health:5 quarantined:1 meanwhile:3 secretly:2 blockade:1 coup:4 integralista:2 movement:1 brazil:1 failed:1 brazilian:2 ambassador:3 dr:2 karl:1 ritter:1 persona:1 non:3 grata:1 allegation:1 galvanizing:1 impact:1 ambition:1 confine:1 rather:1 whole:1 change:2 view:3 regime:2 unpleasant:1 basically:1 midst:1 culminate:1 munich:3 unveiling:1 plaque:1 honoring:1 franco:2 friendship:2 friend:1 bullitt:2 unite:2 peace:5 speculation:1 czechoslovakia:2 adamthwaite:1 london:3 frank:9 ca:1 page:17 disallow:1 interpretation:2 bloc:1 circumstance:1 quite:1 clear:3 event:1 neutral:1 neville:2 chamberlain:2 telegram:2 subject:3 debate:2 congratulatory:1 caputi:1 appeasement:1 associate:2 bypass:2 buy:3 aircraft:8 productivity:1 deficiency:1 keylor:6 illusion:6 reassessment:6 edit:6 joel:6 blatt:6 berghahn:6 book:9 providence:6 premier:1 édouard:1 daladier:1 comment:2 thousand:1 happen:2 anxious:1 plane:3 strengthen:1 air:2 addition:1 forbid:1 loan:2 default:2 complicating:1 factor:2 cede:1 possession:1 pacific:6 together:2 lump:1 payment:1 franc:1 unlimited:1 credit:1 torturous:1 negotiation:2 arrangement:1 place:2 though:2 arrange:3 divert:1 seek:2 militarily:1 lord:2 admiralty:1 discuss:2 forge:1 relationship:3 prime:3 minister:3 uk:3 invade:6 denmark:1 follow:1 belgium:1 luxembourg:1 western:4 leave:3 advantage:1 shift:3 paris:2 shocked:2 consensus:2 risk:2 interventionist:1 stimson:3 knox:2 warn:2 unnecessary:1 successfully:1 draft:2 renew:1 committee:2 defend:1 charisma:1 intervention:1 audience:2 text:1 wikisource:1 openly:1 defy:1 destroyer:2 newfoundland:2 precursor:1 direct:1 republic:5 soviet:14 advice:1 chief:4 innovative:1 resource:3 exhaust:1 retreat:5 commit:3 sharp:1 repayment:1 lifelong:2 trader:1 imperialist:1 european:2 colonialism:1 objective:3 third:7 tradition:2 unwritten:1 ulysses:1 grant:1 obtain:1 consecutive:1 systematically:1 undercut:1 prominent:1 angle:1 farley:3 manager:1 postmaster:1 chairman:1 auditorium:1 poorly:1 gallery:1 unless:1 delegate:4 anyone:1 loudspeaker:1 scream:1 want:3 wild:1 nominate:1 wallace:7 burn:3 wendell:1 willkie:1 stress:2 proven:1 experience:2 intention:1 everything:1 possible:2 left:3 naming:1 texan:1 bitter:4 argentia:1 aboard:2 hms:1 prince:1 wale:1 atlantic:3 charter:2 slowly:1 armament:2 face:2 borah:1 gear:1 bipartisan:1 partly:2 equip:1 kingdom:2 lindbergh:1 irresponsible:1 warmonger:1 unfazed:1 criticism:3 confident:1 wisdom:1 twin:1 preparedness:1 deliver:2 case:3 involvement:2 week:2 far:2 lay:1 defense:1 buildup:1 spur:1 shortage:1 manufacturing:1 accelerate:1 migration:1 underemployed:1 homefront:1 dynamic:1 urgent:1 concern:1 extend:1 agree:2 escort:1 convoy:1 east:1 fire:1 ship:2 boat:1 kriegsmarine:1 zone:2 moreover:1 carrier:2 ferry:1 fighter:1 mediterranean:2 royal:1 receive:1 repair:1 assistance:1 mid:1 direction:1 albert:2 wedemeyer:3 necessary:1 mobilization:1 manpower:1 logistics:1 skinner:1 watson:1 ready:1 deployment:1 abroad:1 firmly:3 formulate:2 report:3 occupy:2 indochina:1 authorize:1 indo:1 oil:3 b:7 bomber:1 tribune:1 rainbow:2 top:1 russia:1 intercepted:1 admiral:1 husband:2 kimmel:1 lt:1 gen:1 walter:1 fleet:2 destroy:2 damage:1 warship:1 battleship:1 personnel:1 conquer:1 colony:1 southeast:1 asia:1 singapore:1 advance:5 burma:1 border:2 india:2 overland:1 route:1 antiwar:1 evaporate:1 overnight:1 behind:2 infamy:3 yesterday:1 date:1 suddenly:1 deliberately:1 wave:1 anger:1 sweep:1 wake:1 decide:2 strategic:3 easy:2 implement:1 hop:1 sainsbury:1 africa:1 launch:1 crush:1 save:1 intern:2 imprison:2 coast:1 due:2 terrorism:1 espionage:1 sabotage:1 issei:1 generation:2 immigrate:1 nisei:1 widely:1 generalissimo:1 chiang:3 kai:3 shek:3 cairo:2 stalin:13 cooperate:1 informally:1 russian:1 eastern:2 chinese:2 profile:1 diplomatic:1 channel:3 guarantee:2 primarily:2 ussr:2 acknowledge:1 antipathy:1 christmas:2 bercuson:1 david:5 herwig:1 holger:1 overlook:1 hardcover:1 dinner:1 describe:1 quote:2 distrust:1 hatred:1 revolution:1 boer:1 kind:1 course:2 imperialism:1 stomach:1 quick:1 wary:1 casualty:1 entail:1 indirect:1 northward:1 bulk:1 soil:1 undertake:1 morocco:1 algeria:1 torch:1 sicily:1 husky:1 avalanche:1 pulverize:1 pick:1 dwight:1 eisenhower:1 marshall:1 cross:1 overlord:1 costly:2 battle:4 ensue:1 block:1 bulge:1 berlin:1 extent:1 score:1 decisive:1 midway:1 australian:1 slow:1 hopping:1 leapfrog:1 gain:1 airpower:1 ultimately:2 insistent:1 demand:1 devote:1 always:2 insist:3 apparent:1 increasingly:2 important:1 tehran:2 redrawing:1 poland:3 beginning:1 steadily:1 travel:1 crimea:1 polish:1 criticize:2 legitimize:1 already:1 situation:1 put:1 hope:4 desire:1 working:1 reluctance:1 pole:1 warsaw:1 uprise:1 wish:2 suppress:1 earle:1 assign:1 responsibility:1 katyń:1 massacre:1 fourth:3 least:1 strain:1 physical:2 exertion:1 compensate:1 toll:1 lifetime:1 chain:1 smoking:1 ailment:1 chronic:1 emphysema:1 atherosclerosis:1 angina:1 pectoris:1 stage:3 heart:1 disease:1 emanuel:1 libman:2 pathologist:1 mount:1 sinai:1 hospital:1 react:1 appearance:2 newsreel:1 matter:1 cerebral:2 hemorrhage:2 month:3 co:1 sack:1 endocarditis:1 retrieved:1 aware:1 byrnes:2 carolina:1 indiana:1 schricker:1 truman:9 thomas:2 dewey:1 memorial:5 fly:1 egypt:2 uss:2 quincy:4 lake:2 suez:1 canal:1 farouk:1 king:3 haile:1 selassie:1 emperor:1 historic:2 abdulaziz:2 founder:1 saudi:3 arabia:2 profound:1 significance:1 today:1 final:2 steam:1 algiers:1 moran:1 physician:1 ill:1 symptom:1 hardening:1 artery:1 advanced:1 conrad:2 onboard:1 thin:1 frail:1 look:1 unprecedented:1 concession:1 incapacity:1 pardon:1 unusual:1 posture:1 presentation:1 lot:1 pound:1 steel:3 bottom:1 legs:1 mention:1 disability:1 mentally:1 command:1 crimean:1 ought:1 unilateral:1 exclusive:1 expedient:1 substitute:1 universal:1 loving:1 finally:1 chance:1 dallek:2 strongly:2 accuse:2 commitment:3 prisoner:1 plot:2 reply:1 cannot:1 avoid:2 feeling:1 resentment:1 informer:1 whoever:1 vile:1 misrepresentation:1 trusted:1 subordinate:1 lamb:1 anticipated:1 afternoon:1 terrific:1 headache:1 bedroom:1 doctor:1 diagnose:1 suffer:1 allen:1 drury:1 era:2 editorial:2 thank:1 god:1 knee:2 hundred:3 collapse:1 portrait:3 painting:1 artist:1 shoumatoff:2 unfinished:1 funeral:1 procession:1 overwork:1 daughter:1 boettiger:1 companionship:1 former:2 mistress:1 rutherfurd:1 rush:1 negative:1 implication:1 infidelity:1 heard:1 news:1 shock:1 grief:1 person:2 impending:1 sight:1 bury:2 garden:2 fought:1 dedicate:1 celebration:1 memory:1 tribute:2 flag:1 staff:1 mourning:1 native:1 fare:1 significant:1 therefore:1 lynch:1 might:1 threaten:1 successful:1 attract:1 share:2 admission:1 release:1 morse:1 chronicle:1 apathy:1 wyman:2 refugee:2 boston:2 feingold:1 rescue:1 holocaust:5 nj:2 decisively:1 enough:1 prevent:1 critic:2 episode:1 jewish:1 st:1 deny:2 asylum:1 cabinetofficenametermpresident:1 stettinius:1 dern:1 woodring:1 homer:1 cummings:1 murphy:3 jackson:2 biddle:1 walker:1 claude:2 swanson:1 edison:1 forrestal:1 wickard:1 roper:1 jesse:1 jones:1 appointee:2 harlan:2 fiske:2 stone:2 elevate:1 stanley:1 forman:1 reed:1 felix:2 frankfurter:3 douglas:3 wiley:1 blount:1 rutledge:2 ideology:1 adversary:1 ball:2 howard:2 cold:2 warrior:3 oxford:2 label:1 colleague:1 judicially:1 agenda:1 engrave:1 gravesite:1 ranking:4 alongside:1 abraham:2 lincoln:3 bailey:1 greatness:2 quantitative:1 appraisal:2 degregorio:1 ed:14 avenel:1 survey:6 faber:1 performance:3 felzenberg:1 alvin:1 ronald:2 melvin:1 holli:1 miller:4 nathan:1 star:1 spangle:1 murray:1 k:3 tim:1 blessing:1 rating:4 pfiffner:1 continuity:1 volatility:1 riding:1 stuart:1 mciver:1 honorable:1 dishonest:1 incompetent:1 secaucus:1 carol:1 publishing:2 clinton:1 science:1 quarterly:2 skidmore:2 max:2 comprehensive:1 evaluate:2 taranto:1 leonard:1 leo:1 federalist:1 society:1 vedder:1 gallaway:1 lowell:1 reassess:1 denson:1 mises:1 span:1 consistent:1 example:1 gvsu:1 edu:1 website:2 sixth:1 admired:1 gallup:3 chapter:1 bottle:2 wheaton:1 collection:4 recognize:1 iconic:1 pipe:1 mouth:1 reverse:1 inscribed:1 nothing:2 question:1 consolidation:1 lengthy:1 tenure:1 enormous:1 popularity:1 advocacy:1 coming:1 riverside:1 pronouncement:1 beyond:1 forceful:1 presence:1 embrace:1 bush:1 site:2 library:5 museum:4 accessible:1 via:7 bridge:1 locate:1 jefferson:1 tidal:1 basin:1 image:1 subway:1 square:1 reflect:1 prosperous:1 lift:2 medium:1 video:3 clip:4 sunrise:1 list:2 coupled:1 arthurdale:1 reference:1 census:2 statistical:1 abstract:1 useful:1 data:2 online:4 colonial:1 cantril:1 hadley:1 mildred:1 strunk:1 eds:3 compilation:1 poll:3 usa:1 horace:1 summarize:2 loewenheim:1 langley:1 memoir:2 key:1 truster:2 nixon:1 edgar:1 cover:6 available:2 microfiche:1 print:1 edition:1 rosenman:1 samuel:1 irving:1 material:1 zevin:1 selected:1 select:1 documentary:2 myron:1 taylor:1 pope:1 pius:2 xii:2 preface:1 kessinger:1 reprint:1 biography:8 macgregor:2 interpretive:2 scholarly:4 emphasis:1 coker:1 jeffrey:1 greenwood:2 rendezvous:1 destiny:2 detailed:1 davis:3 kenneth:1 beckoning:1 goodwin:1 doris:1 kearns:1 ordinary:1 jenkins:1 roy:1 bio:1 perspective:2 story:1 ted:1 ward:1 geoffrey:1 trumpet:1 class:2 temperament:1 secondary:1 triumph:1 beasley:1 maurine:1 encyclopedia:2 bellush:1 graham:1 otis:1 meghan:1 robinson:2 wander:1 showdown:1 smithsonian:1 issn:1 fulltext:1 ebsco:1 mcmahon:1 kevin:1 reconsider:1 race:1 pave:1 road:1 brown:1 parmet:1 marie:1 hecht:1 ritchie:1 donald:1 rosen:1 elliot:1 virginia:2 vols:1 classic:1 narrative:1 shaw:1 stephen:1 pederson:1 williams:1 transformation:1 sharpe:1 sitkoff:1 fifty:1 beschloss:1 conqueror:1 destruction:1 soldier:1 wayne:1 cole:1 historiographical:1 mississippi:1 glantz:1 heinrichs:1 waldo:2 threshold:1 kimball:1 juggler:1 statesman:1 langer:1 everett:1 gleason:1 isolation:1 undeclared:1 influential:1 semi:1 larrabee:1 eric:1 commander:1 lieutenant:1 weinberg:1 gerhard:1 global:1 diplomacy:1 wood:1 randall:1 bennett:1 changing:1 guard:1 anglo:1 barnes:1 elmer:1 perpetual:2 examination:1 aftermath:1 revisionist:1 incite:1 gary:2 dean:2 collectivist:1 versus:2 progressive:2 pride:1 prejudice:1 praeger:1 publisher:1 conkin:1 critique:1 doenecke:1 justus:1 stoler:1 rowman:1 littlefield:1 flynn:1 myth:1 socialist:1 condemns:1 aspect:1 insider:1 russett:1 bruce:1 danger:1 skeptical:1 plaud:1 archive:5 powell:1 jim:1 folly:1 prolong:1 greg:1 racism:1 schivelbusch:1 wolfgang:1 reflection:1 mussolini:1 compare:1 populist:1 paternalist:1 feature:1 rethink:1 essay:3 abandonment:1 pantheon:1 passive:1 complicity:1 braden:1 earnest:1 brandenburg:1 communication:4 monograph:4 buhite:1 russell:1 levy:1 craig:1 culture:1 crowell:2 persuasion:1 houck:2 inaugural:7 ryan:2 halford:2 ross:2 technique:1 rhetorical:1 stelzner:1 hermann:1 language:1 external:1 link:2 guide:1 network:1 photo:1 interview:1 erika:1 herbrig:1 cartoon:2 ny:1 ga:1 dc:1 audio:5 relate:1 tv:1 broadcasting:1 itunes:1 download:1 extensive:1 lady:1 interactive:1 related:1 photographic:1 quotation:1 transcript:1 uva:2 recording:1 santa:1 barbara:1 min:1 yale:4 stab:1 ipl:1 potus:1 vision:1 institution:1 tank:1 inspire:1 happy:1 |@bigram franklin_delano:18 delano_roosevelt:15 franklin_roosevelt:40 theodore_roosevelt:6 eleanor_roosevelt:8 lend_lease:5 winston_churchill:8 pearl_harbor:7 yalta_conference:4 supreme_court:8 twentieth_century:1 hall_fame:1 hyde_park:7 paternal_grandmother:1 benedict_arnold:1 joseph_smith:1 maternal_grandfather:1 hong_kong:1 et_seq:2 delta_phi:1 harvard_crimson:1 grand_lodge:3 fierce_resistance:1 éamon_de:1 de_valera:1 tammany_hall:5 woodrow_wilson:1 vice_president:6 arthur_schlesinger:1 san_francisco:1 presidential_election:4 peer_review:1 guillain_barré:1 et_al:2 presidential_nominee:2 boy_scout:4 hotly_contest:1 herbert_hoover:1 william_randolph:1 randolph_hearst:1 drastic_reduction:1 downward_spiral:1 spiral_downward:1 cordell_hull:4 urgently_need:1 fireside_chat:6 samuelson_paul:1 mcgraw_hill:1 unanimous_decision:1 poverty_stricken:1 repeal_prohibition:2 gold_bullion:1 dust_storm:1 collective_bargaining:1 vested_interest:1 deficit_spending:1 maynard_keynes:1 price_fixing:1 payroll_tax:2 unemployment_rate:2 income_tax:4 isolationist_sentiment:4 leuchtenburg_pp:5 montevideo_convention:1 maine_vermont:1 minimum_wage:2 dictator_adolf:1 adolf_hitler:1 sino_japanese:1 non_grata:1 neville_chamberlain:2 chamberlain_appeasement:1 keylor_william:6 defeat_reassessment:6 reassessment_edit:6 joel_blatt:6 blatt_berghahn:6 berghahn_book:6 édouard_daladier:1 lump_sum:1 lord_admiralty:1 admiralty_winston:1 prime_minister:3 belgium_luxembourg:1 soviet_union:7 anti_imperialist:1 ulysses_grant:1 wendell_willkie:1 charles_lindbergh:1 chicago_tribune:1 lt_gen:1 southeast_asia:1 espionage_sabotage:1 unilaterally_declare:1 generalissimo_chiang:1 chiang_kai:3 kai_shek:3 antipathy_towards:1 morocco_algeria:1 dwight_eisenhower:1 decisive_victory:1 angina_pectoris:1 mount_sinai:1 cerebral_hemorrhage:2 harry_truman:6 suez_canal:1 haile_selassie:1 saudi_arabia:2 funeral_procession:1 pay_tribute:2 david_wyman:1 brunswick_nj:1 harlan_fiske:2 fiske_stone:2 felix_frankfurter:2 abraham_lincoln:2 ronald_reagan:2 star_spangle:1 schlesinger_jr:1 mises_institute:1 w_bush:1 video_clip:3 opinion_poll:1 gallup_poll:1 foreign_affair:1 pope_pius:1 pius_xii:2 kessinger_publishing:1 doris_kearns:1 issn_fulltext:1 commander_chief:1 weinberg_gerhard:1 pride_prejudice:1 praeger_publisher:1 rowman_littlefield:1 inaugural_address:6 external_link:1 washington_dc:1 affair_uva:2 santa_barbara:1 |
3,431 | Glenn_T._Seaborg | Glenn Theodore Seaborg (; April 19, 1912 – February 25, 1999) was an American scientist who won the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements," contributed to the discovery and isolation of ten elements, developed the actinoids concept and was the first to propose the actinoids series which led to the current arrangement of the Periodic Table of the Elements. He spent most of his career as an educator and research scientist at the University of California, Berkeley where he became the second Chancellor in its history and served as a University Professor. http://www.nmu.edu/seaborg/seaborg.htm, "Glenn T. Seaborg: Citizen-Scholar," Glenn T. Seaborg Center Website, Northern Michigan University, accessed November 9, 2006. Seaborg advised ten presidents from Truman to Clinton on nuclear policy and was the chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission from 1961 to 1971 where he pushed for commercial nuclear energy and peaceful applications of nuclear science. Throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control. He was signator to the Franck Report and contributed to the achievement of the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. http://isswprod.lbl.gov/Seaborg/bio.htm, Glenn Seaborg: His Biography, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory website, accessed November 9, 2006. Seaborg was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research. He was a key contributor to the report "A Nation at Risk" as a member of President Reagan's National Commission on Excellence in Education and was the principal author of the Seaborg Report on academic science issued in the closing days of the Eisenhower administration. http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/seaborg-edu-legacy.html, Science Beat, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory website, accessed November 9, 2006. Seaborg was the principal or co-discoverer of ten elements: plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and element 106, which was named seaborgium in his honor while he was still living. He also developed more than 100 atomic isotopes, and is credited with important contributions to the separation of the isotope of uranium used in the atomic bomb at Hiroshima. Early in his career, Seaborg was a pioneer in nuclear medicine and developed numerous isotopes of elements with important applications in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, most notably iodine-131, which is used in the treatment of thyroid disease. In addition to his theoretical work in the development of the actinide concept which placed the actinide series beneath the lanthanide series on the periodic table, Seaborg proposed the placement of super-heavy elements in the transactinide and superactinide series. http://www-cms.llnl.gov/seaborginstitute/seaborg.html, Seaborg Institute website, accessed November 9, 2006. After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards and honors. The list of things named after Seaborg ranges from his atomic element to an asteroid. Seaborg was a prolific author, penning more than 50 books and 500 journal articles, often in collaboration with others. He received so many awards and honors that he was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Who's Who in America. Biography Of Swedish ancestry, Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, the son of Herman Theodore (Ted) and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg. He had one sister, Jeanette. When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the family moved to the Seaborg Home in a subdivision called Home Gardens, that was later annexed to the City of South Gate, California, a suburb of Los Angeles. He kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998. As a youth, Seaborg was both a devoted sports fan and an avid movie buff. His mother encouraged him to become a book-keeper as she felt his literary interests were impractical. He did not take an interest in science until his junior year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid, a chemistry and physics teacher at David Starr Jordan High School in Watts. Seaborg, Glenn T. and Eric Seaborg, Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001), 13-14. ISBN 0-374-29991-9 He graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a bachelor's degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles in 1934. While at UCLA, he was invited by his German professor to meet Albert Einstein, an experience that had a profound impact on Seaborg and served as a model of graciousness for his encounters with aspiring students in later years. Seaborg worked his way through school as a stevedore (longshoreman), fruit packer and laboratory assistant. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAseaborgH.htm biographical entry, website, accessed July 8, 2006. Graduate work Seaborg took his Ph.D. in chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1937 with a doctoral thesis on the inelastic scattering of neutrons in which he coined the term "nuclear spallation". He was a member of the professional chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma. As a graduate student in the 1920s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases. Seaborg then studied thoroughly the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin and it had a major impact on his developing interests as a research scientist. For several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley. He was excited to learn from others that nuclear fission was possible -- but also chagrined, as his own research might have led him to the same discovery. Seaborg, Glenn T. and Eric Seaborg, Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001), 57-59. ISBN 0-374-29991-9 Seaborg also became expert in dealing with noted Berkeley physicist Robert Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer had a daunting reputation, and often answered a junior man's question before it had even been stated. Often the question answered was more profound than the one asked, but of little practical help. Seaborg learned to state his questions to Oppenheimer quickly and succinctly. Seaborg, Glenn T. and Eric Seaborg, Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001), 26. ISBN 0-374-29991-9 Career Pioneering work in nuclear chemistry Seaborg remained at the University of California, Berkeley for post-doctoral research. He followed Frederick Soddy's work investigating isotopes and contributed to the discovery of more than 100 isotopes of elements. Using one of Lawrence's advanced cyclotrons, John Livingood, Fred Fairbrother, and Seaborg created a new isotope of iron, iron-59 (Fe-59) in 1937. Iron-59 was useful in the studies of the hemoglobin in human blood. In 1938, Livingood and Seaborg collaborated to create an important isotope of iodine, iodine-131 (I-131) which is still used to treat thyroid disease. (Many years later, it was credited with prolonging the life of Seaborg's mother.) As a result of these and other contributions, Seaborg is regarded as a pioneer in nuclear medicine and is one of its most prolific discoverers of isotopes. http://www.atomicmuseum.com/tour/nm1d4.cfm, National Atomic Museum, website, accessed July 16, 2006. In 1939 he became an instructor in chemistry at UC Berkeley, was promoted to assistant professor in 1941 and professor in 1945. http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/seaborg-timeline.html, Glenn T. Seaborg Timeline, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory website, accessed November 9, 2006. UC Berkeley physicist Edwin McMillan had led a team that discovered element 93, neptunium in 1940. However in November 1940, McMillan was persuaded to leave Berkeley temporarily to assist with urgent research needed to advance radar technology. Since Seaborg and his colleagues had perfected McMillan's oxidation-reduction technique for isolating neptunium, he asked McMillan for permission to continue the research and search for element 94. McMillan agreed to the collaboration. Jackson, David J. and W. K. H. Panofsky, Biographical Memoirs: Edwin Mattison McMillan, National Academies Press, online at http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/emcmillan.html , accessed July 16, 2006 Seaborg first reported alpha decay proportionate to only a fraction of the element 93 under observation. The first hypothesis for this alpha particle accumulation was contamination by uranium, which produces alpha-decay particles. However, an analysis of alpha-decay particles ruled out the hypothesis. Seaborg then postulated that a distinct alpha-producing element was being formed from element 93. In February 1941, Seaborg and his collaborators produced plutonium-239 through the bombardment of uranium. This experimental achievement changed the course of human history in ways more profound than they could have ever imagined: the production of plutonium-239 was successful. In their experiments bombarding uranium with deuterons, they observed the creation of neptunium, element 93. But it then underwent beta-decay, forming a new element, plutonium, with 94 protons. Plutonium is fairly stable, but undergoes alpha-decay, which explained the presence of alpha particles coming from neptunium. Delphine Farmer, An Elementary Problem, Berkeley Science Review, Issue 1:Volume 1, 2001, online at http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/emcmillan.html , website accessed July 16, 2006. Thus, on March 28, 1941, Dr. Seaborg, physicist Emilio Segre' and Berkeley chemist Joseph W. Kennedy were able to show that plutonium (then known only as element 94239) underwent fission with slow neutrons, an important distinction that was crucial to the decisions made in directing Manhattan Project research. In the same year in which he produced plutonium, 1941, he also discovered that the isotope U235 undergoes fission under appropriate conditions. He therefore contributed to the science enabling two different approaches to the development of nuclear weapons. In addition to plutonium, he is credited as a lead discoverer of americium, curium, and berkelium, and as a co-discoverer of californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and seaborgium. He shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 with Edwin McMillan for "their discoveries in the chemistry of the first transuranium elements." He obtained patents on americium and curium, which were developed in 1944 in Chicago at the wartime metallurgical laboratory during the Manhattan project. His research contributions to all of the other elements were conducted at the University of California, Berkeley. Scientific contributions during the Manhattan Project On April 19, 1942, Seaborg reached Chicago, and joined the chemistry group at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the Manhattan Project at the University of Chicago, where Enrico Fermi and his group would later convert U238 to plutonium in the world's first controlled nuclear chain reaction using a chain-reacting pile. Seaborg's role was to figure out how to extract the tiny bit of plutonium from the mass of uranium. Plutonium-239 was isolated in visible amounts using a transmutation reaction on August 20, 1942 and weighed on September 10, 1942 in Seaborg's Chicago laboratory. He was responsible for the multi-stage chemical process that separated, concentrated and isolated plutonium. This process was further developed at the Clinton Engineering Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee and then entered full-scale production at the Hanford Engineer Works, in Richland, Washington. http://isswprod.lbl.gov/Seaborg/hits.htm, Seaborg's Greatest Hits, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory website, accessed, November 9, 2006. Seaborg's theoretical development of the actinide concept resulted in a redrawing of the Periodic Table of the Elements into its current configuration with the actinide series appearing below the lanthanide series. Seaborg developed the chemical elements americium and curium while in Chicago. He managed to secure patents for both elements. His patent on curium never proved commercially viable because of the element's short half-life. Americium is commonly used in household smoke detectors, however, and thus provided a good source of royalty income to Seaborg in later years. Prior to the test of the first nuclear weapon, Seaborg joined with several other leading scientists in a written statement known as the Franck Report (secret at the time but since published) calling on President Truman to conduct a public demonstration of the atomic bomb witnessed by the Japanese rather than engaging in a surprise attack. Truman instead proceeded to drop two bombs, credited by most observers at the time with ending the war, a uranium bomb on Hiroshima and a plutonium bomb on Nagasaki. Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986.) 320, 340-43, 348, 354, 369, 377, 395. ISBN 0-684-81378-5. Professor and Chancellor at the University of California, Berkeley After the conclusion of World War II and the Manhattan Project, Seaborg was eager to return to academic life and university research free from the restrictions of wartime secrecy. In 1946, he added to his responsibilities as a professor by heading the nuclear chemistry research at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory operated by the University of California on behalf of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Seaborg was named one of the "Ten Outstanding Young Men in America" by the U.S. Junior Chamber of Commerce in 1947 (along with Richard Nixon and others). Seaborg was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1948. From 1954 to 1961 he served as associate director of the radiation laboratory. He was appointed by President Truman to serve as a member of the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, an assignment he retained until 1960. Seaborg served as chancellor at University of California, Berkeley from 1958 to 1961. His term as Chancellor came at a time of considerable controversy during the time of the free speech movement. In October 1958, he announced that the University had relaxed its prior prohibitions on political activity on a test basis. Theodore L. Hullar, Clark Kerr, Julius R. Krevans, Pedro Noguera, Glenn T. Seaborg, Neil J. Smelser, Martin Trow, and Charles E. Young. The University of California Office of the President and Its Constituencies, 1983-1995. Volume II: On the Campuses: Chancellors, Faculty, Student. Regional Oral History Office, University of California, Berkeley, 1997-1999. Available from the Online Archive of California; <http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt967nb5sj> Seaborg served on the Faculty Athletic Committee for several years and is the co-author of a book concerning the Pacific Athletic Conference scandal and the founding of the PAC-10 (formerly PAC-8), in which he played a role. Seaborg served on the President's Science Advisory Commission during the Eisenhower administration, which produced the report "Scientific Progress, the Universities, and the Federal Government," also known as the "Seaborg Report," in November 1960. The Seaborg Report is credited with influencing the federal policy towards academic science for the next eight years. In 1959, he helped found the Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory with UC president Clark Kerr. Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission After appointment by President John F. Kennedy and confirmation by the United States Senate, Seaborg was chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) from 1961 to 1971. His pending appointment by President Kennedy was nearly derailed in late 1960 when members of the Kennedy transition team learned that Seaborg had been listed in a U.S. News and World Report article as a member of "Nixon's Brain Trust." Seaborg said that as a lifetime Democrat he was baffled when the article appeared associating him with Vice President Nixon, whom he considered a casual acquaintance. While chairman of the AEC, Seaborg participated on the negotiating team for the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT). Seaborg considered his contributions to the achievement of the LTBT as his greatest accomplishment. Despite strict rules from the Soviets about photography at the signing ceremony, Seaborg sneaked a tiny camera past the Soviet guards to take a close-up photograph of Soviet Premier Khrushchev as he signed the treaty. President Kennedy and his Atomic Energy Commission Chairman, Glenn Seaborg. Seaborg enjoyed a close relationship with President Lyndon Johnson and influenced the administration to pursue the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Seaborg was called to the White House in the first week of the Nixon Administration in January 1969 to advise President Richard Nixon on his first diplomatic crisis involving the Soviets and nuclear testing. Seaborg clashed with Nixon presidential adviser John Ehrlichman over the treatment of a Jewish scientist whom the Nixon administration suspected of leaking nuclear secrets to Israel. Seaborg published several books and journal articles during his tenure at the Atomic Energy Commission. His predictions concerning development of stable super-heavy elements are considered among his most important theoretical contributions. Glenn T. Seaborg, "Prospects for Further Considerable Extension of the Periodic Table," Journal of Chemical Education (46: 626–634), 1969. Seaborg theorized the transactinide series and the superactinide series of undiscovered synthetic elements. While most of these theoretical future elements have extremely short half-lives and thus no expected practical applications, Seaborg theorized an island of stability for isotopes of certain elements. Glenn Considine, ed., Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia, 9th ed., (New York: Wiley Interscience, 2002, 738. ISBN 0-471-33230-5. When Seaborg resigned as chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1971, he had served longer than any other Kennedy appointee. Return to California Glenn T. Seaborg with Vice President Al Gore in the White House during a visit of the 1993 Science Talent Search (STS) finalists on March 4, 1993. Following his service as Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, Seaborg returned to UC Berkeley where he was awarded the position of University Professor. At the time, there had been fewer University Professors at UC Berkeley than Nobel prize winners. He also served as Chairman of the Lawrence Hall of Science. Seaborg served as President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1972 and as President of the American Chemical Society in 1976. In 1976, when the Swedish king visited the United States, Seaborg played a major role in welcoming the Swedish Royal Family. In 1980, he transmuted several thousand atoms of bismuth into gold at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. K. Aleklett, D. J. Morrissey, W. Loveland, P. L. McGaughey, and G. T. Seaborg. Energy dependence of 209Bi fragmentation in relativistic nuclear collisions. Phys. Rev. C 1981, 23, 1044-1046. His experimental technique, using nuclear physics, was able to remove protons and neutrons from the bismuth atoms. Seaborg's technique would have been far too expensive to enable routine manufacturing of gold, but his work is the closest to the mythical Philosopher's Stone. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan appointed Seaborg to serve on the National Commission on Excellence in Education. Upon seeing the final draft report, Seaborg is credited with making comments that it was far too weak and did not communicate the urgency of the current crisis. He compared the crisis in education to the arms race, and stated that we are "a nation at risk." These comments led to a new introduction to the report and gave the report the famous title which focused national attention on education as an issue germane to the federal government. Seaborg lived most of his later life in Lafayette, California, where he devoted himself to editing and publishing the journals that documented both his early life and later career. He rallied a group of scientists who criticized the science curriculum in the State of California which he viewed as far too socially oriented and not nearly focused enough on hard science. California Governor Pete Wilson appointed Seaborg to head a committee that proposed sweeping changes to California's science curriculum despite outcries from labor organizations and others. On August 24, 1998, while in Boston to attend a meeting by the American Chemical Society, Seaborg suffered a stroke, which led to his death six months later on February 25, 1999 at his home in Lafayette. During his lifetime, Seaborg is said to have been the author or co-author of more than 50 books and 500 scientific journal articles, many of them brief reports on fast-breaking discoveries in nuclear science while other subjects, most notably the actinide concept, represented major theoretical contributions in the history of science. He held more than 40 patents — among them the only patents ever issued for chemical elements, americium and curium. He is also said to have received more than 50 degrees and honorary degrees in his lifetime. At one time, he was listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as having the longest entry in Marquis Who's Who in America. In February 2005, Seaborg was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. Personal life In 1942, Seaborg married Helen Griggs, the secretary of Ernest Lawrence. Under wartime pressure, Seaborg had moved to Chicago while engaged to Griggs. When Seaborg returned to accompany Griggs for the journey back to Chicago, friends expected them to marry in Chicago. But, eager to be married, Seaborg and Griggs impulsively got off the train in the town of Caliente, Nevada for what they thought would be a quick wedding. When they asked for City Hall, they found Caliente had none—they would have to travel north to Pioche, the county seat. With no car, this was no easy feat but, happily, one of Caliente's newest deputy sheriffs turned out to be a recent graduate of the Cal Berkeley chemistry department and was only too happy to do a favor for Seaborg. The deputy sheriff arranged for the wedding couple to ride up and back to Pioche in a mail truck. The witnesses at the Seaborg wedding were a clerk and a janitor. Glenn Seaborg and Helen Griggs Seaborg had six children, of whom the first, Peter Glenn Seaborg, died in 1997. The others were Lynne Seaborg Cobb, David Seaborg, Steve Seaborg, Eric Seaborg, and Dianne Seaborg. Seaborg was an avid hiker. Upon becoming Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1961, he commenced taking daily hikes through a trail which he blazed at the headquarters site in Gaithersburg, Maryland. He frequently invited colleagues and visitors to accompany him and the trail became known as the "Glenn Seaborg Trail." He and his wife Helen are credited with blazing a trail in the East Bay area near their Lafayette, California home. This trail has since become a part of the American Hiking Association's cross-country network of trails. Seaborg and his wife walked the trail network from Contra Costa County all the way to the California-Nevada border. Seaborg was honored as Swedish-American of the Year in 1962 by the Vasa Order of America. In 1991, the organization named "Local Lodge Glenn T. Seaborg No. 719" in his honor during the Seaborg Honors ceremony at which he appeared. This lodge maintains a scholarship fund in his name, as does the unrelated Swedish-American Club of Los Angeles. Seaborg kept a close bond to his Swedish origin. He visited Sweden every so often and his family were members of the Swedish Pemer Genealogical Society, a family association open for every descendant of the Pemer family, a Swedish family with German origin, from which Seaborg was descended on his mother's side. Darleane C. Hoffman, Albert Ghiorso, Glenn Theodore Seaborg, The Transuranium People: The Inside Story, ISBN 1860940870, preface pages lxvii-lxviii. Seaborgium The element seaborgium was named after Seaborg by Albert Ghiorso, Darleane C. Hoffman, and others, who also credited Seaborg as a co-discoverer. It was so named while Seaborg was still alive, which proved controversial. He influenced the naming of so many elements that with the announcement of seaborgium, it was noted in Discover magazines review of the year in science that he could receive a letter addressed in chemical elements: seaborgium, lawrencium (for the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory where he worked), berkelium, californium, americium. Jeffrey Winters, "What’s in a Name?" DISCOVER, Vol. 19 No. 01, January 1998. http://www.discover.com/issues/January-98/features/theyearinscience1309/ , website, accessed October 17, 2006. While it has been commonly stated that seaborgium is the only element to have been named after a living person, this is not entirely accurate; both einsteinium and fermium were proposed as names of new elements discovered by Albert Ghiorso while Enrico Fermi and Albert Einstein were still living. The discovery of these elements and their names were kept secret under Cold War era nuclear secrecy rules, however, and thus the names were not known by the public or the broader scientific community until after the deaths of Fermi and Einstein. Thus seaborgium is the only element to have been publicly named after a living person. Publications References Further reading Patrick Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry, Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-532134-0 External links Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy National Academy of Sciences biography Annotated bibliography for Glenn Seaborg from the Alsos Digital Library Nobel Institute Official Biography UC Berkeley Biography of Chancellor Glenn T. Seaborg Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory's Glenn T. Seaborg website American Association for the Advancement of Science, List of Presidents American Chemical Society, List of Presidents Seaborg and Plutonium Chemistry, at Department of Energy official site Glenn Seaborg Trail, at Department of Energy official site Glenn T. Seaborg Center at Northern Michigan University | Glenn_T._Seaborg |@lemmatized glenn:24 theodore:4 seaborg:128 april:2 february:4 american:9 scientist:6 win:1 nobel:5 prize:4 chemistry:18 discovery:7 transuranium:3 elements:1 contribute:4 isolation:1 ten:4 element:34 develop:7 actinoid:2 concept:4 first:9 propose:4 series:8 lead:7 current:3 arrangement:1 periodic:4 table:4 spend:1 career:5 educator:1 research:13 university:20 california:19 berkeley:26 become:7 second:1 chancellor:6 history:4 serve:11 professor:8 http:12 www:9 nmu:1 edu:4 htm:4 citizen:1 scholar:1 center:2 website:11 northern:2 michigan:3 access:11 november:8 advise:2 president:19 truman:4 clinton:2 nuclear:20 policy:2 chairman:9 united:6 state:11 atomic:19 energy:15 commission:13 push:1 commercial:1 peaceful:1 application:3 science:25 throughout:1 work:10 arm:2 control:2 signator:1 franck:2 report:13 achievement:3 limited:2 test:5 ban:3 treaty:6 non:2 proliferation:2 comprehensive:1 isswprod:2 lbl:4 gov:5 bio:1 biography:6 lawrence:12 laboratory:14 well:1 know:6 advocate:1 education:6 federal:4 funding:1 pure:1 key:1 contributor:1 nation:2 risk:2 member:6 reagan:2 national:8 excellence:2 principal:2 author:5 academic:3 issue:5 closing:1 day:1 eisenhower:2 administration:5 article:7 archive:3 legacy:1 html:5 beat:1 co:6 discoverer:5 plutonium:14 americium:7 curium:6 berkelium:3 californium:3 einsteinium:3 fermium:3 mendelevium:2 nobelium:2 name:13 seaborgium:8 honor:6 still:4 live:3 also:8 isotope:10 credit:8 important:6 contribution:7 separation:1 uranium:6 use:9 bomb:6 hiroshima:2 early:2 pioneer:3 medicine:2 numerous:2 diagnosis:1 treatment:3 disease:3 notably:2 iodine:3 thyroid:2 addition:2 theoretical:5 development:4 actinide:5 place:1 beneath:1 lanthanide:2 placement:1 super:2 heavy:2 transactinide:2 superactinide:2 cm:1 llnl:1 seaborginstitute:1 institute:3 share:2 edwin:4 mcmillan:8 receive:5 approximately:1 honorary:2 doctorate:1 award:3 list:6 thing:1 range:1 asteroid:1 prolific:2 pen:1 book:9 journal:6 often:4 collaboration:2 others:6 many:4 guinness:2 world:5 record:2 person:3 long:2 entry:3 america:4 swedish:8 ancestry:1 bear:1 ishpeming:1 son:1 herman:1 ted:1 selma:1 olivia:1 erickson:1 one:7 sister:1 jeanette:1 boy:1 family:6 move:2 home:4 subdivision:1 call:3 garden:1 later:5 annex:1 city:2 south:1 gate:1 suburb:1 los:3 angeles:3 keep:3 daily:2 suffer:2 stroke:2 youth:1 devoted:1 sport:1 fan:1 avid:2 movie:1 buff:1 mother:3 encourage:1 keeper:1 felt:1 literary:1 interest:3 impractical:1 take:4 junior:3 year:10 inspire:1 dwight:1 logan:1 reid:1 physic:2 teacher:1 david:3 starr:1 jordan:2 high:1 school:2 watt:4 eric:4 adventure:3 age:3 washington:4 new:10 york:5 farrar:3 straus:3 giroux:3 isbn:7 graduate:4 top:1 class:1 bachelor:1 degree:3 ucla:1 invite:2 german:2 meet:1 albert:5 einstein:3 experience:1 profound:3 impact:2 model:1 graciousness:1 encounter:1 aspiring:1 student:3 late:4 way:3 stevedore:1 longshoreman:1 fruit:1 packer:1 assistant:2 spartacus:1 schoolnet:1 uk:1 usaseaborgh:1 biographical:2 july:4 ph:1 doctoral:2 thesis:1 inelastic:1 scattering:1 neutron:3 coin:1 term:2 spallation:1 professional:1 fraternity:1 alpha:8 chi:1 sigma:1 perform:1 wet:1 advisor:1 gilbert:1 newton:1 lewis:1 publish:4 three:1 paper:1 theory:1 acid:1 base:1 study:2 thoroughly:1 text:1 apply:1 radiochemistry:1 otto:1 hahn:1 kaiser:1 wilhelm:1 berlin:1 major:3 several:5 conduct:3 artificial:1 radioactivity:1 cyclotron:2 uc:7 excite:1 learn:3 fission:3 possible:1 chagrin:1 might:1 expert:1 deal:1 noted:1 physicist:3 robert:1 oppenheimer:3 daunting:1 reputation:1 answer:2 man:1 question:3 even:1 ask:3 little:1 practical:2 help:2 quickly:1 succinctly:1 remain:1 post:1 follow:2 frederick:1 soddy:1 investigate:1 advance:2 john:3 livingood:2 fred:1 fairbrother:1 create:2 iron:3 fe:1 useful:1 hemoglobin:1 human:2 blood:1 collaborate:1 treat:1 prolong:1 life:7 result:2 regard:1 atomicmuseum:1 com:2 tour:1 cfm:1 museum:1 instructor:1 promote:1 timeline:2 team:3 discover:6 neptunium:4 however:4 persuade:1 leave:1 temporarily:1 assist:1 urgent:1 need:1 radar:1 technology:1 since:3 colleague:2 perfect:1 oxidation:1 reduction:1 technique:3 isolate:2 permission:1 continue:1 search:2 agree:1 jackson:1 j:3 w:3 k:2 h:1 panofsky:1 memoir:1 mattison:1 academy:3 press:2 online:3 nap:2 readingroom:2 biomems:2 emcmillan:2 decay:5 proportionate:1 fraction:1 observation:1 hypothesis:2 particle:4 accumulation:1 contamination:1 produce:5 analysis:1 rule:3 postulate:1 distinct:1 form:2 collaborator:1 bombardment:1 experimental:2 change:2 course:1 could:2 ever:2 imagine:1 production:2 successful:1 experiment:1 bombard:1 deuteron:1 observe:1 creation:1 undergo:1 beta:1 proton:2 fairly:1 stable:2 undergoes:2 explain:1 presence:1 come:2 delphine:1 farmer:1 elementary:1 problem:1 review:2 volume:2 thus:5 march:2 dr:1 emilio:1 segre:1 chemist:1 joseph:1 kennedy:6 able:2 show:1 underwent:1 slow:1 distinction:1 crucial:1 decision:1 make:3 direct:1 manhattan:5 project:5 appropriate:1 condition:1 therefore:1 enable:2 two:2 different:1 approach:1 weapon:2 obtain:1 patent:5 chicago:8 wartime:3 metallurgical:2 scientific:6 reach:1 join:2 group:3 enrico:2 fermi:3 would:4 convert:1 chain:2 reaction:2 react:1 pile:1 role:3 figure:1 extract:1 tiny:2 bit:1 mass:1 visible:1 amount:1 transmutation:1 august:2 weigh:1 september:1 responsible:1 multi:1 stage:1 chemical:8 process:2 separate:1 concentrate:1 isolated:1 far:4 engineering:1 oak:1 ridge:1 tennessee:1 enter:1 full:1 scale:1 hanford:1 engineer:1 richland:1 hit:2 great:2 redrawing:1 configuration:1 appear:3 manage:1 secure:1 never:1 prove:2 commercially:1 viable:1 short:2 half:2 commonly:2 household:1 smoke:1 detector:1 provide:1 good:1 source:1 royalty:1 income:1 prior:2 write:1 statement:1 secret:3 time:6 public:2 demonstration:1 witness:2 japanese:1 rather:1 engage:2 surprise:1 attack:1 instead:1 proceed:1 drop:1 observer:1 end:1 war:3 nagasaki:1 rhodes:1 richard:3 making:1 simon:1 schuster:1 conclusion:1 ii:2 eager:2 return:4 free:2 restriction:1 secrecy:2 add:1 responsibility:1 head:2 radiation:2 operate:1 behalf:1 outstanding:1 young:2 men:1 u:2 chamber:1 commerce:1 along:1 nixon:7 elect:1 associate:2 director:1 appoint:3 general:1 advisory:2 committee:3 assignment:1 retain:1 considerable:2 controversy:1 speech:1 movement:1 october:2 announce:1 relax:1 prohibition:1 political:1 activity:1 basis:1 l:2 hullar:1 clark:2 kerr:2 julius:1 r:1 krevans:1 pedro:1 noguera:1 neil:1 smelser:1 martin:1 trow:1 charles:1 e:1 office:3 constituency:1 campus:1 faculty:2 regional:1 oral:1 available:1 ark:2 cdlib:1 org:1 athletic:2 concern:2 pacific:1 conference:1 scandal:1 founding:1 pac:2 formerly:1 play:2 progress:1 government:2 influence:3 towards:1 next:1 eight:1 find:2 space:1 appointment:2 f:1 confirmation:1 senate:1 aec:2 pending:1 nearly:2 derail:1 transition:1 news:1 brain:1 trust:1 say:3 lifetime:3 democrat:1 baffle:1 vice:2 consider:3 casual:1 acquaintance:1 participate:1 negotiating:1 ltbt:2 accomplishment:1 despite:2 strict:1 soviet:4 photography:1 signing:1 ceremony:2 sneak:1 camera:1 past:1 guard:1 close:4 photograph:1 premier:1 khrushchev:1 sign:1 enjoy:1 relationship:1 lyndon:1 johnson:1 pursue:1 white:2 house:2 week:1 january:3 diplomatic:1 crisis:3 involve:1 testing:1 clashed:1 presidential:1 adviser:1 ehrlichman:1 jewish:1 suspect:1 leak:1 israel:1 tenure:1 prediction:1 among:2 prospect:1 extension:1 theorize:2 undiscovered:1 synthetic:1 future:1 extremely:1 expected:1 island:1 stability:1 certain:1 considine:1 ed:2 van:1 nostrand:1 encyclopedia:1 wiley:1 interscience:1 resign:1 longer:1 appointee:1 al:1 gore:1 visit:3 talent:1 sts:1 finalist:1 service:1 position:1 winner:1 hall:3 association:4 advancement:2 society:4 king:1 welcome:1 royal:1 transmute:1 thousand:1 atom:2 bismuth:2 gold:2 aleklett:1 morrissey:1 loveland:1 p:1 mcgaughey:1 g:1 dependence:1 fragmentation:1 relativistic:1 collision:1 phys:1 rev:1 c:3 remove:1 expensive:1 routine:1 manufacturing:1 mythical:1 philosopher:1 stone:1 ronald:1 upon:2 see:1 final:1 draft:1 comment:2 weak:1 communicate:1 urgency:1 compare:1 race:1 introduction:1 give:1 famous:1 title:1 focus:2 attention:1 germane:1 lafayette:3 devote:1 edit:1 document:1 rally:1 criticize:1 curriculum:2 view:1 socially:1 orient:1 enough:1 hard:1 governor:1 pete:1 wilson:1 sweeping:1 outcry:1 labor:1 organization:2 boston:1 attend:1 meeting:1 death:2 six:2 month:1 brief:1 fast:1 break:1 subject:1 represent:1 hold:1 marquis:1 posthumously:1 induct:1 inventor:1 fame:1 personal:1 married:1 helen:3 griggs:5 secretary:1 ernest:1 pressure:1 accompany:2 journey:1 back:2 friend:1 expect:1 marry:2 impulsively:1 get:1 train:1 town:1 caliente:3 nevada:2 think:1 quick:1 wedding:3 none:1 travel:1 north:1 pioche:2 county:2 seat:1 car:1 easy:1 feat:1 happily:1 deputy:2 sheriff:2 turn:1 recent:1 cal:1 department:4 happy:1 favor:1 arrange:1 couple:1 ride:1 mail:1 truck:1 clerk:1 janitor:1 child:1 peter:1 die:1 lynne:1 cobb:1 steve:1 dianne:1 hiker:1 commence:1 hike:1 trail:8 blaze:2 headquarters:1 site:3 gaithersburg:1 maryland:1 frequently:1 visitor:1 wife:2 east:1 bay:1 area:1 near:1 part:1 hiking:1 cross:1 country:1 network:2 walk:1 contra:1 costa:1 border:1 vasa:1 order:1 local:1 lodge:2 maintain:1 scholarship:1 fund:1 unrelated:1 club:1 bond:1 origin:2 sweden:1 every:2 pemer:2 genealogical:1 open:1 descendant:1 descend:1 side:1 darleane:2 hoffman:2 ghiorso:3 people:1 inside:1 story:1 preface:1 page:1 lxvii:1 lxviii:1 alive:1 controversial:1 naming:1 announcement:1 note:1 magazine:1 letter:1 address:1 lawrencium:1 jeffrey:1 winter:1 vol:1 feature:1 living:2 entirely:1 accurate:1 cold:1 era:1 broad:1 community:1 publicly:1 publication:1 reference:1 read:1 patrick:1 coffey:1 cathedral:1 personality:1 rivalry:1 modern:1 oxford:1 external:1 link:1 bibliographic:1 resource:1 technical:1 information:1 annotate:1 bibliography:1 alsos:1 digital:1 library:1 official:3 |@bigram nobel_prize:4 periodic_table:4 http_www:9 glenn_seaborg:18 lbl_gov:4 americium_curium:5 californium_einsteinium:2 atomic_bomb:3 bomb_hiroshima:2 honorary_doctorate:1 los_angeles:3 farrar_straus:3 straus_giroux:3 bachelor_degree:1 albert_einstein:2 spartacus_schoolnet:1 doctoral_thesis:1 inelastic_scattering:1 chi_sigma:1 otto_hahn:1 kaiser_wilhelm:1 uc_berkeley:6 nuclear_fission:1 robert_oppenheimer:1 frederick_soddy:1 iodine_iodine:1 nap_edu:2 alpha_decay:4 bombard_uranium:1 beta_decay:1 nuclear_weapon:2 transuranium_element:1 metallurgical_laboratory:2 enrico_fermi:2 uranium_plutonium:1 oak_ridge:1 ridge_tennessee:1 commercially_viable:1 smoke_detector:1 simon_schuster:1 chamber_commerce:1 richard_nixon:2 advisory_committee:1 vice_president:2 president_lyndon:1 lyndon_johnson:1 van_nostrand:1 wiley_interscience:1 association_advancement:2 phys_rev:1 proton_neutron:1 ronald_reagan:1 posthumously_induct:1 hall_fame:1 ernest_lawrence:1 deputy_sheriff:2 hike_trail:1 contra_costa:1 albert_ghiorso:3 patrick_coffey:1 coffey_cathedral:1 external_link:1 biography_bibliographic:1 bibliographic_resource:1 annotate_bibliography:1 alsos_digital:1 |
3,432 | Abba_Arika | Abba Arika (175–247) (Talmudic Aramaic: ) (born Abba bar Aybo) was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia, known as an amora (commentator on the Oral Law) of the 3rd century who established at Sura the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as text, led to the compilation of the Talmud. With him began the long period of ascendancy of the great academies of Babylonia , around the year 220. He is commonly known simply as Rav (or Rab, Hebrew: ). Overview His surname, Arika (English, "Long"— that is, "Tall"; it occurs only once—Hullin 137b), he owed to his height, which, according to a reliable record, exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading Areka, consider it an honorary title, "Lecturer" (Weiss, Dor, iii. 147; Jastrow, Dictionary under the word). In the traditional literature he is referred to almost exclusively as Rav the Master (both his contemporaries and posterity recognizing in him a master), just as his teacher, Judah I, was known simply as Rabbi. He is called Rabbi Abba only in the tannaitic literature (for instance, Tosefta, Beitzah 1:7), where a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the Tannaim and the Amoraim, and is accorded the right, rarely conceded to one who is only an 'amora, of disputing the opinion of a tanna (Bava Batra 42a and elsewhere). Rav was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family which claimed to trace its origin to Shimei, brother of King David (Sanhedrin 5a; Ketubot 62b). His father, Aibo, was a brother of Chiyya, who lived in Palestine, and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah I. From his associations in the house of his uncle, and later as his uncle's disciple and as a member of the academy at Sepphoris, Rav acquired such an extraordinary knowledge of traditional lore as to make him its foremost exponent in his native land. While Judah I was still living, Rav, having been duly ordained as teacher—though not without certain restrictions (Sanhedrin 5a)—returned to Babylonia, where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism. Beginning of the Talmudic Age In the annals of the Babylonian schools the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting-point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the Seleucidan and the 219th year of the common era. As the scene of his activity, Rav first chose Nehardea, where the exilarch appointed him agoranomos, or market-master, and Rabbi Shela made him lecturer (amora) of his college (Jerusalem Talmud Bava Batra v. 15a; Yoma, 20b). Then he removed to Sura, on the Euphrates, where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples, who came from all sections of the Jewish world, Rav lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel, another disciple of Judah I, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rav that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rav's activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine, and gave it that predominant position which it was destined to occupy for several centuries. Rav as teacher The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rav. That method takes the Mishnah of Judah ha-Nasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other tannaitic traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rav's name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the Babylonian Talmud. His numerous disciples—some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel—amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rav. In the Babylonian schools, Rav was rightly referred to as "our great master." Rav also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of marriage and divorce, and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of ritual observance. Ethical teaching Rav, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in (Hullin 110a). Special attention was given by him to the liturgy of the synagogue. He is reputed to be the author of one of the finest compositions in the Jewish prayerbook, the Musaf service of the New Year. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner (Jerusalem Talmud Rosh Hashanah i. 57a). The many homiletic and ethical (haggadistic) sayings recorded of him show similar ability. As a haggadist, Rav is surpassed by none of the Babylonian Amoraim. He is the only one of the Babylonian teachers whose haggadistic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The Jerusalem Talmud has preserved a large number of his halakic and aggadistic utterances; and the Palestinian Midrashim also contain many of his aggadot. Rav delivered homiletic discourses, both in the Beth midrash (college) and in the synagogues. He especially loved to treat in his homilies of the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the aggadah, are his creations. His aggadah is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another. A few of these utterances may be quoted here: (Shabbat 10b) "The commandments of the Torah were only given to purify men's morals" (Genesis Raba 44). "Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber" (Shabbat 64b). "It is well that people busy themselves with the study of the Law and the performance of charitable deeds, even when not entirely disinterested; for the habit of right-doing will finally make the intention pure" (Pesahim 50b). "Man will be called to account for having deprived himself of the good things which the world offered" (Jerusalem Talmud Kiddushin end). "Whosoever hath not pity upon his fellow man is no child of Abraham" (Beitzah 32b). "It is better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than publicly to put to shame one's fellow creature" (Bava Metzia 59a). "One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself'" (Kiddushin 41a). "A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of Joseph shows what evil results may follow therefrom". Rav reproves extreme asceticism Rav loved the Book of Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), and warned his disciple Hamnuna against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting advice contained therein—that, considering the transitoriness of human life (Eruvin 54a), one should not despise the good things of this world. To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words: (Berakhot 17a) "There is naught on earth to compare with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in the radiance of the Divine Presence". Rav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations which the rabbis connect with the Biblical account of creation (Genesis 1, Ma'aseh Bereshit), the vision of the mysterious chariot of God (Ezekiel 1, Ma'aseh Merkabah), and the Divine Name. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction (Hagigah 12a, Kiddushin 71a). Status in life Concerning the social position and the personal history of Rav we were not informed. That he was rich seems probable; for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture (Hullin 105a). That he was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia is proved by the friendship which existed between him and the last Parthian king, Artaban (Avodah Zarah 10b). He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban (226) and the downfall of the Arsacid dynasty, and does not appear to have sought the friendship of Ardeshir, founder of the Sassanian dynasty, although Samuel of Nehardea probably did so. Rav became closely related, through the marriage of one of his daughters, to the family of the exilarch. Her sons, Mar Ukba and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rav had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the Talmud, the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. The latter did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rav's disciple Rav Huna. Two of his grandsons occupied in succession the office of exilarch (resh galuta) (Hullin 92a). Rav died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism (Shabbat 110a, Mo'ed Katan 24a). References . | Abba_Arika |@lemmatized abba:3 arika:2 talmudic:3 aramaic:1 bear:1 bar:1 aybo:1 jewish:4 talmudist:1 live:4 babylonia:7 know:3 amora:5 commentator:1 oral:1 law:4 century:2 establish:3 sura:3 systematic:1 study:2 rabbinic:1 tradition:3 use:2 mishnah:2 text:2 lead:2 compilation:1 talmud:8 begin:2 long:2 period:1 ascendancy:1 great:3 academy:4 around:1 year:5 commonly:1 simply:2 rav:27 rab:1 hebrew:2 overview:1 surname:1 english:1 tall:1 occur:1 hullin:4 owe:2 height:1 accord:2 reliable:1 record:5 exceed:1 contemporary:2 others:1 read:1 areka:1 consider:3 honorary:1 title:1 lecturer:2 weiss:1 dor:1 iii:1 jastrow:1 dictionary:1 word:2 traditional:3 literature:2 refer:3 almost:1 exclusively:1 master:4 posterity:1 recognizing:1 teacher:5 judah:5 rabbi:4 call:2 tannaitic:2 instance:1 tosefta:1 beitzah:2 number:3 saying:2 preserve:2 occupy:4 middle:1 position:4 tannaim:1 right:2 rarely:1 concede:1 one:11 dispute:2 opinion:2 tanna:1 bava:3 batra:2 elsewhere:1 descendant:1 distinguished:2 babylonian:9 family:2 claim:1 trace:1 origin:2 shimei:1 brother:2 king:2 david:1 sanhedrin:2 ketubot:1 father:3 aibo:1 chiyya:2 palestine:2 highly:2 esteemed:1 scholar:1 collegiate:1 circle:1 patriarch:1 association:1 house:1 uncle:2 later:1 disciple:9 member:1 sepphoris:1 acquire:1 extraordinary:1 knowledge:1 lore:1 make:4 foremost:1 exponent:1 native:2 land:2 still:1 duly:1 ordain:1 though:1 without:2 certain:1 restriction:1 return:1 career:1 destine:2 mark:1 epoch:1 development:1 judaism:2 beginning:1 age:3 annals:1 school:4 arrival:1 start:1 point:1 chronology:1 seleucidan:1 common:2 era:1 scene:1 activity:2 first:1 choose:1 nehardea:3 exilarch:3 appoint:1 agoranomos:1 market:1 shela:1 college:2 jerusalem:4 v:1 yoma:1 remove:1 euphrates:1 soon:1 become:3 intellectual:1 center:2 jew:2 renowned:1 host:1 come:2 section:1 world:4 work:2 death:2 samuel:4 another:3 time:2 bring:1 high:2 degree:1 prosperity:1 fact:1 learning:1 find:2 permanent:1 home:1 independent:1 give:3 predominant:1 several:2 method:2 treatment:1 material:1 take:1 ha:1 nasi:1 foundation:1 add:1 derive:1 theoretical:1 explanation:1 practical:1 application:1 religious:3 legal:1 ritual:2 name:2 constitute:1 main:1 body:1 numerous:2 influential:1 part:1 also:4 amplify:1 capacity:1 instructor:1 discussion:1 continue:1 rightly:1 exercise:1 influence:1 good:3 upon:3 moral:3 condition:1 indirectly:1 directly:1 reason:1 strictness:1 repress:1 abuse:1 matter:2 marriage:2 divorce:1 denounce:1 ignorance:1 negligence:1 observance:1 ethical:2 teaching:1 say:1 open:1 neglected:1 field:1 fence:1 special:1 attention:2 liturgy:1 synagogue:2 repute:1 author:1 fine:1 composition:1 prayerbook:1 musaf:1 service:1 new:1 noble:1 prayer:1 evince:1 profound:1 feeling:1 exalt:1 thought:2 well:4 ability:2 language:1 natural:1 expressive:1 classical:1 manner:1 rosh:1 hashanah:1 many:5 homiletic:2 haggadistic:2 show:2 similar:1 haggadist:1 surpass:1 none:1 whose:1 utterance:4 approach:1 content:1 palestinian:2 haggadists:1 large:1 halakic:1 aggadistic:1 midrash:2 contain:2 aggadot:1 deliver:1 discourse:1 beth:1 especially:1 love:3 treat:1 homily:1 event:1 personage:1 biblical:3 history:2 beautiful:1 genuinely:1 poetic:2 embellishment:1 possession:1 aggadah:2 creation:2 particularly:1 rich:2 concern:2 life:4 relation:1 human:2 may:3 quote:2 shabbat:3 commandment:2 torah:1 purify:1 men:1 genesis:2 raba:1 whatever:1 properly:1 public:1 forbidden:1 even:2 secret:1 chamber:1 people:1 busy:1 performance:1 charitable:1 deed:1 entirely:1 disinterested:1 habit:1 finally:1 intention:1 pure:1 pesahim:1 man:2 account:2 deprive:1 thing:2 offer:1 kiddushin:3 end:1 whosoever:1 hath:1 pity:1 fellow:2 child:2 abraham:1 cast:1 oneself:1 fiery:1 furnace:1 publicly:1 put:1 shame:1 creature:1 metzia:1 never:2 betroth:1 woman:1 see:1 might:2 subsequently:1 discover:1 blemish:1 loathe:1 thus:1 transgress:1 thou:1 shalt:1 thy:1 neighbor:1 thyself:1 prefer:1 example:1 joseph:1 evil:1 result:1 follow:1 therefrom:1 reprove:1 extreme:1 asceticism:2 book:1 ecclesiasticus:1 sirach:1 warn:1 hamnuna:1 unjustifiable:1 advice:1 therein:1 transitoriness:1 eruvin:1 despise:1 celestial:1 joy:1 future:2 accustom:1 following:1 berakhot:1 naught:1 earth:1 compare:1 shall:2 neither:3 eat:1 drinking:1 trading:1 toil:1 hatred:1 envy:1 righteous:1 sit:1 crown:1 head:2 rejoice:1 radiance:1 divine:2 presence:1 devote:1 much:1 mystical:1 transcendental:1 speculation:1 connect:1 aseh:2 bereshit:1 vision:1 mysterious:1 chariot:1 god:1 ezekiel:1 merkabah:1 important:1 testify:1 tendency:1 direction:1 hagigah:1 status:1 social:1 personal:1 inform:1 seem:1 probable:1 appear:2 commerce:1 afterward:1 agriculture:1 respect:1 gentile:1 prove:1 friendship:2 exist:1 last:1 parthian:1 artaban:2 avodah:1 zarah:1 deeply:2 affect:1 downfall:1 arsacid:1 dynasty:2 seek:1 ardeshir:1 founder:1 sassanian:1 although:1 probably:1 closely:1 relate:1 daughter:1 son:2 mar:1 ukba:1 nehemiah:1 type:1 aristocracy:1 mention:1 eldest:1 latter:1 however:1 succeed:1 post:1 fell:1 huna:1 two:1 grandson:1 succession:1 office:1 resh:1 galuta:1 die:1 advanced:1 mourn:1 entire:1 jewry:1 raise:1 comparative:1 insignificance:1 mo:1 ed:1 katan:1 reference:1 |@bigram almost_exclusively:1 bava_batra:2 highly_esteemed:1 babylonian_talmud:1 musaf_service:1 rosh_hashanah:1 fiery_furnace:1 bava_metzia:1 thou_shalt:1 avodah_zarah:1 closely_relate:1 |
3,433 | Hittites | The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family Dr Andrew McCarthy, University of Edinburgh, Archaeology 1B Lecture and established a kingdom centered at Hattusa (Hittite ) in north-central Anatolia (on the Central Anatolian plateau) ca. the 18th century BC. The Hittite empire reached its height ca. the 14th century BC, encompassing a large part of Anatolia, north-western Syria about as far south as the mouth of the Litani River (a territory known as Amqu), and eastward into upper Mesopotamia. After ca. 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC. The term "Hittites" was taken from the KJV translation of the Hebrew Bible, translating HTY, or BNY-HT "Children of Heth". (Heth is a son of Canaan.) The archaeologists who discovered the Anatolian Hittites in the 19th century initially identified them with these Biblical Hittites. Today the identification of the Biblical peoples with either the Hattusa-based empire or the Neo-Hittite kingdoms is a matter of dispute. See, for example, Singer, Itamar "The Hittites and the Bible Revisited" in Maeir, A.M. and de Miroschedji, P. ed., I Will Speak the Riddle of Ancient Times, Archaeological and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday (2006, Eisenbrauns) The Hittite kingdom was commonly called the Land of Hatti by the Hittites themselves. The fullest expression is "The Land of the City of Hattusa". This description could be applied to either the entire empire, or more narrowly just to the core territory, depending on context. The word "Hatti" is actually an Akkadogram, rather than Hittite; it is never declined according to Hittite grammatical rules. Despite the use of "Hatti", the Hittites should be distinguished from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the same region until the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and spoke a non-Indo-European language called Hattic. The Hittites themselves referred to their language as Nesili (or in one case, Kanesili), an adverbial form meaning "in the manner of (Ka)nesa", presumably reflecting a high concentration of Hittite speakers in the ancient city of Kanesh (modern Kültepe, Turkey). Many modern city names in Turkey are first recorded under their Hittite names, such as Sinop and Adana, reflecting the contiguity of modern Anatolia with its ancient past. Although belonging to the Bronze Age, the Hittites were forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of iron artifacts from as early as the 14th century BC, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the demand for their iron goods. Recent excavations, however, have discovered evidence of iron tool production dating back at least as far as the 20th century BC. "Excavation in Turkey Set to Rewrite History of Iron Age," Asahi Shimbun, 27 March 2009. Hittite weapons were made from bronze though; iron was so rare and precious that it was employed only as prestige goods. But the Hittites were famous for their skill in building and using chariots. These chariots gave them a military superiority as illustrated on a plate from Carchemish. Kate Santon: Archaeology, Parragon Books Ltd, London 2007 Archaeological discovery The Hittites used cuneiform letters. Archaeological expeditions have discovered in Hattushash entire sets of royal archives in cuneiform tablets, written either in Akkadian, the diplomatic language of the time, or in the various dialects of the Hittite confederation. The Hittite Empire Chapter V - by Vahan M. Kurkjian The first archaeological evidence for the Hittites appeared in tablets found at the Assyrian colony of Kültepe (ancient Karum Kanesh), containing records of trade between Assyrian merchants and a certain "land of Hatti". Some names in the tablets were neither Hattic nor Assyrian, but clearly Indo-European. The script on a monument at Boğazköy by a "People of Hattusas" discovered by William Wright in 1884 was found to match peculiar hieroglyphic scripts from Aleppo and Hamath in Northern Syria. In 1887, excavations at Tell El-Amarna in Egypt uncovered the diplomatic correspondence of Pharaoh Amenhotep III and his son Akhenaton. Two of the letters from a "kingdom of Kheta" -- apparently located in the same general region as the Mesopotamian references to "land of Hatti" -- were written in standard Akkadian cuneiform script, but in an unknown language; although scholars could read it, no one could understand it. Shortly after this, Archibald Sayce proposed that Hatti or Khatti in Anatolia was identical with the "kingdom of Kheta" mentioned in these Egyptian texts, as well as with the biblical Hittites. Others such as Max Muller agreed that Khatti was probably Kheta, but proposed connecting it with Biblical Kittim, rather than with the "Children of Heth". Sayce's identification came to be widely accepted over the course of the early 20th century; and the name "Hittite" has become attached to the civilization uncovered at Boğazköy. During sporadic excavations at Boğazköy (Hattusa) that began in 1906, the archaeologist Hugo Winckler found a royal archive with 10,000 tablets, inscribed in cuneiform Akkadian and the same unknown language as the Egyptian letters from Kheta — thus confirming the identity of the two names. He also proved that the ruins at Boğazköy were the remains of the capital of an empire that at one point controlled northern Syria. Under the direction of the German Archaeological Institute, excavations at Hattusa have been underway since 1907, with interruptions during both wars. Kültepe has been successfully excavated by Professor Tahsin Özgüç since 1948 until his death in 2005. Smaller scale excavations have also been carried out in the immediate surroundings of Hattusa, including the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, which contains numerous rock-cut reliefs portraying the Hittite rulers and the gods of the Hittite pantheon. Museums The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, Turkey houses the richest collection of Hittite and Anatolian artifacts. Geography The Hittite kingdom was centered around the lands surrounding Hattusa and Neša, known as "the land Hatti" (). After Hattusa was made capital, the area encompassed by the bend of the Halys River (which they called the Marassantiya) was considered the core of the Empire, and some Hittite laws make a distinction between "this side of the river" and "that side of the river", for example, the reward for the capture of an eloped slave after he managed to flee beyond the Halys is higher than that for a slave caught before he could reach the river. To the west and south of the core territory lay the region known as Luwiya in the earliest Hittite texts. This terminology was replaced by the names Arzawa and Kizzuwatna with the rise of those kingdoms A Short Grammar of Hieroglyphic Luwian, John Marangozis (2003) . Nevertheless, the Hittites continued to refer to the language that originated in these areas as Luwian. Prior to the rise of Kizzuwatna, the heart of that territory in Cilicia was first referred to by the Hittites as Adaniya Beal, Richard H.,"The History of Kizzuwatna and the Date of the Šunaššura Treaty", Orientalia 55 (1986) pp. 424ff. . Upon its revolt from the Hittites during the reign of Ammuna, ibid. p. 426 it assumed the name of Kizzuwatna and successfully expanded northward to encompass the lower Anti-Taurus mountains as well. To the north lived the mountainous people called the Kaskians. To the southeast of the Hittites lay the Hurrian empire of Mitanni. At its peak during the reign of Mursili II, the Hittite empire stretched from Arzawa in the west to Mitanni in the east, many of the Kaskian territories to the north including Hayasa-Azzi in the far northeast, and on south into Canaan approximately as far as the southern border of Lebanon, incorporating all of these territories within its domain. History The Hittite kingdom is conventionally divided into three periods, the Old Hittite Kingdom (ca. 1750–1500 BC), the Middle Hittite Kingdom (ca. 1500–1430 BC) and the New Hittite Kingdom (the Hittite Empire proper, ca. 1430–1180 BC). The earliest known member of a Hittite speaking dynasty, Pithana, was based at the city of Kussara. In the 18th century BC Anitta, his son and successor, made the Hittite speaking city of Neša into one of his capitals and adopted the Hittite language for his inscriptions there. However, Kussara remained the dynastic capital for about a century until Labarna II adopted Hattusa as the dynastic seat, possibly taking the throne name of Hattusili, "man of Hattusa", at that time. The Old Kingdom, centered at Hattusa, peaked during the 16th century BC, and even managed to sack Babylon at one point, but made no attempt to govern there, enabling the Kassite to rise to prominence there and rule it for over 400 years. During the 15th century BC, Hittite power fell into obscurity, re-emerging with the reign of Tudhaliya I from ca. 1400 BC. Under Suppiluliuma I and Mursili II, the Empire was extended to most of Anatolia and parts of Syria and Canaan, so that by 1300 BC the Hittites were bordering on the Egyptian sphere of influence, leading to the inconclusive Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC. Civil war and rivalling claims to the throne, combined with the external threat of the Sea Peoples weakened the Hittites and by 1160 BC, the Empire had collapsed. "Neo-Hittite" post-Empire states, petty kingdoms under Assyrian rule, may have lingered on until ca. 700 BC, and the Bronze Age Hittite and Luwian dialects evolved into the sparsely attested Lydian, Lycian and Carian languages. Remnants of these languages lingered into Persian times and were finally extinct by the spread of Hellenism. Hittite government The Hittites are thought to have had the first constitutional monarchy. This consisted of a king, royal family, the pankus (who monitored the king's activities), and an often rebellious aristocracy. The Hittites also made huge advances in legislation and justice. They produced the Hittite laws. These laws rarely used death as a punishment. For example, the punishment for theft was to pay back the amount stolen. Language The Hittite language (or Nesili) is recorded fragmentarily from about the 19th century BC (in the Kültepe texts, see Ishara). It remained in use until about 1100 BC. Hittite is the best attested member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. The language of the Hattusa tablets was eventually deciphered by a Czech linguist, Bedřich Hrozný (1879—1952), who on 24 November, 1915 announced his results in a lecture at the Near Eastern Society of Berlin. His book about his discovery was printed in Leipzig in 1917, under the title The Language of the Hittites; Its Structure and Its Membership in the Indo-European Linguistic Family. The preface of the book begins with: The present work undertakes to establish the nature and structure of the hitherto mysterious language of the Hittites, and to decipher this language [...] It will be shown that Hittite is in the main an Indo-European language. For this reason, the language came to be known as the Hittite language, even though that was not what its speakers had called it. The Hittites themselves apparently called their language nešili "(in the manner) of (the city of) Neša" and hence it has been suggested that the more technically correct term, "Nesite", be used instead. Nonetheless, convention continues and "Hittite" remains the standard term used. Due to its marked differences in its structure and phonology, some early philologists, most notably Warren Cowgill even argued that it should be classified as a sister language to Indo-European languages (Indo-Hittite), rather than a daughter language. By the end of the Hittite Empire, the Hittite language had become a written language of administration and diplomatic correspondence. The population of most of the Hittite Empire by this time spoke Luwian dialects, another Indo-European language of the Anatolian family that had originated to the west of the Hittite region. Mythology Hittite religion and mythology was heavily influenced by Mesopotamian mythology, increasingly so as history progressed. In earlier times, Indo-European elements may still be clearly discerned, for example Tarhunt the god of thunder, and his conflict with the serpent Illuyanka. Biblical Hittites The Hebrew Bible refers to "Hittites" in several passages, ranging from Genesis to the post-Exilic Ezra-Nehemiah. Genesis 10 (the Table of Nations) links them to an eponymous ancestor Heth, a descendant of Ham through his son Canaan. The Hittites are thereby counted among the Canaanites. The Hittites are usually depicted as a people living among the Israelites - Abraham purchases the Patriarchal burial-plot of Machpelah from them, and Hittites serve as high military officers in David's army. In 2 Kings 7:6, however, they are a people with their own kingdoms (the passage refers to "kings" in the plural), apparently located outside geographic Canaan, and sufficiently powerful to put a Syrian army to flight. It is a matter of considerable scholarly debate whether the biblical "Hittites" signified any or all of: 1) the original Hattites of Hatti; 2) their Indo-European conquerors (Nesili), who retained the name "Hatti" for Central Anatolia, and are today referred to as the "Hittites" (the subject of this article); or 3) a Canaanite group who may or may not have been related to either or both of the Anatolian groups, and who also may or may not be identical with the later Neo-Hittite (Luwian) polities. See Marten H. Woudstra, New International Commentary on the Old Testament: Book of Joshua, p.60, fn.33 and Trevor Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, p.389 ff. Other biblical scholars have argued that rather than being connected with Heth, son of Canaan, instead the Anatolian land of Hatti was mentioned in Old Testament literature and apocrypha as "Kittim" (Chittim), a people said to be named for a son of Javan. Physical appearance, origins, and genetics Pharaoh Ramses II often referred to the Hittites as humty which translated from ancient Egyptian meant "women-soldiers", as it was the practice of male Hittite warriors to wear their hair long. Healy, M. and Mcbride, A. 1992. New Kingdom Egypt (Elite). Opsrey: Elms Court Scholars have also regarded the Hittites to be of a "Mediterranean ethnic group". P. 141 Racial Theories in Fascist Italy By Aaron Gillette Archeologist Henry Heras's analysis of Egyptian portrayals of the Hittites, coincided with this view as they appeared to possess physical characteristics typical of Mediterranean people. P. 447 Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean Culture By Henry Heras Some scholars believed that this may point to a north-east African origin as such physical traits have been thought to originate in this area. P. 144 The Mediterranean Race: A Study of the Origin of European Peoples By Giuseppe Sergi P. 266 Myths of Babylonia and Assyria. (Myth and legend in lit. and art). By Donald Alexander Mackenzie Similar physical characteristics were possessed by the ancient Greeks leading some to suspect that both ancient Greeks and Hittites descended from similar prehistoric populations in the Near East and Aegean. P. 126 Man By Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Physical anthropological analysis of populations alone, however, is an insufficient basis for grouping peoples into races, substantiating theories of folk migrations and accounting for the origins of ancient people due to many complicated factors. Jordan-Bychov, T. and Jordan B. 2002. The European Culture Area. Lanham, MD: Roman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Mallory, J. and D.Q. Adams (eds.) 1997. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. The exact origins of the Hittites have been enshrouded in mystery for quite some time. While it has been argued that Hittite culture and language developed locally in Anatolia Renfrew, C. 1999. Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area. Journal of Indo-European Studies. 27 (3 & 4): 257-294 Renfrew, C. 1987. Archaeology and Language. The puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge University Press , it has been far more common to view the Hittites and their ways as intrusive. Possible geographic origins from the west (Balkans), east (via or along the Caspian Sea or from the Armenian highlands), and north (across the Black sea) are just some of the proposed migration routes. Steiner, G. 1990. The Immigration of the First Indo-Europeans into Anatolia Reconsidered. Journal of Indo-European Studies. 18 (1 & 2): 185-214 The process has been viewed as one of conquering elites Puhvel, J. 1994. Anatolian: Autochton or Interloper. Journal of Indo-European Studies. 22 (3 & 4): 251-264 but alternatively as peaceful coupled with gradual assimilation. In archaeological terms, relationships of the Hittites to the Ezero culture of the Balkans and Maikop culture of the Caucasus have been considered within the migration framework. Mallory, J. 1989. In Search of the Indo-Europeans. New York, NY: Thames and Hudson A genetic study based on modern male Anatolian y-chromosome DNA has revealed gene flow from multiple geographic origins which may correspond to various migrations over time. The predominant male lineages of Anatolian males are shared with European and neighboring Near Eastern populations (94.1%). Lineages related to Central Asia, India, and Africa were far less prevalent among the males sampled. No specific lineage was determined or identified as "Hittite", however the y-chromosome haplogroup G-M201 was implied to have a possible association with the Hattians. C. Cinnioglu et al. (2004), Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia, Human Genetics 114(2):127-48. See also History of the Hittites List of Hittite kings List of artifacts significant to the Bible References Literature Akurgal, Ekrem - The Hattian and Hittite Civilizations; Publications of the Republic of Turkey; Ministry of Culture; 2001; 300 pages; ISBN 975-17-2756-1 Trevor R. Bryce, "Life and Society in the Hittite World," Oxford (2002). Trevor R. Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, Oxford (1999). C. W. Ceram, The Secret of the Hittites: The Discovery of an Ancient Empire. Phoenix Press (2001), ISBN 1-84212-295-9. Hans Gustav Güterbock, Hittite Historiography: A Survey, in H. Tadmor and M. Weinfeld eds. History, Historiography and Interpretation: Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures, Magnes Press, Hebrew University (1983) pp. 21–35. J. G. Macqueen, The Hittites, and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor, revised and enlarged, Ancient Peoples and Places series (ed. G. Daniel), Thames and Hudson (1986), ISBN 0-500-02108-2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition, The Johns Hopkins University Press (1973), ISBN 0-8018-1654-8. Erich Neu, Der Anitta Text, (StBoT 18), Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden (1974). Louis L. Orlin, Assyrian Colonies in Cappadocia, Mouton, The Hague (1970). The Hittites and Hurrians in D. J. Wiseman Peoples of the Old Testament Times, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1973). O.R. Gurney, The Hittites, Penguin (1952), ISBN 0-14-020259-5 Kloekhorst, Alwin (2007), Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon, ISBN 9004160922O Patri, Sylvain (2007), L'alignement syntaxique dans les langues indo-européennes d'Anatolie, (StBoT 49), Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, ISBN 978-3-447-05612-0 External links Hattusas/Bogazköy The Hittite Home Page Arzawa, to the west, throws light on Hittites Pictures of Boğazköy, one of a group of important sites Pictures of Yazılıkaya, one of a group of important sites Der Anitta Text (at TITUS) Tahsin Ozguc Hittites.info Hittite Period in Anatolia Hethitologieportal Mainz, by the Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mainz, corpus of texts and extensive bibliographies on all things Hittite | Hittites |@lemmatized hittite:99 ancient:11 anatolian:13 people:15 speak:4 language:30 branch:2 indo:21 european:20 family:5 dr:1 andrew:1 mccarthy:1 university:4 edinburgh:1 archaeology:3 lecture:2 establish:2 kingdom:17 center:3 hattusa:12 north:6 central:4 anatolia:10 plateau:1 ca:8 century:12 bc:20 empire:16 reach:2 height:1 encompass:3 large:1 part:2 western:1 syria:4 far:6 south:3 mouth:1 litani:1 river:5 territory:6 know:4 amqu:1 eastward:1 upper:1 mesopotamia:1 disintegrate:1 several:2 independent:1 neo:4 city:7 state:2 survive:1 late:2 term:4 hittites:4 take:2 kjv:1 translation:1 hebrew:3 bible:4 translate:2 hty:1 bny:1 ht:1 child:2 heth:5 son:6 canaan:6 archaeologist:2 discover:4 initially:1 identify:2 biblical:9 today:2 identification:2 either:4 base:3 matter:2 dispute:1 see:4 example:4 singer:1 itamar:1 revisited:1 maeir:1 de:1 miroschedji:1 p:9 ed:4 riddle:1 time:10 archaeological:6 historical:1 study:8 honor:1 amihai:1 mazar:1 occasion:1 sixtieth:1 birthday:1 eisenbrauns:1 commonly:1 call:6 land:7 hatti:10 full:1 expression:1 description:1 could:4 apply:1 entire:2 narrowly:1 core:3 depend:1 context:1 word:1 actually:1 akkadogram:1 rather:4 never:1 decline:1 accord:1 grammatical:1 rule:3 despite:1 use:7 distinguish:1 hattians:2 early:7 inhabit:1 region:4 beginning:1 millennium:1 non:1 hattic:2 refer:5 nesili:3 one:8 case:1 kanesili:1 adverbial:1 form:1 meaning:1 manner:2 ka:1 nesa:1 presumably:1 reflect:2 high:3 concentration:1 speaker:2 kanesh:2 modern:4 kültepe:4 turkey:5 many:3 name:10 first:5 record:3 sinop:1 adana:1 contiguity:1 past:1 although:2 belong:1 bronze:3 age:4 forerunner:1 iron:6 develop:2 manufacture:1 artifact:3 letter:4 foreign:1 ruler:2 reveal:2 demand:1 good:2 recent:1 excavation:6 however:5 evidence:2 tool:1 production:1 date:2 back:2 least:1 set:2 rewrite:1 history:6 asahi:1 shimbun:1 march:1 weapon:1 make:6 though:2 rare:1 precious:1 employ:1 prestige:1 famous:1 skill:1 building:1 chariot:2 give:1 military:2 superiority:1 illustrate:1 plate:1 carchemish:1 kate:1 santon:1 parragon:1 book:4 ltd:1 london:2 discovery:3 cuneiform:5 expedition:1 hattushash:1 royal:4 archive:2 tablet:5 write:3 akkadian:3 diplomatic:3 various:2 dialect:3 confederation:1 chapter:1 v:1 vahan:1 kurkjian:1 appear:2 find:3 assyrian:5 colony:2 karum:1 contain:2 trade:1 merchant:1 certain:1 neither:1 clearly:2 script:3 monument:1 boğazköy:5 hattusas:2 william:1 wright:1 match:1 peculiar:1 hieroglyphic:2 aleppo:1 hamath:1 northern:2 tell:1 el:1 amarna:1 egypt:2 uncover:2 correspondence:2 pharaoh:2 amenhotep:1 iii:1 akhenaton:1 two:2 kheta:4 apparently:3 locate:2 general:1 mesopotamian:2 reference:2 standard:2 unknown:2 scholar:4 read:1 understand:1 shortly:1 archibald:1 sayce:2 propose:3 khatti:2 identical:2 mention:2 egyptian:5 text:6 well:2 others:1 max:1 muller:1 agree:1 probably:1 connect:2 kittim:2 come:2 widely:1 accept:1 course:1 become:2 attach:1 civilization:3 sporadic:1 begin:2 hugo:1 winckler:1 inscribe:1 thus:1 confirm:1 identity:1 also:6 prove:1 ruin:1 remains:1 capital:4 point:3 control:1 direction:1 german:1 institute:2 underway:1 since:2 interruption:1 war:2 successfully:2 excavate:2 professor:1 tahsin:2 özgüç:1 death:2 small:1 scale:1 carry:1 immediate:1 surroundings:1 include:2 rock:2 sanctuary:1 yazılıkaya:2 numerous:1 cut:1 relief:1 portray:1 god:2 pantheon:1 museums:1 museum:1 ankara:1 house:1 rich:1 collection:1 geography:1 around:1 surround:1 neša:3 area:5 bend:1 halys:2 marassantiya:1 consider:2 law:3 distinction:1 side:2 reward:1 capture:1 elope:1 slave:2 manage:2 flee:1 beyond:1 caught:1 west:5 lay:2 luwiya:1 terminology:1 replace:1 arzawa:3 kizzuwatna:4 rise:3 short:1 grammar:1 luwian:5 john:2 marangozis:1 nevertheless:1 continue:2 originate:3 prior:1 heart:1 cilicia:1 adaniya:1 beal:1 richard:1 h:3 šunaššura:1 treaty:1 orientalia:1 pp:2 upon:1 revolt:1 reign:3 ammuna:1 ibid:1 assume:1 expand:1 northward:1 low:1 anti:1 taurus:1 mountain:1 live:2 mountainous:1 kaskians:1 southeast:1 hurrian:1 mitanni:2 peak:2 mursili:2 ii:4 stretch:1 east:4 kaskian:1 hayasa:1 azzi:1 northeast:1 approximately:1 southern:1 border:2 lebanon:1 incorporate:1 within:2 domain:1 conventionally:1 divide:1 three:1 period:2 old:6 middle:1 new:4 proper:1 known:1 member:2 speaking:2 dynasty:1 pithana:1 kussara:2 anitta:3 successor:1 adopt:2 inscription:1 remain:3 dynastic:2 labarna:1 seat:1 possibly:1 throne:2 hattusili:1 man:2 even:3 sack:1 babylon:1 attempt:1 govern:1 enable:1 kassite:1 prominence:1 year:1 power:1 fell:1 obscurity:1 emerge:1 tudhaliya:1 suppiluliuma:1 extend:1 sphere:1 influence:2 lead:2 inconclusive:1 battle:1 kadesh:1 civil:1 rival:1 claim:1 combine:1 external:2 threat:1 sea:3 weaken:1 collapse:1 post:2 petty:1 may:8 linger:2 evolve:1 sparsely:1 attested:2 lydian:1 lycian:1 carian:1 remnant:1 persian:1 finally:1 extinct:1 spread:1 hellenism:1 government:1 think:2 constitutional:1 monarchy:1 consist:1 king:5 pankus:1 monitor:1 activity:1 often:2 rebellious:1 aristocracy:1 huge:1 advance:1 legislation:1 justice:1 produce:1 rarely:1 punishment:2 theft:1 pay:1 amount:1 steal:1 fragmentarily:1 ishara:1 best:1 eventually:1 decipher:2 czech:1 linguist:1 bedřich:1 hrozný:1 november:1 announce:1 result:1 near:3 eastern:2 society:2 berlin:1 print:1 leipzig:1 title:1 structure:3 membership:1 linguistic:2 preface:1 present:1 work:1 undertakes:1 nature:1 hitherto:1 mysterious:1 show:1 main:1 reason:1 nešili:1 hence:1 suggest:1 technically:1 correct:1 nesite:1 instead:2 nonetheless:1 convention:1 due:2 marked:1 difference:1 phonology:1 philologist:1 notably:1 warren:1 cowgill:1 argue:3 classify:1 sister:1 daughter:1 end:1 administration:1 population:4 another:1 mythology:3 religion:1 heavily:1 increasingly:1 progress:1 element:1 still:1 discern:1 tarhunt:1 thunder:1 conflict:1 serpent:1 illuyanka:1 refers:2 passage:2 range:1 genesis:2 exilic:1 ezra:1 nehemiah:1 table:1 nation:1 link:2 eponymous:1 ancestor:1 descendant:1 ham:1 thereby:1 count:1 among:3 canaanite:2 usually:1 depict:1 israelite:1 abraham:1 purchase:1 patriarchal:1 burial:1 plot:1 machpelah:1 serve:1 officer:1 david:1 army:2 plural:1 outside:1 geographic:3 sufficiently:1 powerful:1 put:1 syrian:1 flight:1 considerable:1 scholarly:1 debate:1 whether:1 signify:1 original:1 hattites:1 conqueror:1 retain:1 subject:1 article:1 group:6 relate:2 polity:1 marten:1 woudstra:1 international:1 commentary:1 testament:3 joshua:1 fn:1 trevor:3 bryce:3 ff:1 literature:3 apocrypha:1 chittim:1 say:1 javan:1 physical:5 appearance:1 origin:9 genetics:2 ramses:1 humty:1 meant:1 woman:1 soldier:1 practice:1 male:5 warrior:1 wear:1 hair:1 long:1 healy:1 mcbride:1 elite:2 opsrey:1 elms:1 court:1 regard:1 mediterranean:4 ethnic:1 racial:1 theory:3 fascist:1 italy:1 aaron:1 gillette:1 archeologist:1 henry:2 hera:2 analysis:2 portrayal:1 coincide:1 view:3 possess:2 characteristic:2 typical:1 proto:2 culture:7 believe:1 african:1 trait:1 race:2 giuseppe:1 sergi:1 myth:2 babylonia:1 assyria:1 legend:1 lit:1 art:1 donald:1 alexander:1 mackenzie:1 similar:2 greek:2 suspect:1 descend:1 prehistoric:1 aegean:1 anthropological:2 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 alone:1 insufficient:1 basis:1 substantiate:1 folk:1 migration:4 accounting:1 complicated:1 factor:1 jordan:2 bychov:1 b:1 lanham:1 md:1 roman:1 littlefield:1 publisher:1 inc:1 mallory:2 j:5 q:1 adam:1 encyclopedia:1 fitzroy:1 dearborn:1 exact:1 enshroud:1 mystery:1 quite:1 locally:1 renfrew:2 c:4 depth:1 convergence:1 innovation:1 europe:1 pie:1 journal:3 puzzle:1 cambridge:1 press:5 common:1 way:1 intrusive:1 possible:2 balkan:2 via:1 along:1 caspian:1 armenian:1 highland:1 across:1 black:1 route:1 steiner:1 g:4 immigration:1 europeans:1 reconsider:1 process:1 conquer:1 puhvel:1 autochton:1 interloper:1 alternatively:1 peaceful:1 couple:1 gradual:1 assimilation:1 relationship:1 ezero:1 maikop:1 caucasus:1 framework:1 search:1 york:1 ny:1 thames:2 hudson:2 genetic:1 chromosome:3 dna:1 gene:1 flow:1 multiple:1 correspond:1 predominant:1 lineage:3 share:1 neighboring:1 asia:2 india:1 africa:1 less:1 prevalent:1 sample:1 specific:1 determine:1 haplogroup:1 imply:1 association:1 cinnioglu:1 et:1 al:1 haplotype:1 stratum:1 human:1 list:2 significant:1 akurgal:1 ekrem:1 hattian:1 publication:1 republic:1 ministry:1 page:2 isbn:7 r:3 life:1 world:1 oxford:3 w:1 ceram:1 secret:1 phoenix:1 han:1 gustav:1 güterbock:1 historiography:2 survey:1 tadmor:1 weinfeld:1 interpretation:1 magnes:1 macqueen:1 contemporary:1 minor:1 revise:1 enlarge:1 place:1 series:1 daniel:1 george:1 e:1 mendenhall:1 tenth:1 generation:1 tradition:1 hopkins:1 erich:1 neu:1 der:3 stbot:2 otto:2 harrassowitz:2 wiesbaden:2 louis:1 l:2 orlin:1 cappadocia:1 mouton:1 hague:1 hurrians:1 wiseman:1 clarendon:1 gurney:1 penguin:1 kloekhorst:1 alwin:1 etymological:1 dictionary:1 inherited:1 lexicon:1 patri:1 sylvain:1 alignement:1 syntaxique:1 dans:1 les:1 langues:1 européennes:1 anatolie:1 bogazköy:1 home:1 throw:1 light:1 picture:2 important:2 site:2 titus:1 ozguc:1 info:1 hethitologieportal:1 mainz:2 akademie:1 wissenschaften:1 corpus:1 extensive:1 bibliography:1 thing:1 |@bigram indo_european:17 anatolian_plateau:1 litani_river:1 neo_hittite:4 hebrew_bible:2 millennium_bc:1 cuneiform_tablet:1 archaeological_evidence:1 el_amarna:1 amenhotep_iii:1 cuneiform_script:1 tablet_inscribe:1 ankara_turkey:1 battle_kadesh:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 mesopotamian_mythology:1 post_exilic:1 ezra_nehemiah:1 proto_indo:2 babylonia_assyria:1 lanham_md:1 littlefield_publisher:1 fitzroy_dearborn:1 caspian_sea:1 thames_hudson:2 chromosome_haplogroup:1 et_al:1 revise_enlarge:1 otto_harrassowitz:2 clarendon_press:1 etymological_dictionary:1 dans_les:1 les_langues:1 external_link:1 akademie_der:1 der_wissenschaften:1 |
3,434 | Event_horizon | In general relativity, an event horizon is a boundary in spacetime, most often an area surrounding a black hole, beyond which events cannot affect an outside observer. Light emitted from beyond the horizon can never reach the observer, and anything that passes through the horizon from the observer's side appears to freeze in place, with its image becoming more redshifted as time proceeds. So, in theory, anything beyond an event horizon will not have any subsequent gravitational effect or will not proceed to move forward in motion. Therefore, time does not exist beyond the boundary line, as we know it to be. More specific types of horizon include the related but distinct absolute and apparent horizons found around a black hole. Still other distinct notions include the Cauchy and Killing horizon; the photon spheres and ergospheres of the Reissner-Nordström solution; particle and cosmological horizons relevant to cosmology; and isolated and dynamical horizons important in current black hole research. Event horizon of a black hole The most commonly known example of an event horizon is defined around general relativity's description of a black hole, a celestial object so dense that no matter or radiation can escape its gravitational field. This is sometimes described as the boundary within which the black hole's escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. An alternate description is that within this horizon, all lightlike paths (paths that light could take), and hence all paths in the forward light cones of particles within the horizon, are warped so as to fall farther into the hole. Once a particle is inside the horizon, moving into the hole is as inevitable as moving forward in time (and can actually be thought of as equivalent to doing so, depending on the spacetime coordinate system used). The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body that fits inside this radius. (A rotating black hole operates slightly differently.) The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to the mass. For the mass of the Sun it is approximately 3 km, and for that of the Earth about 9 mm. For a black hole created by the collapse of a star (which has a mass above the Chandrasekhar limit) the lower limit is about 4 km. Black hole event horizons are especially noteworthy for three reasons. First, there are many examples near enough to study. Second, black holes tend to pull in matter from their environment, which provides examples where matter about to pass through an event horizon is expected to be observable. Third, the description of black holes given by general relativity is known to be an approximation, and it is expected that quantum gravity effects become significant in the vicinity of the event horizon. This allows observations of matter in the vicinity of a black hole's event horizon to be used to indirectly study general relativity and proposed extensions to it. The definition of "event horizon" given by Hawking & Ellis, Misner, Thorne & Wheeler, and Wald differs from the one presented here. Their definition rules out the cosmological and particle horizons presented below (as well as the apparent horizon). However, modern usage has brought those ideas under the umbrella of the term "event horizon". To make the distinction clearer, some authors refer to their more specific notion of a horizon as an "absolute horizon". In the context of black holes, event horizon almost always refers to the absolute horizon, as distinct from the apparent horizon. Event horizon of the observable universe The particle horizon of the observable universe is the boundary that represents the maximum distance at which events can currently be observed. For events beyond that distance, light hasn't had time to reach our location, even if it were emitted at the time the universe began. How the particle horizon changes with time depends on the nature of the expansion of the universe. If the expansion has certain characteristics, there are parts of the universe that will never be observable, no matter how long the observer waits for light from those regions to arrive. The boundary past which events can't ever be observed is an event horizon, and it represents the maximum extent of the particle horizon. The criterion for determining whether an event horizon for the universe exists is as follows. Define a comoving distance by In this equation, a is the scale factor, c is the speed of light, and t0 is the age of the universe. If , (i.e. points arbitrarily as far away as can be observed), then no event horizon exists. If , a horizon is present. Examples of cosmological models without an event horizon are universes dominated by matter or by radiation. An example of a cosmological model with an event horizon is a universe dominated by the cosmological constant (a de Sitter universe). Event horizon of an accelerated particle Spacetime diagram showing a uniformly accelerated particle, P, and an event E that is outside the particle's event horizon. The event's forward light cone never intersects the particle's world line. If a particle is moving at a constant velocity in a non-expanding universe free of gravitational fields, any event that occurs in that universe will eventually be observable by the particle, because the forward light cones from these events intersect the particle's world line. On the other hand, if the particle is accelerating, in some situations light cones from some events never intersect the particle's world line. Under these conditions, an event horizon is present in the particle's (accelerating) reference frame, representing a boundary beyond which events are unobservable. For example, this occurs with a uniformly accelerated particle. A spacetime diagram of this situation is shown in the figure to the right. As the particle accelerates, it approaches, but never reaches, the speed of light with respect to its original reference frame. On the spacetime diagram, its path is a hyperbola, which asymptotically approaches a 45 degree line (the path of a light ray). An event whose light cone's edge is this asymptote or is farther away than this asymptote can never be observed by the accelerating particle. In the particle's reference frame, there appears to be a boundary behind it from which no signals can escape (an event horizon). While approximations of this type of situation can occur in the real world (in particle accelerators, for example), a true event horizon is never present, as the particle must be accelerated indefinitely (requiring arbitrarily large amounts of energy and an arbitrarily large apparatus). Interacting with an event horizon A misconception concerning event horizons, especially black hole event horizons, is that they represent an immutable surface that destroys objects that approach them. In practice, all event horizons appear to be some distance away from any observer, and objects sent towards an event horizon never appear to cross it from the sending observer's point of view (as the horizon-crossing event's light cone never intersects the observer's world line). Attempting to make an object approaching the horizon remain stationary with respect to an observer requires applying a force whose magnitude becomes unbounded (becoming infinite) the closer it gets. For the case of a horizon perceived by a uniformly accelerating observer in empty space, the horizon seems to remain a fixed distance from the observer no matter how its surroundings move. Varying the observer's acceleration may cause the horizon to appear to move over time, or may prevent an event horizon from existing, depending on the acceleration function chosen. The observer never touches the horizon, and never passes a location where it appeared to be. For the case of a horizon perceived by an occupant of a De Sitter Universe, the horizon always appears to be a fixed distance away for a non-accelerating observer. It is never contacted, even by an accelerating observer. For the case of the horizon around a black hole, observers stationary with respect to a distant object will all agree on where the horizon is. While this seems to allow an observer lowered towards the hole on a rope to contact the horizon, in practice this cannot be done. If the observer is lowered very slowly, then, in the observer's frame of reference, the horizon appears to be very far away, and ever more rope needs to be paid out to reach the horizon. If the observer is quickly lowered by another observer, then indeed the first observer, and some of the rope can touch and even cross the (second observer's) event horizon. If the rope is pulled taut to fish the first observer back out, then the forces along the rope increase without bound as they approach the event horizon, and at some point the rope must break. Furthermore, the break must occur not at the event horizon, but at a point where the second observer can observe it. Attempting to stick a rigid rod through the hole's horizon cannot be done: if the rod is lowered extremely slowly, then it is always too short to touch the event horizon, as the coordinate frames near the tip of the rod are extremely compressed. From the point of view of an observer at the end of the rod, the event horizon remains hopelessly out of reach. If the rod is lowered quickly, then the same problems as with the rope are encountered: the rod must break and the broken-off pieces inevitably fall in. These peculiarities only occur because of the supposition that the observers be stationary with respect to some other distant observer. Observers who fall into the hole are moving with respect to the distant observer, and so perceive the horizon as being in a different location, seeming to recede in front of them so that they never contact it. Increasing tidal forces (and eventual impact with the hole's gravitational singularity) are the only locally noticeable effects. While this seems to allow an infalling observer to relay information from objects outside their perceived horizon but inside the distant observer's perceived horizon, in practice the horizon recedes by an amount small enough that by the time the infalling observer receives any signal from farther into the hole, they've already crossed what the distant observer perceived to be the horizon, and this reception event (and any retransmission) can't be seen by the distant observer. Beyond general relativity The description of event horizons given by general relativity is thought to be incomplete. When the conditions under which event horizons occur are modelled using a more complete picture of the way the universe works, that includes both relativity and quantum mechanics, event horizons are expected to have properties that are different from those predicted using general relativity alone. At present, it is expected that the primary impact of quantum effects is for event horizons to possess a temperature and so emit radiation. For black holes, this manifests as Hawking radiation, and the larger question of how the black hole possesses a temperature is part of the topic of black hole thermodynamics. For accelerating particles, this manifests as the Unruh effect, which causes space around the particle to appear to be filled with matter and radiation. A complete description of event horizons is expected to at minimum require a theory of quantum gravity. One such candidate theory is M-theory. See also Acoustic horizon Hawking radiation Cosmic censorship Rindler coordinates References The Universe in a Nutshell by Stephen Hawking Abhay Ashtekar and Badri Krishnan, “Isolated and Dynamical Horizons and Their Applications”, Living Rev. Relativity, 7, (2004), 10; Online Article, cited Feb.2009. More technical references | Event_horizon |@lemmatized general:7 relativity:9 event:52 horizon:80 boundary:7 spacetime:5 often:1 area:1 surround:1 black:18 hole:25 beyond:7 cannot:3 affect:1 outside:3 observer:34 light:14 emit:3 never:13 reach:5 anything:2 pass:3 side:1 appear:9 freeze:1 place:1 image:1 become:4 redshifted:1 time:8 proceeds:1 theory:4 subsequent:1 gravitational:4 effect:5 proceed:1 move:7 forward:5 motion:1 therefore:1 exist:3 line:6 know:2 specific:2 type:2 include:3 related:1 distinct:3 absolute:3 apparent:3 find:1 around:4 still:1 notion:2 cauchy:1 kill:1 photon:1 sphere:1 ergospheres:1 reissner:1 nordström:1 solution:1 particle:25 cosmological:5 relevant:1 cosmology:1 isolate:2 dynamical:2 important:1 current:1 research:1 commonly:1 known:1 example:7 define:2 description:5 celestial:1 object:7 dense:1 matter:8 radiation:6 escape:3 field:2 sometimes:1 describe:1 within:3 velocity:2 great:1 speed:3 alternate:1 lightlike:1 path:5 could:1 take:1 hence:1 cone:6 warp:1 fall:3 far:4 inside:3 inevitable:1 actually:1 think:2 equivalent:1 depend:3 coordinate:3 system:1 use:4 surface:2 schwarzschild:2 radius:3 act:1 non:3 rotate:2 body:1 fit:1 operate:1 slightly:1 differently:1 proportional:1 mass:3 sun:1 approximately:1 km:2 earth:1 mm:1 create:1 collapse:1 star:1 chandrasekhar:1 limit:2 low:1 especially:2 noteworthy:1 three:1 reason:1 first:3 many:1 near:2 enough:2 study:2 second:3 tend:1 pull:2 environment:1 provide:1 expect:5 observable:5 third:1 give:3 approximation:2 quantum:4 gravity:2 significant:1 vicinity:2 allow:3 observation:1 indirectly:1 propose:1 extension:1 definition:2 hawk:4 elli:1 misner:1 thorne:1 wheeler:1 wald:1 differs:1 one:2 present:6 rule:1 well:1 however:1 modern:1 usage:1 bring:1 idea:1 umbrella:1 term:1 make:2 distinction:1 clearer:1 author:1 refer:1 context:1 almost:1 always:3 refers:1 universe:15 represent:4 maximum:2 distance:6 currently:1 observe:5 location:3 even:3 begin:1 change:1 nature:1 expansion:2 certain:1 characteristic:1 part:2 long:1 wait:1 region:1 arrive:1 past:1 ever:2 extent:1 criterion:1 determine:1 whether:1 exists:1 follow:1 comoving:1 equation:1 scale:1 factor:1 c:1 age:1 e:2 point:5 arbitrarily:3 away:5 model:3 without:2 dominate:2 constant:2 de:2 sitter:2 accelerated:2 diagram:3 show:2 uniformly:3 p:1 intersect:4 world:5 expand:1 free:1 occur:6 eventually:1 hand:1 accelerate:9 situation:3 condition:2 reference:6 frame:5 unobservable:1 figure:1 right:1 approach:5 respect:5 original:1 hyperbola:1 asymptotically:1 degree:1 ray:1 whose:2 edge:1 asymptote:2 farther:1 behind:1 signal:2 real:1 accelerator:1 true:1 must:4 indefinitely:1 require:3 large:3 amount:2 energy:1 apparatus:1 interact:1 misconception:1 concern:1 immutable:1 destroy:1 practice:3 send:2 towards:2 cross:4 view:2 attempt:2 remain:3 stationary:3 apply:1 force:3 magnitude:1 unbounded:1 infinite:1 closer:1 get:1 case:3 perceive:5 empty:1 space:2 seem:4 fixed:2 surroundings:1 vary:1 acceleration:2 may:2 cause:2 prevent:1 function:1 choose:1 touch:3 occupant:1 contact:3 accelerating:1 distant:6 agree:1 lower:5 rope:7 slowly:2 need:1 pay:1 quickly:2 another:1 indeed:1 taut:1 fish:1 back:1 along:1 increase:2 bind:1 break:3 furthermore:1 stick:1 rigid:1 rod:6 extremely:2 short:1 tip:1 compress:1 end:1 hopelessly:1 problem:1 encounter:1 broken:1 piece:1 inevitably:1 peculiarity:1 supposition:1 different:2 recede:1 front:1 tidal:1 eventual:1 impact:2 singularity:1 locally:1 noticeable:1 infalling:2 relay:1 information:1 perceived:1 recedes:1 small:1 receive:1 already:1 reception:1 retransmission:1 see:2 incomplete:1 complete:2 picture:1 way:1 work:1 mechanic:1 property:1 predict:1 alone:1 primary:1 possess:2 temperature:2 manifest:2 question:1 topic:1 thermodynamics:1 unruh:1 fill:1 minimum:1 candidate:1 also:1 acoustic:1 cosmic:1 censorship:1 rindler:1 nutshell:1 stephen:1 abhay:1 ashtekar:1 badri:1 krishnan:1 application:1 live:1 rev:1 online:1 article:1 cite:1 feb:1 technical:1 |@bigram black_hole:18 reissner_nordström:1 cosmological_horizon:1 schwarzschild_radius:2 chandrasekhar_limit:1 quantum_gravity:2 observable_universe:2 comoving_distance:1 cosmological_constant:1 de_sitter:2 uniformly_accelerate:2 particle_accelerator:1 gravitational_singularity:1 quantum_mechanic:1 cosmic_censorship:1 |
3,435 | Aberdeenshire | Aberdeenshire (, ) is one of the 32 unitary council areas in Scotland. In this present day Aberdeenshire does not include Aberdeen City which is a Council Area in its own right. However, Aberdeenshire Council does have its headquarters at Woodhill House, in Aberdeen; the only Scottish council whose headquarters are based outwith its area's border. Aberdeenshire borders Angus and Perth and Kinross to the south, and Highland and Moray to the west. History Aberdeenshire has a rich prehistoric and historic heritage. It is the locus of a large number of Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, including Longman Hill, Kempstone Hill, Catto Long Barrow and Cairn Lee. Since medieval times there have been a number of crossings of the Mounth (a spur of mountainous land that extends from the higher inland range to the North Sea slightly north of Stonehaven) through present day Aberdeenshire from the Scottish Lowlands to the Highlands. Some of the most well known and historically important trackways are the Causey Mounth and Elsick Mounth. W. Douglas Simpson, "The Early Castles of Mar", Proceedings of the Society, 102, 10 December 1928 C.Michael Hogan, Elsick Mounth, Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham The present council area is named after the historic county of Aberdeen which had different boundaries and was abolished in 1975, under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 to be replaced by Grampian Regional Council, and five district councils; Banff and Buchan, Gordon, Kincardine and Deeside, Moray and the City of Aberdeen, with local government functions shared between the two levels. In 1996, under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994, the Banff and Buchan district, the Gordon district and the Kincardine and Deeside district were merged to form the present Aberdeenshire council area, with the other two districts becoming autonomous council areas. Demographics The council area has a population of 226,871, representing 4.5% of Scotland's total, and a 20% increase since 1981, 50% since 1971. The ten largest towns in Aberdeenshire (with 2004 population estimates) General Register Office for Scotland are : Peterhead (17,560) Fraserburgh (12,150) Inverurie (10,760) Stonehaven (10,160) Westhill (10,060) Ellon (9,540) Portlethen (6,770) Banchory (6,270) Turriff (5,500) Huntly (4,460) The population has a higher proportion of younger age groups than the rest of Scotland, reflecting employment-driven in-migration in recent decades. Governance and politics The council has 68 councillors, elected in 19 multi-member wards by Single Transferable Vote. The 2007 elections resulted in the following representation: WardMembersRepresentation 1. Banff and District 3 1 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Ind 2. Troup 3 1 SNP, 1 Con, 1 Ind 3. Fraserburgh and District 4 3 SNP, 1 Ind 4. Central Buchan 4 2 Ind, 1 SNP, 1 Con 5. Peterhead North and Rattray 4 2 SNP, 1 Con, 1 Ind 6. Peterhead South and Cruden 3 2 SNP, 1 Lib Dem 7. Turriff and District 3 1 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Ind 8. Mid Formartine 4 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con 9. Ellon and District 4 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con 10. West Garioch 3 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP 11. Inverurie and District 4 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con 12. East Garioch 3 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP 13. Westhill and District 4 1 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con, 1 Ind 14. Huntly, Strathbogie and Howe of Alford 4 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con 15. Aboyne, Upper Deeside and Donside 3 2 Con, 1 Lib Dem 16. Banchory and Mid Deeside 3 1 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con 17. North Kincardine 4 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con 18. Stonehaven and Lower Deeside 4 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con 19. Mearns 4 2 Lib Dem, 1 SNP, 1 Con The overall political composition of the council was as follows: PartyCouncillorsLiberal Democrat 24Scottish National Party22Conservative14Independent 8 The Council's net expenditure is £399.1m a year (2003/04). Education takes the largest share of expenditure (55%), followed by Social Work and Housing (19%), Transportation and Infrastructure (11%), and Joint Services such as Fire and Police (10%). 22% of revenue is raised locally through the Council Tax. Average Band D Council Tax is the eighth lowest in mainland Scotland at £966 (2003/04). The council has devolved power to six area committees: Banff and Buchan, Buchan, Formartine, Garioch, Marr and Kincardine and Mearns Boundary Map Notable features The following significant structures or places are within Aberdeenshire: Badenyon Balmoral Castle Cairness House Crathes Castle Causey Mounth, an ancient road Drum Castle Dunnottar Castle Fetteresso Castle Fowlsheugh Nature Reserve Haddo House Herscha Hill Loch of Strathbeg Monboddo House Muchalls Castle Portlethen Moss Raedykes Roman Camp River Dee Sands of Forvie Nature Reserve Slains Castle Stonehaven Tolbooth Ythan Estuary Nature Reserve Hydrology and climate There are numerous rivers and burns in Aberdeenshire, including Cowie Water, Carron Water, Burn of Muchalls, River Dee, River Don, River Ury, River Ythan, Water of Feugh, Burn of Myrehouse, Laeca Burn and Luther Water. Numerous bays and estuaries are found along the seacoast of Aberdeenshire, including Banff Bay, Ythan Estuary, Stonehaven Bay and Thornyhive Bay. Summers are mild and winters are typically cold in Aberdeenshire; Coastal temperatures are moderated by the North Sea such that coastal areas are typically cooler in the summer and warmer in winter than inland locations. Coastal areas are also subject to haar, or coastal fog. Notable residents Alexander Garden, (1730-1791), born in Birse, noted naturalist and physician. He moved to North America in 1754, and discovered two species of lizards. He was a Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War, which led to the confiscation of his property and his banishment in 1782. The gardenia flower is named in his honor. John Kemp, (1763-1812), born in Auchlossan, was a noted educator at Columbia University who is said to have influenced DeWitt Clinton's opinions and policies. Hugh Mercer, (1726-1777), born in the manse of Pitsligo Kirk, near Rosehearty, brigadier general of the Continental Army during the American Revolution. John Skinner, (1721-1807) author, poet and ecclesiastic. Penned the famous verse, Tullochgorum. References External links Aberdeenshire Council Peterhead and Buchan Tourism Web Site Aberdeenshire Arts Aberdeenshire Sports Council | Aberdeenshire |@lemmatized aberdeenshire:15 one:1 unitary:1 council:18 area:10 scotland:7 present:4 day:2 include:4 aberdeen:4 city:2 right:1 however:1 headquarters:2 woodhill:1 house:4 scottish:2 whose:1 base:1 outwith:1 border:2 angus:1 perth:1 kinross:1 south:2 highland:2 moray:2 west:2 history:1 rich:1 prehistoric:1 historic:2 heritage:1 locus:1 large:3 number:2 neolithic:1 bronze:1 age:2 archaeological:1 site:2 longman:1 hill:3 kempstone:1 catto:1 long:1 barrow:1 cairn:1 lee:1 since:3 medieval:1 time:1 crossing:1 mounth:5 spur:1 mountainous:1 land:1 extend:1 high:2 inland:2 range:1 north:6 sea:2 slightly:1 stonehaven:5 lowland:1 well:1 know:1 historically:1 important:1 trackways:1 causey:2 elsick:2 w:1 douglas:1 simpson:1 early:1 castle:8 mar:1 proceeding:1 society:1 december:1 c:1 michael:1 hogan:1 megalithic:1 portal:1 ed:1 andy:1 burnham:1 name:2 county:1 different:1 boundary:2 abolish:1 local:3 government:3 act:2 replace:1 grampian:1 regional:1 five:1 district:11 banff:5 buchan:6 gordon:2 kincardine:4 deeside:5 function:1 share:2 two:3 level:1 etc:1 merge:1 form:1 become:1 autonomous:1 demographic:1 population:3 represent:1 total:1 increase:1 ten:1 town:1 estimate:1 general:2 register:1 office:1 peterhead:4 fraserburgh:2 inverurie:2 westhill:2 ellon:2 portlethen:2 banchory:2 turriff:2 huntly:2 proportion:1 young:1 group:1 rest:1 reflect:1 employment:1 driven:1 migration:1 recent:1 decade:1 governance:1 politics:1 councillor:1 elect:1 multi:1 member:1 ward:1 single:1 transferable:1 vote:1 election:1 result:1 following:2 representation:1 wardmembersrepresentation:1 lib:15 dem:15 snp:18 ind:7 troup:1 con:13 central:1 rattray:1 cruden:1 mid:2 formartine:2 garioch:3 east:1 strathbogie:1 howe:1 alford:1 aboyne:1 upper:1 donside:1 low:1 mearns:2 overall:1 political:1 composition:1 follow:2 partycouncillorsliberal:1 democrat:1 national:1 net:1 expenditure:2 year:1 education:1 take:1 social:1 work:1 housing:1 transportation:1 infrastructure:1 joint:1 service:1 fire:1 police:1 revenue:1 raise:1 locally:1 tax:2 average:1 band:1 eighth:1 lowest:1 mainland:1 devolve:1 power:1 six:1 committee:1 marr:1 map:1 notable:2 feature:1 significant:1 structure:1 place:1 within:1 badenyon:1 balmoral:1 cairness:1 crathes:1 ancient:1 road:1 drum:1 dunnottar:1 fetteresso:1 fowlsheugh:1 nature:3 reserve:3 haddo:1 herscha:1 loch:1 strathbeg:1 monboddo:1 muchalls:2 moss:1 raedykes:1 roman:1 camp:1 river:6 dee:2 sand:1 forvie:1 slains:1 tolbooth:1 ythan:3 estuary:3 hydrology:1 climate:1 numerous:2 burn:4 cowie:1 water:4 carron:1 ury:1 feugh:1 myrehouse:1 laeca:1 luther:1 bay:4 find:1 along:1 seacoast:1 thornyhive:1 summer:2 mild:1 winter:2 typically:2 cold:1 coastal:4 temperature:1 moderate:1 cooler:1 warmer:1 location:1 also:1 subject:1 haar:1 fog:1 resident:1 alexander:1 garden:1 bear:3 birse:1 note:1 naturalist:1 physician:1 move:1 america:1 discover:1 specie:1 lizard:1 loyalist:1 american:2 revolutionary:1 war:1 lead:1 confiscation:1 property:1 banishment:1 gardenia:1 flower:1 honor:1 john:2 kemp:1 auchlossan:1 noted:1 educator:1 columbia:1 university:1 say:1 influence:1 dewitt:1 clinton:1 opinion:1 policy:1 hugh:1 mercer:1 manse:1 pitsligo:1 kirk:1 near:1 rosehearty:1 brigadier:1 continental:1 army:1 revolution:1 skinner:1 author:1 poet:1 ecclesiastic:1 pen:1 famous:1 verse:1 tullochgorum:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 tourism:1 web:1 art:1 sport:1 |@bigram perth_kinross:1 neolithic_bronze:1 michael_hogan:1 megalithic_portal:1 andy_burnham:1 single_transferable:1 transferable_vote:1 lib_dem:15 dem_snp:13 snp_con:12 balmoral_castle:1 dewitt_clinton:1 brigadier_general:1 external_link:1 |
3,436 | Book_of_Joel | The Book of Joel is part of the Jewish Tanakh, and also the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. Joel is part of a group of twelve prophetic books known as the Minor Prophets or simply as The Twelve; the distinction 'minor' indicates the short length of the text in relation to the larger prophetic texts known as the "Major Prophets". The Prophet Joel was probably a resident of Judah, as his commission was to that people. He made frequent visits to Jerusalem (1:14; 2:1, 15, 32; 3:1, 12, 17, 20, 21). The name Joel was common in Israel and is usually interpreted as meaning Yahweh is God. Historical context Scholars debate the date of Joel with five main schools of thought: 835-796BC During the time when Joash was too young to govern and Jehoiada did so in his place (2 Kings 11; 2 Chron. 23-24). About 775-725BC Roughly contemporary with Hosea and Amos. About 500BC Roughly contemporary with Zechariah. About 639-608BC during Josiah's reign. About 400BC After the Babylonian Captivity (Post-Exilic) and roughly contemporary with Malachi and possibly later than Malachi Support for a post-exilic date includes: The capture of Jerusalem and subsequent captivity is referenced as happening in the past (Malachi 1:6-7,9-11; 3:1,5-6,17) Kings are not referenced (Malachi 1:1) but rather priests and ministers of the altar as the leaders of the land (Malachi 1:13, 2:15-17) Presence of aramaic expressions in the language Sections and themes A prophecy of a great public calamity then impending over the land, consisting of a want of water and an extraordinary plague of locusts (1:1-2:11). The prophet then calls on his countrymen to repent and to turn to God, assuring them of his readiness to forgive (2:12-17), and foretelling the restoration of the land to its accustomed fruitfulness (18-26). Then follows a prophecy which is interpreted as Messianic within Christian tradition. Finally, the prophet foretells portents and judgments as destined to fall on the enemies of God (ch. 3, but in the Hebrew text 4). Use in the New Testament Joel New TestamentThen afterwards I will pour out my spirit on all flesh; your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions. Even on the male and female slaves, in those days, I will pour out my spirit. I will show portents in the heavens and on the earth, blood and fire and columns of smoke. The sun shall be turned to darkness, and the moon to blood, before the great and terrible day of the LORD comes. Then everyone who calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved; for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has said, and among the survivors shall be those whom the LORD calls. (Joel 2:28-32) "In the last days it will be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams. Even upon my slaves, both men and women, in those days I will pour out my Spirit;and they shall prophesy. And I will show portents in the heaven above and signs on the earth below,blood, and fire, and smoky mist. The sun shall be turned to darkness and the moon to blood,before the coming of the Lord’s great and glorious day. Then everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved." (Acts 2:17-21)Then everyone who calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved; for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has said, and among the survivors shall be those whom the LORD calls. (Joel 2:32) For, 'Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.' (Romans 10:13) All quotations taken from the New Revised Standard Version. References Further reading Thomas J. Finley, Everyman's Bible Commentary: Joel, Obadiah, and Micah. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1996) Douglas Stuart, Word Biblical Commentary: Hosea - Jonah. (Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987) William Sanford LaSor, Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament, 2nd Ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdsmans Publishing Co., 1996) External links Jewish Encyclopedia: Book of Joel Catholic Encyclopedia: Joel Jewish translations: Yoel - Joel (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV) Joel at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) Joel at BibleGateway (New International Version and others) Joel at BlueLetter Bible (King James Version and others, plus commentaries) | Book_of_Joel |@lemmatized book:5 joel:15 part:2 jewish:3 tanakh:1 also:1 old:5 testament:4 christian:3 bible:4 group:1 twelve:2 prophetic:2 know:2 minor:2 prophet:5 simply:1 distinction:1 indicate:1 short:1 length:1 text:3 relation:1 large:1 major:1 probably:1 resident:1 judah:1 commission:1 people:1 make:1 frequent:1 visit:1 jerusalem:4 name:5 common:1 israel:1 usually:1 interpret:2 meaning:1 yahweh:1 god:4 historical:1 context:1 scholar:1 debate:1 date:2 five:1 main:1 school:1 thought:1 time:1 joash:1 young:3 govern:1 jehoiada:1 place:1 king:3 chron:1 roughly:3 contemporary:3 hosea:2 amos:1 zechariah:1 josiah:1 reign:1 babylonian:1 captivity:2 post:2 exilic:2 malachi:5 possibly:1 later:1 support:1 include:1 capture:1 subsequent:1 reference:3 happen:1 past:1 rather:1 priest:1 minister:1 altar:1 leader:1 land:3 presence:1 aramaic:1 expression:1 language:1 section:1 theme:1 prophecy:2 great:4 public:1 calamity:1 impend:1 consist:1 want:1 water:1 extraordinary:1 plague:1 locust:1 call:7 countryman:1 repent:1 turn:3 assure:1 readiness:1 forgive:1 foretell:2 restoration:1 accustomed:1 fruitfulness:1 follow:1 messianic:1 within:1 tradition:1 finally:1 portent:3 judgment:1 destine:1 fall:1 enemy:1 ch:1 hebrew:1 use:1 new:5 testamentthen:1 afterwards:1 pour:4 spirit:4 flesh:2 son:2 daughter:2 shall:17 prophesy:3 men:5 dream:4 see:2 vision:2 even:2 male:1 female:1 slave:2 day:5 show:2 heaven:2 earth:2 blood:4 fire:2 column:1 smoke:1 sun:2 darkness:2 moon:2 terrible:1 lord:10 come:2 everyone:4 save:4 mount:2 zion:2 escape:2 say:2 among:2 survivor:2 last:1 declares:1 upon:2 woman:1 sign:1 smoky:1 mist:1 glorious:1 act:1 romans:1 quotation:1 take:1 revised:1 standard:2 version:4 far:1 read:1 thomas:1 j:1 finley:1 everyman:1 commentary:4 obadiah:1 micah:1 chicago:1 moody:1 press:2 douglas:1 stuart:1 word:2 biblical:1 jonah:1 waco:1 texas:1 william:1 sanford:1 lasor:1 survey:1 message:1 form:1 background:1 ed:1 grand:1 rapid:1 michigan:1 wm:1 b:1 eerdsmans:1 publish:1 co:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:2 catholic:1 translation:3 yoel:1 judaica:1 rashi:1 chabad:1 org:2 online:1 gospelhall:1 esv:1 revise:1 biblegateway:1 international:1 others:2 blueletter:1 james:1 plus:1 |@bigram babylonian_captivity:1 post_exilic:2 male_female:1 waco_texas:1 wm_b:1 external_link:1 translation_rashi:1 rashi_commentary:1 commentary_chabad:1 chabad_org:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 org_esv:1 |
3,437 | Politics_of_New_Zealand | The politics of New Zealand takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic monarchy. The basic system is closely patterned on that of the Westminster System, although a number of significant modifications have been made. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, but actual government is conducted by a Prime Minister and Cabinet drawn from an elected Parliament. Constitution New Zealand has no formal, written constitution; the constitutional framework consists of a mixture of various documents (including certain acts of the United Kingdom and New Zealand Parliaments), the Treaty of Waitangi and constitutional conventions. Most constitutional provisions became consolidated into the Constitution Act 1986. There have, at times, been proposals for a formal constitution, but there have not yet been any serious moves to adopt one. Monarchy New Zealand's head of state is the Queen of New Zealand, currently Elizabeth II. The New Zealand monarchy has been distinct from the British monarchy since the New Zealand Royal Titles Act of 1953, and all Elizabeth II's official business in New Zealand is conducted in the name of the Queen of New Zealand, not the Queen of the United Kingdom. In practice, the functions of the monarchy are conducted by a Governor General, appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister. Under Letters Patent regulating the office of Governor General, which are granted by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, when there is a vacancy in the office of Governor General, several of the duties of the said office are exercised by a caretaker, known as the Administrator of the Government. , the Governor General is Anand Satyanand. Executive The Right Honourable John Key, MP, Prime Minister of New Zealand and leader of the National Party. The Governor-General's powers are primarily symbolic and formal in nature. The Governor-General formally has the power to appoint and dismiss Prime Ministers and to dissolve Parliament; and also formally signs legislation into law after passage by Parliament. The Governor General chairs the Executive Council, which is a formal committee consisting of all ministers of the Crown. Members of the Executive Council are required to be Members of Parliament, and most are also in Cabinet. Cabinet is the most senior policy-making body and is led by the Prime Minister, who is also, by convention, the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition. The New Zealand Cabinet is responsible to New Zealand Parliament. All Cabinet Ministers must be Members of Parliament (MPs) and are collectively responsible to it. |Queen |Elizabeth II | |6 February 1952 |- |Governor-General |Anand Satyanand | |23 August 2006 |- |Prime Minister |John Key |National |19 November 2008 |} The current Prime Minister is John Key, leader of the National Party, who replaced Helen Clark on 19 November 2008. The Leader of the Opposition is Phil Goff, who replaced Helen Clark as leader of the Labour Party. Legislature New Zealand's main legislative body is a unicameral Parliament known as the House of Representatives. Since 1996, New Zealand has used the mixed member proportional (MMP) voting system, under which each MP is either elected by voters in a single-member constituency via first past the post or appointed from party lists. Normally, the parliament is 120 members large, however this can sometimes differ due to overhangs and underhangs. Several seats are currently reserved for members elected on a separate Māori roll. However, Māori may choose to vote in and to run for the non-reserved seats, and several have entered Parliament in this way. Parliaments have a maximum term of three years, although an election can be called earlier. In New Zealand, suffrage is extended to everyone over the age of 18 years, women having gained the vote in 1893. The House of Representatives meets in Parliament House. Judiciary The highest court in New Zealand is the Supreme Court of New Zealand, which was established in 2004 following the passage of the Supreme Court Act in 2003. The Act abolished the option to appeal Court of Appeal rulings to the Privy Council in London. The current Chief Justice of New Zealand is Dame Sian Elias. New Zealand's judiciary also includes the High Court, which deals with serious criminal offences and civil matters, and the Court of Appeal, as well as subordinate courts. Some Judges may sit on more than one court. All superior court judges are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Attorney-General, Chief Justice, Solicitor-General , with the exception of the Chief Justice, who is appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister. New Zealand law has three principal sources: English common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted before 1947 (notably the Bill of Rights 1689), and statutes of the New Zealand Parliament. In interpreting common law, the courts have endeavoured to preserve uniformity with common law as interpreted in the United Kingdom and related jurisdictions. The maintenance of the Privy Council in London as the final court of appeal and judges' practice of following British decisions, even though, technically, they are not bound by them, both bolstered this uniformity. However, in October 2003, the House of Representatives passed legislation to end this right of appeal from 2004, and to establish the Supreme Court of New Zealand in Wellington, which began hearings in July 2004. Local government and administrative divisions New Zealand is a unitary state rather than a federation — regions are created by the authority of the central government, rather than the central government being created by the authority of the regions. Local government in New Zealand has only the powers conferred upon it by Parliament. These powers have traditionally been distinctly fewer than in some other countries. For example, police and education are run by central government, while the provision of low-cost housing is optional for local councils. Many of them used to control gas and electricity supply, but nearly all of that was privatised or centralised in the 1990s. New Zealand is divided into sixteen regions. These form the highest level of local government. New Zealand is also divided into 73 territorial authorities. Some of these are called Cities, while most are Districts. Most territorial authorities are wholly within one region, but there are a few that cross regional boundaries. There are also four instances in which regional and territorial authorities are combined into a single unitary authority, and the isolated Chatham Islands have a body with its own special legislation, making it very like a unitary authority. In each territorial authority there are commonly several community boards or area boards (see below). These form the lowest and weakest arm of local government. Each of the regions and territorial authorities is governed by a council, which is directly elected by the residents of that region, district or city. Each council may use a system chosen by the outgoing council (after public consultation), either the bloc vote (viz. first-past-the-post in multi-member constituencies) or single transferable vote. Regions Regional councils all use a constituency system for elections, and the elected members elect one of their number to be chairperson. They set their own levels of rates (tax), though the mechanism for collecting it usually involves channelling through the territorial authority collection system. Regional council duties include: environmental management, particularly air and water quality and catchment control under the Resource Management Act 1991. regional aspects of civil defence transportation planning and contracting of subsidised public passenger transport. Cities and districts The seventy-four territorial authorities consist of sixteen city councils; fifty-seven district councils in more rural areas; and one council for the Chatham Islands. Each generally has a ward system of election, but an additional councillor is the mayor, who is elected at large and chairs the council. They too set their own levels of rates. The territorial authorities may delegate powers to local community boards. These boards, instituted at the behest of either local citizens or territorial authorities, advocate community views but cannot levy taxes, appoint staff, or own property. District health boards New Zealand's health sector was restructured several times during the 20th century. The most recent restructuring occurred in 2001, with new legislation creating twenty-one District Health Boards (DHBs). These boards are responsible for the oversight of health and disability services within their communities. Seven members of each District Health Board are directly elected by residents of their area using the Single Transferable Vote system. In addition, the Minister of Health may appoint up to four members. The last District Health Board elections took place in 2007. Elections and party politics The first political party was founded in 1891, and its main rival was founded in 1909 — from that point until a change of electoral system in 1996, New Zealand had a two-party system in place. Today, New Zealand has a genuinely multi-party system, with eight parties currently represented in Parliament. Neither of the two largest parties have been able to govern without support from other groups since 1996, meaning that coalition government is required. The two largest, and oldest, parties are the Labour Party (centre-left progressive) and the National Party (centre-right conservative). Other parties currently represented in Parliament are ACT (free market), the Greens (left-wing, environmentalist), United Future (family values), the Progressives (leftist), and the Māori Party (ethnic). Modern political history The conservative National Party and the left-leaning Labour Party have dominated New Zealand political life since a Labour government came to power in 1935. During fourteen years in office (1935-1949), the Labour Party implemented a broad array of social and economic legislation, including comprehensive social security, a large scale public works programme, a forty-hour working week, a minimum basic wage, and compulsory unionism. The National Party won control of the government in 1949 and adopted many welfare measures instituted by the Labour Party. Except for two brief periods of Labour governments in 1957-1960 and 1972-1975, National held power until 1984. After regaining control in 1984, the Labour government instituted a series of radical market-oriented reforms in response to New Zealand's mounting external debt. It also enacted anti-nuclear legislation that effectively brought about New Zealand's suspension from the ANZUS security alliance with the United States of America and Australia, and instituted a number of other more left-wing reforms, such as allowing the Waitangi Tribunal to hear claims of breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi to be made back to 1840, reinstituting compulsory unionism and creating new government agencies to implement a social and environmental reform agenda (women's affairs, youth affairs, Pacific Island affairs, consumer affairs, Minister for the Environment). In October 1990, the National Party again formed a government, for the first of three three-year terms. In 1996, New Zealand inaugurated the new electoral system, Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) to elect its Parliament. The system was expected (among numerous other goals) to increase representation of smaller parties in Parliament and appears to have done so in the MMP elections to date. Since 1996, neither National nor Labour has had an absolute majority in Parliament, and for all but two of those years a minority government has ruled. After nine years in office, the National Party lost the November 1999 election. Labour under Helen Clark out-polled National by 39% to 30% and formed a coalition, minority government with the left-wing Alliance. The government often relied on support from the Green Party to pass legislation. The Labour Party retained power in the 27 July 2002 election, forming a coalition with Jim Anderton's new party, the Progressive Coalition, and reaching an agreement for support with the United Future party. Helen Clark remained Prime Minister. Following the 2005 general election on 17 September 2005, negotiations between parties culminated in Helen Clark announcing a third consecutive term of Labour-led government. The Labour Party again formed a coalition with Jim Anderton's Progressive Party, with confidence and supply from Winston Peters' New Zealand First and Peter Dunne's United Future. Jim Anderton retained his Cabinet position; Winston Peters became Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Racing and Associate Minister for Senior Citizens; Peter Dunne became Minister of Revenue and Associate Minister of Health. Neither Peters nor Dunne were in Cabinet. New Zealand was the first country in the world in which all the highest offices were occupied by women, between March 2005 and August 2006: the Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II of New Zealand, Governor-General Dame Silvia Cartwright, Prime Minister Helen Clark, Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives Margaret Wilson and Chief Justice Dame Sian Elias. After the General election in November 2008, the National Party moved quickly to form a minority government with the ACT Party and the Maori Party. This arrangement allowed National to decrease its reliance on the right-leaning ACT party, whose policies are sometimes controversial with the greater New Zealand public. Currently, John Key, who took control of the National Party from Don Brash, is Prime Minister, and Bill English is the deputy. This arrangement conforms to the general tradition of having a north-south split in the major parties' leadership, as John Key's residence is in Auckland and Bill English's electorate is in the South Island. See also Foreign relations of New Zealand Constitution of New Zealand Governments of New Zealand List of New Zealand politicians Politics of Australia and New Zealand compared Notes | Politics_of_New_Zealand |@lemmatized politics:3 new:47 zealand:43 take:3 place:3 framework:2 parliamentary:2 representative:5 democratic:1 monarchy:5 basic:2 system:13 closely:1 pattern:1 westminster:1 although:2 number:3 significant:1 modification:1 make:4 head:2 state:4 queen:7 elizabeth:5 ii:5 actual:1 government:22 conduct:3 prime:12 minister:21 cabinet:7 drawn:1 elect:8 parliament:20 constitution:5 formal:4 write:1 constitutional:3 consist:3 mixture:1 various:1 document:1 include:4 certain:2 act:9 united:8 kingdom:4 treaty:2 waitangi:3 convention:2 provision:2 become:3 consolidated:1 time:2 proposal:1 yet:1 serious:2 move:2 adopt:2 one:6 currently:5 distinct:1 british:2 since:5 royal:1 title:1 official:1 business:1 name:1 practice:2 function:1 governor:10 general:15 appoint:7 monarch:1 advice:4 letter:1 patent:1 regulate:1 office:6 grant:1 vacancy:1 several:5 duty:2 say:1 exercise:1 caretaker:1 know:2 administrator:1 anand:2 satyanand:2 executive:3 right:5 honourable:1 john:5 key:5 mp:3 leader:5 national:14 party:37 power:8 primarily:1 symbolic:1 nature:1 formally:2 dismiss:1 dissolve:1 also:8 sign:1 legislation:7 law:5 passage:2 chair:2 council:14 committee:1 crown:1 member:12 require:2 senior:2 policy:2 body:3 lead:1 govern:3 coalition:6 responsible:3 must:1 collectively:1 february:1 august:2 november:4 current:2 replace:2 helen:6 clark:6 opposition:1 phil:1 goff:1 labour:13 legislature:1 main:2 legislative:1 unicameral:1 house:5 use:5 mixed:2 proportional:2 mmp:3 voting:1 either:3 voter:1 single:4 constituency:3 via:1 first:6 past:2 post:2 list:2 normally:1 large:5 however:3 sometimes:2 differ:1 due:1 overhang:1 underhangs:1 seat:2 reserve:2 separate:1 māori:3 roll:1 may:5 choose:2 vote:5 run:2 non:1 enter:1 way:1 maximum:1 term:3 three:4 year:6 election:10 call:2 earlier:1 suffrage:1 extend:1 everyone:1 age:1 woman:3 gain:1 meet:1 judiciary:2 high:4 court:12 supreme:3 establish:2 follow:3 abolish:1 option:1 appeal:5 ruling:1 privy:2 london:2 chief:4 justice:4 dame:3 sian:2 elia:2 deal:1 criminal:1 offence:1 civil:2 matter:1 well:1 subordinate:1 judge:3 sit:1 superior:1 attorney:1 solicitor:1 exception:1 principal:1 source:1 english:3 common:3 statute:2 enact:2 notably:1 bill:3 interpret:2 endeavour:1 preserve:1 uniformity:2 related:1 jurisdiction:1 maintenance:1 final:1 decision:1 even:1 though:2 technically:1 bind:1 bolster:1 october:2 pass:2 end:1 wellington:1 begin:1 hearing:1 july:2 local:7 administrative:1 division:1 unitary:3 rather:2 federation:1 region:7 create:4 authority:13 central:3 confer:1 upon:1 traditionally:1 distinctly:1 country:2 example:1 police:1 education:1 low:2 cost:1 housing:1 optional:1 many:2 control:5 gas:1 electricity:1 supply:2 nearly:1 privatise:1 centralise:1 divide:2 sixteen:2 form:7 level:3 territorial:9 city:4 district:8 wholly:1 within:2 cross:1 regional:5 boundary:1 four:3 instance:1 combine:1 isolated:1 chatham:2 island:4 special:1 like:1 commonly:1 community:4 board:9 area:3 see:2 weak:1 arm:1 directly:2 resident:2 outgo:1 public:4 consultation:1 bloc:1 viz:1 multi:2 transferable:2 elected:1 chairperson:1 set:2 rate:2 tax:2 mechanism:1 collect:1 usually:1 involve:1 channel:1 collection:1 environmental:2 management:2 particularly:1 air:1 water:1 quality:1 catchment:1 resource:1 aspect:1 defence:1 transportation:1 planning:1 contracting:1 subsidised:1 passenger:1 transport:1 seventy:1 fifty:1 seven:2 rural:1 generally:1 ward:1 additional:1 councillor:1 mayor:1 delegate:1 institute:4 behest:1 citizen:2 advocate:1 view:1 cannot:1 levy:1 staff:1 property:1 health:8 sector:1 restructure:1 century:1 recent:1 restructuring:1 occur:1 twenty:1 dhbs:1 oversight:1 disability:1 service:1 addition:1 last:1 political:3 found:2 rival:1 point:1 change:1 electoral:2 two:5 today:1 genuinely:1 eight:1 represent:2 neither:3 able:1 without:1 support:3 group:1 mean:1 old:1 centre:2 leave:2 progressive:4 conservative:2 free:1 market:2 green:2 wing:3 environmentalist:1 future:3 family:1 value:1 leftist:1 ethnic:1 modern:1 history:1 left:3 lean:2 dominate:1 life:1 come:1 fourteen:1 implement:2 broad:1 array:1 social:3 economic:1 comprehensive:1 security:2 scale:1 work:2 programme:1 forty:1 hour:1 week:1 minimum:1 wage:1 compulsory:2 unionism:2 win:1 welfare:1 measure:1 except:1 brief:1 period:1 hold:1 regain:1 series:1 radical:1 orient:1 reform:3 response:1 mount:1 external:1 debt:1 anti:1 nuclear:1 effectively:1 bring:1 suspension:1 anzus:1 alliance:2 america:1 australia:2 allow:2 tribunal:1 hear:1 claim:1 breach:1 back:1 reinstituting:1 agency:1 agenda:1 affair:5 youth:1 pacific:1 consumer:1 environment:1 inaugurate:1 expect:1 among:1 numerous:1 goal:1 increase:1 representation:1 small:1 appear:1 date:1 absolute:1 majority:1 minority:3 rule:1 nine:1 lose:1 poll:1 often:1 rely:1 retain:2 jim:3 anderton:3 reach:1 agreement:1 remain:1 september:1 negotiation:1 culminate:1 announce:1 third:1 consecutive:1 led:1 confidence:1 winston:2 peter:5 dunne:3 position:1 foreign:2 race:1 associate:2 revenue:1 world:1 occupy:1 march:1 sovereign:1 silvia:1 cartwright:1 speaker:1 margaret:1 wilson:1 quickly:1 maori:1 arrangement:2 decrease:1 reliance:1 whose:1 controversial:1 great:1 brash:1 deputy:1 conform:1 tradition:1 north:1 south:2 split:1 major:1 leadership:1 residence:1 auckland:1 electorate:1 relation:1 politician:1 compare:1 note:1 |@bigram queen_elizabeth:3 prime_minister:12 unicameral_parliament:1 supreme_court:3 privy_council:2 criminal_offence:1 unitary_authority:2 single_transferable:2 transferable_vote:2 foreign_affair:1 |
3,438 | First-order_logic | First-order logic (FOL) is a formal deductive system used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. It goes by many names, including: first-order predicate calculus (FOPC), the lower predicate calculus, the language of first-order logic or predicate logic. Unlike natural languages such as English, FOL uses a wholly unambiguous formal language interpreted by mathematical structures. FOL is a system of deduction that extends propositional logic by allowing quantification over individuals of a given domain of discourse. For example, it can be stated in FOL "Every individual has the property P". While propositional logic deals with simple declarative propositions, first-order logic additionally covers predicates and quantification. Take for example the following sentences: "Socrates is a man", "Plato is a man". In propositional logic these will be two unrelated propositions, denoted for example by p and q. In first-order logic however, both sentences would be connected by the same property: Man(a), where Man(a) means that a is a man. When a=Socrates we get the first proposition, p, and when a=Plato we get the second proposition, q. Such a construction allows for a much more powerful logic when quantifiers are introduced, such as "for every x...", for example, "for every x, if Man(x), then...". Every valid argument without quantifiers in FOL is valid in propositional logic, and vice versa. A first-order theory consists of a set of axioms (usually finite or recursively enumerable) and the statements deducible from them given the underlying deducibility relation. Usually what is meant by 'first-order theory' is some set of axioms together with those of a complete (and sound) axiomatization of first-order logic, closed under the rules of FOL. (Any such system FOL will give rise to the same abstract deducibility relation, so we needn't have a fixed axiomatic system in mind.) A first-order language has sufficient expressive power to formalize two important mathematical theories: Zermelo–Fraenkel (ZFC) set theory and (first-order) Peano arithmetic. A first-order language cannot, however, categorically express the notion of countability even though it is expressible in the first-order theory ZFC under the intended interpretation of the symbolism of ZFC. Such ideas can be expressed categorically with second-order logic. Why is first-order logic needed? Propositional logic is not adequate for formalizing valid arguments that rely on the internal structure of the propositions involved. To see this, consider the valid syllogistic argument: All men are mortal Socrates is a man Therefore, Socrates is mortal which upon translation into propositional logic yields: A B C (taking to mean "therefore"). According to propositional logic, this translation is invalid: Propositional logic validates arguments according to their structure, and nothing in the structure of this translated argument (C follows from A and B, for arbitrary A, B, C) suggests that it is valid. A translation that preserves the intuitive (and formal) validity of the argument must take into consideration the deeper structure of propositions, such as the essential notions of predication and quantification. Propositional logic deals only with truth-functional validity: any assignment of truth-values to the variables of the argument should make either the conclusion true or at least one of the premises false. Clearly we may (uniformly) assign truth values to the variables of the above argument such that A, B are both true but C is false. Hence the argument is truth-functionally invalid. On the other hand, it is impossible to (uniformly) assign truth values to the argument "A follows from (A and B)" such that (A and B) is true (hence A is true and B is true) and A false. In contrast, this argument can be easily translated into first-order logic: (Where "" means "for all x", "" means "implies", means "Socrates is a man", and means "Socrates is mortal".) In plain English, this states that for all x, if x is a man then x is mortal Socrates is a man therefore Socrates is mortal FOL (First Order Logic) can also express the existence of something ( ), as well as predicates ("functions" that are true or false) with more than one parameter. For example, "there is someone who can be fooled every time" can be expressed as: Where "" means "there exists (an) x", "" means "and", and means "(person) x can be fooled (at time) y". Variables in first-order logic and in propositional logic In ordinary language we talk about grammatical or meaningful sentences. Logic has its own grammar rules (called syntax) and is very interested in meaning (called semantics). Logical syntax and semantics have very precise definitions (see below). But logic does not talk about sentences. Instead it talks about formulas. A formula in logic is roughly equivalent to a sentence in ordinary language. They are special kinds of sentences, though, because the rules for forming them are very limited and very precise. Logics are often designed so that, given that we know the formula formation rules perfectly, in principle we can end up knowing everything about the meaning of the formulas. So formulas in logic are expressed in a kind of language: a special language normally designed to reflect ordinary language, but simplified so we can understand it better. When we use words like syntax, semantics and formula to describe a logic language, though, we are not talking in the language of that logic, but using a meta-language to talk about it. Sometimes the difference between what is being said in a logic language and about that logic language becomes a little blurry. A good example is the place of variables in propositional logic as opposed to the place of variables in first order logic. While variables in a propositional logic are used to represent propositions (that can be true or false), variables in first-order logic represent objects the formulas refer to (and so are not true or false). In the example above, the variable in is intended to indicate an arbitrary element of the human race, not a proposition that can be true or false. In first-order logic, such variables are part of the "vocabulary" of the logic language, governed by the formation rules of its syntax. Those rules do not allow "ill-formed" expressions like *. Symbols in front of parentheses are predicates, symbols within parentheses are variables. In the ill-formed example, cannot be both a predicate and a variable. On the other hand, variables in propositional formulas are commonly used as part of a meta-language closely associated with the propositional logic itself, they need not be, strictly speaking, part of the vocabulary of the logic. Every propositional formula can be translated into an essentially equivalent first-order formula by replacing each propositional variable with a nullary predicate, that is a predicate with a truth value independent of any variable (in the first-order logic). For example, the propositional formula can be translated into a first order formula , where P, Q and R are predicates of arity zero (nullary predicates). This shows how first-order logic is more detailed and powerful than predicate logic alone. Everything we can say in predicate logic can be said in first-order logic, and more besides. Defining first-order logic A predicate calculus consists of formation rules (i.e. recursive definitions for forming well-formed formulas). a proof theory, made of: transformation rules (i.e. inference rules for deriving theorems). axioms (possibly countably infinitely many) or axiom schemata. a semantics, telling which interpretation of the symbol makes the formula true. The axioms considered here are logical axioms which are part of classical FOL. It is important to note that FOL can be formalized in many equivalent ways; there is nothing canonical about the axioms and rules of inference given in this article. There are infinitely many equivalent formalizations all of which yield the same theorems and non-theorems, and all of which have equal right to the title 'FOL'. FOL is used as the basic "building block" for many mathematical theories. FOL provides several built-in rules, such as the axiom (if P(x) is true for every x then P(x) is true for every x). Additional non-logical axioms are added to produce specific first-order theories based on the axioms of classical FOL; these theories built on FOL are called classical first-order theories. One example of a classical first-order theory is Peano arithmetic, which adds the axiom (i.e. for every x there exists y such that y=x+1, where Q(x,y) is interpreted as "y=x+1"). This additional axiom is a non-logical axiom; it is not part of FOL, but instead is an axiom of the theory (an axiom of arithmetic rather than of logic). Axioms of the latter kind are also called axioms of first-order theories. The axioms of first-order theories are not regarded as truths of logic per se, but rather as truths of the particular theory that usually has associated with it an intended interpretation of its non-logical symbols. (See an analogous idea at logical versus non-logical symbols.) Thus, the proposition is an axiom (hence is true) in the theory of Peano arithmetic, with the interpretation of the relation Q(x,y) as "y=x+1", and may be false in other theories or with another interpretation of the relation Q(x,y). Classical FOL does not have associated with it an intended interpretation of its non-logical vocabulary (except arguably a symbol denoting identity, depending on whether one regards such a symbol as logical). Classical set-theory is another example of a first-order theory (a theory built on FOL). Syntax of first-order logic Symbols The terms and formulas of first-order logic are strings of symbols. As for all formal languages, the nature of the symbols themselves is outside the scope of formal logic; it is best to think of them as letters and punctuation symbols. The alphabet (set of all symbols of the language) is divided into the non-logical symbols and the logical symbols. The latter are the same, and have the same meaning, for all applications. Non-logical symbols The non-logical symbols represent predicates (relations), functions and constants on the domain. For a long time it was standard practice to use a fixed, infinite set of non-logical symbols for all purposes. A more recent practice is to use different non-logical symbols according to the application one has in mind. Therefore it has become necessary to name the set of all non-logical symbols used in a particular application. It is now known as the signature. The word language is sometimes used as a synonym for signature, but this can be confusing because "language" can also refer to the set of formulas. Traditional approach The traditional approach is to have only one, infinite, set of non-logical symbols (one signature) for all applications. Consequently, under the traditional approach there is only one language of first-order logic. More precisely, there is only one language of each variant of one-sorted first-order logic: with or without equality, with or without functions, with or without propositional variables, …. This approach is still common, especially in philosophically oriented books. For every integer n ≥ 0 we have the n-ary, or n-place, predicate symbols. Because they represent relations between n elements, they are also called relation symbols. For each arity n we have an infinite supply of them: Pn0, Pn1, Pn2, Pn3, … For every integer n ≥ 0 infinitely many n-ary function symbols: f n0, f n1, f n2, f n3, … Application-specific signatures In modern mathematical treatments of first-order logic, the signature varies with the applications. Typical signatures in mathematics are {1, ×} or just {×} for groups, or {0, 1, +, ×, <} for ordered fields. There are no restrictions on the number of non-logical symbols. The signature can be empty, finite, or infinite, even uncountable. Uncountable signatures occur for example in modern proofs of the Löwenheim-Skolem theorem (upward part). Every non-logical symbol is of one of the following types. A set of predicate symbols (or relation symbols) each with some valence (or arity, number of its arguments) ≥ 0, which are often denoted by uppercase letters P, Q, R,... . Relations of valence 0 can be identified with propositional variables. For example, P, which can stand for any statement. For example, P(x) is a predicate variable of valence 1. It can stand for "x is a man", for example. Q(x,y) is a predicate variable of valence 2. It can stand for "x is greater than y" in arithmetic or "x is the father of y", for example. By using functions (see below), it is possible to dispense with all predicate variables with valence larger than one. For example, "x>y" (a predicate of valence 2, of the type Q(x,y)) can be replaced by a predicate of valence 1 about the ordered pair (x,y). A set of function symbols, each of some valence ≥ 0, which are often denoted by lowercase letters f, g, h,... . Function symbols of valence 0 are called constant symbols, and are often denoted by lowercase letters at the beginning of the alphabet a, b, c,... . Examples: f(x) may stand for "the father of x". In arithmetic, it may stand for "-x". In set theory, it may stand for "the power set of x". In arithmetic, f(x,y) may stand for "x+y". In set theory, it may stand for "the union of x and y". The symbol a may stand for Socrates. In arithmetic, it may stand for 0. In set theory, such a constant may stand for the empty set. One can in principle dispense entirely with functions of arity > 2 and predicates of arity > 1 if there is a function symbol of arity 2 representing an ordered pair (or predicate symbols of arity 2 representing the projection relations of an ordered pair). The pair or projections need to satisfy the natural axioms. One can in principle dispense entirely with functions and constants. For example, instead of using a constant one may use a predicate (interpreted as ), and replace every predicate such as with . A function such as will similarly be replaced by a predicate (interpreted as ). We can recover the traditional approach by considering the following signature: {P00, P01, P02, P03, …, P10, P11, P12, P13, …, P20, P21, P22, P23, …, …, f 00, f 01, f 02, f 03, …, f 10, f 11, f 12, f 13, …, f 20, f 21, f 22, f 23, …, f 30, f 31, f 32, f 33, …, …} Logical symbols Besides logical connectives such as , , , and , the logical symbols include quantifiers, and variables. An infinite set of variables, often denoted by lowercase letters at the end of the alphabet x, y, z,... . Symbols denoting logical operators (or connectives): The unary operator (logical not). Binary operators (logical and) and (logical or). Binary operators (logical conditional) and (logical biconditional). Symbols denoting quantifiers: (universal quantification, typically read as "for all") and (existential quantification, typically read as "there exists"). Left and right parenthesis: ( and ). There are many different conventions about where to put parentheses; for example, one might write x or (x). Sometimes one uses colons or full stops instead of parentheses to make formulas unambiguous. One interesting but rather unusual convention is "Polish notation", where one omits all parentheses, and writes , , and so on in front of their arguments rather than between them. Polish notation is compact and elegant, but rare because it is hard for humans to read it. An identity symbol (or equality symbol) =. Syntactically it behaves like a binary predicate. Variations First-order logic as described here is often called first-order logic with identity, because of the presence of an identity symbol = with special semantics. In first-order logic without identity this symbol is omitted. When working with first-order logic without identity it may be useful to include a binary predicate symbol = in the signature. The difference between first-order logic with identity and first-order logic without identity, but with = as a non-logical symbol, is that in the latter case there are no special restrictions on the semantics of =. For example there may be two (different) elements between which the relation = holds. There are numerous minor variations that may define additional logical symbols: Sometimes the truth constants T for "true" and F for "false" are included. Without any such logical operators of valence 0 it is not possible to express these two constants otherwise without using quantifiers. Sometimes the Sheffer stroke (P | Q, aka NAND) is included as a logical symbol. The exclusive-or operator "xor" is another logical connective that can occur as a logical symbol. Sometimes it is useful to say that "P(x) holds for exactly one x", which can be expressed as x P(x). This notation, called uniqueness quantification, may be taken to abbreviate a formula such as x (P(x) y (P(y) (x = y))). Not all logical symbols as defined above need occur. For example: Since ( x)φ can be expressed as (( x)( φ)), and ( x)φ can be expressed as (( x)( φ)), one of the two quantifiers and can be dropped. Since φψ can be expressed as (( φ) ( ψ)), and φψ can be expressed as (( φ) ( ψ)), either or can be dropped. In other words, it is sufficient to have or as the only logical connectives among the logical symbols. Similarly, it is sufficient to have or just the Sheffer stroke as the only logical connectives. There are also some frequently used variants of notation: Some books and papers use the notation φ ψ for φ ψ. This is especially common in proof theory where is easily confused with the sequent arrow. ~φ is sometimes used for φ, φ & ψ for φ ψ. There is a wealth of alternative notations for quantifiers; e.g., x φ may be written as (x)φ. This latter notation is common in texts on recursion theory. Formation rules The formation rules define the terms and formulas of first order logic. When terms and formulas are represented as strings of symbols, these rules can be used to write a formal grammar for terms and formulas. These rules are generally context-free (each production has a single symbol on the left side), except that the set of symbols may be allowed to be infinite and there may be many start symbols, for example the variables in the case of terms. The concept of free variable is used to define the sentences as a subset of the formulas. Terms The set of terms is recursively defined by the following rules: Any variable is a term. Any expression f(t1,...,tn) of n arguments (where each argument ti is a term and f is a function symbol of valence n) is a term. Closure clause: Nothing else is a term. For example, predicates are not terms. Formulas The set of well-formed formulas (usually called wffs or just formulas) is recursively defined by the following rules: Simple and complex predicates If P is a relation of valence n and a1, ..., an are terms then P(a1,...,an) is a well-formed formula. If equality is considered part of logic, then (a1 = a2) is a well-formed formula. All such formulas are said to be atomic. Inductive Clause I: If φ is a wff, then φ is a wff. Inductive Clause II: If φ and ψ are wffs, then (φ ψ) is a wff. Inductive Clause III: If φ is a wff and x is a variable, then x φ and x φ are wffs. Closure Clause: Nothing else is a wff. For example, x y (P(f(x)) (P(x) Q(f(y),x,z))) is a well-formed formula, if f is a function of valence 1, P a predicate of valence 1 and Q a predicate of valence 3. x x is not a well-formed formula. In Computer science terminology, a formula implements a built-in "boolean" type, while a term implements all other types. Example In mathematics the language of ordered abelian groups has one constant 0, one unary function −, one binary function +, and one binary relation ≤. So: x, y are atomic terms +(x, y), +(x, +(y, −(z))) are terms, usually written as x + y, x + y − z =(+(x, y), 0), ≤(+(x, +(y, −(z))), +(x, y)) are atomic formulas, usually written as x + y = 0, x + y − z ≤ x + y, (x y ≤( +(x, y), z)) (x =(+(x, y), 0)) is a formula, usually written as (x y x + y ≤ z) (x x + y = 0). Additional syntactic concepts Free and bound variables In a formula, a variable may occur free or bound. Intuitively, a variable is free in a formula if it is not quantified: in , variable x is free while y is bound. Atomic formulas If φ is an atomic formula then x is free in φ if and only if x occurs in φ. Inductive Clause I: x is free in φ if and only if x is free in φ. Inductive Clause II: x is free in (φ ψ) if and only if x is free in either φ or ψ. Inductive Clause III: x is free in y φ if and only if x is free in φ and x is a different symbol than y. Closure Clause: x is bound in φ if and only if x occurs in φ and x is not free in φ. For example, in x y (P(x) Q(x,f(x),z)), x and y are bound variables, z is a free variable, and w is neither because it does not occur in the formula. Freeness and boundness can be also specialized to specific occurrences of variables in a formula. For example, in , the first occurrence of x is free while the second is bound. In other words, the x in is free while the in is bound. Substitution If t is a term and φ is a formula possibly containing the variable x, then φ[t/x] is the result of replacing all free instances of x by t in φ. This replacement results in a formula that logically follows the original one provided that no free variable of t becomes bound in this process. If some free variable of t becomes bound, then to substitute t for x it is first necessary to change the names of bound variables of φ to something other than the free variables of t. To see why this condition is necessary, consider the formula φ given by y y ≤ x ("x is maximal"). If t is a term without y as a free variable, then φ[t/x] just means t is maximal. However if t is y, the formula φ[y/x] is y y ≤ y which does not say that y is maximal. The problem is that the free variable y of t (=y) became bound when we substituted y for x in φ[y/x]. The intended replacement can be obtained by renaming the bound variable y of φ to something else, say z, so that the formula is then z z ≤ y. Forgetting this condition is a notorious cause of errors. Proof theory Inference rules An inference rule is a function from sets of (well-formed) formulas, called premises, to sets of formulas called conclusions. In most well-known deductive systems, inference rules take a set of formulas to a single conclusion. (Notice this is true even in the case of most sequent calculi.) Inference rules are used to prove theorems, which are formulas provable in or members of a theory. If the premises of an inference rule are theorems, then its conclusion is a theorem as well. In other words, inference rules are used to generate "new" theorems from "old" ones—they are theoremhood preserving. Systems for generating theories are often called predicate calculi. These are described in a section below. An important inference rule, modus ponens, states that if φ and φ ψ are both theorems, then ψ is a theorem. This can be written as following; if and , then where indicates is provable in theory T. There are deductive systems, the Hilbert systems, that have modus ponens as their sole rule of inference; in such systems, the lack of other inference rules is offset with an abundance of logical axiom schemes. A second important inference rule is Universal Generalization. It can be stated as if , then Which reads: if φ is a theorem, then "for every x, φ" is a theorem as well. The similar-looking schema is not sound, in general, although it does however have valid instances, such as when x does not occur free in φ . Axioms Here follows a description of the axioms of first-order logic. As explained above, a given first-order theory has further, non-logical axioms. The following logical axioms characterize a predicate calculus for this article's example of first-order logic For another well-worked example, see Metamath proof explorer . For any theory, it is of interest to know whether the set of axioms can be generated by an algorithm, or if there is an algorithm which determines whether a well-formed formula is an axiom. If there is an algorithm to generate all axioms, then the set of axioms is said to be recursively enumerable. If there is an algorithm which determines after a finite number of steps whether a formula is an axiom or not, then the set of axioms is said to be recursive or decidable. In that case, one may also construct an algorithm to generate all axioms: this algorithm simply builds all possible formulas one by one (with growing length), and for each formula the algorithm determines whether it is an axiom. Axioms of first-order logic are always decidable. However, in a first-order theory non-logical axioms are not necessarily such. Quantifier axioms Quantifier axioms change according to how the vocabulary is defined, how the substitution procedure works, what the formation rules are and which inference rules are used. Here follows a specific example of these axioms PRED-1: PRED-2: PRED-3: PRED-4: These are actually axiom schemata: the expression W stands for any wff in which x is not free, and the expression Z(x) stands for any wff with the additional convention that Z(t) stands for the result of substitution of the term t for x in Z(x). Thus this is a recursive set of axioms. Another axiom, , for Z in which x does not occur free, is sometimes added. Equality and its axioms There are several different conventions for using equality (or identity) in first-order logic. This section summarizes the main ones. The various conventions all give essentially the same results with about the same amount of work, and differ mainly in terminology. Book 1 of Euclid's elements gives the rules for equality in essentially the same form as below. The most common convention for equality is to include the equality symbol as a primitive logical symbol, and add the axioms for equality to the axioms for first-order logic. The equality axioms are x = x (reflexivity) x = y → f(...,x,...) = f(...,y,...) for any function f x = y → (P(...,x,...) → P(...,y,...)) for any relation P (Leibniz's law) where P is a metavariable ranging over wffs of the object language. Leibniz's law is sometimes called "the principle of substitutivity", "the indiscernibility of identicals", or "the replacement property". The above forms are axiom schemata: they specify an infinite set of axioms of the above forms, called their instances. Notice that the second schema involving the function symbol f is (equivalent to) a special case of the last schema, namely x = y → (f(...,x,...) = z → f(...,y,...) = z). From the above axioms both symmetry and transitivity for equality follow. Moreover, by the symmetry of equality, the right hand side of the last schema (Leibniz's law) could be strengthened to a biconditional. If a theory has a binary formula A(x,y) which satisfies reflexivity and Leibniz's law, the theory is said to have equality, or to be a theory with equality. It may not have all instances of the above schemata as axioms, but rather as derivable theorems. For example, an inconsistent first-order theory (say whose only axiom is p & ~p) is a theory with identity, since every open formula in two free variables trivially satisfies reflexivity and Leibniz's law. In theories with no function symbols and a finite number of relations, it is possible to define equality in terms of the relations, by defining the two terms s and t to be equal if any relation is unchanged by changing s to t in any argument. For example, in set theory with one relation , we may define s = t to be an abbreviation for x (s x t x) x (x s x t). This definition of equality then automatically satisfies the axioms for equality. In this case, one should replace the usual axiom of extensionality, , by , i.e. if x and y have the same elements, then they belong to the same sets. In some theories it is possible to give ad hoc definitions of equality. For example, in a theory of partial orders with one relation ≤ we could define s = t to be an abbreviation for s ≤ t t ≤ s. Semantics Interpretations In logic and mathematics, an interpretation (also mathematical interpretation, logico-mathematical interpretation, or commonly a model) assigns a denotation to all non-logical constants in that language or in a sentence of that language. For a given formal language L, or a sentence Φ of L, an interpretation assigns a denotation to each non-logical constant occurring in L or Φ. To individual constants it assigns individuals (from some universe of discourse); to predicates of degree 1 it assigns properties (more precisely sets) ; to predicates of degree 2 it assigns binary relations of individuals; to predicates of degree 3 it assigns ternary relations of individuals, and so on; and to sentential letters it assigns truth-values. More precisely, an interpretation of a formal language L or of a sentence Φ of L, consists of a non-empty domain D (i.e. a non-empty set) as the universe of discourse together with an assignment that associates with each n-ary operation or function symbol of L or of Φ an n-ary operation with respect to D (i.e. a function from into ); with each n-ary predicate of L or of Φ an n-ary relation among elements of D and (optionally) with some binary predicate I of L, the identity relation among elements of D. In this way an interpretation provides meaning or semantic values to the terms or formulae of the language. The study of the interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics. In mathematical logic an interpretation is a mathematical object that contains the necessary information for an interpretation in the former sense. The symbols used in a formal language include variables, logical-constants, quantifiers and punctuation symbols as well as the non-logical constants. The interpretation of a sentence or language therefore depends on which non-logical constants it contains. Languages of the sentential (or propositional) calculus are allowed sentential symbols as non-logical constants. Languages of the first order predicate calculus allow in addition predicate symbols and operation or function symbols. Models A model is a pair , where D is a set of elements called the domain while I is an interpretation of the elements of a signature (functions, and predicates). the domain D is a set of elements; the interpretation I is a function that assigns something to constants, functions and predicates: each function symbol f of arity n is assigned a function I(f) from to each predicate symbol P of arity n is assigned a relation I(P) over or, equivalently, a function from to The following is an intuitive explanation of these elements. The domain D is a set of "objects" of some kind. Intuitively, a first-order formula is a statement about objects; for example, states the existence of an object x such that the predicate P is true where referred to it. The domain is the set of considered objects. As an example, one can take to be the set of integer numbers. The model also includes an interpretation of the signature. Since the elements of the signature are function symbols and predicate symbols, the interpretation gives the "value" of functions and predicates. The interpretation of a function symbol is a function. For example, the function symbol of arity 2 can be interpreted as the function that gives the sum of its arguments. In other words, the symbol is associated with the function I(f) of addition in this interpretation. In particular, the interpretation of a constant is a function from the one-element set D0 to D, which can be simply identified with an object in D. For example, an interpretation may assign the value to the constant . The interpretation of a predicate of arity n is a set of n-tuples of elements of the domain. This means that, given an interpretation, a predicate, and n elements of the domain, one can tell whether the predicate is true over those elements and according to the given interpretation. As an example, an interpretation I(P) of a predicate P of arity two may be the set of pairs of integers such that the first one is less than the second. According to this interpretation, the predicate P would be true if its first argument is less than the second. Evaluation A formula evaluates to true or false given a model and an interpretation of the value of the variables. Such an interpretation associates every variable to a value of the domain. The evaluation of a formula under a model and an interpretation of the variables is defined from the evaluation of a term under the same pair. Note that the model itself contains an interpretation (which evaluates functions, and predicates); we additionally have, separated from the model, an interpretation every variable is associated its value according to ; a term is associated the value given by the interpretation of the function and the interpretation of the terms: if are the values associated to , the term is associated the value ; recall that is the interpretation of f, and so is a function from to D. The interpretation of a formula is given as follows. a formula is associated the value true or false depending on whether , where are the evaluation of the terms and is the interpretation of , which by assumption is a subset of a formula in the form or is evaluated in the obvious way a formula is true according to M and if there exists an evaluation of the variables that only differs from regarding the evaluation of x and such that A is true according to the model M and the interpretation a formula is true according to M and if A is true for every pair composed by the model M and an interpretation that differs from only on the value of x If a formula does not contain free variables, then the evaluation of the variables does not affect its truth. In other words, in this case F is true according to M and if and only if is true according to M and a different interpretation of the variables . Validity and satisfiability A model M satisfies a formula F if this formula is true according to M and every possible evaluation of its variables. A formula is valid if it is true in every possible model and interpretation of the variables. A formula is satisfiable if there exists a model and an interpretation of the variables that satisfy the formula. Predicate calculus First-order predicate calculi properly extend propositional calculi. (For simplicity, by a predicate calculus we always mean one that is sound and complete with respect to classical model theory.) They suffice for formalizing many mathematical theories, such as arithmetic and number theory. If a propositional calculus is defined with a suitable set of axioms (or axiom schemata) and the single rule of inference modus ponens (this can be done in many ways), then a predicate calculus can be defined from it by adding the inference rule "universal generalization". As axioms and rules for the predicate calculus with equality we take: all tautologies of the propositional calculus; the quantifier axioms, given above; the above axioms for equality; modus ponens; universal generalization. Call this calculus QC for quantificational calculus. (PC is generally reserved for propositional calculus rather than predicate calculus.) A sentence is defined to be provable (demonstrable) in the calculus if it can be derived from the axioms of the predicate calculus by repeatedly applying its inference rules. In other words: all axioms of the calculus are provable (in the calculus); if the premises of an inference rule are provable, then so is the conclusion. If T is a set of formulas and φ a single formula, we define a derivation of φ from T (in the calculus), in symbols (we often omit the subscript), as a list of formulas such that and each either (1) is an axiom; (2) follows from previous (possibly j = k) by a rule of inference. If then for some finite we have . The fact that a sentence is always provable from a finite set of sentences, if it is provable from any set at all, is a consequence of the fact that every derivation in the system is a finite list of formulas. Notice that provability is a special case of derivability from the empty set of premises. In this sense, each calculus K gives rise to a derivability relation . Since we are taking 'predicate calculus' to mean one that is sound and complete with respect to classical model theory, each calculus gives rise to the same derivability relation (taken extensionally). Mere inspection of the calculus leaves it unclear whether it has not left out some valid formula as derivable or sound rule (also in the derived or admissible sense). Gödel's completeness theorem assures us that this is not a problem: any statement true in all models (semantically true) is provable in our calculus. There are many different (but equivalent) ways to define provability. The above definition is typical for a "Hilbert style" calculus, which has many axioms but very few rules of inference. By contrast, a "Gentzen style" predicate calculus has few axioms but many rules of inference. Provable identities The following sentences can be called "identities" because the main connective in each is the biconditional. They are all provable in FOL, and are useful when manipulating the quantifiers: (where must not occur free in ) (where must not occur free in ) Derived rules of inference The following (truth-preserving) rules of inference may be derived in first-order logic. (If c is a variable, then it must not be previously quantified in P(x)) (there must be no free instance of x in P(c)) Metalogical theorems of first-order logic Some important metalogical theorems are listed below in bulleted form. What they roughly mean is that a sentence is valid if and only if it is provable. Furthermore, one can construct a program which works as follows: if a sentence is provable, the program will always answer "provable" after some unknown, possibly very large, amount of time. If a sentence is not provable, the program may run forever. In the latter case, we will not know whether the sentence is provable or not, since we cannot tell whether the program is about to answer or not. In other words, the validity of sentences is semidecidable. One may construct an algorithm which will determine in finite number of steps whether a sentence is provable (a decidable algorithm) only for simple classes of first-order logic. The decision problem for validity is recursively enumerable; in other words, there is a Turing machine that when given any sentence as input, will halt if and only if the sentence is valid (true in all models). As Gödel's completeness theorem shows, any valid formula is provable. Conversely, assuming consistency of the logic, any provable formula is valid. The Turing machine can be one which generates all provable formulas in the following manner: for a finite or recursively enumerable set of axioms, such a machine can be one that generates an axiom, then generates a new provable formula by application of axioms and inference rules already generated, then generates another axiom, and so on. Given a sentence as input, the Turing machine simply goes on and generates all provable formulas one by one, and will halt if it generates the sentence. Unlike propositional logic, first-order logic is undecidable (although semidecidable), provided that the language has at least one predicate of valence at least 2 other than equality. This means that there is no decision procedure that determines whether an arbitrary formula is valid or not. Because there is a Turing machine as described above, the undecidability is related to the unsolvability of the Halting problem: there is no algorithm which determines after a finite number of steps whether the Turing machine will ever halt for a given sentence as its input, hence whether the sentence is provable. This result was established independently by Church and Turing (in the so-called Church-Turing thesis). Monadic predicate logic (i.e., predicate logic with only predicates of one argument and no functions) is decidable. The Bernays–Schönfinkel class of first-order formulas is also decidable. Translating natural language to first-order logic Concepts expressed in natural language must be "translated" to first-order logic (FOL) before FOL can be used to address them, and there are a number of potential pitfalls in this translation. In FOL, means "p, or q, or both", that is, it is inclusive. In English, the word "or" is sometimes inclusive (e.g., "cream or sugar?"), but sometimes it is exclusive (e.g., "coffee or tea?" is usually intended to mean one or the other, not both). Similarly, the English word "some" may mean "at least one, possibly all", but other times it may mean "not all, possibly none". The English word "and" should sometimes be translated as "or" (e.g., "men and women may apply"). Limitations of first-order logic All mathematical notations have their strengths and weaknesses; here are a few such issues with first-order logic. Difficulty in characterizing finiteness or countability It follows from the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem that it is not possible to define finiteness or countability in a first-order language. That is, there is no first-order formula φ(x) such that for any model M, M is a model of φ iff the extension of φ in M is finite (or in the other case, countable). In first-order logic without identity the situation is even worse, since no first-order formula φ(x) can define "there exist n elements satisfying φ" for some fixed finite cardinal n. A number of properties not definable in first-order languages are definable in stronger languages. For example, in first-order logic one cannot assert the least-upper-bound property for sets of real numbers, which states that every bounded, nonempty set of real numbers has a supremum; A second-order logic is needed for that. Difficulty representing if-then-else Oddly enough, FOL with equality (as typically defined) does not include or permit defining an if-then-else predicate or function if(c,a,b), where "c" is a condition expressed as a formula, while a and b are either both terms or both formulas, and its result would be "a" if c is true, and "b" if it is false. The problem is that in FOL, both predicates and functions can only accept terms ("non-booleans") as parameters, but the "obvious" representation of the condition is a formula ("boolean"). This is unfortunate, since many mathematical functions are conveniently expressed in terms of if-then-else, and if-then-else is fundamental for describing most computer programs. Mathematically, it is possible to redefine a complete set of new functions that match the formula operators, but this is quite clumsy. A predicate if(c,a,b) can be expressed in FOL if rewritten as (or, equivalently, ), but this is clumsy if the condition c is complex. Many extend FOL to add a special-case predicate named "if(condition, a, b)" (where a and b are formulas) and/or function "ite(condition, a, b)" (where a and b are terms), both of which accept a formula as the condition, and are equal to "a" if condition is true and "b" if it is false. These extensions make FOL easier to use for some problems, and make some kinds of automatic theorem-proving easier. Others extend FOL further so that functions and predicates can accept both terms and formulas at any position. Typing (sorts) FOL does not include types (sorts) into the notation itself, other than the difference between formulas ("booleans") and terms ("non-booleans"). Some argue that this lack of types is a great advantage Leslie Lamport, Lawrence C. Paulson. Should Your Specification Language Be Typed? ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems. 1998. http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/71125.html , but many others find advantages in defining and using types (sorts), such as helping reject some erroneous or undesirable specifications Rushby, John. Subtypes for Specification. 1997. Proceedings of the Sixth European Software Engineering Conference (ESEC/FSE 97). http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/328947.html . Those who wish to indicate types must provide such information using the notation available in FOL. Doing so can make such expressions more complex, and can also be easy to get wrong. Single-parameter predicates can be used to implement the notion of types where appropriate. For example, in: , the predicate could be considered a kind of "type assertion" (that is, that must be a man). Predicates can also be used with the "exists" quantifier to identify types, but this should usually be done with the "and" operator instead, e.g.: ("there exists something that is both a man and is mortal"). It is easy to write , but this would be equivalent to ("there is something that is not a man, and/or there exists something that is mortal"), which is usually not what was intended. Similarly, assertions can be made that one type is a subtype of another type, e.g.: ("for all , if is a man, then is a mammal"). Graph reachability cannot be expressed Many situations can be modeled as a graph of nodes and directed connections (edges). For example, validating many systems requires showing that a "bad" state cannot be reached from a "good" state, and these interconnections of states can often be modelled as a graph. However, it can be proved that connectedness cannot be fully expressed in predicate logic. In other words, there is no predicate-logic formula and as its only predicate symbol (of arity 2) such that holds in an interpretation if and only if the extension of in describes a connected graph: that is, connected graphs cannot be axiomatized. Note that given a binary relation encoding a graph, one can describe in terms of a conjunction of first order formulas, and write a formula which is satisfiable if and only if is connected. Comparison with other logics Typed first-order logic allows variables and terms to have various types (or sorts). If there are only a finite number of types, this does not really differ much from first-order logic, because one can describe the types with a finite number of unary predicates and a few axioms. Sometimes there is a special type Ω of truth values, in which case formulas are just terms of type Ω. First-order logic with domain conditions adds domain conditions (DCs) to classical first-order logic, enabling the handling of partial functions; these conditions can be proven "on the side" in a manner similar to PVS's type correctness conditions. It also adds if-then-else to keep definitions and proofs manageable (they became too complex without them). Freek Wiedijk and Jan Zwanenburg. "First Order Logic with Domain Conditions" In Theorem Proving in Higher Order Logics. Book Series "Lecture Notes in Computer Science". Springer Berlin / Heidelberg. ISSN 0302-9743 (Print) 1611-3349 (Online), Volume 2758/2003. ISBN 978-3-540-40664-8. http://www.springerlink.com/content/8uh32tu7uf04yeex/ The SMT-LIB Standard defines a language used by many research groups for satisfiability modulo theories; the full logic is based on FOL with equality, but adds sorts (types), if-then-else for terms and formulas (ite() and if.. then.. else..), a let construct for terms and formulas (let and flet), and a distinct construct declaring a set of listed values as distinct. Its connectives are not, implies, and, or, xor, and iff. Ranise, Silvio and Cesare Tinelli. The SMT-LIB Standard: Version 1.2 Aug 30, 2006. http://smt-lib.org/ Weak second-order logic allows quantification over finite subsets. Monadic second-order logic allows quantification over subsets, that is, over unary predicates. Second-order logic allows quantification over subsets and relations, that is, over all predicates. For example, the axiom of extensionality can be stated in second-order logic as x = y ≡def P (P(x) ↔ P(y)). The strong semantics of second-order logic give such sentences a much stronger meaning than first-order semantics. Higher-order logics allows quantification over higher types than second-order logic permits. These higher types include relations between relations, functions from relations to relations between relations, etc. Intuitionistic first-order logic uses intuitionistic rather than classical propositional calculus; for example, ¬¬φ need not be equivalent to φ. Similarly, first-order fuzzy logics are first-order extensions of propositional fuzzy logics rather than classical logic. Modal logic has extra modal operators with meanings which can be characterised informally as, for example "it is necessary that φ" and "it is possible that φ". In monadic predicate calculus predicates are restricted to having only one argument. Infinitary logic allows infinitely long sentences. For example, one may allow a conjunction or disjunction of infinitely many formulas, or quantification over infinitely many variables. Infinitely long sentences arise in areas of mathematics including topology and model theory. First-order logic with extra quantifiers has new quantifiers Qx,..., with meanings such as "there are many x such that ...". Also see branching quantifiers and the plural quantifiers of George Boolos and others. Predicate Logic with Definitions (PLD, or D-logic) modifies FOL by formally adding syntactic definitions as a type of value (in addition to formulas and terms); these definitions can be used inside terms and formulas Makarov, Victor. "Predicate Logic with Definitions". http://arxiv.org/pdf/cs/9906010 . Independence-friendly logic is characterized by branching quantifiers, which allow one to express independence between quantified variables. Most of these logics are in some sense extensions of FOL: they include all the quantifiers and logical operators of FOL with the same meanings. Lindström showed that FOL has no extensions (other than itself) that satisfy both the compactness theorem and the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem. A precise statement of Lindström's theorem requires a few technical conditions that the logic is assumed to satisfy; for example, changing the symbols of a language should make no essential difference to which sentences are true. Algebraizations Three ways of eliminating quantified variables from FOL, and that do not involve replacing quantifiers with other variable binding term operators, are known: Cylindric algebra, by Alfred Tarski and his coworkers; Polyadic algebra, by Paul Halmos; Predicate functor logic, mainly due to Willard Quine. These algebras: Are all proper extensions of the two-element Boolean algebra, and thus are lattices; Do for FOL what Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra does for sentential logic; Allow results from abstract algebra, universal algebra, and order theory to be brought to bear on FOL. Tarski and Givant (1987) show that the fragment of FOL that has no atomic sentence lying in the scope of more than three quantifiers, has the same expressive power as relation algebra. This fragment is of great interest because it suffices for Peano arithmetic and most axiomatic set theory, including the canonical ZFC. They also prove that FOL with a primitive ordered pair is equivalent to a relation algebra with two ordered pair projection functions. Automation Theorem proving for first-order logic is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semidecidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling fully automated systems. In 1965 J. Alan Robinson achieved an important breakthrough with his resolution approach; to prove a theorem it tries to refute the negated theorem, in a goal-directed way, resulting in a much more efficient method to automatically prove theorems in FOL. More expressive logics, such as higher-order and modal logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first-order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed. A modern and particularly disruptive new technology is that of SMT solvers, which add arithmetic and propositional support to the powerful classes of SAT solvers. See also Automated theorem proving Cylindric algebra Gödel's completeness theorem Gödel's incompleteness theorems List of first-order theories List of rules of inference Mathematical logic Predicate functor logic Table of logic symbols Algebra of sets Alloy (specification language) Notes References Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy, 2000. Language Proof and Logic. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications (Distributed by the University of Chicago Press). David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann 1950. Principles of Mathematical Logic (English translation). Chelsea. The 1928 first German edition was titled Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik. Wilfrid Hodges, 2001, "Classical Logic I: First Order Logic," in Lou Goble, ed., The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic. Blackwell. External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Classical Logic -- by Stewart Shapiro. Covers syntax, model theory, and metatheory for first-order logic in the natural deduction style. forall x: an introduction to formal logic, by P.D. Magnus, covers formal semantics and proof theory for first-order logic. Metamath: an ongoing online project to reconstruct mathematics as a huge first-order theory, using first-order logic and the axiomatic set theory ZFC. Principia Mathematica modernized and done right. Podnieks, Karl. Introduction to mathematical logic. Cambridge Mathematics Tripos Notes : " -- Notes typeset by John Fremlin. The notes cover part of a past Cambridge Mathematics Tripos course taught to undergraduates students (usually) within their third year. The course is entitled "Logic, Computation and Set Theory" and covers Ordinals and cardinals, Posets and zorn’s Lemma, Propositional logic, Predicate logic, Set theory and Consistency issues related to ZFC and other set theories. | First-order_logic |@lemmatized first:94 order:102 logic:138 fol:41 formal:13 deductive:3 system:13 use:35 mathematics:8 philosophy:2 linguistics:1 computer:4 science:3 go:2 many:22 name:4 include:14 predicate:88 calculus:35 fopc:1 low:1 language:47 unlike:2 natural:6 english:6 wholly:1 unambiguous:2 interpret:5 mathematical:14 structure:5 deduction:2 extend:4 propositional:29 allow:17 quantification:11 individual:6 give:26 domain:13 discourse:3 example:47 state:10 every:22 property:6 p:39 deal:2 simple:3 declarative:1 proposition:9 additionally:2 cover:5 take:9 following:10 sentence:32 socrates:9 man:15 plato:2 two:10 unrelated:1 denote:8 q:14 however:6 would:4 connect:4 mean:21 get:3 second:14 construction:1 much:4 powerful:3 quantifier:21 introduce:1 x:143 valid:13 argument:20 without:12 vice:1 versa:1 theory:57 consist:3 set:56 axiom:67 usually:11 finite:15 recursively:6 enumerable:4 statement:5 deducible:1 underlying:1 deducibility:2 relation:35 together:2 complete:5 sound:6 axiomatization:1 close:1 rule:43 rise:3 abstract:2 fix:1 axiomatic:3 mind:2 sufficient:3 expressive:4 power:3 formalize:4 important:6 zermelo:1 fraenkel:1 zfc:6 peano:4 arithmetic:11 cannot:8 categorically:2 express:18 notion:3 countability:3 even:4 though:3 expressible:1 intended:4 interpretation:46 symbolism:1 idea:2 need:6 adequate:1 rely:1 internal:1 involve:3 see:8 consider:7 syllogistic:1 men:2 mortal:7 therefore:5 upon:1 translation:5 yield:2 b:17 c:14 accord:13 invalid:2 validates:1 nothing:4 translate:7 follow:11 arbitrary:4 suggest:1 preserve:1 intuitive:3 validity:5 must:8 consideration:1 deep:1 essential:2 predication:1 truth:13 functional:1 assignment:2 value:19 variable:59 make:9 either:5 conclusion:5 true:34 least:5 one:58 premise:5 false:13 clearly:1 may:31 uniformly:2 assign:12 hence:4 functionally:1 hand:4 impossible:1 contrast:2 easily:2 implies:2 plain:1 also:17 existence:2 something:7 well:15 function:49 parameter:3 someone:1 fool:2 time:5 exists:1 person:1 ordinary:3 talk:5 grammatical:1 meaningful:1 grammar:2 call:19 syntax:6 interested:1 meaning:7 semantics:11 logical:50 precise:3 definition:10 instead:5 formula:97 roughly:2 equivalent:9 special:8 kind:6 form:16 limited:1 often:10 design:2 know:7 formation:6 perfectly:1 principle:5 end:2 everything:2 formulas:3 normally:1 reflect:1 simplify:1 understand:1 good:3 word:14 like:3 describe:6 meta:2 sometimes:13 difference:4 say:11 become:4 little:1 blurry:1 place:3 oppose:1 represent:8 object:8 refer:3 intend:3 indicate:3 element:18 human:2 race:1 part:8 vocabulary:4 govern:1 ill:2 expression:6 symbol:73 front:2 parenthesis:6 within:2 formed:1 commonly:2 closely:1 associate:11 strictly:1 speak:1 essentially:3 replace:7 nullary:2 independent:1 r:2 arity:13 zero:1 show:5 detailed:1 alone:1 besides:2 define:24 e:13 recursive:3 proof:8 transformation:1 inference:24 derive:4 theorem:32 possibly:6 countably:1 infinitely:7 schema:9 tell:3 classical:13 note:8 way:8 canonical:2 article:2 formalization:1 non:27 equal:3 right:4 title:2 basic:1 building:1 block:1 provide:5 several:2 built:2 additional:5 add:10 produce:1 specific:4 base:2 build:3 exist:8 rather:8 latter:5 regard:3 per:1 se:1 particular:3 analogous:1 versus:1 thus:3 another:7 except:2 arguably:1 identity:14 depend:3 whether:14 symbols:2 term:41 string:2 nature:1 outside:1 scope:2 best:1 think:1 letter:6 punctuation:2 alphabet:3 divide:1 application:7 constant:18 long:3 standard:3 practice:2 fixed:2 infinite:7 purpose:1 recent:1 different:7 necessary:5 signature:13 synonym:1 confuse:2 traditional:4 approach:6 consequently:1 precisely:3 variant:2 sort:6 equality:23 still:2 common:4 especially:2 philosophically:1 orient:1 book:4 integer:4 n:21 ary:6 supply:1 f:42 modern:3 treatment:1 vary:1 typical:2 group:3 ordered:6 field:1 restriction:2 number:15 empty:5 uncountable:2 occur:9 löwenheim:3 skolem:3 upward:1 type:25 valence:16 uppercase:1 identify:3 stand:14 great:3 father:2 possible:10 dispense:3 large:2 pair:10 lowercase:3 g:7 h:1 beginning:1 union:1 entirely:2 projection:3 satisfy:8 similarly:5 recover:1 connective:6 z:19 operator:11 connectives:1 unary:4 binary:10 conditional:1 biconditional:3 universal:5 typically:3 read:4 existential:1 leave:3 convention:6 put:1 might:1 write:9 uses:1 colon:1 full:2 stop:1 interesting:1 unusual:1 polish:2 notation:10 omit:3 writes:1 compact:1 elegant:1 rare:1 hard:1 syntactically:1 behave:1 variation:2 described:1 presence:1 work:4 useful:3 case:12 hold:3 numerous:1 minor:1 otherwise:1 sheffer:2 stroke:2 aka:1 nand:1 exclusive:2 xor:2 exactly:1 uniqueness:1 abbreviate:1 since:8 φ:63 drop:2 φψ:2 ψ:12 among:3 frequently:1 paper:1 sequent:2 arrow:1 wealth:1 alternative:1 text:1 recursion:1 generally:2 context:1 free:31 production:1 single:5 left:1 side:3 start:1 concept:3 subset:5 tn:1 ti:1 closure:3 clause:9 else:10 wffs:4 complex:4 atomic:6 inductive:6 wff:7 ii:2 iii:2 terminology:2 implement:3 boolean:3 abelian:1 syntactic:2 bound:10 intuitively:2 quantify:2 bind:5 occurs:2 w:2 neither:1 freeness:1 boundness:1 specialize:1 occurrence:2 substitution:3 contain:5 result:8 instance:5 replacement:3 logically:1 original:1 becomes:2 process:1 substitute:2 change:4 condition:15 maximal:3 problem:8 obtain:1 rename:1 forget:1 notorious:1 cause:1 error:1 notice:3 prove:10 provable:22 member:1 generate:12 new:5 old:1 theoremhood:1 preserving:2 section:2 modus:4 ponens:4 hilbert:3 sole:1 lack:2 offset:1 abundance:1 scheme:1 generalization:3 similar:2 look:1 general:1 although:2 description:1 explain:1 far:2 characterize:3 worked:1 metamath:2 explorer:1 interest:2 algorithm:10 determine:6 step:3 decidable:5 construct:5 simply:3 grow:1 length:1 always:4 necessarily:1 procedure:2 pred:4 actually:1 added:1 summarize:1 main:2 various:2 amount:2 differ:3 mainly:2 euclid:1 primitive:2 reflexivity:3 leibniz:5 law:5 metavariable:1 ranging:1 substitutivity:1 indiscernibility:1 identicals:1 specify:1 last:2 namely:1 axioms:1 symmetry:2 transitivity:1 moreover:1 could:3 strengthen:1 derivable:2 inconsistent:1 whose:1 open:1 trivially:1 satisfies:1 unchanged:1 abbreviation:2 automatically:2 usual:1 extensionality:2 belong:1 ad:1 hoc:1 partial:2 logico:1 model:23 denotation:2 l:8 occurring:1 universe:2 degree:3 assigns:1 ternary:1 sentential:4 operation:3 respect:3 optionally:1 semantic:1 study:1 information:2 former:1 sense:4 addition:3 equivalently:2 explanation:1 sum:1 tuples:1 less:3 evaluation:8 evaluate:3 separate:1 recall:1 assumption:1 obvious:2 differs:1 compose:1 affect:1 satisfiability:2 satisfiable:2 properly:1 simplicity:1 suffice:2 suitable:1 tautology:1 qc:1 quantificational:1 pc:1 reserve:1 demonstrable:1 repeatedly:1 apply:2 derivation:2 subscript:1 list:5 previous:1 j:2 k:2 fact:2 consequence:1 provability:2 derivability:3 extensionally:1 mere:1 inspection:1 unclear:1 derived:1 admissible:1 gödel:4 completeness:3 assure:1 u:1 semantically:1 style:3 gentzen:1 manipulate:1 previously:1 metalogical:2 bulleted:1 furthermore:1 program:5 answer:2 unknown:1 run:1 forever:1 semidecidable:3 class:3 decision:2 turing:7 machine:6 input:3 halt:3 conversely:1 assume:2 consistency:2 manner:2 already:1 undecidable:1 undecidability:1 relate:2 unsolvability:1 halting:1 ever:1 establish:1 independently:1 church:2 thesis:1 monadic:3 bernays:1 schönfinkel:1 address:1 potential:1 pitfall:1 inclusive:2 cream:1 sugar:1 coffee:1 tea:1 none:1 woman:1 limitation:1 strength:1 weakness:1 issue:2 difficulty:2 finiteness:2 iff:2 extension:7 countable:1 situation:2 bad:2 cardinal:2 definable:2 strong:3 assert:1 upper:1 real:2 nonempty:1 supremum:1 oddly:1 enough:2 permit:2 accept:3 booleans:3 representation:1 unfortunate:1 conveniently:1 fundamental:1 mathematically:1 redefine:1 match:1 quite:1 clumsy:2 rewrite:1 ite:2 easy:4 automatic:1 others:3 position:1 typing:1 argue:1 advantage:2 leslie:1 lamport:1 lawrence:1 paulson:1 specification:5 acm:1 transaction:1 programming:1 http:5 citeseer:2 ist:2 psu:2 edu:2 html:2 find:1 help:1 reject:1 erroneous:1 undesirable:1 rushby:1 john:3 subtypes:1 proceeding:1 sixth:1 european:1 software:1 engineering:1 conference:1 esec:1 fse:1 wish:1 available:1 wrong:1 appropriate:1 assertion:2 subtype:1 mammal:1 graph:6 reachability:1 node:1 direct:1 connection:1 edge:1 validate:1 require:2 reach:1 interconnection:1 connectedness:1 fully:2 describes:1 axiomatized:1 encode:1 conjunction:2 comparison:1 really:1 ω:2 dc:1 enable:2 handling:1 pvs:1 correctness:1 keep:1 manageable:1 freek:1 wiedijk:1 jan:1 zwanenburg:1 proving:2 high:5 series:1 lecture:1 springer:1 berlin:1 heidelberg:1 issn:1 print:1 online:2 volume:1 isbn:1 www:1 springerlink:1 com:1 content:1 smt:4 lib:3 research:1 modulo:1 let:2 flet:1 distinct:2 declare:1 listed:1 ranise:1 silvio:1 cesare:1 tinelli:1 version:1 aug:1 org:2 weak:1 def:1 etc:1 intuitionistic:2 fuzzy:2 modal:3 extra:2 characterise:1 informally:1 restrict:1 infinitary:1 disjunction:1 arise:1 area:1 topology:1 qx:1 branch:2 plural:1 george:1 boolos:1 pld:1 modifies:1 formally:1 inside:1 makarov:1 victor:1 arxiv:1 pdf:1 independence:2 friendly:1 quantified:2 lindström:2 compactness:1 downward:1 technical:1 algebraizations:1 three:2 eliminate:1 cylindric:2 algebra:11 alfred:1 tarski:3 coworkers:1 polyadic:1 paul:1 halmos:1 functor:2 due:1 willard:1 quine:1 proper:1 lattice:1 lindenbaum:1 bring:1 bear:1 givant:1 fragment:2 lying:1 automation:1 mature:1 subfields:1 automated:1 reasonably:1 develop:2 automate:2 alan:1 robinson:1 achieve:1 breakthrough:1 resolution:1 try:1 refute:1 negated:1 goal:1 directed:1 efficient:1 method:1 convenient:1 wider:1 range:1 particularly:1 disruptive:1 technology:1 solver:2 support:1 sat:1 incompleteness:1 table:1 alloy:1 reference:1 jon:1 barwise:1 etchemendy:1 stanford:2 ca:1 csli:1 publication:1 distribute:1 university:1 chicago:1 press:1 david:1 wilhelm:1 ackermann:1 chelsea:1 german:1 edition:1 grundzüge:1 der:1 theoretischen:1 logik:1 wilfrid:1 hodges:1 lou:1 goble:1 ed:1 blackwell:2 guide:1 philosophical:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 stewart:1 shapiro:1 metatheory:1 forall:1 introduction:2 magnus:1 ongoing:1 project:1 reconstruct:1 huge:1 principia:1 mathematica:1 modernize:1 podnieks:1 karl:1 cambridge:2 tripos:2 typeset:1 fremlin:1 past:1 course:2 taught:1 undergraduates:1 student:1 third:1 year:1 entitle:1 computation:1 ordinal:1 posets:1 zorn:1 lemma:1 |@bigram predicate_calculus:16 propositional_logic:15 vice_versa:1 recursively_enumerable:4 zermelo_fraenkel:1 peano_arithmetic:4 syntax_semantics:2 axiom_schema:4 logical_axiom:7 per_se:1 n_ary:6 symbol_arity:5 löwenheim_skolem:3 skolem_theorem:3 uppercase_letter:1 predicate_valence:5 ordered_pair:4 logical_connective:4 connective_logical:1 unary_operator:1 φ_ψ:11 φ_φ:2 inductive_clause:6 sequent_calculus:1 modus_ponens:4 ad_hoc:1 propositional_calculus:6 sentence_provable:6 unclear_whether:1 gödel_completeness:3 completeness_theorem:3 turing_machine:5 halting_problem:1 strength_weakness:1 oddly_enough:1 leslie_lamport:1 acm_transaction:1 ist_psu:2 psu_edu:2 theorem_proving:2 berlin_heidelberg:1 http_www:1 www_springerlink:1 springerlink_com:1 fuzzy_logic:2 modal_logic:2 conjunction_disjunction:1 arxiv_org:1 compactness_theorem:1 alfred_tarski:1 paul_halmos:1 boolean_algebra:1 abstract_algebra:1 goal_directed:1 sat_solver:1 gödel_incompleteness:1 incompleteness_theorem:1 wilhelm_ackermann:1 grundzüge_der:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 principia_mathematica:1 zorn_lemma:1 |
3,439 | Habitus_(sociology) | Habitus is a complex concept, but in its simplest usage could be understood as a set of acquired patterns of thought, behavior, and taste Scott, John & Marshall, Gordon (eds) A Dictionary of Sociology, Oxford University Press, 1998 . These patterns, or "dispositions", are the result of internalization of culture or objective social structures through the experience of an individual or group. The concept of habitus has been used as early as Aristotle but in contemporary usage was introduced by Marcel Mauss and later re-elaborated by Pierre Bourdieu. Origin of concept Loïc Wacquant wrote that habitus is an old philosophical notion, originating in the thought of Aristotle and of the medieval Scholastics. In contemporary practice, habitus was introduced by Marcel Mauss as "body techniques" (techniques du corps) and further developed by Norbert Elias in the 1930s. Mauss defined habitus as those aspects of culture that are anchored in the body or daily practices of individuals, groups, societies, and nations. It includes the totality of learned habits, bodily skills, styles, tastes, and other non-discursive knowledges that might be said to "go without saying" for a specific group -- in that way it can be said to operate beneath the level of ideology. One work that employs the concept of habitus in a specific context is James English's The Economy of Prestige: Prizes, Awards, and the Circulation of Cultural Value English, James, The Economy of Prestige: Prizes, Awards, and the Circulation of Cultural Value, Harvard UP, 2005 . The concept is also present in the work of Max Weber and Edmund Husserl. Habitus in Bourdieu's social theory Bourdieu re-elaborated the concept of habitus from Marcel Mauss and extended the scope of the term to include a person's beliefs and dispositions. He used it, in a more or less systematic way, in an attempt to resolve a prominent antinomy of the human sciences: objectivism and subjectivism. In Bourdieu's work, habitus can be defined as a system of durable and transposable Bourdieu, Pierre, Outline of a Theory of Practice, 1972 "dispositions” (lasting, acquired schemes of perception, thought and action). The individual agent develops these dispositions in response to the determining structures (such as class, family, and education) and external conditions (field)s they encounter. They are therefore neither wholly voluntary nor wholly involuntary. The habitus provides the practical skills and dispositions necessary to navigate within different fields (such as sports, professional life, art) and guides the choices of the individual without ever being strictly reducible to prescribed, formal rules. Calhoun, Craig (ed) Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Article: Bourdieu, Pierre, Oxford University Press, 2002 At the same time, the habitus is constantly remade by these navigations and choices (including the success or failure of previous actions). Describing neither complete determination by social factors nor individual autonomy, the habitus mediates between “objective” structures of social relations and the individual “subjective” behavior of actors. In this way Bourdieu theorizes the inculcation of objective social structures into the subjective, mental experience of agents. In Bourdieu's theory, agency is not directly observable in practices or in the habitus, but only in the experience of subjectivity. Hence, some argue that Bourdieu’s project could be said to retain an objectivist bias from structuralism. Further, some critics charge that Bourdieu's "habitus" governs so much of an individual's social makeup that it significantly limits the concept of human agency. In Bourdieu's references to "habitus" it sometimes seems as if so much of an individual's disposition is predetermined by the social habitus that such pre-dispositions cannot be altered or left behind. Defenders of Bourdieu argue that such critics have misunderstood and exaggerated the conservative extent of "habitus" in Bourdieu. Bourdieu allows agency its location within the bounded structures of society and self. And, Bourdieu advocates a method for researchers to include diverse cultural voices in their work. See Bourdieu 'Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste', Chapter 3 Body Habitus Body habitus is the medical term for physique, and is defined as either endomorphic (overweight), ectomorphic (underweight) or mesomorphic (normal weight). In this sense, habitus can be understood as the physical and constitutional characteristics of an individual, especially as related to the tendency to develop a certain disease. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th Ed) Houghton Mifflin Company, 2003 Scholars researching "habitus" in the field Loic J.D. Wacquant - USA (Berkeley Page) Saba Mahmood - USA Anthropologist Philippe Bourgois - USA (incorporates the concept of "habitus" into much of his work with injection drug users in the San Francisco area. ) Karl Maton, University of Sydney, Australia - builds on both Bourdieu's concept of 'habitus' and the related concept of 'code' from Basil Bernstein in the sociology of education, see ) Footnotes Further reading Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. Elias, Norbert. The Civilizing Process. Jenkins, Richard. 1992. Pierre Bourdieu. London: Routledge. MacLeod, Jay. 1995. Ain't No Makin' It. Colorado: Westview Press, Inc. Maton, Karl. 2008 'Habitus', in Grenfell, M. (ed) Pierre Bourdieu: Key concepts. London: Acumen Press. Mauss, Marcel. 1934. "Les Techniques du corps", Journal de Psychologie 32 (3-4). Reprinted in Mauss, Sociologie et anthropologie, 1936, Paris: PUF. | Habitus_(sociology) |@lemmatized habitus:24 complex:1 concept:11 simple:1 usage:2 could:2 understand:2 set:1 acquired:1 pattern:2 thought:2 behavior:2 taste:3 scott:1 john:1 marshall:1 gordon:1 ed:4 dictionary:3 sociology:2 oxford:2 university:4 press:5 disposition:7 result:1 internalization:1 culture:2 objective:3 social:9 structure:5 experience:3 individual:9 group:3 use:2 early:1 aristotle:2 contemporary:2 introduce:2 marcel:4 mauss:6 later:1 elaborate:2 pierre:6 bourdieu:20 origin:1 loïc:1 wacquant:2 write:1 old:1 philosophical:1 notion:1 originate:1 medieval:1 scholastic:1 practice:5 body:4 technique:3 du:2 corp:1 far:2 develop:3 norbert:2 elia:2 define:3 aspect:1 anchor:1 daily:1 society:2 nation:1 include:4 totality:1 learned:1 habit:1 bodily:1 skill:2 style:1 non:1 discursive:1 knowledge:1 might:1 say:4 go:1 without:2 specific:2 way:3 operate:1 beneath:1 level:1 ideology:1 one:1 work:5 employ:1 context:1 james:2 english:3 economy:2 prestige:2 prize:2 award:2 circulation:2 cultural:3 value:2 harvard:1 also:1 present:1 max:1 weber:1 edmund:1 husserl:1 theory:4 extend:1 scope:1 term:2 person:1 belief:1 less:1 systematic:1 attempt:1 resolve:1 prominent:1 antinomy:1 human:2 science:2 objectivism:1 subjectivism:1 system:1 durable:1 transposable:1 outline:2 lasting:1 acquire:1 scheme:1 perception:1 think:1 action:2 agent:2 response:1 determine:1 class:1 family:1 education:2 external:1 condition:1 field:3 encounter:1 therefore:1 neither:2 wholly:2 voluntary:1 involuntary:1 provide:1 practical:1 necessary:1 navigate:1 within:2 different:1 sport:1 professional:1 life:1 art:1 guide:1 choice:2 ever:1 strictly:1 reducible:1 prescribe:1 formal:1 rule:1 calhoun:1 craig:1 article:1 time:1 constantly:1 remake:1 navigation:1 success:1 failure:1 previous:1 describe:1 complete:1 determination:1 factor:1 autonomy:1 mediate:1 relation:1 subjective:2 actor:1 theorize:1 inculcation:1 mental:1 agency:3 directly:1 observable:1 subjectivity:1 hence:1 argue:2 project:1 retain:1 objectivist:1 bias:1 structuralism:1 critic:2 charge:1 govern:1 much:3 makeup:1 significantly:1 limit:1 reference:1 sometimes:1 seem:1 predetermine:1 pre:1 cannot:1 alter:1 leave:1 behind:1 defender:1 misunderstand:1 exaggerate:1 conservative:1 extent:1 allow:1 location:1 bounded:1 self:1 advocate:1 method:1 researcher:1 diverse:1 voice:1 see:2 distinction:1 critique:1 judgement:1 chapter:1 medical:1 physique:1 either:1 endomorphic:1 overweight:1 ectomorphic:1 underweight:1 mesomorphic:1 normal:1 weight:1 sense:1 physical:1 constitutional:1 characteristic:1 especially:1 relate:1 tendency:1 certain:1 disease:1 american:1 heritage:1 language:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 company:1 scholar:1 research:1 loic:1 j:1 usa:3 berkeley:1 page:1 saba:1 mahmood:1 anthropologist:1 philippe:1 bourgois:1 incorporate:1 injection:1 drug:1 user:1 san:1 francisco:1 area:1 karl:2 maton:2 sydney:1 australia:1 build:1 related:1 code:1 basil:1 bernstein:1 footnote:1 reading:1 cambridge:1 civilizing:1 process:1 jenkins:1 richard:1 london:2 routledge:1 macleod:1 jay:1 makin:1 colorado:1 westview:1 inc:1 grenfell:1 key:1 acumen:1 le:1 corps:1 journal:1 de:1 psychologie:1 reprint:1 sociologie:1 et:1 anthropologie:1 paris:1 puf:1 |@bigram concept_habitus:5 marcel_mauss:3 pierre_bourdieu:3 max_weber:1 edmund_husserl:1 bourdieu_pierre:3 houghton_mifflin:1 san_francisco:1 westview_press:1 paris_puf:1 |
3,440 | Economy_of_Djibouti | Port of DjboutiThe Economy of Djbouti is derived in large part from its strategic location on the Red Sea. Djibouti is mostly barren, with little development in the agricultural and industrial sectors. The country has a harsh climate, a largely unskilled labour force, and limited natural resources. The country’s most important economic asset is its strategic location connecting the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. As such, Djibouti’s economy is dominated by the services sector, providing services as both a transit port for the region and as an international transshipment and refuelling centre. Between 1991 to 1994, Djibouti experienced a civil war which had a devastating effect on the economy. Since then, the country has benefited from political stability. In recent years, Djibouti has seen significant improvement in macroeconomic stability, with its annual GDP improving at an average of over 3 percent since 2003. This comes after a decade of negative or low growth. This is attributed to fiscal adjustment measures aimed at improving public financing, as well as reforms in port management. Despite the recent modest and stable growth, Djibouti is faced with many economic challenges, particularly job creation and poverty reduction. With an average annual population growth rate of 2.5 percent, the economy cannot significantly benefit national income per capita growth. Unemployment is extremely high at over 50 percent and is a major contributor to widespread poverty. Efforts are needed in creating conditions that will enhance private sector development and accumulate human capital. These conditions can be achieved through improvements in macroeconomic and fiscal framework, public administration, and labour market flexibility. Country Watch Economic performance Djibouti market. Djibouti has experienced stable economic growth in recent years as a result of achievements in macroeconomic adjustment efforts. Fiscal adjustment measures included downsizing the civil service, implementing a pension reform that placed the system on a much stronger financial footing, and strengthening public expenditure institutions. From 2003 to 2005, annual real GDP growth averaged 3.1 percent driven by good performance in the services sector and strong consumption. Inflation has been kept low (only 1 percent in 2004, compared with 2.2 percent in 2003), due to the fixed peg of the Djibouti franc to the US dollar. However, as mentioned above, unemployment has remained high at over 50 percent in recent years. The government fiscal balance is in deficit because the government has not been able to raise sufficient tax revenues to cover expenses. In 2004, a substantial increase in expenditure resulted in a deterioration of the fiscal position. As a result, the government deficit increased to US$17 million in 2004 from US$7 million in 2003. But improvement in expenditure management brought down the fiscal deficit to US$11 million in 2005. Country Watch Balance of payments Djibouti’s merchandise trade balance has shown a large deficit. This is due to the countries enormous need for imports and narrow base of exports. Although Djibouti runs a substantial surplus in its services balance, the surplus has been smaller than the deficit in the merchandise trade balance. As a result, Djibouti's current account balance has been in deficit. There is very limited information for Djibouti’s current account; the only data available at the time of writing is that the country’s merchandise trade deficit was estimated at US$737 million in 2004. Country Watch Regional situation With its position on the Red Sea, Djibouti holds a major strategic importance. The facilities of the Port of Djibouti are important to sea transportation companies for fuel bunkering and refuelling. Its transport facilities are used by several landlocked African countries for the re-export of their goods. Djibouti earns transit taxes and harbour fees from this trade, these form the bulk of government revenue. This strategic location also has ensured a steady inflow of foreign assistance. The port of Djibouti functions as a small French naval facility, and the United States also has stationed hundreds of troops in Djibouti, its only African base, in an effort to counter terrorism in the region. Country Watch Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Djibouti at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Djiboutian Francs. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 54,969 177.89 Djiboutian Francs 44 1985 64,988 177.56 Djiboutian Francs 49 1990 80,388 177.84 Djiboutian Francs 70 1995 88,456 177.62 Djiboutian Francs 90 2000 97,965 177.79 Djiboutian Francs 100 2005 124,770 177.73 Djiboutian Francs 111 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 76.03 Djiboutian Francs only. Average wages in 2007 hover around $5–6 per day. Investment climate Background European Quarter, Djibouti City. Djibouti’s economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in the Horn of Africa. Two-thirds of inhabitants live in the capital and the remainder of the populace is mostly nomadic herders. Low amounts of rainfall limit crop production to fruits and vegetables, and requiring most food to be imported. The government provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refuelling centre. Djibouti has few natural resources and little industry. All of these factors contribute to its heavy dependence on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An unemployment rate of 50 percent continues to be a major problem. Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35 percent over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate. Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors. Country Watch Openness to foreign investment The government of Djibouti welcomes all foreign direct investment. Djibouti's assets include a strategic geographic location, an open trade regime, a stable currency, substantial tax breaks and other incentives. Potential areas of investment include Djibouti's port and the telecommunications sectors. President Ismail Omar Guellehh first elected in 1999, has named privatization, economic reform, and increased foreign investment as top priorities for his government. The president pledged to seek the help of the international private sector to develop the country's infrastructure. Djibouti has no major laws that would discourage incoming foreign investment. In principle there is no screening of investment or other discriminatory mechanisms. That said, certain sectors, most notably public utilities, are state owned and some parts are not currently open to investors. Conditions of the structural adjustment agreement recently signed by Djibouti and the IMF stipulate increased privatization of parastatal and government-owned monopolies. There are no patent laws in Djibouti. Bill Anderson As in most African nations, access to licenses and approvals is complicated not so much by law as by administrative procedures. In Djibouti, the administrative process has been characterized as a form of 'circular dependency.' For example, the finance ministry will issue a license only if an investor possesses an approved investor visa, while the interior ministry will only issue an investor visa to a licensed business. The Djiboutian government is increasingly realizing the importance of establishing a one-stop shop to facilitate the investment process. Country Watch Trade Principal exports from the region transiting Djibouti are coffee, salt, hides, dried beans, cereals, other agricultural products, and wax. Djibouti itself has few exports, and the majority of its imports come from France. Most imports are consumed in Djibouti and the remainder goes to Ethiopia and Somaliland. Djibouti's unfavourable balance of trade is offset partially by invisible earnings such as transit taxes and harbour dues. In 1999, U.S. exports to Djibouti totalled $26.7 million while U.S. imports from Djibouti were less than $1 million. The City of Djibouti has the only paved airport in the republic. Djibouti has one of the most liberal economic regimes in Africa, with almost unrestricted banking and commerce sectors. Key indicators GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.738 billion (2007est.) GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (2007 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,300 (2007 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 3.2% industry: 14.9% services: 81.9% (2007 est.) Population below poverty line: 50% (2004 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0% (1999 est.) Labor force: 282,000 Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 75%, industry 11%, services 14% (1991 est.) Unemployment rate: 40%-50% (1996 est.) Budget: revenues: $156 million expenditures: $175 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.) Industries: limited to a few small-scale enterprises, such as dairy products and mineral-water bottling Industrial production growth rate: 3% (1996 est.) Electricity - production: 306 GWh (2006) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 226.9 GWh (2006) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: fruits, vegetables; goats, sheep, camels Exports: $340 million (f.o.b., 2006 est.) Exports - commodities: reexports, hides and skins, coffee (in transit) Exports - partners: Somalia 66.2%, Ethiopia 21.4%, Yemen 3.4% (2007) Imports: $1,555 million (f.o.b., 2006 est.) Imports - commodities: foods, beverages, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products Imports - partners: Saudi Arabia 20.7%, India 17.8%, China 9.3%, Ethiopia 4.6%, Malaysia 4.5%, Japan 4.2% (2007) Debt - external: $428 million (2006 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $106.3 million (1995) Currency: 1 Djiboutian franc (DF) = 100 centimes Exchange rates: Djiboutian francs (DF) per US$1 – 177.721 (fixed rate since 1973) Fiscal year: calendar year References External links | Economy_of_Djibouti |@lemmatized port:7 djboutithe:1 economy:5 djbouti:1 derive:1 large:2 part:2 strategic:6 location:5 red:3 sea:4 djibouti:36 mostly:2 barren:1 little:2 development:3 agricultural:2 industrial:2 sector:9 country:14 harsh:1 climate:2 largely:1 unskilled:1 labour:2 force:3 limited:2 natural:2 resource:2 important:2 economic:9 asset:2 connect:2 gulf:1 aden:1 dominate:1 service:9 provide:2 transit:6 region:4 international:4 transshipment:2 refuel:2 centre:2 experience:2 civil:3 war:2 devastating:1 effect:1 since:3 benefit:2 political:1 stability:2 recent:4 year:7 see:1 significant:1 improvement:3 macroeconomic:3 annual:3 gdp:6 improve:2 average:4 percent:9 come:2 decade:1 negative:1 low:4 growth:9 attribute:1 fiscal:7 adjustment:4 measure:2 aim:1 public:4 financing:1 well:1 reform:3 management:2 despite:1 modest:1 stable:3 face:2 many:1 challenge:1 particularly:1 job:1 creation:1 poverty:3 reduction:1 population:3 rate:9 cannot:1 significantly:1 national:1 income:2 per:5 caput:2 unemployment:4 extremely:1 high:4 major:4 contributor:1 widespread:1 effort:3 need:2 create:1 condition:3 enhance:1 private:2 accumulate:1 human:1 capital:3 achieve:1 framework:1 administration:1 market:3 flexibility:1 watch:6 performance:2 result:4 achievement:1 include:4 downsize:1 implement:1 pension:1 place:1 system:1 much:2 strong:2 financial:1 footing:1 strengthen:1 expenditure:5 institution:1 real:2 drive:1 good:2 consumption:4 inflation:4 keep:1 compare:1 due:3 fixed:2 peg:1 franc:12 u:11 dollar:4 however:2 mention:1 remain:1 government:10 balance:8 deficit:7 able:1 raise:1 sufficient:1 tax:4 revenue:3 cover:1 expense:1 substantial:3 increase:4 deterioration:1 position:2 million:13 bring:1 payment:2 merchandise:3 trade:8 show:1 enormous:1 import:9 narrow:1 base:3 export:9 although:1 run:1 surplus:2 small:3 current:2 account:2 information:1 data:1 available:1 time:1 writing:1 estimate:2 regional:1 situation:1 hold:1 importance:2 facility:3 transportation:1 company:1 fuel:2 bunkering:1 refuelling:1 transport:2 use:1 several:1 landlocked:1 african:3 earn:1 harbour:2 fee:1 form:2 bulk:1 also:2 ensure:1 steady:1 inflow:1 foreign:7 assistance:2 function:1 french:1 naval:1 united:1 state:2 station:1 hundred:1 troop:1 counter:1 terrorism:1 macro:1 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 domestic:2 product:6 price:2 monetary:1 fund:1 figure:1 djiboutian:11 exchange:3 index:1 purchase:2 power:3 parity:3 comparison:1 wage:1 hover:1 around:1 day:1 investment:8 background:1 european:1 quarter:1 city:2 activity:1 status:1 free:1 zone:1 horn:1 africa:2 two:1 third:1 inhabitant:1 live:1 remainder:2 populace:1 nomadic:1 herder:1 amount:1 rainfall:1 limit:2 crop:1 production:4 fruit:2 vegetable:2 require:1 food:2 industry:4 factor:1 contribute:1 heavy:1 dependence:1 help:2 support:1 finance:2 project:1 continue:1 problem:1 concern:1 tie:1 capita:1 drop:1 estimated:1 last:1 seven:1 recession:1 multitude:1 difficulty:1 fall:1 arrears:1 long:1 term:1 external:3 debt:2 struggle:1 meet:1 stipulation:1 aid:2 donor:1 openness:1 welcome:1 direct:1 geographic:1 open:2 regime:2 currency:2 break:1 incentive:1 potential:1 area:1 telecommunication:1 president:2 ismail:1 omar:1 guellehh:1 first:1 elect:1 name:1 privatization:2 top:1 priority:1 pledge:1 seek:1 develop:1 infrastructure:1 law:3 would:1 discourage:1 incoming:1 principle:1 screening:1 discriminatory:1 mechanism:1 say:1 certain:1 notably:1 utility:1 currently:1 investor:4 structural:1 agreement:1 recently:1 sign:1 imf:1 stipulate:1 parastatal:1 monopoly:1 patent:1 bill:1 anderson:1 nation:1 access:1 license:2 approval:1 complicate:1 administrative:2 procedure:1 process:2 characterize:1 circular:1 dependency:1 example:1 ministry:2 issue:2 possess:1 approved:1 visa:2 interior:1 licensed:1 business:1 increasingly:1 realize:1 establish:1 one:2 stop:1 shop:1 facilitate:1 principal:1 coffee:2 salt:1 hide:2 dry:1 bean:1 cereal:1 wax:1 majority:1 france:1 consume:1 go:1 ethiopia:3 somaliland:1 unfavourable:1 offset:1 partially:1 invisible:1 earnings:1 totalled:1 less:1 paved:1 airport:1 republic:1 liberal:1 almost:1 unrestricted:1 banking:1 commerce:1 key:1 indicator:1 billion:1 est:12 purchasing:1 composition:1 agriculture:3 line:1 household:1 percentage:1 share:1 na:3 consumer:1 labor:2 occupation:1 budget:1 scale:1 enterprise:1 dairy:1 mineral:1 water:1 bottle:1 electricity:5 gwh:2 source:1 fossil:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 kwh:2 goat:1 sheep:1 camel:1 f:2 b:2 commodity:2 reexports:1 skin:1 partner:2 somalia:1 yemen:1 beverage:1 equipment:1 chemical:1 petroleum:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 india:1 china:1 malaysia:1 japan:1 recipient:1 df:2 centime:1 fix:1 calendar:1 reference:1 link:1 |@bigram gulf_aden:1 macroeconomic_stability:1 per_caput:2 fiscal_deficit:1 balance_payment:2 counter_terrorism:1 gross_domestic:2 monetary_fund:1 djiboutian_franc:10 franc_djiboutian:5 wage_hover:1 fruit_vegetable:2 unemployment_rate:2 per_capita:1 ismail_omar:1 structural_adjustment:1 caput_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:1 household_income:1 expenditure_na:1 dairy_product:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_kwh:1 kwh_electricity:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 goat_sheep:1 export_commodity:1 somalia_ethiopia:1 saudi_arabia:1 centime_exchange:1 external_link:1 |
3,441 | Glissando | A glissando (plural: glissandi, abbreviated gliss.) is a glide from one pitch to another. It is an Italianized musical term derived from the French glisser, to glide. Glissando vs. portamento Prescriptive attempts Harvard Dictionary of Music to distinguish the glissando from the portamento by limiting the former to the filling in of discrete intermediate pitches on instruments like the piano, harp and fretted strings have run up against established usage ibid. of instruments like the trombone and timpani. The latter could thus be thought of as capable of either 'glissando' or 'portamento', depending on whether the drum was rolled or not. The clarinet gesture that opens Rhapsody in Blue could likewise be thought of either way, being originally for piano, but is in practice played as a portamento and described as a glissando. In cases where the destination and goal pitches are reduced to starting and stopping points as in James Tenney's Cellogram, or points of inflection, as in the sirens of Varèse's Hyperprism, the term portamento (conjuring a decorative effect) seems hardly adequate for what is a sonorous object in its own right and these are called glissando. 'Discrete glissando' On some instruments (e.g., piano, harp, xylophone), discrete tones are clearly audible when sliding. For example, on a keyboard, the player can slide his or her fingertips across the white keys or their fingers over the black keys, producing either a C major scale or an F# major pentatonic (or their relative modes); or, by performing both at once, it is possible to produce a full chromatic scale, but this is difficult. On a harp, the player can slide his/her finger across the strings, quickly playing the scale (or on pedal harp even arpeggios such as C flat-D-E sharp-F-G sharp-A flat-B). Wind, brass and fretted stringed instrument players can effect an extremely rapid chromatic scale (ex: sliding up or down a string quickly on a fretted instrument), going through an infinite number of pitches. Arpeggio effects (likewise named glissando) are also obtained on the harmonic series by bowed strings and brass, especially the french horn. 'Continuous glissando' or portamento Musical instruments with continuously variable pitch can effect a portamento over a substantial range. These include unfretted stringed instruments (such as the violin, viola, cello and double bass and fretless guitars), stringed instruments with a way of stretching the strings (such as the guitar or sitar), a fretted guitar or lap steel guitar when accompanied with the use of a slide, wind instruments without valves or stops (such as the trombone or slide whistle), timpani (kettledrums), electronic instruments (such as the theremin, the ondes martenot, synthesizers and keytars), the water organ, and the human voice. The musical saw, or "singing saw", plays entirely in a glissando. Portamenti can be produced over a limited range on most instruments; for example, fretted stringed instruments (such as the guitar or mandolin) can effect a portamento by pushing the string across the fingerboard. This is commonly called note bending rather than a portamento. Brass and wind instruments such as the flute or trumpet can effect a similarly limited slide by altering the breath pressure, while the clarinet can achieve this by slowly dragging fingers off tone holes. The trombone is especially conducive to producing portamenti of up to an augmented fourth, though the effect is limited by the slide position and partial of both notes involved. Tunable percussion instruments such as the drum or conga can effect this by applying or releasing pressure on the head while striking. On many electric guitars, the vibrato arm (often referred to as a whammy bar, tremolo bar, or "trem") - if the particular guitar has such a device installed - can also produce a portamento. By pressing the arm towards the body of the guitar, the guitarist moves the bridge of the guitar both away from the body and forward (towards the headstock), thereby decreasing string tension and lowering the pitch any notes that are sounding. This technique can often produce portamenti of incredible range, with the guitarist often being able to reduce tension to the point that the strings become slack. Such a portamento however is rarely used to melodic effect, instead being implemented as a special effect; however, some guitarists (most notably Jimi Hendrix) have strongly focused on the use of extended portamenti for melodic effect. Some guitars feature a vibrato that is also capable of being pulled away from the guitar body, resulting in an increase in string tension and therefore an increase in pitch. Extended use of portamenti figures on guitars without locking nuts can cause the strings to be pulled out of tune. Portamento can often be generated automatically on synthesizers, where a parameter setting can be used to control the speed at which an oscillator moves to a new pitch. Often this parameter is called glide. Alternatively, portamento effects can be produced manually by a skilled player through the use of the pitch bend wheel at the side of many synthesizer keyboards, or alternatively by means of a ribbon controller. Synth lines with lots of portamento defined West Coast G funk of the mid 1990s, and continue to be a distinctive part of electronic music today, as well as progressive rock music (see Dream Theater's Jordan Rudess.) In MIDI sequencing, portamento can be generated by using a channel message that creates a sliding effect by smoothly changing pitch from the last note played to the pitch of the currently playing note. The Casio CZ-101 was one of the first synthesizers to have a polyphonic portamento effect. References See also Octave glissando Shepard tone (cf. Shepard-Risset glissando) Staccato | Glissando |@lemmatized glissando:13 plural:1 abbreviate:1 gliss:1 glide:3 one:2 pitch:11 another:1 italianized:1 musical:3 term:2 derive:1 french:2 glisser:1 v:1 portamento:16 prescriptive:1 attempt:1 harvard:1 dictionary:1 music:3 distinguish:1 limit:3 former:1 filling:1 discrete:3 intermediate:1 instrument:14 like:2 piano:3 harp:4 fret:3 string:12 run:1 establish:1 usage:1 ibid:1 trombone:3 timpani:2 latter:1 could:2 thus:1 think:2 capable:2 either:3 depend:1 whether:1 drum:2 roll:1 clarinet:2 gesture:1 open:1 rhapsody:1 blue:1 likewise:2 way:2 originally:1 practice:1 play:5 describe:1 case:1 destination:1 goal:1 reduce:2 start:1 stop:2 point:3 james:1 tenney:1 cellogram:1 inflection:1 siren:1 varèse:1 hyperprism:1 conjure:1 decorative:1 effect:14 seem:1 hardly:1 adequate:1 sonorous:1 object:1 right:1 call:3 e:2 g:3 xylophone:1 tone:3 clearly:1 audible:1 slide:9 example:2 keyboard:2 player:4 fingertip:1 across:3 white:1 key:2 finger:3 black:1 produce:7 c:2 major:2 scale:4 f:2 pentatonic:1 relative:1 mode:1 perform:1 possible:1 full:1 chromatic:2 difficult:1 quickly:2 pedal:1 even:1 arpeggio:2 flat:2 sharp:2 b:1 wind:3 brass:3 extremely:1 rapid:1 ex:1 fretted:2 go:1 infinite:1 number:1 name:1 also:4 obtain:1 harmonic:1 series:1 bowed:1 especially:2 horn:1 continuous:1 continuously:1 variable:1 substantial:1 range:3 include:1 unfretted:1 stringed:2 violin:1 viola:1 cello:1 double:1 bass:1 fretless:1 guitar:12 stretch:1 sitar:1 lap:1 steel:1 accompany:1 use:7 without:2 valve:1 whistle:1 kettledrums:1 electronic:2 theremin:1 ondes:1 martenot:1 synthesizer:4 keytars:1 water:1 organ:1 human:1 voice:1 saw:2 sing:1 entirely:1 portamenti:5 limited:1 mandolin:1 push:1 fingerboard:1 commonly:1 note:5 bend:2 rather:1 flute:1 trumpet:1 similarly:1 alter:1 breath:1 pressure:2 achieve:1 slowly:1 drag:1 hole:1 conducive:1 augmented:1 fourth:1 though:1 position:1 partial:1 involve:1 tunable:1 percussion:1 conga:1 apply:1 release:1 head:1 strike:1 many:2 electric:1 vibrato:2 arm:2 often:5 refer:1 whammy:1 bar:2 tremolo:1 trem:1 particular:1 device:1 instal:1 press:1 towards:2 body:3 guitarist:3 move:2 bridge:1 away:2 forward:1 headstock:1 thereby:1 decrease:1 tension:3 lower:1 sound:1 technique:1 incredible:1 able:1 become:1 slack:1 however:2 rarely:1 melodic:2 instead:1 implement:1 special:1 notably:1 jimi:1 hendrix:1 strongly:1 focus:1 extended:1 feature:1 pull:2 result:1 increase:2 therefore:1 extend:1 figure:1 lock:1 nut:1 cause:1 tune:1 generate:2 automatically:1 parameter:2 setting:1 control:1 speed:1 oscillator:1 new:1 alternatively:2 manually:1 skilled:1 wheel:1 side:1 mean:1 ribbon:1 controller:1 synth:1 line:1 lot:1 define:1 west:1 coast:1 funk:1 mid:1 continue:1 distinctive:1 part:1 today:1 well:1 progressive:1 rock:1 see:2 dream:1 theater:1 jordan:1 rudess:1 midi:1 sequencing:1 channel:1 message:1 create:1 smoothly:1 change:1 last:1 currently:1 casio:1 cz:1 first:1 polyphonic:1 reference:1 octave:1 shepard:2 cf:1 risset:1 staccato:1 |@bigram rhapsody_blue:1 chromatic_scale:2 pedal_harp:1 fretted_instrument:1 bowed_string:1 stringed_instrument:2 violin_viola:1 viola_cello:1 double_bass:1 ondes_martenot:1 flute_trumpet:1 percussion_instrument:1 whammy_bar:1 tremolo_bar:1 jimi_hendrix:1 |
3,442 | Information_Sciences_Institute | ISI headquarters The Information Sciences Institute (ISI) of the University of Southern California (USC) is a prominent research organization in the field of information science; it is part of the Viterbi School of Engineering at USC. It is involved in a broad spectrum of information processing research, and in the development of advanced computer and communication technologies. The Institute was founded in 1972 by Keith Uncapher. ISI is currently headed by Herbert Schorr who came to ISI in 1988 after a career as both executive and scientist at IBM. ISI is not located on the main USC campus near downtown Los Angeles, but at a separate facility in Marina del Rey, California; it also has a branch facility in Arlington, Virginia. Part of one floor at the Marina del Rey facility is occupied by ICANN, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Divisions ISI is divided into ten "divisions", each of which contains research groups focused on a particular aspect of information science: Division 1: Computational Sciences Conducts research in the areas of applied mathematics, compilers, clusters, and other large-scale applications with emphasis of maximizing throughput. Division 2: Distributed Scalable Systems Conducts research in areas that deal with groups of computers, particularly those that are involved in mobile or distributed applications. Topics include information space analysis and e-commerce. Division 3: Intelligent Systems Conducts research in the area of artificial intelligence and related fields such as data mining, robotics, machine learning, and natural language processing. Division 4: Silicon Systems / MOSIS Conducts research in low-cost low-volume semiconductor and MEMS manufacturing. Division 5: Business Office Contracts and Grants administration. Human Resources functions. Division 6: Action Hardware and Software Support. Division 7: Computer Networks Conducts research into all forms of computer networking including networking protocols, distributed networking, embedded networking, sensor networks, and middleware. The division has built or collaborated on building several key elements of modern networks that are in wide use throughout today's Internet, including: TCP/IP, DNS, SMTP, and IPv6. Division 7 was directed by Jon Postel until his passing. Division 8: Advanced Systems Conducts research into unconventional and cutting-edge systems in a range of areas such as compilers, VLSI, grid computing, wireless systems, and computer-aided design. Division 9: Integration Sciences Conducts research into distributed databases, pattern recognition and their applications. Division 10: Dynamic Systems Conducts research into standard and embedded systems that adapt to changes in power, configuration, or environment. External links ISI homepage | Information_Sciences_Institute |@lemmatized isi:7 headquarter:1 information:5 science:5 institute:2 university:1 southern:1 california:2 usc:3 prominent:1 research:11 organization:1 field:2 part:2 viterbi:1 school:1 engineering:1 involve:2 broad:1 spectrum:1 processing:2 development:1 advanced:2 computer:5 communication:1 technology:1 found:1 keith:1 uncapher:1 currently:1 head:1 herbert:1 schorr:1 come:1 career:1 executive:1 scientist:1 ibm:1 locate:1 main:1 campus:1 near:1 downtown:1 los:1 angeles:1 separate:1 facility:3 marina:2 del:2 rey:2 also:1 branch:1 arlington:1 virginia:1 one:1 floor:1 occupy:1 icann:1 internet:2 corporation:1 assign:1 name:1 number:1 division:14 divide:1 ten:1 contain:1 group:2 focus:1 particular:1 aspect:1 computational:1 conduct:8 area:4 applied:1 mathematics:1 compiler:2 cluster:1 large:1 scale:1 application:3 emphasis:1 maximize:1 throughput:1 distribute:3 scalable:1 system:8 deal:1 particularly:1 mobile:1 topic:1 include:3 space:1 analysis:1 e:1 commerce:1 intelligent:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 related:1 data:1 mining:1 robotics:1 machine:1 learning:1 natural:1 language:1 silicon:1 mosis:1 low:2 cost:1 volume:1 semiconductor:1 mems:1 manufacturing:1 business:1 office:1 contract:1 grant:1 administration:1 human:1 resource:1 function:1 action:1 hardware:1 software:1 support:1 network:4 form:1 networking:3 protocol:1 embed:1 sensor:1 middleware:1 build:2 collaborate:1 several:1 key:1 element:1 modern:1 wide:1 use:1 throughout:1 today:1 tcp:1 ip:1 dns:1 smtp:1 direct:1 jon:1 postel:1 passing:1 unconventional:1 cut:1 edge:1 range:1 vlsi:1 grid:1 computing:1 wireless:1 aided:1 design:1 integration:1 distributed:1 database:1 pattern:1 recognition:1 dynamic:1 standard:1 embedded:1 adapt:1 change:1 power:1 configuration:1 environment:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 |@bigram los_angeles:1 marina_del:2 del_rey:2 arlington_virginia:1 applied_mathematics:1 artificial_intelligence:1 tcp_ip:1 jon_postel:1 computer_aided:1 external_link:1 |
3,443 | Linear_search | In computer science, linear search is a search algorithm, also known as sequential search, that is suitable for searching a list of data for a particular value. It operates by checking every element of a list one at a time in sequence until a match is found. Linear search runs in O(n). If the data are distributed randomly, the expected number of comparisons that will be necessary is: where n is the number of elements in the list and k is the number of times that the value being searched for appears in the list. The best case is that the value is equal to the first element tested, in which case only 1 comparison is needed. The worst case is that the value is not in the list (or it appears only once at the end of the list), in which case n comparisons are needed The simplicity of the linear search means that if just a few elements are to be searched it is less trouble than more complex methods that require preparation such as sorting the list to be searched or more complex data structures, especially when entries may be subject to frequent revision. Another possibility is when certain values are much more likely to be searched for than others and it can be arranged that such values will be amongst the first considered in the list. The following pseudocode describes the linear search technique. For each item in the list: Check to see if the item you're looking for matches the item in the list. If it matches. Return the location where you found it (the index). If it does not match. Continue searching until you reach the end of the list. If we get here, we know the item does not exist in the list. Return -1. In computer implementations, it is usual to search the list in order, from element 1 to N (or 0 to N - 1, if array indexing starts with zero instead of one) but a slight gain is possible by the reverse order. Suppose an array A having elements 1 to N is to be searched for a value x and if it is not found, the result is to be zero. for i:=N:1:-1 do %Search from N down to 1. (The step is -1) if A[i] = x then QuitLoop i; next i; Return(i); %Or otherwise employ the value. Implementations of the loop must compare the index value i to the final value to decide whether to continue or terminate the loop. If this final value is some variable such N then a subtraction (i - N) must be done each time, but in going down from N the loop termination condition is for a constant, and moreover a special constant. In this case, zero. Most computer hardware allows the sign to be tested, especially the sign of a value in a register, and so execution would be faster. In the case where the loop was for arrays indexed from zero, the loop would be for i:=N - 1:0:-1 do and the test on the index variable would be for it negative, not zero. The pseudocode as written relies on the value of the index variable being available when the for-loop's iteration is exhausted, as being the value it had when the loop condition failed, or a 'QuitLoop' was executed. Some compilers take the position that on exit from a for-loop no such value is defined, in which case it would be necessary to copy the index variable's value to a reporting variable before exiting the loop, or to use another control structure such as a while loop, or else explicit code with go to statements in pursuit of the fastest-possible execution. The following code example for the Java programming language is a simple implementation of a linear search. public int linearSearch(int a[], int valueToFind) { //a[] is an array of integers to search. //valueToFind is the number that will be found. //The function returns the position of the value if found. //The function returns -1 if valueToFind was not found. for (int i=0; i<a.length; i++) { if (valueToFind == a[i]) { return i; } } return -1; } The List module in the OCaml standard library defines a function called "mem" that returns true if the given element is in the given list or false if not. This function could be defined as: let rec mem x = function [] -> false | h :: t -> h=x || mem x t Mathematica's unusually powerful pattern matching allows linear search to be implemented by a pattern match: Mem[x_, {___, x_, ___}] := True Mem[_, _] := False Linear search can be used to search an unordered list. Unordered lists are easy to implement as arrays or linked lists, and insertion and deletion can be done in constant time. The simplicity of a linearly searched unordered list means it is often the first method chosen when implementing lists which change in size while an application runs. If this later proves to be a bottleneck it can be replaced with a more complicated scheme. The average performance of linear search can be improved by using it on an ordered list. In the case of no matching element, the search can terminate at the first element which is greater (lesser) than the unmatched target element, rather than examining the entire list. An ordered list is a more efficient data structure in general for searching than an unordered list. A binary search can often be used with an ordered list instead of a linear search. It is more difficult to implement correctly but examines much less than the entire list to determine presence or absence of an element. As the number of elements in the list grows or as the number of searches increases, the more desirable something other than a linear search becomes. Another common method is to build up a hash table and then do hash lookups. See also Binary search Ternary search Hash table References Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.1: Sequential Searching, pp.396–408. External links C++ Program - Linear Search C Program - Linear Search | Linear_search |@lemmatized computer:4 science:1 linear:12 search:32 algorithm:1 also:2 know:2 sequential:2 suitable:1 list:27 data:4 particular:1 value:17 operate:1 check:2 every:1 element:12 one:2 time:4 sequence:1 match:6 find:6 run:2 n:12 distribute:1 randomly:1 expected:1 number:6 comparison:3 necessary:2 k:1 appear:2 best:1 case:8 equal:1 first:4 test:3 need:2 bad:1 end:2 simplicity:2 mean:2 less:3 trouble:1 complex:2 method:3 require:1 preparation:1 sort:1 structure:3 especially:2 entry:1 may:1 subject:1 frequent:1 revision:1 another:3 possibility:1 certain:1 much:2 likely:1 others:1 arrange:1 amongst:1 consider:1 following:2 pseudocode:2 describe:1 technique:1 item:4 see:2 look:1 return:8 location:1 index:6 continue:2 reach:1 get:1 exist:1 implementation:3 usual:1 order:2 array:5 indexing:1 start:1 zero:5 instead:2 slight:1 gain:1 possible:2 reverse:1 suppose:1 x:5 result:1 step:1 quitloop:2 next:1 otherwise:1 employ:1 loop:10 must:2 compare:1 final:2 decide:1 whether:1 terminate:2 variable:5 subtraction:1 go:2 termination:1 condition:2 constant:3 moreover:1 special:1 hardware:1 allow:1 sign:2 register:1 execution:2 would:4 faster:1 negative:1 write:1 relies:1 available:1 iteration:1 exhaust:1 fail:1 execute:1 compiler:1 take:1 position:2 exit:2 define:3 copy:1 reporting:1 use:4 control:1 else:1 explicit:1 code:2 statement:1 pursuit:1 fast:1 example:1 java:1 programming:2 language:1 simple:1 public:1 int:4 linearsearch:1 valuetofind:4 integer:1 function:5 length:1 module:1 ocaml:1 standard:1 library:1 call:1 mem:5 true:2 give:2 false:3 could:1 let:1 rec:1 h:2 mathematica:1 unusually:1 powerful:1 pattern:2 allows:1 implement:3 unordered:4 easy:1 link:2 insertion:1 deletion:1 linearly:1 often:2 chosen:1 implementing:1 change:1 size:1 application:1 late:1 prove:1 bottleneck:1 replace:1 complicated:1 scheme:1 average:1 performance:1 improve:1 ordered:3 matching:1 great:1 unmatched:1 target:1 rather:1 examine:2 entire:2 efficient:1 general:1 binary:2 difficult:1 correctly:1 determine:1 presence:1 absence:1 grow:1 increase:1 desirable:1 something:1 become:1 common:1 build:1 hash:3 table:2 lookup:1 ternary:1 reference:1 donald:1 knuth:1 art:1 volume:1 sorting:1 searching:2 third:1 edition:1 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:1 section:1 pp:1 external:1 c:2 program:2 |@bigram int_int:1 unordered_list:4 insertion_deletion:1 hash_table:2 donald_knuth:1 volume_sorting:1 sorting_searching:1 addison_wesley:1 external_link:1 |
3,444 | Missile | Exocet missile in flight A guided missile is a self-propelled projectile used as a weapon. Missiles are typically propelled by rockets or jet engines. Missiles generally have one or more explosive warheads, although other weapon types may also be used. Etymology The word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning "to send". In common military parlance, the word missile describes a powered, guided munition, whilst the word "rocket" describes a powered, unguided munition. Unpowered, guided munitions are known as guided bombs. A common further sub-division is to consider ballistic missile to mean a munition that follows a ballistic trajectory and cruise missile to describe a munition that generates lift. Early development The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of German missiles of WW2. Most famous of these are the V1 and V2, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, typically based on a simple radio control system directed by the operator. However, these early systems had a high failure rate so they were very unreliable. Technology Guided missiles have a number of different system components: targeting and/or guidance flight system engine warhead Guidance systems Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infra-red, lasers or radio waves, to guide the missile onto its target. This radiation may emanate from the target (such as the heat of an engine or the radio waves from an enemy radar), it may be provided by the missile itself (such as a radar) or it may be provided by a friendly third party (such as the radar of the launch vehicle/platform, or a laser designator operated by friendly infantry). The first two are often known as fire and forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV camera - using either visible light or infra-red - in order to see the target. The picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target, or by a computer doing much the same job. Many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods, to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement. Targeting systems Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target, and using a guidance system such as INS, TERCOM or GPS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the missile's current position and the position of the target, and then calculating a course between them. This job can also be performed somewhat crudely by a human operator who can see the target and the missile, and guides it using either cable or radio based remote-control. Flight system Whether a guided missile uses a targeting system, a guidance system or both, it needs a flight system. The flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to maneuver the missile in flight, allowing it to counter inaccuracies in the missile or to follow a moving target. There are two main systems: vectored thrust (for missiles that are powered throughout the guidance phase of their flight) and aerodynamic maneuvering (wings, fins, canards, etc). Engine Missiles are powered by an engine, generally either a type of rocket or jet engine. Rockets are generally of the solid fuel type for ease of maintenance and fast deployment, although some larger ballistic missiles use liquid fuel rockets. Jet engines are generally used in cruise missiles, most commonly of the turbojet type, due to its relative simplicity and low frontal area. Ramjets are the only other common form of jet engine propulsion, although any type of jet engine could theoretically be used. Missiles often have multiple engine stages, particularly in those launched from the ground - these stages may all be of similar types or may include a mix of engine types. Warhead The warhead or warheads of a missile provides its primary destructive power (many missiles have extensive secondary destructive power due to the high kinetic energy of the weapon and unburnt fuel that may be on board). Warheads are most commonly of the high explosive type, often employing shaped charges to exploit the accuracy of a guided weapon to destroy hardened targets. Other warhead types include submunitions, incendiaries, nuclear weapons, chemical, biological or radiological weapons or kinetic energy penetrators. Basic roles Missiles are generally categorized by their launch platform and intended target - in broadest terms these will either be surface (ground or water) or air, and then sub-categorized by range and the exact target type (such as anti-tank or anti-ship). Many weapons are designed to be launched from both surface or the air, and a few are designed to attack either surface or air targets (such as the ADATS missile). Most weapons require some modification in order to be launched from the air or ground, such as adding boosters to the ground launched version. Surface-to-Surface/Air-to-Surface Ballistic After the boost-stage, ballistic missiles follow a trajectory mainly determined by ballistics. The guidance is for relatively small deviations from that. Ballistic missiles are largely used for land attack missions. Although normally associated with nuclear weapons, some conventionally armed ballistic missiles are in service, such as ATACMS. The V2 had demonstrated that a ballistic missile could deliver a warhead to a target city with no possibility of interception, and the introduction of nuclear weapons meant it could do useful damage when it arrived. The accuracy of these systems was fairly poor, but post-war development by most military forces improved the basic inertial platform concept to the point where it could be used as the guidance system on ICBMs flying thousands of miles. Today the ballistic missile represents the only strategic deterrent in most military forces; the USAFs continued support of manned bombers is considered by some to be entirely political in nature. Ballistic missiles are primarily surface launched, with air launch being theoretically possible using a weapon such as the canceled Skybolt missile. Cruise The V1 had been successfully intercepted during the World War II, but this did not make the cruise missile concept entirely useless. After the war, the US deployed a small number of nuclear-armed cruise missiles in Germany, but these were considered to be of limited usefulness. Continued research into much longer ranged and faster versions led to the US's Navaho missile, and its Soviet counterparts, the Burya and Buran cruise missile. However, these were rendered largely obsolete by the ICBM, and none was used operationally. Shorter-range developments have become widely used as highly accurate attack systems, such as the US Tomahawk missile or the German Taurus missile. Cruise missiles are generally associated with land attack operations, but also have an important role as anti shipping weapons. They are primarily launched from air, sea or submarine platforms in both roles, although land based launchers also exist. Anti-ship Another major German missile development project was the anti-shipping class (such as the Fritz X and Henschel Hs 293), intended to stop any attempt at a cross-channel invasion. However the British were able to render their systems useless by jamming their radios, and missiles with wire guidance were not ready by D-Day. After the war the anti-shipping class slowly developed, and became a major class in the 1960s with the introduction of the low-flying turbojet powered cruise missiles known as "sea-skimmers". These became famous during the Falklands War when an Argentine Exocet missile sank a Royal Navy destroyer. A number of anti-submarine missiles also exist; these generally use the missile in order to deliver another weapon system such as a torpedo or depth charge to the location of the submarine, at which point the other weapon will conduct the underwater phase of the mission. Anti-tank By the end of WWII all forces had widely introduced unguided rockets using HEAT warheads as their major anti-tank weapon (see Panzerfaust, Bazooka). However these had a limited useful range of a 100 m or so, and the Germans were looking to extend this with the use of a missile using wire guidance, the X-7. After the war this became a major design class in the later 1950s, and by the 1960s had developed into practically the only non-tank anti-tank system in general use. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel and Egypt, the 9M14 Malyutka (aka "Sagger") man-portable anti-tank missile proved potent against Israeli tanks. While other guidance systems have been tried, the basic reliability of wire-guidance means this will remain the primary means of controlling anti-tank missile in the near future. Anti tank missiles may be launched from aircraft, vehicles or by ground troops in the case of smaller weapons. Surface-to-air Anti-aircraft By 1944 US and British air forces were sending huge air fleets over occupied Europe, increasing the pressure on the Luftwaffe day and night fighter forces. The Germans were keen to get some sort of useful ground-based anti-aircraft system into operation. Several systems were under development, but none had reached operational status before the war's end. The US Navy also started missile research to deal with the Kamikaze threat. By 1950 systems based on this early research started to reach operational service, including the US Army's Nike Ajax, the Navy's "3T's" (Talos, Terrier, Tartar), and soon followed by the Soviet S-25 Berkut and S-75 Dvina and French and British systems. Anti-aircraft weapons exist for virtually every possible launch platform, with surface launched systems ranging from huge, self propelled or ship mounted launchers to man portable systems. Anti-ballistic Like most missiles, the Arrow missile and MIM-104 Patriot for defense against short-range missiles, carry explosives. However, in the case of a large closing speed, a projectile without explosives is used, just a collision is sufficient to destroy the target. See Missile Defense Agency for the following systems being developed: Kinetic Energy Interceptor (KEI) Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System (Aegis BMD) - a SM-3 missile with Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile (LEAP) Kinetic Warhead (KW) Air-to-air Soviet RS-82 rockets were successfully tested in combat at the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939. German experience in WWII demonstrated that destroying a large aircraft was quite difficult, and they had invested considerable effort into air-to-air missile systems to do this. Their Me262's jets often carried R4M rockets, and other types of "bomber destroyer" aircraft had unguided rockets as well. In the post-war period the R4M served as the pattern for a number of similar systems, used by almost all interceptor aircraft during the 1940s and '50s. Lacking guidance systems, such rockets had to be carefully aimed at relatively close range to successfully hit the target. The US Navy and USAF began deploying guided missiles in the early 1950s, most famous being the US Navy's AIM-9 Sidewinder and USAF's AIM-4 Falcon. These systems have continued to advance, and modern air warfare consists almost entirely of missile firing. In the Falklands War less powerful British Harriers were able to defeat faster Argentinian opponents using AIM-9G missiles provided by the United States as the conflict began. The latest heat-seeking designs can lock onto a target from various angles, not just from behind, where the heat signature from the engines is strongest. Other types rely on radar guidance (either on-board or "painted" by the launching aircraft). Air to Air missiles also have a wide range of sizes, ranging from helicopter launched self defense weapons with a range of a few miles, to long range weapons designed for interceptor aircraft such as the Phoenix missile. Anti-satellite weapon The proposed Brilliant Pebbles defense system during the 1980s would use kinetic energy collisions without explosives. Anti satellite weapons may be launched either by an aircraft or a surface platform, depending on the design. To date, only a few known tests have occurred. See also List of missiles List of missiles by nation Timeline of rocket and missile technology V-1 flying bomb V-2 rocket Redstone missile List of World War II guided missiles of Germany Shoulder-launched missile weapon Fire-and-forget Scramjet Missile designation Pursuit guidance Aeroprediction Trajectory optimization Proportional navigation Q-guidance GPS/INS Skid-to-turn Center of pressure | Missile |@lemmatized exocet:2 missile:78 flight:7 guide:6 self:3 propel:3 projectile:3 use:30 weapon:22 typically:2 rocket:12 jet:6 engine:12 generally:7 one:1 explosive:5 warhead:10 although:5 type:12 may:11 also:8 etymology:1 word:3 come:1 latin:1 verb:1 mittere:1 mean:5 send:2 common:4 military:3 parlance:1 describe:3 powered:2 guided:6 munition:5 whilst:1 unguided:3 unpowered:1 know:6 bomb:2 sub:2 division:1 consider:3 ballistic:12 follow:4 trajectory:3 cruise:8 generate:1 lift:1 early:4 development:5 first:2 operationally:2 series:2 german:6 famous:3 simple:2 mechanical:1 autopilot:1 keep:1 fly:4 along:1 pre:1 choose:1 route:1 le:1 well:2 anti:21 shipping:4 aircraft:11 base:5 radio:5 control:4 system:35 direct:1 operator:3 however:5 high:3 failure:1 rate:1 unreliable:1 technology:2 number:5 different:1 component:1 targeting:1 guidance:17 target:21 way:1 method:4 form:2 radiation:2 infra:2 red:2 laser:2 wave:2 onto:3 emanate:1 heat:4 enemy:1 radar:4 provide:4 friendly:2 third:1 party:1 launch:16 vehicle:3 platform:7 designator:1 operate:1 infantry:1 two:3 often:4 fire:2 forget:2 need:2 support:2 order:4 function:1 another:4 tv:1 camera:1 either:8 visible:1 light:1 see:5 picture:1 human:2 steer:1 computer:1 much:2 job:2 many:3 combination:1 improve:2 accuracy:3 chance:1 successful:1 engagement:1 location:2 tercom:1 gps:2 current:1 position:2 calculate:1 course:1 perform:1 somewhat:1 crudely:1 cable:1 remote:1 whether:1 data:1 maneuver:1 allow:1 counter:1 inaccuracy:1 moving:1 main:1 vectored:1 thrust:1 power:5 throughout:1 phase:2 aerodynamic:1 maneuvering:1 wing:1 fin:1 canard:1 etc:1 solid:1 fuel:3 ease:1 maintenance:1 fast:2 deployment:1 large:3 liquid:1 commonly:2 turbojet:2 due:2 relative:1 simplicity:1 low:2 frontal:1 area:1 ramjet:1 propulsion:1 could:4 theoretically:2 multiple:1 stage:3 particularly:1 ground:6 similar:2 include:3 mix:1 primary:2 destructive:2 extensive:1 secondary:1 kinetic:5 energy:4 unburnt:1 board:2 employ:1 shape:1 charge:2 exploit:1 destroy:3 hardened:1 submunitions:1 incendiary:1 nuclear:4 chemical:1 biological:1 radiological:1 penetrator:1 basic:3 role:3 categorize:2 intend:2 broad:1 term:1 surface:10 water:1 air:17 range:11 exact:1 tank:9 ship:3 design:6 attack:4 adats:1 require:1 modification:1 add:1 booster:1 version:2 boost:1 mainly:1 determine:1 ballistics:1 relatively:2 small:3 deviation:1 largely:2 land:3 mission:2 normally:1 associate:2 conventionally:1 arm:2 service:2 atacms:1 demonstrate:2 deliver:2 city:1 possibility:1 interception:1 introduction:2 useful:3 damage:1 arrive:1 fairly:1 poor:1 post:2 war:11 force:5 inertial:1 concept:2 point:2 icbm:2 thousand:1 mile:2 today:1 represent:1 strategic:1 deterrent:1 usafs:1 continued:1 manned:1 bomber:2 entirely:3 political:1 nature:1 primarily:2 possible:2 cancel:1 skybolt:1 successfully:3 intercept:1 world:2 ii:2 make:1 useless:2 u:8 deploy:2 germany:2 limited:2 usefulness:1 continue:2 research:3 long:2 lead:1 navaho:1 soviet:3 counterpart:1 burya:1 buran:1 render:2 obsolete:1 none:2 short:2 become:4 widely:2 highly:1 accurate:1 tomahawk:1 taurus:1 operation:2 important:1 sea:2 submarine:3 launcher:2 exist:3 major:4 project:1 class:4 fritz:1 x:2 henschel:1 h:1 stop:1 attempt:1 cross:1 channel:1 invasion:1 british:4 able:2 jam:1 wire:3 ready:1 day:2 slowly:1 develop:3 skimmer:1 falklands:2 argentine:1 sink:1 royal:1 navy:5 destroyer:2 torpedo:1 depth:1 conduct:1 underwater:1 end:2 wwii:2 introduce:1 panzerfaust:1 bazooka:1 look:1 extend:1 late:2 practically:1 non:1 general:1 yom:1 kippur:1 israel:1 egypt:1 malyutka:1 aka:1 sagger:1 man:2 portable:2 prove:1 potent:1 israeli:1 try:1 reliability:1 remain:1 near:1 future:1 troop:1 case:2 huge:2 fleet:1 occupied:1 europe:1 increase:1 pressure:2 luftwaffe:1 night:1 fighter:1 keen:1 get:1 sort:1 several:1 reach:2 operational:2 status:1 start:2 deal:1 kamikaze:1 threat:1 army:1 nike:1 ajax:1 talos:1 terrier:1 tartar:1 soon:1 berkut:1 dvina:1 french:1 virtually:1 every:1 mount:1 like:1 arrow:1 mim:1 patriot:1 defense:5 carry:2 closing:1 speed:1 without:2 collision:2 sufficient:1 agency:1 following:1 interceptor:3 kei:1 aegis:2 bmd:1 sm:1 lightweight:1 exo:1 atmospheric:1 leap:1 kw:1 r:1 test:2 combat:1 battle:1 khalkhin:1 gol:1 experience:1 quite:1 difficult:1 invest:1 considerable:1 effort:1 period:1 serve:1 pattern:1 almost:2 lack:1 carefully:1 aim:4 close:1 hit:1 usaf:2 begin:2 sidewinder:1 falcon:1 advance:1 modern:1 warfare:1 consist:1 firing:1 less:1 powerful:1 harrier:1 defeat:1 faster:1 argentinian:1 opponent:1 united:1 state:1 conflict:1 seek:1 lock:1 various:1 angle:1 behind:1 signature:1 strong:1 rely:1 paint:1 launching:1 wide:1 size:1 helicopter:1 phoenix:1 satellite:2 propose:1 brilliant:1 pebbles:1 would:1 depend:1 date:1 known:1 occur:1 list:3 nation:1 timeline:1 v:2 redstone:1 shoulder:1 scramjet:1 designation:1 pursuit:1 aeroprediction:1 optimization:1 proportional:1 navigation:1 q:1 ins:1 skid:1 turn:1 center:1 |@bigram exocet_missile:2 self_propel:2 guided_munition:2 ballistic_missile:9 cruise_missile:7 infra_red:2 guided_missile:2 kinetic_energy:4 nuclear_weapon:3 tomahawk_missile:1 unguided_rocket:2 yom_kippur:1 aim_sidewinder:1 launching_aircraft:1 |
3,445 | Machine_code | Machine code or machine language is a system of instructions and data executed directly by a computer's central processing unit. Machine code may be regarded as a primitive (and cumbersome) programming language or as the lowest-level representation of a compiled and/or assembled computer program. Programs in interpreted languages Often BASIC, MATLAB, Smalltalk, Python, Ruby, etc. are not represented by machine code however, although their interpreter (which may be seen as a processor executing the higher level program) often is. Machine code is sometimes called native code when referring to platform-dependent parts of language features or libraries. Machine code should not be confused with so called "bytecode", which is executed by an interpreter. Machine code instructions Every processor or processor family has its own machine code instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits that by physical design corresponds to different commands to the machine. The instruction set is thus specific to a class of processors using (much) the same architecture. Successor or derivative processor designs often include all the instructions of a predecessor and may add additional instructions. Occasionally a successor design will discontinue or alter the meaning of some instruction code (typically because it is needed for new purposes), affecting code compatibility to some extent; even nearly completely compatible processors may show slightly different behaviour for some instructions but this is seldom a problem. Systems may also differ in other details, such as memory arrangement, operating systems, or peripheral devices; because a program normally relies on such factors, different systems will typically not run the same machine code, even when the same type of processor is used. A machine code instruction set may have all instructions of the same length, or it may have variable-length instructions. How the patterns are organized varies strongly with the particular architecture and often also with the type of instruction. Most instructions have one or more opcode fields which specifies the basic instruction type (such as arithmetic, logical, jump, etc) and the actual operation (such as add or compare) and other fields that may give the type of the operand(s), the addressing mode(s), the addressing offset(s) or index, or the actual value itself (such constant operands contained in an instruction are called immediates). Programs A computer program is a sequence of instructions that are executed by a CPU. While simple processors execute instructions one after the other, superscalar processors are capable of executing several instructions at once. Program flow may be influenced by special 'jump' instructions that transfer execution to an instruction other than the following one. Conditional jumps are taken (execution continues at another address) or not (execution continues at the next instruction) depending on some condition. Assembly languages A much more readable rendition of machine language, called assembly language, uses mnemonic codes to refer to machine code instructions, rather than simply using the instructions' numeric values. For example, on the Zilog Z80 processor, the machine code 00000101, which causes the CPU to decrement the B processor register, would be represented in assembly language as DEC B. Example The MIPS architecture provides a specific example for a machine code whose instructions are always 32 bits long. The general type of instruction is given by the op (operation) field, the highest 6 bits. J-type (jump) and I-type (immediate) instructions are fully specified by op. R-type (register) instructions include an additional field funct to determine the exact operation. The fields used in these types are: 6 5 5 5 5 6 bits [ op | rs | rt | rd |shamt| funct] R-type [ op | rs | rt | address/immediate] I-type [ op | target address ] J-type rs, rt, and rd indicate register operands; shamt gives a shift amount; and the address or immediate fields contain an operand directly. For example adding the registers 1 and 2 and placing the result in register 6 is encoded: [ op | rs | rt | rd |shamt| funct] 0 1 2 6 0 32 decimal 000000 00001 00010 00110 00000 100000 binary Load a value into register 8, taken from the memory cell 68 cells after the location listed in register 3: [ op | rs | rt | address/immediate] 35 3 8 68 decimal 100011 00011 01000 00000 00001 000100 binary Jumping to the address 1024: [ op | target address ] 2 1024 decimal 000010 00000 00000 00000 00100 000000 binary Relationship to microcode In some computer architectures, the machine code is implemented by a more fundamental underlying layer of programs called microprograms, providing a common machine language interface across a line or family of different models of computer with widely different underlying dataflows. This is done to facilitate porting of machine language programs between different models. An example of this use is the IBM System/360 family of computers and their successors. With dataflow path widths of 8 bits to 64 bits and beyond, they nevertheless present a common architecture at the machine language level across the entire line. Using a microcode layer to implement an emulator enables the computer to present the architecture of an entirely different computer. The System/360 line used this to allow porting programs from earlier IBM machines to the new family of computers, e.g. an IBM 1401/1440/1460 emulator on the IBM S/360 model 40. See also Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) VLIW P-code Endianness Teaching Machine Code: Microprofessor I Further reading Notes and references | Machine_code |@lemmatized machine:21 code:19 language:10 system:6 instruction:29 data:1 execute:6 directly:2 computer:10 central:1 processing:1 unit:1 may:9 regard:1 primitive:1 cumbersome:1 programming:1 low:1 level:3 representation:1 compile:1 assemble:1 program:10 interpreted:1 often:4 basic:2 matlab:1 smalltalk:1 python:1 ruby:1 etc:2 represent:2 however:1 although:1 interpreter:2 see:2 processor:11 high:2 sometimes:1 call:5 native:1 refer:2 platform:1 dependent:1 part:1 feature:1 library:1 confuse:1 bytecode:1 every:1 family:4 set:4 pattern:2 bit:6 physical:1 design:3 correspond:1 different:7 command:1 thus:1 specific:2 class:1 use:8 much:2 architecture:6 successor:3 derivative:1 include:2 predecessor:1 add:3 additional:2 occasionally:1 discontinue:1 alter:1 meaning:1 typically:2 need:1 new:2 purpose:1 affect:1 compatibility:1 extent:1 even:2 nearly:1 completely:1 compatible:1 show:1 slightly:1 behaviour:1 seldom:1 problem:1 also:3 differ:1 detail:1 memory:2 arrangement:1 operate:1 peripheral:1 device:1 normally:1 rely:1 factor:1 run:1 type:12 length:2 variable:1 organize:1 varies:1 strongly:1 particular:1 one:3 opcode:1 field:6 specify:2 arithmetic:1 logical:1 jump:4 actual:2 operation:3 compare:1 give:3 operand:4 addressing:2 mode:1 offset:1 index:1 value:3 constant:1 contain:2 immediates:1 sequence:1 cpu:2 simple:1 superscalar:1 capable:1 several:1 flow:1 influence:1 special:1 transfer:1 execution:3 follow:1 conditional:1 take:2 continue:2 another:1 address:7 next:1 depend:1 condition:1 assembly:3 languages:1 readable:1 rendition:1 mnemonic:1 rather:1 simply:1 numeric:1 example:5 zilog:1 cause:1 decrement:1 b:2 register:7 would:1 dec:1 mips:1 provide:2 whose:1 always:1 long:1 general:1 op:8 j:2 immediate:4 fully:1 r:7 funct:3 determine:1 exact:1 rt:5 rd:3 shamt:3 target:2 indicate:1 shift:1 amount:1 place:1 result:1 encode:1 decimal:3 binary:3 load:1 cell:2 location:1 list:1 jumping:1 relationship:1 microcode:2 implement:2 fundamental:1 underlying:1 layer:2 microprograms:1 common:2 interface:1 across:2 line:3 model:3 widely:1 underlie:1 dataflows:1 facilitate:1 porting:1 ibm:4 dataflow:1 path:1 width:1 beyond:1 nevertheless:1 present:2 entire:1 emulator:2 enable:1 entirely:1 allow:1 port:1 early:1 e:1 g:1 reduce:1 risc:1 vliw:1 p:1 endianness:1 teach:1 microprofessor:1 far:1 reading:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram python_ruby:1 mips_architecture:1 |
3,446 | Geography_of_Mongolia | The map showing the major cities and the neighbouring countries of Mongolia Mongolia is a landlocked country in Northern Asia, strategically located between China and Russia. The terrain is one of mountains and rolling plateaus, with a high degree of relief. Overall, the land slopes from the high Altay Mountains of the west and the north to plains and depressions in the east and the south. The Khüiten Peak in extreme western Mongolia on the Chinese border is the highest point (4,374 meters). The lowest is 560 meters, an otherwise undistinguished spot in the eastern Mongolian plain. The country has an average elevation of 1,580 meters. The landscape includes one of Asia's largest freshwater lakes (Lake Khövsgöl), many salt lakes, marshes, sand dunes, rolling grasslands, alpine forests, and permanent montane glaciers. Northern and western Mongolia are seismically active zones, with frequent earthquakes and many hot springs and extinct volcanoes. Mountain regions Topography of Mongolia Mongolia has three major mountain ranges. The highest is the Altai Mountains, which stretch across the western and the southwestern regions of the country on a northwest-to-southeast axis. The Khangai Mountains, mountains also trending northwest to southeast, occupy much of central and north-central Mongolia. These are older, lower, and more eroded mountains, with many forests and alpine pastures. The Khentii Mountains near the Russian border to the northeast of Ulaanbaatar, are lower still. Much of eastern Mongolia is occupied by a plain, and the lowest area is a southwest-to-northeast trending depression that reaches from the Gobi Desert region in the south to the eastern frontier. The rivers drain in three directions: north to the Arctic Ocean, east to the Pacific, or into the deserts and the depressions of Inner Asia. Rivers are most extensively developed in the north, and the country's major river system is that of the Selenge, which drains into Lake Baikal. Some minor tributaries of Siberia's Yenisei River also rise in the mountains of northwestern Mongolia. Rivers in northeastern Mongolia drain into the Pacific through the Argun and Amur (Heilong Jiang) rivers, while the few streams of southern and western Mongolia do not reach the sea but run into salt lakes or deserts. Climate Snow covers Mongolia in patches in this image from December 21, 2003. Snowfall is normally light and blows away quickly during the winter, so to see this much snow on the ground at once is rather unusual. Mongolia is high, cold, and dry. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north, which averages 20 to 35 centimeters per year, and lowest in the south, which receives 10 to 20 centimeters. The extreme south is the Gobi Desert, some regions of which receive no precipitation at all in most years. The name Gobi is a Mongol meaning desert, depression, salt marsh, or steppe, but which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive. Average temperatures over most of the country are below freezing from November through March and are about freezing in April and October. January and February averages of -20°C are common, with winter nights of -40°C occurring most years. Summer extremes reach as high as 38°C in the southern Gobi region and 33°C in Ulaanbaatar. Most of Mongolia is covered by discontinuous permafrost (grading to continuous at high altitudes), which makes construction, road building, and mining difficult. All rivers and freshwater lakes freeze over in the winter, and smaller streams commonly freeze to the bottom. Ulan Bator lies at 1,351 meters above sea level in the valley of the Tuul River. Located in the relatively well-watered north, it receives an annual average of 31 centimeters of precipitation, almost all of which falls in July and in August. Ulaanbaatar has an average annual temperature of -2.9°C and a frost-free period extending on the average from mid-June to late August. Mongolia's weather is characterized by extreme variability and short-term unpredictability in the summer, and the multiyear averages conceal wide variations in precipitation, dates of frosts, and occurrences of blizzards and spring dust storms. Such weather poses severe challenges to human and livestock survival. Official statistics list less than 1 % of the country as arable, 8 to 10 % as forest, and the rest as pasture or desert. Grain, mostly wheat, is grown in the valleys of the Selenge river system in the north, but yields fluctuate widely and unpredictably as a result of the amount and the timing of rain and the dates of killing frosts. Although winters are generally cold and clear, there are occasional blizzards that do not deposit much snow but cover the grasses with enough snow and ice to make grazing impossible, killing off tens of thousands of sheep or cattle. Such losses of livestock, which are an inevitable and, in a sense, normal consequence of the climate, have made it difficult for planned increases in livestock numbers to be achieved. Ecoregions Endorheic lake in Northern Mongolia Altai montane forest and forest steppe Khangai Mountains conifer forests Selenge-Orkhon forest steppe Sayan montane conifer forests Trans-Baikal conifer forests Daurian forest steppe Mongolian-Manchurian grassland Altai alpine meadow and tundra Khangai Mountains alpine meadow Sayan Alpine meadows and tundra Alashan Plateau semi-desert Eastern Gobi desert steppe Gobi Lakes Valley desert steppe Great Lakes Basin desert steppe Junggar Basin semi-desert Environmental concerns Detailed map of Mongolia After many years of uncritical fostering of industrial and urban growth, Mongolia's authorities became aware in the late 1980s of the environmental costs of such policies. Belated Soviet concern over the pollution of Lake Baikal encouraged Mongolian actions to preserve their counterpart Lake Khövsgöl, which is linked to Lake Baykal through the Selenge-Moron. A wool-scouring plant that had been discharging wastes into Lake Khövsgöl was closed; truck traffic on the winter ice was banned; and the shipping of oil in barges on the lake was stopped. Deforestation in the Hangayn Nuruu, had reduced the flow of northern Mongolia's rivers, which were polluted by runoff from the fertilized and pesticide-treated grain fields along their banks, by industrial wastes, and by untreated sewage from growing settlements. Ulaanbaatar--located in a valley--with factories and 500,000 inhabitants who depend on soft coal, had severe air pollution, especially when the air was still and cold in winter. Deforestation, overgrazing of pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land had resulted in increased soil erosion, both from wind and from heavy downpours of the severe thunderstorms that bring much of Mongolia's rain. In the south, the desert area of the Gobi was expanding, threatening the fragile Gobi pasturelands. The government responded by founding the Ministry of Environmental Protection in 1987 and by giving increased publicity to environmental issues. Natural hazards: dust storms can occur in the spring; grassland fires Environment - current issues: limited natural fresh water resources; policies of the former communist regime promoting rapid urbanization and industrial growth have raised concerns about their negative effects on the environment; the burning of soft coal in power plants and the lack of enforcement of environmental laws have severely polluted the air in Ulaanbaatar; deforestation, overgrazing, the converting of virgin land to agricultural production have increased soil erosion from wind and rain; desertification and mining activities have also had a deleterious effect on the environment Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements Area and boundaries Area: total: 1.565 million km² land: 1.565 million km² water: 0 km² Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Alaska Land boundaries: total: 8,114 km border countries: China 4,673 km, Russia 3,441 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Elevation extremes: lowest point: Hoh Nuur 518 m highest point: Khüiten Peak 4,374 m Resources and land use Natural resources: petroleum, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, fluorspar, gold Land use: arable land: 1% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 80% forests and woodland: 9% other: 10% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 800 km² (1993 est.) See also Mongolia Achit Nuur References External links Limnological Catalogue of Mongolian Lakes GEOLOGY OF THE KHARKHIRAA UUL, MONGOLIAN ALTAI | Geography_of_Mongolia |@lemmatized map:2 show:1 major:3 city:1 neighbouring:1 country:9 mongolia:21 landlocked:3 northern:4 asia:3 strategically:1 locate:3 china:2 russia:2 terrain:1 one:2 mountain:10 roll:2 plateau:2 high:10 degree:1 relief:1 overall:1 land:9 slop:1 altay:1 west:1 north:7 plain:3 depression:4 east:2 south:5 khüiten:2 peak:2 extreme:5 western:4 chinese:1 border:3 point:3 meter:4 lowest:1 otherwise:1 undistinguished:1 spot:1 eastern:4 mongolian:6 average:9 elevation:2 landscape:2 include:1 large:1 freshwater:2 lake:14 khövsgöl:3 many:4 salt:3 marsh:2 sand:1 dune:1 grassland:3 alpine:5 forest:11 permanent:3 montane:3 glacier:1 seismically:1 active:1 zone:1 frequent:1 earthquake:1 hot:1 spring:3 extinct:1 volcano:1 region:6 topography:1 three:2 range:1 altai:4 stretch:1 across:1 southwestern:1 northwest:2 southeast:2 axis:1 khangai:3 also:4 trend:2 occupy:2 much:5 central:2 old:1 low:5 eroded:1 pasture:4 khentii:1 mountains:2 near:1 russian:1 northeast:2 ulaanbaatar:5 still:2 area:5 southwest:1 reach:3 gobi:10 desert:14 frontier:1 river:10 drain:3 direction:1 arctic:1 ocean:1 pacific:2 inner:1 extensively:1 develop:1 system:2 selenge:4 baikal:3 minor:1 tributary:1 siberia:1 yenisei:1 rise:1 northwestern:1 northeastern:1 argun:1 amur:1 heilong:1 jiang:1 stream:2 southern:2 sea:3 run:1 climate:5 snow:4 cover:3 patch:1 image:1 december:1 snowfall:1 normally:1 light:1 blow:1 away:1 quickly:1 winter:7 see:2 ground:1 rather:1 unusual:1 cold:4 dry:1 continental:1 long:1 short:2 summer:3 precipitation:5 fall:2 cloudless:1 day:1 year:5 usually:2 center:1 atmospheric:1 pressure:1 centimeter:3 per:1 receive:3 name:1 mongol:2 meaning:1 steppe:7 refer:1 category:1 arid:1 rangeland:2 insufficient:1 vegetation:1 support:2 marmot:1 enough:2 camel:2 distinguish:1 proper:1 although:2 distinction:1 always:1 apparent:1 outsider:1 unfamiliar:1 fragile:2 easily:1 destroy:1 overgrazing:3 result:3 expansion:1 true:1 stony:1 waste:4 even:1 bactrian:1 survive:1 temperature:2 freeze:4 november:1 march:1 april:1 october:1 january:1 february:1 c:5 common:1 night:1 occur:2 extremes:1 discontinuous:1 permafrost:1 grade:1 continuous:1 altitude:1 make:3 construction:1 road:1 building:1 mining:2 difficult:2 small:2 commonly:1 bottom:1 ulan:1 bator:1 lie:1 level:1 valley:4 tuul:1 relatively:1 well:1 water:3 annual:2 almost:1 july:1 august:2 frost:3 free:1 period:1 extend:1 mid:1 june:1 late:2 weather:2 characterize:1 variability:1 term:1 unpredictability:1 multiyear:1 conceal:1 wide:1 variation:1 date:2 occurrence:1 blizzard:2 dust:2 storm:2 pose:1 severe:3 challenge:1 human:1 livestock:3 survival:1 official:1 statistic:1 list:1 less:1 arable:2 rest:1 grain:3 mostly:1 wheat:1 grow:2 yield:1 fluctuate:1 widely:1 unpredictably:1 amount:1 timing:1 rain:3 kill:2 generally:1 clear:1 occasional:1 deposit:1 grass:1 ice:2 grazing:1 impossible:1 ten:1 thousand:1 sheep:1 cattle:1 loss:1 inevitable:1 sense:1 normal:1 consequence:1 planned:1 increase:3 number:1 achieve:1 ecoregions:1 endorheic:1 conifer:3 orkhon:1 sayan:2 trans:1 daurian:1 manchurian:1 meadow:3 tundra:2 alashan:1 semi:2 lakes:1 great:1 basin:2 junggar:1 environmental:6 concern:3 detail:1 uncritical:1 fostering:1 industrial:3 urban:1 growth:2 authority:1 become:1 aware:1 cost:1 policy:2 belated:1 soviet:1 pollution:2 encourage:1 action:1 preserve:1 counterpart:1 link:2 baykal:1 moron:1 wool:1 scouring:1 plant:2 discharge:1 close:1 truck:1 traffic:1 ban:2 shipping:1 oil:1 barge:1 stop:1 deforestation:3 hangayn:1 nuruu:1 reduce:1 flow:1 pollute:2 runoff:1 fertilize:1 pesticide:1 treat:1 field:1 along:1 bank:1 untreated:1 sewage:1 settlement:1 factory:1 inhabitant:1 depend:1 soft:2 coal:3 air:3 especially:1 effort:1 hay:1 production:2 plow:1 virgin:2 increased:2 soil:2 erosion:2 wind:2 heavy:1 downpour:1 thunderstorm:1 bring:1 expand:1 threaten:1 pastureland:1 government:1 respond:1 found:1 ministry:1 protection:2 give:1 publicity:1 issue:2 natural:3 hazard:1 fire:1 environment:4 current:1 limited:1 fresh:1 resource:3 former:1 communist:1 regime:1 promote:1 rapid:1 urbanization:1 raise:1 negative:1 effect:2 burning:1 power:1 lack:1 enforcement:1 law:2 severely:1 converting:1 agricultural:1 desertification:2 activity:1 deleterious:1 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:2 kyoto:1 protocol:1 endanger:1 specie:1 modification:1 hazardous:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ozone:1 layer:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratified:1 none:2 select:1 boundary:2 total:2 million:2 comparative:1 slightly:1 alaska:1 km:4 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 hoh:1 nuur:2 use:2 petroleum:1 copper:1 molybdenum:1 tungsten:1 phosphate:1 tin:1 nickel:1 zinc:1 fluorspar:1 gold:1 crop:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 achit:1 reference:1 external:1 limnological:1 catalogue:1 geology:1 kharkhiraa:1 uul:1 |@bigram altay_mountain:1 elevation_meter:1 freshwater_lake:2 sand_dune:1 altai_mountain:1 gobi_desert:4 arctic_ocean:1 lake_baikal:2 atmospheric_pressure:1 bactrian_camel:1 ulan_bator:1 dust_storm:2 sheep_cattle:1 montane_forest:1 conifer_forest:3 alpine_meadow:3 untreated_sewage:1 soil_erosion:2 severe_thunderstorm:1 rapid_urbanization:1 biodiversity_climate:1 kyoto_protocol:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 modification_hazardous:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 protection_wetland:1 sign_ratified:1 ratified_none:1 coastline_km:1 landlocked_maritime:1 none_landlocked:1 landlocked_elevation:1 molybdenum_tungsten:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 external_link:1 |
3,447 | Nortel | Nortel Networks Corporation ( and ), formerly known as Northern Telecom Limited and sometimes known simply as Nortel, is a multinational telecommunications equipment manufacturer headquartered in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. On January 14, 2009, Nortel filed for protection from creditors in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, in order to restructure its debt and financial obligations. History Origins A Contempra Telephone (Artifact no. 2000 0019) by Northern Electric ca. 1967, with the first Canadian-designed, fully electronic digital PBX telephone switching board ca. 1972., on display at the Museum of Science and Technology (Aug. 2008). In 1882, a mechanical department was created within Bell Telephone Company of Canada to manufacture telephones and telephone equipment for Canada, because telephone equipment could not be imported into Canada from America. In addition to phones, four years later, the department started manufacturing its first switchboard, a 50 line Standard Magneto Switchboard. The small manufacturing department expanded yearly with the growth and popularity of the telephone to 50 employees in 1888. By 1890 it transformed into its own branch of operations with 200 employees and a new factory was under construction. As the manufacturing branch expanded, its production ability increased beyond the demand for phones, and faced closure for several months a year without manufacturing other products. This was a problem because the Bell Telephone Company of Canada charter would not allow them to build other products. So in 1895, Bell Telephone Company of Canada was required to spin off its manufacturing arm to build phones for sale to other companies as well as other devices such as fire alarm boxes, police street call boxes, and fire department call equipment. This company was incorporated as the Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company Limited. Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company "The Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company" Limited, was incorporated on 7 December 1895, by the following Corporate Members/Board of Directors: Charles Fleetford Sise Sr., President of Bell Telephone Company of Canada – Provisional Director; Robert Mackay, merchant – Provisional Director; Hugh Paton, manager of the Shedden Company - Provisional Director; The Hon. Joseph Rosaire Thibaudeau, Senator - Provisional Director; Robert Archer, gentleman - Provisional Director; Charles P. Sclater, secretary - Provisional Director; Lewis B. McFarlane, manager, all of the city and district of Montreal, Que. The initial stock capital was $50,000 at $100 per share, with 93 percent held by Bell Telephone Company of Canada and the remainder held by the seven corporate members above. The first general stock holders meeting was held on March 24, 1896. On December 1899 The Bell Telephone Company of Canada bought a cabling company for $500,000 and a Canadian charter named it The Wire and Cable Company. Northern Electric and Manufacturing further expanded its product line in 1900, manufacturing the first Canadian wind-up gramophones that played flat discs. In 1911 the Wire and Cable company changed its name to the Imperial Wire and Cable Company. Northern Electric Company 155| 1950 Logo The construction of a new manufacturing plant started in 1913 at Shearer Street in Montreal, Canada as preparations began for the integration of the two manufacturing companies. Then in January 1914 the Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company and the Imperial Wire and Cable Company merged into the Northern Electric Company, and the new company opened the doors on a new manufacturing plant on January 1915. This facility at Shearer Street was the primary manufacturing center until the mid 1950s. Edward Fleetford Sise was the president and his brother Paul Fleetford Sise was the vice-president and general manager. During the First World War Northern Electric manufactured the Portable Commutator a one-wire telegraphic switchboard for military operations in the field. In 1922 Northern started to produce the "Peanut" vacuum tube for $5 which only required a single dry cell battery. The use of alternating current was still under development during this time. The "Northern Electric Peanut tube was the smallest tube made, and drew only one-tenth of an ampere and was the most remarkable radio frequency amplifier ever made." During the 1920s Northern Electric was making kettles, toasters, cigar lighters, electric stoves, and washing machines. In January 1923 Northern Electric started to operate a radio station with call letters CHYC, an AM radio station located in the Shearer Street plant and much of the programming was religious services for the Northern Electric employees and families in the community. On July 1923 CHYC AM radio station was the first radio station to provide entertainment to the riders of the transcontinental train in a parlor car fitted with a radio set to receive the broadcast as it left Montreal and traveled west. Later in the 1920s, Northern created the first talking movie sound system in the British Empire for a theater in Montreal. During the great depression of the 1930s Northern Electric was affected like most other companies. From the beginning of 1930 through the end of 1933 sales dropped from $34 million to $8.2 million, and the employee headcount dropped from 6100 to a low of 2,400. Independence from Western Electric In 1949, an antitrust suit in the U.S. forced AT&T/Western Electric to sell its stake in Northern Electric to Bell Canada. Deprived of its Western Electric tie, Northern began developing its own products. In 1953, Northern Electric produced its first television sets using tubes made by RCA. Bell Canada acquired 100 percent of Northern Electric in 1964; through public stock offerings starting in 1973, Bell's ownership of Northern Electric and its successors would be reduced, though it continued to have majority control. In 1966, the Northern Electric research lab, Northern Electric Laboratories (the predecessor to Bell-Northern Research), started looking into the possibilities of fiber optic cable, and in 1969, began work on digitizing telephone communications. Also in 1969, Northern began making inroads into the U.S. market with its switching systems. In 1972, it opened its first factory in the U.S. in Michigan. In 1975, Northern began shipping its first digital switching systems, one of the earliest such systems to be sold. Northern Telecom and "Digital World" In 1976, the company name was changed to Northern Telecom Limited, and management announced its intention to concentrate the company's efforts on digital technology. "Digital World" was Northern Telecom’s daring declaration, made public by a three-page advertisement that appeared in major trade publications in 1976, that digital technology was the key to the future. It was the first to announce, and to deliver, one year ahead of schedule, a complete line of fully digital telecommunications products under the Digital World brand. The most well-known of the Digital World product family, the DMS-100, a fully digital central office switch serving as many as 100,000 lines, was a key contributor to the company’s revenue for close to 15 years. In 1977, Nortel introduced its DMS line of digital central office telephone switches, providing explosive growth for the company, especially after the AT&T breakup in 1984. Northern Telecom became the first non-Japanese supplier to Nippon Telegraph and Telephone, and the company took advantage of opportunities in Europe and China. Deregulation and the optical boom In 1983, due to deregulation, Bell Canada Enterprises (later shortened to BCE) was formed as the parent company to Bell Canada and Northern Telecom. Bell-Northern Research was jointly owned 50-50 by Bell Canada and Northern Telecom. The combined three companies were referred to as the tricorporate. As Nortel, the streamlined identity it adopted for its 100-year anniversary in 1995, the company set out to dominate the burgeoning global market for public and private networks. In 1998, with the acquisition of Bay Networks, the company's name was changed to Nortel Networks to emphasize its ability to provide complete solutions for multiprotocol, multiservice, global networking over the Internet and other communications networks. As a consequence of the stock transaction used to purchase Bay Networks, BCE ceased to be the majority shareholder of Nortel. In 2000, BCE spun-out Nortel, distributing its holdings of Nortel to its shareholders. Bell-Northern Research was gradually absorbed into Nortel, as it first acquired a majority share in BNR, and eventually acquired the entire company. After the Internet bubble In the late 1990s, stock market speculators, hoping that Nortel would reap increasingly lucrative profits from the sale of fibre optic network gear, began pushing up the price of the company's shares to unheard-of levels despite the company's repeated failure to turn a profit. Under the leadership of CEO John Roth, sales of optical equipment had been robust in the late 1990s, but the market was soon saturated. When the speculative telecom bubble of the late 1990s reached its pinnacle, Nortel was to become one of the most spectacular casualties. At its height, Nortel accounted for more than a third of the total valuation of all the companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX). Nortel's market capitalization fell from C$398 billion in September 2000 to less than $5 billion in August 2002. Nortel's stock price plunged from C$124 to $0.47. When Nortel's stock crashed, it took with it a wide swath of Canadian investors and pension funds, and left 60,000 Nortel employees unemployed. CEO John Roth retired under controversy to be succeeded by former CFO Frank Dunn. Despite some initial perceived success in turning the company around, he was fired for cause in 2004 after being accused of financial mismanagement. Dunn and other former Nortel officers have been accused of engaging in accounting fraud by the SEC (for more information, refer to "Accounting scandal"). Retired United States Admiral Bill Owens was hired as the CEO to replace Dunn. In late 2004, Nortel Networks returned to using the Nortel name for branding purposes only (the official company name was not changed). Nortel acquired PEC Solutions in June, 2005, renaming it Nortel Government Solutions Incorporated or NGS. The wholly-owned subsidiary provides information technology and telecommunications services to a variety of government agencies and departments. On August 17, 2005, LG Electronics and Nortel signed an agreement to form a joint venture to offer telecom and networking solutions in the wireline, optical, wireless and enterprise areas for South Korean and global customers. Nortel owns 50 percent plus one share in the joint venture. Mike Zafirovski as CEO Mike S. Zafirovski replaced Owens as president and CEO on November 15, 2005. In February, 2007, Nortel announced its plans to reduce its workforce by 2,000 employees, and to transfer an additional 1,000 jobs to lower-cost job sites. A year later, in February, 2008, Nortel again announced plans to eliminate 2,100 jobs, and to transfer another 1,000 jobs to lower-cost centres. As part of the reductions, Nortel announced it would shut down its Calgary campus by 2009. During its reporting of third quarter 2008 results, Nortel announced it would restructure into three vertically-integrated business units: Enterprise, Carrier Networks, and Metro Ethernet Networks. As part of the decentralization of its organization, four executive positions were eliminated, effective January 1, 2009: Chief Marketing Officer Lauren Flaherty, Chief Technology Officer John Roese, Global Services President Dietmar Wendt, and Executive Vice President Global Sales Bill Nelson. A net reduction of 1,300 jobs was also announced. In December 2008, Nortel was notified by the New York Stock Exchange that the company would be delisted if its common shares failed to rise above $1 per share within 6 months. Nortel executives considered a reverse stock split to force up the price of Nortel shares. Protection from creditors On January 14, 2009, Nortel filed for protection from creditors, in the United States under Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code, in Canada under the Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act, and in the United Kingdom under the Insolvency Act 1986. Nortel had an interest payment of $107 million due the next day, approximately 4.6% of its cash reserves of approximately $2.3 billion. After the announcement, the share price fell more than 79% on the Toronto Stock Exchange. At the end of January 2009, Nortel announced that it would be discontinuing its WiMAX business and its joint agreement with Alvarion. On February 19, 2009, Nortel announced a stalking horse bid from Israeli technology firm Radware to purchase its Layer 4-7 application delivery business. Nortel had acquired the application switch product line in October 2000 when it purchased Alteon WebSystems. Products Nortel makes telecommunications and computer network equipment and software. They serve both general businesses and communications carriers (landline telephone, mobile phone, and cable TV carriers). Technologies include telephony (voice) equipment of all kinds, optical fiber, local wireless, and multimedia. Past and present products include: Telephone Systems Telephone sets and terminals LAN and MAN equipment Application Server 5200 and Application Server 5300 (AS5300) Nortel business phones, digital sets for Meridian and Norstar Baystack and ERS (Ethernet Routing Switch), managed network switches for Ethernet; ERS-8600, ERS-8300, ERS-5600, ERS-5500, ERS-4500, ERS-2500 Digital Multiplex System (DMS and SL-100 families) large-scale digital carrier phone switch Northern Electric home phones Multiservice Switch (MSS) (formerly Passport); MSS20000, MSS15000, MSS7400, MSS6400 Meridian 1 (SL-1) medium-to-large-scale PBX Northern Telecom home phones Metro Ethernet Routing Switch 8600 Meridian Norstar small-to-medium-scale digital key telephone system Nortel payphones Nortel Secure Network Access (switch and software) Nortel Communication Servers, medium-to-large-scale VoIP PBX Systems; CS2100, CS2000, CS1500, CS1000 Nortel IP Phone 1120E DV-1 minicomputer digital voice and data system Nortel IP Phone 1140E SG-1 analog stored program control PBX SP-1 analog stored program control carrier switch Routers Software Other WAN equipment Secure Router 1000 Systems; SR1004, SR1002, SR1001S, SR1001 Visualization Performance & Fault Manager (VPFM) 1 Mbit/s modem Secure Router 3120 Nortel Enterprise Switch Manager Secure Router 4134 Nortel File and Inventory Manager Secure Router 8000 Systems; SR8002, SR8004, SR8008, SR8012 Nortel Multi-link Trunking Manager VPN Routers; 1750, 2700, 2750, 5000 Nortel Multicast Manager Nortel Speech Server Passport Carrier Release Nortel Routing Manager Nortel Security Manager Nortel VLAN manager Unified Communications Management Agile Communication Environment Corporate information Nortel's Etobicoke head offices at 195 The West Mall. Headquarters As of October 25, 2005, the company relocated its headquarters from Brampton, Ontario in the Greater Toronto Area to 195 The West Mall in western Toronto, in the former city of Etobicoke. The Brampton offices were sold to media-telecom giant Rogers Communications for C$100 million. The company has other key locations across Canada including its R&D headquarters in Ottawa. Global worksites, partners, and customers Nortel expanded into the U.S. in 1971. Today there are employees in over 100 locations in the U.S. with R&D, software engineering, and sales centers in many states including California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Texas, and Virginia. Nortel's full service R&D centres are located in Ottawa (its R&D headquarters), Beijing, and Guangzhou. In Canada, Nortel also has R&D sites in Montreal, Belleville, and Calgary. In the United States, Nortel's major R&D sites are in Research Triangle Park (North Carolina), Richardson (Texas), Boston, and Santa Clara. Nortel has significant presence in Europe, Middle East, Africa, the Caribbean, and Latin America. Nortel delivers network infrastructure and communication services to customers across Asia in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, and Turkey (Nortel owns 53.17% of Nortel Netaş, originally established as a joint venture with Turkish PTT in 1967 ). In addition, the company has three joint ventures in the People's Republic of China, including Guangdong Nortel Telecommunications Equipment (GDNT), who operates Nortel's full service R&D centres in China. Business structure As of February, 2008, Nortel employs approximately 32,550 people worldwide, including 6,800 employees in Canada and 11,900 in the United States. Nortel operations are divided into the following segments: Carrier Networks (CN): Mobility networking solutions, including CDMA, GSM, and UMTS, and carrier networking solutions, both circuit and packet based. Enterprise Solutions (ES): Enterprise networking solutions, including circuit and packet based voice, data, security, multimedia messaging and conferencing, and call centres. Metro Ethernet Networks (MEN): Optical and metropolitan area networking solutions, for carrier and enterprise customers. Global Services (GS): Services in four areas: network implementation, network support, network management, and network applications (including web services). Corporate governance Current members of the board of directors: Harry Jonathan Pearce, chairman of the board Jalynn H. Bennett, CM Dr. Manfred Bischoff Hon. James B. Hunt, Jr. Kristina Johnson Hon. John P. Manley John Alan MacNaughton Richard David McCormick Claude Mongeau John D. Watson Mike Zafirovski, president & CEO Former members of the board of directors: Robert Ellis Brown John Cleghorn Robert Alexander Ingram James Blanchard Yves Fortier Guylaine Saucier Sherwood Smith Lynton "Red" Wilson, former chairman of the board Frank C. Carlucci, former chairman of the board Accounting scandal Nortel shares soared in the late 1990s and collapsed in 2002 along with the technology bubble. Nortel then reported a return to profitability in early 2003, following a promise to do so by chief executive officer Frank Dunn. In late October 2003, Nortel announced that it intended to restate approximately $900M of liabilities carried on its previously reported balance sheet as of June 30, 2003, following a comprehensive internal review of these liabilities (“First Restatement”). The Company stated that the principal effects of the restatement would be a reduction in previously reported net losses for 2000, 2001, and 2002 and an increase in shareholders’ equity and net assets previously reported on its balance sheet. Nortel unveiled details of additional accounting errors involving billions of dollars and said that a dozen of the company's most senior executives would take the unusual step of returning $8.6 million dollars of bonuses they were paid based on the erroneous accounting. At Nortel, investigators ultimately found about $3 billion in revenue had been booked improperly in 1998, 1999, and 2000. More than $2 billion was moved into later years, about $750 million was pushed forward beyond 2003 and about $250 million was wiped away completely. Five directors stepped down. Nortel's board has faced criticism for allowing the company's accounting fiasco to go on and approving the bonus plans, but none of the five directors were accused of wrongdoing in a company investigation. This accounting controversy eventually led to the departure of ten Nortel executives in 2004. Dunn, chief financial officer Douglas Beatty, and controller Michael Gollogly were fired. Nortel filed with regulators its financial statements for 2003 and restated, for the second time, its results from earlier years. Securities regulators, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the U.S. Attorney's office were conducting probes during this same period. On June 19, 2008, the RCMP charged Dunn, Beatty, and Gollogly with criminal fraud related to their activities in 2002–2003. Settling of litigation In 2007, the Securities and Exchange Commission filed civil fraud charges in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York against Nortel Networks Corporation and its principal operating subsidiary Nortel Networks Limited (Nortel) alleging that Nortel engaged in accounting fraud from 2000 through 2003 to close gaps between its true performance, its internal targets and Wall Street expectations. Without admitting or denying the Commission's charges, Nortel agreed to settle the Commission's action by consenting to be permanently enjoined from violating the antifraud, reporting, books and records and internal control provisions of the federal securities laws - namely, Section 17(a) of the Securities Act of 1933, Sections 10(b), 13(a), 13(b)(2)(A), 13(b)(2)(B) and 13(b)(5) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, and Exchange Act Rules 10b-5, 12b-20, 13a-1 and 13a-13. Nortel also has agreed to pay a $35 million civil penalty, which the Commission will seek to place in a Fair Fund for distribution to affected shareholders, and to report periodically to the Commission's staff on its progress in implementing remedial measures and resolving an outstanding material weakness over its revenue recognition procedures. See also 1-Meg Modem Nortel Government Solutions Bell-Northern Research Multiservice Switch Passport Carrier Release Nortel Baystack Canadian Industrial Research and Development Organizations References Nortel Networks, Larry Macdonald, John Wiley & Sons, 2000. ISBN 0-471-64542-7 External links Nortel – Company website. Innovative Communications Alliance (Nortel – Microsoft) People at Nortel Networks (LinkedIn) Nortel News – Corporate news from Nortel. Nortel background article by the CBC comp.dcom.sys.nortel - Usenet group on Nortel telecommunications products and systems. Digital World - Canada's Telecommunications Hall of Fame honours Nortel for its Digital World initiative. Background, photos and video. PCWorld.ca feature on Nortel's history of innovation | Nortel |@lemmatized nortel:91 network:26 corporation:2 formerly:2 know:3 northern:38 telecom:11 limit:5 sometimes:1 simply:1 multinational:1 telecommunication:7 equipment:10 manufacturer:1 headquarter:1 toronto:5 ontario:2 canada:21 january:7 file:5 protection:3 creditor:4 united:8 state:8 kingdom:2 order:1 restructure:2 debt:1 financial:4 obligation:1 history:2 origins:1 contempra:1 telephone:19 artifact:1 electric:25 ca:3 first:14 canadian:6 design:1 fully:3 electronic:1 digital:18 pbx:4 switch:15 board:8 display:1 museum:1 science:1 technology:8 aug:1 mechanical:1 department:5 create:2 within:2 bell:16 company:48 manufacture:10 could:1 import:1 america:2 addition:2 phone:10 four:3 year:8 later:4 start:6 switchboard:3 line:6 standard:1 magneto:1 small:3 manufacturing:7 expand:4 yearly:1 growth:2 popularity:1 employee:8 transform:1 branch:2 operation:3 new:7 factory:2 construction:2 production:1 ability:2 increase:2 beyond:2 demand:1 face:2 closure:1 several:1 month:2 without:2 product:10 problem:1 charter:2 would:9 allow:2 build:2 require:2 spin:1 arm:1 sale:6 well:2 device:1 fire:4 alarm:1 box:2 police:2 street:5 call:4 incorporate:3 december:3 following:2 corporate:5 member:4 director:11 charles:2 fleetford:3 sise:3 sr:1 president:7 provisional:6 robert:4 mackay:1 merchant:1 hugh:1 paton:1 manager:11 shedden:1 hon:3 joseph:1 rosaire:1 thibaudeau:1 senator:1 archer:1 gentleman:1 p:2 sclater:1 secretary:1 lewis:1 b:7 mcfarlane:1 city:2 district:3 montreal:5 que:1 initial:2 stock:11 capital:1 per:2 share:9 percent:3 hold:3 remainder:1 seven:1 general:3 holder:1 meeting:1 march:1 buy:1 cabling:1 name:6 wire:5 cable:6 far:1 wind:1 gramophone:1 play:1 flat:1 disc:1 change:4 imperial:2 logo:1 plant:3 shearer:3 preparation:1 begin:6 integration:1 two:1 merge:1 open:2 door:1 facility:1 primary:1 center:2 mid:1 edward:1 brother:1 paul:1 vice:2 world:7 war:1 portable:1 commutator:1 one:6 telegraphic:1 military:1 field:1 produce:2 peanut:2 vacuum:1 tube:4 single:1 dry:1 cell:1 battery:1 use:4 alternate:1 current:2 still:1 development:2 time:2 make:7 draw:1 tenth:1 ampere:1 remarkable:1 radio:6 frequency:1 amplifier:1 ever:1 kettle:1 toaster:1 cigar:1 lighter:1 stove:1 wash:1 machine:1 operate:2 station:4 letter:1 chyc:2 locate:2 much:1 programming:1 religious:1 service:9 family:3 community:1 july:1 provide:4 entertainment:1 rider:1 transcontinental:1 train:1 parlor:1 car:1 fit:1 set:5 receive:1 broadcast:1 leave:2 travel:1 west:3 talk:1 movie:1 sound:1 system:12 british:1 empire:1 theater:1 great:2 depression:1 affect:1 like:1 beginning:1 end:2 drop:2 million:8 headcount:1 low:1 independence:1 western:4 antitrust:1 suit:1 u:8 force:2 sell:3 stake:1 deprive:1 tie:1 develop:1 television:1 rca:1 acquire:5 public:3 offering:1 ownership:1 successor:1 reduce:2 though:1 continue:1 majority:3 control:4 research:7 lab:1 laboratory:1 predecessor:1 look:1 possibility:1 fiber:2 optic:2 work:1 digitize:1 communication:9 also:5 inroad:1 market:6 michigan:1 ship:1 early:3 management:3 announce:10 intention:1 concentrate:1 effort:1 dare:1 declaration:1 three:4 page:1 advertisement:1 appear:1 major:2 trade:1 publication:1 key:4 future:1 deliver:1 ahead:1 schedule:1 complete:2 brand:2 dm:1 central:2 office:5 serve:2 many:2 contributor:1 revenue:3 close:2 introduce:1 dms:2 explosive:1 especially:1 breakup:1 become:2 non:1 japanese:1 supplier:1 nippon:1 telegraph:1 take:3 advantage:1 opportunity:1 europe:2 china:4 deregulation:2 optical:5 boom:1 due:2 enterprise:7 shorten:1 bce:3 form:2 parent:1 jointly:1 combined:1 refer:2 tricorporate:1 streamlined:1 identity:1 adopt:1 anniversary:1 dominate:1 burgeon:1 global:7 private:1 acquisition:1 bay:2 emphasize:1 solution:10 multiprotocol:1 multiservice:3 networking:4 internet:2 consequence:1 transaction:1 purchase:3 cease:1 shareholder:4 spun:1 distribute:1 holding:1 gradually:1 absorb:1 bnr:1 eventually:2 entire:1 bubble:3 late:7 speculator:1 hop:1 reap:1 increasingly:1 lucrative:1 profit:2 fibre:1 gear:1 push:2 price:4 unheard:1 level:1 despite:2 repeat:1 failure:1 turn:2 leadership:1 ceo:6 john:8 roth:2 robust:1 soon:1 saturate:1 speculative:1 reach:1 pinnacle:1 spectacular:1 casualty:1 height:1 account:4 third:2 total:1 valuation:1 list:1 exchange:7 tsx:1 capitalization:1 fell:2 c:4 billion:6 september:1 less:1 august:2 plunge:1 crash:1 wide:1 swath:1 investor:1 pension:1 fund:2 unemployed:1 retire:2 controversy:2 succeed:1 former:6 cfo:1 frank:3 dunn:6 perceived:1 success:1 around:1 cause:1 accuse:3 mismanagement:1 officer:5 engage:2 fraud:4 sec:1 information:3 scandal:2 admiral:1 bill:2 owens:1 hire:1 replace:2 return:3 purpose:1 official:1 pec:1 june:3 rename:1 government:3 ng:1 wholly:1 owned:1 subsidiary:2 variety:1 agency:1 lg:1 electronics:1 sign:1 agreement:2 joint:5 venture:4 offer:1 wireline:1 wireless:2 area:4 south:2 korean:1 customer:4 plus:1 mike:3 zafirovski:3 owen:1 november:1 february:4 plan:3 workforce:1 transfer:2 additional:2 job:5 lower:2 cost:2 site:3 eliminate:2 another:1 centre:4 part:2 reduction:3 shut:1 calgary:2 campus:1 reporting:2 quarter:1 result:2 vertically:1 integrated:1 business:6 unit:1 carrier:10 metro:3 ethernet:5 decentralization:1 organization:2 executive:6 position:1 effective:1 chief:4 lauren:1 flaherty:1 roese:1 dietmar:1 wendt:1 nelson:1 net:3 notify:1 york:2 delist:1 common:1 fail:1 rise:1 consider:1 reverse:1 split:1 chapter:1 bankruptcy:1 code:1 arrangement:1 act:5 insolvency:1 interest:1 payment:1 next:1 day:1 approximately:4 cash:1 reserve:1 announcement:1 discontinue:1 wimax:1 alvarion:1 stalking:1 horse:1 bid:1 israeli:1 firm:1 radware:1 layer:1 application:5 delivery:1 october:3 alteon:1 websystems:1 computer:1 software:4 landline:1 mobile:1 tv:1 include:9 telephony:1 voice:3 kind:1 local:1 multimedia:2 past:1 present:1 terminal:1 lan:1 man:1 server:4 meridian:3 norstar:2 baystack:2 er:2 rout:2 manage:1 ers:5 multiplex:1 sl:2 large:3 scale:4 home:2 ms:1 passport:3 medium:4 payphones:1 secure:5 access:1 voip:1 ip:2 dv:1 minicomputer:1 data:2 sg:1 analog:2 store:2 program:2 sp:1 router:6 wan:1 visualization:1 performance:2 fault:1 vpfm:1 mbit:1 modem:2 inventory:1 multi:1 link:2 trunking:1 vpn:1 multicast:1 speech:1 release:2 routing:1 security:8 vlan:1 unify:1 agile:1 environment:1 etobicoke:2 head:1 mall:2 headquarters:4 relocate:1 brampton:2 giant:1 rogers:1 location:2 across:2 r:7 ottawa:2 worksites:1 partner:1 today:1 engineering:1 california:1 florida:1 georgia:1 illinois:1 maryland:1 massachusetts:1 north:2 carolina:2 texas:2 virginia:1 full:2 beijing:1 guangzhou:1 belleville:1 triangle:1 park:1 richardson:1 boston:1 santa:1 clara:1 significant:1 presence:1 middle:1 east:1 africa:1 caribbean:1 latin:1 delivers:1 infrastructure:1 asia:1 mainland:1 hong:1 kong:1 taiwan:1 korea:1 japan:1 singapore:1 thailand:1 malaysia:1 india:1 pakistan:1 australia:1 zealand:1 turkey:1 netaş:1 originally:1 establish:1 turkish:1 ptt:1 people:3 republic:1 guangdong:1 gdnt:1 structure:1 employ:1 worldwide:1 divide:1 segment:1 cn:1 mobility:1 cdma:1 gsm:1 umts:1 circuit:2 packet:2 base:3 es:1 messaging:1 conferencing:1 men:1 metropolitan:1 gs:1 implementation:1 support:1 web:1 governance:1 harry:1 jonathan:1 pearce:1 chairman:3 jalynn:1 h:1 bennett:1 cm:1 dr:1 manfred:1 bischoff:1 james:2 hunt:1 jr:1 kristina:1 johnson:1 manley:1 alan:1 macnaughton:1 richard:1 david:1 mccormick:1 claude:1 mongeau:1 watson:1 ellis:1 brown:1 cleghorn:1 alexander:1 ingram:1 blanchard:1 yves:1 fortier:1 guylaine:1 saucy:1 sherwood:1 smith:1 lynton:1 red:1 wilson:1 carlucci:1 accounting:5 soar:1 collapse:1 along:1 report:5 profitability:1 follow:2 promise:1 intend:1 restate:2 liability:2 carry:1 previously:3 balance:2 sheet:2 comprehensive:1 internal:3 review:1 restatement:2 principal:2 effect:1 loss:1 equity:1 asset:1 unveil:1 detail:1 error:1 involve:1 dollar:2 say:1 dozen:1 senior:1 unusual:1 step:2 bonus:2 pay:2 erroneous:1 investigator:1 ultimately:1 find:1 book:2 improperly:1 move:1 forward:1 wipe:1 away:1 completely:1 five:2 criticism:1 fiasco:1 go:1 approve:1 none:1 wrongdoing:1 investigation:1 lead:1 departure:1 ten:1 douglas:1 beatty:2 controller:1 michael:1 gollogly:2 regulator:2 statement:1 second:1 commission:6 royal:1 mount:1 attorney:1 conduct:1 probe:1 period:1 rcmp:1 charge:3 criminal:1 relate:1 activity:1 settling:1 litigation:1 civil:2 court:1 southern:1 operating:1 allege:1 gap:1 true:1 target:1 wall:1 expectation:1 admit:1 deny:1 agree:2 settle:1 action:1 consent:1 permanently:1 enjoin:1 violate:1 antifraud:1 record:1 provision:1 federal:1 law:1 namely:1 section:2 rule:1 penalty:1 seek:1 place:1 fair:1 distribution:1 affected:1 periodically:1 staff:1 progress:1 implement:1 remedial:1 measure:1 resolve:1 outstanding:1 material:1 weakness:1 recognition:1 procedure:1 see:1 meg:1 industrial:1 reference:1 larry:1 macdonald:1 wiley:1 son:1 isbn:1 external:1 website:1 innovative:1 alliance:1 microsoft:1 linkedin:1 news:2 background:2 article:1 cbc:1 comp:1 dcom:1 sys:1 usenet:1 group:1 hall:1 fame:1 honour:1 initiative:1 photo:1 video:1 pcworld:1 feature:1 innovation:1 |@bigram toronto_ontario:1 vice_president:2 vacuum_tube:1 fiber_optic:1 fibre_optic:1 stock_exchange:3 market_capitalization:1 pension_fund:1 wholly_owned:1 owned_subsidiary:1 joint_venture:4 vertically_integrated:1 landline_telephone:1 mobile_phone:1 optical_fiber:1 switch_router:1 north_carolina:2 santa_clara:1 hong_kong:1 singapore_thailand:1 gsm_umts:1 corporate_governance:1 billion_dollar:1 wiley_son:1 external_link:1 hall_fame:1 |
3,448 | Federal_Information_Processing_Standards | Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) are publicly announced standards developed by the United States Federal government for use by all non-military government agencies and by government contractors. Many FIPS standards are modified versions of standards used in the wider community (ANSI, IEEE, ISO, etc.) Standard Publications Some FIPS standards were originally developed by the U.S. government. For instance, standards for encoding data (e.g. country codes), but more significantly some encryption standards, such as the Data Encryption Standard (FIPS 46-3) and the Advanced Encryption Standard (FIPS 197). FIPS Codes Examples of FIPS Codes: FIPS country codes and region codes (10-4) FIPS place codes (55-3) FIPS county codes (6-4) FIPS state codes (5-2) All similar to or comparable with (but not the same as) ISO 3166, or the NUTS standard of the European Union. Important Notice: The GNIS Feature ID superseded the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 55-3 database Place Code, now referred to as the Census Code as the Federal standard geographic feature record identifier. The FIPS 55-3 standard has been withdrawn and the FIPS55 data have been incorporated into the GNIS. The Census Bureau will continue to assign five digit codes for internal purposes until the transition to the GNIS Feature ID is completed following the 2010 census, at which time the codes will be no longer assigned or used. Until then but no later, Census codes will be available. Legacy systems are highly encouraged to convert to the Feature ID as soon as possible. See FIPS 55 Change Notice. (Note: FIPS 6-4 State and county codes are separate codes and are NOT affected by this change.) See also FIPS 140 Security requirements for cryptography modules FIPS 201 Personal Identity Verification for Federal Employees and Contractors List of FIPS region codes Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002 (FISMA) References External links NIST FIPS homepage NIST FIPS resource center NIST Computer Security Division | Federal_Information_Processing_Standards |@lemmatized federal:6 information:3 processing:1 standard:14 fips:20 publicly:1 announce:1 develop:2 united:1 state:3 government:4 use:3 non:1 military:1 agency:1 contractor:2 many:1 modified:1 version:1 wider:1 community:1 ansi:1 ieee:1 iso:2 etc:1 publication:1 originally:1 u:1 instance:1 encode:1 data:3 e:1 g:1 country:2 cod:2 significantly:1 encryption:3 advanced:1 code:14 example:1 region:2 place:2 county:2 similar:1 comparable:1 nuts:1 european:1 union:1 important:1 notice:2 gnis:3 feature:4 id:3 supersede:1 process:1 database:1 refer:1 census:4 geographic:1 record:1 identifier:1 withdraw:1 incorporate:1 bureau:1 continue:1 assign:2 five:1 digit:1 internal:1 purpose:1 transition:1 complete:1 follow:1 time:1 longer:1 later:1 available:1 legacy:1 system:1 highly:1 encourage:1 convert:1 soon:1 possible:1 see:2 change:2 note:1 separate:1 affect:1 also:1 security:3 requirement:1 cryptography:1 module:1 personal:1 identity:1 verification:1 employee:1 list:1 management:1 act:1 fisma:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 nist:3 homepage:1 resource:1 center:1 computer:1 division:1 |@bigram ansi_ieee:1 census_bureau:1 external_link:1 |
3,449 | Control_character | In computing and telecommunication, a control character or non-printing character is a code point (a number) in a character set, that does not in itself represent a written symbol. It is in-band signaling in the context of character encoding. All entries in the ASCII table below code 32 (technically the C0 control code set) and 127 are of this kind, including BEL (which is intended to cause an audible signal in the receiving terminal), SYN (which is a synchronization signal), and ENQ (a signal that is intended to trigger a response at the receiving end, to see if it is still present). The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) character set contains 65 control codes, including all of the ASCII control codes as well as additional codes which are mostly used to control IBM peripherals. The Unicode standard has added many new non-printing characters, for example the Zero-width non-joiner. The remainder of this article covers control codes in general and some codes that are in common use. For detailed tables of the C0 and C1 control codes used in ASCII and ISO/IEC 8859, please see their respective articles. Other characters are printing, printable, or graphic characters, except perhaps for the "space" character (see ASCII printable characters). MS-DOS QBasic v1.1 Documentation. Microsoft 1987-1991. 0x00 0x10 0x00 NUL DLE 0x01 SOH DC1 0x02 STX DC2 0x03 ETX DC3 0x04 EOT DC4 0x05 ENQ NAK 0x06 ACK SYN 0x07 BEL ETB 0x08 BS CAN 0x09 TAB EM 0x0A LF SUB 0x0B VT ESC 0x0C FF FS 0x0D CR GS 0x0E SO RS 0x0F SI US 0x7F DEL History Procedural signs in Morse code are a form of control character. A form of control characters were introduced in the 1870 Baudot code: NUL and DEL. The 1901 Murray code added the carriage return (CR) and line feed (LF), and other versions of the Baudot code included other control characters. The bell character (BEL), which rang a bell to alert operators, was also an early teletype control character. They have also been called "format effectors". In ASCII The control characters in ASCII still in common use include: 0 (null, \0, ^@), originally intended to be an ignored character, but now used by many programming languages to terminate the end of a string. 7 (bell, \a, ^G), which may cause the device receiving it to emit a warning of some kind (usually audible). 8 (backspace, \b, ^H), used either to erase the last character printed or to overprint it. 9 (horizontal tab, \t, ^I), moves the printing position some spaces to the right. 10 (line feed, \n, ^J), used as the end_of_line marker in most UNIX systems and variants. 12 (form feed, \f, ^L), to cause a printer to eject paper to the top of the next page, or a video terminal to clear the screen. 13 (carriage return, \r, ^M), used as the end_of_line marker in Mac OS, OS-9, FLEX (and variants). A carriage return/line feed pair is used by CP/M-80 and its derivatives including DOS and Windows, and by Application Layer protocols such as HTTP. 27 (escape, \e [GCC only], ^[). 127 (delete, ^?), originally intended to be an ignored character, but now used to erase a character (especially the one to the right of the cursor). Occasionally one might encounter modern uses of other codes, such as code 4 (End of transmission), used to end a Unix shell session or PostScript printer transmission. For the full list of control characters, see ASCII. Even though many control characters are rarely used, the concept of sending device-control information intermixed with printable characters is so useful that device makers found a way to send hundreds of device instructions. Specifically, they used ASCII code 27 (escape), followed by a series of characters called a "control sequence" or "escape sequence". The mechanism was invented by Bob Bemer, the father of ASCII. Typically, code 27 was sent first in such a sequence to alert the device that the following characters were to be interpreted as a control sequence rather than as plain characters, then one or more characters would follow to specify some detailed action, after which the device would go back to interpreting characters normally. For example, the sequence of code 27, followed by the printable characters "[2;10H", would cause a DEC VT-102 terminal to move its cursor to the 10th cell of the 2nd line of the screen. Several standards exist for these sequences, notably ANSI X3.64. But the number of non-standard variations in use is large, especially among printers, where technology has advanced far faster than any standards body can possibly keep up with. Display As non-printing characters, how does one display or refer to control characters? There are a number of techniques, which one may illustrate with the bell character in ASCII encoding: Code point: decimal 7, hexadecimal 0x07 An abbreviation, often three capital letters: BEL A special character: Unicode U+2407 (␇), "symbol for bell" (note that this uses the abbreviation, specially formatted) Caret notation in ASCII, where code point 00xxxxx is represented as a caret followed by the capital letter at code point 01xxxxx: ^G An escape sequence, as in printf codes: \a How control characters map to keyboards ASCII-based keyboards have a key labelled "Control", "Ctrl", or (rarely) "Cntl" which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key. In one implementation, the control key generates the code 64 places below the code for the (generally) uppercase letter it is pressed in combination with (i.e., subtract 64 from ASCII code value in decimal of the (generally) uppercase letter). The other implementation is to take the ASCII code produced by the key and bitwise AND it with 63, forcing bits 5 and 6 to zero. For example, pressing "control" and the letter "g" or "G" (code 103 or 71 in base 10, which is 01000111 in binary, produces the code 7 (Bell, 7 in base 10, or 00000111 in binary). The NULL character (code 0) is represented by Ctrl-@, "@" being the code immediately before "A" in the ASCII character set. In either case, this produces one of the 32 ASCII control codes between 0 and 31. This approach is not able to represent the DEL character because of its value (code 127), and so Ctrl-? is used to represent this character, although this key combination does not follow the same logic as for the other control characters. http://www.geocities.com/dtmcbride/tech/charsets/ascii.html When the control key is held down, letter keys produce the same control characters regardless of the state of the shift or caps lock keys. In other words, it does not matter whether the key would have produced and upper-case or a lower-case letter. The interpretation of the control key with the space, graphics character, and digit keys (ASCII codes 32 to 63) vary between systems. Some will produce the same character code as if the control key was not held down. Other systems translate these keys into control characters when the control key is held down. The interpretation of the control key with non-ASCII ("foreign") keys also varies between systems. Control characters are often rendered into a printable form known as caret notation by printing a caret (^) and then the ASCII character that has a value of the control character plus 64. Control characters generated using letter keys are thus displayed with the upper-case form of the letter. For example, ^G represents code 7, which is generated by pressing the G key when the control key is held down. Keyboards also typically have a few single keys which produce control character codes. For example, the key labelled "Backspace" typically produces code 8, "Tab" code 9, "Enter" or "Return" code 13 (though some keyboards might produce code 10 for "Enter"). Modern keyboards have many keys that do not correspond to any ASCII printable or control character, for example cursor control arrows and word processing functions. These keyboards communicate these keys to the attached computer by one of four methods: appropriating some otherwise unused control character for the new use; using some encoding other than ASCII; using multi-character control sequences; or using an additional mechanism outside of generating characters to handle these events. "Dumb" computer terminals typically use control sequences. Keyboards attached to stand-alone personal computers made in the 1980s typically use one (or both) of the first two methods. Modern computer keyboards generate scancodes that identify the specific physical keys that are pressed; computer software then determines how to handle the keys that are pressed, including any of the four methods described above. The design purpose The control characters were designed to fall into a few groups: printing and display control, data structuring, transmission control, and miscellaneous. Printing and display control Printing control characters were first used to control the physical mechanism of printers, the earliest output device. An early implementation of this idea was the out-of-band ASA carriage control characters. Later, control characters were integrated into the stream of data to be printed. The carriage return character (CR), when sent to such a device, causes it to put the character at the edge of the paper at which writing begins (it may, or may not, also move the printing position to the next line). The line feed character (LF/NL) causes the device to put the printing position on the next line. It may (or may not), depending on the device and its configuration, also move the printing position to the start of the next line (whichever direction is first—left in Western languages and right in Hebrew and Arabic). The vertical and horizontal tab characters (VT and HT/TAB) cause the output device to move the printing position to the next tab stop in the direction of reading. The form feed character (FF/NP) starts a new sheet of paper, and may or may not move to the start of the first line. The backspace character (BS) moves the printing position one character space backwards. On printers, this is most often used so the printer can overprint characters to make other, not normally available, characters. On terminals and other electronic output devices, there are often software (or hardware) configuration choices which will allow a destruct backspace (ie, a BS, SP, BS sequence) which erases, or a non-destructive one which does not. The shift in and shift out characters (SO and SI) selected alternate character sets, fonts, underlining or other printing modes. Escape sequences were often used to do the same thing. With the advent of computer terminals that did not physically print on paper and so offered more flexibility regarding screen placement, erasure, and so forth, printing control codes were adapted. Form feeds, for example, usually cleared the screen, there being no new paper page to move to. More complex escape sequences were developed to take advantage of the flexibility of the new terminals, and indeed of newer printers. The concept of a control character had always been somewhat limiting, and was extremely so when used with new, much more flexible, hardware. Control sequences (sometimes implemented as escape sequences) could match the new flexibility and power and became the standard method. However, there were, and remain, a large variety of standard sequences to choose from. Data structuring The separators (File, Group, Record, and Unit: FS, GS, RS and US) were made to structure data, usually on a tape, in order to simulate punched cards. End of medium (EM) warns that the tape (or whatever) is ending. While many systems use CR/LF and TAB for structuring data, it is possible to encounter the separator control characters in data that needs to be structured. The separator control characters are not overloaded; there is no general use of them except to separate data into structured groupings. Their numeric values are contiguous with the space character, which can be considered a member of the group, as a word separator. Transmission control The transmission control characters were intended to structure a data stream, and to manage re-transmission or graceful failure, as needed, in the face of transmission errors. The start of heading (SOH) character was to mark a non-data section of a data stream—the part of a stream containing addresses and other housekeeping data. The start of text character (STX) marked the end of the header, and the start of the textual part of a stream. The end of text character (ETX) marked the end of the data of a message. A widely used convention is to make the two characters preceding ETX a checksum or CRC for error-detection purposes. The end of transmission block character (ETB) was used to indicate the end of a block of data, where data was divided into such blocks for transmission purposes. The escape character (ESC) can be used in software user-interfaces to exit from a screen, menu, or mode, or in device-control protocols (e.g., printers and terminals) to signal that what follows is a special command sequence rather than normal data. The substitute character (SUB) was intended to request a translation of the next character from a printable character to another value, usually by setting bit 5 to zero. This is handy because some media (such as sheets of paper produced by typewriters) can transmit only printable characters. However, on MS-DOS systems with files opened in text mode, "end of text" or "end of file" is marked by this Ctrl-Z character, instead of the Ctrl-C or Ctrl-D, which are common on other operating systems. The cancel character (CAN) signalled that the previous element should be discarded. The negative acknowledge character (NAK) is a definite flag for, usually, noting that reception was a problem, and, often, that the current element should be sent again. The acknowledge character (ACK) is normally used as a flag to indicate no problem detected with current element. When a transmission medium is half duplex (that is, it can transmit in only one direction at a time), there is usually a master station that can transmit at any time, and one or more slave stations that transmit when they have permission. The enquire character (ENQ) is generally used by a master station to ask a slave station to send its next message. A slave station indicates that it has completed its transmission by sending the end of transmission character (EOT). The device control codes (DC1 to DC4) were originally generic, to be implemented as necessary by each device. However, a universal need in data transmission is to request the sender to stop transmitting when a receiver can't take more data right now. Digital Equipment Corporation invented a convention which used 19, (the device control 3 character (DC3), also known as control-S, or XOFF) to "S"top transmission, and 17, (the device control 1 character (DC1), aka control-Q, or XON) to start transmission. It has become so widely used that most don't realize it is not part of official ASCII. This technique, however implemented, avoids additional wires in the data cable devoted only to transmission management, which saves money. A sensible protocol for the use of such transmission flow control signals must be used, to avoid potential deadlock conditions, however. The data link escape character (DLE) was intended to be a signal to the other end of a data link to cause the following code to be interpreted as raw data, not a control code. Miscellaneous codes Code 7 (BEL) is intended to cause an audible signal in the receiving terminal. Many of the ASCII control characters were designed for devices of the time that are not often seen today. For example, code 22, "synchronous idle" (SYN), was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send. (Modern systems typically use a start bit to announce the beginning of a transmitted word.) Code 0 (ASCII code name NUL) is a special case. In paper tape, it is the case when there are no holes. It is convenient to treat this as a fill character without meaning otherwise. Code 127 (DEL, a.k.a. "rubout") is likewise a special case. Its code is all-bits-on in binary, which essentially erased a character cell on a paper tape when overpunched. Paper tape was a common storage medium when ASCII was developed, with a computing history dating back to WWII code breaking equipment at Bletchley Park. Paper tape became obsolete in the 1970s, so this clever aspect of ASCII rarely saw any use. Some systems (such as the original Apples) converted it to a backspace. But because its code is in the range occupied by other printable characters, and because it had no official assigned glyph, many computer equipment vendors used it as an additional printable character (often an all-black "box" character useful for erasing text by overprinting with ink). Many file systems do not allow control characters in the filenames, as they may have reserved functions. See also C0 and C1 control codes Escape sequence In-band signaling Notes and references External links ISO/IEC 6429:1992 (E), Information Technology - Control functions for coded character sets ISO IR 1 C0 Set of ISO 646 (PDF) | Control_character |@lemmatized compute:2 telecommunication:1 control:68 character:99 non:8 printing:12 code:52 point:4 number:3 set:8 represent:6 write:2 symbol:3 band:3 signal:10 context:1 encode:2 entry:1 ascii:27 table:2 technically:1 kind:2 include:6 bel:5 intend:8 cause:9 audible:3 receive:3 terminal:9 syn:3 synchronization:1 enq:3 trigger:1 response:1 end:15 see:6 still:2 present:1 extended:1 binary:4 cod:4 decimal:3 interchange:1 ebcdic:1 contain:1 well:1 additional:4 mostly:1 use:42 ibm:1 peripheral:1 unicode:2 standard:6 add:2 many:8 new:8 example:8 zero:3 width:1 joiner:1 remainder:1 article:2 cover:1 general:2 common:4 detailed:2 iso:4 iec:2 please:1 respective:1 print:7 printable:10 graphic:2 except:2 perhaps:1 space:5 qbasic:1 documentation:1 microsoft:1 nul:3 dle:2 soh:2 stx:2 etx:3 eot:2 nak:2 ack:2 etb:2 b:4 tab:7 em:2 lf:4 sub:2 vt:3 esc:2 ff:2 f:3 cr:4 g:9 rs:1 si:2 u:3 del:4 history:2 procedural:1 sign:1 morse:1 form:7 introduce:1 baudot:2 murray:1 carriage:5 return:5 line:9 feed:7 version:1 bell:6 ring:1 alert:2 operator:1 also:8 early:3 teletype:1 call:2 format:2 effector:1 null:2 originally:4 ignored:2 program:1 language:2 terminate:1 string:1 may:9 device:18 emit:1 warning:1 usually:6 backspace:5 h:1 either:2 erase:5 last:1 overprint:3 horizontal:2 move:8 position:6 right:4 n:1 j:1 marker:2 unix:2 system:10 variant:2 l:1 printer:8 eject:1 paper:10 top:2 next:7 page:2 video:1 clear:2 screen:5 r:2 mac:1 flex:1 pair:1 cp:1 derivative:1 window:1 application:1 layer:1 protocol:3 http:2 escape:10 e:4 gcc:1 delete:1 especially:2 one:13 cursor:3 occasionally:1 might:2 encounter:2 modern:4 us:1 transmission:17 shell:1 session:1 postscript:1 full:1 list:1 even:1 though:2 rarely:3 concept:2 send:9 information:2 intermix:1 useful:2 maker:1 find:1 way:1 hundred:1 instruction:1 specifically:1 follow:6 series:1 sequence:17 mechanism:3 invent:2 bob:1 bemer:1 father:1 typically:6 first:5 following:2 interpret:3 rather:2 plain:1 would:4 specify:1 action:1 go:1 back:2 normally:3 dec:1 cell:2 several:1 exist:1 notably:1 ansi:1 variation:1 large:2 among:1 technology:2 advance:1 far:1 faster:1 body:1 possibly:1 keep:1 display:5 refer:1 technique:2 illustrate:1 encoding:1 hexadecimal:1 abbreviation:2 often:8 three:1 capital:2 letter:10 special:4 note:3 specially:1 caret:4 notation:2 printf:1 map:1 keyboards:1 base:3 keyboard:7 key:26 label:2 ctrl:6 cntl:1 much:2 like:1 shift:4 depress:1 combination:3 another:2 implementation:3 generate:5 place:1 generally:3 uppercase:2 press:5 subtract:1 value:5 take:3 produce:10 bitwise:1 force:1 bit:4 immediately:1 case:7 approach:1 able:1 although:1 logic:1 www:1 geocities:1 com:1 dtmcbride:1 tech:1 charsets:1 html:1 hold:4 regardless:1 state:1 cap:1 lock:1 word:4 matter:1 whether:1 upper:2 low:1 interpretation:2 digit:1 vary:2 translate:1 foreign:1 render:1 know:2 plus:1 thus:1 single:1 enter:2 correspond:1 arrows:1 processing:1 function:3 communicate:1 attach:2 computer:7 four:2 method:4 appropriate:1 otherwise:2 unused:1 multi:1 outside:1 handle:2 event:1 dumb:1 stand:1 alone:1 personal:1 make:4 two:2 scancodes:1 identify:1 specific:1 physical:2 software:3 determine:1 describe:1 design:3 purpose:3 fall:1 group:3 data:23 structuring:1 miscellaneous:2 output:3 idea:1 asa:1 later:1 integrate:1 stream:5 sent:1 put:2 edge:1 begin:1 nl:1 depend:1 configuration:2 start:8 whichever:1 direction:3 leave:1 western:1 hebrew:1 arabic:1 vertical:1 ht:1 stop:2 reading:1 np:1 sheet:2 backwards:1 available:1 electronic:1 hardware:2 choice:1 allow:2 destruct:1 ie:1 sp:1 bs:1 destructive:1 select:1 alternate:1 font:1 underline:1 mode:3 thing:1 advent:1 physically:1 offer:1 flexibility:3 regard:1 placement:1 erasure:1 forth:1 adapt:1 complex:1 develop:2 advantage:1 indeed:1 always:1 somewhat:1 limiting:1 extremely:1 flexible:1 sometimes:1 implement:3 could:1 match:1 power:1 become:3 however:5 remain:1 variety:1 choose:1 structure:5 separator:4 file:4 record:1 unit:1 tape:6 order:1 simulate:1 punched:1 card:1 medium:4 warn:1 whatever:1 possible:1 need:3 overload:1 separate:1 structured:1 grouping:1 numeric:1 contiguous:1 consider:1 member:1 manage:1 graceful:1 failure:1 face:1 error:2 heading:1 mark:4 section:1 part:3 containing:1 address:1 housekeep:1 text:5 header:1 textual:1 message:2 widely:2 convention:2 precede:1 checksum:1 crc:1 detection:1 block:3 indicate:3 divide:1 user:1 interface:1 exit:1 menu:1 command:1 normal:1 substitute:1 request:2 translation:1 handy:1 typewriter:1 transmit:4 dos:1 open:1 z:1 instead:1 c:1 operate:1 cancel:1 previous:1 element:3 discard:1 negative:1 acknowledge:2 definite:1 flag:2 reception:1 problem:2 current:2 detect:1 half:1 duplex:1 time:3 master:2 station:5 slave:3 permission:1 enquire:1 ask:1 complete:1 generic:1 necessary:1 universal:1 sender:1 transmitting:1 receiver:1 digital:1 equipment:3 corporation:1 xoff:1 aka:1 q:1 xon:1 realize:1 official:2 avoids:1 wire:1 cable:1 devote:1 management:1 save:1 money:1 sensible:1 flow:1 must:1 avoid:1 potential:1 deadlock:1 condition:1 link:3 raw:1 receiving:1 today:1 synchronous:2 idle:1 modem:1 constantly:1 actual:1 announce:1 beginning:1 transmitted:1 name:1 hole:1 convenient:1 treat:1 fill:1 without:1 mean:1 k:1 rubout:1 likewise:1 essentially:1 overpunched:1 storage:1 date:1 wwii:1 break:1 bletchley:1 park:1 obsolete:1 clever:1 aspect:1 saw:1 original:1 apple:1 convert:1 range:1 occupy:1 assign:1 glyph:1 vendor:1 black:1 box:1 ink:1 filename:1 reserve:1 reference:1 external:1 coded:1 ir:1 pdf:1 |@bigram cod_decimal:1 iso_iec:2 printable_character:7 morse_code:1 baudot_code:2 decimal_hexadecimal:1 uppercase_letter:2 http_www:1 www_geocities:1 geocities_com:1 vertical_horizontal:1 punched_card:1 cr_lf:1 user_interface:1 bletchley_park:1 external_link:1 |
3,450 | Adamic_language | The Adamic language is, according to Abrahamic traditions, the language spoken by Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. Adamic is typically identified with either the language used by God to address Adam, or the language invented by Adam (Book of Genesis 2:19). Medieval and early modern discussions Traditional Jewish exegesis such as Midrash (Genesis Rabbah 38) says that Adam spoke Hebrew because the names he gives Eve - "Isha" (Book of Genesis 2:23) and "Chava" (Genesis 3:20) - only make sense in Hebrew. By contrast, Kabbalism assumed an "eternal Torah" which was not identical to the Torah written in Hebrew. Thus, Abulafia in the 13th century assumed that the language spoken in Paradise had been different from Hebrew, and rejected the claim then current also among Christian authors, that a child left unexposed to linguistic stimulus would automatically begin to speak in Hebrew. Eco (1993), p. 32 f. Eco (1993) notes that Genesis is ambiguous on whether the language of Adam was preserved by Adam's descendants until the confusion of tongues (Genesis 11:1-9), or if it began to evolve naturally even before Babel (Genesis 10:5). Eco (1993), 7-10. Dante addresses the topic in his De Vulgari Eloquentia. He argues that the Adamic language is of divine origin and therefore unchangeable. Mazzocco, p. 159 He also notes that according to Genesis, the first speech act is due to Eve, addressing the serpent, and not to Adam. mulierem invenitur ante omnes fuisse locutam. Eco (1993), p. 50. In his Divina Commedia, however, Dante changes his view to other, that treats the Adamic language as the product of Adam. Mazzocco, p. 170 This had the consequence that it could not any longer be regarded immutable, and hence Hebrew could not be regarded as identical with the language of Paradise. Dante concludes (Paradiso XXVI) that Hebrew is a derivative of the language of Adam. In particular, the chief Hebrew name for God in scholastic tradition, El, must be derived of a different Adamic name for God, which Dante reconstructs as I. Paradiso 26.133f.; Mazzocco, p. 178f. One might note with the Hebrew scholarly theory that Hebrew is an Afro-Asiatic language, and the source of these is believed to be Ethiopia, where the greatest diversity of these languages can be found, including the Ge'ez language used in the Book of Enoch. Arabic, which is related to Hebrew, could also be theorized as being the original Adamic language for this reason, which many Muslim scholars do. This Muslim theory is based on the fact that the name Adam آدم comes from the skin which is named Adamah أدمه, and especially on knowledge that Adam name refers to the skin color which was tanned. These Muslim scholars argue that according to their Hadith script, Adam being the father of humans, was made from all kinds of earth with all colors types, hence the color of skin was neither black nor white, but something a bit in between closer to the darker skin. Similar arguments there are in the Jewish teachings in Talmud, where the Adam אדם and Adamah אדמה wording has similar meanings, but Adam was referred to as having neither black nor white color, but colors closer to yellow skin and dark red hair Anne Catherine Emmerich, Life of Jesus Christ And Biblical Revelations, 4. The family of Adam. (1790) . Those scholars who do not believe in the Afro-Asiatic languages as descendants of the Adamic language trace them to Abraham instead of Noah and Adam. Some Christian scholars based on Genesis 10:5 have assumed that the Japhetite, or Indo-European, languages are rather the direct descendants of the Adamic language, having separated before the confusion of tongues, by which also Hebrew was affected. For example, a few early Christian fathers claimed that Adam spoke Latin to explain why God would make it the liturgical language of his Church, although "Latin" here would be a loose way of referring to its ancestor, Proto-Indo-European. The same is claimed by Anne Catherine Emmerich (1790), who stated in her private revelations that the most direct descendants of the Adamic language were Bactrian, Zend and Indian languages (i.e., the Indo-Iranian languages), associating the Adamic language with the then-recent concept of the "common source" of these tongues, now known as Proto-Indo-European, that presumably was written in an assumedly sentence-level ideographic script that was more abstract than word-level ideographic script. Anne Catherine Emmerich, Life of Jesus Christ And Biblical Revelations, 6. Noah and his posterity, 7. The tower of Babel. (1790) One interesting fact is that the Behistun Inscription, written in Old Persian, begins with adam, meaning "I am". The Behistun Inscription According to Ernst Cassirer, "The sixteenth- and seventeenth-century philosophers of language still supposed that phenomena of onomatopoeia offered the key to the basic and original language of mankind, the lingua adamica". The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms I, p.191 (English translation, 1953). The modern concept corresponding to that of the Adamic language is that of the Proto-World language, but rather than positing divine inspiration, linguists also assume that it arose from proto-linguistic forms of communication. Recent treatments of a "language of Eden", such as the Edenics of Isaac E. Mozeson, suggested in his The Origin of Speeches: Intelligent Design in Language: From the Language of Eden to Our Babble After Babel, are the examples of modern scientific literature based partly on religious beliefs. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Joseph Smith, Jr., founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, in his version of the Bible, declared the Adamic language to have been "pure and undefiled". Book of Moses 6:6. Some Latter Day Saints believe it to be the language of God. John S. Robertson, "Adamic Language", in Encyclopedia of Mormonism (New York: Macmillan) 1:18–19. Though different from Hebrew, the Hebrew language was thought to contain remnants of this ancient language, including the words Elohim and Jehovah. Some other early Latter-day Saint leaders, including Brigham Young, Brigham Young, "History of Brigham Young", Millennial Star, vol. 25, no. 28, p. 439 (1863-07-11), cited in History of the Church 1:297, footnote (Young prays in the Adamic tongue). Orson Pratt Journal of Discourses 2:342 (God = "Ahman"; Son of God = "Son Ahman"; Men = "Sons Ahman"; Angel = "Anglo-man"). and Elizabeth Ann Whitney Woman's Exponent 7:83 (1 November 1878) (Whitney sings a hymn in the Adamic tongue). claimed to have received several words in the Adamic language in revelations. Some Latter Day Saints believe that the Adamic language is the "pure language" spoken of by Zephaniah Zephaniah and that it will be restored as the universal language of humankind at the end of the world. Oliver Cowdery, "The Prophecy of Zephaniah", Evening and Morning Star, vol. 2, no. 18, p. 142 (March 1834). Bruce R. McConkie (1966, 2d ed.). Mormon Doctrine (Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft) p. 19. Ezra Taft Benson (1988). Teachings of Ezra Taft Benson (Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft) p. 93. Latter-day Saint Apostle Orson Pratt declared that "Ahman", part of the name of the settlement "Adam-ondi-Ahman" in Daviess County, Missouri, was the name of God in the Adamic language. The Latter-day Saint Endowment prayer circle once included use of the words "Pay Lay Ale", Steven Naifeh and Gregory White Smith, The Mormon Murders (New York: St. Martins's Press, 1988) ISBN 0312934106, p. 69. "the sign of the Second Token [is] raising both hands and then lowering them while repeating the incantation "Pay Lay Ale" three times" which some adherents believed were Adamic words meaning "Oh God, hear the words of my mouth". Tamra Jean Braithwaite, A Mormon Odyssey (Xlibris Co., 2003) ISBN 1413418783, p. 212. "In 1990, several significant portions of the endowment ceremony performed worldwide in Latter-day Saint temples were eliminated" including "the chanting in unison of "Pay Lay Ale, Pay Lay Ale, Pay Lay Ale" (supposedly meaning Oh God, hear the words of my mouth in the Adamic language)." The untranslated words are no longer used in temple ordinances and have been replaced by the English version. "Current Mormon Temple Ceremony Now Available", Salt Lake City Messenger, no. 76, November 1990. Some think that the "Pay Lay Ale" sentence is derived from Hebrew sentence "pe le-El", 'mouth to God'. Other words thought by some Latter-day Saints to derive from the Adamic language include deseret ("honey bee", see Ether 2:3, but some argue "deseret" can be traced to the Egyptian word dsrt, which in fact refers to the honey bee), Dr. Hugh Nibley, Lehi in the Deseret and the World of the Jaredites (Shadow Mountain, 1998) ISBN 0875791328 pp. 184-85 and Ahman ("God"). Some have also taken the word shelem to mean "height" (see Ether 3:1) though the passage states, "...which they called the mount Shelem, because of its exceeding height..." not necessarily implying that the word actually means "height," but more practically that the word has at least something to do with "exceeding height." In the Pearl of Great Price, a section of Joseph Smith's translation of the Bible, it refers to "a Book of Remembrance", written in language of Adam. Moses 6:5, 46. It is believed that this was the beginning of what is recognized as the Old Testament today. References Angelo Mazzocco, Linguistic Theories in Dante and the Humanists, ISBN 9004092501 (chapter 9: "Dante's Reappraisal of the Adamic language", 159-181) Umberto Eco, The search for the perfect language (1993). See also History of linguistics Lingua ignota Mythical origins of language Origin of language Proto-World language | Adamic_language |@lemmatized adamic:22 language:48 accord:4 abrahamic:1 tradition:2 speak:5 adam:20 eve:3 garden:1 eden:3 typically:1 identify:1 either:1 use:4 god:12 address:3 invent:1 book:5 genesis:9 medieval:1 early:3 modern:3 discussion:1 traditional:1 jewish:2 exegesis:1 midrash:1 rabbah:1 say:1 hebrew:15 name:8 give:1 isha:1 chava:1 make:3 sense:1 contrast:1 kabbalism:1 assume:4 eternal:1 torah:2 identical:2 write:4 thus:1 abulafia:1 century:2 paradise:2 different:3 reject:1 claim:4 current:2 also:7 among:1 christian:3 author:1 child:1 leave:1 unexposed:1 linguistic:3 stimulus:1 would:3 automatically:1 begin:3 eco:5 p:12 f:1 note:3 ambiguous:1 whether:1 preserve:1 descendant:4 confusion:2 tongue:5 evolve:1 naturally:1 even:1 babel:3 dante:6 topic:1 de:1 vulgari:1 eloquentia:1 argue:3 divine:2 origin:4 therefore:1 unchangeable:1 mazzocco:4 first:1 speech:2 act:1 due:1 serpent:1 mulierem:1 invenitur:1 ante:1 omnes:1 fuisse:1 locutam:1 divina:1 commedia:1 however:1 change:1 view:1 treat:1 product:1 consequence:1 could:3 longer:2 regard:2 immutable:1 hence:2 concludes:1 paradiso:2 xxvi:1 derivative:1 particular:1 chief:1 scholastic:1 el:2 must:1 derive:3 reconstructs:1 one:2 might:1 scholarly:1 theory:3 afro:2 asiatic:2 source:2 believe:6 ethiopia:1 great:2 diversity:1 find:1 include:6 ge:1 ez:1 enoch:1 arabic:1 relate:1 theorize:1 original:2 reason:1 many:1 muslim:3 scholar:4 base:3 fact:3 آدم:1 come:1 skin:5 adamah:2 أدمه:1 especially:1 knowledge:1 refers:2 color:5 tan:1 hadith:1 script:3 father:2 human:1 kind:1 earth:1 type:1 neither:2 black:2 white:3 something:2 bit:1 closer:2 darker:1 similar:2 argument:1 teaching:2 talmud:1 אדם:1 אדמה:1 wording:1 meaning:1 refer:3 yellow:1 dark:1 red:1 hair:1 anne:3 catherine:3 emmerich:3 life:2 jesus:3 christ:3 biblical:2 revelation:4 family:1 trace:2 abraham:1 instead:1 noah:2 japhetite:1 indo:4 european:3 rather:2 direct:2 separate:1 affect:1 example:2 latin:2 explain:1 liturgical:1 church:3 although:1 loose:1 way:1 ancestor:1 proto:5 state:2 private:1 bactrian:1 zend:1 indian:1 e:2 iranian:1 associate:1 recent:2 concept:2 common:1 know:1 presumably:1 assumedly:1 sentence:3 level:2 ideographic:2 abstract:1 word:13 posterity:1 tower:1 interesting:1 behistun:2 inscription:2 old:2 persian:1 mean:5 ernst:1 cassirer:1 sixteenth:1 seventeenth:1 philosopher:1 still:1 suppose:1 phenomenon:1 onomatopoeia:1 offer:1 key:1 basic:1 mankind:1 lingua:2 adamica:1 philosophy:1 symbolic:1 form:2 english:2 translation:2 correspond:1 world:4 posit:1 inspiration:1 linguists:1 arise:1 communication:1 treatment:1 edenics:1 isaac:1 mozeson:1 suggest:1 intelligent:1 design:1 babble:1 scientific:1 literature:1 partly:1 religious:1 belief:1 latter:9 day:9 saint:9 joseph:2 smith:3 jr:1 founder:1 movement:1 version:2 bible:2 declare:2 pure:2 undefiled:1 moses:2 john:1 robertson:1 encyclopedia:1 mormonism:1 new:2 york:2 macmillan:1 though:2 think:3 contain:1 remnant:1 ancient:1 elohim:1 jehovah:1 leader:1 brigham:3 young:4 history:3 millennial:1 star:2 vol:2 cite:1 footnote:1 prays:1 orson:2 pratt:2 journal:1 discourse:1 ahman:6 son:3 men:1 angel:1 anglo:1 man:1 elizabeth:1 ann:1 whitney:2 woman:1 exponent:1 november:2 sings:1 hymn:1 receive:1 several:2 spoken:1 zephaniah:3 restore:1 universal:1 humankind:1 end:1 oliver:1 cowdery:1 prophecy:1 evening:1 morning:1 march:1 bruce:1 r:1 mcconkie:1 ed:1 mormon:4 doctrine:1 salt:3 lake:3 city:3 utah:2 bookcraft:2 ezra:2 taft:2 benson:2 apostle:1 part:1 settlement:1 ondi:1 daviess:1 county:1 missouri:1 endowment:2 prayer:1 circle:1 pay:6 lay:6 ale:6 steven:1 naifeh:1 gregory:1 murder:1 st:1 martin:1 press:1 isbn:4 sign:1 second:1 token:1 raise:1 hand:1 lower:1 repeat:1 incantation:1 three:1 time:1 adherent:1 oh:2 hear:2 mouth:3 tamra:1 jean:1 braithwaite:1 odyssey:1 xlibris:1 co:1 significant:1 portion:1 ceremony:2 perform:1 worldwide:1 temple:3 eliminate:1 chanting:1 unison:1 supposedly:1 untranslated:1 ordinance:1 replace:1 available:1 messenger:1 pe:1 le:1 deseret:3 honey:2 bee:2 see:3 ether:2 egyptian:1 dsrt:1 dr:1 hugh:1 nibley:1 lehi:1 jaredites:1 shadow:1 mountain:1 pp:1 take:1 shelem:2 height:4 passage:1 call:1 mount:1 exceed:2 necessarily:1 imply:1 actually:1 practically:1 least:1 pearl:1 price:1 section:1 remembrance:1 beginning:1 recognize:1 testament:1 today:1 reference:1 angelo:1 humanist:1 chapter:1 reappraisal:1 umberto:1 search:1 perfect:1 linguistics:1 ignota:1 mythical:1 |@bigram adam_eve:1 garden_eden:1 midrash_genesis:1 genesis_rabbah:1 de_vulgari:1 afro_asiatic:2 ge_ez:1 jesus_christ:3 indo_european:3 proto_indo:2 indo_iranian:1 tower_babel:1 behistun_inscription:2 sixteenth_seventeenth:1 intelligent_design:1 joseph_smith:2 brigham_young:3 orson_pratt:2 oliver_cowdery:1 r_mcconkie:1 ezra_taft:2 taft_benson:2 honey_bee:2 umberto_eco:1 |
3,451 | Kingfisher | Kingfishers are small bright colored birds of the three families Alcedinidae (river kingfishers), Halcyonidae (tree kingfishers), and Cerylidae (water kingfishers). There are roughly 90 species of kingfisher. All have large heads, long, sharp, pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails. They are found throughout the world. Categorization The etymology of kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) is obscure; the term comes from king's fisher, but why that name was applied is not known . The taxonomy of the three families is complex and rather controversial. Although commonly assigned to the order Coraciiformes, from this level down confusion sets in. The kingfishers were traditionally treated as one family, Alcedinidae with three subfamilies, but following the 1990s revolution in bird taxonomy, the three former subfamilies are now usually elevated to familial level. That move was supported by chromosome and DNA-DNA hybridisation studies, but challenged on the grounds that all three groups are monophyletic with respect to the other Coraciiformes. This leads to them being grouped as the suborder Alcedines. The tree kingfishers have been previously given the familial name Dacelonidae but Halcyonidae has priority. This group derives from a very ancient divergence from the ancestral stock. Even tropical South America has only five species plus wintering Belted Kingfisher. In comparison, the tiny African country of The Gambia has eight resident species in its 120 by 20 mi. (192 by 32 km) area. The six species occurring in the Americas are four closely related green kingfishers in the genus Chloroceryle and two large crested kingfishers in the genus Megaceryle, suggesting that the sparse representation in the western hemisphere evolved from just one or two original colonising species. The smallest species of kingfisher is the African Dwarf Kingfisher (Ispidina lecontei), which averages at 10.4 g and 10 cm (4 inches). The largest overall is the Giant Kingfisher (Megaceryle maxima), at an average of 355 g (13.5 oz) and 45 cm (18 inches). However, the familiar Australian kingfisher known as the Laughing Kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae) may be the heaviest species, since large individuals exceeding 450 g (1 lb) are not rare. Habitat Kingfishers live in both woodland and wetland habitats. Kingfishers that live near water hunt small fish by diving. They also eat crayfish, frogs, and insects. Wood kingfishers eat reptiles. Kingfishers of all three families beat their prey to death, either by whipping it against a tree or by dropping it on a stone. They are able to see well both in air and under water while swimming. Their eyes also have evolved an egg-shaped lens able to focus in the two different environments. The Old World tropics and Australasia are the core area for this group. Europe and North America north of Mexico are very poorly represented with only one common kingfisher (Common Kingfisher and Belted Kingfisher respectively), and a couple of uncommon or very local species each: (Ringed Kingfisher and Green Kingfisher in the southwest USA, Pied Kingfisher and White-breasted Kingfisher in SE Europe). A White-throated Kingfisher Legend Halcyon which gives its name to the family Halcyonidae is a mythical bird similar to the kingfisher. "Ovid and Hyginus both also make the metamorphosis the origin of the etymology for "halcyon days", the seven days in winter when storms never occur. They state that these were originally the seven days each year (either side of the shortest day of the year) during which Alcyone ([as a kingfisher]) laid her eggs and made her nest on the beach and during which her father Aeolus, god of the winds, restrained the winds and calmed the waves so she could do so in safety. The phrase has since become a term used to describe a peaceful time generally." References External links ARKive - images and movies of the Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) Kingfisher videos on the Internet Bird Collection Kingfisher photos from Turkey A hunting European Kingfisher | Kingfisher |@lemmatized kingfisher:33 small:3 bright:1 color:1 bird:4 three:6 family:5 alcedinidae:2 river:1 halcyonidae:3 tree:3 cerylidae:1 water:3 roughly:1 specie:8 large:4 head:1 long:1 sharp:1 pointed:1 bill:1 short:2 leg:1 stubby:1 tail:1 find:1 throughout:1 world:2 categorization:1 etymology:2 alcedo:2 atthis:2 obscure:1 term:2 come:1 king:1 fisher:1 name:3 apply:1 know:2 taxonomy:2 complex:1 rather:1 controversial:1 although:1 commonly:1 assign:1 order:1 coraciiformes:2 level:2 confusion:1 set:1 traditionally:1 treat:1 one:3 subfamily:2 follow:1 revolution:1 former:1 usually:1 elevate:1 familial:2 move:1 support:1 chromosome:1 dna:2 hybridisation:1 study:1 challenge:1 ground:1 group:4 monophyletic:1 respect:1 lead:1 suborder:1 alcedines:1 previously:1 give:2 dacelonidae:1 priority:1 derive:1 ancient:1 divergence:1 ancestral:1 stock:1 even:1 tropical:1 south:1 america:3 five:1 plus:1 winter:2 belt:2 comparison:1 tiny:1 african:2 country:1 gambia:1 eight:1 resident:1 mi:1 km:1 area:2 six:1 occur:2 four:1 closely:1 related:1 green:2 genus:2 chloroceryle:1 two:3 crest:1 megaceryle:2 suggest:1 sparse:1 representation:1 western:1 hemisphere:1 evolve:2 original:1 colonise:1 dwarf:1 ispidina:1 lecontei:1 average:2 g:3 cm:2 inch:2 overall:1 giant:1 maximum:1 oz:1 however:1 familiar:1 australian:1 laugh:1 kookaburra:1 dacelo:1 novaeguineae:1 may:1 heavy:1 since:2 individual:1 exceed:1 lb:1 rare:1 habitat:2 live:2 woodland:1 wetland:1 near:1 hunt:2 fish:1 dive:1 also:3 eat:2 crayfish:1 frog:1 insect:1 wood:1 reptile:1 beat:1 prey:1 death:1 either:2 whip:1 drop:1 stone:1 able:2 see:1 well:1 air:1 swim:1 eye:1 egg:2 shape:1 lens:1 focus:1 different:1 environment:1 old:1 tropic:1 australasia:1 core:1 europe:2 north:2 mexico:1 poorly:1 represent:1 common:2 respectively:1 couple:1 uncommon:1 local:1 ring:1 southwest:1 usa:1 pied:1 white:2 breast:1 se:1 throated:1 legend:1 halcyon:2 mythical:1 similar:1 ovid:1 hyginus:1 make:2 metamorphosis:1 origin:1 day:4 seven:2 storm:1 never:1 state:1 originally:1 year:2 side:1 alcyone:1 lay:1 nest:1 beach:1 father:1 aeolus:1 god:1 wind:2 restrain:1 calm:1 wave:1 could:1 safety:1 phrase:1 become:1 use:1 describe:1 peaceful:1 time:1 generally:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 arkive:1 image:1 movie:1 video:1 internet:1 collection:1 photo:1 turkey:1 european:1 |@bigram closely_related:1 external_link:1 arkive_image:1 |
3,452 | Alternate_history | Alternate history or alternative history Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction (Oxford University Press, 2007) notes the preferred usage of "Alternate History" as well as is primacy in coinage, "Alternate History" was coined in 1954 and "Alternative History" was first used in 1977, pp.4-5. is a subgenre of speculative fiction (or science fiction) and historical fiction that is set in a world in which history has diverged from the actual history of the world. It is sometimes abbreviated AH. Another occasionally-used term for the genre is "allohistory" (lit. "other history"). Since the 1950s, this type of fiction has to a large extent merged with science fictional tropes involving cross-time travel between alternate histories or psychic awareness of the existence of "our" universe by the people in another; or ordinary voyaging uptime or downtime that results in history splitting into two or more timelines. Cross-time, time-splitting and alternate history themes have become so closely interwoven that it is impossible to discuss them fully apart from one another. In French, alternate history novels are called uchronie. This neologism is based on the prefix u- (as in the word utopia, a place that does not exist) and the Greek for time, chronos. An uchronie, then, is defined as a time that does not exist, a "non-time". Another occasionally-used term for the genre is "allohistory" (lit. "other history"). Allohistory Michael Quinion, World Wide Words. 2002-05-04. Alternate history is related to but distinct from counterfactual history - the term used by some professional historians when using thoroughly researched and carefully reasoned speculations on "what might have happened if..." as a tool of academic historical research. Definition Alternate history happens when the author makes the conscious choice to change something in our past. According to Steven H Silver alternate history requires three things: 1) the story must have a point of divergence from the history of our world prior to the time at which the author is writing, 2) a change that would alter history as it is known, and 3) an examination of the ramifications of that change. There are several genres of fiction that have been confused as alternate histories. Science fiction set in the future but at present is now in the past, like Arthur C. Clarke's 2001: A Space Odyssey, are not alternate history because the author has not made the conscious choice to change the past. Secret history, works that document things which are not known to have happened historically, is also not to be confused with alternate history. History of alternate history literature Antiquity The earliest example of an alternate history is Book IX, sections 17–19, of Livy's History of Rome from Its Foundation. Livy contemplated an alternative 4th Century BC in which Alexander the Great expanded his empire westward instead of eastward; Livy asked, "What would have been the results for Rome if she had been engaged in war with Alexander?" Ab Urbe Condita Titus Livius, Book 9. Harry Turtledove, Martin H. Greenberg: "The Best Alternative History Stories of the 20th Century", Ballantine Publishing Group 2001, 978-0345439901, Introduction The 1490 epic romance "Tirant lo Blanc", written when the loss of Constantinople to the Turks was still a recent and traumatic memory to Christian Europe, tells the story of the valiant knight Tirant The White from Brittany who gets to the embattled remnant of the Byzantine Empire, becomes a Megaduke and commander of its armies, and manages to fight off the invading Ottoman armies of Mehmet II, save the city from Islamic conquest, and even chase the Turks deeper into lands they had conquered before. 19th century One of the earliest works of alternate history published in large quantities for the reception of a popular audience, may be the French Louis Geoffroy's Histoire de la Monarchie universelle: Napoléon et la conquête du monde (1812-1832) (History of the Universal Monarchy: Napoleon And The Conquest Of The World) (1836), which imagines Napoleon's First French Empire victorious in the French invasion of Russia in 1811 and in an invasion of England in 1814, later unifying the world under Bonaparte's rule. In the English language, the first known complete alternate history is Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story "P.'s Correspondence", published in 1845. It recounts the tale of a man who is considered "a madman" due to his perceiving a different 1845, a reality in which long-dead famous people are still alive such as the poets Burns, Byron, Shelley, and Keats, the actor Edmund Kean, the British politician George Canning and even Napoleon Bonaparte. The first novel-length alternate history in English would seem to be Castello Holford's Aristopia (1895). While not as nationalistic as Louis Geoffroy's Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812–1823, Aristopia is another attempt to portray a utopian society. In Aristopia, the earliest settlers in Virginia discover a reef made of solid gold and are able to build a Utopian society in North America. Early 20th century and the era of the pulps A number of alternate history stories and novels appeared in the late 1800s and early 1900s (see, for example, Charles Petrie’s If: A Jacobite Fantasy [1926]). "If: A Jacobite Fantasy" by Charles Petrie In 1931, British historian Sir John Squire collected a series of essays from some of the leading historians of the period in the anthology If It Had Happened Otherwise. In this work, scholars from major universities as well as important non-university-based authors turned their attention to such questions as "If the Moors in Spain Had Won" and "If Louis XVI Had Had an Atom of Firmness". The essays range from serious scholarly efforts to Hendrik Willem van Loon's fanciful and satiric portrayal of an independent 20th century Dutch city state on the island of Manhattan. Among the authors included were Hilaire Belloc, André Maurois, and Winston Churchill. One of the entries in Squire's volume was Churchill's "If Lee Had Not Won the Battle of Gettysburg", written from the viewpoint of a historian in a world where the Confederacy had won the American Civil War, considering what would have happened if the North had been victorious (in other words, a character from an alternate world imagining a world more like the real one we live in, although not necessarily getting all the details right). This kind of speculative work which posts from the point of view of an alternate history is variously known as a "recursive alternate history", a "double-blind what-if" or an "alternate-alternate history". Churchill...and War. The Churchill Centre. Another example of alternate history from this period (and arguably the first to explicitly posit cross-time travel from one universe to another as anything more than a visionary experience) is H.G. Wells' Men Like Gods (1923) in which several Englishmen are transferred via an accidental encounter with a cross-time machine into an alternate universe featuring a seemingly pacifistic and utopian Britain. When the Englishmen, led by a satiric figure based on Winston Churchill, try to seize power, the utopians simply point a ray gun at them and send them on to someone else's universe. Wells describes a multiverse of alternative worlds, complete with the paratime travel machines that would later become popular with U.S. pulp writers, but since his hero experiences only a single alternate world this story is not very different from conventional alternate history. Men like Gods on Project Gutenberg The 1930s would see alternate history move into a new arena. The December 1933 issue of Astounding published Nat Schachner's "Ancestral Voices," quickly followed by Murray Leinster's "Sidewise in Time". While earlier alternate histories examined reasonably straight-forward divergences, Leinster attempted something completely different. In his "world gone mad", pieces of Earth traded places with their analogs from different timelines. The story follows Professor Minott and his students from the fictitious Robinson College as they wander through analogs of worlds that followed a different history. Time travel as a means of creating historical divergences This period also saw the publication of the time travel novel Lest Darkness Fall by L. Sprague de Camp where an American academic travels to the Italy of the Ostrogoths at the time of the Byzantine invasion led by Belisarius. De Camp's work is concerned with the historical changes wrought by his time traveler, Martin Padway, thereby making the work an alternate history. Padway is depicted as making permanent changes and implicitly forming a new time branch. Time travel as the cause of a point of divergence (creating two histories where before there was one, or simply replacing the future that existed before the time traveling event) has continued to be a popular theme: in Bring the Jubilee, by Ward Moore, the protagonist, who lives in an alternate history in which the South won the Civil War, travels through time and brings about a Union victory in the Battle of Gettysburg. When a story's assumptions about the nature of time travel lead to the complete replacement of the visited time's future rather than just the creation of an additional time line, the device of a "time patrol" is often used. Such an agency has the grim task of saving civilization every day, every hour, with patrol members—depicted most notably in Poul Anderson's "Time Patrol"—racing uptime and downtime to preserve the "correct" history. This is eventually revealed to be the one in which humanity transforms itself into a benevolent super-species that, amongst other achievements, creates time travel to ensure its own existence. This can lead to terrible moral dilemmas. In Delenda Est, the interference of time-travelling outlaws causes Carthage to win the Second Punic War and destroy Rome. As a result, there is a completely different Twentieth Century — "not better or worse, just completely different". The hero, Patrol Agent Manse Everard, must return to that period, fight the outlaws and change history back, restoring his (and our) familiar history — but only at the price of totally destroying the world which has taken its place, and which is equally deserving of existence. The stakes are the highest imaginable: billions of lives balanced against other billions of lives, for one man to decide. "Risking your neck in order to negate a world full of people like yourself" is how the hero describes what he eventually undertakes. Cross-time stories H.G. Wells' "cross-time"/"many universes" variant (see above) was fully developed by De Camp in his 1940 short story "The Wheels of If" (Unknown Fantasy Fiction, October 1940), in which the hero is repeatedly shifted from one alternate history to another, each more remote from our own than the last. This subgenre was used early on for purposes far removed from quasi-academic examination of alternative outcomes to historical events. Fredric Brown employed it to satirize the science fiction pulps and their adolescent readers—and fears of foreign invasion—in the classic What Mad Universe (1949). In Clifford Simak's Ring Around the Sun (1953), the hero ends up in an alternate earth of thick forests in which humanity never developed but where a band of mutants is establishing a colony; the story line appears to frame the author's anxieties regarding McCarthyism and the Cold War. Also in the late 1940s and the 1950s, however, writers such as H. Beam Piper, Sam Merwin, Jr. and Andre Norton wrote thrillers set in a multiverse in which all alternate histories are co-existent and travel between them occurs via a technology involving portals and/or paratime capsules. These authors established the convention of a secret paratime trading empire that exploits and/or protects worlds lacking the paratime technology via a network of James Bond-style secret agents (Piper called them the "paratime police"). This concept provided a convenient framing for packing a smorgasbord of historical alternatives (and even of timeline "branches") into a single novel, either via the hero chasing or being chased by the villain(s) through multiple worlds or (less artfully) via discussions between the paratime cops and their superiors (or between paratime agents and new recruits) regarding the histories of such worlds. The paratime theme is sometimes used without the police; Poul Anderson dreamed up the Old Phoenix tavern as a nexus between alternate histories. A character from a modern American alternate history Operation Chaos can thus appear in the English Civil War setting of A Midsummer's Tempest. In this context, the distinction between an alternate history and a parallel universe with some points in common but no common history may not be feasible, as the writer may not provide enough information to distinguish. Paratime thrillers published in recent decades often cite the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics (first formulated by Hugh Everett III in 1957) to account for the differing worlds. Some science fiction writers interpret the splitting of worlds to depend on human decision-making and free will, while others rely on the butterfly effect from chaos theory to amplify random differences at the atomic or subatomic level into a macroscopic divergence at some specific point in history; either way, science fiction writers usually have all changes flow from a particular historical point of divergence (often abbreviated 'POD' by fans of the genre). Prior to Everett, science-fiction writers drew on higher dimensions and the speculations of P. D. Ouspensky to explain their characters' cross-time journeys. While many justifications for alternate histories involve a multiverse, the "many world" theory would naturally involve many worlds, in fact a continually exploding array of universes. In quantum theory, new worlds would proliferate with every quantum event, and even if the writer uses human decisions, every decision that could be made differently would result in a different timeline. A writer's fictional multiverse may, in fact, preclude some decisions as humanly impossible, as when, in Night Watch, Terry Pratchett depicts a character informing Vimes that while anything that can happen, has happened, nevertheless there is no history whatsoever in which Vimes has ever murdered his wife. When the writer explicitly maintains that all possible decisions are made in all possible ways, one possible conclusion is that the characters were neither brave, nor clever, nor skilled, but simply lucky enough to happen on the universe in which they did not choose the cowardly route, take the stupid action, fumble the crucial activity, etc.; few writers focus on this idea, although it has been explored in stories such as Larry Niven's All the Myriad Ways, where the reality of all possible universes leads to an epidemic of suicide and crime because people conclude their choices have no moral import. In any case, even if it is true that every possible outcome occurs in some world, it can still be argued that traits such as bravery and intelligence might still affect the relative frequency of worlds in which better or worse outcomes occurred (even if the total number of worlds with each type of outcome is infinite, it is still possible to assign a different measure to different infinite sets). The physicist David Deutsch, a strong advocate of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, has argued along these lines, saying that "By making good choices, doing the right thing, we thicken the stack of universes in which versions of us live reasonable lives. When you succeed, all the copies of you who made the same decision succeed too. What you do for the better increases the portion of the multiverse where good things happen." "Taming the Multiverse". 2001-06-14. This view is perhaps somewhat too abstract to be explored directly in science fiction stories, but a few writers have tried, such as Greg Egan in his short story The Infinite Assassin, where an agent is trying to contain reality-scrambling "whirlpools" that form around users of a certain drug, and the agent is constantly trying to maximize the consistency of behavior among his alternate selves, attempting to compensate for events and thoughts he experiences but he guesses are of low measure relative to those experienced by most of his other selves. Many writers — perhaps the majority — avoid the discussion entirely. In one novel of this type, H. Beam Piper's Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen, a Pennsylvania State Police officer, who knows how to make gunpowder, is transported from our world to an alternate universe where the recipe for gunpowder is a tightly held secret and saves a country that is about to be conquered by its neighbors. The paratime patrol members are warned against going into the timelines immediately surrounding it, where the country will be overrun, but the book never depicts the slaughter of the innocent thus entailed, remaining solely in the timeline where the country is saved. The cross-time theme was further developed in the 1960s by Keith Laumer in the first three volumes of his Imperium sequence, which would be completed in Zone Yellow (1990). Piper's politically more sophisticated variant was adopted and adapted by Michael Kurland and Jack Chalker in the 1980s; Chalker's G.O.D. Inc trilogy (1987–89), featuring paratime detectives Sam and Brandy Horowitz, marks the first attempt at merging the paratime thriller with the police procedural. Kurland's Perchance (1988), the first volume of the never-completed "Chronicles of Elsewhen", presents a multiverse of secretive cross-time societies that utilize a variety of means for cross-time travel, ranging from high-tech capsules to mutant powers. Harry Turtledove has launched the Crosstime Traffic series for teenagers featuring a variant of H. Beam Piper's paratime trading empire. The concept of a cross-time version of a world war, involving rival paratime empires, was developed in Fritz Leiber's Change War series, starting with the Hugo Award winning The Big Time (1958); followed by Richard C. Meredith's Timeliner trilogy in the 1970s, Michael McCollum's A Greater Infinity (1982) and John Barnes' Timeline Wars trilogy in the 1990s. Such "paratime" stories may include speculation that the laws of nature can vary from one universe to the next, providing a science fictional explanation—or veneer—for what is normally fantasy. Aaron Allston's Doc Sidhe and Sidhe Devil take place between our world, the "grim world" and an alternate "fair world" where the Sidhe retreated to. Although technology is clearly present in both worlds, and the "fair world" parallels our history, about fifty years out of step, there is functional magic in the fair world. Even with such explanation, the more explicitly the alternate world resembles a normal fantasy world, the more likely the story is to be labeled fantasy, as in Poul Anderson's "House Rule" and "Loser's Night." In both science fiction and fantasy, whether a given parallel universe is an alternate history may not be clear. The writer might allude to a POD only to explain the existence and make no use of the concept, or may present the universe without explanation to its existence. Major writers explore alternate histories In 1962, Philip K. Dick published The Man in the High Castle, an alternate history in which Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan won World War II. This book contained an example of "alternate-alternate" history, in that one of its characters is the author of a book in which the Allies won the war. It was followed by Vladimir Nabokov's Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle (1969), a story of incest that takes place within an alternate North America settled in part by Czarist Russia, and that borrows from Dick's idea of "alternate-alternate" history (the world of Nabokov's hero is wracked by rumors of a "counter-earth" that apparently is ours). Some critics believe that the references to a counter-earth suggest that the world portrayed in Ada is a delusion in the mind of the hero (another favorite theme of Dick's novels). Strikingly, the characters in Ada seem to acknowledge their own world as the copy or negative version, calling it "Anti-Terra" while its mythical twin is the real "Terra." Not only history but science has followed a divergent path on Anti-Terra: it boasts all the same technology as our world, but all based on water instead of electricity. When a character in Ada makes a long-distance call, all the toilets in the house flush at once to provide hydraulic power. Isaac Asimov's short story "What If—" is about a couple who can explore alternate realities by means of a television-like device. This idea can also be found in Asimov's 1955 novel The End of Eternity. In that novel, the "Eternals" can change the realities of the world, without people being aware of it. The Plot Against America (2004) by Philip Roth looks at an America where Franklin D. Roosevelt is defeated in 1940 in his bid for a third term as President of the United States, and Charles Lindbergh is elected, leading to increasing fascism and anti-Semitism in the U.S. Michael Chabon, also generally not an author of speculative fiction, contributed to the genre with his 2007 novel The Yiddish Policemen's Union. This book explores a world in which the State of Israel was destroyed in its infancy and many of the world's Jews instead live in a small strip of Alaska set aside by the US government for Jewish settlement. The story follows a Jewish detective solving a murder case in the Yiddish-speaking city of Sitka. Stylistically, Chabon borrows heavily from the noir and detective fiction genres, while exploring social issues related to Jewish history and culture. Contemporary alternate history in popular literature The late 1980s and the 1990s saw a boom in popular-fiction versions of alternate history, fueled by the emergence of the prolific alternate history author Harry Turtledove, as well as the development of the steampunk genre and two series of anthologies — the What Might Have Been series edited by Gregory Benford and the Alternate ... series edited by Mike Resnick. This period also saw alternate history works by S.M. Stirling, Kim Stanley Robinson, Harry Harrison, Howard Waldrop and others. Since the late 1990s, Harry Turtledove has been the most prolific practitioner of alternate history and has been given the title "Master of Alternate History" by some. "Master of Alternate History" by Melissa Mia Hall -- Publishers Weekly, 4/7/2008 His books include the Timeline-191 series, in which Confederate States of America won the American Civil War, and the Tosev timeline series, in which aliens invaded Earth during World War II. Other stories by Turtledove include A Different Flesh, in which America was not colonized from Asia during the last ice age; In the Presence of Mine Enemies, in which the Nazis won World War II; and Ruled Britannia, in which the Spanish Armada succeeded in conquering Britain in the Elizabethan era, with William Shakespeare being given the task of writing the play that will motivate the Britons to rise up against their Spanish conquerors. He also co-authored a book with actor Richard Dreyfuss The Two Georges, in which the United Kingdom retained the American colonies, with George Washington and King George III making peace. He did a two-volume series in which the Japanese not only bombed Pearl Harbor but also invaded and occupied the Hawaiian Islands. Perhaps the most incessantly explored theme in popular alternate history focuses on worlds in which the Nazis won World War Two. In some versions, the Nazis conquer the entire world; in others, they conquer most of the world but a "Fortress America" exists under siege. Fatherland (1992) by Robert Harris, set in Europe following the Nazi victory, has been widely praised for portraying a more believable society and series of events than most other novels set in a world after a Nazi victory. Several writers have posited points of departure for such a world but then have injected time splitters from the future or paratime travel for instance James P. Hogan's The Proteus Operation. Norman Spinrad wrote The Iron Dream in 1972, which is intended to be a science fiction novel written by Adolf Hitler after fleeing from Europe to North America in the 1920s. Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich and William R. Forstchen have written a novel, 1945, in which the U.S. defeated Japan but not Germany in World War II, resulting in a Cold War with Germany rather than the Soviet Union. Gingrich and Fortschen neglected to write the promised sequel; instead, they wrote a trilogy about the American Civil War, starting with Gettysburg: A Novel of the Civil War, in which the Confederates win a victory at the Battle of Gettysburg. Beginning with The Probability Broach in 1981, L. Neil Smith wrote several novels which postulated the disintegration of the U.S. Federal Government during the Whiskey Rebellion and the creation of a libertarian utopia. A recent time traveling splitter variant involves entire communities being shifted uptime to be the founding fathers of new time branches. These communities are transported either from the present or the near-future to the past via a natural disaster, the action of technologically advanced aliens, or a human experiment gone wrong. S.M. Stirling wrote the Island in the Sea of Time trilogy, in which Nantucket Island and all its modern inhabitants are transported to Bronze Age times to become the world's first superpower. In Eric Flint's 1632 series, a small town in West Virginia is transported to 17th century Europe and leads a revolution against the Habsburgs. John Birmingham's Axis of Time trilogy deals with the culture shock when a United Nations naval task force from 2021 finds itself back in 1942 helping the Allies against the Empire of Japan and the Germans (and doing almost as much harm as good in spite of its advanced weapons). Alternate history in the contemporary fantasy genre Many fantasies and science fantasies are set in a world that has a history somewhat similar to our own world, but with magic added. Since the existence of magic implies different laws of nature it is difficult to imagine a credible point of divergence: The effects of divergence would have existed throughout human history and indeed throughout all evolution of life (unless one posits sudden changes in the laws of nature in medieval or modern times brought about by aliens, a time-space warp, etc.). One example of a universe that is in part historically recognizable but also obeys different physical laws is Poul Anderson's Three Hearts and Three Lions in which the Matter of France is history, and the fairy folk are real and powerful. A partly familiar European history for which the author provides a point of divergence is Randall Garrett's "Lord Darcy" series: a monk systemizing magic rather than science, so the use of foxglove to treat heart disease is called superstition. Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell takes place in an alternate version of England where a separate Kingdom ruled by the Raven King and founded on magic existed for in Northumbria for over 300 years. In Patricia Wrede's Regency fantasies, Great Britain has a Royal Society of Wizards, and in Poul Anderson's A Midsummer Tempest William Shakespeare is remembered as the Great Historian, with the novel itself taking place in the era of Oliver Cromwell and Charles I—and an earlier Industrial Revolution. The Tales of Alvin Maker series by Orson Scott Card (a parallel to the life of Joseph Smith, Jr., founder of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) takes place in an alternate America, beginning in the early 19th century. Prior to that time, a POD occurred: England, under the control of Oliver Cromwell, had banished "makers", or anyone else demonstrating "knacks" (an ability to perform seemingly supernatural feats) to the North American continent. Thus the early American colonists embraced as perfectly ordinary these gifts, and counted on them as a part of their daily lives. The political divisions of the continent is considerably altered, with two large English colonies bookending a smaller "American" nation, one aligned with England, and the other governed by exiled Cavaliers. Actual historical figures are seen in a much different light: Ben Franklin is revered as the continent’s finest "maker", George Washington was executed at the hands of an English army, and "Tom" Jefferson is the first president of "Apallachee", the result of a compromise between the Continentals and the British. On the other hand, when the "Old Ones" still manifest themselves in England in Keith Roberts's Pavane, which takes place in a technologically backward world after a Spanish assassination of Elizabeth I allowed the Spanish Armada to conquer England, the possibility that the fairies were real but retreated from modern advances makes the POD possible: the fairies really were present all along, in a secret history. Again, in the English Renaissance fantasy Armor of Light by Melissa Scott and Lisa A. Barnett, the magic used in the book, by Dr. John Dee and others, actually was practiced in the Renaissance; positing a secret history of effective magic makes this an alternate history with a POD, Sir Philip Sidney's surviving the Battle of Zutphen, and shortly there after saving the life of Christopher Marlowe. Many works of fantasy posit a world in which known practitioners of magic were able to make it function, and where the consequences of such reality would not, in fact, disturb history to such an extent as to make it plainly alternate history. Many ambiguous alternate/secret histories are set in Renaissance or pre-Renaissance times, and may explicitly include a "retreat" from the world, which would explain the current absence of such phenomena. When the magical version of our world's history is set in contemporary times, the distinction becomes clear between alternate history on the one hand and contemporary fantasy, using in effect a form of secret history (as when Josepha Sherman's Son of Darkness has an elf living in New York City, in disguise) on the other. In works such as Robert A. Heinlein's Magic, Incorporated where a construction company can use magic to rig up stands at a sporting event and Poul Anderson's Operation Chaos and its sequel Operation Luna, where djinns are serious weapons of war — with atomic bombs — the use of magic throughout the United States and other modern countries makes it clear that this is not secret history—although references in Operation Chaos to degaussing the effects of cold iron make it possible that it is the result of a POD. The sequel clarifies this as the result of a collaboration of Einstein and Planck in 1901, resulting in the theory of "rheatics". Henry Moseley applies this theory to "degauss the effects of cold iron and release the goetic forces." This results in the suppression of ferromagnetism and the reemergence of magic and magical creatures. Alternate history shades off into other fantasy subgenres when the use of actual, though altered, history and geography decreases, although a culture may still be clearly the original source; Barry Hughart's Bridge of Birds and its sequels take place in a fantasy world, albeit one clearly based on China, and with allusions to actual Chinese history, such as the Empress Wu. Richard Garfinkle's Celestial Matters incorporates ancient Chinese physics and Greek Aristotelian physics, using them as if factual. A fantasy version of the paratime police was developed by children's writer Diana Wynne Jones in her Chrestomanci quartet (1977–1988), with wizards taking the place of high tech secret agents. Among the novels in this series, Witch Week stands out for its vivid depiction of a history alternate to that of Chrestomanci's own world rather than our own (and yet with a specific POD that turned it away from the "normal" history of most worlds visited by the wizard). Terry Pratchett's works includes several references to alternate histories of Discworld. Men At Arms observes that in millions of universes, Edward d'Eath became an obsessive recluse rather than the instigator of the plot that he is in the novel. In Jingo, Vimes accidentally picks up a pocket organizer that should have gone down another leg of the Trousers of Time, and so can hear the organizer reporting on the deaths that would have occurred had his decision gone otherwise. Indeed, Discworld contains an equivalent of the Time Patrol in its History Monks. Night Watch revolves around a repair of history after a time traveler's murder of an important figure in Vimes's past. Thief of Time presents them functioning as a full-scale Time Patrol, ensuring that history occurs at all. Alternate history in other media Radio In 1953, the NBC radio network aired a show called Stroke of Fate that posited different point of divergence creating an alternate time-line for each episode and dramatized the results along with commentary from various historians. Episodes included changes in the American Civil War, Alexander the Great surviving his illness, an alternate fate for James Wolfe at Quebec City, no Julius Caesar assassination, a different outcome of Aaron Burr's duel amongst other stories. All episodes have been preserved. The idea of an alternate history was used for satiric and comedic effect in the BBC Radio comedy Married. The protagonist, a confirmed bachelor, awakes one morning in a world where he has a wife and two children, and people familiar to him are radically changed. One historical divergence in this world, exploited mostly for comedy, was the decision of King Edward VIII not to abdicate in 1936. His heirs were a King Richard and a King John, the latter of whom was openly homosexual. Films Several films have been made that exploit the concepts of alternate history, most notably Kevin Brownlow's It Happened Here (1966), depicting a Nazi-occupied Britain. Other alternate history films include the HBO TV movie Fatherland (1994), set in the 1960s in a world where Germany won World War II; Battle Royale (2000) and Battle Royale II: Requiem (2003), Japanese films which depict an alternate history of Japan where a law known as the "Millennium Educational Reform Act" had been passed; 2009 Lost Memories (2002), a Korean film supposing that Hirobumi Ito was not assassinated by An Jung-geun in Harbin, China, in 1909; Timequest (2002), in which a time traveler prevents the assassination of John F. Kennedy, resulting in an altered subsequent history; and C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America (2004), a satirical look at the history of an America where the South won the Civil War, told in the form of a British "documentary." A few movies about alternative universes focus on individuals rather than historical events, for example, Frank Capra’s It's a Wonderful Life, and more recently the Back to the Future series of films, Blind Chance, Sliding Doors, Run Lola Run, Me Myself I, The Butterfly Effect, and Frequency. Television Several TV series also exploit the concept of alternate history. The science fiction television show Sliders presented alternate histories under the science-inspired guise of quantum-navigating the multiverse. The alternate Americas in most episodes are nasty dystopias, although sometimes this is not evident at first. Other non-alternate history television shows have explored the concept. Star Trek has used the theme several times. Examples include: TOS - "City on the Edge of Forever" (alternate World War II outcome); Animated Series- "Yesteryear"; NG - "Yesterday's Enterprise". Also, the universe of "Mirror, Mirror", while in the original episode was just implied to be a parallel universe, was in later episodes shown to have an alternate history. The British TV series Doctor Who had a few episodes that involved an alternate Earth where Pete Tyler, father of Rose Tyler, was alive, successful, and rich, unlike the Pete Tyler on the original Earth, who died when Rose was a baby and had been unsuccessful in business. The Doctor, Rose, and Mickey Smith visited the alternate Earth by accident in "Rise of the Cybermen" and "The Age of Steel". The second season finale "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday" also involved travel to the same alternate Earth, and the series four episode "Turn Left" showed an alternate history where the Doctor has been killed. During the third Doctor's tenure he visited an alternative Earth in Inferno. In the Twilight Zone episode "The Parallel", an astronaut is transported to an alternate Earth where history plays out differently, but no-one believes him when he discovers this. Various anime productions have also used the genre. In the Japanese television series, Zipang (based on a manga of the same name), a modern Aegis class destroyer of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force is thrown back in time to the Battle of Midway in 1942. The presence of the ship and its crew, their advanced technology and knowledge of the future, change the course of World War II and create an alternate timeline. The anime Code Geass depicts an alternate history in which an empire known as Britannia has colonized Japan. Role-playing games The dramatic possibilities of alternate history provide a diverse genre for exploration in role-playing games. Many games use an alternate historical background for their campaigns. In particular, the fourth edition of GURPS uses a setting containing multiple different alternate histories as its default campaign setting, with the supplement GURPS Infinite Worlds detailing a large number of alternate worlds included in the setting, many of them carryovers from the third-edition GURPS supplements GURPS Alternate Earths and GURPS Alternate Earths II. Video games For the same reasons that this genre is explored by role-playing games, alternate history is also an intriguing backdrop for the storylines of many video games. A famous example of an alternate history game is Command & Conquer: Red Alert (1996). It presents a point of divergence where Albert Einstein goes back in time to prevent World War II from ever taking place by erasing Adolf Hitler from time after he is released from Landsberg Prison in 1924. He is successful in his mission, but in the process allows Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union to become powerful enough—as a direct result of not having a strong rival dictator like Hitler to keep his power in check—to launch a massive campaign to conquer Europe, sparking an alternate (and ultimately costlier) version of the Second World War and, eventually, World War III not once but twice: one where the U.S.S.R. invades the continental U.S in the 1970s, and a second where a small group of Soviet leaders, attempting to preempt their defeat, go back in time and eliminate Einstein but end up in a conflict with both the West and a third Japanese side. Crimson Skies is one example of an alternate history spawning multiple interpretations in multiple genres. The stories and games in Crimson Skies take place in an alternate 1930s United States, where the nation crumbled into many hostile states following the effects of the Great Depression, the Great War, and Prohibition. With the road and railway system destroyed, commerce took to the skies. Great cargo zeppelins escorted by fighter squadrons are the targets of many ruthless air pirates and enemy countries. This world has featured in a board game, a PC game, an Xbox game, a collectible miniature game and various promotional novels, comics and short stories. The game Freedom Fighters portrays a situation similar to that of the movie Red Dawn and the game Red Alert 2, though less comically than the latter. In it, the point of divergence is during World War II, with the Soviet Union first to develop an atomic weapon, which they immediately use on Berlin. With the balance of power and influence tipped in Russia's favor, history diverges; brief summaries at the beginning of the game inform the player of the Communist bloc's complete takeover of Europe by 1953, a different ending to the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the spread of Soviet influence into South America and Mexico. The plot of the game revolves around a Soviet invasion of the United States and the resistance fighting in New York City. Similarly, the 2007 video game World in Conflict is set in 1989, with the Soviet Union on the verge of collapse. The point of divergence is several months before the opening of the game, when Warsaw Pact forces staged a desperate invasion of Western Europe. As the game begins, a Soviet invasion force lands in Seattle, taking advantage of the fact that most of the military is in Europe. The game is divided into three parts: the first focuses on the fighting retreat from Seattle towards Fort Teller in the Cascade Mountains; the second is a flashback to the recent fighting in Europe, which culminated in a Soviet attack on Manhattan; the third chronicles the fight to retake Seattle before a Chinese fleet arrives and forces the President to detonate a nuclear weapon to destroy the invaders. Turning Point: Fall of Liberty, released in February 2008, is an alternate history game in which Winston Churchill died in 1931, Europe and North Africa fell to the Nazis, and the Axis won World War II and have invaded the United States. Another alternate history game involving Nazis is War Front: Turning Point in which Adolf Hitler died during the early days of World War II and thus, a much more effective leadership rose to power. Under the command of this new Führer (who is referred to as "Chancellor", and his real name is never revealed), Operation Sealion succeeds and The Nazis successfully conquer Britain, sparking a cold war between the Allied Powers and Germany. Another example of alternate history is the PS3 game Resistance: Fall of Man, in which World War II didn't happen, due to the absence of American forces in World War I, meaning there was no Great Depression or Treaty of Versailles. This explains the game's lack of nuclear offensive capabilities against the Chimera, an army of humans infected by an alien virus. The Fallout Series of computer role playing games is set in a divergent America, where history after World War 2 diverges from the real world. For example, fusion power was invented quite soon after the end of the second world war, but the transistor never was. The result was a future that has a 1950s 'World of Tomorrow' feel to it, with extremely high technology such as artificial intelligence implemented with thermionic valves and other technologies now considered obsolete, the cold war never happens, and the soviet union never collapses. Comic books Alternate history has also appeared in comic books. An early example is Captain Confederacy, which is set in a world where the Confederate States of America won its independence and has created a Captain America-type superhero for propaganda purposes. Influential comic writers have also used an alternate history as the background to their story. Alan Moore's 1986 comic series Watchmen is set in an alternate United States that not only has costumed adventurers as commonplace fixtures within American society, but also contains other alternate history elements including an American "victory" in the Vietnam War and Richard Nixon serving five terms as president. Recently there has been Warren Ellis's 2001 comic mini-series Ministry of Space where soldiers and operatives of the United Kingdom reached the German rocket installations at Peenemünde ahead of the U.S. Army and the Soviets. There have also been alternative history webcomics like Roswell, Texas, which diverges when Davy Crockett survived the Alamo, leading to the expansion of Texas. The two largest American comic book publishers, Marvel and DC, have their own tiles where they can tell alternative stories based on their own characters (What If...? and Elseworlds, respectively). Most set the stories in different times or base them on different genres with some based on a divergence in their fictional history. However, some are genuine alternate histories, with Batman: Holy Terror based on the premise that Oliver Cromwell lived for another decade. See also Alien space bats Counterfactual history Future history Historical revisionism Invasion literature Jonbar Hinge List of alternate history fiction Secret history Sidewise Award for Alternate History Uchronia Uchronia: The Alternate History List References Further reading Chapman, Edgar L., and Carl B. Yoke (eds.). Classic and Iconoclastic Alternate History Science Fiction. Mellen, 2003 Collins, William Joseph. Paths Not Taken: The Development, Structure, and Aesthetics of the Alternative History. University of California at Davis 1990 Robert Cowley (ed.), What If? Military historians imagine what might have been. Pan Books, 1999. Gevers, Nicholas. Mirrors of the Past: Versions of History in Science Fiction and Fantasy. University of Cape Town, 1997 Hellekson, Karen. The Alternate History: Refiguring Historical Time. Kent State University Press, 2001 Keen, Antony G. "Alternate Histories of the Roman Empire in Stephen Baxter, Robert Silverberg and Sophia McDougall." Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction 102, Spring 2008. McKnight, Edgar Vernon, Jr. Alternative History: The Development of a Literary Genre. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 1994 Nedelkovh, Aleksandar B. British and American Science Fiction Novel 1950-1980 with the Theme of Alternative History (an Axiological Approach). 1994 (Serbian), 1999 (English) Rosenfeld, Gavriel David. The World Hitler Never Made. Alternate History and the Memory of Nazism. 2005 Rosenfeld, Gavriel David. "Why Do We Ask 'What If?' Reflections on the Function of Alternate History." History and Theory 41, Theme Issue 41 (December 2002), 90-103 External links Interactive sites Alternatehistory.com An active alternate history discussion board on the Internet. Althistory Wikia Alternate History Wikia, maintained by Wikipedia Counter-Factual.Net A website pertaining to the subject of alternate history and writing, with a regularly released zine and an active discussion forum. Different Worlds An active alternate history discussion board on the internet. soc.history.what-if The usenet newsgroup on alternate history with over a decade of archives. Non-interactive sites Changing The Times, is an Alternate History Electronic Magazine written and maintained by alternate historians. It contains a discussion board. Dale Cozort's Alternate History Newsletter Alternate History newsletters and scenarios. "For Want of a Genre", article by Christopher M. Cevasco. Histalt.com is author Richard J. (Rick) Sutcliffe's collection of Alternate History links. "How to Change the World", essay by Paul Kincaid. John Reilly's Alternative History Paradox: The Magazine of Historical and Speculative Fiction, frequently publishes alternate history stories. Shattered World: A Worse World War, a site based on an alternate historical scenario containing an active forum. The Sidewise Award for Alternate History lists all the winners and nominees for the award since its inception and provides information for recommending works for consideration. Today in Alternate History, a daily-updated blog, featuring "Important Events In History That Never Occurred Today" in several recurring timelines. Uchronia has an introduction to the topic, and lists over 2000 works of alternate history. Point of Divergence: Information about the APA Point of Divergence which has been publishing since 1996. | Alternate_history |@lemmatized alternate:132 history:159 alternative:15 brave:2 new:9 word:4 oxford:2 dictionary:1 science:21 fiction:25 university:7 press:2 note:1 preferred:1 usage:1 well:8 primacy:1 coinage:1 coin:1 first:14 use:22 pp:1 subgenre:2 speculative:4 historical:15 set:17 world:93 diverge:2 actual:4 sometimes:3 abbreviated:1 ah:1 another:13 occasionally:2 used:2 term:5 genre:15 allohistory:3 lit:2 since:6 type:4 large:5 extent:2 merge:2 fictional:4 trope:1 involve:9 cross:11 time:59 travel:17 psychic:1 awareness:1 existence:6 universe:20 people:6 ordinary:2 voyaging:1 uptime:3 downtime:2 result:14 split:1 two:9 timeline:11 splitting:2 theme:9 become:7 closely:1 interwoven:1 impossible:2 discuss:1 fully:2 apart:1 one:24 french:4 novel:20 call:6 uchronie:2 neologism:1 base:11 prefix:1 u:10 utopia:2 place:13 exist:6 greek:2 chronos:1 define:1 non:4 michael:4 quinion:1 wide:1 relate:2 distinct:1 counterfactual:2 professional:1 historian:8 thoroughly:1 research:2 carefully:1 reason:2 speculation:3 might:5 happen:12 tool:1 academic:3 definition:1 author:13 make:21 conscious:2 choice:4 change:16 something:2 past:6 accord:1 steven:1 h:7 silver:1 require:1 three:5 thing:4 story:27 must:2 point:18 divergence:17 prior:3 write:13 would:14 alter:2 know:6 examination:2 ramification:1 several:10 confuse:2 future:9 present:9 like:8 arthur:1 c:3 clarke:1 space:4 odyssey:1 secret:11 work:13 document:1 historically:2 also:19 literature:3 antiquity:1 early:12 example:12 book:13 ix:1 section:1 livy:3 rome:3 foundation:2 contemplate:1 century:8 bc:1 alexander:3 great:9 expand:1 empire:9 westward:1 instead:4 eastward:1 ask:2 engage:1 war:42 ab:1 urbe:1 condita:1 titus:1 livius:1 harry:5 turtledove:5 martin:2 greenberg:1 best:1 ballantine:1 publish:8 group:2 introduction:2 epic:1 romance:1 tirant:2 lo:1 blanc:1 loss:1 constantinople:1 turk:2 still:7 recent:4 traumatic:1 memory:3 christian:1 europe:10 tell:3 valiant:1 knight:1 white:1 brittany:1 get:2 embattled:1 remnant:1 byzantine:2 megaduke:1 commander:1 army:6 manage:1 fight:5 invade:5 ottoman:1 mehmet:1 ii:15 save:5 city:7 islamic:1 conquest:2 even:7 chase:2 deeper:1 land:2 conquer:9 quantity:1 reception:1 popular:6 audience:1 may:9 louis:3 geoffroy:2 histoire:1 de:4 la:3 monarchie:1 universelle:1 napoléon:2 et:2 conquête:2 du:2 monde:2 universal:1 monarchy:1 napoleon:3 imagine:4 victorious:2 invasion:8 russia:3 england:6 later:3 unify:1 bonaparte:2 rule:4 english:7 language:1 known:2 complete:6 nathaniel:1 hawthorne:1 short:5 p:3 correspondence:1 recount:1 tale:2 man:4 consider:3 madman:1 due:2 perceive:1 different:21 reality:6 long:2 dead:1 famous:2 alive:2 poet:1 burn:1 byron:1 shelley:1 keats:1 actor:2 edmund:1 kean:1 british:6 politician:1 george:5 canning:1 length:1 seem:2 castello:1 holford:1 aristopia:3 nationalistic:1 attempt:5 portray:4 utopian:4 society:6 settler:1 virginia:2 discover:2 reef:1 solid:1 gold:1 able:2 build:1 north:7 america:16 era:3 pulp:3 number:3 appear:4 late:4 see:5 charles:4 petrie:2 jacobite:2 fantasy:18 sir:2 john:7 squire:2 collect:1 series:23 essay:3 lead:9 period:5 anthology:2 otherwise:2 scholar:1 major:2 important:3 turn:4 attention:1 question:1 moor:1 spain:1 win:16 xvi:1 atom:1 firmness:1 range:2 serious:2 scholarly:1 effort:1 hendrik:1 willem:1 van:1 loon:1 fanciful:1 satiric:3 portrayal:1 independent:1 dutch:1 state:14 island:4 manhattan:2 among:3 include:11 hilaire:1 belloc:1 andré:1 maurois:1 winston:3 churchill:6 entry:1 volume:4 lee:1 battle:7 gettysburg:4 viewpoint:1 confederacy:2 american:15 civil:8 character:9 real:6 live:5 although:6 necessarily:1 detail:2 right:2 kind:1 post:1 view:2 variously:1 recursive:1 double:1 blind:2 centre:1 arguably:1 explicitly:4 posit:6 anything:2 visionary:1 experience:4 g:4 men:3 god:2 englishman:2 transfer:1 via:6 accidental:1 encounter:1 machine:2 feature:5 seemingly:2 pacifistic:1 britain:5 figure:3 try:4 seize:1 power:8 simply:3 ray:1 gun:1 send:1 someone:1 else:2 describe:2 multiverse:8 paratime:17 writer:17 hero:8 single:2 conventional:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 move:1 arena:1 december:2 issue:3 astound:1 nat:1 schachner:1 ancestral:1 voice:1 quickly:1 follow:9 murray:1 leinster:2 sidewise:3 examine:1 reasonably:1 straight:1 forward:1 completely:3 go:7 mad:2 piece:1 earth:13 trade:1 analog:2 professor:1 minott:1 student:1 fictitious:1 robinson:2 college:1 wander:1 mean:4 create:5 saw:3 publication:1 l:4 darkness:2 fall:3 sprague:1 camp:3 italy:1 ostrogoth:1 belisarius:1 concern:1 traveler:3 padway:2 thereby:1 depict:7 permanent:1 implicitly:1 form:4 branch:3 cause:2 replace:1 event:8 continue:1 bring:2 jubilee:1 ward:1 moore:2 protagonist:2 south:3 brings:1 union:7 victory:5 assumption:1 nature:4 replacement:1 visited:1 rather:6 creation:2 additional:1 line:4 device:2 patrol:7 often:3 agency:1 grim:2 task:3 civilization:1 every:5 day:3 hour:1 member:2 notably:2 poul:6 anderson:6 racing:1 preserve:2 correct:1 eventually:3 reveal:2 humanity:2 transform:1 benevolent:1 super:1 specie:1 amongst:2 achievement:1 creates:1 ensure:2 terrible:1 moral:2 dilemma:1 delenda:1 est:1 interference:1 outlaws:1 carthage:1 second:6 punic:1 destroy:5 twentieth:1 bad:3 agent:6 manse:1 everard:1 return:1 outlaw:1 back:6 restore:1 familiar:3 price:1 totally:1 take:15 equally:1 deserve:1 stake:1 high:6 imaginable:1 billion:2 life:8 balance:2 decide:1 risk:1 neck:1 order:1 negate:1 full:2 undertake:1 many:16 variant:4 develop:6 wheel:1 unknown:1 october:1 repeatedly:1 shift:2 remote:1 last:2 purpose:2 far:3 remove:1 quasi:1 outcome:6 fredric:1 brown:1 employed:1 satirize:1 adolescent:1 reader:1 fear:1 foreign:1 classic:2 clifford:1 simak:1 ring:1 around:4 sun:1 end:5 thick:1 forest:1 never:9 band:1 mutant:2 establish:2 colony:3 frame:2 anxiety:1 regard:2 mccarthyism:1 cold:6 however:2 beam:3 piper:5 sam:2 merwin:1 jr:3 andre:1 norton:1 thriller:3 co:2 existent:1 occur:6 technology:7 portal:1 capsule:2 convention:1 trading:2 exploit:4 protect:1 lack:2 network:2 james:3 bond:1 style:1 police:5 concept:6 provide:7 convenient:1 pack:1 smorgasbord:1 either:3 chasing:1 villain:1 multiple:4 less:2 artfully:1 discussion:6 cop:1 superior:1 recruit:1 without:3 dream:2 old:2 phoenix:1 tavern:1 nexus:1 modern:6 operation:6 chaos:4 thus:4 setting:3 midsummer:2 tempest:2 context:1 distinction:2 parallel:6 common:2 feasible:1 enough:3 information:3 distinguish:1 decade:3 cite:1 interpretation:3 quantum:5 mechanic:2 formulate:1 hugh:1 everett:2 iii:3 account:1 differing:1 interpret:1 depend:1 human:5 decision:8 making:1 free:1 others:4 rely:1 butterfly:2 effect:8 theory:6 amplify:1 random:1 difference:1 atomic:3 subatomic:1 level:1 macroscopic:1 specific:2 way:3 usually:1 flow:1 particular:2 abbreviate:1 pod:7 fan:1 draw:1 dimension:1 ouspensky:1 explain:4 journey:1 justification:1 naturally:1 fact:4 continually:1 exploding:1 array:1 proliferate:1 could:1 differently:2 preclude:1 humanly:1 night:3 watch:2 terry:2 pratchett:2 inform:2 vimes:4 nevertheless:1 whatsoever:1 ever:2 murder:3 wife:2 maintain:3 possible:8 conclusion:1 neither:1 clever:1 skilled:1 lucky:1 choose:1 cowardly:1 route:1 stupid:1 action:2 fumble:1 crucial:1 activity:1 etc:2 focus:4 idea:4 explore:8 larry:1 niven:1 myriad:1 epidemic:1 suicide:1 crime:1 conclude:1 import:1 case:2 true:1 argue:2 trait:1 bravery:1 intelligence:2 affect:1 relative:2 frequency:2 total:1 infinite:4 assign:1 measure:2 physicist:1 david:3 deutsch:1 strong:2 advocate:1 along:3 say:1 good:4 thicken:1 stack:1 version:10 reasonable:1 succeed:4 copy:2 increase:2 portion:1 tame:1 perhaps:3 somewhat:2 abstract:1 directly:1 greg:1 egan:1 assassin:1 contain:7 scramble:1 whirlpool:1 user:1 certain:1 drug:1 constantly:1 maximize:1 consistency:1 behavior:1 self:3 compensate:1 thought:1 guess:1 low:1 majority:1 avoid:1 entirely:1 lord:2 kalvan:1 otherwhen:1 pennsylvania:1 officer:1 gunpowder:2 transport:5 recipe:1 tightly:1 hold:1 country:5 neighbor:1 warn:1 immediately:2 surround:1 overrun:1 slaughter:1 innocent:1 entail:1 remain:1 solely:1 keith:2 laumer:1 imperium:1 sequence:1 zone:2 yellow:1 politically:1 sophisticated:1 adopt:1 adapt:1 kurland:2 jack:1 chalker:2 inc:1 trilogy:6 detective:3 brandy:1 horowitz:1 mark:1 procedural:1 perchance:1 chronicle:3 elsewhen:1 secretive:1 utilize:1 variety:1 tech:2 launch:2 crosstime:1 traffic:1 teenager:1 rival:2 fritz:1 leiber:1 start:2 hugo:1 award:4 big:1 richard:6 meredith:1 timeliner:1 mccollum:1 infinity:1 barnes:1 law:5 vary:1 next:1 explanation:3 veneer:1 normally:1 aaron:2 allston:1 doc:1 sidhe:3 devil:1 fair:3 retreat:4 clearly:3 fifty:1 year:2 step:1 functional:1 magic:12 resemble:1 normal:2 likely:1 label:1 house:3 loser:1 whether:1 give:3 clear:3 allude:1 philip:3 k:1 dick:3 castle:1 nazi:9 germany:5 imperial:1 japan:6 ally:2 vladimir:1 nabokov:2 ada:4 ardor:1 family:1 incest:1 within:2 settle:1 part:4 czarist:1 borrow:1 wrack:1 rumor:1 counter:3 apparently:1 critic:1 believe:2 reference:4 suggest:1 delusion:1 mind:1 favorite:1 strikingly:1 acknowledge:1 negative:1 anti:3 terra:3 mythical:1 twin:1 divergent:2 path:2 boast:1 water:1 electricity:1 distance:1 toilet:1 flush:1 hydraulic:1 isaac:1 asimov:2 couple:1 television:5 find:2 eternity:1 eternals:1 aware:1 plot:3 roth:1 look:2 franklin:2 roosevelt:1 defeat:3 bid:1 third:5 president:4 united:9 lindbergh:1 elect:1 fascism:1 semitism:1 chabon:2 generally:1 contribute:1 yiddish:2 policeman:1 israel:1 infancy:1 jew:1 small:4 strip:1 alaska:1 aside:1 government:2 jewish:3 settlement:1 solve:1 speak:1 sitka:1 stylistically:1 borrows:1 heavily:1 noir:1 social:1 culture:3 contemporary:4 boom:1 fuel:1 emergence:1 prolific:2 development:3 steampunk:1 edit:2 gregory:1 benford:1 mike:1 resnick:1 stirling:2 kim:1 stanley:1 harrison:1 howard:1 waldrop:1 practitioner:2 title:1 master:2 melissa:2 mia:1 hall:1 publisher:2 weekly:1 confederate:4 tosev:1 alien:5 flesh:1 colonize:2 asia:1 ice:1 age:3 presence:2 mine:1 enemy:2 britannia:2 spanish:4 armada:2 elizabethan:1 william:4 shakespeare:2 play:4 motivate:1 briton:1 rise:6 conqueror:1 dreyfuss:1 kingdom:3 retain:1 washington:2 king:5 peace:1 japanese:4 bomb:2 pearl:1 harbor:1 occupy:1 hawaiian:1 incessantly:1 explored:1 nazis:1 entire:2 fortress:1 siege:1 fatherland:2 robert:5 harris:1 widely:1 praise:1 believable:1 departure:1 inject:1 splitter:2 instance:1 hogan:1 proteus:1 norman:1 spinrad:1 iron:3 intend:1 adolf:3 hitler:5 flee:1 former:1 speaker:1 newt:1 gingrich:2 r:2 forstchen:1 soviet:11 fortschen:1 neglect:1 promised:1 sequel:4 begin:3 probability:1 broach:1 neil:1 smith:3 postulate:1 disintegration:1 federal:1 whiskey:1 rebellion:1 libertarian:1 community:2 founding:1 father:2 near:1 natural:1 disaster:1 technologically:2 advanced:3 experiment:1 wrong:1 sea:1 nantucket:1 inhabitant:1 bronze:1 superpower:1 eric:1 flint:1 town:2 west:2 revolution:2 habsburg:1 birmingham:1 axis:2 deal:1 shock:1 nation:3 naval:1 force:7 help:1 german:2 almost:1 much:3 harm:1 spite:1 weapon:4 similar:2 add:1 implies:1 difficult:1 credible:1 throughout:3 indeed:2 evolution:1 unless:1 sudden:1 medieval:1 warp:1 recognizable:1 obeys:1 physical:1 heart:2 lion:1 matter:2 france:1 fairy:3 folk:1 powerful:2 partly:1 european:1 randall:1 garrett:1 darcy:1 monk:2 systemize:1 foxglove:1 treat:1 disease:1 superstition:1 jonathan:1 strange:1 mr:1 norrell:1 separate:1 raven:1 found:1 northumbria:1 patricia:1 wrede:1 regency:1 royal:1 wizard:3 remember:1 oliver:3 cromwell:3 industrial:1 alvin:1 maker:3 orson:1 scott:2 card:1 joseph:3 founder:1 church:1 jesus:1 christ:1 latter:3 saint:1 control:1 banish:1 anyone:1 demonstrate:1 knack:1 ability:1 perform:1 supernatural:1 feat:1 continent:3 colonist:1 embrace:1 perfectly:1 gift:1 count:1 daily:2 political:1 division:1 considerably:1 bookending:1 align:1 govern:1 exiled:1 cavalier:1 light:2 ben:1 revere:1 fine:1 execute:1 hand:3 tom:1 jefferson:1 apallachee:1 compromise:1 continentals:1 manifest:1 pavane:1 backward:1 assassination:3 elizabeth:1 allow:2 possibility:2 advance:1 really:1 renaissance:4 armor:1 lisa:1 barnett:1 dr:1 dee:1 actually:1 practice:1 effective:2 sidney:1 survive:3 zutphen:1 shortly:1 christopher:2 marlowe:1 function:3 consequence:1 disturb:1 plainly:1 ambiguous:1 pre:1 current:1 absence:2 phenomenon:1 magical:2 josepha:1 sherman:1 son:1 elf:1 living:1 york:2 disguise:1 heinlein:1 incorporate:2 construction:1 company:1 rig:1 stand:2 sporting:1 luna:1 djinn:1 degauss:2 clarify:1 collaboration:1 einstein:3 planck:1 rheatics:1 henry:1 moseley:1 apply:1 release:4 goetic:1 suppression:1 ferromagnetism:1 reemergence:1 creature:1 shade:1 subgenres:1 though:2 altered:2 geography:1 decrease:1 original:3 source:1 barry:1 hughart:1 bridge:1 bird:1 albeit:1 china:2 allusion:1 chinese:3 empress:1 wu:1 garfinkle:1 celestial:1 ancient:1 physic:2 aristotelian:1 factual:2 child:2 diana:1 wynne:1 jones:1 chrestomanci:2 quartet:1 witch:1 week:1 vivid:1 depiction:1 yet:1 away:1 visit:3 discworld:2 arm:1 observes:1 million:1 edward:2 eath:1 obsessive:1 recluse:1 instigator:1 jingo:1 accidentally:1 pick:1 pocket:1 organizer:2 leg:1 trouser:1 hear:1 reporting:1 death:1 equivalent:1 revolve:2 repair:1 thief:1 scale:1 occurs:1 medium:1 radio:3 nbc:1 air:2 show:5 stroke:1 fate:2 episode:9 dramatize:1 commentary:1 various:3 illness:1 wolfe:1 quebec:1 julius:1 caesar:1 burr:1 duel:1 comedic:1 bbc:1 comedy:2 marry:1 confirmed:1 bachelor:1 awake:1 morning:1 radically:1 mostly:1 viii:1 abdicate:1 heir:1 openly:1 homosexual:1 film:6 kevin:1 brownlow:1 occupied:1 hbo:1 tv:3 movie:3 royale:2 requiem:1 millennium:1 educational:1 reform:1 act:1 pass:1 lost:1 korean:1 suppose:1 hirobumi:1 ito:1 assassinate:1 jung:1 geun:1 harbin:1 timequest:1 prevent:2 f:1 kennedy:1 subsequent:1 satirical:1 documentary:1 individual:1 frank:1 capra:1 wonderful:1 recently:2 chance:1 slide:1 door:1 run:2 lola:1 slider:1 inspired:1 guise:1 navigate:1 nasty:1 dystopia:1 evident:1 star:1 trek:1 tos:1 edge:1 forever:1 animate:1 yesteryear:1 ng:1 yesterday:1 enterprise:1 mirror:3 imply:1 doctor:4 pete:2 tyler:3 successful:2 rich:1 unlike:1 die:3 baby:1 unsuccessful:1 business:1 mickey:1 accident:1 cybermen:1 steel:1 season:1 finale:1 ghost:1 doomsday:1 four:1 leave:1 kill:1 tenure:1 inferno:1 twilight:1 astronaut:1 anime:2 production:1 zipang:1 manga:1 name:2 aegis:1 class:1 destroyer:1 maritime:1 defense:1 throw:1 midway:1 ship:1 crew:1 knowledge:1 course:1 code:1 geass:1 role:4 game:25 dramatic:1 diverse:1 exploration:1 playing:2 background:2 campaign:3 fourth:1 edition:2 gurps:5 default:1 supplement:2 carryovers:1 video:3 intriguing:1 backdrop:1 storyline:1 command:2 red:3 alert:2 albert:1 erase:1 landsberg:1 prison:1 mission:1 process:1 stalin:1 direct:1 dictator:1 keep:1 check:1 massive:1 spark:2 ultimately:1 costly:1 twice:1 continental:1 leader:1 preempt:1 eliminate:1 conflict:2 side:1 crimson:2 sky:3 spawn:1 crumble:1 hostile:1 depression:2 prohibition:1 road:1 railway:1 system:1 commerce:1 cargo:1 zeppelin:1 escort:1 fighter:2 squadron:1 target:1 ruthless:1 pirate:1 board:4 pc:1 xbox:1 collectible:1 miniature:1 promotional:1 comic:7 freedom:1 situation:1 dawn:1 comically:1 berlin:1 influence:2 tip:1 favor:1 diverges:2 brief:1 summary:1 beginning:1 player:1 communist:1 bloc:1 takeover:1 cuban:1 missile:1 crisis:1 spread:1 mexico:1 resistance:2 similarly:1 verge:1 collapse:2 month:1 opening:1 warsaw:1 pact:1 stag:1 desperate:1 western:1 seattle:3 advantage:1 military:2 divide:1 towards:1 fort:1 teller:1 cascade:1 mountains:1 flashback:1 fighting:1 culminate:1 attack:1 retake:1 fleet:1 arrives:1 detonate:1 nuclear:2 invader:1 liberty:1 february:1 africa:1 fell:1 front:1 turning:1 leadership:1 führer:1 refer:1 chancellor:1 sealion:1 successfully:1 allied:1 treaty:1 versailles:1 offensive:1 capability:1 chimera:1 infect:1 virus:1 fallout:1 computer:1 fusion:1 invent:1 quite:1 soon:1 transistor:1 tomorrow:1 feel:1 extremely:1 artificial:1 implement:1 thermionic:1 valve:1 obsolete:1 captain:2 independence:1 superhero:1 propaganda:1 influential:1 alan:1 watchman:1 costume:1 adventurer:1 commonplace:1 fixture:1 element:1 vietnam:1 nixon:1 serve:1 five:1 warren:1 elli:1 mini:1 ministry:1 soldier:1 operative:1 reach:1 rocket:1 installation:1 peenemünde:1 ahead:1 webcomics:1 roswell:1 texas:2 davy:1 crockett:1 alamo:1 expansion:1 marvel:1 dc:1 tile:1 elseworlds:1 respectively:1 genuine:1 batman:1 holy:1 terror:1 premise:1 bat:1 revisionism:1 jonbar:1 hinge:1 list:4 uchronia:3 read:1 chapman:1 edgar:2 carl:1 b:2 yoke:1 eds:1 iconoclastic:1 mellen:1 collins:1 structure:1 aesthetic:1 california:1 davis:1 cowley:1 ed:1 pan:1 gevers:1 nicholas:1 cape:1 hellekson:1 karen:1 refiguring:1 kent:1 keen:1 antony:1 roman:1 stephen:1 baxter:1 silverberg:1 sophia:1 mcdougall:1 international:1 review:1 spring:1 mcknight:1 vernon:1 literary:1 carolina:1 chapel:1 hill:1 nedelkovh:1 aleksandar:1 axiological:1 approach:1 serbian:1 rosenfeld:2 gavriel:2 nazism:1 reflection:1 external:1 link:2 interactive:2 site:3 alternatehistory:1 com:2 active:4 internet:2 althistory:1 wikia:2 wikipedia:1 net:1 website:1 pertaining:1 subject:1 writing:1 regularly:1 zine:1 forum:2 soc:1 usenet:1 newsgroup:1 archive:1 electronic:1 magazine:2 dale:1 cozort:1 newsletter:2 scenario:2 want:1 article:1 cevasco:1 histalt:1 j:1 rick:1 sutcliffe:1 collection:1 paul:1 kincaid:1 reilly:1 paradox:1 frequently:1 shattered:1 winner:1 nominee:1 inception:1 recommend:1 consideration:1 today:2 updated:1 blog:1 recur:1 topic:1 apa:1 |@bigram science_fiction:15 ab_urbe:1 urbe_condita:1 harry_turtledove:4 du_monde:2 nathaniel_hawthorne:1 edmund_kean:1 napoleon_bonaparte:1 louis_xvi:1 hilaire_belloc:1 andré_maurois:1 winston_churchill:3 someone_else:1 project_gutenberg:1 l_sprague:1 poul_anderson:6 twentieth_century:1 beam_piper:3 quantum_mechanic:2 hugh_everett:1 decision_making:1 terry_pratchett:2 larry_niven:1 david_deutsch:1 greg_egan:1 fritz_leiber:1 vladimir_nabokov:1 czarist_russia:1 isaac_asimov:1 philip_roth:1 franklin_roosevelt:1 charles_lindbergh:1 anti_semitism:1 michael_chabon:1 gregory_benford:1 kim_stanley:1 spanish_armada:2 pearl_harbor:1 norman_spinrad:1 adolf_hitler:3 newt_gingrich:1 soviet_union:5 technologically_advanced:1 oliver_cromwell:3 orson_scott:1 joseph_smith:1 jesus_christ:1 anyone_else:1 christopher_marlowe:1 robert_heinlein:1 sporting_event:1 atomic_bomb:1 diana_wynne:1 wynne_jones:1 revolve_around:2 julius_caesar:1 aaron_burr:1 openly_homosexual:1 kevin_brownlow:1 frank_capra:1 capra_wonderful:1 star_trek:1 twilight_zone:1 albert_einstein:1 cuban_missile:1 verge_collapse:1 warsaw_pact:1 nuclear_weapon:1 turning_point:1 operation_sealion:1 treaty_versailles:1 artificial_intelligence:1 thermionic_valve:1 richard_nixon:1 warren_elli:1 davy_crockett:1 historical_revisionism:1 stephen_baxter:1 robert_silverberg:1 north_carolina:1 carolina_chapel:1 external_link:1 counter_factual:1 usenet_newsgroup:1 |
3,453 | Anaximander | Anaximander (Ancient Greek: ) (c. 610 BC–c. 546 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, a city of Ionia. He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded him and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and Pythagoras amongst his pupils. Little of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies, Themistius, Oratio 36, §317 although only one fragment of his work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man. Anaximander was one of the earliest Greek thinkers at the start of the Axial Age, the period from approximately 700 BC to 200 BC, during which similarly revolutionary thinking appeared in China, India, Iran, the Near East, and Ancient Greece. He was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long. Park, David (2005) The Grand Contraption, Princeton University Press ISBN 0-691-12133-8 Like many thinkers of his time, his contributions to philosophy relate to many disciplines. In astronomy, he tried to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. In physics, he postulated that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things. His knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the gnomon in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of geography. He was also involved in the politics of Miletus as he was sent as a leader to one of its colonies. With his assertion that physical forces, rather than supernatural means, create order in the universe, Anaximander can be considered the first true scientist. He is known to have conducted the earliest recorded scientific experiment. Sagan, Carl (1985) Cosmos, Ballantine Books, ISBN 0-345-33135-4, pg 143-144. Biography Anaximander, son of Praxiades, was born in Miletus during the third year of the 42nd Olympiad (610 BC). Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies (I, 5) According to Apollodorus, Greek grammarian of the 2nd century BC, he was sixty-four years old during the second year of the 58th Olympiad (547-546 BC), and died shortly afterwards. In his Chronicles, as reported by Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (II, 2). Establishing a timeline of his work is now impossible, since no document provides chronological references. Themistius, a 4th century Byzantine rhethorician, mentions that he was the "first of the known Greeks to publish a written document on nature" and therefore his texts would be amongst the earliest written in prose, at least in the Western world. By the time of Plato, his philosophy was almost forgotten, and Aristotle, his successor Theophrastus and a few doxographers provide us with the little information that remains. However, we know from Aristotle that Thales, also from Miletus, precedes Anaximander. It is debatable whether Thales actually was the teacher of Anaximander but there is no doubt that Anaximander was influenced by Thales' theory on water (everything that is somehow or another is derived from water). One thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient Greeks considered Anaximander to be from the Monist school which began in Miletus with Thales followed by Anaximander and finished with Anaximenes. Richard D. McKirahan, Philosophy before Socrates, Ch 5, 32-34 3rd century Roman rhetorician Aelian depicts him as leader of the Milesian colony to Apollonia on the Black Sea coast, and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. Indeed, Various History (III, 17) explains that philosophers sometimes left the contentment of their thoughts to deal with political matters. It is very likely that leaders of Miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colony’s allegiance. In Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (II, 2), Diogenes Laertius reports an amusing anecdote regarding his personality: learning that children were mocking him when he was singing, Anaximander replied that he should learn to sing better for the children. Theories Apeiron The bishop Hippolytus of Rome (I, 5), and the later 6th century Byzantine philosopher Simplicius of Cilicia, attribute to Anaximander the earliest use of the word apeíron (/infinite or limitless) to designate the original principle. He was the first philosopher to employ, in a philosophical context, the term arkhế (), which until then had meant beginning or origin. For him, it became no longer a mere point in time, but a source that could perpetually give birth to whatever will be. Aristotle writes (Metaphysics, I III 3-4) that the Pre-Socratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things. While each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element (water for Thales and air for Anaximenes), Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (apeiron), subject to neither old age nor decay, that perpetually yielded fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived. Pseudo-Plutarch, The Doctrines of the Philosophers (I, 3). He proposed the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, Thales, who had claimed that the primary substance was water. For Anaximander, the principle of things, the constituent of all substances, is nothing determined and not an element such as water in Thales' view. Neither is it something halfway between air and water, or between air and fire, thicker than air and fire, or more subtle than water and earth. Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption (II, 5) Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature — for example, water can only be wet, never dry — and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the apeiron as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him. Anaximander explains how the four elements of ancient physics (air, earth, water and fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions. Unlike other Pre-Socratics, he never defines this principle precisely, and it has generally been understood (e.g., by Aristotle and by Saint Augustine) as a sort of primal chaos. According to him, the Universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of things; an entire host of shapes and differences then grow that are found in "all the worlds" (for he believed there were many). Anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (apeiron). The one surviving fragment of Anaximander's writing deals with this matter. Simplicius transmitted it as a quotation, which describes the balanced and mutual changes of the elements: Simplicius, Comments on Aristotle's Physics (24, 13): "" Punctuation does not exist in Ancient Greek and quotes usually blend with surrounding text. Consequently, deciding where they start and where they end is often difficult. However, it is generally accepted that this quote is not Simplicius' own interpretation, but Anaximander's writing, in "somewhat poetic terms". Whence things have their origin, Thence also their destruction happens, According to necessity; For they give to each other justice and recompense For their injustice In conformity with the ordinance of Time. This concept of returning to the element of origin was often revisited afterwards, notably by Aristotle, Aristotle, Metaphysics, I, 3, 983 b 8-11; Physics, III, 5, 204 b 33-34 and by the Greek tragedian Euripides: "what comes from earth must return to earth." EuripidesSupplices, v. 532 Cosmology Map of Anaximander's universe Anaximander's bold use of non-mythological explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as Hesiod. It confirms that pre-Socratic philosophers were making an early effort to demythify physical processes. His major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the Universe and the origins of life; for this he is often called the "Father of Cosmology" and founder of astronomy. However, pseudo-Plutarch states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities. Pseudo-Plutarch, Doctrines of the philosophers, i. 7 Anaximander was the first to conceive a mechanical model of the world. In his model, the Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains "in the same place because of its indifference", a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, but false, in On the Heavens. Aristotle, On the Heavens, ii, 13 Its curious shape is that of a cylinder "A column of stone", Aetius reports in De Fide (III, 7, 1), or "similar to a pillar-shaped stone", pseudo-Plutarch (III, 10). with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world, which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass. Such a model allowed the concept that celestial bodies could pass under it. It goes further than Thales’ claim of a world floating on water, for which Thales faced the problem of explaining what would contain this ocean, while Anaximander solved it by introducing his concept of infinite (apeiron). Illustration of Anaximander's models of the universe. On the left, daytime in summer; on the right, nighttime in winter. At the origin, after the separation of hot and cold, a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the Sun was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the occlusion of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources) In Refutation, Hippolytus reports that the circle of the Sun is twenty-seven times bigger than the Moon. and the lunar wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining lunar phases. The stars and the planets, located closer, Aetius, De Fide (II, 15, 6) followed the same model. Most of Anaximander's model of the Universe comes from pseudo-Plutarch (II, 20-28): "[The Sun] is a circle twenty-eight times as big as the Earth, with the outline similar to that of a fire-filled chariot wheel, on which appears a mouth in certain places and through which it exposes its fire, as through the hole on a flute. [...] the Sun is equal to the Earth, but the circle on which it breathes and on which it's born is twenty-seven times as big as the whole earth. [...] [The eclipse] is when the mouth from which comes the fire heat is closed. [...] [The Moon] is a circle nineteen times as big as the whole earth, all filled with fire, like that of the Sun". Anaximander was the first astronomer to consider the Sun as a huge mass, and consequently, to realize how far from Earth it might be, and the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. Furthermore, according to Diogenes Laertius (II, 2), he built a celestial sphere. This invention undoubtedly made him the first to realize the obliquity of the Zodiac as the Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder reports in Natural History (II, 8). It is a little early to use the term ecliptic, but his knowledge and work on astronomy confirm that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons. The doxographer and theologian Aetius attributes to Pythagoras the exact measurement of the obliquity. Multiple worlds According to Simplicius, Anaximander already speculated on the plurality of worlds, similar to atomists Leucippus and Democritus, and later philosopher Epicurus. These thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while, and that some were born when others perished. They claimed that this movement was eternal, "for without movement, there can be no generation, no destruction". Simplicius, Commentary on Aristotle's Physics, 1121, 5-9 In addition to Simplicius, Hippolytus Hippolytus, Refutation I, 6 reports Anaximander's claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings, which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds (several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within, Notably pseudo-Plutarch (III, 2) and Aetius, (I, 3, 3; I, 7, 12; II, 1, 3; II, 1, 8). which are often infinite in quantity). Cicero writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds. On the Nature of the Gods (I, 10, 25): "Anaximandri autem opinio est nativos esse deos longis intervallis orientis occidentisque, eosque innumerabiles esse mundos." "For Anaximander, gods were born, but the time is long between their birth and their death; and the worlds are countless." This theory places Anaximander close to the Atomists and the Epicureans who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared. In the timeline of the Greek history of thought, some thinkers conceptualized a single world (Plato, Aristotle, Anaxagoras and Archelaus), while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds, continuous or non-continuous (Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Empedocles and Diogenes). Meteorological phenomena Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. Pseudo-Plutarch (III, 3): "Anaximander claims that all this is done by the wind, for when it happens to be enclosed in a thick cloud, then by its subtlety and lightness, the rupture produces the sound; and the scattering, because of the darkness of the cloud, creates the light." In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow. According to Seneca, Naturales quaestiones (II, 18). He saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth. Pseudo-Plutarch (III, 16) A part of that mass evaporated under the sun's action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant. It is then very likely that by observing the moon and the tides, Anaximander thought the latter were the cause, and not the effect of the satellite's movement. He explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun. For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotle's Meteorology (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion. Origin of humankind Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life. Taking into account the existence of fossils, he claimed that animals sprang out of the sea long ago. The first animals were born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and break. Pseudo-Plutarch (V, 19) As the early humidity evaporated, dry land emerged and, in time, humankind had to adapt. The 3rd century Roman writer Censorinus reports: Anaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the Earth's climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales. Plutarch also mentions Anaximander's theory that humans were born inside fish, feeding like sharks, and that when they could defend themselves, they were thrown ashore to live on dry land. He thought that, considering humans' extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently. Even though he had no theory of natural selection, some people consider him as evolution's most ancient proponent. The theory of an aquatic descent of man was re-conceived centuries later as the aquatic ape hypothesis. These pre-Darwinian concepts may seem strange, considering modern knowledge and scientific methods, because they present complete explanations of the universe while using bold and hard-to-demonstrate hypotheses. However, they illustrate the beginning of a phenomenon sometimes called the "Greek miracle": men try to explain the nature of the world, not with the aid of myths or religion, but with material principles. This is the very principle of scientific thought, which was later advanced further by improved research methods. Other accomplishments Cartography Possible rendering of Anaximander's world map According to John Mansley Robinson, An Introduction to Early Greek Philosophy, Houghton and Mifflin, 1968. Both Strabo and Agathemerus (later Greek geographers) claim that, according to the geographer Eratosthenes, Anaximander was the first to publish a map of the world. The map probably inspired the Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus to draw a more accurate version. Strabo viewed both as the first geographers after Homer. Local maps were produced in ancient times, notably in Egypt, Lydia, the Middle East, and Babylon. They indicated roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximander's innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks. Such an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears. Anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons. As established by Marcel Conche, Anaximandre. Fragments et témoignages, introduction (p. 43-47). First, it could be used to improve navigation and trade between Miletus' colonies and other colonies around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Second, Thales would probably have found it easier to convince the Ionian city-states to join in a federation in order to push the Median threat away if he possessed such a tool. Finally, the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one. Surely aware of the sea's convexity, he may have designed his map on a slightly rounded metal surface. The centre or “navel” of the world (/omphalós gẽs) could have been Delphi, but is more likely in Anaximander's time to have been located near Miletus. The Aegean Sea was near the map's centre and enclosed by three continents, themselves located in the middle of the ocean and isolated like islands by sea and rivers. Europe was bordered on the south by the Mediterranean Sea and was separated from Asia by the Black Sea), the Lake Maeotis, and, further east, either by the Phasis River (now called the Rioni) or the Tanais. The Nile flowed south into the ocean, separating Libya (which was the name for the part of the then-known African continent) from Asia. Gnomon The Suda relates that Anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry. It also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in Greece of the gnomon. In Lacedaemon, he participated in the construction, or at least in the adjustment, of sundials to indicate solstices and equinoxes. These accomplishments are often attributed to him, notably by Diogenes Laertius (II, 1) and by the Roman historian Eusebius of Caesarea, Preparation for the Gospel (X, 14, 11). Indeed, a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude. In his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tip’s position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice. However, the invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to Anaximander because its use, as well as the division of days into twelve parts, came from the Babylonians. It is they, according to Herodotus' Histories (II, 109), who gave the Greeks the art of time measurement. It is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices, because no calculation is necessary. On the other hand, equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices, as the Babylonians thought. As the Suda seems to suggest, it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry, he became the first Greek to accurately determine the equinoxes. Prediction of an earthquake In his philosophical work De Divinatione (I, 50, 112), Cicero states that Anaximander convinced the inhabitants of Lacedaemon to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near. Da Divinatione (in Latin) The city collapsed when the top of the Taygetus split like the stern of a ship. Pliny the Elder also mentions this anecdote (II, 81), suggesting that it came from an "admirable inspiration", as opposed to Cicero, who did not associate the prediction with divination. Interpretations Bertrand Russell in the History of Western Philosophy interprets Anaximander's theories as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance between these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist. Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1946). His Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even their gods could operate. Friedrich Nietzsche, in Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist who asserted that the primal being of the world was a state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed "...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance". (Ibid., § 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish. Friedrich Nietzsche, Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway, 1962). Martin Heidegger lectured extensively on Anaximander, and delivered a lecture entitled "Anaximander's Saying" which was subsequently included in Off the Beaten Track. The lecture examines the ontological difference and the oblivion of Being or Dasein in the context of the Anaximander fragment. Martin Heidegger, Off the Beaten Track (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002). Heidegger's lecture is, in turn, an important influence on the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Cf., Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 66–7; Derrida, "Geschlecht II: Heidegger's Hand," in John Sallis (ed.), Deconstruction and Philosophy (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 181–2; Derrida, Given Time: I. Counterfeit Money (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 159, n. 28. Works According to the Suda: Themistius and Simplicius also mention some work "on nature". The list could refer to book titles or simply their topics. Again, no one can tell because there is no punctuation sign in Ancient Greek. Furthermore, this list is incomplete since the Suda ends it with , thus implying "other works". On Nature ( / Perì phúseôs) Around the Earth ( / Gễs períodos) On Fixed Bodies ( / Perì tỗn aplanỗn) The Sphere ( / Sphaĩra) See also Milesian school Pre-Socratic philosophy Material monism Footnotes References Primary sources Aelian: Various History (III, 17) Aëtius: De Fide (I-III; V) Agathemerus: A Sketch of Geography in Epitome (I, 1) Aristotle: Meteorology (II, 3) Translated by E. W. Webster Aristotle: On Generation and Corruption (II, 5) Translated by H. H. Joachim Aristotle: On the Heavens (II, 13) Translated by J. L. Stocks Aristotle: Physics (III, 5, 204 b 33-34) Censorinus: De Die Natali (IV, 7) See original text at LacusCurtius (I, 50, 112) Cicero: On the Nature of the Gods (I, 10, 25) Diogenes Laertius: Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (II, 1-2) Translated by C. D. Yonge Euripides: The Suppliants (532) Translated by E. P. Coleridge Eusebius of Caesarea: Preparation for the Gospel (X, 14, 11) Translated by E.H. Gifford Herodotus: Histories (II, 109) See original text in Perseus project Hippolytus: Refutation of All Heresies (I, 5) Translated by Roberts and Donaldson Pliny the Elder: Natural History (II, 8) See original text in Perseus project Pseudo-Plutarch: The Doctrines of the Philosophers (I, 3; I, 7; II, 20-28; III, 2-16; V, 19) Seneca the Younger: Natural Questions (II, 18) Simplicius: Comments on Aristotle's Physics (24, 13-25; 1121, 5-9) Strabo: Geography (I, 1) Books 1‑7, 15‑17 translated by H. L. Jones Themistius: Oratio (36, 317) The Suda'' Search for Anaximander online Secondary sources The default source; anything not otherwise attributed should be in Conche. External links Philoctete - Anaximandre: Fragments The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Anaximander Extensive bibliography by Dirk Couprie | Anaximander |@lemmatized anaximander:52 ancient:9 greek:20 c:4 bc:7 pre:7 socratic:4 philosopher:17 live:2 miletus:9 city:4 ionia:1 belong:1 milesian:3 school:4 learn:2 teaching:1 master:2 thales:11 succeed:1 become:3 second:3 count:1 anaximenes:4 pythagoras:2 amongst:2 pupil:1 little:3 life:6 work:8 know:6 today:1 accord:12 available:1 historical:1 document:5 first:16 write:6 study:1 themistius:4 oratio:2 although:2 one:10 fragment:5 remain:4 fragmentary:1 testimony:1 find:4 death:2 provide:3 portrait:1 man:2 early:11 thinker:4 start:2 axial:1 age:4 period:1 approximately:1 similarly:1 revolutionary:1 think:4 appear:6 china:1 india:1 iran:1 near:4 east:3 greece:3 proponent:2 science:1 try:3 observe:3 explain:10 different:4 aspect:1 universe:9 particular:1 interest:2 origin:8 claim:10 nature:9 rule:1 law:1 like:8 human:4 society:1 anything:4 disturb:1 balance:3 last:1 long:4 park:1 david:1 grand:1 contraption:1 princeton:1 university:5 press:5 isbn:2 many:3 time:21 contribution:2 philosophy:12 relate:2 discipline:1 astronomy:3 describe:2 mechanic:1 celestial:7 body:6 relation:2 earth:23 physic:7 postulate:2 indefinite:1 apeiron:7 source:6 thing:7 knowledge:5 geometry:3 allow:3 introduce:2 gnomon:6 create:4 map:9 world:24 contribute:1 greatly:1 advancement:1 geography:3 also:10 involve:1 politics:1 send:2 leader:3 colony:5 assertion:2 physical:2 force:1 rather:2 supernatural:1 mean:2 order:3 consider:7 true:1 scientist:1 conduct:1 record:1 scientific:3 experiment:1 sagan:1 carl:1 cosmos:1 ballantine:1 book:3 pg:1 biography:1 son:1 praxiades:1 bear:5 third:2 year:3 olympiad:2 hippolytus:6 refutation:4 heresy:2 apollodorus:1 grammarian:1 century:7 sixty:1 four:2 old:4 die:3 shortly:1 afterwards:2 chronicle:1 report:7 diogenes:6 laërtius:1 opinion:4 eminent:3 ii:24 establish:2 timeline:2 impossible:1 since:2 chronological:1 reference:2 byzantine:2 rhethorician:1 mention:5 known:1 publish:2 therefore:2 text:5 would:5 prose:2 least:2 western:3 plato:2 almost:1 forget:1 aristotle:18 successor:1 theophrastus:1 doxographers:2 u:2 information:1 however:5 precedes:1 debatable:2 whether:1 actually:1 teacher:2 doubt:1 influence:2 theory:9 water:14 everything:2 somehow:1 another:2 derive:2 even:4 monist:1 begin:2 follow:2 finish:1 richard:1 mckirahan:1 socrates:1 ch:1 roman:4 rhetorician:1 aelian:2 depict:1 apollonia:1 black:3 sea:10 coast:1 hence:1 infer:1 prominent:1 citizen:1 indeed:2 various:2 history:10 iii:12 sometimes:2 leave:1 contentment:1 thought:3 deal:2 political:2 matter:3 likely:6 legislator:1 constitution:1 simply:4 maintain:1 allegiance:1 laertius:4 amusing:1 anecdote:2 regard:1 personality:1 learning:1 child:2 mock:1 sing:2 reply:1 good:1 bishop:1 rome:1 later:5 simplicius:9 cilicia:1 attribute:7 use:7 word:2 apeíron:1 infinite:5 limitless:1 designate:1 original:4 principle:7 employ:1 philosophical:3 context:2 term:3 arkhế:1 longer:1 mere:1 point:4 could:13 perpetually:2 give:5 birth:2 whatever:1 writes:1 metaphysics:2 socratics:2 search:2 element:9 constitute:1 answer:1 identity:1 air:8 understand:1 beginning:3 endless:1 unlimited:1 primordial:2 mass:5 subject:1 neither:2 decay:1 yield:1 fresh:1 material:3 perceive:1 pseudo:10 plutarch:11 doctrine:3 propose:1 direct:2 response:1 primary:3 substance:4 constituent:1 nothing:1 determined:1 view:5 something:1 halfway:1 fire:13 thicker:2 subtle:1 generation:3 corruption:2 argue:1 cannot:3 embrace:2 opposite:4 example:1 wet:2 never:2 dry:7 candidate:1 directly:1 perceptible:1 saw:2 around:3 form:4 terrestrial:1 interaction:1 unlike:1 define:1 precisely:1 generally:2 understood:1 e:4 g:1 saint:1 augustine:1 sort:1 primal:2 chaos:1 originates:1 separation:2 hot:2 cold:2 movement:4 entire:2 host:1 shape:4 difference:3 grow:1 believe:2 maintains:1 return:3 come:10 survive:2 transmit:1 quotation:1 balanced:1 mutual:1 change:2 comment:2 punctuation:2 exist:2 quote:2 usually:1 blend:1 surround:4 consequently:3 decide:1 end:2 often:5 difficult:1 accept:1 interpretation:2 writing:1 somewhat:1 poetic:1 whence:1 thence:1 destruction:3 happen:2 necessity:2 justice:1 recompense:1 injustice:1 conformity:1 ordinance:1 concept:4 revisited:1 notably:4 b:3 tragedian:1 euripides:2 must:2 euripidessupplices:1 v:4 cosmology:3 bold:2 non:2 mythological:1 explanatory:1 hypothesis:3 considerably:1 distinguish:1 previous:1 writer:2 hesiod:1 confirm:2 make:2 effort:1 demythify:1 process:1 major:1 call:3 father:1 founder:1 state:4 still:2 deity:1 conceive:2 mechanical:1 model:6 float:2 centre:3 support:1 place:5 indifference:1 ingenious:1 false:1 heaven:4 curious:1 cylinder:1 column:1 stone:2 aetius:4 de:5 fide:3 similar:3 pillar:2 height:1 diameter:2 flat:1 top:2 inhabited:2 circular:1 oceanic:1 pass:2 go:2 far:2 face:1 problem:1 contain:1 ocean:3 solve:1 illustration:1 left:1 daytime:1 summer:2 right:1 nighttime:1 winter:2 ball:2 flame:2 bark:3 tree:1 break:3 apart:1 rest:1 resemble:1 system:3 hollow:1 concentric:1 wheel:5 fill:3 rim:1 pierce:1 hole:5 flute:2 sun:9 see:5 size:1 farthest:1 eclipse:2 correspond:2 occlusion:1 solar:2 twenty:5 seven:3 eight:2 depend:1 circle:4 big:5 moon:3 lunar:2 whose:1 less:2 intense:1 eighteen:1 nineteen:2 thus:3 phase:1 star:1 planet:1 locate:3 closer:1 outline:1 chariot:1 mouth:3 certain:1 expose:1 equal:1 breathe:1 born:1 whole:2 heat:1 close:2 astronomer:1 huge:1 realize:2 might:1 present:3 turn:2 distance:1 furthermore:2 build:1 sphere:3 invention:2 undoubtedly:1 obliquity:2 zodiac:1 pliny:3 elder:3 natural:6 ecliptic:1 inclination:1 plane:3 season:2 doxographer:1 theologian:1 exact:1 measurement:3 multiple:1 already:1 speculate:3 plurality:1 atomists:2 leucippus:1 democritus:2 epicurus:1 suppose:1 disappear:2 others:3 perish:2 eternal:2 without:3 commentary:1 addition:1 several:1 plural:1 refer:2 within:1 quantity:1 cicero:4 god:5 countless:2 anaximandri:1 autem:1 opinio:1 est:1 nativos:1 esse:2 deos:1 longis:1 intervallis:1 orientis:1 occidentisque:1 eosque:1 innumerabiles:1 mundos:1 epicurean:1 infinity:1 conceptualize:1 single:1 anaxagoras:1 archelaus:1 instead:1 existence:2 series:1 continuous:2 heraclitus:1 empedocles:1 meteorological:1 phenomenon:3 thunder:4 lightning:3 intervention:1 divine:1 cause:3 wind:3 enclose:2 thick:1 cloud:3 subtlety:1 lightness:1 rupture:1 produce:3 sound:3 scattering:1 darkness:1 light:1 result:3 shock:2 hit:1 loudness:1 proportionate:1 weak:1 emit:1 strong:1 enough:2 flash:1 jolt:1 disperse:1 fall:1 active:1 free:1 thunderbolt:1 violent:1 flow:2 seneca:2 naturales:1 quaestiones:1 remnant:1 humidity:3 part:4 evaporate:2 action:1 rotation:1 attract:1 abundant:1 tide:1 latter:1 effect:1 satellite:1 rain:1 product:1 pump:1 slowly:1 deepest:1 region:1 someday:1 well:2 meteorology:2 share:1 humankind:2 animal:3 take:1 account:1 fossil:1 spring:1 ago:1 trap:1 spiny:1 get:1 land:3 emerge:1 adapt:1 censorinus:2 put:1 forward:1 idea:2 spend:2 transition:1 inside:2 fish:2 protect:1 climate:1 open:1 lose:1 scale:1 feed:1 shark:1 defend:1 throw:1 ashore:1 extended:1 infancy:1 primeval:1 manner:1 presently:1 though:2 selection:1 people:1 evolution:1 aquatic:2 descent:1 ape:1 darwinian:1 may:3 seem:3 strange:1 modern:1 method:2 complete:1 explanation:1 hard:1 demonstrate:1 illustrate:1 miracle:1 men:1 aid:1 myth:1 religion:1 advanced:1 improved:1 research:1 accomplishment:3 cartography:1 possible:1 rendering:1 john:2 mansley:1 robinson:1 introduction:3 houghton:1 mifflin:1 strabo:3 agathemerus:2 late:1 geographer:3 eratosthenes:1 probably:2 inspire:1 historian:2 hecataeus:1 draw:2 accurate:1 version:1 homer:1 local:1 egypt:1 lydia:1 middle:3 babylon:1 indicate:4 road:1 town:1 border:2 geological:1 feature:1 innovation:1 represent:1 significant:1 drew:1 three:2 reason:2 marcel:1 conche:2 anaximandre:2 et:1 témoignages:1 p:3 improve:1 navigation:1 trade:1 mediterranean:2 easy:1 convince:2 ionian:1 join:1 federation:1 push:1 median:1 threat:1 away:1 possess:1 tool:1 finally:1 global:1 representation:1 sake:1 design:2 surely:1 aware:1 convexity:1 slightly:1 round:1 metal:1 surface:1 navel:1 omphalós:1 gẽs:1 delphi:1 aegean:1 continent:2 isolate:1 island:1 river:2 europe:1 south:3 separate:2 asia:2 lake:1 maeotis:1 either:1 phasis:1 rioni:1 tanais:1 nile:1 libya:1 name:1 african:1 suda:5 basic:1 notion:1 associate:2 lacedaemon:2 participate:1 construction:1 adjustment:2 sundial:1 solstice:5 equinox:3 eusebius:2 caesarea:2 preparation:2 gospel:2 x:2 require:1 latitude:1 vertical:1 rod:1 mount:1 horizontal:1 position:3 shadow:3 day:3 move:1 apparent:1 course:1 curve:1 tip:2 project:3 short:1 noon:2 due:1 variation:1 shortest:1 division:1 twelve:1 babylonian:2 herodotus:2 art:1 determine:2 calculation:1 necessary:1 hand:2 suggest:2 accurately:1 prediction:2 earthquake:2 divinatione:2 inhabitant:1 abandon:1 night:1 country:1 weapon:1 da:1 latin:1 collapse:1 taygetus:1 split:1 stern:1 ship:1 admirable:1 inspiration:1 oppose:1 divination:1 bertrand:2 russell:2 interprets:1 appropriate:1 independently:1 seek:1 aggrandize:1 proportion:1 relative:1 express:1 belief:2 ensures:1 ash:1 connection:1 social:1 circumstance:1 new:2 york:2 simon:1 schuster:1 peer:1 echo:1 sentiment:1 boundary:1 beyond:1 operate:1 friedrich:2 nietzsche:2 tragic:2 pessimist:1 assert:1 indefiniteness:2 accordance:1 definite:1 eventually:1 back:1 illegitimate:1 emancipation:1 wrong:1 penance:1 ibid:1 individual:1 object:1 way:1 thinking:1 worth:1 washington:1 regnery:1 gateway:1 martin:2 heidegger:4 lecture:4 extensively:1 deliver:1 entitle:1 say:1 subsequently:1 include:1 beaten:2 track:2 examine:1 ontological:1 oblivion:1 dasein:1 cambridge:2 important:1 french:1 jacques:2 derrida:4 cf:1 margin:1 chicago:6 pp:2 geschlecht:1 sallis:1 ed:1 deconstruction:1 london:2 counterfeit:1 money:1 n:1 list:2 title:1 topic:1 tell:1 sign:1 incomplete:1 imply:1 perì:2 phúseôs:1 gễs:1 períodos:1 fix:1 tỗn:1 aplanỗn:1 sphaĩra:1 monism:1 footnote:1 aëtius:1 sketch:1 epitome:1 translate:8 w:1 webster:1 h:4 joachim:1 j:1 l:2 stock:1 natali:1 iv:1 lacuscurtius:1 yonge:1 suppliant:1 coleridge:1 gifford:1 perseus:2 robert:1 donaldson:1 younger:1 question:1 jones:1 online:1 secondary:1 default:1 otherwise:1 external:1 link:1 philoctete:1 internet:1 encyclopedia:1 extensive:1 bibliography:1 dirk:1 couprie:1 |@bigram pre_socratic:4 sagan_carl:1 refutation_heresy:2 shortly_afterwards:1 diogenes_laërtius:1 diogenes_laertius:4 hippolytus_rome:1 pre_socratics:2 socratic_philosopher:2 pseudo_plutarch:10 aristotle_metaphysics:1 greek_tragedian:1 celestial_sphere:2 pliny_elder:3 leucippus_democritus:1 plato_aristotle:1 thunder_lightning:1 aquatic_ape:1 houghton_mifflin:1 aegean_sea:1 solstice_equinox:1 eusebius_caesarea:2 winter_solstice:1 summer_solstice:1 bertrand_russell:2 simon_schuster:1 friedrich_nietzsche:2 regnery_gateway:1 martin_heidegger:2 jacques_derrida:2 seneca_younger:1 strabo_geography:1 external_link:1 |
3,454 | Field-effect_transistor | High-power N-channel field-effect transistor The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor that relies on an electric field to control the shape and hence the conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor material. FETs are sometimes called unipolar transistors to contrast their single-carrier-type operation with the dual-carrier-type operation of bipolar (junction) transistors (BJT). The concept of the FET predates the BJT, though it was not physically implemented until after BJTs due to the limitations of semiconductor materials and relative ease of manufacturing BJTs compared to FETs at the time. History Field-effect transistors were invented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925 and by Oskar Heil in 1934, but practical devices were not made until much later. Terminals All FETs have a gate, drain, and source terminal that are roughly similar to the base, collector, and emitter of BJTs. Aside from the JFET, all FETs also have a fourth terminal called the body, base, bulk, or substrate. This fourth terminal serves the technical purpose of biasing the transistor into operation; it is rare to make non-trivial use of the body terminal in circuit designs, but its presence is important when setting up the physical layout of an integrated circuit. Cross section of an n-type MOSFET The names of the terminals refer to their functions. The gate terminal may be thought of as controlling the opening and closing of a physical gate. This gate permits electrons to flow through or blocks their passage by creating or eliminating a channel between the source and drain. Electrons flow from the source terminal towards the drain terminal if influenced by an applied voltage. The body simply refers to the bulk of the semiconductor in which the gate, source and drain lie. Usually the body terminal is connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the circuit, depending on type. The body terminal and the source terminal are sometimes connected together since the source is also sometimes connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the circuit, however there are several uses of FETs which do not have such a configuration, such as transmission gates and cascode circuits. Composition The FET can be constructed from a number of semiconductors, silicon being by far the most common. Most FETs are made with conventional bulk semiconductor processing techniques, using the single crystal semiconductor wafer as the active region, or channel. Among the more unusual body materials are amorphous silicon, polycrystalline silicon or other amorphous semiconductors in thin-film transistors or organic field effect transistors that are based on organic semiconductors and often apply organic gate insulators and electrodes. Types of field-effect transistors Depletion-type FETs under typical voltages. JFET, poly-silicon MOSFET, double-gate MOSFET, metal-gate MOSFET, MESFET. depletion , electrons , holes , metal , insulator . Top=source, bottom=drain, left=gate, right=bulk. Voltages that lead to channel formation are not shown The channel of a FET (explained below) is doped to produce either an N-type semiconductor or a P-type semiconductor. The drain and source may be doped of opposite type to the channel, in the case of enhancement mode FETs, or doped of similar type to the channel as in depletion mode FETs. Field-effect transistors are also distinguished by the method of insulation between channel and gate. Types of FETs are: The MOSFET (Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) utilizes an insulator (typically SiO2) between the gate and the body . The JFET (Junction Field-Effect Transistor) uses a reverse biased p-n junction to separate the gate from the body. The MESFET (Metal–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) substitutes the p-n junction of the JFET with a Schottky barrier; used in GaAs and other III-V semiconductor materials. Using bandgap engineering in a ternary semiconductor like AlGaAs gives a HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor), also called an HFET (heterostructure FET). The fully depleted wide-band-gap material forms the isolation between gate and body. The MODFET (Modulation-Doped Field Effect Transistor) uses a quantum well structure formed by graded doping of the active region. The IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a device for power control. It has a structure akin to a MOSFET coupled with a bipolar-like main conduction channel. These are commonly used for the 200-3000 V drain-to-source voltage range of operation. Power MOSFETs are still the device of choice for drain-to-source voltages of 1 to 200 V. The FREDFET (Fast Reverse or Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diode FET) is a specialized FET designed to provide a very fast recovery (turn-off) of the body diode. The ISFET is an Ion-Sensitive Field Effect Transistor used to measure ion concentrations in a solution; when the ion concentration (such as pH) changes, the current through the transistor will change accordingly. The DNAFET is a specialized FET that acts as a biosensor, by using a gate made of single-strand DNA molecules to detect matching DNA strands. FET operation The FET controls the flow of electrons (or electron holes) from the source to drain by affecting the size and shape of a "conductive channel" created and influenced by voltage (or lack of voltage) applied across the gate and source terminals. (For ease of discussion, this assumes body and source are connected). This conductive channel is the "stream" through which electrons flow from source to drain. Consider an n-channel "depletion-mode" device. A negative gate-to-source voltage causes a depletion region to expand in width and encroach on the channel from the sides, narrowing the channel. If the depletion region expands to completely close the channel, the resistance of the channel from source to drain becomes large, and the FET is effectively turned off like a switch. Likewise a positive gate-to-source voltage increases the channel size and allows electrons to flow easily. Now consider an n-channel "enhancement-mode" device. A positive gate-to-source voltage is necessary to create a conductive channel, since one does not exist naturally within the transistor. The positive voltage attracts free-floating electrons within the body towards the gate, forming a conductive channel. But first, enough electrons must be attracted near the gate to counter the dopant ions added to the body of the FET; this forms a region free of mobile carriers called a depletion region, and the phenomenon is referred to as the threshold voltage of the FET. Further gate-to-source voltage increase will attract even more electrons towards the gate which are able to create a conductive channel from source to drain; this process is called inversion. For either enhancement- or depletion-mode devices, at drain-to-source voltages much less than gate-to-source voltages, changing the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance, and drain current will be proportional to drain voltage (referenced to source voltage). In this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor and the FET is said to be operating in a linear mode or ohmic mode. If drain-to-source voltage is increased, this creates a significant asymmetrical change in the shape of the channel due to a gradient of voltage potential from source to drain. The shape of the inversion region becomes "pinched-off" near the drain end of the channel. If drain-to-source voltage is increased further, the pinch-off point of the channel begins to move away from the drain towards the source. The FET is said to be in saturation mode; some authors refer to it as active mode, for a better analogy with bipolar transistor operating regions. The saturation mode, or the region between ohmic and saturation, is used when amplification is needed. The in-between region is sometimes considered to be part of the ohmic or linear region, even where drain current is not approximately linear with drain voltage. Even though the conductive channel formed by gate-to-source voltage no longer connects source to drain during saturation mode, carriers are not blocked from flowing. Considering again an n-channel device, a depletion region exists in the p-type body, surrounding the conductive channel and drain and source regions. The electrons which comprise the channel are free to move out of the channel through the depletion region if attracted to the drain by drain-to-source voltage. The depletion region is free of carriers and has a resistance similar to silicon. Any increase of the drain-to-source voltage will increase the distance from drain to the pinch-off point, increasing resistance due to the depletion region proportionally to the applied drain-to-source voltage. This proportional change causes the drain-to-source current to remain relatively fixed independent of changes to the drain-to-source voltage and quite unlike the linear mode operation. Thus in saturation mode, the FET behaves as a constant-current source rather than as a resistor and can be used most effectively as a voltage amplifier. In this case, the gate-to-source voltage determines the level of constant current through the channel. Uses The most commonly used FET is the MOSFET. The CMOS (complementary-symmetry metal oxide semiconductor) process technology is the basis for modern digital integrated circuits. This process technology uses an arrangement where the (usually "enhancement-mode") p-channel MOSFET and n-channel MOSFET are connected in series such that when one is on, the other is off. The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to electrostatic damage during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed. In FETs electrons can flow in either direction through the channel when operated in the linear mode, and the naming convention of drain terminal and source terminal is somewhat arbitrary, as the devices are typically (but not always) built symmetrically from source to drain. This makes FETs suitable for switching analog signals between paths (multiplexing). With this concept, one can construct a solid-state mixing board, for example. References See also Chemical field-effect transistor MOSFET External links PBS The Field Effect Transistor Junction Field Effect Transistor The Enhancement Mode MOSFET CMOS gate circuitry Winning the Battle Against Latchup in CMOS Analog Switches Nanotube FETs at IBM Research Field Effect Transistors in Theory and Practice be-x-old:Палявы транзыстар | Field-effect_transistor |@lemmatized high:4 power:3 n:9 channel:36 field:16 effect:15 transistor:25 fet:31 type:14 rely:1 electric:1 control:4 shape:4 hence:1 conductivity:1 one:4 charge:1 carrier:6 semiconductor:15 material:5 sometimes:4 call:5 unipolar:1 contrast:1 single:3 operation:6 dual:1 bipolar:4 junction:5 bjt:2 concept:2 predate:1 though:2 physically:1 implement:1 bjts:3 due:3 limitation:1 relative:1 ease:2 manufacture:1 compare:1 time:1 history:1 invent:1 julius:1 edgar:1 lilienfeld:1 oskar:1 heil:1 practical:1 device:9 make:6 much:2 later:1 terminal:15 gate:30 drain:33 source:39 roughly:1 similar:3 base:3 collector:1 emitter:1 aside:1 jfet:4 also:5 fourth:2 body:14 bulk:4 substrate:1 serve:1 technical:1 purpose:1 bias:2 rare:1 non:1 trivial:1 use:13 circuit:6 design:2 presence:1 important:1 set:1 physical:2 layout:1 integrated:1 cross:1 section:1 mosfet:12 name:1 refer:4 function:1 may:2 think:1 opening:1 closing:1 permit:1 electron:13 flow:7 block:2 passage:1 create:5 eliminate:1 towards:4 influence:2 applied:1 voltage:31 simply:1 lie:1 usually:3 connect:6 low:2 within:4 depend:1 together:1 since:2 however:1 several:1 us:1 configuration:1 transmission:1 cascode:1 composition:1 construct:2 number:1 silicon:5 far:2 common:1 conventional:1 processing:1 technique:1 crystal:1 wafer:1 active:3 region:16 among:1 unusual:1 amorphous:2 polycrystalline:1 thin:1 film:1 organic:3 often:1 apply:3 insulator:3 electrode:1 depletion:12 typical:1 poly:1 double:1 metal:5 mesfet:2 hole:2 top:1 bottom:1 leave:1 right:1 lead:1 formation:1 show:1 explain:1 dope:2 produce:1 either:3 p:5 opposite:1 case:2 enhancement:5 mode:17 doped:2 distinguish:1 method:1 insulation:1 oxide:2 utilize:1 typically:2 reverse:2 separate:1 substitute:1 schottky:1 barrier:1 gaas:1 iii:1 v:3 bandgap:1 engineering:1 ternary:1 like:4 algaas:1 give:1 hemt:1 mobility:1 hfet:1 heterostructure:1 fully:1 deplete:1 wide:1 band:1 gap:1 form:5 isolation:1 modfet:1 modulation:1 quantum:1 well:1 structure:2 graded:1 doping:1 igbt:1 insulate:2 akin:1 couple:1 main:1 conduction:1 commonly:2 range:1 mosfets:1 still:1 choice:1 fredfet:1 fast:3 recovery:2 epitaxial:1 diode:2 specialized:2 provide:1 turn:2 isfet:1 ion:4 sensitive:1 measure:1 concentration:2 solution:1 ph:1 change:6 current:6 accordingly:1 dnafet:1 act:1 biosensor:1 strand:2 dna:2 molecule:1 detect:1 match:1 affect:1 size:2 conductive:7 lack:1 across:1 discussion:1 assume:1 stream:1 consider:4 negative:1 cause:2 expand:2 width:1 encroach:1 side:1 narrow:1 completely:1 close:1 resistance:4 becomes:1 large:1 effectively:2 switch:3 likewise:1 positive:3 increase:7 allow:1 easily:1 necessary:1 exist:2 naturally:1 attracts:1 free:4 float:1 first:1 enough:1 must:1 attract:3 near:2 counter:1 dopant:1 add:1 mobile:1 phenomenon:1 threshold:1 even:3 able:1 process:3 inversion:2 less:1 alter:1 proportional:2 reference:2 operate:4 variable:1 resistor:2 say:2 linear:5 ohmic:3 significant:1 asymmetrical:1 gradient:1 potential:1 become:1 pinch:3 end:1 point:2 begin:1 move:2 away:1 saturation:5 author:1 good:1 analogy:1 amplification:1 need:1 part:1 approximately:1 longer:1 surround:1 comprise:1 distance:1 proportionally:1 remain:1 relatively:1 fixed:1 independent:1 quite:1 unlike:1 thus:1 behave:1 constant:2 rather:1 amplifier:1 determine:1 level:1 used:1 cmos:3 complementary:1 symmetry:1 technology:2 basis:1 modern:1 digital:1 integrate:1 arrangement:1 series:1 fragile:1 layer:1 vulnerable:1 electrostatic:1 damage:1 handle:1 problem:1 instal:1 direction:1 naming:1 convention:1 somewhat:1 arbitrary:1 always:1 build:1 symmetrically:1 suitable:1 analog:2 signal:1 path:1 multiplexing:1 solid:1 state:1 mix:1 board:1 example:1 see:1 chemical:1 external:1 link:1 pbs:1 circuitry:1 win:1 battle:1 latchup:1 nanotube:1 ibm:1 research:1 theory:1 practice:1 x:1 old:1 палявы:1 транзыстар:1 |@bigram junction_transistor:1 integrated_circuit:1 opening_closing:1 amorphous_silicon:1 bipolar_transistor:2 strand_dna:1 commonly_used:1 integrate_circuit:1 naming_convention:1 external_link:1 |
3,455 | Mary_I_of_England | Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death. The fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty, she is remembered for restoring England to Roman Catholicism after succeeding her short-lived half brother, Edward VI, to the English throne. In the process, she had almost 300 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian Persecutions, earning her the sobriquet of "Bloody Mary". Her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her successor and half-sister, Elizabeth I. Childhood and early years Mary was the only child of Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive infancy. Her mother had many miscarriages and a stillborn sister and three short-lived brothers, including Henry, Duke of Cornwall, had preceded her. Through her mother, she was a granddaughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. She was born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London. She was baptised with Thomas Cardinal Wolsey standing as her godfather. Mary was a sickly child who had poor eyesight, sinus conditions and bad headaches. John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford was her Chamberlain, and his wife, Lady Anne, daughter of George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent, was one of Mary's attendants. Despite her health problems, Mary was a precocious child. A great part of the credit for her early education likely came from her mother, who consulted the Spanish scholar Juan Luis Vives upon the subject and was Mary's first instructor in Latin. Mary also studied Greek, science, and music. In July 1521, when scarcely five and a half years old, she entertained some visitors with a performance on the virginal (a smaller harpsichord). Henry VIII doted on his daughter and would boast in company, "This girl never cries", and would sometimes show delight in her developing music skills. Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.101. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. . When Mary was nine years old, Henry gave her her own court at Ludlow Castle and many of the Royal Prerogatives normally only given to a Prince of Wales, even calling her the Princess of Wales. In 1526, Mary was sent to Wales to preside over the Council of Wales and the Marches. Despite this obvious affection, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. Throughout her childhood Henry negotiated potential marriages for Mary. When she was only two years old she was promised to the Dauphin Francis, son of Francis I, King of France, but after three years, the contract was repudiated. In 1522, she was instead contracted to marry her first cousin, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, then 22, by the Treaty of Windsor. Within a few years, however, the engagement was broken off. It was then suggested that Mary wed the Dauphin's father Francis I, who was eager for an alliance with England. A marriage treaty was signed which provided that Mary should marry either Francis I or his second son Henry, Duke of Orléans. However, Cardinal Wolsey, Henry VIII's chief adviser, managed to secure an alliance without the marriage. Meanwhile, the marriage of Mary's parents was in jeopardy because Catherine had failed to provide Henry the male heir he desired. Henry attempted to have his marriage to her annulled, but Pope Clement VII refused his requests. Some contend that the Pope's decision was influenced by Charles V, Mary's former betrothed and her mother's nephew. Henry had claimed, citing biblical passages, that his marriage to Catherine was unclean because she had been previously married briefly, at age 16 to his brother Arthur, although there was some debate as to whether that marriage had been consummated. In 1533, Henry secretly married another woman, Anne Boleyn, and shortly thereafter, Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury, formally declared the marriage with Catherine void and the marriage with Anne valid. Henry then broke with the Roman Catholic Church and declared himself head of the Church of England. As a consequence, Catherine was demoted to Dowager Princess of Wales (a title she would have held as the widow of Arthur). Mary in turn was deemed illegitimate, and her place in the line of succession transferred to her half-sister, the future Elizabeth I, daughter of Anne Boleyn. She was styled "Lady Mary" rather than princess because of her illegitimate status. Mary was expelled from Court, her servants (including her favorite maid Susan Clarencieux) were dismissed from her service, and in December 1533 she was sent to serve as a lady-in-waiting to Elizabeth. Upon arriving at the house she was asked by the Duke of Norfolk if she would not go and pay her respects to the Princess to which Mary curtly replied that she knew of no princess in England save herself but as the king had acknowledged Elizabeth to be his, she might call her sister, as she called the Duke of Richmond (Henry's son by Elizabeth Blount) brother. It was an insult, and Norfolk doubtlessly would have been offended though he did not show it. Mary was to continue repeating similar phrases to whomever compared her to her sister. Despite the cold treatment she received at Hatfield, Mary was also determined to assert her seniority over Elizabeth. On one occasion when Elizabeth's household moved to another location, Mary, having made a protest during the last move, was given a litter with a velvet covered seat instead of a leather one. It may have seemed like a small victory, but to Mary it was undoubtedly a triumph.Princess Mary in 1544 Despite her courage and determination, Mary was often sick. Mary was not permitted to see her mother or attend her funeral in 1536. It is said that because of this treatment, Mary was very cold towards Elizabeth during Elizabeth's teenage years, deriding Anne Boleyn's execution and calling her a witch. Circumstances between Mary and her father worsened, and she attempted to reconcile with him by submitting to his authority as head of the Church of England. By this she repudiated papal authority, acknowledged that the marriage between her mother and father was unlawful, and accepted her own illegitimacy. When Anne Boleyn was beheaded in 1536, Elizabeth was downgraded to the status of Lady and removed from the line of succession. Within two weeks of Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after giving birth to a son, the future Edward VI. Mary was godmother to her half-brother Edward and chief mourner at Jane Seymour's funeral. In return, Henry agreed to grant her a household (which included the reinstatement of Mary's favorite maid Susan Clarencieux), and Mary was permitted to reside in royal palaces. Her privy purse expenses for nearly the whole of this period have been published and show that Hatfield House, the Palace of Beaulieu (also called Newhall), Richmond and Hunsdon were among her principal places of residence. She was later awarded the Palace of Beaulieu as her own. Painting depicting the family of Henry VIII of England, ca. 1545, currently on display at Hampton Court Palace. Left to Right: 'Mother Jak', Princess Mary, Prince Edward, Henry VIII, Jane Seymour, Princess Elizabeth and William Sommers. In 1543 Henry married his sixth and last wife, Katharine Parr, who was able to bring the family closer together. The next year, through the Third Succession Act, Henry returned Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession, placing them after Edward. Both women, however, remained legally illegitimate. In 1547, Henry died and was succeeded by his son, Edward VI. Since Edward was still a child, rule passed to a regency council dominated by Protestants, who attempted to establish their faith throughout the country. As an example, the Act of Uniformity 1549 prescribed Protestant rites for church services, such as the use of Thomas Cranmer's new Book of Common Prayer. When Mary, who had remained faithful to Roman Catholicism, asked to be allowed to worship in private in her own chapel, she was refused. It was only after Mary appealed to her cousin Charles V that she was allowed to worship privately. Religious differences continued to be a problem between Mary and Edward, however. When Mary was in her thirties, she attended a reunion with Edward and Elizabeth for Christmas, where Edward embarrassed Mary and reduced her to tears in front of the court for "daring to ignore" his laws regarding worship. Accession On 6 July 1553, at the age of 15, Edward VI died of tuberculosis. Edward did not want the crown to go to Mary, who he feared would restore Catholicism and undo his reforms, as well as those of Henry VIII. For this reason, he planned to exclude her from the line of succession. However, his advisors told him that he could not disinherit only one of his sisters, but that he would have to disinherit Elizabeth as well, even though she embraced the Church of England. Guided by John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland and perhaps others, Edward excluded both of his sisters from the line of succession in his will. Edward VI and his advisors instead devised that he should be succeeded by Dudley's daughter-in-law Lady Jane Grey, the granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary, the French Queen. However, this exclusion contradicted the Act of Succession of 1544. This act had restored Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession. Around the time of Edward VI's death, Mary had been summoned back to London from Framlingham Castle in Suffolk, into which she had recently moved after having left her former residence at the Palace of Beaulieu. However, Mary initially hesitated; she suspected that this summons could be a pretext on which to capture her and, in so doing, facilitate Grey's accession to the throne. On 10 July 1553, Lady Jane Grey assumed the throne as Queen of England in what can best be described as a coup d'état orchestrated by Dudley and his supporters. However, Dudley's support collapsed almost immediately, which led to the false Queen being deposed a mere nine days later. Mary rode triumphantly into London on a wave of popular support to legally assume the crown. Grey and Dudley were immediately imprisoned in the Tower of London. Mary understood that the young Lady Jane was essentially a pawn in Dudley's scheme, and did not immediately order the girl's execution. One of Mary's first actions as Queen was to order the release of the Roman Catholic Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and Stephen Gardiner from imprisonment in the Tower of London. England Under The Tudors: Bishop Stephen Gardiner, (c.1493-1555) At this time, the Duke of Northumberland (Dudley) was the only conspirator executed for high treason. Mary was left in a difficult position, as almost all the Privy Counsellors had been implicated in the plot to put Jane on the throne. She could only rely on Gardiner, whom she appointed both Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor. On 1 October 1553, Gardiner formally crowned Mary. Reign Spanish marriage Philip and Mary At age 37, Mary turned her attention to finding a husband and producing an heir, thus preventing the Protestant Elizabeth (still her successor under the terms of Henry VIII's will) from succeeding to the throne. Mary rejected Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon, as a prospect when her cousin Charles V suggested she marry his only son, the Spanish Prince Philip, later Philip II of Spain. It is said that upon viewing the Titian full-length portrait of Philip now in the Prado, Museo del Prado, Catálogo de las pinturas, 1996, p. 398-99 (#411), Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Madrid, ISBN 8487317537 which had been sent to her, Mary declared herself to be in love with him. Their marriage at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political (he admired her dignity but felt "no carnal love for her"), and it was extremely unpopular with the English. Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons petitioned her to consider marrying an Englishman, fearing that England would be relegated to a dependency of Spain. This fear may have arisen from the fact that Mary was – excluding the brief, unsuccessful and controversial reigns of Jane and Empress Matilda – England's first Queen regnant. Domestic politics Insurrections broke out across the country when she insisted on marrying Philip, with whom she was in love. The Duke of Suffolk once again proclaimed that his daughter, Lady Jane Grey, was queen. In support of Elizabeth, Thomas Wyatt led a force from Kent that was not defeated until he had arrived at London. After the rebellions were crushed, the Duke of Suffolk, his daughter, Lady Jane Grey, and her husband were convicted of high treason and executed. Elizabeth, though protesting her innocence in the Wyatt affair, was imprisoned in the Tower of London for two months, then was put under house arrest at Woodstock Palace. Mary married Philip on 25 July 1554, at Winchester Cathedral. Under the terms of the marriage treaty, Philip was to be styled "King of England", all official documents (including Acts of Parliament) were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty further provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. Philip's powers, however, were extremely limited, and he and Mary were not true joint sovereigns like William and Mary. Mary and Philip appear on the above medal by Jacopo da Trezzo made circa 1555. Pregnancy Mary, thinking she was pregnant, had thanksgiving services at the diocese of London in November 1554. This turned out to be the first of two phantom pregnancies. Various theories, such as cysts, have been put forward to explain her condition, but it was likely psychological in nature. Philip persuaded his wife to permit Elizabeth's release from house arrest, probably so that he would be viewed favourably by her in case Mary died in childbirth. Soon after the disgrace of the false pregnancy, Philip headed off to Flanders to command his armies against France. Mary was heartbroken and soon fell into deep depression. Religion As Queen, Mary was very concerned about heresy and the English church. She had always rejected the break with Rome instituted by her father and the establishment of Protestantism by Edward VI. She had England reconcile with Rome and Reginald Cardinal Pole, the son of her governess the Countess of Salisbury (who was beheaded for treason by Mary's father Henry VIII) and once considered a suitor, became Archbishop of Canterbury; Mary had his predecessor Thomas Cranmer burned at the stake. Mary came to rely greatly on Pole for advice. Edward's religious laws were abolished by Mary's first Parliament in the Statute of Repeal Act (1553). Church doctrine was restored to the form it had taken in the 1547 Six Articles. Mary also persuaded Parliament to repeal the Protestant religious laws passed by Henry VIII. Getting their agreement took several years, and she had to make a major concession: tens of thousands of acres of monastery lands confiscated under Henry were not to be returned because the new landowners created by this distribution were very influential. This was approved by the Papacy in 1554. The Revival of the Heresy Acts were also passed in 1554. Persecutions Numerous Protestant leaders were executed (typically by burning) in the Marian Persecutions. Many rich Protestants chose exile, and around 800 left the country. The first to die were John Rogers (4 February 1555), Laurence Saunders (8 February 1555), Rowland Taylor (9 February 1555), and John Hooper, the Bishop of Gloucester (9 February 1555). The persecution lasted for almost four years. It is not known exactly how many died. John Foxe estimates in his Book of Martyrs that 284 were executed for their faith. The Marian persecutions are commemorated especially by bonfires in the town of Lewes in Sussex: there is a prominent martyrs' memorial outside St John's church at Stratford, London, to those Protestants burnt in Essex, and others in Christchurch Park Ipswich and the abbey grounds, Bury St Edmunds, to those executed in East and West Suffolk respectively. Foreign policy Henry VIII's creation of the Kingdom of Ireland in 1542 was not recognized by Europe's Catholic powers. In 1555 Mary obtained a papal bull confirming that she and Philip were the monarchs of Ireland, and thereby the Church accepted the personal link between the kingdoms of Ireland and England. Furthering the Tudor Reconquest of Ireland, the midlands counties of Laois and Offaly were shired and named after the new monarchs respectively as "Queen's County" and "King's County". Their principal towns were respectively named Maryborough (now Portlaoise) and Philipstown (now Daingean). Under Mary's reign, English colonists were settled in the Irish midlands to reduce the attacks on the Pale (the colony around Dublin). Having inherited the Spanish throne upon his father's abdication, Philip returned to England from March to July 1557 to persuade Mary to support Spain in a war against France (the Italian Wars). There was much opposition to declaring war on France. There existed an old alliance between Scotland and France; French trade would be jeopardized; and England had a distinct lack of finances because of a bad economic legacy from Edward VI's reign. As a result of her agreement to declare war (which violated the carefully-written marriage treaty), England became full of factions and seditious pamphlets of Protestant origin inflaming the country against the Spaniards. English forces fared badly in the conflict and as a result lost Calais, England's sole remaining continental possession, on 13 January 1558. Although this territory had recently become financially burdensome, the effects of its loss were ideological. Mary later lamented that when she died the words "Philip" and "Calais" would be found inscribed on her heart. Commerce and revenue The most prominent problem was the decline of the Antwerp cloth trade. Despite Mary's marriage to Philip, England did not benefit from their enormously lucrative trade with the New World. The Spanish guarded their trading revenue jealously, and Mary could not condone illegitimate trade (in the form of piracy) because she was married to a Spaniard. In an attempt to increase trade and rescue the English economy, Mary continued Northumberland's policy of seeking out new commercial ports outside Europe. Financially, Mary was trying to reconcile between a modern form of government — with correspondingly higher spending — and a medieval system of collecting taxation and dues. A failure to apply new tariffs to new forms of imports meant that a key source of revenue was neglected. In order to solve this problem, Mary's government published the "Book of Rates" (1558), listing the tariffs and duties for every import. This publication was not reviewed until 1604. Mary also appointed William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester as Surveyor of Customs and assigned him to oversee the revenue collection system. Mary also started currency reform to counteract the dramatic devaluation overseen by Thomas Gresham that had characterized the last few years of Henry's reign and the reign of Edward VI. These measures, however, were largely unsuccessful. Death During her reign, Mary suffered two phantom pregnancies. It has been speculatedthat these could simply be a result of the pressure to produce an heir, though the physical symptoms (including lactation and the later loss of her eyesight) reported by Mary's attendants may be indicative of a hormonal disorder such as a pituitary tumour. Mary decreed in her will that her husband should be the regent during the minority of her child. No child, however, was born, and Mary died at age 42 at St. James's Palace on 17 November 1558. She was succeeded by her half-sister, who became Elizabeth I. Although her will stated that she wished to be buried next to her mother, Mary was interred in Westminster Abbey on 14 December in a tomb she eventually shared with Elizabeth. The Latin inscription on a marble plaque on their tomb Regno consortes & urnâ, hîc obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis. (affixed there by James VI of Scotland when he succeeded Elizabeth to the throne of England as James I) translates to "Consorts in realm and in tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection". The Latin plays on the multiple meanings of consors, which can mean either sibling or sharer in common. Legacy Queen Mary, by Hans Eworth Mary enjoyed tremendous popular support and sympathy for her mistreatment during the earliest parts of her reign, especially by the Roman Catholic population. Her marriage to Philip, however, was unpopular among her subjects. The marriage treaty clearly specified that England was not to be drawn into any Spanish wars, but this guarantee proved meaningless. Philip spent most of his time governing his European territories, while his wife usually remained in England. After Mary's death, Philip became a suitor for Elizabeth's hand, but she refused him. The persecution of Protestants earned Mary the appellation "Bloody Mary" from them, although many historians believe she does not deserve all the blame, and despite the fact that her father Henry VIII and sister Elizabeth executed as many if not more people than she did. There is disagreement as to the number of people put to death during Mary's five-year reign. However, several notable clerics were executed; among them Thomas Cranmer, the former Archbishop of Canterbury; John Rogers, a former colleague of William Tyndale; Nicholas Ridley, the former Bishop of London; and the reformist Hugh Latimer. Mary was prominently featured and vilified in the Book of Martyrs, published by John Foxe in 1562, 5 years after Mary's death. Subsequent editions of the book remained popular with Protestants through the 19th century. One popular tradition traces the nursery rhyme "Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary" to Mary's attempts to bring Roman Catholicism back to England, although it may well be about her cousin Mary, Queen of Scots. Titles, style and arms Mary I's titles and styles from birth to death: 18 February 1516 - 23 May 1533: Princess Mary of England 23 May 1533 - 19 July 1553: Lady Mary Tudor 19 July 1553 - 17 November 1558: Her Majesty The Queen of England and Ireland 16 January 1556 - 17 November 1558: Her Majesty The Queen of Spain and Sicily Arms of Mary I, impaled with those of her husband, Philip II Like Henry VIII and Edward VI, Mary used the style "Majesty", as well as "Highness" and "Grace". "Majesty", which Henry VIII first used on a consistent basis, did not become exclusive until the reign of Elizabeth I's successor, James I. When Mary ascended the throne, she was proclaimed under the same official style as Henry VIII and Edward VI: "Mary, by the Grace of God, Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head" (). The "supremacy phrase" at the end of the style was repugnant to Mary's Catholicism; from 1554 onwards, she omitted the phrase without statutory authority, which was not retroactively granted by Parliament until 1555. Under Mary's marriage treaty with Philip, the couple were jointly styled Queen and King. The official joint style reflected not only Mary's but also Philip's dominions and claims; it was "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God, King and Queen of England, France, Naples, Jerusalem, and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Spain and Sicily, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Milan, Burgundy and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol". This style, which had been in use since 1554, was replaced when Philip inherited the Spanish Crown in 1556 with "Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol". Mary I's arms were the same as those used by all her predecessors since Henry IV: Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or [for France] and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]. Sometimes, Mary's arms were impaled (depicted side-by-side) with those of her husband. Ancestry </center> See also Pilgrimage of Grace Cultural depictions of Mary I of England Notes References Eakins, L. E. (2004). "Mary I" "Mary I". (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press. "Mary Tudor" (1910). The Catholic Encyclopedia (Volume IX). New York: Robert Appleton Company. Williamson, D. (1998). The Kings and Queens of England New York: National Portrait Gallery. Weir, Alison. "The Children of Henry VIII". Further reading Non-fiction Deary, Terry. "The Terrible Tudors". ISBN 0-590-55290-2 Deary, Terry. "Even More Terrible Tudors". ISBN 0-590-11254-6 Erickson, Carolly. Bloody Mary: The Life of Mary Tudor. (June 1993) ISBN 0-688-11641-8 Hugo, Victor. Mary Tudor: A Drama. ISBN 1-58963-478-0 Loades, David M. Mary Tudor: A Life. (March 1992) ISBN 0-631-18449-X Loades, David M. The Reign of Mary Tudor: Politics, Government & Religion in England, 1553-58. (May 1991) ISBN 0-582-05759-0 McHarque, Georgess. Queen in Waiting: A Life of "Bloody Mary" Tudor. (June 2004) ISBN 0-595-31254-3 Porter, Linda Mary Tudor: The First Queen. (October 2007) ISBN 978-0-7499-5144-3 Prescott, H. F. M. Mary Tudor: The Spanish Tudor. (October 2003) ISBN 1-84212-625-3 Ridley, Jasper. Bloody Mary's Martyrs: The Story of England's Terror. (July 2002) ISBN 0-7867-0986-3 Slavicek, Louise Chipley. Bloody Mary (History's Villains). (July 2005) ISBN 1-4103-0581-3 Waldman, Milton. The Lady Mary: a biography of Mary Tudor, 1516-1558. (1972) ISBN 0-00-211486-0 Waller, Maureen, "Sovereign Ladies: Sex, Sacrifice, and Power. The Six Reigning Queens of England." St. Martin's Press, New York, 2006. ISBN 0-312-33801-5 Weir, Alison. "The Children of Henry VIII. (1996) Whitelock, Anna. 'Mary: the first queen of England' (bloomsbury forthcoming) Meyer, Carolyn 'Mary Bloody Mary' (half fiction half non-fiction) Simpson, Helen. The Spanish Marriage, at Project Gutenberg Australia Fiction The short appearance of the future Queen Mary in Mark Twain's The Prince and the Pauper had a considerable influence on her negative image, given the enduring popularity of Twain's work. His depiction of her as a cold and cruel person seems to connected both to Twain's outspoken atheism and to the strong anti-Catholic prejudice prevalent in American society at the time of writing. Ainsworth, William Harrison. The Tower of London. London, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd.; New York, E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc. [1946], 455 p. Baker, Kage. In The Garden of Iden. (December 2005) ISBN 0-7653-1457-6 (listed as science fiction, as it involves time travel) Churchill, Rosemary. Daughter of Henry VIII. (May 1978) ISBN 0-523-40325-9 Suzannah Dunn. The Queen's Sorrow. (July 2008) ISBN 978-0-00-725827-7. Attempts to show the other side to Mary as seen through the eyes of Rafael, a member of Prince Philip's entourage. Dunnett, Dorothy. "The Ringed Castle" includes a sympathetic portrayal of Mary's marriage and pregnancies Dukthas, Ann. In the Time of the Poisoned Queen. (February 1998) ISBN 0-312-18030-6 Feather, Jane. Kissed by Shadows. (February 2003) ISBN 0-553-58308-5 Gregory, Philippa. The Queen's Fool. (November 2004) ISBN 0-7432-6982-9 makes an effort to revise her long-lasting horrific image and show her through the eyes of a devoted and loving servant - without hiding the horror of the persecutions Irwin, Margaret. Trilogy: Young Bess, Elizabeth, Captive Princess and Elizabeth and the Prince of Spain. Lewis, Hilda. I Am Mary Tudor ISBN 0-446-78017-0, Mary the Queen ISBN 0-09-116030-8, and Bloody Mary (1973), a trilogy. Meyer, Carolyn Mary, Bloody Mary. (April 2001) ISBN 0-15-216456-1 (Juvenile Fiction, ages 11 and up) Parkes, Patricia. Queen's Lady. (May 1981) ISBN 0-312-66008-1 Plaidy, Jean. In the Shadow of the Crown: The Tudor Queens. (May 2004) ISBN 0-609-81019-7 "Queen Mary" by Alfred Tennyson - full online text Santiago Sevilla. Dracula and the Bloody Mary: A Tragicomedy, published in Liceus El Portal de las Humanidades. (Liceus.com)Innocent Traitor by Alison Weir (2007). The Lady Elizabeth'' by Alison Weir (2008). External links Mary I Chronology World History Database "Bloody Mary: Further Intrigue in the Tudor Court", Stevens, Garry, 2004. Mary Tudor takes the Crown — Tudor History Queen Mary I on the Historic Royal Palaces website be-x-old:Марыя І | Mary_I_of_England |@lemmatized mary:143 february:8 november:6 queen:32 england:38 ireland:10 july:12 death:7 fourth:1 crown:7 monarch:3 tudor:21 dynasty:1 remember:1 restore:4 roman:8 catholicism:6 succeed:6 short:3 live:2 half:8 brother:5 edward:22 vi:12 english:6 throne:8 process:1 almost:4 religious:4 dissenter:1 burn:4 stake:2 marian:3 persecution:7 earn:2 sobriquet:1 bloody:11 establishment:2 reverse:1 successor:3 sister:11 elizabeth:29 childhood:2 early:3 year:13 child:8 henry:37 viii:18 first:12 wife:5 catherine:5 aragon:2 survive:1 infancy:1 mother:8 many:6 miscarriage:1 stillborn:1 three:4 include:6 duke:11 cornwall:1 precede:1 granddaughter:2 ferdinand:1 ii:3 isabella:1 castile:1 bear:2 palace:9 placentia:1 greenwich:1 london:13 baptise:1 thomas:8 cardinal:3 wolsey:2 standing:1 godfather:1 sickly:1 poor:1 eyesight:2 sinus:1 condition:2 bad:2 headache:1 john:8 hussey:2 baron:1 sleaford:1 chamberlain:1 lady:14 anne:7 daughter:7 george:2 grey:7 earl:2 kent:2 one:6 attendant:2 despite:6 health:1 problem:4 precocious:1 great:1 part:2 credit:1 education:1 likely:2 come:2 consult:1 spanish:9 scholar:1 juan:1 luis:1 vives:1 upon:4 subject:2 instructor:1 latin:3 also:11 study:1 greek:1 science:2 music:2 scarcely:1 five:2 old:5 entertain:1 visitor:1 performance:1 virginal:1 small:2 harpsichord:1 dot:1 would:12 boast:1 company:2 girl:2 never:1 cry:1 sometimes:2 show:6 delight:1 develop:1 skill:1 farquhar:1 michael:1 treasure:1 royal:4 scandal:1 p:4 penguin:1 book:6 new:12 york:5 isbn:26 nine:2 give:5 court:5 ludlow:1 castle:3 prerogative:1 normally:1 prince:7 wale:5 even:3 call:6 princess:10 send:3 preside:1 council:2 march:3 obvious:1 affection:1 deeply:1 disappointed:1 marriage:22 produce:3 son:9 throughout:2 negotiate:1 potential:1 two:6 promise:1 dauphin:2 francis:4 king:8 france:9 contract:2 repudiate:2 instead:3 marry:11 cousin:4 holy:1 emperor:1 charles:4 v:4 treaty:7 windsor:1 within:2 however:13 engagement:1 break:4 suggest:2 wed:1 father:8 eager:1 alliance:3 sign:1 provide:4 either:2 second:1 orléans:1 chief:2 adviser:1 manage:1 secure:1 without:3 meanwhile:1 parent:1 jeopardy:1 fail:1 male:1 heir:3 desire:1 attempt:6 annulled:1 pope:2 clement:1 vii:1 refuse:3 request:1 contend:1 decision:1 influence:2 former:5 betrothed:1 nephew:1 claim:2 cite:1 biblical:1 passage:1 unclean:1 previously:1 briefly:1 age:5 arthur:2 although:5 debate:1 whether:1 consummate:1 secretly:1 another:2 woman:2 boleyn:5 shortly:2 thereafter:1 cranmer:4 archbishop:3 canterbury:3 formally:2 declare:5 void:1 valid:1 catholic:6 church:10 head:5 consequence:1 demote:1 dowager:1 title:3 hold:1 widow:1 turn:3 deem:1 illegitimate:4 place:4 line:6 succession:8 transfer:1 future:3 style:10 rather:1 status:2 expel:1 servant:2 favorite:2 maid:2 susan:2 clarencieux:2 dismiss:1 service:3 december:3 serve:1 wait:2 arrive:2 house:5 ask:2 norfolk:3 go:2 pay:1 respect:1 curtly:1 reply:1 know:2 save:1 acknowledge:2 might:1 richmond:2 blount:1 insult:1 doubtlessly:1 offend:1 though:4 continue:3 repeat:1 similar:1 phrase:3 whomever:1 compare:1 cold:3 treatment:2 receive:1 hatfield:2 determine:1 assert:1 seniority:1 occasion:1 household:2 move:3 location:1 make:4 protest:2 last:4 litter:1 velvet:1 cover:1 seat:1 leather:1 may:10 seem:2 like:3 victory:1 undoubtedly:1 triumph:1 courage:1 determination:1 often:1 sick:1 permit:3 see:3 attend:2 funeral:2 say:2 towards:1 teenage:1 deride:1 execution:3 witch:1 circumstance:1 worsen:1 reconcile:3 submit:1 authority:4 papal:2 unlawful:1 accept:2 illegitimacy:1 behead:2 downgrade:1 remove:1 week:1 jane:11 seymour:3 die:8 birth:2 godmother:1 mourner:1 return:4 agree:1 grant:2 reinstatement:1 reside:1 privy:2 purse:1 expense:1 nearly:1 whole:1 period:1 publish:4 beaulieu:3 newhall:1 hunsdon:1 among:3 principal:2 residence:2 later:4 award:1 paint:1 depict:1 family:2 ca:1 currently:1 display:1 hampton:1 leave:4 right:1 jak:1 william:5 sommers:1 sixth:1 katharine:1 parr:1 able:1 bring:2 closer:1 together:1 next:2 third:1 act:7 remain:5 legally:2 since:3 still:2 rule:1 pass:3 regency:1 dominate:1 protestant:10 establish:1 faith:5 country:4 example:1 uniformity:1 prescribed:1 rite:1 use:5 common:3 prayer:1 faithful:1 allow:2 worship:3 private:1 chapel:1 appeal:1 privately:1 difference:1 thirty:1 reunion:1 christmas:1 embarrass:1 reduce:2 tear:1 front:1 dare:1 ignore:1 law:4 regard:1 accession:2 tuberculosis:1 want:1 fear:3 undo:1 reform:2 well:4 reason:1 plan:1 exclude:3 advisor:2 tell:1 could:5 disinherit:2 embrace:1 guide:1 dudley:7 northumberland:3 perhaps:1 others:2 devise:1 young:3 french:2 exclusion:1 contradict:1 around:3 time:6 summon:1 back:2 framlingham:1 suffolk:4 recently:2 initially:1 hesitate:1 suspect:1 summons:1 pretext:1 capture:1 facilitate:1 assume:2 best:1 describe:1 coup:1 état:1 orchestrate:1 supporter:1 support:6 collapse:1 immediately:3 lead:2 false:2 depose:1 mere:1 day:2 rode:1 triumphantly:1 wave:1 popular:4 imprison:2 tower:4 understood:1 essentially:1 pawn:1 scheme:1 order:3 action:1 release:2 howard:1 stephen:2 gardiner:5 imprisonment:1 bishop:4 c:1 conspirator:1 execute:7 high:3 treason:3 difficult:1 position:1 counsellor:1 implicate:1 plot:1 put:4 rely:2 appoint:2 winchester:4 lord:2 chancellor:2 october:3 reign:12 philip:28 attention:1 find:2 husband:5 thus:1 prevent:1 term:2 reject:2 courtenay:1 devon:1 prospect:1 spain:7 view:3 titian:1 full:3 length:1 portrait:2 prado:2 museo:1 del:1 catálogo:1 de:4 la:2 pinturas:1 ministerio:1 educación:1 cultura:1 madrid:1 love:4 cathedral:2 take:4 meeting:1 affair:2 entirely:1 political:1 admire:1 dignity:1 felt:1 carnal:1 extremely:2 unpopular:2 petition:1 consider:2 englishman:1 relegate:1 dependency:1 arise:1 fact:2 brief:1 unsuccessful:2 controversial:1 empress:1 matilda:1 regnant:1 domestic:1 politics:2 insurrection:1 across:1 insist:1 proclaim:2 wyatt:2 force:2 defeat:1 rebellion:1 crush:1 convict:1 innocence:1 month:1 arrest:2 woodstock:1 official:3 document:1 parliament:5 date:1 name:3 joint:3 couple:2 coin:1 far:2 oblige:1 military:1 war:6 power:3 limited:1 true:1 sovereign:2 appear:1 medal:1 jacopo:1 da:1 trezzo:1 circa:1 pregnancy:5 think:1 pregnant:1 thanksgiving:1 diocese:1 phantom:2 various:1 theory:1 cyst:1 forward:1 explain:1 psychological:1 nature:1 persuade:3 probably:1 favourably:1 case:1 childbirth:1 soon:2 disgrace:1 flanders:3 command:1 army:1 heartbroken:1 fell:1 deep:1 depression:1 religion:2 concerned:1 heresy:2 always:1 rome:2 institute:1 protestantism:1 reginald:1 pole:2 governess:1 countess:1 salisbury:1 suitor:2 become:6 predecessor:2 greatly:1 advice:1 abolish:1 statute:1 repeal:2 doctrine:1 form:4 six:2 article:1 get:1 agreement:2 several:2 major:1 concession:1 ten:1 thousand:1 acre:1 monastery:1 land:1 confiscate:1 landowner:1 create:1 distribution:1 influential:1 approve:1 papacy:1 revival:1 numerous:1 leader:1 typically:1 rich:1 choose:1 exile:1 rogers:2 laurence:1 saunders:1 rowland:1 taylor:1 hooper:1 gloucester:1 four:1 exactly:1 foxe:2 estimate:1 martyr:4 commemorate:1 especially:2 bonfire:1 town:2 lewes:1 sussex:1 prominent:2 memorial:1 outside:2 st:4 stratford:1 essex:1 christchurch:1 park:1 ipswich:1 abbey:2 ground:1 bury:2 edmunds:1 east:1 west:1 respectively:3 foreign:1 policy:2 creation:1 kingdom:2 recognize:1 europe:2 obtain:1 bull:1 confirming:1 thereby:1 personal:1 link:2 reconquest:1 midland:2 county:3 laois:1 offaly:1 shired:1 maryborough:1 portlaoise:1 philipstown:1 daingean:1 colonist:1 settle:1 irish:1 attack:1 pale:2 colony:1 dublin:1 inherit:2 abdication:1 italian:1 much:1 opposition:1 exist:1 scotland:2 trade:5 jeopardize:1 distinct:1 lack:1 finance:1 economic:1 legacy:2 result:3 violate:1 carefully:1 write:2 faction:1 seditious:1 pamphlet:1 origin:1 inflame:1 spaniard:2 fare:1 badly:1 conflict:1 lose:1 calais:2 sole:1 continental:1 possession:1 january:2 territory:2 financially:2 burdensome:1 effect:1 loss:2 ideological:1 lament:1 word:1 inscribed:1 heart:1 commerce:1 revenue:4 decline:1 antwerp:1 cloth:1 benefit:1 enormously:1 lucrative:1 world:2 guard:1 trading:1 jealously:1 condone:1 piracy:1 increase:1 rescue:1 economy:1 seek:1 commercial:1 port:1 try:1 modern:1 government:3 correspondingly:1 spending:1 medieval:1 system:2 collect:1 taxation:1 due:1 failure:1 apply:1 tariff:2 import:2 mean:2 key:1 source:1 neglect:1 solve:1 rate:1 list:2 duty:1 every:1 publication:1 review:1 paulet:1 marquess:1 surveyor:1 custom:1 assign:1 oversee:1 collection:1 start:1 currency:1 counteract:1 dramatic:1 devaluation:1 overseen:1 gresham:1 characterize:1 measure:1 largely:1 suffer:1 speculatedthat:1 simply:1 pressure:1 physical:1 symptom:1 lactation:1 late:1 report:1 indicative:1 hormonal:1 disorder:1 pituitary:1 tumour:1 decreed:1 regent:1 minority:1 james:4 state:1 wish:1 inter:1 westminster:1 tomb:3 eventually:1 share:1 inscription:1 marble:1 plaque:1 regno:1 consort:2 urnâ:1 hîc:1 obdormimus:1 elizabetha:1 et:1 maria:1 sorores:1 spe:1 resurrectionis:1 affixed:1 translate:1 realm:1 sleep:1 hope:1 resurrection:1 play:1 multiple:1 meaning:1 consors:1 sibling:1 sharer:1 han:1 eworth:1 enjoy:1 tremendous:1 sympathy:1 mistreatment:1 population:1 clearly:1 specify:1 draw:1 guarantee:1 prove:1 meaningless:1 spent:1 govern:1 european:1 usually:1 hand:1 appellation:1 historian:1 believe:1 deserve:1 blame:1 people:2 disagreement:1 number:1 notable:1 cleric:1 colleague:1 tyndale:1 nicholas:1 ridley:2 reformist:1 hugh:1 latimer:1 prominently:1 feature:1 vilify:1 subsequent:1 edition:1 century:1 tradition:1 trace:1 nursery:1 rhyme:1 quite:1 contrary:1 scot:1 arm:4 majesty:4 sicily:3 impale:2 highness:1 grace:5 consistent:1 basis:1 exclusive:1 ascend:1 god:3 defender:3 earth:1 supreme:1 supremacy:1 end:1 repugnant:1 onwards:1 omit:1 statutory:1 retroactively:1 jointly:1 reflect:1 dominion:1 naples:1 jerusalem:2 archduke:2 austria:2 milan:2 burgundy:2 brabant:2 count:2 habsburg:2 tirol:2 replace:1 iv:1 quarterly:1 azure:1 fleurs:1 lys:1 gules:1 lion:1 passant:1 guardant:1 depicted:1 side:3 ancestry:1 center:1 pilgrimage:1 cultural:1 depiction:2 note:1 reference:1 eakins:1 l:1 e:2 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 ed:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:2 encyclopedia:1 volume:1 ix:1 robert:1 appleton:1 williamson:1 national:1 gallery:1 weir:4 alison:4 read:1 non:2 fiction:6 deary:2 terry:2 terrible:2 erickson:1 carolly:1 life:3 june:2 hugo:1 victor:1 drama:1 loades:2 david:2 x:2 mcharque:1 porter:1 linda:1 prescott:1 h:1 f:1 jasper:1 story:1 terror:1 slavicek:1 louise:1 chipley:1 history:3 villain:1 waldman:1 milton:1 biography:1 waller:1 maureen:1 sex:1 sacrifice:1 martin:1 whitelock:1 anna:1 bloomsbury:1 forthcoming:1 meyer:2 carolyn:2 simpson:1 helen:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 australia:1 appearance:1 mark:1 twain:3 pauper:1 considerable:1 negative:1 image:2 endure:1 popularity:1 work:1 cruel:1 person:1 connect:1 outspoken:1 atheism:1 strong:1 anti:1 prejudice:1 prevalent:1 american:1 society:1 ainsworth:1 harrison:1 j:1 dent:1 ltd:1 dutton:1 co:1 inc:1 baker:1 kage:1 garden:1 iden:1 involve:1 travel:1 churchill:1 rosemary:1 suzannah:1 dunn:1 sorrow:1 eye:2 rafael:1 member:1 entourage:1 dunnett:1 dorothy:1 ringed:1 sympathetic:1 portrayal:1 dukthas:1 ann:1 poisoned:1 feather:1 kiss:1 shadow:2 gregory:1 philippa:1 fool:1 effort:1 revise:1 long:1 lasting:1 horrific:1 devote:1 hide:1 horror:1 irwin:1 margaret:1 trilogy:2 captive:1 lewis:1 hilda:1 april:1 juvenile:1 parkes:1 patricia:1 plaidy:1 jean:1 alfred:1 tennyson:1 online:1 text:1 santiago:1 sevilla:1 dracula:1 tragicomedy:1 liceus:2 el:1 portal:1 humanidades:1 com:1 innocent:1 traitor:1 external:1 chronology:1 database:1 intrigue:1 stevens:1 garry:1 historic:1 website:1 марыя:1 і:1 |@bigram tudor_dynasty:1 roman_catholicism:4 burn_stake:2 henry_viii:18 catherine_aragon:1 isabella_castile:1 cardinal_wolsey:2 sickly_child:1 poor_eyesight:1 farquhar_michael:1 ludlow_castle:1 royal_prerogative:1 deeply_disappointed:1 duke_orléans:1 pope_clement:1 clement_vii:1 anne_boleyn:5 shortly_thereafter:1 thomas_cranmer:4 cranmer_archbishop:1 archbishop_canterbury:3 dowager_princess:1 jane_seymour:3 privy_purse:1 duke_northumberland:2 jane_grey:4 accession_throne:1 coup_état:1 stephen_gardiner:2 privy_counsellor:1 museo_del:1 del_prado:1 ministerio_de:1 de_educación:1 winchester_cathedral:2 empress_matilda:1 queen_regnant:1 john_foxe:2 st_edmunds:1 papal_bull:1 westminster_abbey:1 william_tyndale:1 hugh_latimer:1 nursery_rhyme:1 ascend_throne:1 archduke_austria:2 duke_burgundy:1 lion_passant:1 passant_guardant:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 robert_appleton:1 weir_alison:2 project_gutenberg:1 mark_twain:1 dutton_co:1 science_fiction:1 alfred_tennyson:1 alison_weir:2 external_link:1 |
3,456 | Nelson_Mandela | Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (; born 18 July 1918 in Transkei, South Africa) is a former President of South Africa, the first to be elected in a fully representative democratic election, who held office from 1994–99. Before his presidency, Mandela was an anti-apartheid activist, and the leader of the African National Congress's armed wing Umkhonto we Sizwe. The South African courts convicted him on charges of sabotage, as well as other crimes committed while he led the movement against apartheid. In accordance with his conviction, Mandela served 27 years in prison, spending many of these years on Robben Island. He is currently a celebrated elder statesman who continues to voice his opinion on topical issues. In South Africa he is often known as Madiba, an honorary title adopted by elders of Mandela's clan. The title has come to be synonymous with Nelson Mandela. Following his release from prison on 11 February 1990, Mandela supported reconciliation and negotiation, and helped lead the transition towards multi-racial democracy in South Africa. Since the end of apartheid, many have frequently praised Mandela, including former opponents. Mandela has received more than one hundred awards over four decades, most notably the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. Early life Nelson Mandela circa 1939 Mandela 1996, pp. 16, 17 Mandela belongs to a cadet branch of the Thembu dynasty, which reigns in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's Cape Province. He was born in Mvezo, a small village located in the district of Umtata, the Transkei capital. His patrilineal great-grandfather Ngubengcuka (who died in 1832), ruled as the Inkosi Enkhulu, or king, of the Thembu people. One of the king's sons, named Mandela, became Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. However, because he was only the Inkosi's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan (the so-called "Left-Hand House"), the descendants of his branch of the royal family were not eligible to succeed to the Thembu throne. Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, served as chief of the town of Mvezo. However, upon alienating the colonial authorities, they deprived Mphakanyiswa of his position, and moved his family to Qunu. Despite this, Mphakanyiswa remained a member of the Inkosi's Privy Council, and served an instrumental role in Jongintaba Dalindyebo's ascension to the Thembu throne. Dalindyebo would later return the favour by informally adopting Mandela upon Mphakanyiswa's death. Mandela's father had four wives, with whom he fathered a total of thirteen children (four boys and nine girls). Mandela was born to his third wife ('third' by a complex royal ranking system), Nosekeni Fanny. Fanny was a daughter of Nkedama of the Mpemvu Xhosa clan, the dynastic Right Hand House, in whose umzi or homestead Mandela spent much of his childhood. His given name Rolihlahla means "to pull a branch of a tree", or more colloquially, "troublemaker". Mandela 1996, p.7 Rolihlahla Mandela became the first member of his family to attend a school, where his teacher Miss Mdingane gave him the English name "Nelson". Mandela 1996, p. 9. "No one in my family had ever attended school [...] On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name I have no idea." When Mandela was nine, his father died of tuberculosis, and the regent, Jongintaba, became his guardian. Mandela attended a Wesleyan mission school located next to the palace of the regent. Following Thembu custom, he was initiated at age sixteen, and attended Clarkebury Boarding Institute. Mandela completed his Junior Certificate in two years, instead of the usual three. Designated to inherit his father's position as a privy councillor, in 1937 Mandela moved to Healdtown, the Wesleyan college in Fort Beaufort which most Thembu royalty attended. At nineteen, he took an interest in boxing and running at the school. After enrolling, Mandela began to study for a Bachelor of Arts at the Fort Hare University, where he met Oliver Tambo. Tambo and Mandela became lifelong friends and colleagues. Mandela also became close friends with his kinsman, Kaiser ("K.D.") Matanzima who, as royal scion of the Thembu Right Hand House, was in line for the throne of Transkei, a role that would later lead him to embrace Bantustan policies. His support of these policies placed him and Mandela on opposing political sides. At the end of Nelson's first year, he became involved in a Students' Representative Council boycott against university policies, and was told to leave Fort Hare and not return unless he accepted election to the SRC. Mandela 1996, pp. 18-19. Later, Mandela studied for a Bachelor of Laws from the University of London External Programme. Shortly after leaving Fort Hare, Jongintaba announced to Mandela and Justice (the regent's son and heir to the throne) that he had arranged marriages for both of them. The young men, displeased by the arrangement, elected to relocate to Johannesburg. Mandela 1996, pp. 10, 20. Upon his arrival, Mandela initially found employment as a guard at a mine. However, the employer quickly terminated Mandela after learning that he was the Regent's runaway ward. Mandela later started work as an articled clerk at a Johannesburg law firm, Witkin, Sidelsky and Edelman, through connections with his friend and mentor, realtor Walter Sisulu. While working at Witkin, Sidelsky and Edelman, Mandela completed his B.A. degree at the University of South Africa via correspondence, after which he began law studies at the University of Witwatersrand, where he first befriended fellow students and future anti-apartheid political activists Joe Slovo, Harry Schwarz and Ruth First. During this time Mandela lived in Alexandra township, north of Johannesburg. Political activity After the 1948 election victory of the Afrikaner-dominated National Party, which supported the apartheid policy of racial segregation, Mandela began actively participating in politics. He led prominently in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People, whose adoption of the Freedom Charter provided the fundamental basis of the anti-apartheid cause. During this time, Mandela and fellow lawyer Oliver Tambo operated the law firm of Mandela and Tambo, providing free or low-cost legal counsel to many blacks who lacked attorney representation. Mahatma Gandhi influenced Mandela's approach, and subsequently the methods of succeeding generations of South African anti-apartheid activists. Mandela even took part in the 29 January – 30 January 2007 conference in New Delhi marking the 100th anniversary of Gandhi's introduction of satyagraha in South Africa. Initially committed to nonviolent resistance, Mandela and 150 others were arrested on 5 December 1956 and charged with treason. The marathon Treason Trial of 1956–1961 followed, with all defendants receiving acquittals. From 1952–1959, a new class of black activists known as the Africanists disrupted ANC activities in the townships, demanding more drastic steps against the National Party regime. The ANC leadership under Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo and Walter Sisulu felt, not only that the Africanists were moving too fast, but also that they challenged their leadership. The ANC leadership consequently bolstered their position through alliances with small White, Coloured, and Indian political parties in an attempt to give the appearance of wider appeal than the Africanists. The Africanists ridiculed the 1955 Freedom Charter Kliptown Conference for the concession of the 100,000-strong ANC to just a single vote in a Congressional alliance. Four secretaries-general of the five participating parties secretly belonged to the secretly reconstituted South African Communist Party (SACP), strongly adhering to the Moscow line. In 1959, the ANC lost its most militant support when most of the Africanists, with financial support from Ghana and significant political support from the Transvaal-based Basotho, broke away to form the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) under the direction of Robert Sobukwe and Potlako Leballo. Anti-apartheid activities In 1961, Mandela became leader of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (translated Spear of the Nation, and also abbreviated MK), which he co-founded. He coordinated sabotage campaigns against military and government targets, making plans for a possible guerrilla war if the sabotage failed to end apartheid. Mandela also raised funds for MK abroad and arranged for paramilitary training of the group. Fellow ANC member Wolfie Kadesh explains the bombing campaign led by Mandela: "When we knew that we [sic] going to start on 16 December 1961, to blast the symbolic places of apartheid, like pass offices, native magistrates courts, and things like that ... post offices and ... the government offices. But we were to do it in such a way that nobody would be hurt, nobody would get killed." Mandela said of Wolfie: "His knowledge of warfare and his first hand battle experience were extremely helpful to me." Mandela described the move to armed struggle as a last resort; years of increasing repression and violence from the state convinced him that many years of non-violent protest against apartheid had not and could not achieve any progress. Later, mostly in the 1980s, MK waged a guerrilla war against the apartheid regime in which many civilians became casualties. Mandela later admitted that the ANC, in its struggle against apartheid, also violated human rights, sharply criticising those in his own party who attempted to remove statements supporting this fact from the reports of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Up until July 2008, Mandela and ANC party members were barred from entering the United States — except the United Nations headquarters in Manhattan — without a special waiver from the US Secretary of State, because of their South African apartheid regime era designation as terrorists. Arrest and Rivonia trial On 5 August 1962 Mandela was arrested after living on the run for seventeen months, and was imprisoned in the Johannesburg Fort. The arrest was made possible because the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) tipped off the security police as to Mandela's whereabouts and disguise. Three days later, the charges of leading workers to strike in 1961 and leaving the country illegally were read to him during a court appearance. On 25 October 1962, Mandela was sentenced to five years in prison. Two years later on 11 June 1964, a verdict had been reached concerning his previous engagement in the African National Congress (ANC). While Mandela was imprisoned, police arrested prominent ANC leaders on 11 July 1963, at Liliesleaf Farm, Rivonia, north of Johannesburg. Mandela was brought in, and at the Rivonia Trial they were charged by the chief prosecutor Dr. Percy Yutar with the capital crimes of sabotage (which Mandela admitted) and crimes which were equivalent to treason, but easier for the government to prove. The second charge accused the defendants of plotting a foreign invasion of South Africa, which Mandela denied. In his statement from the dock at the opening of the defence case in the trial on 20 April 1964 at Pretoria Supreme Court, Mandela laid out the clarity of reasoning in the ANC's choice to use violence as a tactic. His statement revealed how the ANC had used peaceful means to resist apartheid for years until the Sharpeville Massacre. That event coupled with the referendum establishing the Republic of South Africa and the declaration of a state of emergency along with the banning of the ANC made it clear that their only choice was to resist through acts of sabotage. Doing otherwise would have been tantamount to unconditional surrender. Mandela went on to explain how they developed the Manifesto of Umkhonto we Sizwe on 16 December 1961 intent on exposing the failure of the National Party's policies after the economy would be threatened by foreigners' unwillingness to risk investing in the country. He closed his statement with these words: Bram Fischer, Vernon Berrange, Harry Schwarz (who Mandela went to Wits with), Joel Joffe, Arthur Chaskalson and George Bizos were part of the defence team that represented the accused. Harold Hanson was brought in at the end of the case to plead mitigation. All except Rusty Bernstein were found guilty, but they escaped the gallows and were sentenced to life imprisonment on 12 June 1964. Charges included involvement in planning armed action, in particular four charges of sabotage, which Mandela admitted to, and a conspiracy to help other countries invade South Africa, which Mandela denied. Imprisonment Robben Island prison yard Nelson Mandela's prison cell on Robben Island Nelson Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island where he remained for the next eighteen of his twenty-seven years in prison. While in jail, his reputation grew and he became widely known as the most significant black leader in South Africa. On the island, he and others performed hard labour in a lime quarry. Prison conditions were very basic. Prisoners were segregated by race, with black prisoners receiving the fewest rations. Political prisoners were kept separate from ordinary criminals and received fewer privileges. Mandela describes how, as a D-group prisoner (the lowest classification) he was allowed one visitor and one letter every six months. Letters, when they came, were often delayed for long periods and made unreadable by the prison censors. Whilst in prison Mandela undertook study with the University of London by correspondence through its External Programme and received the degree of Bachelor of Laws. He was subsequently nominated for the position of Chancellor of the University of London in the 1981 election, but lost to Princess Anne. In his 1981 memoir Inside BOSS secret agent Gordon Winter describes his involvement in a plot to rescue Mandela from prison in 1969: this plot was infiltrated by Winter on behalf of South African intelligence, who wanted Mandela to escape so they could shoot him during recapture. The plot was foiled by British Intelligence. In March 1982 Mandela was transferred from Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison, along with other senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada and Raymond Mhlaba. It was speculated that this was to remove the influence of these senior leaders on the new generation of young black activists imprisoned on Robben Island, the so-called "Mandela University". However, National Party minister Kobie Coetsee says that the move was to enable discreet contact between them and the South African government. In February 1985 President P.W. Botha offered Mandela conditional release in return for renouncing armed struggle. Coetzee and other ministers had advised Botha against this, saying that Mandela would never commit his organisation to giving up the armed struggle in exchange for personal freedom. Mandela indeed spurned the offer, releasing a statement via his daughter Zindzi saying "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts." The first meeting between Mandela and the National Party government came in November 1985 when Kobie Coetsee met Mandela in Volks Hospital in Cape Town where Mandela was being treated for prostate surgery. Over the next four years, a series of tentative meetings took place, laying the groundwork for further contact and future negotiations, but little real progress was made. Throughout Mandela's imprisonment, local and international pressure mounted on the South African government to release him, under the resounding slogan Free Nelson Mandela! In 1989, South Africa reached a crossroads when Botha suffered a stroke and was replaced as president by Frederik Willem de Klerk. De Klerk announced Mandela's release in February 1990. Release On 2 February 1990, State President F.W. de Klerk reversed the ban on the ANC and other anti-apartheid organisations, and announced that Mandela would shortly be released from prison. Mandela was released from Victor Verster Prison in Paarl on 11 February 1990. The event was broadcast live all over the world. On the day of his release, Mandela made a speech to the nation. He declared his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the country's white minority, but made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not yet over: He also said his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in both national and local elections. Negotiations Following his release from prison, Mandela returned to the leadership of the ANC and, between 1990 and 1994, led the party in the multi-party negotiations that led to the country's first multi-racial elections. In 1991, the ANC held its first national conference in South Africa after its unbanning, electing Mandela as President of the organisation. His old friend and colleague Oliver Tambo, who had led the organisation in exile during Mandela's imprisonment, became National Chairperson. Mandela's leadership through the negotiations, as well as his relationship with President F.W. de Klerk, was recognised when they were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. However, the relationship was sometimes strained, particularly so in a sharp exchange in 1991 when he furiously referred to De Klerk as the head of "an illegitimate, discredited, minority regime". The talks broke down following the Boipatong massacre in June 1992 when Mandela took the ANC out of the negotiations, accusing De Klerk's government of complicity in the killings. However, talks resumed following the Bisho massacre in September 1992, when the spectre of violent confrontation made it clear that negotiations were the only way forward. Following the assassination of ANC leader Chris Hani in April 1993, there were renewed fears that the country would erupt in violence. Mandela addressed the nation appealing for calm, in a speech regarded as 'presidential' even though he was not yet president of the country at that time: While some riots did follow the assassination, the negotiators were galvanised into action, and soon agreed that democratic elections should take place on 27 April 1994, just over a year after Hani's assassination. Autobiography Mandela's autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, was published in 1994. Mandela had begun work on it secretly while in prison. Mandela 1996, p. 144-148. In that book Mandela did not reveal anything about the alleged complicity of F.W. de Klerk in the violence of the eighties and nineties, or the role of his ex-wife Winnie Mandela in that bloodshed. However, he later co-operated with his friend, journalist Anthony Sampson who discussed those issues in Mandela: The Authorised Biography. Another detail that Mandela omitted was the allegedly fraudulent book, Goodbye Bafana. Its author, Robben Island warder James Gregory, claimed to have been Mandela's confidant in prison and published details of the prisoner's family affairs. Sampson maintained that Mandela had not known Gregory well, but that Gregory censored the letters sent to the future president and thus discovered the details of Mandela's personal life. Sampson also averred that other warders suspected Gregory of spying for the government and that Mandela considered suing Gregory. Presidency of South Africa South Africa's first multi-racial elections in which full enfranchisement was granted were held on 27 April 1994. The ANC won 62% of the votes in the election, and Mandela, as leader of the ANC, was inaugurated on 10 May 1994 as the country's first black President, with the National Party's de Klerk as his first deputy and Thabo Mbeki as the second in the Government of National Unity. As President from May 1994 until June 1999, Mandela presided over the transition from minority rule and apartheid, winning international respect for his advocacy of national and international reconciliation. Mandela encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated Springboks (the South African national rugby team) as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. After the Springboks won an epic final over New Zealand, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar's own number 6 on the back. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans. After assuming the presidency, one of Mandela's trademarks was his use of Batik shirts, known as "Madiba shirts", even on formal occasions. In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, Mandela ordered troops into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili. This came after a disputed election prompted fierce opposition threatening the unstable government. Commentators and critics including AIDS activists such as Edwin Cameron have criticised Mandela for his government's ineffectiveness in stemming the AIDS crisis. After his retirement, Mandela admitted that he may have failed his country by not paying more attention to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Mandela has since spoken out on several occasions against the AIDS epidemic. Lockerbie trial President Mandela took a particular interest in helping to resolve the long-running dispute between Gaddafi's Libya, on the one hand, and the United States and Britain on the other, over bringing to trial the two Libyans who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103, which crashed at the Scottish town of Lockerbie on 21 December 1988, with the loss of 270 lives. As early as 1992, Mandela informally approached President George H.W. Bush with a proposal to have the two indicted Libyans tried in a third country. Bush reacted favourably to the proposal, as did President François Mitterrand of France and King Juan Carlos I of Spain. In November 1994 – six months after his election as president – Mandela formally proposed that South Africa should be the venue for the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial. However, British Prime Minister, John Major, flatly rejected the idea saying the British government did not have confidence in foreign courts. A further three years elapsed until Mandela's offer was repeated to Major's successor, Tony Blair, when the president visited London in July 1997. Later the same year, at the 1997 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) at Edinburgh in October 1997, Mandela warned:"No one nation should be complainant, prosecutor and judge." A compromise solution was then agreed for a trial to be held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands, governed by Scots law, and President Mandela began negotiations with Colonel Gaddafi for the handover of the two accused (Megrahi and Fhimah) in April 1999. At the end of their nine-month trial, the verdict was announced on 31 January 2001. Fhimah was found not guilty but Megrahi was convicted and sentenced to 27 years in a Scottish jail. Megrahi's initial appeal was turned down in March 2002, and former president Mandela went to visit him in Barlinnie prison on 10 June 2002. Megrahi was subsequently moved to Greenock jail and is no longer in solitary confinement. On 28 June 2007, the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission concluded its three-year review of Megrahi's conviction and, believing that a miscarriage of justice may have occurred, referred the case to the Court of Criminal Appeal for a second appeal. Marriage and family Mandela has been married three times, has fathered six children, has twenty grandchildren, and a growing number of great-grandchildren. He is grandfather to Chief Mandla Mandela. First marriage Mandela's first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase who, like Mandela, was also from what later became the Transkei area of South Africa, although they actually met in Johannesburg. The couple broke up in 1957 after 13 years, divorcing under the multiple strains of his constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion which requires political neutrality. Evelyn Mase died in 2004. The couple had two sons, Madiba Thembekile (Thembi) (1946-1969) and Makgatho Mandela (1950-2005) , and two daughters, both named Makaziwe (known as Maki; born 1947 and 1953). Their first daughter died aged nine months, and they named their second daughter in her honour. All their children were educated at the United World College of Waterford Kamhlaba. Thembi was killed in a car crash in 1969 at the age of twenty-five, while Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island, and Mandela was not allowed to attend the funeral. Makgatho died of AIDS in 2005. Second marriage Mandela's second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, also came from the Transkei area, although they, too, met in Johannesburg, where she was the city's first black social worker. They had two daughters, Zenani (Zeni), born 4 February 1958, and Zindziswa (Zindzi)Mandela-Hlongwane, born 1960. Zindzi was only 18 months old when her father was sent to Robben island. Later, Winnie would be deeply torn by family discord which mirrored the country's political strife; while her husband was serving a life sentence on the Robben Island prison, her father became the agriculture minister in the Transkei. The marriage ended in separation (April 1992) and divorce (March 1996), fuelled by political estrangement. Mandela still languished in prison when his daughter Zenani was married to Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini in 1973, elder brother of King Mswati III of Swaziland. Although she had vivid memories of her father, from the age of four up until sixteen, South African authorities did not permit her to visit him. The Dlamini couple live and run a business in Boston. One of their sons, Prince Cedza Dlamini (born 1976), educated in the United States, has followed in his grandfather's footsteps as an international advocate for human rights and humanitarian aid. ZindziMandela-Hlongwane made history worldwide when, as a 14 year old, she read out Manela's speech refusing his conditional pardon in 1985. She is a businesswoman in South Africa with three children, eldest of whom is a son, Gadaffi. Third marriage Mandela was remarried, on his 80th birthday in 1998,to Graça Machel née Simbine, widow of Samora Machel, the former Mozambican president and ANC ally who was killed in an air crash 12 years earlier. The wedding followed months of international negotiations to set the unprecedented bride-price to be remitted to Machel's clan. Said negotiations were conducted on Mandela's behalf by his traditional sovereign, King Buyelekhaya Zwelibanzi Dalindyebo. The paramount chief's grandfather was the regent Jongintaba Dalindyebo, who had arranged a marriage for Mandela, which he eluded by fleeing to Johannesburg in 1940. Mandela still maintains a home at Qunu in the realm of his royal nephew (second cousin thrice-removed in Western reckoning), whose university expenses he defrayed and whose privy councillor he remains. Retirement Mandela became the oldest elected President of South Africa when he took office at the age of 77 in 1994. He decided not to stand for a second term as President, and instead retired in 1999, to be succeeded by Thabo Mbeki. After his retirement as President, Mandela went on to become an advocate for a variety of social and human rights organisations. He has expressed his support for the international Make Poverty History movement of which the ONE Campaign is a part. The Nelson Mandela Invitational charity golf tournament, hosted by Gary Player, has raised over twenty million rands for children's charities since its inception in 2000. This annual special event has become South Africa's most successful charitable sports gathering and benefits both the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund and Gary Player Foundation equally for various children's causes around the world. Mandela is a vocal supporter of SOS Children's Villages, the world's largest organisation dedicated to raising orphaned and abandoned children. Mandela appeared in a televised advertisement for the 2006 Winter Olympics, and was quoted for the International Olympic Committee's Celebrate Humanity campaign: Health In July 2001 Mandela was diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer. He was treated with a seven-week course of radiation. In June 2004, at age 85, Mandela announced that he would be retiring from public life. His health had been declining, and he wanted to enjoy more time with his family. Mandela said that he did not intend to hide away totally from the public, but wanted to be in a position "of calling you to ask whether I would be welcome, rather than being called upon to do things and participate in events. My appeal therefore is: Don't call me, I will call you." Since 2003, he has appeared in public less often and has been less vocal on topical issues. He is white-haired and walks slowly with the support of a stick. In 2003 Mandela's death was incorrectly announced by CNN when his pre-written obituary (along with those of several other famous figures) was inadvertently published on CNN's web site due to a fault in password protection. In 2007 a fringe right-wing group distributed hoax email and SMS messages claiming that the authorities had covered up Mandela's death and that white South Africans would be massacred after his funeral. Mandela was on holiday in Mozambique at the time. Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at his home town of Qunu. A concert in his honour was also held in Hyde Park, London. In a speech to mark his birthday, Mandela called for the rich people to help poor people across the world. Elders On 18 July 2007, Nelson Mandela, Graça Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to address the world's toughest problems. Nelson Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday. Archbishop Tutu serves as the chair of The Elders. The founding members of this group also include Graça Machel, Kofi Annan, Ela Bhatt, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Jimmy Carter, Li Zhaoxing, Mary Robinson and Muhammad Yunus. "This group can speak freely and boldly, working both publicly and behind the scenes on whatever actions need to be taken", Mandela commented. "Together we will work to support courage where there is fear, foster agreement where there is conflict, and inspire hope where there is despair." AIDS engagement Since his retirement, one of Mandela's primary commitments has been to the fight against AIDS. He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in 2000, in Durba, South Africa. Paul Tebas, MD, "Closing Ceremony," http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html In 2003, he had already lent his support to the 46664 AIDS fundraising campaign, named after his prison number. In July 2004, he flew to Bangkok to speak at the XV International AIDS Conference. His son, Makgatho Mandela, died of AIDS on 6 January 2005. Mandela's AIDS activism is chronicled in Stephanie Nolen's book, 28: Stories of AIDS in Africa. Iraq invasion views In 2002 and 2003, Mandela criticised the foreign policy of the administration of U.S. president George W. Bush in a number of speeches. Criticising the lack of UN involvement in the decision to begin the War in Iraq, he said, "It is a tragedy, what is happening, what Bush is doing. But Bush is now undermining the United Nations." Mandela stated he would support action against Iraq only if it is ordered by the UN. Mandela also insinuated that Bush may have been motivated by racism in not following the UN and its secretary-general Kofi Annan on the issue of the war. "Is it because the secretary-general of the United Nations is now a black man? They never did that when secretary-generals were white". He urged the people of the U.S. to join massive protests against Bush and called on world leaders, especially those with vetoes in the UN Security Council, to oppose him. "What I am condemning is that one power, with a president who has no foresight, who cannot think properly, is now wanting to plunge the world into a holocaust." He attacked the United States for its record on human rights and for dropping atomic bombs on Japan during World War II. "If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America. They don't care." In 2002, Mandela called Dick Cheney -- who as a U.S. congressman voted against a resolution calling for Mandela's release from prison -- a "dinosaur." Ismail Ayob controversy Ismail Ayob was a trusted friend and personal attorney of Mandela for over 30 years. In May 2005, Ayob was asked by Mandela to stop selling prints signed by Mandela and to account for the proceeds of their sale. This bitter dispute led to an extensive application to the High Court of South Africa by Mandela that year. Ayob denied any wrongdoing, and claimed that he was the victim of a smear campaign orchestrated by Mandela's advisors, in particular, lawyer George Bizos. In 2005, and 2006 Ayob, his wife, and son were subject to an attack by Mandela's advisors. The dispute was widely reported in the media, with Ayob being portrayed in a negative light, culminating in the action by Mandela to the High Court. There were public meetings at which Mandela associates attacked Ayob and there were calls for Ayob and his family to be ostracised by society. The defence of Ismail and Zamila Ayob (his wife, and a fellow respondent) included documents signed by Mandela and witnessed by his secretaries, that, they claimed, refuted many of the allegations made by Nelson Mandela and his advisors. The dispute again made headlines in February 2007 when, during a hearing in the Johannesburg High Court, Ayob promised to pay R700 000 to Mandela, which Ayob had transferred into trusts for Mandela's children, and apologised, although he later claimed that he was the victim of a "vendetta", by Mandela. Some media commentators expressed sympathy for Ayob's position, pointing out that Mandela's iconic status would make it difficult for Ayob to be treated fairly. Allegations Ayob, George Bizos and Wim Trengove were trustees of the Nelson Mandela Trust, which was set up to hold millions of rands donated to Nelson Mandela by prominent business figures, including the Oppenheimer family, for the benefit of his children and grandchildren. Ayob later resigned from the Trust. In 2006, the two remaining trustees of the Nelson Mandela Trust launched an application against Ayob for disbursing money from the trust without their consent. Ayob claimed that this money was paid to the South African Revenue Service, to Mandela's children and grandchildren, to Mandela himself, and to an accounting company for four years of accounting work. Bizos and Trengrove refused to ratify the payments to the children and grandchildren of Nelson Mandela and the payments to the accounting firm. A court settlement was reached in which this money, totalling over R700,000 was paid by Ismail Ayob to the trust on the grounds that Ayob had not sought the express consent of the other two trustees before disbursing the money. It was alleged that Ayob made defamatory remarks about Mandela in his affidavit, for which the court order stated that Ayob should apologise. It was pointed out that these remarks, which centred on Nelson Mandela holding foreign bank accounts and not paying tax on these, had not originated from Ayob's affidavit but from Nelson Mandela's and George Bizos's own affidavits. Blood Diamond controversy In a The New Republic article in December 2006, Nelson Mandela was criticised for a number of positive comments he had made about the diamond industry. There were concerns that this would benefit suppliers of blood diamonds. In a letter to Edward Zwick, the director of the motion picture Blood Diamond, Mandela had noted that: The New Republic article claims that this comment, as well as various pro-diamond-industry initiatives and statements during his life and during his time as a president of South Africa, were influenced by both his friendship with Harry Oppenheimer, former chairman of De Beers, as well as an outlook for 'narrow national interests' of South Africa (which is a major diamond producer). Zimbabwe and Robert Mugabe Robert Mugabe, the president of Zimbabwe who has led the country since independence in 1980, has been widely criticised internationally for the 1980s fighting which killed about 3000 people as well as corruption, incompetent administration, political oppression and cronyism that has ultimately led to the economic collapse of the country. Despite their common background as national liberators, Mandela and Mugabe were seldom seen as close. Mandela criticised Mugabe in 2000, referring to African leaders who had liberated their countries but had then overstayed their welcome. In his retirement, Mandela spoke out less often on Zimbabwe and other international and domestic issues, sometimes leading to criticism for not using his influence to greater effect to persuade Mugabe to moderate his policies. His lawyer George Bizos revealed that Mandela has been advised on medical grounds to avoid engaging in stressful activity such as political controversy. Nonetheless, in 2007, Mandela attempted to persuade Mugabe to leave office "sooner than later", with "a modicum of dignity", before he was hounded out like Augusto Pinochet. Mugabe did not respond to this approach. In June 2008, at the height of the crisis over the Zimbabwean presidential election, Mandela condemned the "tragic failure of leadership" in Zimbabwe. Acclaim Fighter for liberation of South Africa Nelson Mandela on a 1988 USSR commemorative stamp Orders and decorations Mandela has received many South African, foreign and international honours, including the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 (which was shared with Frederik Willem de Klerk), the Order of Merit and the Order of St. John from Queen Elizabeth II and the Presidential Medal of Freedom from George W. Bush. In July 2004, the city of Johannesburg bestowed its highest honour on Mandela by granting him the freedom of the city at a ceremony in Orlando, Soweto. As an example of his popular foreign acclaim, during his tour of Canada in 1998, 45,000 school children greeted him with adulation at a speaking engagement in the SkyDome in the city of Toronto. In 2001, he was the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen (the only previous recipient, Raoul Wallenberg, was awarded honorary citizenship posthumously). While in Canada, he was also made an honorary Companion of the Order of Canada, one of the few foreigners to receive Canada's highest honour. In 1990 he received the Bharat Ratna Award from the government of India. In 1992 he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey. He refused the award citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time, but later accepted the award in 1999. Musical tributes Many artists have dedicated songs to Mandela. One of the most popular was from the The Specials who recorded the song "Nelson Mandela" in 1983. Stevie Wonder dedicated his 1985 Oscar for the song "I Just Called to Say I Love You" to Mandela, resulting in his music being banned by the South African Broadcasting Corporation. In 1985, Youssou N'Dour's album Nelson Mandela was the Senegalese artist's first United States release. In 1988, the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert at London's Wembley Stadium was a focal point of the anti-apartheid movement, with many musicians voicing their support for Mandela. Jerry Dammers, the author of Nelson Mandela, was one of the organisers. Simple Minds recorded the song "Mandela Day" for the concert, Santana recorded the instrumental "Mandela",, Tracy Chapman performed "Freedom Now", dedicated to Mandela and released on her album Crossroads, Salif Keita from Mali, who played at the concert, later visited South Africa and in 1995 recorded the song "Mandela" on his album Folon. and Whitney Houston performed and dedicated the gospel song "He I Believe". In South Africa, "Asimbonanga (Mandela)" ("We Have Not Seen Him") became one of Johnny Clegg's most famous songs, appearing on his Third World Child album in 1987. Hugh Masekela, in exile in the UK, sang "Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)" in 1987. Brenda Fassie's 1989 song "Black President", a tribute to Mandela, was hugely popular even though it was banned in South Africa. Nigerian reggae musician Majek Fashek released the single, "Free Mandela", in 1992, making him one of many Nigerian recording artists who had released songs related to the anti-apartheid movement and to Mandela himself. In 1990, Hong Kong rock band Beyond released a popular Cantonese song, "Days of Glory". The anti-apartheid song featured lyrics referring to Mandela's heroic struggle for racial equality. In 2003, Mandela lent his weight to the 46664 campaign against AIDS, named after his prison number. Many prominent musicians performed in concerts as part of this campaign. A summary of Mandela's life story is featured in the 2006 music video "If Everyone Cared" by Nickelback. Raffi's song "Turn This World Around" is based on a speech given by Mandela where he explained the world needs to be "turned around, for the children". A tribute concert for Mandela's 90th birthday took place in Hyde Park, London on 27 June 2008. Cinema and television The film Mandela and De Klerk told the story of Mandela's release from prison. Mandela was played by Sidney Poitier. Goodbye Bafana, a feature film that focuses on Mandela's life, had its world premiere at the Berlin film festival on 11 February 2007. The film starred Dennis Haysbert as Mandela and chronicled Mandela's relationship with prison guard James Gregory. In the final scene of the 1992 movie Malcolm X, Mandela – recently released after 27 years of political imprisonment – appears as a schoolteacher in a Soweto classroom. He recites a portion of one of Malcolm X's most famous speeches, including the following sentence: "We declare our right on this earth to be a human being, to be respected as a human being, to be given the rights of a human being in this society, on this earth, in this day, which we intend to bring into existence..." The famous final phrase of that sentence is "by any means necessary." Mandela informed director Spike Lee that he could not utter the phrase on camera fearing that the apartheid government would use it against him if he did. Lee obliged, and the final seconds of the film feature black-and-white footage of Malcolm X himself delivering the phrase. Mandela and Springboks captain, Francois Pienaar, are the focus of a 2008 book by John Carlin, Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the Game that Made a Nation, Carlin, John (2008). Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the Game that Made a Nation. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 9781594201745 that spotlights the role of the 1995 Rugby Union World Cup win in post-apartheid South Africa. Carlin sold the film rights to Morgan Freeman. Keller, Bill. - "Entering the Scrum". - The New York Times Book Review. - 17 August 2008. The film, entitled The Human Factor, will be directed by Clint Eastwood, and will feature Freeman as Nelson Mandela and Matt Damon as Pienaar. In a forthcoming BBC television one-off drama Mrs Mandela, Nelson Mandela will be portrayed by David Harewood and Sophie Okonedo will play his former wife Winnie Mandela. Statues and civic tributes The statue of Mandela in Parliament Square, London. Nelson Mandela Gardens in Leeds On 30 April 2001, Nelson Mandela Gardens in Millenium Square, Leeds was officially opened and Nelson Mandela was awarded the freedom of the city and awarded a comemrative 'golden owl' (the heraldric symbol of Leeds). In a speech outside Leeds Civic Hall in front of 5000 people, mistakenly Mandela famously thanked 'the people of Liverpool for their generosity'. On 31 March 2004, Sandton Square in Johannesburg was renamed Nelson Mandela Square, after a 6-metre statue of Nelson Mandela was installed on the square to honour the famous South African statesman. On 29 August 2007, a statue of Nelson Mandela was unveiled at Parliament Square in London by Richard Attenborough, Ken Livingstone, Wendy Woods, and Gordon Brown. The campaign to erect the statue was started in 2000 by the late Donald Woods, a South African journalist driven into exile because of his anti-apartheid activities. Mandela stated that it represented not just him, but all those who have resisted oppression, especially those in South Africa. He added: "The history of the struggle in South Africa is rich with the stories of heroes and heroines, some of them leaders, some of them followers. All of them deserve to be remembered." After 1989's Loma Prieta Earthquake demolished the Cypress Street Viaduct portion of the Nimitz Freeway in Oakland, California, the city renamed the street-level boulevard that replaced it Mandela Parkway in his honor. Postage stamps Libya - 1994 (December 31st) "Khadafi Prize for Human Rights" postage stamps issue with Nelson Mandela. Libyan Stamps online upleft|Libya stamps issue "Khadafi Prize for Human Rights" (31.12.1994) Other In 2004, zoologists Brent E. Hendrixson and Jason E. Bond named a South African species of trapdoor spider in the family Ctenizidae as Stasimopus mandelai, "honoring Nelson Mandela, the former president of South Africa and one of the great moral leaders of our time." See also Black Nobel Prize laureates References Further reading External links Nelson Mandela – Biography at Nobelprize.org Nelson Mandela Foundation Nelson Mandela Children's Fund Nelson Mandela Children's Fund (Canada) Time 100 profile Mandela: An Audio History Mandela: Son of Africa, Father of a Nation Documentary & Soundtrack The Elders The Art of Nelson Mandela CBC Digital Archives – Nelson Mandela: Prisoner, president, peacemaker |- be-x-old:Нэльсан Мандэла | Nelson_Mandela |@lemmatized nelson:46 rolihlahla:3 mandela:245 bear:4 july:9 transkei:6 south:52 africa:36 former:7 president:28 first:20 elect:3 fully:1 representative:2 democratic:2 election:12 hold:8 office:6 presidency:3 anti:10 apartheid:24 activist:6 leader:13 african:22 national:16 congress:4 arm:7 wing:3 umkhonto:3 sizwe:3 court:11 convict:2 charge:7 sabotage:7 well:6 crime:3 commit:5 lead:13 movement:4 accordance:1 conviction:2 serve:4 year:23 prison:24 spend:2 many:11 robben:10 island:11 currently:1 celebrate:2 elder:7 statesman:2 continue:1 voice:2 opinion:1 topical:2 issue:7 often:4 know:7 madiba:3 honorary:4 title:2 adopt:2 clan:4 come:5 synonymous:1 follow:11 release:18 february:8 support:13 reconciliation:5 negotiation:10 help:4 transition:2 towards:1 multi:4 racial:5 democracy:1 since:6 end:6 frequently:1 praise:1 include:8 opponent:1 receive:8 one:20 hundred:1 award:10 four:8 decade:1 notably:1 nobel:4 peace:6 prize:6 early:2 life:9 circa:1 pp:3 belongs:1 cadet:1 branch:3 thembu:7 dynasty:1 reign:1 transkeian:1 territory:1 cape:2 province:1 mvezo:2 small:2 village:2 locate:2 district:1 umtata:1 capital:2 patrilineal:1 great:4 grandfather:5 ngubengcuka:1 die:6 rule:2 inkosi:3 enkhulu:1 king:5 people:9 son:8 name:11 become:16 source:1 surname:1 however:8 child:19 wife:8 ixhiba:1 call:12 leave:5 hand:5 house:3 descendant:1 royal:4 family:11 eligible:1 succeed:3 throne:4 father:10 gadla:1 henry:1 mphakanyiswa:4 chief:4 town:4 upon:4 alienate:1 colonial:1 authority:3 deprive:1 position:6 move:6 qunu:3 despite:2 remain:5 member:5 privy:3 council:3 instrumental:2 role:4 jongintaba:4 dalindyebo:4 ascension:1 would:17 later:17 return:4 favour:1 informally:2 death:3 total:2 thirteen:1 boy:1 nine:4 girl:1 third:5 complex:1 rank:1 system:1 nosekeni:1 fanny:2 daughter:7 nkedama:1 mpemvu:1 xhosa:1 dynastic:1 right:14 whose:4 umzi:1 homestead:1 much:1 childhood:1 give:9 mean:3 pull:1 tree:1 colloquially:1 troublemaker:1 p:4 attend:6 school:6 teacher:2 miss:3 mdingane:3 english:2 ever:1 day:8 u:6 custom:2 among:1 undoubtedly:1 due:2 british:4 bias:1 education:1 tell:3 new:10 particular:4 idea:2 tuberculosis:1 regent:5 guardian:1 wesleyan:2 mission:1 next:3 palace:1 initiate:1 age:6 sixteen:2 clarkebury:1 board:1 institute:1 complete:2 junior:1 certificate:1 two:10 instead:2 usual:1 three:6 designate:1 inherit:1 councillor:2 healdtown:1 college:2 fort:5 beaufort:1 royalty:1 nineteen:1 take:9 interest:3 box:1 run:4 enrol:1 begin:6 study:4 bachelor:3 art:2 hare:3 university:9 meet:4 oliver:4 tambo:6 lifelong:1 friend:6 colleague:2 also:14 close:4 kinsman:1 kaiser:1 k:1 matanzima:1 scion:1 line:2 embrace:1 bantustan:1 policy:7 place:5 oppose:2 political:12 side:1 involve:1 student:2 boycott:1 unless:1 accept:2 src:1 law:6 london:9 external:3 programme:2 shortly:2 announce:7 justice:2 heir:1 arrange:3 marriage:8 young:2 men:2 displease:1 arrangement:1 relocate:1 johannesburg:12 arrival:1 initially:2 find:3 employment:1 guard:2 mine:1 employer:1 quickly:1 terminate:1 learn:1 runaway:1 ward:1 start:3 work:6 articled:1 clerk:1 firm:3 witkin:2 sidelsky:2 edelman:2 connection:1 mentor:1 realtor:1 walter:3 sisulu:3 b:1 degree:2 via:2 correspondence:2 witwatersrand:1 befriend:1 fellow:4 future:3 joe:1 slovo:1 harry:3 schwarz:2 ruth:1 time:11 live:4 alexandra:1 township:2 north:2 activity:5 victory:1 afrikaner:2 dominate:1 party:13 segregation:1 actively:1 participate:3 politics:1 prominently:1 anc:25 defiance:1 campaign:10 adoption:1 freedom:9 charter:2 provide:2 fundamental:1 basis:1 cause:2 lawyer:3 operate:2 free:4 low:2 cost:1 legal:1 counsel:1 black:14 lack:2 attorney:2 representation:1 mahatma:1 gandhi:2 influence:4 approach:3 subsequently:3 method:1 generation:2 even:4 part:4 january:4 conference:5 delhi:1 mark:3 anniversary:1 introduction:1 satyagraha:1 nonviolent:1 resistance:1 others:2 arrest:5 december:6 treason:3 marathon:1 trial:9 defendant:2 acquittal:1 class:1 africanists:5 disrupt:1 demand:1 drastic:1 step:2 regime:4 leadership:7 albert:1 luthuli:1 felt:1 fast:1 challenge:1 consequently:1 bolster:1 alliance:2 white:7 colour:1 indian:1 attempt:3 appearance:2 wide:1 appeal:6 ridicule:1 kliptown:1 concession:1 strong:1 single:2 vote:4 congressional:1 secretary:6 general:4 five:3 secretly:3 belong:1 reconstitute:1 communist:1 sacp:1 strongly:1 adhere:1 moscow:1 lose:2 militant:1 financial:1 ghana:1 significant:2 transvaal:1 base:2 basotho:1 break:3 away:2 form:1 pan:3 africanist:1 pac:1 direction:1 robert:3 sobukwe:1 potlako:1 leballo:1 translated:1 spear:1 nation:10 abbreviate:1 mk:3 co:2 found:2 coordinate:1 military:2 government:16 target:1 make:20 plan:1 possible:2 guerrilla:2 war:5 fail:2 raise:3 fund:4 abroad:1 paramilitary:1 training:1 group:7 wolfie:2 kadesh:1 explain:3 bombing:2 sic:1 go:5 blast:1 symbolic:1 like:4 pas:1 native:1 magistrate:1 thing:2 post:3 way:2 nobody:2 hurt:1 get:2 kill:4 say:10 knowledge:1 warfare:1 battle:1 experience:1 extremely:1 helpful:1 describe:2 struggle:7 last:1 resort:1 increase:1 repression:1 violence:4 state:13 convince:1 non:1 violent:2 protest:2 could:3 achieve:1 progress:2 mostly:1 wag:1 civilian:1 casualty:1 admit:4 violate:1 human:11 sharply:1 criticise:7 remove:3 statement:6 fact:2 report:2 truth:1 commission:2 bar:1 enter:3 united:10 except:2 headquarters:1 manhattan:1 without:2 special:3 waiver:1 era:1 designation:1 terrorist:1 rivonia:3 august:3 seventeen:1 month:7 imprison:5 central:1 intelligence:3 agency:1 cia:1 tip:1 security:2 police:2 whereabouts:1 disguise:1 worker:2 strike:1 country:16 illegally:1 read:3 october:2 sentence:6 june:9 verdict:2 reach:3 concern:2 previous:2 engagement:3 prominent:3 liliesleaf:1 farm:1 bring:6 prosecutor:2 dr:1 percy:1 yutar:1 equivalent:1 easy:1 prove:1 second:9 accuse:5 plot:4 foreign:6 invasion:2 deny:3 dock:1 opening:1 defence:3 case:4 april:7 pretoria:1 supreme:1 lay:2 clarity:1 reason:1 choice:2 use:5 tactic:1 reveal:3 peaceful:1 resist:3 sharpeville:1 massacre:4 event:4 couple:4 referendum:1 establish:1 republic:3 declaration:1 emergency:1 along:3 banning:1 clear:3 act:1 otherwise:1 tantamount:1 unconditional:1 surrender:1 develop:1 manifesto:1 intent:1 expose:1 failure:2 economy:1 threaten:2 foreigner:2 unwillingness:1 risk:1 invest:1 word:1 bram:1 fischer:1 vernon:1 berrange:1 wit:1 joel:1 joffe:1 arthur:1 chaskalson:1 george:8 bizos:6 team:2 represent:2 harold:1 hanson:1 plead:1 mitigation:1 rusty:1 bernstein:1 guilty:2 escape:2 gallows:1 imprisonment:5 involvement:3 planning:1 action:5 conspiracy:1 invade:1 yard:1 cell:1 eighteen:1 twenty:4 seven:2 jail:3 reputation:1 grow:2 widely:4 perform:4 hard:1 labour:1 lime:1 quarry:1 condition:1 basic:1 prisoner:7 segregate:1 race:1 ration:1 keep:1 separate:1 ordinary:1 criminal:3 privilege:1 describes:1 classification:1 allow:2 visitor:1 letter:4 every:1 six:3 delay:1 long:3 period:1 unreadable:1 censor:2 whilst:1 undertook:1 nominate:1 chancellor:1 princess:1 anne:1 memoir:1 inside:1 bos:1 secret:1 agent:1 gordon:2 winter:3 rescue:1 infiltrate:1 behalf:2 want:4 shoot:1 recapture:1 foil:1 march:4 transfer:2 pollsmoor:1 senior:2 andrew:1 mlangeni:1 ahmed:1 kathrada:1 raymond:1 mhlaba:1 speculate:1 minister:5 kobie:2 coetsee:2 enable:1 discreet:1 contact:2 w:7 botha:3 offer:4 conditional:2 renounce:1 coetzee:1 advise:2 never:2 organisation:7 exchange:2 personal:3 indeed:1 spurn:1 zindzi:3 ban:4 negotiate:1 cannot:2 contract:1 meeting:4 november:3 volks:1 hospital:1 treat:4 prostate:2 surgery:1 series:1 tentative:1 groundwork:1 little:1 real:1 throughout:1 local:2 international:11 pressure:1 mount:1 resounding:1 slogan:1 crossroad:2 suffer:1 stroke:1 replace:2 frederik:2 willem:2 de:11 klerk:10 f:3 reverse:1 victor:1 verster:1 paarl:1 broadcast:1 world:17 speech:9 declare:2 commitment:2 minority:3 yet:2 main:2 focus:3 majority:1 unbanning:1 old:5 exile:3 chairperson:1 relationship:3 recognise:1 jointly:1 sometimes:2 strained:1 particularly:1 sharp:1 furiously:1 refer:4 head:2 illegitimate:1 discredit:1 talk:2 boipatong:1 complicity:2 killing:1 resume:1 bisho:1 september:2 spectre:1 confrontation:1 forward:1 assassination:3 chris:1 hani:2 renew:1 fear:2 erupt:1 address:3 calm:1 regard:1 presidential:3 though:2 riot:1 negotiator:1 galvanise:1 soon:1 agree:2 autobiography:2 walk:2 publish:3 book:5 anything:1 alleged:1 eighty:1 ninety:1 ex:1 winnie:4 bloodshed:1 journalist:2 anthony:1 sampson:3 discuss:1 authorised:1 biography:2 another:1 detail:3 omit:1 allegedly:1 fraudulent:1 goodbye:2 bafana:2 author:2 warder:2 james:1 gregory:6 claim:7 confidant:1 affair:1 maintain:2 send:2 thus:1 discover:1 aver:1 suspect:1 spy:1 consider:1 sue:1 full:1 enfranchisement:1 grant:2 win:4 inaugurate:1 may:6 deputy:1 thabo:2 mbeki:2 unity:1 preside:1 respect:2 advocacy:1 encourage:1 behind:2 previously:1 hat:1 springbok:4 rugby:3 host:2 cup:2 epic:1 final:4 zealand:1 present:1 trophy:1 captain:2 francois:2 pienaar:4 wear:1 shirt:3 number:6 back:2 see:4 major:4 assume:1 trademark:1 batik:1 formal:1 occasion:3 operation:1 order:7 troop:1 lesotho:1 protect:1 prime:2 pakalitha:1 mosisili:1 disputed:1 prompt:1 fierce:1 opposition:1 unstable:1 commentator:2 critic:1 aid:15 edwin:1 cameron:1 ineffectiveness:1 stem:1 crisis:2 retirement:5 pay:5 attention:1 hiv:1 epidemic:2 speak:5 several:2 lockerbie:2 resolve:1 dispute:4 gaddafi:2 libya:3 britain:1 libyan:3 indict:2 flight:2 crash:3 scottish:3 loss:1 h:1 bush:8 proposal:2 try:1 react:1 favourably:1 françois:1 mitterrand:1 france:1 juan:1 carlos:1 spain:1 formally:1 propose:1 venue:1 john:4 flatly:1 reject:1 confidence:1 elapse:1 repeat:1 successor:1 tony:1 blair:1 visit:4 commonwealth:1 chogm:1 edinburgh:1 warn:1 complainant:1 judge:1 compromise:1 solution:1 camp:1 zeist:1 netherlands:1 govern:1 scot:1 colonel:1 handover:1 megrahi:5 fhimah:2 initial:1 turn:3 barlinnie:1 greenock:1 longer:1 solitary:1 confinement:1 review:3 conclude:1 believe:2 miscarriage:1 occur:1 marry:2 grandchild:5 mandla:1 evelyn:2 ntoko:1 mase:2 area:2 although:4 actually:1 divorce:2 multiple:1 strain:1 constant:1 absence:1 devotion:1 revolutionary:1 agitation:1 jehovah:1 witness:2 religion:1 require:1 neutrality:1 thembekile:1 thembi:2 makgatho:3 makaziwe:1 maki:1 born:3 honour:6 educate:2 waterford:1 kamhlaba:1 car:1 funeral:2 madikizela:1 city:6 social:2 zenani:2 zeni:1 zindziswa:1 hlongwane:2 deeply:1 tear:1 discord:1 mirror:1 strife:1 husband:1 agriculture:1 separation:1 fuel:1 estrangement:1 still:2 languish:1 prince:2 thumbumuzi:1 dlamini:3 brother:1 mswati:1 iii:1 swaziland:1 vivid:1 memory:1 permit:1 business:2 boston:1 cedza:1 footstep:1 advocate:2 humanitarian:1 zindzimandela:1 history:4 worldwide:1 manela:1 refuse:3 pardon:1 businesswoman:1 eldest:1 gadaffi:1 remarry:1 birthday:6 graça:3 machel:5 née:1 simbine:1 widow:1 samora:1 mozambican:1 ally:1 air:1 earlier:1 wedding:1 set:2 unprecedented:1 bride:1 price:1 remit:1 conduct:1 traditional:1 sovereign:1 buyelekhaya:1 zwelibanzi:1 paramount:1 elude:1 flee:1 home:3 realm:1 nephew:1 cousin:1 thrice:1 western:1 reckon:1 expense:1 defray:1 elected:1 decide:1 stand:1 term:1 retire:2 variety:1 express:3 poverty:1 invitational:1 charity:2 golf:1 tournament:1 gary:2 player:2 million:2 rand:2 inception:1 annual:1 successful:1 charitable:1 sport:1 gathering:1 benefit:3 foundation:2 equally:1 various:2 around:3 vocal:2 supporter:1 sos:1 large:1 dedicate:5 orphan:1 abandon:1 appear:4 televised:1 advertisement:1 olympics:1 quote:1 olympic:1 committee:1 humanity:1 health:2 diagnose:1 cancer:1 week:1 course:1 radiation:1 public:4 decline:1 enjoy:1 intend:2 hide:1 totally:1 ask:2 whether:1 welcome:2 rather:1 therefore:1 le:1 less:2 haired:1 slowly:1 stick:1 incorrectly:1 cnn:2 pre:1 write:1 obituary:1 famous:5 figure:2 inadvertently:1 web:1 site:1 fault:1 password:1 protection:1 fringe:1 distribute:1 hoax:1 email:1 sms:1 message:1 cover:1 holiday:1 mozambique:1 across:2 celebration:1 concert:6 hyde:2 park:2 rich:2 poor:1 desmond:1 tutu:2 convene:1 contribute:1 wisdom:1 independent:1 toughest:1 problem:1 formation:1 deliver:2 archbishop:1 serf:1 chair:1 kofi:2 annan:2 ela:1 bhatt:1 gro:1 harlem:1 brundtland:1 jimmy:1 carter:1 li:1 zhaoxing:1 mary:1 robinson:1 muhammad:1 yunus:1 freely:1 boldly:1 publicly:1 scene:2 whatever:1 need:2 comment:3 together:1 courage:1 foster:1 agreement:1 conflict:1 inspire:1 hope:1 despair:1 primary:1 fight:2 closing:1 xiii:1 durba:1 paul:1 tebas:1 md:1 ceremony:2 http:1 www:1 thebody:1 com:1 content:1 html:1 already:1 lent:1 fundraise:1 fly:1 bangkok:1 xv:1 activism:1 chronicle:2 stephanie:1 nolen:1 story:4 iraq:3 view:1 administration:2 un:4 decision:1 tragedy:1 happen:1 undermine:1 insinuate:1 motivate:1 racism:1 man:1 urge:1 join:1 massive:1 especially:2 veto:1 condemn:2 power:1 foresight:1 think:1 properly:1 plunge:1 holocaust:1 attack:3 record:6 drop:1 atomic:1 bomb:1 japan:1 ii:2 unspeakable:1 atrocity:1 america:1 care:2 dick:1 cheney:1 congressman:1 resolution:1 dinosaur:1 ismail:4 ayob:22 controversy:3 trusted:1 stop:1 selling:1 print:1 sign:2 account:2 proceeds:1 sale:1 bitter:1 extensive:1 application:2 high:5 wrongdoing:1 victim:2 smear:1 orchestrate:1 advisor:3 subject:1 medium:2 portray:2 negative:1 light:1 culminate:1 associate:1 ostracise:1 society:2 zamila:1 respondent:1 document:1 refute:1 allegation:2 headline:1 hearing:1 promise:1 trust:6 apologise:2 vendetta:1 sympathy:1 point:3 iconic:1 status:1 difficult:1 fairly:1 wim:1 trengove:1 trustee:3 donate:1 oppenheimer:2 resign:1 launch:1 disburse:2 money:4 consent:2 revenue:1 service:1 accounting:3 company:1 trengrove:1 ratify:1 payment:2 settlement:1 ground:2 seek:1 allege:1 defamatory:1 remark:2 affidavit:3 centre:1 bank:1 tax:1 originate:1 blood:3 diamond:6 article:2 positive:1 industry:2 supplier:1 edward:1 zwick:1 director:2 motion:1 picture:1 note:1 pro:1 initiative:1 friendship:1 chairman:1 beer:1 outlook:1 narrow:1 producer:1 zimbabwe:4 mugabe:7 independence:1 internationally:1 corruption:1 incompetent:1 oppression:2 cronyism:1 ultimately:1 economic:1 collapse:1 common:1 background:1 liberator:1 seldom:1 liberate:1 overstay:1 domestic:1 criticism:1 effect:1 persuade:2 moderate:1 medical:1 avoid:1 engage:1 stressful:1 nonetheless:1 sooner:1 modicum:1 dignity:1 hound:1 augusto:1 pinochet:1 respond:1 height:1 zimbabwean:1 tragic:1 acclaim:2 fighter:1 liberation:1 ussr:1 commemorative:1 stamp:4 decoration:1 share:1 merit:1 st:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 medal:1 bestow:1 orlando:1 soweto:2 example:1 popular:4 tour:1 canada:5 greet:1 adulation:1 skydome:1 toronto:1 living:1 person:1 canadian:1 citizen:1 recipient:1 raoul:1 wallenberg:1 citizenship:1 posthumously:1 companion:1 bharat:1 ratna:1 india:1 atatürk:1 turkey:2 cite:1 violation:1 musical:1 tribute:4 artist:3 song:12 stevie:1 wonder:1 oscar:1 love:1 result:1 music:2 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 youssou:1 n:1 dour:1 album:4 senegalese:1 wembley:1 stadium:1 focal:1 musician:3 jerry:1 dammers:1 organiser:1 simple:1 mind:1 santana:1 tracy:1 chapman:1 salif:1 keita:1 mali:1 play:5 folon:1 whitney:1 houston:1 gospel:1 asimbonanga:1 johnny:1 clegg:1 hugh:1 masekela:1 uk:1 sing:1 brenda:1 fassie:1 hugely:1 nigerian:2 reggae:1 majek:1 fashek:1 relate:1 hong:1 kong:1 rock:1 band:1 beyond:1 cantonese:1 glory:1 feature:5 lyric:1 heroic:1 equality:1 lend:1 weight:1 summary:1 video:1 everyone:1 nickelback:1 raffi:1 cinema:1 television:2 film:7 sidney:1 poitier:1 premiere:1 berlin:1 festival:1 star:1 dennis:1 haysbert:1 jam:1 movie:1 malcolm:3 x:4 recently:1 schoolteacher:1 classroom:1 recite:1 portion:2 following:1 earth:2 existence:1 phrase:3 necessary:1 inform:1 spike:1 lee:2 utter:1 camera:1 fearing:1 oblige:1 footage:1 carlin:3 enemy:2 game:2 york:2 penguin:1 press:1 isbn:1 spotlight:1 union:1 sell:1 morgan:1 freeman:2 keller:1 bill:1 scrum:1 entitle:1 factor:1 direct:1 clint:1 eastwood:1 matt:1 damon:1 forthcoming:1 bbc:1 drama:1 mr:1 david:1 harewood:1 sophie:1 okonedo:1 statue:5 civic:2 tributes:1 parliament:2 square:6 garden:2 leeds:4 millenium:1 officially:1 open:1 comemrative:1 golden:1 owl:1 heraldric:1 symbol:1 outside:1 hall:1 front:1 mistakenly:1 famously:1 thank:1 liverpool:1 generosity:1 sandton:1 rename:2 metre:1 instal:1 unveil:1 richard:1 attenborough:1 ken:1 livingstone:1 wendy:1 wood:2 brown:1 erect:1 late:1 donald:1 drive:1 add:1 hero:1 heroine:1 follower:1 deserve:1 remember:1 loma:1 prieta:1 earthquake:1 demolish:1 cypress:1 street:2 viaduct:1 nimitz:1 freeway:1 oakland:1 california:1 level:1 boulevard:1 parkway:1 honor:2 postage:2 khadafi:2 stamps:1 online:1 upleft:1 zoologists:1 brent:1 e:2 hendrixson:1 jason:1 bond:1 specie:1 trapdoor:1 spider:1 ctenizidae:1 stasimopus:1 mandelai:1 moral:1 laureate:1 reference:1 far:1 link:1 nobelprize:1 org:1 profile:1 audio:1 documentary:1 soundtrack:1 cbc:1 digital:1 archive:1 peacemaker:1 нэльсан:1 мандэла:1 |@bigram anti_apartheid:10 apartheid_activist:2 umkhonto_sizwe:3 robben_island:10 nelson_mandela:42 privy_council:1 privy_councillor:2 oliver_tambo:4 heir_throne:1 walter_sisulu:3 befriend_fellow:1 racial_segregation:1 mahatma_gandhi:1 wag_guerrilla:1 apartheid_regime:2 supreme_court:1 unconditional_surrender:1 george_bizos:5 lay_groundwork:1 de_klerk:10 violent_confrontation:1 eighty_ninety:1 authorised_biography:1 thabo_mbeki:2 prime_minister:2 hiv_aid:1 w_bush:3 françois_mitterrand:1 juan_carlos:1 tony_blair:1 solitary_confinement:1 jehovah_witness:1 humanitarian_aid:1 eldest_son:1 graça_machel:3 samora_machel:1 golf_tournament:1 winter_olympics:1 prostate_cancer:1 hyde_park:2 desmond_tutu:1 kofi_annan:2 gro_harlem:1 harlem_brundtland:1 jimmy_carter:1 muhammad_yunus:1 http_www:1 fundraise_campaign:1 atomic_bomb:1 dick_cheney:1 smear_campaign:1 motion_picture:1 robert_mugabe:2 augusto_pinochet:1 presidential_election:1 commemorative_stamp:1 queen_elizabeth:1 raoul_wallenberg:1 stevie_wonder:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 wembley_stadium:1 whitney_houston:1 hugely_popular:1 reggae_musician:1 hong_kong:1 racial_equality:1 sidney_poitier:1 spike_lee:1 rugby_union:1 morgan_freeman:1 clint_eastwood:1 matt_damon:1 richard_attenborough:1 ken_livingstone:1 hero_heroine:1 loma_prieta:1 prieta_earthquake:1 postage_stamp:2 nobel_prize:1 prize_laureate:1 external_link:1 nobelprize_org:1 cbc_digital:1 |
3,457 | Aedicula | In religion in ancient Rome, an aedicula (plural aediculae) is a small shrine. The word aedicula is the diminutive of the Latin aedis or aedes, a temple or house; thus, an aedicula is literally a small house or temple. Front of Celsus Library with aediculae Many aediculae were household shrines that held small altars or statues of the Lares and Penates. The Lares were Roman deities protecting the house and the family household gods. The Penates were originally patron gods (really genii) of the storeroom, later becoming household gods guarding the entire house. Other aediculae were small shrines within larger temples, usually set on a base, surmounted by a pediment and surrounded by columns. In Roman architecture the aedicula has this representative function in the society. They are installed in public buildings like the Triumphal arch, City gate, or Thermes. The Celsus Library in Ephesus (2. c. AD) is a good example. In Christian architecture, a three-dimensional tectonic form of baldachin, surmounting an altar might be termed a "ciborium", one of several uses of that term. Painted ædicules frame figures from sacred history in initial letters of Illuminated manuscripts. Ædicular frames, carved and gilded are favourite schemes for English Palladian mirror frames of the late 1720s through the 1740s, by such designers as William Kent. Similar small shrines, called Naiskos, are found in Greek religion, but their use was strictly religious. Aediculae exist today in Roman cemeteries as a part of funeral architecture. Presently the most famous Edicule is situated inside the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. See also Pilaster Portico References Adkins, Lesley & Adkins, Roy A. (1996). Dictionary of Roman Religion. Facts on File, inc. ISBN 0-8160-3005-7. External links Conservation glossary | Aedicula |@lemmatized religion:3 ancient:1 rome:1 aedicula:4 plural:1 aediculae:5 small:5 shrine:4 word:1 diminutive:1 latin:1 aedis:1 aedes:1 temple:3 house:4 thus:1 literally:1 front:1 celsus:2 library:2 many:1 household:3 hold:1 altar:2 statue:1 lares:2 penates:2 roman:4 deity:1 protect:1 family:1 god:3 originally:1 patron:1 really:1 genii:1 storeroom:1 later:1 become:1 guard:1 entire:1 within:1 large:1 usually:1 set:1 base:1 surmount:2 pediment:1 surround:1 column:1 architecture:3 representative:1 function:1 society:1 instal:1 public:1 building:1 like:1 triumphal:1 arch:1 city:1 gate:1 thermes:1 ephesus:1 c:1 ad:1 good:1 example:1 christian:1 three:1 dimensional:1 tectonic:1 form:1 baldachin:1 might:1 term:2 ciborium:1 one:1 several:1 us:1 paint:1 ædicules:1 frame:3 figure:1 sacred:1 history:1 initial:1 letter:1 illuminated:1 manuscript:1 ædicular:1 carve:1 gild:1 favourite:1 scheme:1 english:1 palladian:1 mirror:1 late:1 designer:1 william:1 kent:1 similar:1 call:1 naiskos:1 find:1 greek:1 use:1 strictly:1 religious:1 exist:1 today:1 cemetery:1 part:1 funeral:1 presently:1 famous:1 edicule:1 situate:1 inside:1 holy:1 sepulchre:1 jerusalem:1 see:1 also:1 pilaster:1 portico:1 reference:1 adkins:2 lesley:1 roy:1 dictionary:1 fact:1 file:1 inc:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 conservation:1 glossary:1 |@bigram triumphal_arch:1 illuminated_manuscript:1 holy_sepulchre:1 sepulchre_jerusalem:1 external_link:1 |
3,458 | Ibanez | Ibanez ( or ) is a guitar brand owned by Hoshino Gakki and based in Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. Hoshino Gakki were one of the first Japanese musical instrument companies to gain a significant foothold in the United States and Europe. History The Hoshino Gakki company began in 1908 as the musical instrument sales division of the Hoshino Shoten a bookstore company. The Ibanez brand name dates back to 1929 when Hoshino Gakki began importing Salvador Ibáñez guitars from Spain. When the "Salvador Ibáñez" workshop was destroyed during the Spanish Civil War, the "Ibanez Salvador" guitars were no longer available, so Hoshino Gakki bought the "Ibanez Salvador" brand name rights and started making Spanish acoustic guitars in 1935, at first using the "Ibanez Salvador" brand name, and then later using the "Ibanez" brand name Hoshino Gakki History . The modern era of Ibanez guitars began in 1957 Ibanez, The Untold Story by Paul Specht (Michael Wright, Jim Donahue) ISBN 0-9764277-0-2 and the late 1950s and 1960s Ibanez catalogues show guitars with some wild looking designs . Japanese guitar makers in the 1960s were mostly copying European guitar designs and some of the late 1960s Ibanez designs were similar to Hagström and EKO guitar designs. Hoshino Gakki used the Teisco and FujiGen Gakki guitar factories to manufacture Ibanez guitars after they stopped manufacturing their own guitars in 1966 and after the Teisco guitar factory closed down in 1969/1970 Hoshino Gakki used the FujiGen Gakki guitar factory to make most Ibanez guitars. In the 1970s Japanese guitar makers started to mainly copy American guitar designs and Ibanez branded copies of Gibson, Fender and Rickenbacker models started to appear. This resulted in the so called Ibanez lawsuit period. After the lawsuit period Hoshino Gakki introduced Ibanez models that were not copies of the Gibson or Fender designs such as the Iceman and Ibanez Roadstar. The company has produced its own guitar designs ever since. The late 1980s and early 1990s were an important period for the Ibanez brand. Hoshino Gakki's relationship with Frank Zappa's former guitarist Steve Vai resulted in the introduction of the Ibanez JEM and the Ibanez Universe models and after the earlier successes of the Roadstar and Iceman models in the late 1970s/early 1980s, Hoshino Gakki entered the superstrat market with the RG series which were a lower priced version of the Ibanez JEM model. Hoshino Gakki also had semi acoustic, nylon and steel stringed acoustic guitars manufactured under the Ibanez name. Tama acoustic guitars were made from 1974-1979 at the Tama Drum factory. In 1979 the Tama acoustic guitars were renamed as the Artwood Series and were also made at the Tama Drum factory. Most Ibanez guitars were made for Hoshino Gakki by the FujiGen guitar factory in Japan up until the mid to late 1980s and from then on Ibanez guitars have also been made in other Asian countries such as Korea, China and Indonesia. During the early 1980s the FujiGen guitar factory also produced most of the Roland guitar synthesizers, including the Stratocaster-style Roland G-505, the twin humbucker Roland G-202 and the Ibanez X-ING IMG-2010. Sometimes stencil (template) guitar designs were shared by Japanese guitar companies and distributors so an early Hoshino Ibanez branded guitar might look the same as another brand name guitar produced by a different Japanese distributor but only Ibanez, Cimar by Ibanez and Maxxas branded guitars were made for Hoshino Gakki and are the only guitar brand names that have appeared in Hoshino Gakki catalogues. Cimar guitars were not produced by Hoshino Gakki but "Cimar by Ibanez" guitars were produced for Hoshino Gakki by Cimar . The Starfield guitar brand was also owned by Hoshino Gakki. In the 1970s, Hoshino Gakki and Kanda Shokai shared some guitar designs and so some Ibanez and Greco guitars have the same features. The Kanda Shokai Greco guitars were sold in Japan and the Hoshino Gakki Ibanez guitars were sold outside of Japan. From 1982, Ibanez guitars have also been sold in Japan as well as being sold outside of Japan . Guitar brands such as Antoria shared some Ibanez guitar designs. The Antoria guitar brand was managed by JT Coppock Leeds Ltd England. CSL was a brand name managed by Charles Summerfield Ltd England. Maurice Summerfield of the Charles Summerfield Ltd company contributed some design ideas to Hoshino Gakki and also imported Ibanez and CSL guitars into the UK with Hoshino Gakki cooperation from 1964-1987. The Maxxas brand name came about because Hoshino Gakki thought that the guitar did not fit in with the Ibanez model range and was therefore named Maxxas by Rich Lasner from Hoshino USA Rich Lasner interview . Lawsuit Harry's Rosenbloom, of Medley Music, based in Ardmore, Pennsylvania, was manufacturing handmade guitars under the name "Elger." By 1965 Rosenbloom had decided to stop manufacturing guitars and chose to become the exclusive North American distributor for Ibanez guitars. In 1971 Hoshino purchased Big Guitars, renaming the company "Hoshino U.S.A." and retaining the company headquarters in Bensalem, Pennsylvania as a distribution and quality-control center. The lawsuit was brought by the "Norlin Corporation", the parent company of Gibson guitars against Elger/Hoshino U.S.A. in 1977, and was based on an Ibanez headstock design that had been discontinued by 1976. Hoshino settled out of court, and by 1978 had begun making Ibanez guitars from their own designs . After the so-called lawsuit Hoshino Gakki abandoned the strategy of copying "classic" USA electric guitar designs and moved to the popular gibson era in the mid-1980s. The newer Ibanez models began incorporating more modern elements into their design such as radical body shapes, slimmer necks, flatter 2-octave fingerboards (which allowed for faster playing), slim pointed headstocks, higher-output electronics, humbucker/single-coil/humbucker pickups, locking tremolo bridges and more colourful finishes. Guitars Electric guitars Ibanez RG220 Ibanez GIO series are budget priced Ibanez guitars. They have the GIO name assigned to their headstock above the Ibanez logo. The GIO series are the budget priced copies of the Ibanez RG, RX, SA, SZ, and AX series. The GRG mikro, the sole Ibanez 3/4-sized guitar, also belongs to this category. Ibanez R series also known as the Radius series are famous for having lightweight, aerofoil-profiled basswood bodies. The main endorser of this series was the world famous Joe Satriani. Eventually he was given his own JS series guitars like JS100, JS1000, JS1200, JS1600 and JSBDG which were based on the R. The Radius was subsequently discontinued. Ibanez RG series (previously named Roadstar Guitar, hence the name RG), are the Ibanez superstrat guitars, all featuring 24-fret slim necks. Most of the Ibanez RG models have bolt-on-necks with high-performing tremolos, although some are neck-thru or fixed bridge models. The first Ibanez RG was the 550 in 1987, which was the cheaper version of the Ibanez JEM, Steve Vai's signature model. It featured pretty much the same specifications except for the "Monkey Grip", the "Lion's Claw" below the tremolo, the Vine or Pyramid inlay and the DiMarzio pickups. Shape, colors, pickup configurations and woods were pretty much the same. From 1987 to present the RG came out in many different versions, some having different pickups and pickup configurations (HSH, HH, HSS, HS etc), some lacking the pickguard and some with different woods, bridges and a variety of solid and transparent finishes. It is not clearly known how many versions have appeared since 1987. In 2003, Japanese-made RGs became the RG Prestige series, which featured an all-new neck construction (much more reliable now), a redesigned tremolo (Edge-Pro) and a 6-step special treatment to the fretboard for even more comfortable playing. It has the following subseries: RGT Prestige (neck-Thru) and the RGA Prestige (Arch-top and fixed bridge) however some newer models have floating bridges. In 2004 there was a little modernization of RG-series, after what the new RG 1570 appeared. These redesigned RGs were available with a DiMarzio HSH pickup configuration and Edge Pro locking vibrato systems. Most of the brand new 2008-2009 RG series either have an Edge III or (like Herman Li's guitar) an Edge Zero. Theses allow you to bend the Whammy Bar to the body of the guitar with total tuning stability. Ibanez S series also known as the Saber series are famous for having ergonomic and lightweight mahogany bodies. A notable endorser of the Ibanez Saber series was Frank Gambale, who obtained his namesake FGM signature guitars in 1987. As of 2008, Dragonforce guitarist Herman Li (a long time S series player) uses the E-Gen signature guitars, which are made from an S series Ibanez guitar with some modifications. The series has the following subseries: S - The S models use the "zero resistance" floating tremolo, which enables the strings to stay more in tune. Also available as S Prestige, high-end range which are made in Japan/Korea - S2170, S4170 AB. SZ - The SZ or SZR (introduced in 2008) models have hardtail bridges and thru-body stringing, as well as a 25.1 scale set neck that has a different feel than the S and SA's guitar's bolt on 25.5 scale neck. Also available is the SZ Prestige, high-end range which are made in Japan/Korea. (The SZ Model was discontinued and has been replaced by the SZR) SC - Similar to the SZ models. No longer in production. SA - The SA models feature a flatback body (S models feature a curved back), and have synchronized tremolos. Also the basic SA models have a hidden plate bolt on neck design. Subseries include the SAS, basic SA models with Set-in neck design, and the SA Prestige. SV - The SV models have a thicker neck and a TZ100 tremolo bridge. RT series - Superstrat design with 24 frets. Discontinued in 1994. RX series - Superstrat design but with 22 frets instead. Discontinued in 1998, and currently only exists as GRX (budget model of RX series). AX series - Extreme version of the artist model, aimed towards metal players - currently only exist as GAX model and Guitar Center exclusive model. Axstar (aka Axstar by Ibanez) - discontinued EDR/EXR - Ergodyne series - discontinued Artist Series - In the mid-70's Ibanez started producing a line of double cutaway solid body guitars . Some of these featured tri-sound switches which enabled the player to alter the humbucking pickups to single coil or out of phase modes. There were various models, the best known of which, produced in the 1980s, are the AR100, AR105, AR150 (all without the tri-sound) and AR300, AR305, AR350 (all featuring the tri-sound). The artist series established the company as manufacturers of high quality original instruments. Early endorsers included Bob Weir and Steve Miller. The AR300 has since been reissued as a cheaper, downgraded model. MC - Musician series - Discontinued - Neck-through construction (except for MC-100, which has a bolt-on neck), with 24 frets (two octaves) - As with the Artist models of the late 1970s, some of these guitars were equipped with trisound switches, and some models were equipped with active electronics (on-board EQ/preamplifiers) ARC-100/300 (Retro Series) ARX-100/300 (Retro Series) AR-100/200 (black vintage top) V Series - Flying V's - discontinued Ibanez Artcore Series - Ibanez's full and semi-hollow guitar line. Subseries are AF (Full hollow) AK (Full Hollow) AFS-75t (Full hollow vintage vibrato) AG (Full hollow) AGS (Semi hollow) AS (Semi hollow) AM (Semi hollow) AXD (Semi and Full hollow) AWD (Semi and Full hollow) FWD (Semi and Full hollow) Ibanez Jet King 2 and Jet King 1 - A modern remake of the Ibanez Rhythm maker, vintage looking and sounding guitar Radius series - discontinued, a modified version is now taken over by the Joe Satriani signature series which features a multi-radius neck. RS Roadstar Series - Consists of the Talman, Radius and Saber series EX Series - Manufactured in Korea. X Series - Various X-shaped and star-shaped instruments geared towards metal players PL - Pro Line series RR - Rocket Roll DT - Destroyer IC - Iceman CN Concert Series - This was a short lived series produced in 1978 then discontinued soon afterwards. It features an [Asymmetric|asymmetric] double cutaway body with two humbuckers, a hard tail bridge and a bolt on neck. The top end model (the CN250) was one of the earliest guitars to feature "half vine" fingerboard inlays. Ibanez j.custom - Previously an exclusive custom range available in Japan only. Now available worldwide. U.S.A. custom - USA custom range. AFD - Artfield (M)GR - Ghostrider Cimar by Ibanez Production Signature Models Ibanez JEM 555BK JS - Joe Satriani Signature Universe and JEM - Steve Vai Designed Guitar PGM - Paul Gilbert Signature MTM - Mick Thomson Signature NDM2 - Noodles Signature APEX - Munky Signature E-Gen - Herman Li Signature STM - Sam Totman Signature ORM - Omar Rodriguez Signature MBM - Matt Bachand Signature HRG - H. R. Giger Signature GB - George Benson Signature PM - Pat Metheny Signature JSM - John Scofield Signature RA - Rob The Great Allen Signature SDB - Sharlee D'angelo Signature bass K5 - Fieldy Signature bass PRB - Paul Romanko Signature bass PGB - Paul Gray Signature bass GWB - Gary Willis Signature bass MDB - Mike D'Antonio Signature bass Discontinued Signature models ICJ100WZ - Jay Yuenger Signature K7 - Korn Signature Stanley Jordan Signature AH10 - Alan Holdsworth Signature PS10 - Paul Stanley Signature MFM - Marty Friedman Signature VM1 - Vinnie Moore Signature FGM - Frank Gambale Signature JPM - John Petrucci Signature RBM2NT - Reb Beach Signature DMM1 - Daron Malakian Signature AT - Andy Timmons Signature MMM - Mike Mushok Signature MTM1 - Mick Thomson Signature ADM - Adam Moher Signature PKW - Peter Kirkwood Signature PGM301 - Paul Gilbert Signature RS1010SL - Steve Lukather Signature NDM1 - Noodles Signature New Guitars & Basses for 2008 Xiphos 7-String - XPT707 (X-Series) S-Series Prestige - 24-fret SV-Series Prestige - 24-fret, vintage tremolo Iceman - ICT700 (return to the Ibanez catalogue - IC-Series) E-Gen - Herman Li Signature - EGEN18 (derivate of the S-Series) STM - Sam Totman Signature - STM1 (derivate of the IC-Series) NDM - Noodles Signature - NDM2 (return to the Ibanez catalogue - derivate of the Talman Series) ORM - Omar Rodriguez Signature - ORM1 (derivate of the JTK-Series) SZR - 22-fret, new version of the SZ series, SZR520 and SZR720 (with vine inlay & gold hardware) Montage Hybrid Guitar Bass guitars ARTCORE Series- Archtop Basses AFB200 - Hollow-body bass guitar AGB200 - Semihollow-body bass guitar ATK 300 and 305, 4 and 5 string models, upon which Paul Gray's signature PGB bass is modeled. Blazer BTB Series BTB Prestige - High-end range which are made in Japan. DWB Series EDA (Ergodyne) Series EDB (Ergodyne) Series EDC (Ergodyne) Series EWB Series GAXB Series(discontinued) GSR Series- A lower-cost version of the Soundgear Series GSR 205 - Nominated for Ibanez's "Best of Model" award GWB Series ICB (Iceman) Series JTK (Jet King) Series JUMPSTART Series- Similar to the GSR Series, named for the Jumpstart Pack which comes with amp and other accessories. K5 Fieldy- A custom 5-string Soundgear w/ "K5" Inlay centered on 12th fret Musician Series ROADGEAR Series SR (Soundgear) Series SR Prestige - High-end versions of the Ibanez Soundgear (SR-5004/5/6 & SR-4004/5) Bass Guitars made in Japan using exotic woods and high-quality custom Bartolini pickups & new "PWC-III" Power Curve III 3-band EQ with EQ bypass switch to bypass the electronics and take the bass signal directly from the pickups to the output jack. Headstock from an ARTCORE series guitar SRX (Soundgear) Series SDGR Series ATK Series EX series Roadstar Series S series TR Series Acoustic guitars AE Series AE5LG AES Series AW Series (sr900) DT Series EP9 Series EW Series GA Series JAMPACK Series MANDOLIN Series MANN Series (Canadian distribution only) MASA Series PF Series TALMAN Series V Series Concord SAGE Series Ibanez endorsers, past and present Effect pedals Ibanez DE7 Delay/Echo Pedal Ibanez TS-9 Tube Screamer Pedal In the 1970s, the Nisshin Onpa company, who owned the Maxon brand name, developed and began selling a series of effect pedals in Japan. Hoshino Gakki licensed these for sale using the name Ibanez outside of Japan. These two companies eventually began doing less and less business together until Nisshin Onpa ceased manufacting the TS-9 reissue for Hoshino Gakki in 2002. Tube Screamers Based on the earlier Overdrive I and II pedals, Hoshino Gakki began releasing the first Ibanez Tube Screamer, the TS-808 in the late 1970s. These contained the famed JRC4558D integrated circuit (IC). Many players consider this one of the best solid state pedals to emulate the sound produced by an overdriven vacuum tube guitar amplifier. Over the years, Hoshino Gakki released many different kinds of pedals bearing the Ibanez Tube Screamer name. The first was the TS-9 Tube Screamer, which included only a few component changes and often, but not always, different ICs. In 1985 the Master or L series were introduced and sold only for a year. Many claim that in this series, there's no Tubescreamer. Looking closer circuitwise shows that there is one but in the disguise of the Metal Screamer with slightly changed component values. The name change was most likely for marketing reasons. Based on the Master series but with slight changes in housing in 1986, the Power Series were introduced, which included the TS-10. Like many of the Master and Power Series pedals, there were not many differences in the circuitry between these and their 9-series counterparts. To make production cheaper, these pedals used circuit board-mounted potentiometers (pots) and jacks. In 1992, Hoshino Gakki began re-issuing the Ibanez TS-9. Then in 1996, Hoshino Gakki added a CE mark to the back of the Ibanez pedal, which is required for it to be sold in Europe. In the early 1990s, Hoshino Gakki released the Ibanez Soundtank series, which, except for the first run which was metal, had cheap plastic enclosures and like the Power Series before it, used less expensive parts. Around 2000 came the Tone Lok series, and the TS-7, which included a switch for added gain. In 1998, the new TS-9DX was introduced, which included a 4-way switch for capacitor changes and changes in the clipping section. Then in 2002, Nisshin Onpa stopped production of the TS-9 for Hoshino Gakki. Post-2002 circuit boards say Ibanez instead of Maxon. Due to popular demand, Hoshino Gakki reissued the Ibanez TS-808 in 2004, complete with the JRC4558D chip. Original TS-808's, and to a lesser extent, TS-9s, have become highly collectible. Many overdrive pedals in production, especially those by "boutique" manufacturers, are a modified version of the Tube Screamer circuit. References External links Official site Ibanez guitars and bass museum - Ibanez instruments database, resources, user reviews, pictures History of Hoshino Gakki Co., Ltd. Origins of Ibanez and the Lawsuit Models Ibanez Register - Gallery of past and present Ibanez guitars and basses. IbanezRules - Buy/Sell used Ibanez guitars, technical guides, catalogue scans, manuals, wiring diagrams, etc. Ibanez History - Ibanez History Ibanez Guitar Reviews - Reviews of Ibanez Guitars The Ibanez JS site ibanez87.it > ...Ibanez galore! Ibanez 1950s and 1960s catalogues Jemsite Rich Lasner from Hoshino USA interview The Mr-Ibanez Collection - collection of rare vintage ibanez guitars | Ibanez |@lemmatized ibanez:92 guitar:87 brand:18 hoshino:42 gakki:36 base:6 nagoya:1 aichi:1 japan:13 one:4 first:6 japanese:6 musical:2 instrument:5 company:12 gain:2 significant:1 foothold:1 united:1 state:2 europe:2 history:5 begin:9 sale:2 division:1 shoten:1 bookstore:1 name:19 date:1 back:3 import:2 salvador:5 ibáñez:2 spain:1 workshop:1 destroy:1 spanish:2 civil:1 war:1 longer:2 available:6 buy:2 right:1 start:4 make:15 acoustic:6 use:11 later:1 modern:3 era:2 untold:1 story:1 paul:7 specht:1 michael:1 wright:1 jim:1 donahue:1 isbn:1 late:7 catalogue:6 show:2 wild:1 look:4 design:20 maker:3 mostly:1 copy:6 european:1 similar:3 hagström:1 eko:1 teisco:2 fujigen:4 factory:7 manufacture:5 stop:3 close:1 mainly:1 american:2 gibson:4 fender:2 rickenbacker:1 model:35 appear:4 result:2 called:1 lawsuit:6 period:3 introduce:5 iceman:5 roadstar:5 produce:9 ever:1 since:3 early:9 important:1 relationship:1 frank:3 zappa:1 former:1 guitarist:2 steve:5 vai:3 introduction:1 jem:5 universe:2 success:1 enter:1 superstrat:4 market:2 rg:13 series:100 low:2 price:3 version:10 also:13 semi:8 nylon:1 steel:1 string:5 tama:4 drum:2 rename:2 artwood:1 mid:3 asian:1 country:1 korea:4 china:1 indonesia:1 roland:3 synthesizer:1 include:7 stratocaster:1 style:1 g:2 twin:1 humbucker:3 x:4 ing:1 img:1 sometimes:1 stencil:1 template:1 share:3 distributor:3 might:1 another:1 different:7 cimar:5 maxxas:3 starfield:1 kanda:2 shokai:2 greco:2 feature:11 sell:8 outside:3 well:2 antoria:2 manage:2 jt:1 coppock:1 leeds:1 ltd:4 england:2 csl:2 charles:2 summerfield:3 maurice:1 contribute:1 idea:1 uk:1 cooperation:1 come:4 think:1 fit:1 range:6 therefore:1 rich:3 lasner:3 usa:4 interview:2 harry:1 rosenbloom:2 medley:1 music:1 ardmore:1 pennsylvania:2 handmade:1 elger:2 decide:1 manufacturing:1 choose:1 become:3 exclusive:3 north:1 purchase:1 big:1 u:3 retain:1 headquarters:1 bensalem:1 distribution:2 quality:3 control:1 center:3 bring:1 norlin:1 corporation:1 parent:1 headstock:4 discontinue:13 settle:1 court:1 call:1 abandon:1 strategy:1 classic:1 electric:2 move:1 popular:2 new:9 incorporate:1 element:1 radical:1 body:10 shape:3 slimmer:1 neck:15 flatter:1 octave:2 fingerboard:2 allow:2 faster:1 play:1 slim:2 point:1 high:8 output:2 electronics:3 single:2 coil:2 pickup:9 lock:2 tremolo:8 bridge:8 colourful:1 finish:2 gio:3 budget:3 assign:1 logo:1 rx:3 sa:8 sz:7 ax:2 grg:1 mikro:1 sole:1 size:1 belong:1 category:1 r:3 know:3 radius:5 famous:3 lightweight:2 aerofoil:1 profile:1 basswood:1 main:1 endorser:4 world:1 joe:3 satriani:3 eventually:2 give:1 j:4 like:4 jsbdg:1 subsequently:1 previously:2 hence:1 fret:8 bolt:5 perform:1 although:1 thru:3 fix:1 cheap:4 signature:50 pretty:2 much:3 specification:1 except:3 monkey:1 grip:1 lion:1 claw:1 vine:3 pyramid:1 inlay:4 dimarzio:2 color:1 configuration:3 wood:3 present:3 many:8 hsh:2 hh:1 hs:1 h:2 etc:2 lack:1 pickguard:1 variety:1 solid:3 transparent:1 clearly:1 prestige:10 construction:2 reliable:1 redesigned:1 edge:4 pro:3 step:1 special:1 treatment:1 fretboard:1 even:1 comfortable:1 playing:1 following:2 subseries:4 rgt:1 rga:1 arch:1 top:3 fixed:1 however:1 float:2 little:1 modernization:1 redesign:1 vibrato:2 system:1 either:1 iii:3 herman:4 li:4 zero:2 thesis:1 bend:1 whammy:1 bar:1 total:1 tune:2 stability:1 saber:3 ergonomic:1 mahogany:1 notable:1 gambale:2 obtain:1 namesake:1 fgm:2 dragonforce:1 long:1 time:1 player:5 e:3 gen:3 modification:1 resistance:1 enable:2 stay:1 end:5 ab:1 szr:3 hardtail:1 stringing:1 scale:2 set:2 feel:1 replace:1 sc:1 production:5 flatback:1 curve:2 synchronize:1 basic:2 hidden:1 plate:1 sv:3 thicker:1 rt:1 instead:2 currently:2 exist:2 grx:1 extreme:1 artist:4 aim:1 towards:2 metal:4 gax:1 axstar:2 aka:1 edr:1 exr:1 ergodyne:4 line:3 double:2 cutaway:2 tri:3 sound:5 switch:5 alter:1 humbucking:1 phase:1 mode:1 various:2 best:3 known:1 without:1 establish:1 manufacturer:2 original:2 bob:1 weir:1 miller:1 reissue:3 downgrade:1 mc:2 musician:2 two:3 equip:2 trisound:1 active:1 board:3 eq:3 preamplifiers:1 arc:1 retro:2 arx:1 ar:1 black:1 vintage:5 v:3 fly:1 artcore:3 full:8 hollow:12 af:1 ak:1 afs:1 ag:2 axd:1 awd:1 fwd:1 jet:3 king:3 remake:1 rhythm:1 modified:2 take:2 multi:1 rs:1 consists:1 talman:3 ex:2 star:1 shaped:1 gear:1 pl:1 rr:1 rocket:1 roll:1 dt:2 destroyer:1 ic:5 cn:1 concert:1 short:1 lived:1 soon:1 afterwards:1 asymmetric:2 humbuckers:1 hard:1 tail:1 half:1 custom:6 worldwide:1 afd:1 artfield:1 gr:1 ghostrider:1 pgm:1 gilbert:2 mtm:1 mick:2 thomson:2 noodle:3 apex:1 munky:1 stm:2 sam:2 totman:2 orm:2 omar:2 rodriguez:2 mbm:1 matt:1 bachand:1 hrg:1 giger:1 gb:1 george:1 benson:1 pm:1 pat:1 metheny:1 jsm:1 john:2 scofield:1 ra:1 rob:1 great:1 allen:1 sdb:1 sharlee:1 angelo:1 bass:16 fieldy:2 prb:1 romanko:1 pgb:2 gray:2 gwb:2 gary:1 willis:1 mdb:1 mike:2 antonio:1 jay:1 yuenger:1 korn:1 stanley:2 jordan:1 alan:1 holdsworth:1 mfm:1 marty:1 friedman:1 vinnie:1 moore:1 jpm:1 petrucci:1 reb:1 beach:1 daron:1 malakian:1 andy:1 timmons:1 mmm:1 mushok:1 adm:1 adam:1 moher:1 pkw:1 peter:1 kirkwood:1 lukather:1 xiphos:1 return:2 derivate:4 ndm:1 jtk:2 gold:1 hardware:1 montage:1 hybrid:1 archtop:1 semihollow:1 atk:2 upon:1 blazer:1 btb:2 dwb:1 eda:1 edb:1 edc:1 ewb:1 gaxb:1 gsr:3 cost:1 soundgear:5 nominate:1 award:1 icb:1 jumpstart:2 pack:1 amp:1 accessory:1 w:1 roadgear:1 sr:4 exotic:1 bartolini:1 pwc:1 power:4 band:1 bypass:2 signal:1 directly:1 jack:2 srx:1 sdgr:1 tr:1 ae:1 aes:1 aw:1 ew:1 ga:1 jampack:1 mandolin:1 mann:1 canadian:1 masa:1 pf:1 concord:1 sage:1 past:2 effect:2 pedal:11 delay:1 echo:1 tube:7 screamer:7 nisshin:3 onpa:3 maxon:2 develop:1 license:1 less:4 business:1 together:1 cease:1 manufacting:1 overdrive:2 ii:1 release:3 contain:1 famed:1 integrate:1 circuit:4 consider:1 emulate:1 overdriven:1 vacuum:1 amplifier:1 year:2 kind:1 bear:1 ts:1 component:2 change:6 often:1 always:1 master:3 l:1 claim:1 tubescreamer:1 closer:1 circuitwise:1 disguise:1 slightly:1 value:1 likely:1 reason:1 slight:1 housing:1 difference:1 circuitry:1 counterpart:1 mount:1 potentiometer:1 pot:1 issue:1 add:1 ce:1 mark:1 require:1 soundtank:1 run:1 plastic:1 enclosure:1 expensive:1 part:1 around:1 tone:1 lok:1 added:1 way:1 capacitor:1 clipping:1 section:1 post:1 say:1 due:1 demand:1 complete:1 chip:1 extent:1 highly:1 collectible:1 especially:1 boutique:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:2 museum:1 database:1 resource:1 user:1 review:3 picture:1 co:1 origin:1 register:1 gallery:1 ibanezrules:1 technical:1 guide:1 scan:1 manual:1 wire:1 diagram:1 galore:1 jemsite:1 mr:1 collection:2 rare:1 |@bigram ibanez_guitar:20 hoshino_gakki:34 acoustic_guitar:5 untold_story:1 frank_zappa:1 steve_vai:3 coil_humbucker:1 humbucker_pickup:1 joe_satriani:3 bolt_neck:4 whammy_bar:1 sz_sz:1 sa_sa:1 bob_weir:1 short_lived:1 soon_afterwards:1 r_giger:1 pat_metheny:1 marty_friedman:1 bass_guitar:4 sr_sr:1 ibanez_tube:3 tube_screamer:6 integrate_circuit:1 vacuum_tube:1 external_link:1 |
3,459 | Demographics_of_Guam | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Guam, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 154,623 (July 2000 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 34.9% (male 28,233; female 25,727) 15-64 years: 59.09% (male 48,126; female 43,238) 65 years and over: 6.01% (male 4,680; female 4,619) (2000 est.) Population growth rate: 1.67% (2000 est.) Birth rate: 26.19 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate: 4.16 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate: -5.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.14 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.11 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.01 male(s)/female total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: 6.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 77.78 years male: 75.51 years female: 80.37 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate: 3.96 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality: noun: Guamanian / Guamanians adjective: Guamanian Ethnic groups: Chamorro 37.1%, Filipino 26.3%, other Pacific islander 11.3%, white 6.9%, other Asian 6.3%, other ethnic origin or race 2.3%, mixed 9.8% (2000 census) Religions: Roman Catholic 85%, other 15% (1999 est.) Languages: English, Chamorro Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 99% male: 99% female: 99% (1990 est.) In the United States territory of Guam, Asians, mostly Filipinos, with smaller numbers of Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese, are the largest minority group. See also : Guam | Demographics_of_Guam |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:11 guam:3 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:12 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 guamanian:2 guamanians:1 adjective:1 ethnic:2 group:2 chamorro:2 filipino:1 pacific:1 islander:1 white:1 asian:2 origin:1 race:1 mixed:1 census:1 religion:1 roman:1 catholic:1 language:1 english:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 united:1 state:1 territory:1 mostly:1 filipinos:1 small:1 number:1 korean:1 chinese:1 japanese:1 large:1 minority:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 pacific_islander:1 literacy_definition:1 |
3,460 | Nicotinamide | Nicotinamide, also known as niacinamide and nicotinic acid amide, is the amide of nicotinic acid (vitamin B3). Nicotinamide is a water-soluble vitamin and is part of the vitamin B group. Nicotinic acid, also known as niacin, is converted to niacinamide in vivo, and though the two are identical in their vitamin functions, niacinamide does not have the same pharmacologic and toxic effects of niacin, which occur incidental to niacin's conversion. Thus niacinamide does not reduce cholesterol or cause flushing, Jacenollo, P. (1992). Niacin versus niacinamide although nicotinamide may be toxic to the liver at doses exceeding 3 g/day for adults. In cells, niacin is incorporated into nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), although the pathways for nicotinamide and nicotinic acid are very similar. NAD+ and NADP+ are coenzymes in a wide variety of enzymatic oxidation-reduction reactions. Use in medicine Nicotinamide has demonstrated anti-inflammatory actions which may be of benefit in patients with inflammatory skin conditions. These conditions include acne vulgaris, and the compound can suppress antigen induced-lymphocytic transformation and inhibit of 3'-5' cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. Nicotinamide has demonstrated the ability to block the inflammatory actions of iodides known to precipitate or exacerbate inflammatory acne. Nicomide (take note the naming similarity), is an acne medication, and in its vitamin supplement form, the most predominant ingredient is 750 mg of nicotinamide, based on this area of research. Animal studies show that nicotinamide has anti-anxiety (anxiolytic) properties. It may work in a way similar to benzodiazepines. Nicotinamide lacks the vasodilator, gastrointestinal, hepatic, and hypolipemic actions of nicotinic acid. As such, nicotinamide has not been shown to produce the flushing, itching and burning sensations of the skin as is commonly seen when large doses of nicotinic acid are administered orally. However, nicotinamide can produce liver toxicity at doses above 3 grams per day. In overall, it rarely causes side effects, and is considered generally safe as a food additive, and as a component in cosmetics and medication. Nicotinamide is produced by the aqueous ammonolysis of 3-cyanopyridine (nicotinonitrile) and subsequent crystallisation. Nicotinamide is an inhibitor of sirtuins and has been reported to restore cognition in Alzheimer's Disease transgenic mice. Nicotinamide has been reported to increase the endurance of mice. Nicotinamide, or Vitamin B3, prevents immunosuppression caused by UVA and UVB radiation, and could be added to sunscreen. Nicotinamide has been reported to be an effective skin whitener in topical application. See also Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Nicotinamide riboside Isonicotinamide References External links | Nicotinamide |@lemmatized nicotinamide:20 also:3 know:3 niacinamide:5 nicotinic:6 acid:6 amide:2 vitamin:6 water:1 soluble:1 part:1 b:1 group:1 niacin:5 convert:1 vivo:1 though:1 two:1 identical:1 function:1 pharmacologic:1 toxic:2 effect:2 occur:1 incidental:1 conversion:1 thus:1 reduce:1 cholesterol:1 cause:3 flushing:2 jacenollo:1 p:1 versus:1 although:2 may:3 liver:2 dos:3 exceed:1 g:1 day:2 adult:1 cell:1 incorporate:1 adenine:3 dinucleotide:3 nad:2 phosphate:1 nadp:2 pathway:1 similar:2 coenzyme:1 wide:1 variety:1 enzymatic:1 oxidation:1 reduction:1 reaction:1 use:1 medicine:1 demonstrate:2 anti:2 inflammatory:4 action:3 benefit:1 patient:1 skin:3 condition:2 include:1 acne:3 vulgaris:1 compound:1 suppress:1 antigen:1 induce:1 lymphocytic:1 transformation:1 inhibit:1 cyclic:1 amp:1 phosphodiesterase:1 ability:1 block:1 iodide:1 precipitate:1 exacerbate:1 nicomide:1 take:1 note:1 naming:1 similarity:1 medication:2 supplement:1 form:1 predominant:1 ingredient:1 mg:1 base:1 area:1 research:1 animal:1 study:1 show:2 anxiety:1 anxiolytic:1 property:1 work:1 way:1 benzodiazepine:1 lack:1 vasodilator:1 gastrointestinal:1 hepatic:1 hypolipemic:1 produce:3 itch:1 burn:1 sensation:1 commonly:1 see:2 large:1 administer:1 orally:1 however:1 toxicity:1 gram:1 per:1 overall:1 rarely:1 side:1 consider:1 generally:1 safe:1 food:1 additive:1 component:1 cosmetic:1 aqueous:1 ammonolysis:1 cyanopyridine:1 nicotinonitrile:1 subsequent:1 crystallisation:1 inhibitor:1 sirtuins:1 report:3 restore:1 cognition:1 alzheimer:1 disease:1 transgenic:1 mouse:2 increase:1 endurance:1 prevents:1 immunosuppression:1 uva:1 uvb:1 radiation:1 could:1 add:1 sunscreen:1 effective:1 whitener:1 topical:1 application:1 riboside:1 isonicotinamide:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram nicotinic_acid:6 soluble_vitamin:1 nicotinamide_adenine:3 adenine_dinucleotide:3 anti_inflammatory:1 cyclic_amp:1 anxiolytic_property:1 administer_orally:1 alzheimer_disease:1 transgenic_mouse:1 external_link:1 |
3,461 | Khartoum | Khartoum (الخرطوم al-Kharṭūm) is the capital of Sudan and of Khartoum State. It is located at the confluence point of the White Nile flowing north from Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile flowing west from Ethiopia. The location where the two Niles meet is known as "al-Mogran". The main Nile continues to flow north towards Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. Divided by the Niles, Khartoum is a tripartite metropolis with an estimated overall population of over a million people consisting of Khartoum proper, and linked by bridges to Khartoum North called (al-Khartūm Bahrī) and Omdurman (Umm Durmān) to the west. Etymology The word 'Khartoum' is derived from Arabic for "end of an elephant’s trunk", probably referring to the narrow strip of land extending between the Blue and White Niles. Room, Adrian (2006), Placenames of the World (Second edition)., McFarland. ISBN 0786422483. p. 194 Captain J. A. Grant, who reached Khartoum in 1863 with Captain Speke’s expedition, thought that the derivation was most probably from the safflower (Carthamus Tinctorius L.) which is called 'Gartoon,' and which was cultivated extensively in Egypt for its oil, used in burning. This explanation is ingenious but has no support." Others believe Khartoum is derived from kier-tuom in the Dinka language or karetum in the Nuer language, both meaning river-junction, denoting the confluence of White Nile and Blue Nile. History Early history Khartoum at the Bend of the Nile Ibrahim Pasha, the ruler of Egypt, founded Khartoum in 1821 as an outpost for the Egyptian army, but the settlement grew as a regional center of trade, including the slave trade. Troops loyal to the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad began a siege of Khartoum on March 13, 1884 against the defenders led by British General Charles George Gordon. The siege resulted in the massacre of the Anglo-Egyptian garrison. The heavily damaged city fell to the Mahdists on January 26, 1885. Omdurman was the scene of the bloody battle on September 2, 1898, during which British forces under Horatio Kitchener defeated the Mahdist forces defending the city. In 1899, Khartoum became the capital of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and, with the independence of Sudan in 1956, the capital of the new country. Recent history In 1973, the city was the site of an anomalous hostage crisis in which members of Black September held ten hostages at the Saudi embassy, five of whom were diplomats. The US ambassador, the US deputy ambassador, and the Belgian chargé d'affaires were murdered. The remaining hostages were released (see 1973 Khartoum diplomatic assassinations). A 1973 United States Department of State document, declassified in 2006, concluded "The Khartoum operation was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval of Yasser Arafat." The first oil pipeline between Khartoum and Port Sudan was completed in 1977. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Khartoum was the destination for hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing conflicts in neighboring nations such as Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Uganda. The Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees assimilated into society which some of the other refugees settled in large slums at the outskirts of the city. From the mid-1980s onward, large numbers of south Sudanese and Darfuri internally displaced from the violence of the Second Sudanese Civil War and Darfur conflict have settled around Khartoum. Following the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings, the United States accused Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda group of responsibility and launched cruise missile attacks (August 20) on the al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Khartoum North. The destruction of the factory produced diplomatic tension between the U.S. and Sudan. The ruins of the factory are a tourist attraction. After the sudden death of SPLA head and vice-president of Sudan John Garang at the end of July 2005, there were violent riots in the capital for three days which died down after southern Sudanese politicians and tribal leaders sent strong messages to the rioters. The situation could have been chaotic with mass killings and reprisals however the death toll was at least 24 as youth from South Sudan attacked North Sudanese and clashed with security forces. BBC NEWS | World | Africa | Riots after Sudan VP Garang dies The Organisation of African Unity summit of July 18-22, 1978 was held in Khartoum, during which Sudan was awarded the OAU presidency. The African Union summit of January 16-24, 2006 was held in Khartoum. The Arab League summit of March 28-29, 2006 was held in Khartoum, during which the Arab League awarded Sudan the Arab League presidency. On 10 May 2008 the Darfur rebel group of the Justice and Equality Movement moved into the city where they engaged in heavy fighting with Sudanese government forces. Their soldiers included minors and their goal was the toppling of Omar Hassan al-Bashir's government, though the Sudanese government succeeded in beating back the assault Curfew in capital as Sudanese army clash near Khartoum with Darfur rebels - Sudan Tribune 2008-05-10 Sudanese rebels 'reach Khartoum' - BBC News 2008-05-10 . PHOTOS: Sudan capital after today's attack from Darfur JEM - Sudan Tribune 2008-05-10 Climate Demographics Year Population http://bevoelkerungsstatistik.de City Agglomeration 1907 Encyclopedia Britannica von 1911: Band 15, Seite 773 69,349 k. A. 1956 93,100 245,800 1973 333,906 748,300 1983 476,218 1,340,646 1993 947,483 2,919,773 2007 Estimate 2,207,794 8,363,915 Economy View of the traffic in the city of Khartoum. After the signing of the historic Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLA), the Government of Sudan has begun a massive development project . The biggest projects taking place right now in Khartoum are the Al-Mogran Development Project, two five-star hotels, a new airport, Mac Nimir Bridge (finished in October 2007) and the Tuti Bridge that links Khartoum to Tuti Island. Khartoum has a thriving economy. In recent years Khartoum has seen significant development, driven by Sudan's oil wealth. The center of the city is well-planned, with tree-lined streets. However, Khartoum has the highest concentration of economic activity in the country. This is slowly changing as major economic developments take place in other parts of the country, like oil exploration in the South, the Giad Industrial Complex and White Nile Sugar Project in Central Sudan, and the Merowe Dam in the North. Among the city's industries are printing, glass manufacturing, food processing, and textiles. Petroleum products are now produced in the far north of Khartoum state, providing fuel and jobs for the city. One of Sudan's largest refineries is located in northern Khartoum. Moreover, a number of East-Asian companies have recently shown interest in the realization of a new project which will lead to the creation of new telecommunication services throughout the country. Education Khartoum is the main location for most of Sudan's top educational bodies, including but not limited to: High Schools Khartoum International Community School, KICS Unity High School. The school came to international attention on November 25, 2007 when one of its teachers, Gillian Gibbons from Liverpool, England, was arrested by Sudanese authorities for allegedly insulting Islam by allowing the children in her class to name a teddy bear "Muhammad". Comboni, Khartoum American School and St. Francis Universities University of Khartoum. Founded as Gordon Memorial College in 1902, it was later renamed to share the name of the city in the 1930s. Juba University, relocated from Juba during the civil war. Currently, the only university in Sudan which maintained English as language of instruction. Plans exist to relocate the university or part of it back to Southern Sudan. Computerman College, the college for computer studies. And recently added other departments. Al Neelain University Sudan University of Science and Technology. One of the main Engineering and technical schools in Sudan founded in 1932 as Khartoum Technical Institute and then later on 1991 turned into Sudan University of Science and Technology. Bayan Science and Technology University The Academy of Medical Sciences and Technology. Better known as AMST, it was founded in 1996 by Prof. Mamoun Humaida and built in Khartoum. Omdurman Islamic University Ahfad University for Women Academy of Medical Sciences and Technology, Khartoum Comboni College for Science and Technology, Khartoum Transportation Air Khartoum is home to the largest airport in Sudan, Khartoum International Airport. It is the main hub for Sudan Airways, Sudan's main carrier. The airport was built at the southern edge of the city; but with Khartoum's rapid growth and consequent urban sprawl, the airport is now located in the heart of the city. A new international airport is currently being built in the city of Omdurman. It will replace the current airport in Khartoum as Sudan's main airport followed by Juba Airport and Port Sudan Airport. Bridges The following bridges cross the Blue Nile and connect Khartoum to Khartoum North: Mac Nimir Bridge Blue Nile Road & Railway Bridge Kober Bridge Elmansheya Bridge The following bridges cross the White Nile and connect Khartoum to Omdurman: White Nile Bridge Fitayhab Bridge Al Dabbaseen Bridge (Under Construction) Omhuraz Bridge (Proposed) the following bridges cross from Omdurman: to Khartoum North: Shambat Bridge Halfia Bridge (Under Construction) The following bridges cross to Tuti from khartoum states three cities Khartoum-tuti bridge Omdurman-Tuti Suspension bridge proposed - designed by Ahmed Mohammed , Abdalrahmman alrashid , Firas Mohammed , Yassir Abdalla for more info 00249923202320 Khartoum North-tuti bridge proposed Rail Khartoum has rail lines from Egypt, Port Sudan and El Obeid. Some renewings may take place at the trains machinery and cabinets by an Italian company. Culture A statue, claimed to depict Natakamani, at the front of the National Museum of Sudan Museums The largest museum in Khartoum, and indeed all of Sudan, is the National Museum of Sudan. Founded in 1971, it contains works from different epochs of Sudanese history. Among the exhibits are two Egyptian temples of Buhen and Semna which were originally built by Queen Hatshepsut and Pharaoh Tuthmosis III respectively but relocated to Khartoum upon the flooding of Lake Nasser. Another museum in Khartoum is the Palace Museum, located adjacent to the historical Presidential Palace on Blue Nile Street. Shopping Khartoum doesn't have as many open markets or souqs as neighboring Omdurman, but one of the largest is the Souq Arabi. The market is huge and spread over several blocks in the center of Khartoum proper just south of the Great Mosque (Mesjid al-Kabir) and the minibus station. It is divided into separate sections, including one focused entirely on gold. Al Qasr St. and Al Jamhoriyah St. are considered the most famous high streets in Khartoum State. Recently Sudan's first medium scale shopping mall opened, located in the southern suburb Arkeweet. The Afra Mall has a supermarket, retail outlets, coffee shops, a bowling alley, movie theaters, and a children's playground. Botanical gardens Khartoum is home to a small botanical garden, in the Mogran district of the city. Clubs Sudan sufis in Khartoum Khartoum is home to several clubs such as the Sailing Club, German Club, Greek Hotel, Coptic Club, Syrian Club, International Club etc. Twin cities Amman, Jordan. Cairo, Egypt. Istanbul, Turkey. Ankara, Turkey. Saint Petersburg, Russia. Wuhan, People's Republic of China. Asmara, Eritrea. See also Khartoum, a 1966 film starring Charlton Heston and Laurence Olivier References External links FallingRain Map - elevation = 377m (Red dots are railways) be-x-old:Хартум | Khartoum |@lemmatized khartoum:61 الخرطوم:1 al:12 kharṭūm:1 capital:6 sudan:36 state:7 locate:5 confluence:2 point:1 white:6 nile:15 flow:3 north:10 lake:2 victoria:1 blue:6 west:2 ethiopia:2 location:2 two:3 meet:1 know:2 mogran:3 main:6 continue:1 towards:1 egypt:5 mediterranean:1 sea:1 divide:2 tripartite:1 metropolis:1 estimate:2 overall:1 population:2 million:1 people:3 consist:1 proper:2 link:3 bridge:21 call:2 khartūm:1 bahrī:1 omdurman:8 umm:1 durmān:1 etymology:1 word:1 derive:2 arabic:1 end:2 elephant:1 trunk:1 probably:2 refer:1 narrow:1 strip:1 land:1 extend:1 room:1 adrian:1 placenames:1 world:2 second:2 edition:1 mcfarland:1 isbn:1 p:1 captain:2 j:1 grant:1 reach:2 speke:1 expedition:1 think:1 derivation:1 safflower:1 carthamus:1 tinctorius:1 l:1 gartoon:1 cultivate:1 extensively:1 oil:4 use:1 burn:1 explanation:1 ingenious:1 support:1 others:1 believe:1 kier:1 tuom:1 dinka:1 language:3 karetum:1 nuer:1 mean:1 river:1 junction:1 denote:1 history:4 early:1 bend:1 ibrahim:1 pasha:1 ruler:1 found:5 outpost:1 egyptian:4 army:2 settlement:1 grow:1 regional:1 center:3 trade:2 include:4 slave:1 troop:1 loyal:1 mahdi:1 muhammad:2 ahmad:1 begin:2 siege:2 march:2 defender:1 lead:2 british:2 general:1 charles:1 george:1 gordon:2 result:1 massacre:1 anglo:2 garrison:1 heavily:1 damage:1 city:17 fell:1 mahdist:2 january:2 scene:1 bloody:1 battle:1 september:2 force:4 horatio:1 kitchener:1 defeat:1 defend:1 become:1 independence:1 new:5 country:4 recent:2 site:1 anomalous:1 hostage:3 crisis:1 member:1 black:1 hold:4 ten:1 saudi:1 embassy:2 five:2 diplomat:1 u:4 ambassador:2 deputy:1 belgian:1 chargé:1 affaire:1 murder:1 remain:1 release:1 see:3 diplomatic:2 assassination:1 united:2 department:2 document:1 declassify:1 conclude:1 operation:1 plan:3 carry:1 full:1 knowledge:1 personal:1 approval:1 yasser:1 arafat:1 first:2 pipeline:1 port:3 complete:1 throughout:2 destination:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 refugee:3 flee:1 conflict:2 neighbor:1 nation:1 chad:1 eritrea:2 uganda:1 eritrean:1 ethiopian:1 assimilate:1 society:1 settle:2 large:6 slum:1 outskirt:1 mid:1 onward:1 number:2 south:4 sudanese:10 darfuri:1 internally:1 displace:1 violence:1 civil:2 war:2 darfur:4 around:1 follow:2 bombing:1 accuse:1 osama:1 bin:1 laden:1 qaeda:1 group:2 responsibility:1 launch:1 cruise:1 missile:1 attack:3 august:1 shifa:1 pharmaceutical:1 factory:3 destruction:1 produce:2 tension:1 ruin:1 tourist:1 attraction:1 sudden:1 death:2 spla:2 head:1 vice:1 president:1 john:1 garang:2 july:2 violent:1 riot:2 three:2 day:1 die:2 southern:4 politician:1 tribal:1 leader:1 send:1 strong:1 message:1 rioter:1 situation:1 could:1 chaotic:1 mass:1 killing:1 reprisal:1 however:2 toll:1 least:1 youth:1 clash:2 security:1 bbc:2 news:2 africa:1 vp:1 organisation:1 african:2 unity:2 summit:3 award:2 oau:1 presidency:2 union:1 arab:3 league:3 may:2 rebel:3 justice:1 equality:1 movement:2 move:1 engage:1 heavy:1 fighting:1 government:5 soldier:1 minor:1 goal:1 toppling:1 omar:1 hassan:1 bashir:1 though:1 succeed:1 beat:1 back:2 assault:1 curfew:1 near:1 tribune:2 photo:1 today:1 jem:1 climate:1 demographic:1 year:2 http:1 bevoelkerungsstatistik:1 de:1 agglomeration:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 von:1 band:1 seite:1 k:1 economy:2 view:1 traffic:1 signing:1 historic:1 comprehensive:1 peace:1 agreement:1 liberation:1 massive:1 development:4 project:5 big:1 take:3 place:3 right:1 star:2 hotel:2 airport:10 mac:2 nimir:2 finish:1 october:1 tuti:6 island:1 thrive:1 significant:1 drive:1 wealth:1 well:1 tree:1 line:2 street:3 high:4 concentration:1 economic:2 activity:1 slowly:1 change:1 major:1 part:2 like:1 exploration:1 giad:1 industrial:1 complex:1 sugar:1 central:1 merowe:1 dam:1 among:2 industry:1 print:1 glass:1 manufacturing:1 food:1 processing:1 textile:1 petroleum:1 product:1 far:1 provide:1 fuel:1 job:1 one:5 refinery:1 northern:1 moreover:1 east:1 asian:1 company:2 recently:3 show:1 interest:1 realization:1 creation:1 telecommunication:1 service:1 education:1 top:1 educational:1 body:1 limited:1 school:6 international:5 community:1 kics:1 come:1 attention:1 november:1 teacher:1 gillian:1 gibbon:1 liverpool:1 england:1 arrest:1 authority:1 allegedly:1 insulting:1 islam:1 allow:1 child:2 class:1 name:2 teddy:1 bear:1 comboni:2 american:1 st:3 francis:1 university:11 memorial:1 college:4 later:2 rename:1 share:1 juba:3 relocate:3 currently:2 maintain:1 english:1 instruction:1 exist:1 computerman:1 computer:1 study:1 add:1 neelain:1 science:6 technology:6 engineering:1 technical:2 institute:1 turn:1 bayan:1 academy:2 medical:2 good:1 amst:1 prof:1 mamoun:1 humaida:1 build:4 islamic:1 ahfad:1 woman:1 transportation:1 air:1 home:3 hub:1 airway:1 carrier:1 edge:1 rapid:1 growth:1 consequent:1 urban:1 sprawl:1 heart:1 replace:1 current:1 following:4 cross:4 connect:2 road:1 railway:2 kober:1 elmansheya:1 fitayhab:1 dabbaseen:1 construction:2 omhuraz:1 propose:3 shambat:1 halfia:1 suspension:1 design:1 ahmed:1 mohammed:2 abdalrahmman:1 alrashid:1 firas:1 yassir:1 abdalla:1 info:1 rail:2 el:1 obeid:1 renewings:1 train:1 machinery:1 cabinet:1 italian:1 culture:1 statue:1 claim:1 depict:1 natakamani:1 front:1 national:2 museum:6 indeed:1 contain:1 work:1 different:1 epoch:1 exhibit:1 temple:1 buhen:1 semna:1 originally:1 queen:1 hatshepsut:1 pharaoh:1 tuthmosis:1 iii:1 respectively:1 upon:1 flooding:1 nasser:1 another:1 palace:2 adjacent:1 historical:1 presidential:1 shop:3 many:1 open:2 market:2 souqs:1 neighboring:1 souq:1 arabi:1 huge:1 spread:1 several:2 block:1 great:1 mosque:1 mesjid:1 kabir:1 minibus:1 station:1 separate:1 section:1 focus:1 entirely:1 gold:1 qasr:1 jamhoriyah:1 consider:1 famous:1 medium:1 scale:1 mall:2 suburb:1 arkeweet:1 afra:1 supermarket:1 retail:1 outlet:1 coffee:1 bowling:1 alley:1 movie:1 theater:1 playground:1 botanical:2 garden:2 small:1 district:1 club:7 sufi:1 sailing:1 german:1 greek:1 coptic:1 syrian:1 etc:1 twin:1 amman:1 jordan:1 cairo:1 istanbul:1 turkey:2 ankara:1 saint:1 petersburg:1 russia:1 wuhan:1 republic:1 china:1 asmara:1 also:1 film:1 charlton:1 heston:1 laurence:1 olivier:1 reference:1 external:1 fallingrain:1 map:1 elevation:1 red:1 dot:1 x:1 old:1 хартум:1 |@bigram ibrahim_pasha:1 hostage_crisis:1 chargé_affaire:1 yasser_arafat:1 hundred_thousand:1 eritrea_ethiopia:1 eritrean_ethiopian:1 internally_displace:1 osama_bin:1 bin_laden:1 al_qaeda:1 cruise_missile:1 al_shifa:1 tourist_attraction:1 vice_president:1 bbc_news:2 khartoum_sudan:2 encyclopedia_britannica:1 teddy_bear:1 urban_sprawl:1 suspension_bridge:1 ahmed_mohammed:1 shop_mall:1 retail_outlet:1 coffee_shop:1 bowling_alley:1 botanical_garden:2 amman_jordan:1 istanbul_turkey:1 ankara_turkey:1 saint_petersburg:1 petersburg_russia:1 charlton_heston:1 laurence_olivier:1 external_link:1 fallingrain_map:1 |
3,462 | MV_Virginian_(T-AK_9205) | MV Virginian (T-AK 9205), formerly named the MV Strong Virginian (T-AKR-9205), is a combination container, heavy lift, and roll-on/roll-off ship. Military Sealift Command, 2008, MV VIRGINIAN (T-AK 9205). Sealift Incorporated 2008, MV Virginian. Owned and operated by Sealift Incorporated of Oyster Bay, New York, the ship is one of seventeen containerroll-on/roll-off ships in use by the Military Sealift Command, and one of 28 ships assigned to that organization's Sealift Program Office. The ship was previously known as the MV Saint Magnus and the MV Jolly Indaco. Cargo equipment The ship has one large cargo hold with a tween deck that can be set at three different heights. It has a single 800-ton derrick for heavy-lift use. In addition it has a single traveling gantry crane fitted with dual portal cranes, both of which are rated at 75 metric tons independently, and can be operated together for lifts up to 150 metric tons. For roll-on/roll-off cargo, the ship has two trailer elevators and roro ramps. History MV Strong Virginian lifts a Landing Craft Utility (LCU-2000) from the deck MV Strong Virginian lowers an LCU into the water Side view Built as Saint Magnus at Bremer Vulkan, Bremen, Germany in 1984, Virginian spent her first years in the commercial shipping service. Brigham 2002, The many lives of MV Virginian. Priolo 2004. Ironically, the ship that would later be known for carrying military supplies to the Middle East was accidentally hit by an Exocet missile while off-loading commercial cargo in Iraq in 1986. In these early years, the ship was also renamed Jolly Indaco. MSC first chartered the ship, then known as MV Strong Virginian, in 1992. For the next five years, a 500-bed fleet hospital was prepositioned aboard the ship as she carried out a variety of missions for the Department of Defense. Some of its jobs during this time included delivering equipment and supplies to Africa as part of Operation Restore Hope, transporting a bio-safety lab from Inchon, Korea, to Jakarta, Indonesia, and ferrying harbor tugs used by the U.S. Navy from Diego Garcia to Guam and back. On March 14, 1997, the United States Department of Defense announced a new charter for the Strong Virginian. This contract, number N00033-97-C-3007, was a $23,592,099 time charter contract from the Military Sealift Command to operator Van Ommeren Shipping (USA), Inc., of Stamford, Connectucut. U.S. Department of Defense, 1997, Contracts. Under the contract, the Strong Virginian was to be used in the prepositioning of United States Army cargo in the Indian Ocean at the island of Diego Garcia. The contract included options which could have brought the cumulative value up to US$47,992,099 and was to expire by March 1999. This contract was competitively procured with 250 proposals solicited and four offers received. Virginian was chartered again in 1998 and, for the next four years, the ship was used to support the U.S. Army. Virginian delivered combat craft, tugboats and barges and other elements of the Army's port opening packages. These packages are used to give the military access to rarely used ports in areas vital to U.S. military operations. On September 30, 2002, the ship was released from MSC service and returned to its owner. Sealift Incorporated bought the ship from Van Ommeren Shipping USA, Inc. taking delivery on June 10, 2003. American Maritime Officers, 2003. At that point, Sealift renamed the ship the Virginian. Between November 2002 and May 2006, the Virginian completed 21 missions for the U.S. military, delivering almost 1.7 million square feet, or nearly 30 football fields, of cargo. On October 16, 2007 the United States Department of Defense announced that it awarded contract N00033-08-C-5500 to Sealift Incorporated. This was a $10,614,000 firm-fixed-price contract plus reimbursables for the Virginian. U.S. Department of Defense, 2007, Contracts. The ship was contracted to carry containers laden with ammunition to support the global war on terrorism and the United States Central Command. The contract includes options, which, if exercised, would bring the cumulative value of this contract to $39,814,000. If options are exercised, work may continue through October 2011. This contract was competitively procured via Federal Business Opportunities and the Military Sealift Command websites, with more than 200 proposals solicited and three offers received. The U.S. Navy’s Military Sealift Command is the contracting authority. Notes References External links MSC saves $20 million on ship charter contract Military sealift command ships - Owner's & Operator's/Manual 2002 American and British Forces Team Together to Support Exercise Strong Virginian USTRANSCOM Publishes Handbook on Defense Transportation System T-AKR 9025 Strong Virginian Strong Virginian Docks at A&P Southampton Department of the Army Historical Summary Fiscal Year 1999 | MV_Virginian_(T-AK_9205) |@lemmatized mv:10 virginian:19 ak:2 formerly:1 name:1 strong:9 akr:2 combination:1 container:2 heavy:2 lift:4 roll:5 ship:20 military:10 sealift:12 command:7 incorporated:1 operate:2 incorporate:3 oyster:1 bay:1 new:2 york:1 one:3 seventeen:1 containerroll:1 use:6 assign:1 organization:1 program:1 office:1 previously:1 know:3 saint:2 magnus:2 jolly:2 indaco:2 cargo:6 equipment:2 large:1 hold:1 tween:1 deck:2 set:1 three:2 different:1 height:1 single:2 ton:3 derrick:1 addition:1 traveling:1 gantry:1 crane:2 fit:1 dual:1 portal:1 rat:1 metric:2 independently:1 together:2 two:1 trailer:1 elevator:1 roro:1 ramp:1 history:1 landing:1 craft:2 utility:1 lcu:2 lower:1 water:1 side:1 view:1 build:1 bremer:1 vulkan:1 bremen:1 germany:1 spend:1 first:2 year:5 commercial:2 shipping:1 service:2 brigham:1 many:1 life:1 priolo:1 ironically:1 would:2 later:1 carry:3 supply:2 middle:1 east:1 accidentally:1 hit:1 exocet:1 missile:1 load:1 iraq:1 early:1 also:1 rename:2 msc:3 charter:5 next:2 five:1 bed:1 fleet:1 hospital:1 prepositioned:1 aboard:1 variety:1 mission:2 department:6 defense:6 job:1 time:2 include:3 delivering:1 africa:1 part:1 operation:2 restore:1 hope:1 transport:1 bio:1 safety:1 lab:1 inchon:1 korea:1 jakarta:1 indonesia:1 ferry:1 harbor:1 tug:1 u:8 navy:2 diego:2 garcia:2 guam:1 back:1 march:2 united:4 state:4 announce:2 contract:15 number:1 c:2 operator:2 van:2 ommeren:2 usa:2 inc:2 stamford:1 connectucut:1 prepositioning:1 army:4 indian:1 ocean:1 island:1 option:3 could:1 bring:2 cumulative:2 value:2 expire:1 competitively:2 procure:1 proposal:2 solicit:2 four:2 offer:2 receive:2 support:3 deliver:2 combat:1 tugboat:1 barge:1 element:1 port:2 opening:1 package:2 give:1 access:1 rarely:1 used:1 area:1 vital:1 september:1 release:1 return:1 owner:2 buy:1 take:1 delivery:1 june:1 american:2 maritime:1 officer:1 point:1 november:1 may:2 complete:1 almost:1 million:2 square:1 foot:1 nearly:1 football:1 field:1 october:2 award:1 firm:1 fix:1 price:1 plus:1 reimbursables:1 laden:1 ammunition:1 global:1 war:1 terrorism:1 central:1 exercise:3 work:1 continue:1 procured:1 via:1 federal:1 business:1 opportunity:1 website:1 authority:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 save:1 manual:1 british:1 force:1 team:1 ustranscom:1 publishes:1 handbook:1 transportation:1 system:1 dock:1 p:1 southampton:1 historical:1 summary:1 fiscal:1 |@bigram strong_virginian:9 military_sealift:6 sealift_command:6 metric_ton:2 exocet_missile:1 jakarta_indonesia:1 diego_garcia:2 rarely_used:1 external_link:1 |
3,463 | Ester | A carboxylic acid ester. R and R' denote any alkyl or aryl group A phosphoric acid ester Esters are chemical compounds derived formally from an oxoacid (one containing an oxo group, X=O), and a hydroxyl compound such as an alcohol or phenol. Esters consist of an inorganic acid or organic acid in which at least one -OH (hydroxyl) group is replaced by an -O-alkyl (alkoxy) group. They are analogous to salts, using organic alcohols instead of metallic hydroxides. Esters are ubiquitous. Many naturally occurring fats and oils are the fatty acid esters of glycerol. Esters with low molecular weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils and pheromones. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules. Nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters are important plastics, with monomers linked by ester moieties. Some acids that are commonly esterified are carboxylic acids, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and boric acid. Cyclic esters are called lactones. The preparation of an ester is known generally as an esterification reaction. This article will deal primarily with the esters derived from carboxylic acids and alcohols or phenols, the most common type of esters. Nomenclature Since most esters, or carbonate, are derived from carboxylic acids, a specific nomenclature is used for them. For esters derived from the simplest carboxylic acids, the traditional name for the acid constituent is generally retained, such as formate, acetate, propionate, and butyrate. IUPAC parent groups using traditional names For esters from more complex carboxylic acids, the systematic name for the acid is used, followed by the suffix -oate. For example, methyl formate is the ester of methanol and methanoic acid (formic acid): the simplest ester. It could also be called methyl methanoate. IUPAC naming of esters Image:Ethylethanoate.png Esters of aromatic acids are also encountered, including benzoates such as methyl benzoate, and phthalates, with substitution allowed in the name. The chemical formulas of esters are typically in the format of R-COO-R', in which the alkyl group (R') is mentioned first, and the carboxylate group (R) is mentioned last. http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_511.htm For example the ester: butyl ethanoate - derived from butanol (C4H9OH) and ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) would have the formula: CH3COOC4H9. Sometimes the formula may be 'broken up' to show the structure, in this case: CH3COO[CH2]3CH3. Oligoesters The term oligoester refers to any ester polymer containing a small number of component esters. As an example, chemically, fats are generally diesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Most of the mass of a fat/triester is in the 3 fatty acids. Tetraesters can be found as part of membrane-spanning lipids in bacteria from the order Thermotogales. Pentaesters have been used as indicators or in isotopic labelling compounds. Hexaesters such as calix[6]arene have been used in optodes as sensing devices for optical determination of potassium ion concentration in pH-buffer solutions. Heptaesters have been found in Euphorbia species. Octaesters can be inclusions of ester moieties within cavitand cavities. The number of esters can be up to ten as in oligo-(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate . Structure and physical properties Esters contain the C=O moiety. As a result, their IR spectra contain a strong, sharp absorption between 1600-1800 due to the C=O stretch. Esters participate in hydrogen bonds as hydrogen-bond acceptors, but cannot act as hydrogen-bond donors, unlike their parent alcohols. This ability to participate in hydrogen bonding makes them more water-soluble than their parent hydrocarbons. However, the limitations on their hydrogen bonding also make them more hydrophobic than either their parent alcohols or their parent acids. Their lack of hydrogen-bond-donating ability means that ester molecules cannot hydrogen-bond to each other, which, in general, makes esters more volatile than a carboxylic acid of similar molecular weight. This property makes them very useful in organic analytical chemistry: Unknown organic acids with low volatility can often be esterified into a volatile ester, which can then be analyzed using gas chromatography, gas liquid chromatography, or mass spectrometry. Many esters have distinctive fruit-like odors, which has led to their commonplace use in artificial flavorings and fragrances. For example: Ester Name Structure Odor or occurrence Allyl hexanoate pineapple Benzyl acetate pear, strawberry, jasmine Bornyl acetate pine tree flavor Butyl butyrate pineapple Ethyl acetate nail polish remover, model paint, model airplane glue Ethyl butyrate banana, pineapple, strawberry Ethyl hexanoate pineapple,waxy-green banana Ethyl cinnamate cinnamon Ethyl formate lemon, rum, strawberry Ethyl heptanoate apricot, cherry, grape, raspberry Ethyl isovalerate apple Ethyl lactate butter, cream Ethyl nonanoate grape Ethyl pentanoate apple Geranyl acetate geranium Geranyl butyrate cherry Geranyl pentanoate apple Isobutyl acetate cherry, raspberry, strawberry Isobutyl formate raspberry Isoamyl acetate pear, banana (flavoring in Pear drops) Isopropyl acetate fruity Linalyl acetate lavender, sage Linalyl butyrate peach Linalyl formate apple, peach Methyl acetate glue Methyl anthranilate grape, jasmine Methyl benzoate fruity, ylang ylang, feijoa Methyl benzyl acetate cherry Methyl butyrate (methyl butanoate) pineapple, apple, strawberry Methyl cinnamate strawberry Methyl pentanoate (methyl valerate) flowery Methyl phenylacetate honey Methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen) Modern root beer, wintergreen, Germolene and Ralgex ointments (UK) Nonyl caprylate orange Octyl acetate fruity-orange Octyl butyrate parsnip Amyl acetate (pentyl acetate) apple, banana Pentyl butyrate (amyl butyrate) apricot, pear, pineapple Pentyl hexanoate (amyl caproate) apple, pineapple Pentyl pentanoate (amyl valerate) apple Propyl ethanoate pear Propyl isobutyrate rum Terpenyl butyrate cherry Applications The applications of esters are vast, and often depend on the particular ester in consideration. As a class, esters serve as protecting groups for carboxylic acids. Protecting a carboxylic acid is useful in peptide synthesis, to prevent self-reactions of the bifunctional amino acids. Methyl and ethyl esters are commonly available for many amino acids; the t-butyl ester tends to be more expensive. However, t-butyl esters are particularly useful because under strongly acidic conditions, the t-butyl esters undergo elimination to give the carboxylic acid and isobutene, simplifying work-up. Preparation Fischer esterification The most classic method is the Fischer esterification: refluxing a carboxylic acid in an alcohol, which acts as both solvent and reactant: R1COOH + R2OH R1COOR2 + H2O A strong acid, traditionally sulfuric acid, is used as a catalyst. It protonates the -OH group of the carboxylic acid, making it a better leaving group. Lewis acids may also be used. Since the reaction is an equilibrium, simply reacting one mole of acid with one mole of alcohol will give a mixture of starting materials and products. The yield of the product may be improved using le Chatelier's principle: using the alcohol as a solvent (i.e. in large excess) will help push the equilibrium to the right where sulfuric acid is used, it acts both as the acid catalyst, and as a dehydrating agent. By sequestering water (a reaction product), the equilibrium is pushed to the right. The use of a solvent which forms low-boiling azeotropes with water, such as toluene, in conjunction with a Dean-Stark apparatus has a similar effect, as is the use of other drying agents like molecular sieves. since low molecular weight esters typically have lower boiling points than their parent carboxylic acids and alcohols because they are not able to form hydrogen bonds, the ester products may be distilled out of the reaction vessel as they are formed. By removing the ester product in a reactive distillation, the equilibrium once again lies to the right. Reaction with acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides Alcohols react with an acyl chloride or acid anhydride to give esters: R1COCl + R2OH → R1COOR2 + HCl (R1CO)2O + R2OH → R1COOR2 + R1COOH These reactions are irreversible, simplifying the product mixture. No acid catalysts are necessary, as the chloride and carboxylate are good leaving groups. However, acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides react with water. As alcohols are poorer nucleophiles than amines, anhydrous conditions are preferred, compared with the analogous reactions to generate amides. Steglich esterification The Steglich esterification is method of forming esters under mild conditions. It is especially popular in peptide synthesis, where the substrates are sensitive to harsh conditions like high heat. DCC (dicyclohexylcarbodiimide) is used to activate the carboxylic acid to further reaction. DMAP (4-dimethylaminopyridine) is used catalytically as an acyl-transfer agent. Other reactions Transesterifications between other esters Favorskii rearrangement of α-haloketones in presence of base Nucleophilic displacement of alkyl halides with carboxylic acid salts Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of ketones with peroxides Pinner reaction of nitriles with an alcohol Reactions Esters may react primarily at two locations: at the carboxyl, and at the carbon adjacent the carbonxyl group. Nucleophilic substitutions Esters undergo hydrolysis under acid and basic conditions. Under acid conditions, the reaction is the reverse reaction of the Fisher esterification. Under basic conditions, hydroxide acts as a nucleophile, while an alkoxide is the leaving group. Ester saponification (basic hydrolysis) The alkoxide group may also be displaced by stronger nucleophiles such as ammonia or primary or secondary amines to give amides. Reduction Esters are relatively resistant to reduction. Lithium aluminium hydride is able to reduce esters to two primary alcohols, while sodium borohydride does so more slowly. DIBAH reduces esters to aldehydes, while forcing conditions are required for hydrogenation. Reactions adjacent the carboxyl group Similar to carbonyl compounds, the hydrogen atoms on the carbon adjacent ("α to") the carboxyl group are acidic. They may be removed by relatively strong bases, such as an alkoxide salt. Deprotonating the alpha position gives a nucleophile, which may further react, e.g. the Claisen condensation and its intramolecular equivalent, the Dieckmann rearrangement. This property is exploited in the malonic ester synthesis, where the diester of malonic acid reacts with an electrophile (e.g. alkyl halide), and is subsequently decarboxylated. This is a two carbon homologation reaction. Other reactions Phenyl esters react to hydroxyarylketones in the Fries rearrangement. Specific esters are functionalized with an α-hydroxyl group in the Chan rearrangement. Esters are converted to isocyanates through intermediate hydroxamic acids in the Lossen rearrangement. Esters with β-hydrogen atoms can be converted to alkenes in ester pyrolysis. External links An introduction to esters Molecule of the month: Ethyl acetate and other esters Making an Ester A simple guide to naming and making esters, as well as the chemistry behind it. An example of esters commercial application References | Ester |@lemmatized carboxylic:15 acid:50 ester:63 r:7 denote:1 alkyl:5 aryl:1 group:17 phosphoric:2 chemical:2 compound:4 derive:5 formally:1 oxoacid:1 one:4 contain:4 oxo:1 x:1 hydroxyl:3 alcohol:13 phenol:2 consist:1 inorganic:1 organic:4 least:1 oh:2 replace:1 alkoxy:1 analogous:2 salt:3 use:18 instead:1 metallic:1 hydroxide:2 ubiquitous:1 many:3 naturally:1 occur:1 fat:3 oil:3 fatty:3 glycerol:2 low:5 molecular:4 weight:3 commonly:3 fragrance:2 find:3 essential:1 pheromone:1 phosphoesters:1 form:5 backbone:1 dna:1 molecule:3 nitrate:1 nitroglycerin:1 know:2 explosive:1 property:4 polyester:1 important:1 plastic:1 monomer:1 link:2 moiety:3 esterify:2 sulfuric:3 nitric:1 boric:1 cyclic:1 call:2 lactones:1 preparation:2 generally:3 esterification:6 reaction:17 article:1 deal:1 primarily:2 common:1 type:1 nomenclature:3 since:3 carbonate:1 specific:2 simple:3 traditional:2 name:5 constituent:1 retain:1 formate:5 acetate:15 propionate:1 butyrate:10 iupac:3 parent:6 complex:1 systematic:1 follow:1 suffix:1 oate:1 example:5 methyl:15 methanol:1 methanoic:1 formic:1 could:1 also:5 methanoate:1 naming:2 image:1 ethylethanoate:1 png:1 aromatic:1 encounter:1 include:1 benzoate:3 phthalates:1 substitution:2 allow:1 formula:3 typically:2 format:1 coo:1 mention:2 first:1 carboxylate:2 last:1 http:1 www:1 acdlabs:1 com:1 htm:1 butyl:5 ethanoate:2 butanol:1 ethanoic:1 would:1 sometimes:1 may:8 break:1 show:1 structure:3 case:1 oligoesters:1 term:1 oligoester:1 refers:1 polymer:1 small:1 number:2 component:1 chemically:1 diesters:1 mass:2 triester:1 tetraesters:1 part:1 membrane:1 span:1 lipid:1 bacteria:1 order:1 thermotogales:1 pentaesters:1 indicator:1 isotopic:1 label:1 hexaesters:1 calix:1 arene:1 optodes:1 sense:1 device:1 optical:1 determination:1 potassium:1 ion:1 concentration:1 ph:1 buffer:1 solution:1 heptaesters:1 euphorbia:1 specie:1 octaesters:1 inclusion:1 within:1 cavitand:1 cavity:1 ten:1 oligo:1 hydroxybutyrate:1 physical:1 c:2 result:1 ir:1 spectrum:1 strong:4 sharp:1 absorption:1 due:1 stretch:1 participate:2 hydrogen:10 bond:6 acceptor:1 cannot:2 act:4 donor:1 unlike:1 ability:2 bonding:2 make:7 water:4 soluble:1 hydrocarbon:1 however:3 limitation:1 hydrophobic:1 either:1 lack:1 donating:1 mean:1 general:1 volatile:2 similar:3 useful:3 analytical:1 chemistry:2 unknown:1 volatility:1 often:2 analyze:1 gas:2 chromatography:2 liquid:1 spectrometry:1 distinctive:1 fruit:1 like:3 odor:2 lead:1 commonplace:1 artificial:1 flavoring:1 occurrence:1 allyl:1 hexanoate:3 pineapple:7 benzyl:2 pear:5 strawberry:6 jasmine:2 bornyl:1 pine:1 tree:1 flavor:2 ethyl:12 nail:1 polish:1 remover:1 model:2 paint:1 airplane:1 glue:2 banana:4 waxy:1 green:1 cinnamate:2 cinnamon:1 lemon:1 rum:2 heptanoate:1 apricot:2 cherry:5 grape:3 raspberry:3 isovalerate:1 apple:8 lactate:1 butter:1 cream:1 nonanoate:1 pentanoate:4 geranyl:3 geranium:1 isobutyl:2 isoamyl:1 drop:1 isopropyl:1 fruity:3 linalyl:3 lavender:1 sage:1 peach:2 anthranilate:1 ylang:2 feijoa:1 butanoate:1 valerate:2 flowery:1 phenylacetate:1 honey:1 salicylate:1 wintergreen:2 modern:1 root:1 beer:1 germolene:1 ralgex:1 ointment:1 uk:1 nonyl:1 caprylate:1 orange:2 octyl:2 parsnip:1 amyl:4 pentyl:4 caproate:1 propyl:2 isobutyrate:1 terpenyl:1 applications:1 application:2 vast:1 depend:1 particular:1 consideration:1 class:1 serve:1 protect:2 peptide:2 synthesis:3 prevent:1 self:1 bifunctional:1 amino:2 available:1 tend:1 expensive:1 particularly:1 strongly:1 acidic:2 condition:8 undergo:2 elimination:1 give:5 isobutene:1 simplify:2 work:1 fischer:2 classic:1 method:2 refluxing:1 solvent:3 reactant:1 traditionally:1 catalyst:3 protonates:1 well:2 leave:3 lewis:1 equilibrium:4 simply:1 react:6 mole:2 mixture:2 start:1 material:1 product:6 yield:1 improve:1 le:1 chatelier:1 principle:1 e:3 large:1 excess:1 help:1 push:2 right:3 dehydrating:1 agent:3 sequester:1 boiling:1 azeotropes:1 toluene:1 conjunction:1 dean:1 stark:1 apparatus:1 effect:1 dry:1 sieve:1 boil:1 point:1 able:2 distil:1 vessel:1 remove:2 reactive:1 distillation:1 lie:1 acyl:4 chloride:4 anhydride:3 hcl:1 irreversible:1 necessary:1 good:1 poor:1 nucleophiles:2 amine:2 anhydrous:1 prefer:1 compare:1 generate:1 amide:2 steglich:2 mild:1 especially:1 popular:1 substrate:1 sensitive:1 harsh:1 high:1 heat:1 dcc:1 dicyclohexylcarbodiimide:1 activate:1 dmap:1 dimethylaminopyridine:1 catalytically:1 transfer:1 transesterifications:1 favorskii:1 rearrangement:5 α:3 haloketones:1 presence:1 base:2 nucleophilic:2 displacement:1 halide:2 baeyer:1 villiger:1 oxidation:1 ketone:1 peroxide:1 pinner:1 nitrile:1 two:3 location:1 carboxyl:3 carbon:3 adjacent:3 carbonxyl:1 hydrolysis:2 basic:3 reverse:1 fisher:1 nucleophile:2 alkoxide:3 saponification:1 displace:1 ammonia:1 primary:2 secondary:1 reduction:2 relatively:2 resistant:1 lithium:1 aluminium:1 hydride:1 reduce:2 sodium:1 borohydride:1 slowly:1 dibah:1 aldehyde:1 force:1 require:1 hydrogenation:1 carbonyl:1 atom:2 deprotonating:1 alpha:1 position:1 far:1 g:2 claisen:1 condensation:1 intramolecular:1 equivalent:1 dieckmann:1 exploit:1 malonic:2 diester:1 reacts:1 electrophile:1 subsequently:1 decarboxylate:1 homologation:1 phenyl:1 hydroxyarylketones:1 fry:1 functionalized:1 chan:1 convert:2 isocyanate:1 intermediate:1 hydroxamic:1 lossen:1 β:1 alkene:1 pyrolysis:1 external:1 introduction:1 month:1 guide:1 behind:1 commercial:1 reference:1 |@bigram carboxylic_acid:15 phosphoric_acid:2 fatty_acid:3 sulfuric_acid:3 nitric_acid:1 boric_acid:1 acid_formic:1 formic_acid:1 http_www:1 iupac_nomenclature:1 ethanoic_acid:1 glycerol_fatty:1 hydrogen_bond:6 bond_acceptor:1 hydrogen_bonding:2 analytical_chemistry:1 liquid_chromatography:1 mass_spectrometry:1 ethyl_acetate:2 banana_pineapple:1 ylang_ylang:1 methyl_salicylate:1 amino_acid:2 le_chatelier:1 chatelier_principle:1 molecular_sieve:1 acyl_chloride:3 acid_anhydride:3 alkyl_halide:2 nucleophilic_substitution:1 secondary_amine:1 lithium_aluminium:1 aluminium_hydride:1 sodium_borohydride:1 carbonyl_compound:1 hydrogen_atom:2 external_link:1 |
3,464 | Bengal | Bengal <small>Map of the Bengal region: West Bengal and Bangladesh Largest City Kolkata The Kolkata metropolitan area has a population of over 14 million, making it the largest urban agglomeration in Bengal. Main language Bengali Area 232,752 km² Population (2001) 209,468,404 Density 951.3/km² Infant mortality rate 55.91 per 1000 live births Websites bangladesh.gov.bdand wbgov.com Bengal ( Bôngo, Bangla, Bôngodesh or Bangladesh), is an historical and geographical region in the northeast of South Asia. Today it is mainly divided between the independent sovereign nation of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (previously East Bengal / East Pakistan) and the state of West Bengal in India, although some regions of the previous kingdoms of Bengal (during local monarchical regimes and British rule) are now part of the neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Assam, Tripura and Orissa. The majority of Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people (বাঙালি Bangali) who speak Bengali (বাংলা Bangla). The region of Bengal is one of the most densely populated regions on earth, with a population density exceeding 900/km². Most of the Bengal region lies in the low-lying Ganges–Brahmaputra River Delta or Ganges Delta, the world's largest delta. In the southern part of the delta lies the Sundarbans—the world's largest mangrove forest and home of the Bengal tiger. Though the population of the region is mostly rural and agrarian, two megacities, Kolkata (previously Calcutta) and Dhaka, are located in Bengal. The Bengal region is renowned for its rich literary and cultural heritage as well as its immense contribution to the socio-cultural uplift of Indian society in the form of the Bengal Renaissance, and revolutionary activities during the Indian independence movement. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang that settled in the area around the year 1000 BC. Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Vanga(বঙ্গ bôngo), which came from the Austric word "Bonga" meaning the Sun-god. The word Vanga and other words speculated to refer to Bengal (such as Anga) can be found in ancient Indian texts including the Vedas, Jaina texts, the Mahabharata and Puranas. The earliest reference to "Vangala" (বঙ্গাল bôngal) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805 AD) of Rashtrakuta Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala. M.A. Amitabha Bhattacharyya, Historical Geography of Ancient and Early Mediaeval Bengal, Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, 1977, pp. 61–62. Some accounts claim that the word may derive from bhang, a preparation of cannabis which is used in some religious ceremonies in Bengal. http://books.google.com/books?id=Qq-A4A0KB0kC&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=%22bhang+land%22&source=web&ots=tJsZ4K7CvK&sig=LfXDZMIulx7MTvNBzaMuS6lIlos&hl=en http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/inhemp/4chapt9.htm Dravidians migrated to Bengal from the south, while Tibeto-Burman peoples migrated from the Himalayas, followed by the Indo-Aryans from north-western India. The modern Bengali people are a blend of these people. Smaller numbers of Pathans, Persians, Arabs and Turks also migrated to the region in the late Middle Ages while spreading Islam. History Pala Empire under Dharmapala. Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur, Bangladesh is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent built by Dharmapala of Bengal.Pala Empire under Devapala. Siraj ud-Daulah was the last independent Nawab of Bengal. Robert Clive, of British East India Company, after winning the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the "Father of the Bengal Renaissance." Subhash Chandra Bose is one of the most prominent leader and highly respected freedom fighter from Bengal in the Indian independence movement against the British Raj. Remnants of Copper Age settlements in the Bengal region date back 4,300 years, . After the arrival of Indo-Aryans, the kingdoms of Anga, Vanga and Magadha were formed by the 10th century BC, located in the Bihar and Bengal regions. Magadha was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of Buddha and consisted of several Janapadas. One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BC, located in an area in Bengal. From the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire. The first recorded independent king of Bengal was Shashanka, reigning around early 7th century. After a period of anarchy, the native Buddhist-Hindu Pala Empire ruled the region for four hundred years, and expanded across much of the Indian subcontinent into Afghanistan during the reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala. The Pala dynasty was followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Saiva Sena dynasty. Islam was introduced to Bengal by Arab Muslim traders. A large number of people became Muslims in the twelfth century through Sufi missionaries. Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region. Bakhtiar Khilji, a Turkic general of the Slave dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. Consequently, the region was ruled by dynasties of sultans and feudal lords under the Delhi Sultanate for the next few hundred years. In the sixteenth century, Mughal general Islam Khan conquered Bengal. However, administration by governors appointed by the court of the Mughal Empire gave way to semi-independence of the area under the Nawabs of Murshidabad, who nominally respected the sovereignty of the Mughals in Delhi. The most notable among them is Murshid Quli Khan, who was succeeded by Alivardi Khan. Portuguese traders arrived late in the fifteenth century, once Vasco da Gama reached India by sea in 1498. European influence grew until the British East India Company gained taxation rights in Bengal subah, or province, following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, when Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab, was defeated by the British. The Bengal Presidency was established by 1766, eventually including all British territories north of the Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh), from the mouths of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab. The Bengal famine of 1770 claimed millions of lives. Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The Bengal Renaissance and Brahmo Samaj socio-cultural reform movements had great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal. The failed Indian rebellion of 1857 started near Calcutta and resulted in transfer of authority to the British Crown, administered by the Viceroy of India. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones. Bengal has played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant. Armed attempts against to overthrow the British Raj reached a climax when Subhash Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British. Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906. In spite of a last ditch effort to form a United Bengal, when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western part went to India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971). The circumstances of partition was bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal. The post-partition political history of East and West Bengal diverged for the most part. Starting from the Bengali Language Movement of 1952. political dissent against West Pakistani domination grew steadily. Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, emerged as the political voice of the Bengali-speaking population of East Pakistan by 1960s. In 1971, the crisis deepened when Rahman was arrested and a sustained military assault was launched on East Pakistan. Most of the Awami League leaders fled and set up a government-in-exile in West Bengal. The guerrilla Mukti Bahini and Bengali regulars eventually received support from the Indian Armed Forces in December 1971, resulting in a decisive victory over Pakistan on 16 December in the Bangladesh Liberation War or Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The post independence history of Bangladesh was strife with conflict, with a long history of political assassinations and coups before parliamentary democracy was established in 1991. Since then, the political environment has been relatively stable. West Bengal, the western part of Bengal, became a state in India. In the 1960s and 1970s, severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's infrastructure, leading to a period of economic stagnation. The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 resulted in the influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal, causing significant strains on its infrastructure. West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by CPI(M) has governed for the last three decades. The state's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic reforms in India were introduced in the mid-1990s by the central government, aided by election of a new reformist Chief Minister Buddhadeb Bhattacharya in 2000. Geography The Royal Bengal Tiger Most of the Bengal region is in the low-lying Ganges–Brahmaputra River Delta or Ganges Delta. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is 232752 km²—West Bengal is 88,752 km² and Bangladesh 144,000 km². Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 meters (33 ft) above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 metre (3 ft). Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres (3,451 ft) in the Chittagong Hill Tracts to the southeast of the country. Summit Elevations: Frequent Internet Errors. Retrieved 2006-04-13. A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the Royal Bengal Tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered. West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of . The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu ()—the highest peak of the state. The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta. At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 µg/L. Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Bangladesh and Demographics of West Bengal Shaheed Minar, or the Martyr's monument, in Dhaka, commemorates the struggle for the Bengali language. Baitul Mukarram in Dhaka is the National Mosque of Bangladesh. Dakshineswar Kali Temple in Kolkata, West Bengal. About 210 million people live in Bengal, around 60% of them in Bangladesh and the remainder in West Bengal. Adjusted population, p.4, The population density in the area is more than 900/km²; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world. World Bank Development Indicators Database, 2006. Bengali is the main language spoken in Bengal. English is often used for official work. There are small minorities who speak Hindi, Urdu, Chakma. There are several tribal languages including Santhali. Nepali is spoken primarily by the Gorkhas of Darjeeling district of West Bengal. 66% of the total Bengali population is Muslim, and 33% is Hindu. In Bangladesh 89.7% of the population is Muslim and 9.2% are Hindus (Bangladesh Census 2001). In West Bengal, Hindus are the majority with 72.5% of the population while Muslims comprise 25%, and other religions make up the remainder. Other religious groups include Buddhists, Christians, and Animists. About 2% of the population is tribal. Life expectancy is around 63 years, and are almost same for the men and women. In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 69.22% literacy rate, in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 41%. The level of poverty is high, the proportion of people living below the poverty line is more than 30%. Bangladesh Country Statistics, Unicef About 20,000 people live on chars. Chars are temporary islands formed by the deposition of sediments eroded off the banks of the Ganges in West Bengal which often disappear in the monsoon season. They are made of very fertile soil. The inhabitants of chars are not recognised by the Government of West Bengal on the grounds that it is not known whether they are Bengalis or Bangladeshi refugees. Consequently, no identification documents are issued to char-dwellers who cannot benefit from health care, barely survive due to very poor sanitation and are prevented from emigrating to the mainland to find jobs when they have turned 14. On a particular char it was reported that 13% of women died at childbirth. Economy Worker in a paddy, a common scene all over Bengal Agriculture is the leading occupation in the region. Rice is the staple food crop. Other food crops are pulses, potato, maize, and oil seeds. Jute is the principal cash crop. Tea is also produced commercially; the region is well known for Darjeeling and other high quality teas. The service sector is the largest contributor to the gross domestic product of West Bengal, contributing 51% of the state domestic product compared to 27% from agriculture and 22% from industry. State industries are localized in the Kolkata region and the mineral-rich western highlands. Durgapur–Asansol colliery belt is home to a number of major steel plants. West Bengal has the third largest economy (2003–2004) in India, with a net state domestic product of US$ 21.5 billion. During 2001–2002, the state's average SDP was more than 7.8%—outperforming the National GDP Growth. The state has promoted foreign direct investment, which has mostly come in the software and electronics fields; Kolkata is becoming a major hub for the Information technology (IT) industry. Owing to the boom in Kolkata's and the overall state's economy, West Bengal is now the third fastest growing economy in the country. Since 1990, Bangladesh has achieved an average annual growth rate of 5% according to the World Bank, despite the hurdles. The middle class and the consumer industry have seen some growth. Bangladesh has seen a sharp increase in foreign direct investment. A number of multinational corporations, including Unocal Corporation and Tata, have made major investments, the natural gas sector being a priority. In December 2005, the Central Bank of Bangladesh projected GDP growth around 6.5%. Annual Report 2004-2005, Bangladesh Bank Although two-thirds of Bangladeshis are farmers, more than three quarters of Bangladesh’s export earnings come from the garment industry, which began attracting foreign investors in the 1980s due to cheap labour and low conversion cost. In 2002, the industry exported US$5 billion worth of products. The industry now employs more than 3 million workers, 90% of whom are women. A large part of foreign currency earnings also comes from the remittances sent by expatriates living in other countries. One significant contributor to the development of the economy of Bangladesh has been the widespread propagation of microcredit by Grameen Bank (founded by Muhammad Yunus) and other similar organizations. Together, these organizations had about 5 million members by late 1990s. "Yunus sees big Answers in Micro-credit" Globe and Mail article |http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20080611.RYUNUS11/TPStory/Business Culture Bengali artists performing a traditional dance. Baul singers at Basanta-Utsab, Shantiniketan. Pohela Baishakh celebration in Dhaka. Durga Puja at the Dhakeshwari Temple Rabindranath Tagore reshaped Bengali literature and music in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer of Jana Gana Mana the national anthem of India as well as Amar Shonar Bangla the national anthem of Bangladesh. Satyajit Ray is regarded as one of the greatest auteurs of 20th century cinema. Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary Bengali poet who led the Bengal Renaissance in Muslim majority areas of Bengal. He is the national poet of Bangladesh. The common Bengali language and culture anchors the shared tradition of two parts of politically divided Bengal. Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the Charyapada, Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Kirtana, Maimansingha Gitika or Thakurmar Jhuli. Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g. Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g. Alaol). During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernized through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam. The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bangla folk music. The scholar saint Sri Anirvan loved Baul music, and in fact described himself as a simple Baul. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/A_0246.htm Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. The region also has an active heritage in North Indian classical music. Bengal had also been the harbinger of modernism in Indian fine arts. Abanindranath Tagore, one of the important 18th century artist from Bengal is often referred to as the father of Indian modern art. He had established the first non-British art academy in India known as the Kalabhavan within the premises of Santiniketan. Santiniketan in course of time had produced many important Indian artists like Gaganendranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Jamini Roy, Benode Bihari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij. In the post-independence era, Bengal had produced important artists like Somenath Hore, Meera Mukherjee and Ganesh Paine. Rice and fish are traditional favorite foods, leading to a saying that in Bengali, mach ar bhaath bangali baanaay, that translates as "fish and rice make a Bengali". Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favorite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rôshogolla, Chômchôm, and several kinds of Pithe. Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi and the salwar kameez, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi with dhuti or pyjama, often on religious occasions. The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men. The greatest religious festivals are the two Eids (Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha) for the Muslims, and the autumnal Durga Puja for Hindus. Christmas (called Bôŗodin (Great day) in Bangla), Buddha Purnima are other major religious festivals. Other festivities include Pohela Baishakh (the Bengali New Year), Basanta-Utsab, Nobanno, and Poush parbon (festival of Poush). Bengali cinema are made both in Kolkata and Dhaka. The Kolkata film industry is older and particularly well known for its art films. Its long tradition of film making has produced world famous directors like Satyajit Ray, while contemporary directors include Buddhadev Dasgupta and Aparna Sen. Dhaka also has a vibrant commercial industry and more recently has been home to critically acclaimed directors like Tareque Masud. Mainstream Hindi films of Bollywood are also quite popular in both West Bengal and Bangladesh. Around 200 dailies are published in Bangladesh, along with more than 1800 periodicals. West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005, of which 430 were in Bangla. Cricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region. Local games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi, the later being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-Bangladesh Bangla Games'' has been organized among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries. Intra-Bengal relations today Geographic, cultural, historic, and commercial ties are growing, and both countries recognize the importance of good relations. During and immediately after Bangladesh's struggle for independence from Pakistan in 1971, India assisted refugees from East Pakistan, and intervened militarily to help bring about the independence of Bangladesh. The Indo-Bangladesh border length of , West Bengal has a border length of . Despite overlapping historic, geographic and cultural ties, the relation between West Bengal and Bangladesh is still well below the potential. The pan-Bengali sentiment among the people of the two parts of Bengal was at its height during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. While the government radio and national press in India might have backed the struggle out of strategic considerations, the Bengali broadcast and print media went out of its way to lend overwhelming support. Frequent air services link Kolkata with Dhaka and Chittagong. A bus service between Kolkata and Dhaka is operational. The primary road link is the Jessore Road which crosses the border at Petrapole-Benapole about 175 km north-west of Kolkata. The Train service between Kolkata and Dhaka, which was stopped after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, was resumed in 2008. Visa services are provided by Bangladesh's consulate at Kolkata's Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Road and India's high commissions in Dhaka, Chittagong and Rajshahi. India has a liberal visa policy and nearly 500,000 visas are issued every year to Bangladeshi students, tourists, health-tourists and others who visit West Bengal and often transit to other parts of India. West Bengalis visit Bangladesh for limited numbers of tourism, pilgrimage, trade, expatriate assignments; there is significant potential for growth as Bangladesh's stability, economy, moderation in religion and tourist infrastructure improves. In addition West Bengal hosts the celebrated and controversial Bangladeshi author Taslima Nasreen. Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal. India has fenced the border to control this flow but immigration is still continuing. A rallying cry for the right-wing Hindu parties in India is that the demographics changed such as in West Bengal's border district of Malda from Hindu-majority to Muslim-majority. The official land border crossing at Petrapole-Benapole is the primary conduit for the over $1 billion trade between the two halves of Bengal. The volume of unofficial exports to Bangladesh from India is reportedly in the range of $350–500 million each year. Bangladesh argues with merit that India needs to open up its border more to Bangladeshi exports. Other landports between the two Bengals are Changrabandha-Burimari and Balurghat-Hili. Cultural exchanges between the two parts of Bengal have been somewhat (but not fully) impacted by ups and downs in India-Bangladesh relations and in the influence of extremist Islamist groups in Bangladesh. West Bengal singers and actors complained about being rejected visas in previous years. Bangladesh television channels are widely watched in West Bengal. West Bengal media have an audience in Bangladesh. In foreign countries such as the U.S., Canada, UK, and UAE, it is common for Bengalis from both sides to form joint cultural associations and friendships, although inter-marriage is not significant, especially across religious barriers. See also History of Bengal Bangladesh Bengali people Bangals and Ghotis List of Bengalis Bengali language Bengali cuisine Music of Bangladesh Music of Bengal Bengali cinema East Bengal West Bengal Bengal architecture Notes References External links Geo Links for Bengal Banglapedia- specialised site www.hostkingdom.net- List of rulers of Bengal WorldStatesmen- here India Maps Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at University of Texas at Austin Libraries India from The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1923 India 1760 from The Public Schools Historical Atlas edited by C. Colbeck. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905 India 1882 from A Dictionary Practical, Theoretical, and Historical of Commerce and Commercial Navigation by J.R. M'Culloch. Longmans, Green and Co. London, 1882 Art and artists of Bengal | Bengal |@lemmatized bengal:108 small:4 map:3 region:28 west:37 bangladesh:48 large:10 city:1 kolkata:14 metropolitan:1 area:12 population:12 million:7 make:9 urban:2 agglomeration:1 main:4 language:8 bengali:32 density:3 infant:1 mortality:1 rate:4 per:1 live:5 birth:1 websites:1 gov:1 bdand:1 wbgov:1 com:4 bôngo:2 bangla:8 bôngodesh:1 historical:5 geographical:2 northeast:1 south:5 asia:2 today:2 mainly:1 divide:3 independent:4 sovereign:1 nation:1 people:11 republic:1 previously:2 east:12 pakistan:8 state:14 india:31 although:3 previous:2 kingdom:4 local:3 monarchical:1 regime:1 british:11 rule:3 part:14 neighboring:1 indian:16 bihar:2 assam:1 tripura:1 orissa:1 majority:5 inhabit:1 ব:2 ঙ:1 ল:3 bangali:2 speak:7 one:8 densely:2 populated:2 earth:1 exceed:1 lie:2 low:4 lying:2 ganges:11 brahmaputra:4 river:4 delta:10 world:8 southern:1 sundarbans:3 mangrove:3 forest:3 home:4 tiger:3 though:2 mostly:2 rural:1 agrarian:1 two:10 megacities:1 calcutta:3 dhaka:11 locate:3 renowned:1 rich:2 literary:1 cultural:9 heritage:3 well:5 immense:1 contribution:1 socio:2 uplift:1 society:1 form:7 renaissance:5 revolutionary:3 activity:1 independence:9 movement:6 etymology:1 ethnology:1 exact:1 origin:1 word:5 unknown:1 believe:2 derive:3 dravidian:2 speaking:1 tribe:1 bang:1 settle:1 around:7 year:9 bc:3 account:2 speculate:2 name:4 vanga:3 বঙ:2 গ:2 come:4 austric:1 bonga:1 mean:1 sun:1 god:1 refer:2 anga:2 find:3 ancient:2 text:2 include:13 veda:1 jaina:1 mahabharata:1 purana:1 early:5 reference:3 vangala:2 bôngal:1 trace:1 nesari:1 plat:1 ad:1 rashtrakuta:1 govinda:1 iii:1 dharmapala:4 king:2 amitabha:1 bhattacharyya:1 geography:2 mediaeval:1 sanskrit:1 pustak:1 bhandar:1 pp:1 claim:2 may:1 bhang:1 preparation:2 cannabis:1 use:2 religious:9 ceremony:1 http:4 book:2 google:1 id:1 qq:1 pg:1 lpg:1 dq:1 land:5 source:1 web:1 ots:1 sig:1 hl:1 en:1 www:3 druglibrary:1 org:1 schaffer:1 library:3 study:1 inhemp:1 htm:2 migrate:3 tibeto:1 burman:1 himalaya:4 follow:3 indo:6 aryan:2 north:5 western:6 modern:2 blend:1 number:5 pathan:1 persian:1 arab:2 turk:1 also:10 late:4 middle:2 age:3 spread:2 islam:6 history:5 pala:4 empire:5 somapura:1 mahavihara:1 paharpur:1 great:6 buddhist:3 vihara:1 subcontinent:2 build:1 devapala:2 siraj:2 ud:2 daulah:2 last:4 nawab:3 robert:1 clive:1 company:2 win:2 battle:2 plassey:2 raja:1 ram:1 mohan:1 roy:2 regard:2 father:2 subhash:2 chandra:3 bose:3 prominent:1 leader:2 highly:1 respect:2 freedom:1 fighter:1 raj:2 remnant:1 copper:1 settlement:1 date:1 back:2 arrival:1 magadha:3 century:10 four:2 time:2 buddha:2 consist:1 several:3 janapadas:1 foreign:6 mention:1 gangaridai:1 greek:1 ce:1 serve:1 seat:1 gupta:1 first:3 record:1 shashanka:1 reign:3 period:2 anarchy:1 native:1 hindu:7 hundred:2 expand:1 across:2 much:3 afghanistan:1 dynasty:5 short:1 saiva:1 sena:2 introduce:2 muslim:11 trader:2 become:3 twelfth:1 sufi:1 missionary:1 subsequent:1 conquest:1 help:2 throughout:1 bakhtiar:1 khilji:1 turkic:1 general:2 slave:1 delhi:3 sultanate:2 defeat:3 lakshman:1 sen:2 conquer:2 consequently:2 sultan:1 feudal:1 lord:1 next:1 sixteenth:1 mughal:2 khan:3 however:1 administration:1 governor:1 appoint:1 court:1 give:2 way:2 semi:1 murshidabad:1 nominally:1 sovereignty:1 mughals:1 notable:1 among:6 murshid:1 quli:1 succeed:1 alivardi:1 portuguese:1 arrive:1 fifteenth:1 vasco:1 da:1 gama:1 reach:2 sea:3 european:2 influence:2 grow:4 gain:2 taxation:1 right:3 subah:1 province:4 presidency:1 establish:4 eventually:2 territory:1 central:4 madhya:1 pradesh:1 mouth:1 punjab:1 famine:1 life:3 capital:1 brahmo:1 samaj:1 reform:2 impact:2 economic:4 failed:1 rebellion:1 start:2 near:1 result:3 transfer:1 authority:1 crown:1 administer:1 viceroy:1 abortive:1 attempt:2 zone:1 play:1 major:7 role:1 group:3 dominant:1 arm:2 overthrow:1 climax:1 lead:8 national:9 army:1 rise:3 political:6 awareness:1 league:3 spite:1 ditch:1 effort:1 united:1 partition:3 along:2 line:2 go:2 eastern:3 join:1 call:2 later:2 rename:1 circumstance:1 bloody:1 widespread:2 riot:1 post:3 diverge:1 dissent:1 pakistani:3 domination:1 steadily:1 awami:2 sheikh:2 mujibur:2 rahman:3 emerge:1 voice:1 crisis:1 deepen:1 arrest:1 sustained:1 military:1 assault:1 launch:1 flee:1 set:1 government:4 exile:1 guerrilla:1 mukti:1 bahini:1 regular:1 receive:1 support:2 force:1 december:3 decisive:1 victory:1 liberation:3 war:5 strife:1 conflict:1 long:4 assassination:1 coup:1 parliamentary:1 democracy:1 since:2 environment:1 relatively:1 stable:1 severe:1 power:1 shortage:1 strike:1 violent:1 marxist:1 naxalite:1 damage:1 infrastructure:3 stagnation:1 influx:1 refugee:3 cause:1 significant:4 strain:1 politics:1 undergo:1 change:2 left:2 front:2 assembly:1 election:2 incumbent:1 congress:1 cpi:1 govern:1 three:2 decade:1 recovery:1 gather:1 momentum:1 mid:1 aid:1 new:2 reformist:1 chief:1 minister:1 buddhadeb:1 bhattacharya:1 royal:2 arises:1 confluence:1 meghna:1 respective:1 tributary:1 total:3 within:2 meter:1 ft:3 level:4 would:1 flood:1 metre:2 elevation:2 exceptionally:1 vulnerable:1 seasonal:1 flooding:1 due:3 monsoon:2 high:6 point:1 mowdok:1 range:2 chittagong:3 hill:2 tracts:1 southeast:1 country:7 summit:1 frequent:2 internet:1 error:1 retrieved:1 coastline:1 comprise:2 marshy:1 jungle:1 diverse:1 flora:1 fauna:1 declare:1 endanger:1 bottleneck:1 stretch:1 bay:1 darjeeling:3 himalayan:1 northern:1 extreme:2 belongs:1 contain:1 sandakfu:1 peak:1 narrow:1 terai:1 separate:1 plain:1 turn:2 transition:1 towards:1 rarh:1 intervenes:1 plateau:1 coastal:1 remarkable:1 landmark:1 least:1 nine:1 district:4 arsenic:1 groundwater:1 health:3 organization:3 maximum:1 permissible:1 limit:1 µg:1 l:1 demographic:4 article:2 shaheed:1 minar:1 martyr:1 monument:1 commemorate:1 struggle:3 baitul:1 mukarram:1 mosque:1 dakshineswar:1 kali:1 temple:2 remainder:2 adjust:1 p:1 bank:6 development:2 indicator:1 database:1 english:1 often:8 official:2 work:2 minority:1 hindi:2 urdu:1 chakma:1 tribal:2 santhali:1 nepali:1 primarily:1 gorkhas:1 hindus:1 census:1 religion:2 christian:1 animist:1 expectancy:1 almost:1 men:5 woman:5 term:1 literacy:2 approximately:1 poverty:2 proportion:1 statistic:1 unicef:1 char:5 temporary:1 island:1 deposition:1 sediment:1 erode:1 disappear:1 season:1 fertile:1 soil:1 inhabitant:1 recognise:1 ground:1 know:4 whether:1 bengalis:2 bangladeshi:7 identification:1 document:1 issue:3 dweller:1 cannot:1 benefit:1 care:1 barely:1 survive:1 poor:1 sanitation:1 prevent:1 emigrate:1 mainland:1 job:1 particular:1 report:2 die:1 childbirth:1 economy:6 worker:3 paddy:1 common:3 scene:1 agriculture:2 occupation:1 rice:3 staple:1 food:3 crop:3 pulse:1 potato:1 maize:1 oil:1 seed:1 jute:1 principal:1 cash:1 tea:2 produce:4 commercially:1 quality:1 service:5 sector:2 contributor:2 gross:1 domestic:3 product:5 contribute:1 compare:1 industry:9 localize:1 mineral:1 highland:1 durgapur:1 asansol:1 colliery:1 belt:1 steel:1 plant:1 third:3 net:2 u:3 billion:3 average:2 sdp:1 outperform:1 gdp:2 growth:5 promote:1 direct:2 investment:3 software:1 electronics:1 field:1 hub:1 information:1 technology:1 owe:1 boom:1 overall:1 fast:1 achieve:1 annual:2 accord:2 despite:2 hurdle:1 class:1 consumer:1 see:4 sharp:1 increase:1 multinational:1 corporation:2 unocal:1 tata:1 natural:1 gas:1 priority:1 project:1 farmer:1 quarter:1 export:4 earnings:2 garment:1 begin:1 attract:1 investor:1 cheap:1 labour:1 conversion:1 cost:1 worth:1 employ:1 currency:1 remittance:1 send:1 expatriate:2 propagation:1 microcredit:1 grameen:1 found:1 muhammad:1 yunus:2 similar:1 together:1 member:1 big:1 answer:1 micro:1 credit:1 globe:1 mail:1 theglobeandmail:1 servlet:1 story:1 lac:1 tpstory:1 business:1 culture:2 artists:1 perform:1 traditional:3 dance:1 baul:4 singer:2 basanta:2 utsab:2 shantiniketan:1 pohela:2 baishakh:2 celebration:1 durga:2 puja:2 dhakeshwari:1 rabindranath:2 tagore:4 reshape:1 literature:4 music:8 nobel:1 laureate:1 composer:1 jana:1 gana:1 mana:1 anthem:2 amar:1 shonar:1 satyajit:2 ray:2 auteur:1 cinema:3 kazi:2 nazrul:2 poet:2 anchor:1 share:1 tradition:4 politically:1 folk:4 evidence:1 charyapada:1 mangalkavya:1 shreekrishna:1 kirtana:1 maimansingha:1 gitika:1 thakurmar:1 jhuli:1 medieval:1 either:1 e:2 g:2 chandidas:1 adaptation:1 alaol:1 nineteenth:1 twentieth:1 modernize:1 author:2 michael:1 madhusudan:1 dutta:1 bankim:1 chattopadhyay:1 unique:1 scholar:1 saint:1 sri:1 anirvan:1 love:1 fact:1 describe:1 simple:1 banglapedia:2 search:1 bd:1 ht:1 gombhira:1 bhatiali:1 bhawaiya:1 accompany:1 ektara:1 string:1 instrument:2 dotara:1 dhol:1 flute:1 tabla:1 active:1 classical:1 harbinger:1 modernism:1 fine:1 art:5 abanindranath:1 important:3 artist:4 non:1 academy:1 kalabhavan:1 premise:1 santiniketan:2 course:1 many:2 like:4 gaganendranath:1 nandalal:1 jamini:1 benode:1 bihari:1 mukherjee:2 ramkinkar:1 baij:1 era:1 somenath:1 hore:1 meera:1 ganesh:1 paine:1 fish:3 favorite:2 say:1 mach:1 ar:1 bhaath:1 baanaay:1 translate:1 vast:1 repertoire:1 base:1 dish:1 hilsa:1 distinctive:1 sweetmeat:1 milk:1 rôshogolla:1 chômchôm:1 kind:2 pithe:1 commonly:1 wear:4 shaŗi:1 salwar:1 kameez:1 distinctly:1 design:1 custom:1 style:1 attire:1 dressing:1 acceptance:1 costume:1 panjabi:1 dhuti:1 pyjama:1 occasion:1 lungi:1 skirt:1 widely:2 festival:3 eids:1 eid:2 ul:2 fitr:1 adha:1 autumnal:1 christmas:1 bôŗodin:1 day:1 purnima:1 festivity:1 nobanno:1 poush:2 parbon:1 film:4 old:1 particularly:1 making:1 famous:1 director:3 contemporary:1 buddhadev:1 dasgupta:1 aparna:1 vibrant:1 commercial:3 recently:1 critically:1 acclaimed:1 tareque:1 masud:1 mainstream:1 bollywood:1 quite:1 popular:2 daily:1 publish:2 periodical:1 newspaper:1 cricket:1 football:1 sport:3 game:2 kho:2 kabaddi:1 organize:1 athlete:1 intra:1 relation:4 geographic:2 historic:2 tie:2 recognize:1 importance:1 good:1 immediately:1 assist:1 intervene:1 militarily:1 bring:1 border:7 length:2 overlap:1 still:2 potential:2 pan:1 sentiment:1 height:1 radio:1 press:1 might:1 strategic:1 consideration:1 broadcast:1 print:1 medium:2 lend:1 overwhelming:1 air:1 link:4 bus:1 operational:1 primary:2 road:3 jessore:1 cross:2 petrapole:2 benapole:2 km:1 train:1 stop:1 resume:1 visa:4 provide:1 consulate:1 bangabandhu:1 commission:1 rajshahi:1 liberal:1 policy:1 nearly:1 every:1 student:1 tourist:3 others:1 visit:2 transit:1 limited:1 tourism:1 pilgrimage:1 trade:2 assignment:1 stability:1 moderation:1 improve:1 addition:1 host:1 celebrated:1 controversial:2 taslima:1 nasreen:1 undocumented:1 immigration:2 champion:1 wing:2 nationalist:1 party:2 little:1 sympathy:1 fence:1 control:1 flow:1 continue:1 rallying:1 cry:1 malda:1 conduit:1 half:1 volume:1 unofficial:1 reportedly:1 argues:1 merit:1 need:1 open:1 landports:1 changrabandha:1 burimari:1 balurghat:1 hilus:1 exchange:1 somewhat:1 fully:1 ups:1 extremist:1 islamist:1 actor:1 complain:1 reject:1 television:1 channel:1 watch:1 audience:1 canada:1 uk:1 uae:1 side:1 joint:1 association:1 friendship:1 inter:1 marriage:1 especially:1 barrier:1 bangals:1 ghotis:1 list:2 cuisine:1 architecture:1 note:1 external:1 geo:1 specialise:1 site:1 hostkingdom:1 ruler:1 worldstatesmen:1 perry:1 castañeda:1 collection:1 university:1 texas:1 austin:1 atlas:2 william:1 r:2 shepherd:1 public:1 school:1 edit:1 c:1 colbeck:1 longmans:2 green:2 co:2 dictionary:1 practical:1 theoretical:1 commerce:1 navigation:1 j:1 culloch:1 london:1 |@bigram bengal_bangladesh:5 urban_agglomeration:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 ব_ল:1 densely_populated:2 low_lying:2 ganges_brahmaputra:4 brahmaputra_river:2 ganges_delta:6 mangrove_forest:3 bengal_tiger:3 গ_ল:1 pg_lpg:1 lpg_dq:1 web_ots:1 ots_sig:1 sig_hl:1 hl_en:1 http_www:2 tibeto_burman:1 indo_aryan:2 indian_subcontinent:2 battle_plassey:2 raja_ram:1 subhash_chandra:2 chandra_bose:2 sena_dynasty:2 delhi_sultanate:2 vasco_da:1 da_gama:1 madhya_pradesh:1 awami_league:2 sheikh_mujibur:2 mujibur_rahman:2 mukti_bahini:1 decisive_victory:1 indo_pakistani:2 parliamentary_democracy:1 meter_ft:1 metre_ft:2 flora_fauna:1 bay_bengal:1 hindi_urdu:1 christian_animist:1 life_expectancy:1 fertile_soil:1 health_care:1 cash_crop:1 gross_domestic:1 multinational_corporation:1 export_earnings:1 muhammad_yunus:1 www_theglobeandmail:1 theglobeandmail_com:1 com_servlet:1 durga_puja:2 rabindranath_tagore:2 nobel_laureate:1 satyajit_ray:2 twentieth_century:1 bengali_bengali:2 eid_ul:2 ul_fitr:1 ul_adha:1 critically_acclaimed:1 rallying_cry:1 external_link:1 perry_castañeda:1 castañeda_library:1 texas_austin:1 longmans_green:2 |
3,465 | Companies_law | Companies law (or the law of business associations) is the field of law concerning companies and other business organizations. It is an establishment formed to carry on commercial enterprises. This includes corporations, partnerships and other associations which usually carry on some form of economic or charitable activity. The most prominent kind of company, usually referred to as a "corporation", is a "juristic person", i.e. it has separate legal personality, and those who invest money into the business have limited liability for any losses the company makes, governed by corporate law. The largest companies are usually publicly listed on stock exchanges around the world. Even single individuals, also known as sole traders may incorporate themselves and limit their liability in order to carry on a business. All different forms of companies depend on the particular law of the particular country in which they reside. Business entities The law of business organizations originally derived from the common law of England, but has evolved significantly in the Twentieth century. In common law countries today, the most commonly addressed forms are: corporations (Inc.,Co.,Corp.); limited companies. limited liability partnerships; limited partnerships; not-for-profit corporations; partnerships, sometimes called "general partnerships"; sole proprietorships; The proprietary limited company is a statutory business form in several countries, including Australia. Many countries have forms of business entity unique to that country, although there are equivalents elsewhere. Examples are the Limited-liability company (LLC) and the limited liability limited partnership (LLLP) in the United States. Other types of business organisations, such as cooperatives, credit unions and publicly owned enterprises, can be established with purposes that parallel, supersede, or even replace the profit maximization mandate of business corporations. Other business forms are available in civil law countries, such as the German Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH) and Aktiengesellschaft (AG); and the S.A., a form used in a number of countries which translates from various languages into the equivalent of anonymous society or anonymous company. For a country-by-country listing of officially recognized forms of business organization, see Types of business entity. There are various types of company that can be formed in different jurisdictions, but the most common forms of company are: a company limited by guarantee. Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise they have no economic rights in relation to the company . a company limited by guarantee with a share capital. A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return. a company limited by shares. The most common form of company used for business ventures. an unlimited liability company. A company where the liability of members for the debts of the company are unlimited. Today these are only seen in rare and unusual circumstances. There are, however, many specific categories of corporations and other business organizations which may be formed in various countries and jurisdictions throughout the world. US companies law In the United States, corporations are generally incorporated, or organized, under the laws of a particular state. The corporate law of a corporation's state of incorporation generally governs that corporation's internal governance (even if the corporation's operations take place outside of that state). The corporate laws of the various states differ - in some cases significantly - from state to state, as a result of which corporate lawyers are often consulted in an effort to determine the most appropriate or advantageous state in which to incorporate, and a majority of public companies in the U.S. are Delaware corporations. Delaware Division of Corporations The federal laws of the United States and local law may also be applicable sources of corporate law. Companies law theory “A corporation is described to be a person in a political capacity created by the law, to endure in perpetual succession.” Wilson, James. Lectures on Law, delivered 1790-91 at University of Pennsylvania, Vol. II, ch. X, “Of corporations.” Americans in the 1790s knew of a variety of corporations established for various purposes, including those of commerce, education, and religion. As the law of corporations was articulated by the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Marshall, over the first several decades of the new American state, emphasis fell, in a way which seems natural to us today, upon commercial corporations. Nonetheless, Wilson believed that, in all cases, corporations “should be erected with caution, and inspected with care.” The actions of corporations were clearly circumscribed: “To every corporation a name must be assigned; and by that name alone it can perform legal acts.” For non-binding external actions or transactions, corporations enjoyed the same latitude as private individuals; but it was with an eye to internal affairs that many saw principal advantage in incorporation. The power of making by-laws was “tacitly annexed to corporations by the very act of their establishment.” While they must not directly contradict the overarching laws of the land, the central or local government cannot be expected to regulate toward the peculiar circumstances of a given body, and so “they are invested with authority to make regulations for the management of their own interests and affairs.” The question then arises: if corporations are to be inspected with care, what - if not the commercial or social conduct, or the by-laws - is to be inspected – and by whom? Do corporations have duties? Yes: “The general duties of every corporation may be collected from the nature and design of its institution: it should act agreeably to its nature, and fulfill the purposes for which it was formed.” Who sees that corporations are living up to those duties? “The law has provided proper persons with proper powers to visit those institutions, and to correct every irregularity, which may arise within them.” The Common Law provided for inspection by the court of king’s bench. In 1790, at least, “the powers of the court of king's bench [were] vested in the supreme court of Pennsylvania.” As for the dissolution of corporations, there seems not to have been much question that a corporation might “surrender its legal existence into the hands of that power, from which it was received. From such a surrender, the dissolution of the body corporate ensues.” Nor does there seem to have been much question that by “a judgment of forfeiture against a corporation itself, it may be dissolved.” However, Supreme Court Justice Wilson, lecturing in his unofficial capacity, at least, suggests his displeasure with the doctrine that corporate dissolution cannot be predicated “by a judgment of ouster against individuals. God forbid ― such is the sentiment of Mr. Justice Wilmot ― that the rights of the body should be lost or destroyed by the offences of the members.” As theorists such as Ronald Coase have pointed out, all business organizations represent an attempt to avoid certain costs associated with doing business. Each is meant to facilitate the contribution of specific resources - investment capital, knowledge, relationships, and so forth - towards a venture which will prove profitable to all contributors. Except for the partnership, all business forms are designed to provide limited liability to both members of the organization and external investors. Business organizations originated with agency law, which permits an agent to act on behalf of a principal, in exchange for the principal assuming equal liability for the wrongful acts committed by the agent. For this reason, all partners in a typical general partnership may be held liable for the wrongs committed by one partner. Those forms that provide limited liability are able to do so because the state provides a mechanism by which businesses that follow certain guidelines will be able to escape the full liability imposed under agency law. The state provides these forms because it has an interest in the strength of the companies that provide jobs and services therein, but also has an interest in monitoring and regulating their behaviour. Companies law study Law schools typically offer either a single upper level course on business organizations, or offer several courses covering different aspects of this area of law. The area of study examines issues such as how each major form of business entity may be formed, operated, and dissolved; the degree to which limited liability protects investors; the extent to which a business can be held liable for the acts of an agent of the business; the relative advantages and disadvantages of different types of business organizations, and the structures established by governments to monitor the buying and selling of ownership interests in large corporations. The basic theory behind all business organizations is that, by combining certain functions within a single entity, a business (usually called a firm by economists) can operate more efficiently, and thereby realize a greater profit. Governments seek to facilitate investment in profitable operations by creating rules that protect investors in a business from being held personally liable for debts incurred by that business, either through mismanagement, or because of wrongful acts. See also Business ethics Corporate crime Corporate law Corporation sole European Company Statute Notes References External links | Companies_law |@lemmatized company:30 law:31 business:30 association:2 field:1 concern:1 organization:10 establishment:2 form:21 carry:3 commercial:5 enterprise:2 include:3 corporation:31 partnership:8 usually:6 economic:2 charitable:1 activity:2 prominent:1 kind:1 refer:1 juristic:1 person:3 e:1 separate:1 legal:3 personality:1 invest:2 money:1 limit:10 liability:12 loss:1 make:3 govern:2 corporate:9 large:2 publicly:2 list:1 stock:1 exchange:2 around:1 world:2 even:3 single:3 individual:3 also:4 know:1 sole:3 trader:1 may:8 incorporate:3 order:1 different:4 depend:1 particular:3 country:10 reside:1 entities:1 originally:1 derive:1 common:5 england:1 evolve:1 significantly:2 twentieth:1 century:1 today:3 commonly:2 address:1 inc:1 co:1 corp:1 limited:5 profit:3 sometimes:1 call:2 general:3 proprietorship:1 proprietary:1 statutory:1 several:3 australia:1 many:3 entity:5 unique:1 although:1 equivalent:2 elsewhere:1 example:1 llc:1 lllp:1 united:3 state:13 type:4 organisation:1 cooperative:1 credit:1 union:1 establish:3 purpose:5 parallel:1 supersede:1 replace:1 maximization:1 mandate:1 available:1 civil:1 german:1 gesellschaft:1 mit:1 beschränkter:1 haftung:1 gmbh:1 aktiengesellschaft:1 ag:1 use:4 number:1 translate:1 various:5 language:1 anonymous:2 society:1 listing:1 officially:1 recognize:1 see:4 jurisdiction:2 guarantee:3 non:3 club:1 charity:1 member:4 payment:1 certain:4 nominal:1 amount:1 go:1 insolvent:1 liquidation:1 otherwise:1 right:2 relation:1 share:2 capital:2 hybrid:1 partly:1 fund:1 investor:4 expect:2 return:1 venture:2 unlimited:2 debt:2 rare:1 unusual:1 circumstance:2 however:2 specific:2 category:1 throughout:1 u:3 generally:2 organize:1 incorporation:2 internal:2 governance:1 operation:2 take:1 place:1 outside:1 differ:1 case:2 result:1 lawyer:1 often:1 consult:1 effort:1 determine:1 appropriate:1 advantageous:1 majority:1 public:1 delaware:2 division:1 federal:1 local:2 applicable:1 source:1 theory:2 describe:1 political:1 capacity:2 create:2 endure:1 perpetual:1 succession:1 wilson:3 james:1 lecture:2 deliver:1 university:1 pennsylvania:2 vol:1 ii:1 ch:1 x:1 american:2 knew:1 variety:1 commerce:1 education:1 religion:1 articulate:1 supreme:3 court:5 chief:1 justice:3 marshall:1 first:1 decade:1 new:1 emphasis:1 fell:1 way:1 seem:3 natural:1 upon:1 nonetheless:1 believe:1 erect:1 caution:1 inspect:3 care:2 action:2 clearly:1 circumscribe:1 every:3 name:2 must:2 assign:1 alone:1 perform:1 act:7 bind:1 external:3 transaction:1 enjoy:1 latitude:1 private:1 eye:1 affair:2 saw:1 principal:3 advantage:2 power:4 tacitly:1 annex:1 directly:1 contradict:1 overarch:1 land:1 central:1 government:3 cannot:2 regulate:2 toward:1 peculiar:1 give:1 body:3 authority:1 regulation:1 management:1 interest:4 question:3 arise:2 social:1 conduct:1 duty:3 yes:1 collect:1 nature:2 design:2 institution:2 agreeably:1 fulfill:1 live:1 provide:7 proper:2 visit:1 correct:1 irregularity:1 within:2 inspection:1 king:2 bench:2 least:2 vest:1 dissolution:3 much:2 might:1 surrender:2 existence:1 hand:1 receive:1 ensues:1 judgment:2 forfeiture:1 dissolve:2 unofficial:1 suggest:1 displeasure:1 doctrine:1 predicate:1 ouster:1 god:1 forbid:1 sentiment:1 mr:1 wilmot:1 lose:1 destroy:1 offence:1 theorist:1 ronald:1 coase:1 point:1 represent:1 attempt:1 avoid:1 cost:1 associate:1 mean:1 facilitate:2 contribution:1 resource:1 investment:2 knowledge:1 relationship:1 forth:1 towards:1 prove:1 profitable:2 contributor:1 except:1 originate:1 agency:2 permit:1 agent:3 behalf:1 assume:1 equal:1 wrongful:2 commit:2 reason:1 partner:2 typical:1 hold:3 liable:3 wrong:1 one:1 able:2 mechanism:1 follow:1 guideline:1 escape:1 full:1 impose:1 strength:1 job:1 service:1 therein:1 monitoring:1 behaviour:1 study:2 school:1 typically:1 offer:2 either:2 upper:1 level:1 course:2 cover:1 aspect:1 area:2 examines:1 issue:1 major:1 operate:2 degree:1 protect:2 extent:1 relative:1 disadvantage:1 structure:1 monitor:1 buying:1 selling:1 ownership:1 basic:1 behind:1 combine:1 function:1 firm:1 economist:1 efficiently:1 thereby:1 realize:1 great:1 seek:1 rule:1 personally:1 incur:1 mismanagement:1 ethic:1 crime:1 european:1 statute:1 note:1 reference:1 link:1 |@bigram stock_exchange:1 twentieth_century:1 limited_liability:5 sole_proprietorship:1 profit_maximization:1 supreme_court:3 ronald_coase:1 advantage_disadvantage:1 buying_selling:1 debt_incur:1 external_link:1 |
3,466 | Out_(poker) | In a poker game with more than one betting round, an out is any unseen card that, if drawn, will improve a player's hand to one that is likely to win. Knowing the number of outs a player has is an important part of poker strategy. For example in draw poker, a hand with four diamonds has nine outs to make a flush: there are 13 diamonds in the deck, and four of them have been seen. If a player has two small pairs, and he believes that it will be necessary for him to make a full house to win, then he has four outs: the two remaining cards of each rank that he holds. One's number of outs is often used to describe a drawing hand: "I had a two-outer" meaning you had a hand that only two cards in the deck could improve to a winner, for example. In Draw poker, one also hears the terms "12-way" or "16-way" straight draw for hands such as 6♥ 7♥ 8♠ (Joker), in which any of sixteen cards (4 fours, 4 fives, 4 nines, 4 tens) can fill a straight. The number of outs can be converted to the probability of making the hand on the next card by dividing the number of outs by the number of unseen cards. For example, say a Texas Holdem player holds two spades, and two more appear in the flop. He has seen five cards (regardless of the number of players, as there are no upcards in Holdem except the board), of which four are spades. He thus has 9 outs for a flush out of 47 cards yet to be drawn, giving him a 9/47 chance to fill his flush on the turn. If he fails on the turn, he then has a 9/46 chance to fill on the river. Calculating the combined odds of filling on either the turn or river is more complicated: it is (1 - ((38/47) * (37/46))), or about 35%. A common approximation used is to double the number of outs and add one for the percentage to hit on the next card, or to multiply outs by four for the either-of-two case. This approximation is reasonably close only for small numbers of outs. Note that the hidden cards of a player's opponents may affect the calculation of outs. For example, assume that a Texas hold 'em board looks like this after the third round: 5♠ K♦ 7♦ J♠, and that a player is holding A♦ 10♦. The player's current hand is just a high ace, which is not likely to win unimproved, so the player has a drawing hand. He has a minimum of seven outs for certain, called nut outs, because they will make his hand the best possible: those are the 2♦, 3♦, 4♦, 6♦, 8♦, 9♦, and Q♦ (which will give him an ace-flush with no possible better hand on the board) and the Q♣ and Q♥, which will give him an ace-high straight with no higher hand possible. The 5♦ and J♦ will also make him an ace-high flush, so those are possible outs since they give him a hand that is likely to win, but they also make it possible for an opponent to have a full house (if the opponent has something like K♠ K♣, for example). Likewise, the Q♠ will fill his ace-high straight, but will also make it possible for an opponent to have a spade flush. It is possible that an opponent could have as little as something like 7♣ 9♣ (making a pair of sevens); in this case even catching any of the three remaining aces or tens will give the player a pair to beat the opponent's, so those are even more potential outs. In sum, the player has seven guaranteed outs, and possibly as many as 18, depending on what cards he expects his opponents to have. See also Poker strategy Drawing Poker probability (Texas hold 'em) | Out_(poker) |@lemmatized poker:6 game:1 one:5 betting:1 round:2 unseen:2 card:11 draw:6 improve:2 player:11 hand:12 likely:3 win:4 know:1 number:8 important:1 part:1 strategy:2 example:5 four:6 diamond:2 nine:2 make:8 flush:6 deck:2 see:3 two:7 small:2 pair:3 believe:1 necessary:1 full:2 house:2 remain:2 rank:1 hold:5 often:1 use:2 describe:1 drawing:2 outer:1 meaning:1 could:2 winner:1 also:5 hear:1 term:1 way:2 straight:4 joker:1 sixteen:1 five:2 ten:2 fill:5 convert:1 probability:2 next:2 divide:1 say:1 texas:3 holdem:2 spade:3 appear:1 flop:1 regardless:1 upcards:1 except:1 board:3 thus:1 yet:1 give:5 chance:2 turn:3 fail:1 river:2 calculate:1 combined:1 odds:1 either:2 complicated:1 common:1 approximation:2 double:1 add:1 percentage:1 hit:1 multiply:1 case:2 reasonably:1 close:1 note:1 hidden:1 opponent:7 may:1 affect:1 calculation:1 assume:1 em:2 look:1 like:3 third:1 k:3 j:2 current:1 high:5 ace:6 unimproved:1 minimum:1 seven:3 certain:1 call:1 nut:1 best:1 possible:7 q:4 good:1 since:1 something:2 likewise:1 little:1 even:2 catch:1 three:1 beat:1 potential:1 sum:1 guarantee:1 possibly:1 many:1 depend:1 expect:1 |@bigram betting_round:1 ace_flush:1 |
3,467 | Multiple_document_interface | Graphical computer applications with a multiple document interface (MDI) are those whose windows reside under a single parent window (usually with the exception of modal windows), as opposed to all windows being separate from each other (single document interface). The initialism MDI is usually not expanded. In the usability community, there has been much debate over which interface type is preferable. Generally, SDI is seen as more useful in cases where users work with more than one application. Companies have used both interfaces with mixed responses. For example, Microsoft has changed its Office applications from SDI to MDI mode and then back to SDI, although the degree of implementation varies from one component to another. The disadvantage of MDI usually cited is the lack of information about the currently opened windows: In order to view a list of windows open in MDI applications, the user typically has to select a specific menu ("window list" or something similar), if this option is available at all. With an SDI application, the window manager's task bar or task manager displays the currently opened windows. In recent years, applications have increasingly added "task-bars" and "tabs" to show the currently opened windows in an MDI application, which has made this criticism somewhat obsolete. Some people use a different name for this interface, "tabbed document interface" (TDI). When tabs are used to manage windows, individual ones usually cannot be resized. Nearly all graphical user interface toolkits to date provide at least one solution for designing MDIs. The Java GUI toolkit, Swing, for instance, provides the class which serves as a container for individual frames (class ). GTK+ lacks any standardized support for MDI. Compared to single document interface Advantages With MDI (and also TDI), a single menu bar and/or toolbar is shared between all child windows, reducing clutter and increasing efficient use of screen space. An application's child windows can be hidden/shown/minimized/maximized as a whole. Features such as "Tile" and "Cascade" can be implemented for the child windows. Possibly faster and more memory efficient, since the application is shared, and only the document changes. the speed of switching between the internal windows is usually faster than having the OS switch between external windows. Some applications have keyboard shortcuts to quickly jump to the functionality you need (faster navigating), and this doesn't need the OS or window manager support, since it happens inside the application. Disadvantages Can be tricky to implement on desktops using multiple monitors as the parent window may need to span two or more monitors. Virtual desktops cannot be spanned by children of the MDI. However, in some cases, this is solveable by initiating another parent window; this is the case in Opera, for example, which allows tabs/child windows to be dragged outside of the parent window to start their own parent window (on Windows). In other cases, each child window is also a parent window, forming a new, "virtual" MDI. MDI can make it more difficult to work with several applications at once, by restricting the ways in which windows from multiple applications can be arranged together. Without an MDI frame window, floating toolbars from one application can clutter the workspace of other applications, potentially confusing users with the jumble of interfaces. The shared menu might change, which may cause confusion to some users. MDI child windows behave differently from those in single document interface applications, requiring users to learn two subtly different windowing concepts. Similarly, the MDI parent window behaves like the desktop in many respects, but has enough differences to confuse some users. Many window managers have built-in support for manipulating groups of separate windows, which is typically more flexible than MDI in that windows can be grouped and ungrouped arbitrarily. A typical policy is to group automatically windows that belong to the same application. This arguably makes MDI redundant by providing a solution to the same problem. Application examples Internet Explorer 6: This is a typical SDI application Visual Studio 6 development environment: This is a typical modern implementation of MDI Visual Studio .NET: MDI or TDI with "Window" menu, but not both Firefox: TDI by default, can be SDI instead Opera: MDI combined with TDI (note: on Mac OS X, as of Opera version 9.27, there is no MDI, just TDI) GIMP: Floating windows (limited MDI is available via "Deweirdifier" plugin) GIMPshop: A fork of the GIMP edited to be more user-friendly for Adobe Photoshop users. Note: the Windows version (still in beta form) has the "Deweirdifier" plug in built-in Adobe Photoshop: Floating windows in Mac version; MDI in Windows XP version. In newer versions of Photoshop, toolbars can move outside the frame window. Child windows can be outside of the frame unless they are minimized or maximized. Adobe Acrobat: Purely MDI until version 7.0. (Microsoft Windows version only) Microsoft Excel 2003: Excel is SDI if you start new instances of the application, but classic MDI if you click the "File → New" menu (except the child windows optionally appear on the OS taskbar) Microsoft Word 2003: Up to Office 97, Word (Windows version) was MDI. However, from 2000 onwards, Word is a Multiple Top-Level Windows Interface application, thus exposing to shell as many individual SDI instances while the operating system recognizes it as a single instance of an MDI Application. In Word 2000 this was the only interface available, but from 2002 onwards the traditional MDI was available again as an option. The Mac OS version of Word (the only non-Windows OS to be supported) has never used MDI. MFC (which Microsoft Office is loosely based upon) supports this metaphor from version 7.0, as a new Feature in Visual Studio 2002. UltraEdit: Combination of MDI & TDI (a true MDI interface with a tab bar for quick access). VEDIT: Combination of MDI & TDI (a true MDI interface with a tab bar for quick access). Special "Full size" windows act like maximized windows, but allow smaller overlapping windows to be used at the same time. Multiple instances of Vedit can be started, which allows it to be used like an SDI application. Notepad++, PSPad, TextMate and many other text editors: TDI EmEditor: Options for either SDI or MDI. Macromedia Studio under Windows uses a hybrid interface. If document windows are maximized, as they are by default, the program presents a TDI, however, if the windows are un-maximized it presents an MDI. Corel Wordperfect: MDI, although a user can open multiple instances of WP with a single document in each, if they wish to. Recent versions maintain a list of open documents for a given window on the status bar at the bottom of the window, providing a variant of the TDI. Zeus for Windows: Combination of MDI & TDI (a true MDI interface with a tab bar for quick access). IDE-style interface Graphical computer applications with an IDE-style interface (IDE) are those whose child windows reside under a single parent window (usually with the exception of modal windows). An IDE-style interface is distinguishable form of Multiple Document Interface (MDI), because all child windows in an IDE-style interface are enhanced with added functionality not ordinarily available in MDI applications. Because of this, IDE-style applications can be considered a functional superset and descendant of MDI applications. Examples of enhanced child-window functionality include: Dockable child windows Collapsable child windows Tabbed document interface for sub-panes Independent sub-panes of the parent window GUI splitters to resize sub-panes of the parent window Persistence for window arrangements Collapsable child windows A common convention for child windows in IDE-style applications is the ability to collapse child windows, either when inactive, or when specified by the user. Child windows that are collapsed will conform to one of the four outer boundaries of the parent window, with some kind of label or indicator that allows them to be expanded again. Tabbed document interface for sub-panes In contrast to (MDI) applications, which ordinarily allow a single tabbed interface for the parent window, applications with an IDE-style interface allow tabs for organizing one or more subpanes of the parent window. IDE-style application examples NetBeans Eclipse Visual Studio 6 Visual Studio .NET RSS Bandit JEdit MATLAB Mac OS X An MDI saves screen real estate by eliminating redundant menu bars on Mac OS X, because the Mac OS X GUI is application-centric instead of window-centric. As opposed to Windows, all windows belonging to an application share the same menu. These windows can be hidden and manipulated as a group, and the Dock switches between applications (i.e., groups of windows) instead of between individual windows. (Switching between windows is possible by clicking, by Exposé, and by Command-`) However, TDIs and even some MDI-like implementations (such as Photoshop's) do eliminate UI redundancies and can lighten up the application's memory weight. See also Graphical user interface Comparison of document interface Tabbed document interface Single document interface Tiling window manager Integrated development environment External links Interface Hall of Shame arguments against MDI | Multiple_document_interface |@lemmatized graphical:4 computer:2 application:35 multiple:7 document:15 interface:30 mdi:45 whose:2 window:74 reside:2 single:10 parent:13 usually:6 exception:2 modal:2 oppose:2 separate:2 initialism:1 expand:2 usability:1 community:1 much:1 debate:1 type:1 preferable:1 generally:1 sdi:10 see:2 useful:1 case:4 user:12 work:2 one:7 company:1 use:9 mixed:1 response:1 example:4 microsoft:5 change:3 office:3 mode:1 back:1 although:2 degree:1 implementation:3 varies:1 component:1 another:2 disadvantage:2 cite:1 lack:2 information:1 currently:3 open:6 order:1 view:1 list:3 typically:2 select:1 specific:1 menu:7 something:1 similar:1 option:3 available:5 manager:5 task:3 bar:8 display:1 recent:2 year:1 increasingly:1 add:1 tab:7 show:2 make:3 criticism:1 somewhat:1 obsolete:1 people:1 different:2 name:1 tabbed:5 tdi:12 manage:1 individual:4 cannot:2 resize:2 nearly:1 toolkits:1 date:1 provide:4 least:1 solution:2 design:1 java:1 gui:3 toolkit:1 swing:1 instance:6 class:2 serve:1 container:1 frame:4 gtk:1 standardized:1 support:5 compare:1 advantage:1 also:3 toolbar:1 share:4 child:18 reduce:1 clutter:2 increase:1 efficient:2 screen:2 space:1 hide:2 minimize:2 maximize:4 whole:1 feature:2 tile:2 cascade:1 implement:2 possibly:1 faster:3 memory:2 since:2 speed:1 switch:4 internal:1 os:5 external:2 keyboard:1 shortcut:1 quickly:1 jump:1 functionality:3 need:3 navigate:1 happen:1 inside:1 tricky:1 desktop:3 monitor:2 may:2 span:2 two:2 virtual:2 however:4 solveable:1 initiate:1 opera:3 allow:6 drag:1 outside:3 start:3 form:3 new:5 difficult:1 several:1 restrict:1 way:1 arrange:1 together:1 without:1 float:1 toolbars:2 workspace:1 potentially:1 confuse:2 jumble:1 might:1 cause:1 confusion:1 behave:1 differently:1 require:1 learn:1 subtly:1 windowing:1 concept:1 similarly:1 behaves:1 like:4 many:4 respect:1 enough:1 difference:1 build:2 manipulate:2 group:5 flexible:1 ungrouped:1 arbitrarily:1 typical:3 policy:1 automatically:1 windows:5 belong:2 arguably:1 redundant:2 problem:1 examples:1 internet:1 explorer:1 visual:5 studio:6 development:2 environment:2 modern:1 net:2 firefox:1 default:2 instead:3 combine:1 note:2 mac:6 x:4 version:11 gimp:2 floating:2 limited:1 via:1 deweirdifier:2 plugin:1 gimpshop:1 fork:1 edit:1 friendly:1 adobe:3 photoshop:4 still:1 beta:1 plug:1 xp:1 move:1 unless:1 acrobat:1 purely:1 excel:2 classic:1 click:2 file:1 except:1 optionally:1 appear:1 taskbar:1 word:5 onwards:2 top:1 level:1 thus:1 expose:1 shell:1 operating:1 system:1 recognize:1 traditional:1 non:1 never:1 mfc:1 loosely:1 base:1 upon:1 metaphor:1 ultraedit:1 combination:3 true:3 quick:3 access:3 vedit:2 special:1 full:1 size:1 act:1 maximized:1 small:1 overlap:1 time:1 notepad:1 pspad:1 textmate:1 text:1 editor:1 emeditor:1 either:2 macromedia:1 hybrid:1 program:1 present:2 un:1 corel:1 wordperfect:1 wp:1 wish:1 maintain:1 give:1 status:1 bottom:1 variant:1 zeus:1 ide:9 style:8 distinguishable:1 enhance:1 added:1 ordinarily:2 consider:1 functional:1 superset:1 descendant:1 enhanced:1 include:1 dockable:1 collapsable:2 sub:4 pane:4 independent:1 splitter:1 persistence:1 arrangement:1 common:1 convention:1 ability:1 collapse:2 inactive:1 specify:1 conform:1 four:1 outer:1 boundary:1 kind:1 label:1 indicator:1 contrast:1 organize:1 subpanes:1 netbeans:1 eclipse:1 r:1 bandit:1 jedit:1 matlab:1 save:1 real:1 estate:1 eliminate:2 centric:2 dock:1 e:1 possible:1 exposé:1 command:1 tdis:1 even:1 ui:1 redundancy:1 lighten:1 weight:1 comparison:1 integrate:1 link:1 hall:1 shame:1 argument:1 |@bigram tabbed_document:4 graphical_user:2 user_interface:2 keyboard_shortcut:1 behave_differently:1 internet_explorer:1 mdi_tdi:5 mac_os:2 adobe_photoshop:2 window_xp:1 adobe_acrobat:1 microsoft_window:1 microsoft_excel:1 excel_excel:1 real_estate:1 external_link:1 |
3,468 | Cat | The cat (Felis catus), also known as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from other felines and felids, is a small predatory carnivorous species of crepuscular mammal that is valued by humans for its companionship and its ability to hunt vermin, snakes, scorpions, and other unwanted household pests. It has been associated with humans for at least 9,500 years. A skilled predator, the cat is known to hunt over 1,000 species for food. It can be trained to obey simple commands. Individual cats have also been known to learn on their own to manipulate simple mechanisms, such as doorknobs and toilet handles. YouTube - Gizmo Flushes Cats use a variety of vocalizations and types of body language for communication, including meowing, purring, hissing, growling, squeaking, chirping, clicking, and grunting. Cats may be the most popular pet in the world, with over 600 million in homes all over the world. They are also bred and shown as registered pedigree pets. This hobby is known as "cat fancy". Until recently the cat was commonly believed to have been domesticated in ancient Egypt, where it was a cult animal. However, a 2007 study found that the lines of descent of all house cats probably run through as few as five self-domesticating African Wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) circa 8000 BC, in the Near East. Physiology Size Cats typically weigh between 2.5 and 7 kilograms (5.5–16 lb); however, some breeds, such as the Maine Coon, can exceed 11.3 kilograms (24.9 lb). Conversely, very small cats (less than ) have been reported. The largest cat ever was officially reported to have weighed in at about (46 lb 15.25 oz). Cat World (2008). Cat World Records: Heaviest Cat. Retrieved on 2008-07-30 from http://www.cat-world.com.au/CatRecords.htm. Moore, Glenda (2008). Those Amazing Cats. CatStuff. Retrieved on 2008-07-30 from http://www.xmission.com/~emailbox/records.htm. The smallest cat ever officially recorded weighed around 1.36 kilograms (3 lb). http://www.cat-world.com.au/CatRecords.htm retrieved on 2008/29/11 Cats average about 23–25 centimeters (9–10 in) in height and 46 centimeters (18.1 in) in head/body length (males being larger than females), with tails averaging 30 centimeters (11.8 in) in length. Skeleton Cats have 7 cervical vertebrae like almost all mammals, 13 thoracic vertebrae (humans have 12), 7 lumbar vertebrae (humans have 5), 3 sacral vertebrae like most mammals (humans have 5 because of their bipedal posture), and, except for Manx cats, 22 or 23 caudal vertebrae (humans have 3 to 5, fused into an internal coccyx). The extra lumbar and thoracic vertebrae account for the cat's enhanced spinal mobility and flexibility, compared with humans. The caudal vertebrae form the tail, used by the cat as a counterbalance to the body during quick movements. Cats also have free-floating clavicle bones, which allows them to pass their body through any space into which they can fit their heads. Mouth Cats have highly specialized teeth for the killing of prey and the tearing of meat. The premolar and first molar together compose the carnassial pair on each side of the mouth, which efficiently functions to shear meat like a pair of scissors. While this is present in canids, it is highly developed in felines. The cat's tongue has sharp spines, or papillae, useful for retaining and ripping flesh from a carcass. These papillae are small backward-facing hooks that contain keratin which also assist in their grooming. As facilitated by their oral structure, cats use a variety of vocalizations for communication, including meowing, purring, hissing, growling, squeaking, chirping, clicking, and grunting. Their types of body language: position of ears and tail, relaxation of whole body, kneading of paws, all are indicators of mood. Ears Thirty-two individual muscles in each ear allow for a manner of directional hearing: a cat can move each ear independently of the other. Because of this mobility, a cat can move its body in one direction and point its ears in another direction. Most cats have straight ears pointing upward. Unlike dogs, flap-eared breeds are extremely rare (Scottish Folds are one such exceptional mutation.) When angry or frightened, a cat will lay back its ears, to accompany the growling or hissing sounds it makes. Cats also turn their ears back when they are playing, or to listen to a sound coming from behind them. The angle of cats' ears is an important clue to their mood. Legs Cats, like dogs, are digitigrades. They walk directly on their toes, with the bones of their feet making up the lower part of the visible leg. Cats are capable of walking very precisely, because like all felines they directly register; that is, they place each hind paw (almost) directly in the print of the corresponding forepaw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure footing for their hind paws when they navigate rough terrain. Claws Like nearly all members of family Felidae, cats have protractable claws. In their normal, relaxed position the claws are sheathed with the skin and around the toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the forefeet are typically sharper than those on the hind feet. Cats can voluntarily extend their claws on one or more paws. They may extend their claws in hunting or self-defense, climbing, "kneading", or for extra traction on soft surfaces (bedspreads, thick rugs, etc.). It is also possible to make a cooperative cat extend its claws by carefully pressing both the top and bottom of the paw. The curved claws may become entangled in carpet or thick fabric, which may cause injury if the cat is unable to free itself. Most cats have five claws on their front paws, and four or five on their rear paws. Because of an ancient mutation, however, domestic and feral cats are prone to polydactylyism, (particularly in the east coast of Canada and northeast coast of the United States) and may have six or seven toes. The fifth front claw (the dewclaw) is proximal to the other claws. More proximally, there is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth "finger". This special feature of the front paws, on the inside of the wrists, is the carpal pad, also found on the paws of big cats and dogs. It has no function in normal walking, but is thought to be an anti-skidding device used while jumping. Skin Cats possess rather loose skin; this allows them to turn and confront a predator or another cat in a fight, even when it has a grip on them. This is also an advantage for veterinary purposes, as it simplifies injections. In fact, the lives of cats with kidney failure can sometimes be extended for years by the regular injection of large volumes of fluid subcutaneously, which serves as an alternative to dialysis. The particularly loose skin at the back of the neck is known as the scruff, and is the area by which a mother cat grips her kittens to carry them. As a result, cats tend to become quiet and passive when gripped there. This behavior also extends into adulthood, when a male will grab the female by the scruff to immobilize her while he mounts, and to prevent her from running away as the mating process takes place. This technique can be useful when attempting to treat or move an uncooperative cat. However, since an adult cat is heavier than a kitten, a pet cat should never be carried by the scruff, but should instead have its weight supported at the rump and hind legs, and at the chest and front paws. Often (much like a small child) a cat will lie with its head and front paws over a person's shoulder, and its back legs and rump supported under the person's arm. Senses Cat senses are attuned for hunting. Cats' night vision is superior to humans although their vision in daylight is inferior. What's a cat's vision like? Cat eyes have a tapetum lucidum and cat eyes that are blue typically lack melanin and hence can show the red-eye effect (see odd-eyed cat). Humans and cats have a similar range of hearing at low frequencies, but cats can hear much higher-pitched sounds, up to 64 kHz, which is 1.6 octaves above the range of a human, and even half an octave above the range of a dog. A domestic cat's sense of smell is about fourteen times as strong as a human's. Due to a mutation in an early cat ancestor, one of two genes necessary to taste sweetness may have been lost by the cat family. To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of movable vibrissae (whiskers) over their body, especially their face. Metabolism Cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals, especially as they grow older. The daily duration of sleep varies, usually 12–16 hours, with 13–14 being the average. Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours in a 24-hour period. The term cat nap refers to the cat's ability to fall asleep (lightly) for a brief period and has entered the English lexicon—someone who nods off for a few minutes is said to be "taking a cat nap". Due to their crepuscular nature, cats are often known to enter a period of increased activity and playfulness during the evening and early morning, dubbed the "evening crazies", "night crazies", "elevenses", or "mad half-hour" by some. Animal Doctor (July 9, 2002). "Dear Dr. Fox". The Washington Post, p. C10. The temperament of a cat can vary depending on the breed and socialization. Cats with oriental body types tend to be thinner and more active, while cats that have a cobby body type tend to be heavier and less active. The normal body temperature of a cat is between 38 and 39 °C (101 and 102.2 °F). A cat is considered febrile (hyperthermic) if it has a temperature of 39.5 °C (103 °F) or greater, or hypothermic if less than 37.5 °C (100 °F). For comparison, humans have a normal temperature of approximately 36.8 °C (98.6 °F). A domestic cat's normal heart rate ranges from 140 to 220 beats per minute, and is largely dependent on how excited the cat is. For a cat at rest, the average heart rate usually is between 150 and 180 bpm, about twice that of a human (average 80 bpm). Cat Health And Cat Metabolism Information For The Best Cat Care Genetics A 2007 study published in the journal Science asserts that all house cats are descended from a group of self-domesticating desert wildcats Felis silvestris lybica circa 10,000 years ago, in the Near East. The domesticated cat and its closest wild ancestor are both diploid organisms that possess 38 chromosomes, in which over 200 heritable genetic defects have been identified, many homologous to human inborn errors. Specific metabolic defects have been identified underlying many of these feline diseases. There are several genes responsible for the hair color identified. The combination of them gives different phenotypes. Features like hair length, lack of tail, or presence of a very short tail (bobtail cat) are also determined by single alleles and modified by polygenes. The Cat Genome Project, sponsored by the Laboratory of Genomic Diversity at the U.S. National Cancer Institute Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center in Frederick, Maryland, focuses on the development of the cat as an animal model for human hereditary disease, infectious disease, genome evolution, comparative research initiatives within the family Felidae, and forensic potential. All felines, including the big cats, have a genetic anomaly that may prevent them from tasting sweetness, which is a likely factor for their indifference to or avoidance of fruits, berries, and other sugary foods. Feeding and diet Cats feed on small prey such as insects, birds, and rodents. Feral cats, or house cats who are free-fed, consume about 8 to 16 small meals in a single day. Despite this, adult cats can adapt to being fed once a day. Nutrient Requirements of Cats. National Academies Press. Pg 1. ISBN 9780309036825 Cats are classified as obligate carnivores, because their physiology is geared toward efficient processing of meat, and lacks efficient processes for digesting plant matter. The cat cannot produce its own taurine (an essential organic acid), and, as it is contained in flesh, the cat must eat flesh to survive (see Taurine and cats). Similar to its teeth, a cat's digestive tract has become specialized over time to suit meat eating, having shortened in length only to those segments of intestine best able to break down proteins and fats from animal flesh. This trait severely limits the cat's ability to properly digest, metabolize, and absorb plant-derived nutrients, as well as certain fatty acids. For example, taurine is scarce in plants but abundant in meats. It is a key amino sulfonic acid for eye health in cats. Taurine deficiency can cause a condition called macular degeneration wherein the cat's retina slowly degenerates, eventually causing irreversible blindness. Despite the cat's meat-oriented physiology, it is still quite common for a cat to supplement its carnivorous diet with small amounts of grass, leaves, shrubs, houseplants, or other plant matter. One theory suggests this behavior helps cats regurgitate if their digestion is upset; another is that it introduces fiber or trace minerals into the diet. In this context, caution is recommended for cat owners because some houseplants are harmful to cats. For example, the leaves of the Easter Lily can cause permanent and life-threatening kidney damage to cats, and Philodendron are also poisonous to cats. The Cat Fanciers' Association has a full list of plants harmful to cats. Avocado plant parts are toxic, but the fruit (minus the pit) is an ingredient in AvoDerm cat food. However, the ASPCA has declined to say whether this food is safe or not without knowing the details of how the avocado is processed. There are several vegetarian or vegan commercially available cat foods supplemented with chemically synthesized taurine and other added nutrients that attempt to address nutritional shortfalls. Cats can be selective eaters (which may be due in some way to the aforementioned mutation which caused their species to lose sugar-tasting ability). However, cats generally cannot tolerate lack of food for more than 36 hours without risking liver damage. Cats have a fondness for catnip, which is sensed by their olfactory systems. Many enjoy consuming catnip, and most will often roll in it, paw at it, and occasionally chew on it. Cats can also develop odd eating habits. Some cats like to eat or chew on other things like plastic, paper, string, wool, or even coal. This condition is called pica and can threaten the cat's health depending on the amount and toxicity of the non-food items eaten. Pica: The Un-finicky Feline The condition's name comes from the Latin word for magpie, a bird which is reputed to eat almost anything. Toxic sensitivity The liver of a cat is less effective at detoxification than those of other animals, including humans and dogs; therefore exposure to many common substances considered safe for households may be dangerous to them. In general, the cat's environment should be examined for the presence of such toxins and the problem corrected or alleviated as much as possible; in addition, where sudden or prolonged serious illness without obvious cause is observed, the possibility of toxicity must be considered, and the veterinarian informed of any such substances to which the cat may have had access. For instance, the common painkiller paracetamol or acetaminophen, sold under brand names such as Tylenol and Panadol, is extremely toxic to cats; because they naturally lack enzymes needed to metabolize and detoxify it, even minute portions of doses safe for humans can be fatal and any suspected ingestion warrants immediate veterinary attention. Even aspirin, which is sometimes used to treat arthritis in cats, is much more toxic to them than to humans and must be administered cautiously. Similarly, application of minoxidil (Rogaine) to the skin of cats, either accidental or by well-meaning owners attempting to counter loss of fur, has sometimes proved fatal. In addition to such obvious dangers as insecticides and weed killers, other common household substances that should be used with caution in areas where cats may be exposed to them include mothballs and other naphthalene products, as well as phenol-based products often used for cleaning and disinfecting near cats' feeding areas or litter boxes, such as Pine-Sol, Dettol (Lysol), hexachlorophene, etc. which, although they are widely used without problem, have been sometimes seen to be fatal. Ethylene glycol, often used as an automotive antifreeze, is particularly appealing to cats, and as little as a teaspoonful can be fatal. Essential oils are toxic to cats and there have been reported cases of serious illnesses caused by tea tree oil, and tea tree oil-based flea treatments and shampoos. Tea tree oil - toxic to cats Be Wary of Aromatherapy Claims for Cats Many human foods are somewhat toxic to cats; theobromine in chocolate can cause theobromine poisoning, for instance, although few cats will eat chocolate. Toxicity in cats ingesting relatively large amounts of onions or garlic has also been reported. Even such seemingly safe items as cat food packaged in pull tab tin cans have been statistically linked to hyperthyroidism; although the connection is far from proven, suspicion has fallen on the use of bisphenol A-based plastics, another phenol-based product as discussed above, to seal such cans. Many houseplants are at least somewhat toxic to many species, cats included and the consumption of such plants by cats is to be avoided. Behavior Sociability For cats, life in close proximity with humans (and other animals kept by humans) amounts to a "symbiotic social adaptation" which has developed over thousands of years. It has been suggested that, ethologically, the human keeper of a cat functions as a sort of surrogate for the cat's mother, and that adult domestic cats live their lives in a kind of extended kittenhood, Cat Guide: Adolescence and Sexual Maturity Animal Planet a form of behavioral neoteny. Cats may express affection towards their human companions, especially if they imprint on them at a very young age and are treated with consistent affection. Regardless of the average sociability of any given cat or of cats in general, there are still any number of cats who meet or exceed the negative feline stereotype insofar as being poorly socialized. Older cats have also been reported to sometimes develop aggressiveness towards kittens, which may include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as Feline Asocial Aggression. Cohabitation One may see natural house cat behavior by observing feral domestic cats, which are social enough to form colonies. Each cat in a colony holds a distinct territory, with sexually active males having the largest territories, and neutered cats having the smallest. Between these territories are neutral areas where cats watch and greet one another without territorial conflicts. Outside these neutral areas, territory holders usually aggressively chase away stranger cats, at first by staring, hissing, and growling, and if that does not work, by short but noisy and violent attacks. Despite cohabitation in colonies, cats do not have a social survival strategy, or a pack mentality. This mainly means that an individual cat takes care of all basic needs on its own (e.g., finding food, and defending itself), and thus cats are always lone hunters; they do not hunt in groups as dogs or lions do. Cats frequently tonguebathe themselves (see hygiene). The chemistry of their saliva, expended during their frequent grooming, appears to be a natural deodorant. Thus, a cat's cleanliness would aid in decreasing the chance a prey animal could notice the cat's presence. By contrast, dog odor is an advantage in hunting, for a dog is a pack hunter; part of the pack stations itself upwind, and its odor drives prey towards the rest of the pack stationed downwind. This requires a cooperative effort, which in turn requires communication skills. No such communication skills are required of a lone hunter. Fighting When engaged in feline-to-feline combat for self-defense, territory, reproduction, or dominance, fighting cats make themselves appear more impressive and threatening by raising their fur and arching their backs, thus increasing their apparent size. Cats also behave this way while playing. Attacks usually comprise powerful slaps to the face and body with the forepaws as well as bites, but serious damage is rare; usually the loser runs away with little more than a few scratches to the face, and perhaps the ears. Cats will also throw themselves to the ground in a defensive posture to rake with their powerful hind legs. Normally, serious negative effects will be limited to possible infections of the scratches and bites, though these have been known to sometimes kill cats if untreated. In addition, such fighting is believed to be the primary route of transmission of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). Sexually active males will usually be in many fights during their lives, and often have decidedly battered faces with obvious scars and cuts to the ears and nose. Not only males will fight; females will also fight over territory or to defend their kittens. Play Domestic cats, especially young kittens, are known for their love of play. This behavior mimics hunting and is important in helping kittens learn to stalk, capture, and kill prey. Many cats cannot resist a dangling piece of string, or a piece of rope drawn randomly and enticingly across the floor. This well known love of string is often depicted in cartoons and photographs, which show kittens or cats playing with balls of yarn. It is probably related to hunting instincts, including the common practice of kittens hunting their mother's and each other's tails. If string is ingested, however, it can become caught in the cat’s stomach or intestines, causing illness, or in extreme cases, death. Due to possible complications caused by ingesting a string, string play is sometimes replaced with a laser pointer's dot, which some cats will chase. While caution is called for, there are no documented cases of feline eye damage from a laser pointer, and the combination of precision needed and low energy involved make it a remote risk. A common compromise is to use the laser pointer to draw the cat to a prepositioned toy so the cat gets a reward at the end of the chase. A regular flashlight with a well-focused light spot has been commonly used in such play for decades, preceding the availability of consumer laser pointers. Cats will also engage in play fighting, with each other and with human partners. Humans "wrestling" with a supine cat, however, should be wary: if the cat is overstimulated or startled it may decide that the play has turned serious and cease to pull its punches; this can lead to serious scratches and occasionally even bites. Hunting Much like their big cat relatives, domestic and feral cats are very effective predators. Domestic felines ambush or pounce upon and immobilize vertebrate prey using tactics similar to those of leopards and tigers. Having overpowered such prey, a cat delivers a lethal neck bite with its long canine teeth that either severs the prey's spinal cord with irreversible paralysis to prey, causes fatal bleeding by puncturing the carotid artery or the jugular vein, or asphyxiates the prey by crushing its trachea. One poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human owners. Ethologist Paul Leyhausen proposed that cats adopt humans into their social group, and share excess kill with others in the group according to the local pecking order, in which humans are placed at or near the top. However, anthropologist and animal scientist Desmond Morris in his 1986 book Catwatching suggests that when cats bring home mice or birds they have caught, they are teaching their human to hunt, or helping their human as if feeding "an elderly, inept kitten". Another possibility is that presenting the kill might be a relic of a kitten's behavior of demonstrating for its mother's approval that it has developed the necessary skill for hunting. Indoor cats will often retain their hunting instinct and deliver small household items to their owners, such as watches, pens, pencils, and other objects they can carry in their mouths. Reproduction Cats are seasonally polyestrous, which means they may have many periods of heat over the course of a year. A heat period lasts about 4 to 7 days if the female is bred; if she is not, the heat period lasts longer. Multiple males will be attracted to a female in heat. The males will fight over her, and the victor wins the right to mate. At first, the female will reject the male, but eventually the female will allow the male to mate. The female will give a loud yowl as the male pulls out of her. After mating, the female will give herself a thorough wash. If a male attempts to breed with her at this point, the female will attack him. Once the female is done grooming, the cycle will repeat. The male cat's penis has spines which point backwards, a feature shared with other species such as lions. Upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which may cause ovulation. Because this does not always occur, females are rarely impregnated by the first male with which they mate. Furthermore, cats are superfecund; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, meaning different kittens in a litter may have different fathers. The gestation period for cats is approximately 63–65 days. The size of a litter averages three to five kittens, with the first litter usually smaller than subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned at between six and seven weeks, and cats normally reach sexual maturity at 5–10 months (females) and to 5–7 months (males). Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 12 weeks old (the recommended minimum age by Fédération Internationale Féline), or when they are ready to leave their mother. Cats can be surgically sterilized (spayed or castrated) as early as 6–8 weeks to limit unwanted reproduction. This surgery also prevents undesirable sex-related behavior, such as territory marking (spraying urine) in males and yowling (calling) in females. If a cat is neutered after such behavior has been learned, however, then the behavior may persist. Hygiene Cats are known for their fastidious cleanliness. They groom themselves by licking their fur, employing their hooked papillae and saliva. As mentioned, their saliva is a powerful cleaning agent and deodorant. Many cats also enjoy grooming humans or other cats. Sometimes the act of grooming another cat is initiated as an assertion of superior position in the pecking order of a group (dominance grooming). Some cats occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that have collected in their stomachs as a result of their grooming. Longhaired cats are more prone to this than shorthaired cats. Hairballs can be prevented with certain cat foods and remedies that ease elimination of the hair, and regular grooming of the coat with a comb or stiff brush. Scratching Cats are naturally driven to periodically hook their front claws into suitable surfaces and pull backwards, in order to clean the claws and remove the worn outer sheath, as well as exercise and stretch their muscles. This scratching behavior seems enjoyable to the cat, and even declawed cats will go through elaborate scratching routines with every evidence of great satisfaction, despite the total lack of results. Some researchers believe this is due to scent glands located in their pads, and that scratching is effectively a part of marking territory. Fondness for heights Most breeds of cat have a noted fondness for settling in high places, or perching. Animal behaviorists have posited a number of explanations, the most common being that height gives the cat a better observation point, allowing it to survey its territory and become aware of activities of people and other pets in the area. In the wild, a higher place may serve as a concealed site from which to hunt; domestic cats are known to strike prey by pouncing from such a perch as a tree branch, as does a leopard. Height, therefore, can also give cats a sense of security. During a fall from a high place, a cat can reflexively twist its body and right itself using its acute sense of balance and flexibility. This is known as the cat's "righting reflex". It always rights itself in the same way, provided it has the time to do so, during a fall. The height required for this to occur in most cats (safely) is around 90 cm (3 feet). Cats without a tail also have this ability, since a cat mostly moves its hind legs and relies on conservation of angular momentum to set up for landing, and the tail is in fact little used for this feat. However, cats' fondness for high spaces can dangerously test the righting reflex. The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals warns owners to safeguard the more dangerous perches in their homes, to avoid "high-rise syndrome", where an overconfident cat falls from an extreme height. Ecology Habitat The African Wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica), ancestor of the domestic cat, is believed to have evolved in a desert climate, as evident in the behavior common to both the domestic and wild forms. Wildcats (Felis sylvestris) are native to all continents other than Australia and Antarctica, although feral cats have become apex predators in the Australian Outback where they are menaces to wildlife. Their feces are usually dry, and cats prefer to bury them in sandy places. Urine is highly concentrated, which allows the cat to retain as much fluid as possible. They are able to remain motionless for long periods, especially when observing prey and preparing to pounce. In North Africa there are still small wildcats that are probably related closely to the ancestors of today's domesticated cat breeds. Being closely related to desert animals, cats enjoy heat and solar exposure, often sleeping in a sunny area during the heat of the day, as part of a general preference for warm temperatures. Where humans typically start to feel uncomfortable when their skin temperature gets higher than about 44.5 °C (112 °F), by contrast cats do not start to show signs of discomfort until their skin reaches about 52 °C (126 °F). Overall, cats can easily withstand the heat and cold of a temperate climate, so long as the cold is not for extended periods. Although certain breeds such as the Norwegian Forest Cat and Maine Coon have developed heavier coats of fur than other cats, they have little resistance against moist cold (e.g., fog, rain, and snow) and struggle to maintain their 39 °C (102 °F) body temperature when wet. In direct relation to that fact, most cats dislike immersion in water. One major exception is the Turkish Van breed which has an unusual fondness for water. Abyssinians and Bengals are also reported to be more tolerant of water than most cats. Impact of hunting The domestic cat hunts and eats over a thousand species, many of them invertebrates, especially insects; many big cats will eat fewer than a hundred different species. Although theoretically big cats can kill most smaller animals as well, they often do not due to the relatively low nutritional content that these species provide for the effort. An exception is the leopard, which commonly hunts rabbits and many other smaller animals. Even well-fed domestic cats may hunt and kill birds, mice, rats, scorpions, cockroaches, grasshoppers, and other small animals in their environment. As a consequence of their exceptional hunting ability, cats can be quite destructive to ecosystems in which they are not native, where local species have not had time to adapt to feline introduction. In some cases, cats have contributed to or caused extinctions—for example, see the case of the Stephens Island Wren. Due to their hunting behavior, in many countries feral cats are considered pests. Domestic cats are occasionally also required to have contained cat runs or to be kept inside entirely, as they can be hazardous to locally endangered bird species. For instance, various municipalities in Australia have enacted such legislation. In some localities, owners fit their cat with a bell in order to warn prey of its approach (although some cats may figure out how and when the bell works, thereby learning more careful movements to avoid the ringing). House cats Domestication In 2004, a grave was excavated in Cyprus that contained the skeletons, laid close to one another, of both a human and a cat. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old, pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly. Like some other domesticated animals, cats live in a mutualistic arrangement with humans. It is believed that the benefit of removing rats and mice from humans' food stores outweighed the trouble of extending the protection of a human settlement to a formerly wild animal, almost certainly for humans who had adopted a farming economy. Unlike the dog, which also hunts and kills rodents, the cat does not eat grains, fruits, or vegetables. In modern rural areas, farms often have dozens of semi-feral cats. Hunting in the barns and the fields, they kill and eat rodents that would otherwise spoil large parts of the grain crop. Many pet cats successfully hunt and kill rabbits, rodents, birds, lizards, frogs, fish, and large insects by instinct, but might not eat their prey. In modern urban areas, some people find feral and free-roaming pet cats annoying and intrusive. Unaltered cats can engage in persistent nighttime calling (termed caterwauling) and defecation or "marking" of private property. Indoor confinement of pets and trap-neuter-and-return programs for feral cats can help; some people also use cat deterrents to discourage cats from entering their property. In captivity, indoor cats typically live 14 to 20 years, though the oldest known cat lived to age 36. Domesticated cats tend to live longer if they are not permitted to go outdoors (reducing the risk of injury from fights or accidents and exposure to diseases) and if they are neutered. Some benefits of neutering are that castrated males cannot develop testicular cancer, spayed females cannot develop ovarian cancer, and both have a reduced risk of mammary cancer. Interaction with humans Human attitudes toward cats vary widely. Some people keep cats for casual companionship as pets. Cats are also bred and shown as registered pedigree pets, in a hobby known as cat fancy. Because of their small size, domesticated house cats pose almost no major danger to adult humans—the main hazard is the possibility of infection (e.g., cat-scratch disease, or, rarely, rabies) from a cat bite or scratch. Cats can also potentially inflict severe scratches or puncture an eye, though this is quite rare (although dogs have been known to be blinded by cats in fights, where the cat specifically and accurately targeted the eyes of the larger animal). Allergens Allergic reactions to cat dander and/or cat saliva inspire one of the most common reasons people cite for disliking cats. Some humans who are allergic to cats—typically manifested by hay fever, asthma, or a skin rash—quickly acclimate themselves to a particular animal and live comfortably in the same house with it, while retaining an allergy to cats in general. However, this should not be depended upon. Many humans find the rewards of cat companionship outweigh the discomfort and problems associated with these allergens. Some cope with the problem by taking prescription allergy medicine, along with bathing their cats frequently (weekly bathing will eliminate about 90% of the cat dander present in the environment). There are also attempts to breed cats that are less likely to provoke an allergic reaction. Trainability Some owners seek to train their cat in performing tricks commonly exhibited by dogs, such as jumping, though this is rare. Individual cats have been known to learn to manipulate simple mechanisms, like sink faucets, by themselves or after prompting/encouraging. With effort and patience on the part of an owner, the average cat can usually be trained to at least obey simple commands such as "get off the furniture" or "come to dinner". In general though, the seeming intractability of the ordinary house cat to training has long inspired the simile 'like herding cats', as a general expression to describe any situation with a stubborn or uncooperative learner. Indoor scratching Cats are naturally driven to periodically hook their front claws into suitable surfaces and pull backwards, in order to clean the claws. Indoor cats benefit from being provided with a scratching post so that they are less likely to use carpet or furniture which they can easily ruin. Commercial scratching posts typically are covered in carpeting or upholstery, but some authorities advise against this practice, as not making it clear to the cat which surfaces are permissible and which are not; they suggest using a plain wooden surface, or reversing the carpeting on the posts so that the rougher texture of the carpet backing is a more attractive alternative to the cat than the floor covering. Scratching posts made of sisal rope or corrugated cardboard are also commonly found. Some indoor cats, however, especially those that were taken as kittens from feral colonies, may not understand the concept of a scratching post, and as a result will ignore it. Although scratching can serve cats to keep their claws from growing excessively long, their nails can be trimmed if necessary with a small nail trimmer designed for humans, or a small pair of electrician's diagonal cutting pliers, or a guillotine type cutter specifically designed for animal nail trimming. Care must always be taken to avoid cutting the quick of the claw, analogous to cutting into the tip of a finger and equally painful and bloody. The position of the quick can be easily seen through the translucent nail of a cat with light colored claws but not in cats with dark colored nails, who therefore require carefully trimming of only small amounts from the nails. Scratching can be reduced and even eliminated by disciplining the cat with a quick spritz from a water bottle when the cat is scratching or by applying a product called Sticky Paws (similar to double-sided tape) to the surface the cat is prone to scratch. Cats are also repelled by citrus scents, and a citrus-scented product may also help stop unwanted furniture destruction. Pet supply stores also sell bitter apple spray, which cats do not like and will generally avoid. Declawing Declawing is a surgical procedure, known as onychectomy, to remove the claw and first bone of each digit of a cat's paws. Declawing is most commonly only performed on front feet. Declawing may be performed to prevent the cat from damaging furniture. Additionally, declawing may be performed on vicious cats, cats that frequently fight with other pets, or cats that are too efficient at predation of animals. In the United States, landlords sometimes require that tenants' cats be declawed. Declawing is controversial and is uncommon outside of North America. Declaw Debate In many countries, it is prohibited by animal cruelty laws. In the US it is condemned by both the Humane Society of the United States and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Paw Project Acknowledgements and many veterinarians refuse to perform the procedure. Waste Indoor cats are usually provided with a litter box containing litter, typically bentonite, but sometimes other absorbent material such as shredded paper or wood chips, or sometimes sand or similar material. This arrangement serves the same purpose as a toilet for humans. It should be cleaned daily and changed often, depending on the number of cats in a household and the type of litter; if it is not kept clean, a cat may be fastidious enough to find other locations in the house for urination or defecation. This may also happen for other reasons; for instance, if a cat becomes constipated and defecation is uncomfortable, it may associate the discomfort with the litter box and avoid it in favor of another location. A litterbox is recommended for indoor-outdoor cats as well. Daily attention to the litter box also serves as a monitor of the cat's health. Numerous variations on litter and litter box design exist, including some which automatically sift the litter after each use. Bentonite or clumping litter is a variation which absorbs urine into clumps which can be sifted out along with feces, and thus stays cleaner longer with regular sifting, but has sometimes been reported to cause health problems in some cats. Those with toxoplasmosis-infected cats living in habitat areas of sea otters may wish to dispose of droppings in the trash, rather than flushing them down the toilet. Litterboxes may pose a risk of toxoplasmosis transmission to susceptible pregnant women and immuno-compromised individuals. Most indoor-only cats are not normally exposed to the disease and are not carriers. Transmission risk may be reduced by daily litterbox cleaning by someone other than the susceptible individual. Some cats can be trained to use the human toilet, eliminating the litter box and its attendant expense, unpleasant odor, and the need to use landfill space for disposal. Training may involve four to six weeks of incremental moves, such as moving and elevating the litter box until it is near the toilet, as well as employing an adapter such as a bowl or small box to suspend the litter above the toilet bowl. Several kits and other aids are marketed to help toilet-train cats. When training is complete, the cat uses the toilet by squatting on the toilet seat over the bowl. Domesticated varieties The list of cat breeds is quite large: most cat registries actually recognize between 30 and 40 breeds of cats, and several more are in development, with one or more new breeds being recognized each year on average, having distinct features and heritage. The owners and breeders of show cats compete to see whose animal bears the closest resemblance to the "ideal" definition and standard of the breed (see selective breeding). Because of common crossbreeding in populated areas, many cats are simply identified as belonging to the homogeneous breeds of domestic longhair and domestic shorthair, depending on their type of fur. In the United Kingdom and Australia, non-purebred cats are referred in slang as moggies (derived from "Maggie", short for Margaret, reputed to have been a common name for cows and calves in 18th century England and latter applied to housecats during the Victorian era). In the United States, a non-purebred cat is sometimes referred to in slang as a barn or alley cat, even if it is not a stray. Cats come in a variety of colors and patterns. These are physical properties and should not be confused with a breed of cat. Some original cat breeds that have a distinct phenotype that is the main type occurring naturally as the dominant domesticated cat type in their region of origin are sometimes considered as subspecies and also have received names as such in nomenclature, although this is not supported by feline biologists. Some of these cat breeds are: F. catus anura - the Manx F. catus siamensis - the Siamese F. catus cartusenensis - the Chartreux F. catus angorensis - the Turkish Angora Coat patterns Cat coat genetics can produce a variety of coat patterns. Some of the most common are: Bicolor, Tuxedo and Van This pattern varies between the tuxedo cat which is mostly black with a white chest, and possibly markings on the face and paws/legs, all the way to the Van pattern (so named after the Lake Van area in Turkey, which gave rise to the Turkish Van breed), where the only colored parts of the cat are the tail (usually including the base of the tail proper), and the top of the head (often including the ears). There are several other terms for amounts of white between these two extremes, such as Harlequin or jellicle cat. Bicolor cats can have as their primary (non-white) color black, red, any dilution thereof, and tortoiseshell (see below for definition). Tabby cat Striped, with a variety of patterns. The classic "blotched" tabby (or "marbled") pattern is the most common and consists of butterflies and bullseyes. The "mackerel" or "striped" tabby is a series of vertical stripes down the cat's side (resembling the fish). This pattern broken into spots is referred to as a "spotted" tabby. Finally, the tabby markings may look like a series of ticks on the fur, thus the "ticked" tabby, which is almost exclusively associated with the Abyssinian breed of cats. The worldwide evolution of the cat means that certain types of tabby are associated with certain countries; for instance, blotched tabbies are quite rare outside NW Europe, where they are the most common type. Tortoiseshell and Calico This cat is also known as a Calimanco cat or Clouded Tiger cat, and by the nickname "tortie." In the cat fancy, a tortoiseshell cat is randomly patched over with red (or its dilute form, cream) and black (or its dilute blue) mottled throughout the coat. Additionally, the cat may have white spots in its fur, which make it a "tortoiseshell and white" cat or, if there is a significant amount of white in the fur and the red and black colors form a patchwork rather than a mottled aspect, the cat will be called a "calico." All calicos are tortoiseshell (as they carry both black and red), but not all tortoiseshells are calicos (which requires a significant amount of white in the fur and patching rather than mottling of the colors). The calico is also sometimes called a "tricolor cat." The Japanese refer to this pattern as mi-ke (meaning "triple fur"), while the Dutch call these cats lapjeskat (meaning "patches cat"). A true tricolor must consist of three colors: a reddish color, dark or light; white; and one other color, typically a brown, black, or blue. Both tortoiseshell and calico cats are typically female because the coat pattern is the result of differential X chromosome inactivation in females (which, as with all normal female mammals, have two X chromosomes). Conversely, cats where the overall color is ginger (orange) are commonly male (roughly in a 3:1 ratio). In a litter sired by a ginger tom, the females will be tortoiseshell or ginger. Male tortoiseshells can occur as a result of chromosomal abnormalities (often linked to sterility) or by a phenomenon known as mosaicism, where two early stage embryos are merged into a single kitten. Colorpoint The colorpoint pattern is most commonly associated with Siamese cats, but may also appear in any domesticated cat. A colorpointed cat has dark colors on the face, ears, feet, and tail, with a lighter version of the same color on the rest of the body, and possibly some white. The exact name of the colorpoint pattern depends on the actual color, so there are seal points (dark brown), chocolate points (warm lighter brown), blue points (dark gray), lilac or frost points (silvery gray-pink), red or flame points (orange), and tortie (tortoiseshell mottling) points, among others. This pattern is the result of a temperature sensitive mutation in one of the enzymes in the metabolic pathway from tyrosine to pigment, such as melanin; thus, little or no pigment is produced except in the extremities or "points," where the skin is slightly cooler. For this reason, colorpointed cats tend to darken with age as bodily temperature drops; also, the fur over a significant injury may sometimes darken or lighten as a result of temperature change. The tyrosine pathway also produces neurotransmitters, thus mutations in the early parts of that pathway may affect not only pigment, but also neurological development. This results in a higher frequency of cross-eyes among colorpointed cats, as well as the high frequency of cross-eyes in white tigers. White cats True albinism (a mutation of the tyrosinase gene) is quite rare in cats. Much more common is the appearance of white coat color due to a lack of melanocytes in the skin. A higher frequency of deafness in white cats is due to a reduction in the population and survival of melanoblast stem cells, which in addition to creating pigment producing cells, develop into a variety of neurological cell types. White cats with one or two blue eyes have a particularly high likelihood of being deaf. Smoke cats The bottom eighth of each hair is white or creamy-white, with the rest of the hair being a solid color. Genetically this color is a non-agouti cat with the dominant inhibitor gene; a non-agouti version of the silver tabby. Smoke cats will look solid colored until they move, when the white undercoat becomes apparent. It is mostly found in pedigreed cats (especially longhair breeds) but also present in some domestic longhaired cats. Body types Cats can also come in several body types, ranging between two extremes: Oriental Not a specific breed, but any cat with an elongated slender build, almond-shaped eyes, long nose, large ears (the Siamese and Oriental Shorthair breeds are examples of this). Foreign less slender than the oriental type, but nevertheless a cat with a slight build and generally athletic look. Typical example breeds would be the Abyssinian cat and the Turkish Angora. Some people consider the foreign and oriental body types as being the same, however. Semi-Foreign More or less the middle range of body conformation types, this type of cat is less slender without being stocky. Example breeds would be the Devon Rex and the Egyptian Mau. Semi-Cobby these cats look more rounded without looking too stocky. Example breeds would be the American Shorthair and British Shorthair. Cobby Any cat with a short, muscular, compact build, roundish eyes, short nose, and small ears. Persian cats and Exotic cats are two prime examples of such a body type. Feral cats Feral cats may live alone, but most are found in large groups called feral colonies with communal nurseries, depending on resource availability. Most abandoned cats probably have little alternative to joining a feral colony. Some feral cat colonies are found in large cities such as around the Colosseum and Forum Romanum in Rome. The Roman cats are not truly feral because they are partly fed and vetted by the local authority. Because cats are adaptable, those in residential areas know that if they are friendly to humans they need not worry about food or shelter. Some urban "stray" cats have many houses/humans to support them. Although cats are adaptable, feral felines are unable to thrive in extreme cold and heat, and with a very high protein requirement, few find adequate nutrition on their own in cities. They are often killed by dogs, coyotes, and automobiles. However, there are thousands of volunteers and organizations that trap these unadoptable feral felines, neutering them, immunize the cats against rabies and feline leukemia, and treat them with long-lasting flea products. Before release back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian often nips the tip off one ear to mark the feral as neutered and inoculated, since these cats will more than likely find themselves trapped again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives, and not only is their lifespan greatly increased, but behavior and nuisance problems, due to competition for food, are also greatly reduced. Environmental effects Feral cats are thought to be a major predator of Hawaiian coastal and forest habitats, and are one species among many responsible for the decline of endemic forest bird species as well as seabirds like the Wedge-tailed Shearwater. Articles on Hawaiian birds and birdwatching and other Pacific wildlife In one study of 56 cats' feces, the remains of 44 birds were found, 40 of which were endemic species. In the Southern Hemisphere there are many landmasses including Australia where cat species have never been native, and other placental mammalian predators were rare or absent. Native species there, for example, the Kakapo, tend to be more ecologically vulnerable and behaviorally "naive" to predation by feral cats. Feral cats have had serious effects on these wildlife species and have played a leading role in the endangerment and extinction of many of them. In Australia a large quantity of native birds, lizards and small marsupials are taken every year by feral cats, and feral cats have played a role in driving some small marsupial species to extinction. Some organizations in Australia are now making the effort to create fenced islands of habitat for endangered species that are free of feral cats and foxes. Community awareness and involvement in the conservation of our unique mammal emblem, Project Numbat Ethical and humane concerns over feral cats The environmental impact of feral cat programs and of indoor/outdoor cats is a subject of debate. Part of this stems from humane concern for the cats, and part stems from concerns about cat predation on endangered species. The amount of ecological damage done by indoor/outdoor cats depends on local conditions. As suggested above, the most severe effect occurs to island ecologies. Environmental concerns may be minimal in most of the UK where cats are an established species and few to none of the local prey species are endangered. Pet owners can contact veterinarians, ecological organizations, and universities for opinions about whether local conditions are suitable for outdoor cats. Additional concerns include potential dangers from larger predators and infectious diseases. Coyotes kill large numbers of housecats in the Southwestern United States, even in urban zones. FELV (feline leukemia), FIV (feline immunodeficiency virus), or rabies may be present in the area. If faced with conflicting evidence, the safe choice is to keep a cat indoors. Cats present a risk of overpopulation, as well. According to the Humane Society of the United States, 3–4 million cats and dogs are euthanized each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are significantly more animals being born than there are homes. Neutering pets helps keep the overpopulation down. A study in 1992 found that in the USA, 12,893 (29.4%) of pets, 26.9% of dogs and 32.6% of cats were sterilized. Local humane societies, SPCAs, and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt from shelters instead of purchasing elsewhere. Etymology and taxonomic history Scientific classification The domestic cat was first classified as Felis catus by Carolus Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae of 1758. However, some contemporary studies have revealed evidence that domestic cats may be conspecific with (belong to the same species as) the Wildcat, classified as Felis silvestris by Schreber in 1777. This has resulted in mixed usage of the terms. The domestic cat is sometimes considered to be a subspecies, F. s. catus, of the species F. silvestris. Wildcats have also been referred to as various subspecies of F. catus, but in 2003, Opinion 2027 of the ICZN fixed the name for Wildcats as F. silvestris. The predominant usage for the domestic cat remains to be F. catus, treating it as a separate species and following the convention of using the earliest (the senior) synonym proposed. Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben classified the domesticated cat as Felis domesticus in his Anfangsgründe der Naturlehre and Systema regni animalis of 1777. This name, and its variants Felis catus domesticus and Felis silvestris domesticus, are often seen, but they are not valid scientific names under the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Nomenclature A group of cats is referred to as a "clowder", a male cat is called a "tom" (or a "gib", if neutered), and a female is called a "molly" or "queen". The male progenitor of a cat, especially a pedigreed cat, is its "sire", and its female progenitor is its "dam". An immature cat is called a "kitten" (which is also an alternative name for young rats, rabbits, hedgehogs, beavers, squirrels and skunks). In medieval Britain, the word kitten was interchangeable with the word catling. A cat whose ancestry is formally registered is called a pedigreed cat, purebred cat, or a show cat (although not all show cats are pedigreed or purebred). In strict terms, a purebred cat is one whose ancestry contains only individuals of the same breed. A pedigreed cat is one whose ancestry is recorded, but may have ancestors of different breeds (almost exclusively new breeds; cat registries are very strict about which breeds can be mated together). Cats of unrecorded mixed ancestry are referred to as domestic longhairs and domestic shorthairs or commonly as random-bred, moggies, mongrels, mutt-cats or alley cats. The ratio of pedigree/purebred cats to random-bred cats varies from country to country. However, generally speaking, purebreds are less than ten percent of the total Feline population. ASPCA Complete Guide to Cats by James R. Richards,, DVM Etymology The word cat derives from Old English catt, which belongs to a group of related words in European languages, including Welsh cath, Spanish gato, Basque katu, Byzantine Greek kátia, Old Irish cat, German Katze, and Old Church Slavonic kotka. The ultimate source of all these terms is Late Latin catus, cattus, catta "domestic cat", as opposed to feles "European wildcat". It is unclear whether the Greek or the Latin came first, but they were undoubtedly borrowed from an Afro-Asiatic language akin to Nubian kadís and Berber kaddîska, both meaning "wildcat". This term was either cognate with or borrowed from Late Egyptian čaus "jungle cat, African wildcat" (later giving Coptic šau "tomcat"), Crum, Walter Ewing. A Coptic Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939: 601 itself from earlier Egyptian tešau "female cat" "Le chat: origines et étymologie." Chat et compagnie. 2006. (vs. miew "tomcat"). SenenAnep Meritamen. "English to Egyptian Dictionary." posted August 29, 2004. Ancient Worlds. AncientWorlds LLC, 2002 . The term puss (as in pussycat) may come from Dutch poes or from Low German Puuskatte, dialectal Swedish kattepus, or Norwegian pus, pusekatt, all of which primarily denote a woman and, by extension, a female cat. Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. New York: Gramercy Books, 1996: 1571. History and mythology Cats have been kept by humans since at least ancient Egypt, where Bast in cat form was goddess of the home, the domesticated cat, protector of the fields and home from vermin infestations, and sometimes took on the warlike aspect of a lioness. The first domesticated cats may have saved early Egyptians from many rodent infestations and likewise, Bast developed from the adoration for her feline companions. She was the daughter of the sun god Ra and played significant role in Ancient Egyptian religion. It has been speculated that cats resident in Kenya's Islands in the Lamu Archipelago may be the last living direct descendants of the cats of ancient Egypt. Several ancient religions believed that cats are exalted souls, companions or guides for humans, that they are all-knowing but are mute so they cannot influence decisions made by humans. In Japan, the Maneki Neko is a cat that is a symbol of "good fortune". Although there are no sacred species in Islam, it is said by some writers that Muhammad had a favorite cat, Muezza. It is said he loved cats so much that "he would do without his cloak rather than disturb one that was sleeping on it". Freyja—the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility in Norse mythology—is depicted as riding a chariot drawn by cats. There are also negative superstitions about cats in many cultures. An example would be the belief that a black cat "crossing your path" leads to bad luck, or that cats are witches' familiars used to augment a witch's powers and skills. This belief led to the widespread extermination of cats in Europe in medieval times. Killing the cats aggravated epidemics of the Black Plague in places where there were not enough cats left to keep rat populations down. The plague was spread by fleas carried by infected rats. An exaggerated fear of cats is known as ailurophobia. Nine lives According to a myth in many cultures, cats have nine (or sometimes seven) lives. The myth is attributed to the natural suppleness and swiftness cats exhibit to escape life-threatening situations. Also lending credence to this myth is that falling cats often land on their feet because of an inbuilt automatic twisting reaction and are able to twist their bodies around to land feet first, though they can still be injured or killed by a high fall. The ASPCA Warns About High-Rise Falls by Cats. About.com Cats in Pop Culture As their role as (extremely) popular pets, cats have had a strong role in pop culture. Famous animated cats include Felix the Cat and Sylvester from Looney Tunes. Cats and kittens are an icon in Web humor, such as the Lolcat from 4chan. See also Ailurophobia Cat breed Cat Fanciers' Association Cat genetics Cat health Cat intelligence Cat meat Cat pheromone Cat play and toys :Category:Cat types Farm cat List of cat breeds List of cats List of fictional cats Lolcat Sex organ of cat References External links Anatomy High-Resolution Images of the Cat Brain Articles Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography for Felis catus Cat behavior explained Catpert. The Cat Expert - Cat articles Choosing a cat - article at Citizendium Veterinary related American Association of Feline Practitioners Cat Genome Project at the US The National Cancer Institute Cat Vaccination and Health Care Schedule Cornell Feline Health Center Feline Behavior Guidelines An AAFP publication Feline Medical & Behaviour Database (large number of short articles) | Cat |@lemmatized cat:468 felis:11 catus:12 also:52 know:23 domestic:25 house:11 distinguish:1 feline:27 felid:1 small:23 predatory:1 carnivorous:2 specie:25 crepuscular:2 mammal:5 value:1 human:51 companionship:3 ability:6 hunt:20 vermin:2 snake:1 scorpion:2 unwanted:3 household:5 pest:2 associate:6 least:4 year:10 skilled:1 predator:7 food:14 train:5 obey:2 simple:4 command:2 individual:7 learn:5 manipulate:2 mechanism:2 doorknob:1 toilet:9 handle:1 youtube:1 gizmo:1 flush:2 use:24 variety:6 vocalization:2 type:21 body:21 language:5 communication:4 include:15 meowing:2 purring:2 hissing:3 growling:4 squeak:2 chirp:2 click:2 grunt:2 may:47 popular:2 pet:16 world:7 million:2 home:7 breed:36 show:8 registered:2 pedigree:3 hobby:2 fancy:3 recently:1 commonly:9 believe:6 domesticate:6 ancient:7 egypt:3 cult:1 animal:27 however:17 study:5 find:14 line:1 descent:1 probably:4 run:4 five:4 self:4 african:3 wildcat:11 silvestris:7 lybica:3 circa:2 bc:1 near:5 east:3 physiology:3 size:4 typically:10 weigh:3 kilogram:3 lb:4 maine:2 coon:2 exceed:2 conversely:2 less:10 report:7 large:16 ever:2 officially:2 oz:1 record:4 heavy:4 retrieve:3 http:3 www:3 com:4 au:2 catrecords:2 htm:3 moore:1 glenda:1 amazing:1 catstuff:1 xmission:1 emailbox:1 around:5 average:9 centimeter:3 height:6 head:4 length:4 male:21 female:25 tail:11 skeleton:2 cervical:1 vertebra:7 like:18 almost:7 thoracic:2 lumbar:2 sacral:1 bipedal:1 posture:2 except:2 manx:2 caudal:2 fuse:1 internal:1 coccyx:1 extra:2 account:1 enhance:1 spinal:2 mobility:2 flexibility:2 compare:1 form:7 counterbalance:1 quick:4 movement:2 free:5 float:1 clavicle:1 bone:3 allow:7 pass:1 space:3 fit:2 mouth:3 highly:3 specialize:2 teeth:3 killing:1 prey:17 tearing:1 meat:7 premolar:1 first:10 molar:1 together:2 compose:1 carnassial:1 pair:3 side:2 efficiently:1 function:3 shear:1 scissors:1 present:6 canid:1 develop:10 tongue:1 sharp:3 spine:3 papilla:3 useful:2 retain:4 rip:1 flesh:4 carcass:1 backward:1 facing:1 hook:3 contain:6 keratin:1 assist:1 grooming:5 facilitate:1 oral:1 structure:1 position:4 ear:15 relaxation:1 whole:1 knead:2 paw:15 indicator:1 mood:2 ears:1 thirty:1 two:8 muscle:2 manner:1 directional:1 hearing:1 move:7 independently:1 one:22 direction:2 point:12 another:9 straight:1 upward:1 unlike:2 dog:14 flap:1 eared:1 extremely:3 rare:7 scottish:1 fold:1 exceptional:2 mutation:7 angry:1 frighten:1 lay:2 back:7 accompany:1 hiss:1 sound:3 make:10 turn:4 play:13 listen:1 come:7 behind:1 angle:1 important:2 clue:1 legs:1 digitigrade:1 walk:2 directly:3 toe:3 foot:8 low:5 part:11 visible:2 leg:6 capable:1 precisely:1 register:2 place:8 hind:6 print:1 corresponding:1 forepaw:2 minimize:1 noise:1 track:1 provide:5 sure:1 navigate:1 rough:2 terrain:1 claw:20 nearly:1 member:1 family:3 felidae:2 protractable:1 normal:6 relaxed:1 sheathe:1 skin:10 pad:3 keep:9 prevent:6 wear:1 contact:2 ground:2 silent:1 stalking:1 forefoot:1 voluntarily:1 extend:7 defense:2 climb:1 traction:1 soft:1 surface:6 bedspread:1 thick:2 rug:1 etc:2 possible:5 cooperative:2 carefully:2 press:3 top:3 bottom:2 curved:1 become:8 entangled:1 carpet:3 fabric:1 cause:14 injury:3 unable:2 front:8 four:2 rear:1 feral:28 prone:3 polydactylyism:1 particularly:4 coast:2 canada:1 northeast:1 united:8 state:7 six:3 seven:3 fifth:1 dewclaw:1 proximal:1 proximally:1 protrusion:1 appear:4 sixth:1 finger:2 special:1 feature:4 inside:2 wrist:1 carpal:1 big:5 walking:1 think:2 anti:1 skidding:1 device:1 jump:1 possess:2 rather:5 loose:2 confront:1 fight:10 even:12 grip:3 advantage:2 veterinary:3 purpose:2 simplify:1 injection:2 fact:3 life:7 kidney:2 failure:1 sometimes:19 regular:4 volume:1 fluid:2 subcutaneously:1 serve:5 alternative:4 dialysis:1 neck:2 scruff:3 area:14 mother:5 kitten:18 carry:5 result:10 tend:6 quiet:1 passive:1 behavior:17 adulthood:1 grab:1 immobilize:2 mount:1 away:3 mating:1 process:3 take:8 technique:1 attempt:5 treat:5 uncooperative:2 since:4 adult:4 never:2 instead:2 weight:1 support:4 rump:2 chest:2 often:18 much:9 child:1 lie:1 person:2 shoulder:1 arm:1 sens:2 attune:1 night:2 vision:3 superior:2 although:14 daylight:1 inferior:1 eye:12 tapetum:1 lucidum:1 blue:5 lack:7 melanin:2 hence:1 red:6 effect:5 see:12 odd:2 eyed:1 similar:5 range:6 hear:2 frequency:4 high:15 pitch:1 khz:1 octave:2 half:2 sense:4 smell:1 fourteen:1 time:5 strong:2 due:10 early:9 ancestor:5 gene:4 necessary:3 taste:2 sweetness:2 lose:2 aid:3 navigation:1 sensation:1 dozen:2 movable:1 vibrissa:1 whisker:1 especially:9 face:7 metabolism:2 conserve:1 energy:2 sleep:5 grow:2 old:8 daily:4 duration:1 varies:2 usually:11 hour:5 period:9 term:8 nap:2 refers:1 fall:8 asleep:1 lightly:1 brief:1 enter:3 english:4 lexicon:1 someone:2 nod:1 minute:3 say:4 nature:1 increased:1 activity:2 playfulness:1 evening:2 morning:1 dub:1 crazy:2 eleven:1 mad:1 doctor:1 july:1 dear:1 dr:1 fox:2 washington:1 post:7 p:1 temperament:1 vary:3 depend:8 socialization:1 oriental:5 thin:1 active:4 cobby:3 temperature:9 c:7 f:16 consider:7 febrile:1 hyperthermic:1 great:2 hypothermic:1 comparison:1 approximately:2 heart:2 rate:2 beat:1 per:1 largely:1 dependent:1 excited:1 rest:4 bpm:2 twice:1 health:8 information:1 best:2 care:5 genetics:3 publish:1 journal:1 science:1 assert:1 descend:1 group:8 domesticating:1 desert:3 ago:1 domesticated:7 close:4 wild:4 diploid:1 organism:1 chromosome:3 heritable:1 genetic:2 defect:2 identify:4 many:28 homologous:1 inborn:1 error:1 specific:2 metabolic:2 underlie:1 disease:7 several:7 responsible:2 hair:5 color:18 combination:2 give:9 different:5 phenotype:2 presence:3 short:6 bobtail:1 determine:1 single:3 allele:1 modify:1 polygene:1 genome:3 project:4 sponsor:1 laboratory:1 genomic:1 diversity:1 u:3 national:3 cancer:6 institute:2 frederick:2 research:2 development:4 center:2 maryland:1 focus:2 model:1 hereditary:1 infectious:2 evolution:2 comparative:1 initiative:1 within:1 forensic:1 potential:2 anomaly:1 likely:4 factor:1 indifference:1 avoidance:1 fruit:3 berry:1 sugary:1 feeding:1 diet:3 fee:2 insect:2 bird:10 rodent:5 fed:1 consume:2 meal:1 day:5 despite:4 adapt:2 feed:5 nutrient:3 requirement:2 academy:1 pg:1 isbn:1 classify:4 obligate:1 carnivore:1 gear:1 toward:2 efficient:3 processing:1 digest:2 plant:7 matter:2 cannot:6 produce:5 taurine:5 essential:2 organic:1 acid:3 must:5 eat:10 survive:1 digestive:1 tract:1 suit:1 eating:1 shorten:1 segment:1 intestine:2 able:3 break:2 protein:2 fat:1 trait:1 severely:1 limit:3 properly:1 metabolize:2 absorb:2 derive:3 well:14 certain:5 fatty:1 example:10 scarce:1 abundant:1 key:1 amino:1 sulfonic:1 deficiency:1 condition:5 call:14 macular:1 degeneration:1 wherein:1 retina:1 slowly:1 degenerate:1 eventually:2 irreversible:2 blindness:1 orient:1 still:4 quite:6 common:15 supplement:2 amount:9 grass:1 leave:3 shrub:1 houseplant:3 theory:1 suggest:4 help:7 regurgitate:2 digestion:1 upset:1 introduce:1 fiber:1 trace:1 mineral:1 context:1 caution:3 recommend:3 owner:10 harmful:2 leaf:1 easter:1 lily:1 permanent:1 threaten:2 damage:5 philodendron:1 poisonous:1 fancier:2 association:4 full:1 list:5 avocado:2 toxic:8 minus:1 pit:1 ingredient:1 avoderm:1 aspca:3 decline:2 whether:3 safe:5 without:9 detail:1 vegetarian:1 vegan:1 commercially:1 available:1 chemically:1 synthesize:1 add:1 address:1 nutritional:2 shortfall:1 selective:2 eater:1 way:4 aforementioned:1 sugar:1 tasting:1 generally:4 tolerate:1 risk:7 liver:2 fondness:5 catnip:2 olfactory:1 system:1 enjoy:3 roll:1 occasionally:4 chew:2 habit:1 thing:1 plastic:2 paper:2 string:6 wool:1 coal:1 pica:2 toxicity:3 non:6 item:3 un:1 finicky:1 name:9 latin:3 word:5 magpie:1 repute:2 anything:1 sensitivity:1 effective:2 detoxification:1 therefore:3 exposure:3 substance:3 dangerous:2 general:6 environment:3 examine:1 toxin:1 problem:6 correct:1 alleviate:1 addition:4 sudden:1 prolonged:1 serious:7 illness:3 obvious:3 observe:3 possibility:3 veterinarian:4 informed:1 access:1 instance:5 painkiller:1 paracetamol:1 acetaminophen:1 sell:2 brand:1 tylenol:1 panadol:1 naturally:4 enzyme:2 need:5 detoxify:1 portion:1 dos:1 fatal:5 suspected:1 ingestion:1 warrant:1 immediate:1 attention:2 aspirin:1 arthritis:1 administer:1 cautiously:1 similarly:1 application:1 minoxidil:1 rogaine:1 either:3 accidental:1 meaning:1 counter:1 loss:1 fur:12 prove:2 danger:3 insecticide:1 weed:1 killer:1 expose:2 mothball:1 naphthalene:1 product:6 phenol:2 base:5 cleaning:2 disinfect:1 litter:18 box:8 pine:1 sol:1 dettol:1 lysol:1 hexachlorophene:1 widely:2 ethylene:1 glycol:1 automotive:1 antifreeze:1 appeal:1 little:6 teaspoonful:1 oil:4 case:5 tea:3 tree:4 flea:3 treatment:1 shampoo:1 wary:2 aromatherapy:1 claim:1 somewhat:2 theobromine:2 chocolate:3 poisoning:1 ingest:3 relatively:2 onion:1 garlic:1 seemingly:1 package:1 pull:5 tab:1 tin:1 statistically:1 link:3 hyperthyroidism:1 connection:1 far:1 suspicion:1 bisphenol:1 discuss:1 seal:2 consumption:1 avoid:6 sociability:2 proximity:1 symbiotic:1 social:4 adaptation:1 thousand:3 ethologically:1 keeper:1 sort:1 surrogate:1 live:10 kind:1 extended:1 kittenhood:1 guide:3 adolescence:1 sexual:2 maturity:2 planet:1 behavioral:1 neoteny:1 express:1 affection:2 towards:3 companion:3 imprint:1 young:3 age:4 consistent:1 regardless:1 number:5 meet:1 negative:3 stereotype:1 insofar:1 poorly:2 socialize:1 aggressiveness:1 biting:1 scratching:4 asocial:1 aggression:1 cohabitation:2 natural:3 enough:3 colony:8 hold:1 distinct:3 territory:9 sexually:2 neuter:9 neutral:2 watch:2 greet:1 territorial:1 conflict:2 outside:3 holder:1 aggressively:1 chase:3 strange:1 star:1 work:2 noisy:1 violent:1 attack:3 survival:2 strategy:1 pack:4 mentality:1 mainly:1 mean:7 basic:1 e:3 g:3 defend:2 thus:7 always:4 lone:2 hunter:3 lion:2 frequently:3 tonguebathe:1 hygiene:2 chemistry:1 saliva:4 expend:1 frequent:1 deodorant:2 cleanliness:2 would:7 decrease:1 chance:1 could:1 notice:1 contrast:2 odor:3 hunting:4 station:2 upwind:1 drive:4 downwind:1 require:8 effort:4 skill:4 engage:3 combat:1 reproduction:3 dominance:2 impressive:1 threatening:2 raise:1 arch:1 increase:2 apparent:2 behave:1 comprise:1 powerful:3 slap:1 bite:5 loser:1 scratch:16 perhaps:1 throw:1 defensive:1 rake:2 normally:3 infection:2 though:6 kill:13 untreated:1 fighting:2 primary:2 route:1 transmission:3 immunodeficiency:2 virus:2 fiv:2 decidedly:1 batter:1 scar:1 cut:3 nose:3 love:4 mimic:1 stalk:1 capture:1 resist:1 dangle:1 piece:2 rope:2 drawn:1 randomly:2 enticingly:1 across:1 floor:2 depict:2 cartoon:1 photograph:1 ball:1 yarn:1 relate:4 instinct:3 practice:2 caught:1 stomach:2 extreme:5 death:1 complication:1 replace:1 laser:4 pointer:4 dot:1 documented:1 precision:1 involve:2 remote:1 compromise:1 draw:2 prepositioned:1 toy:2 get:3 reward:2 end:1 flashlight:1 light:4 spot:4 decade:1 precede:1 availability:2 consumer:1 partner:1 wrestle:1 supine:1 overstimulated:1 startle:1 decide:1 cease:1 punch:1 lead:3 relative:1 ambush:1 pounce:3 upon:3 vertebrate:1 tactic:1 leopard:3 tiger:3 overpower:1 deliver:2 lethal:1 long:8 canine:1 sever:1 cord:1 paralysis:1 bleeding:1 puncture:2 carotid:1 artery:1 jugular:1 vein:1 asphyxiate:1 crush:1 trachea:1 understood:1 element:1 presentation:1 ethologist:1 paul:1 leyhausen:1 propose:2 adopt:3 share:2 excess:1 others:2 accord:3 local:7 pecking:1 order:5 anthropologist:1 scientist:1 desmond:1 morris:1 book:2 catwatching:1 suggests:1 bring:1 mouse:3 catch:1 teach:1 elderly:1 inept:1 might:2 relic:1 demonstrate:1 approval:1 indoor:11 pen:1 pencil:1 object:1 seasonally:1 polyestrous:1 heat:9 course:1 last:4 longer:2 multiple:1 attract:1 victor:1 win:1 right:4 mate:4 reject:1 loud:1 yowl:2 mat:2 thorough:1 wash:1 cycle:1 repeat:1 penis:2 backwards:3 withdrawal:1 wall:1 vagina:1 ovulation:1 occur:5 rarely:2 impregnate:1 furthermore:1 superfecund:1 father:1 gestation:1 three:2 subsequent:1 wean:1 week:4 reach:2 month:2 ready:2 go:3 new:4 minimum:1 fédération:1 internationale:1 féline:1 surgically:1 sterilize:2 spay:2 castrate:1 surgery:1 undesirable:1 sex:2 related:2 marking:3 spray:2 urine:3 persist:1 fastidious:2 groom:4 lick:1 employ:2 hooked:1 mention:1 agent:1 act:1 initiate:1 assertion:1 peck:1 hairball:2 collect:1 longhaired:2 shorthaired:1 remedy:1 ease:1 elimination:1 coat:8 comb:1 stiff:1 brush:1 periodically:2 suitable:3 clean:6 remove:3 worn:1 outer:1 sheath:1 exercise:1 stretch:1 seem:2 enjoyable:1 declaw:5 elaborate:1 routine:1 every:2 evidence:3 satisfaction:1 total:2 researcher:1 scent:2 gland:1 locate:1 effectively:1 mark:3 noted:1 settle:1 perch:3 behaviorist:1 posit:1 explanation:1 good:2 observation:1 survey:1 aware:1 people:7 concealed:1 site:1 strike:1 branch:1 security:1 reflexively:1 twist:2 acute:1 balance:1 reflex:2 safely:1 cm:1 mostly:3 relies:1 conservation:2 angular:1 momentum:1 set:1 landing:1 feat:1 dangerously:1 test:1 righting:1 american:4 society:5 prevention:2 cruelty:3 warn:3 safeguard:1 rise:3 syndrome:1 overconfident:1 ecology:2 habitat:4 evolve:1 climate:2 evident:1 sylvestris:1 native:5 continent:1 australia:6 antarctica:1 apex:1 australian:1 outback:1 menace:1 wildlife:3 feces:3 dry:1 prefer:1 bury:1 sandy:1 concentrate:1 remain:2 motionless:1 prepare:1 north:2 africa:1 closely:2 today:1 solar:1 sunny:1 preference:1 warm:2 start:2 feel:1 uncomfortable:2 sign:1 discomfort:3 overall:2 easily:3 withstand:1 cold:4 temperate:1 norwegian:2 forest:3 resistance:1 moist:1 fog:1 rain:1 snow:1 struggle:1 maintain:1 wet:1 direct:2 relation:1 dislike:2 immersion:1 water:4 major:3 exception:2 turkish:4 van:5 unusual:1 abyssinian:3 bengal:1 tolerant:1 impact:2 eats:1 invertebrate:1 insects:1 hundred:1 theoretically:1 content:1 rabbit:3 rat:5 cockroach:1 grasshopper:1 consequence:1 destructive:1 ecosystems:1 introduction:1 contribute:1 extinction:3 stephen:1 island:4 wren:1 country:5 entirely:1 hazardous:1 locally:1 endanger:2 various:2 municipality:1 enact:1 legislation:1 locality:1 bell:2 approach:1 figure:1 thereby:1 careful:1 ring:1 domestication:1 grave:2 excavate:1 cyprus:1 estimate:1 push:1 significantly:2 mutualistic:1 arrangement:2 benefit:3 store:2 outweigh:2 trouble:1 protection:2 settlement:1 formerly:1 certainly:1 farming:1 economy:1 grain:2 vegetable:1 modern:2 rural:1 farm:2 semi:3 barn:2 field:2 otherwise:1 spoil:1 crop:1 successfully:1 lizard:2 frog:1 fish:2 urban:3 roam:1 annoy:1 intrusive:1 unaltered:1 persistent:1 nighttime:1 caterwauling:1 defecation:3 private:1 property:3 confinement:1 trap:3 return:1 program:2 deterrent:1 discourage:1 captivity:1 known:1 permit:1 outdoors:1 reduce:5 accident:1 castrated:1 testicular:1 ovarian:1 mammary:1 interaction:1 attitude:1 casual:1 pose:2 main:2 hazard:1 rabies:3 potentially:1 inflict:1 severe:2 blind:1 specifically:2 accurately:1 target:1 allergens:1 allergic:3 reaction:3 dander:2 inspire:2 reason:3 cite:1 manifest:1 hay:1 fever:1 asthma:1 rash:1 quickly:1 acclimate:1 particular:1 comfortably:1 allergy:2 allergen:1 cope:1 prescription:1 medicine:1 along:2 bath:1 weekly:1 bathing:1 eliminate:3 provoke:1 trainability:1 seek:1 perform:5 trick:1 exhibit:2 jumping:1 sink:1 faucet:1 prompt:1 encouraging:1 patience:1 furniture:4 dinner:1 intractability:1 ordinary:1 training:3 simile:1 herd:1 expression:1 describe:1 situation:2 stubborn:1 learner:1 ruin:1 commercial:1 cover:2 carpeting:2 upholstery:1 authority:2 advise:1 clear:1 permissible:1 plain:1 wooden:1 reverse:1 texture:1 backing:1 attractive:1 sisal:1 corrugate:1 cardboard:1 understand:1 concept:1 ignore:1 excessively:1 nail:6 trim:2 trimmer:1 design:3 electrician:1 diagonal:1 cutting:1 plier:1 guillotine:1 cutter:1 trimming:1 analogous:1 tip:2 equally:1 painful:1 bloody:1 translucent:1 dark:5 discipline:1 spritz:1 bottle:1 apply:2 sticky:1 double:1 sided:1 tape:1 repel:1 citrus:2 scented:1 stop:1 destruction:1 supply:1 bitter:1 apple:1 declawing:4 surgical:1 procedure:2 onychectomy:1 digit:1 damaging:1 additionally:2 vicious:1 predation:3 landlord:1 tenant:1 controversial:1 uncommon:1 america:1 debate:2 prohibit:1 law:1 condemn:1 humane:5 acknowledgement:1 refuse:1 waste:1 bentonite:2 absorbent:1 material:2 shredded:1 wood:1 chip:1 sand:1 change:2 kept:1 location:2 urination:1 happen:1 constipate:1 favor:1 litterbox:2 outdoor:4 monitor:1 numerous:1 variation:2 exist:1 automatically:1 sift:2 clumping:1 clump:1 stay:1 sifting:1 toxoplasmosis:2 infected:2 sea:1 otter:1 wish:1 dispose:1 droppings:1 trash:1 litterboxes:1 susceptible:2 pregnant:1 woman:2 immuno:1 compromised:1 carrier:1 attendant:1 expense:1 unpleasant:1 landfill:1 disposal:1 incremental:1 elevate:1 adapter:1 bowl:3 suspend:1 kit:1 market:1 complete:2 squat:1 seat:1 varieties:1 registry:2 actually:1 recognize:2 heritage:2 breeder:1 compete:1 whose:4 bear:2 resemblance:1 ideal:1 definition:2 standard:1 breeding:1 crossbreeding:1 populated:1 simply:1 belonging:1 homogeneous:1 longhair:2 shorthair:4 kingdom:1 purebred:7 refer:7 slang:2 moggies:2 maggie:1 margaret:1 cow:1 calf:1 century:1 england:1 latter:1 housecats:2 victorian:1 era:1 alley:2 stray:2 pattern:13 physical:1 confuse:1 original:1 dominant:2 region:1 origin:1 subspecies:3 receive:1 names:1 nomenclature:3 biologist:1 anura:1 siamensis:1 siamese:3 cartusenensis:1 chartreux:1 angorensis:1 angora:2 bicolor:2 tuxedo:2 black:8 white:17 possibly:2 paws:1 lake:1 turkey:1 colored:1 proper:1 harlequin:1 jellicle:1 dilution:1 thereof:1 tortoiseshell:10 tabby:9 strip:2 classic:1 blotch:2 marble:1 consist:2 butterfly:1 bullseyes:1 mackerel:1 series:2 vertical:1 stripe:1 resemble:1 finally:1 look:5 tick:2 exclusively:2 worldwide:1 nw:1 europe:2 calico:6 calimanco:1 cloud:1 nickname:1 tortie:2 patch:3 dilute:2 cream:1 mottle:3 throughout:2 significant:4 patchwork:1 mottled:1 aspect:2 tricolor:2 japanese:1 mi:1 ke:1 triple:1 dutch:2 lapjeskat:1 true:2 reddish:1 brown:3 differential:1 x:2 inactivation:1 ginger:3 orange:2 roughly:1 ratio:2 sire:2 tom:2 chromosomal:1 abnormality:1 sterility:1 phenomenon:1 mosaicism:1 stage:1 embryo:1 merge:1 colorpoint:3 colorpointed:3 version:2 exact:1 actual:1 lighter:1 gray:2 lilac:1 frost:1 silvery:1 pink:1 flame:1 among:3 sensitive:1 pathway:3 tyrosine:2 pigment:4 extremity:1 slightly:1 cool:1 darken:2 bodily:1 drop:1 lighten:1 neurotransmitter:1 affect:1 neurological:2 cross:3 albinism:1 tyrosinase:1 appearance:1 melanocyte:1 deafness:1 reduction:1 population:3 melanoblast:1 stem:3 cell:3 create:2 likelihood:1 deaf:1 smoke:2 eighth:1 creamy:1 solid:2 genetically:1 agouti:2 inhibitor:1 silver:1 undercoat:1 pedigreed:5 elongated:1 slender:3 build:3 almond:1 shaped:1 foreign:3 nevertheless:1 slight:1 athletic:1 typical:1 middle:1 conformation:1 stocky:2 devon:1 rex:1 egyptian:6 mau:1 rounded:1 british:1 muscular:1 compact:1 roundish:1 persian:1 exotic:1 prime:1 alone:1 communal:1 nursery:1 resource:1 abandoned:1 join:1 city:2 colosseum:1 forum:1 romanum:1 rome:1 roman:1 truly:1 partly:1 vet:1 adaptable:2 residential:1 friendly:1 worry:1 shelter:3 thrive:1 adequate:1 nutrition:1 coyote:2 automobile:1 volunteer:2 organization:4 unadoptable:1 immunize:1 leukemia:2 release:1 attend:1 nip:1 neutered:1 inoculate:1 continue:1 lifespan:1 greatly:2 nuisance:1 competition:1 environmental:3 hawaiian:2 coastal:1 endemic:2 seabird:1 wedge:1 tailed:1 shearwater:1 article:5 birdwatching:1 pacific:1 remains:1 southern:1 hemisphere:1 landmass:1 placental:1 mammalian:1 absent:1 kakapo:1 ecologically:1 vulnerable:1 behaviorally:1 naive:1 leading:1 role:5 endangerment:1 quantity:1 marsupial:2 fenced:1 endangered:2 community:1 awareness:1 involvement:1 unique:1 emblem:1 numbat:1 ethical:1 concern:5 subject:1 ecological:2 minimal:1 uk:1 established:1 none:1 university:1 opinion:2 additional:1 southwestern:1 zone:1 felv:1 choice:1 indoors:1 overpopulation:2 euthanized:1 confine:1 cage:1 usa:1 spcas:1 urge:1 purchase:1 elsewhere:1 etymology:2 taxonomic:1 history:2 scientific:2 classification:1 carolus:1 linnaeus:1 tenth:1 edition:1 systema:2 naturae:1 contemporary:1 reveal:1 conspecific:1 belong:2 schreber:1 mixed:2 usage:2 iczn:1 fix:1 predominant:1 separate:1 follow:1 convention:1 senior:1 synonym:1 johann:1 christian:1 polycarp:1 erxleben:1 domesticus:3 anfangsgründe:1 der:1 naturlehre:1 regni:1 animalis:1 variant:1 valid:1 rule:1 international:1 code:1 zoological:1 clowder:1 gib:1 molly:1 queen:1 progenitor:2 dam:1 immature:1 hedgehog:1 beaver:1 squirrel:1 skunk:1 medieval:2 britain:1 interchangeable:1 catling:1 ancestry:4 formally:1 strict:2 unrecorded:1 longhairs:1 shorthairs:1 random:2 mongrel:1 mutt:1 speak:1 ten:1 percent:1 james:1 r:1 richards:1 dvm:1 catt:1 european:2 welsh:1 cath:1 spanish:1 gato:1 basque:1 katu:1 byzantine:1 greek:2 kátia:1 irish:1 german:2 katze:1 church:1 slavonic:1 kotka:1 ultimate:1 source:1 late:2 cattus:1 catta:1 oppose:1 feles:1 unclear:1 undoubtedly:1 borrow:2 afro:1 asiatic:1 akin:1 nubian:1 kadís:1 berber:1 kaddîska:1 cognate:1 čaus:1 jungle:1 later:1 coptic:2 šau:1 tomcat:2 crum:1 walter:1 ewing:1 dictionary:3 oxford:1 clarendon:1 tešau:1 le:1 chat:2 origines:1 et:2 étymologie:1 compagnie:1 v:1 miew:1 senenanep:1 meritamen:1 august:1 ancientworlds:1 llc:1 pus:1 pussycat:1 poe:1 puuskatte:1 dialectal:1 swedish:1 kattepus:1 pu:1 pusekatt:1 primarily:1 denote:1 extension:1 webster:1 encyclopedic:1 unabridged:1 york:1 gramercy:1 mythology:2 bast:2 goddess:2 protector:1 infestation:2 warlike:1 lioness:1 save:1 likewise:1 adoration:1 daughter:1 sun:1 god:1 ra:1 religion:2 speculate:1 resident:1 kenya:1 lamu:1 archipelago:1 living:1 descendant:1 exalt:1 soul:1 knowing:1 mute:1 influence:1 decision:1 japan:1 maneki:1 neko:1 symbol:1 fortune:1 sacred:1 islam:1 writer:1 muhammad:1 favorite:1 muezza:1 cloak:1 disturb:1 freyja:1 beauty:1 fertility:1 norse:1 rid:1 chariot:1 superstition:1 culture:4 belief:2 path:1 bad:1 luck:1 witch:2 familiar:1 augment:1 power:1 widespread:1 extermination:1 aggravate:1 epidemic:1 plague:2 spread:1 exaggerated:1 fear:1 ailurophobia:2 nine:2 myth:3 attribute:1 suppleness:1 swiftness:1 escape:1 lend:1 credence:1 land:2 inbuilt:1 automatic:1 twisting:1 injure:1 pop:2 famous:1 animated:1 felix:1 sylvester:1 looney:1 tune:1 icon:1 web:1 humor:1 lolcat:2 intelligence:1 pheromone:1 category:1 fictional:1 organ:1 reference:1 external:1 anatomy:1 resolution:1 image:1 brain:1 biodiversity:1 library:1 bibliography:1 explain:1 catpert:1 expert:1 choose:1 citizendium:1 practitioner:1 vaccination:1 schedule:1 cornell:1 guideline:1 aafp:1 publication:1 medical:1 behaviour:1 database:1 |@bigram cat_felis:2 felis_catus:4 felis_silvestris:5 weigh_kilogram:1 kilogram_lb:3 weigh_lb:1 http_www:3 cervical_vertebra:1 rough_terrain:1 feral_cat:18 hind_leg:3 lack_melanin:1 sense_smell:1 fall_asleep:1 domesticated_cat:6 diploid_organism:1 inborn_error:1 infectious_disease:2 obligate_carnivore:1 digestive_tract:1 fatty_acid:1 sulfonic_acid:1 macular_degeneration:1 vegetarian_vegan:1 paracetamol_acetaminophen:1 litter_box:7 ethylene_glycol:1 onion_garlic:1 sexual_maturity:2 defensive_posture:1 immunodeficiency_virus:2 ear_nose:1 stomach_intestine:1 canine_teeth:1 spinal_cord:1 carotid_artery:1 poorly_understood:1 desmond_morris:1 pen_pencil:1 fédération_internationale:1 angular_momentum:1 apex_predator:1 australian_outback:1 closely_relate:1 feel_uncomfortable:1 temperate_climate:1 enact_legislation:1 domesticated_animal:1 fruit_vegetable:1 castrated_male:1 ovarian_cancer:1 attitude_toward:1 inflict_severe:1 allergic_reaction:2 hay_fever:1 double_sided:1 surgical_procedure:1 absorbent_material:1 kept_clean:1 indoor_outdoor:3 flush_toilet:1 unpleasant_odor:1 selective_breeding:1 purebred_cat:5 cow_calf:1 victorian_era:1 stray_cat:2 f_catus:7 turkish_angora:2 vertical_stripe:1 almost_exclusively:2 metabolic_pathway:1 forum_romanum:1 adequate_nutrition:1 southern_hemisphere:1 endangered_specie:2 carolus_linnaeus:1 systema_naturae:1 zoological_nomenclature:1 unclear_whether:1 afro_asiatic:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 unabridged_dictionary:1 norse_mythology:1 rid_chariot:1 bad_luck:1 lend_credence:1 looney_tune:1 external_link:1 health_care:1 |
3,469 | Orient_House | Orient House (former PLO headquarters in Jerusalem) The Orient House was the PLO headquarters in East Jerusalem in the 1980s and 1990s. The house was built in 1897 by Ismail Musa al-Husseini, and has inherited down the Al-Husayni family since. It was intended as a family residence, but was vacated at times to host important guests. It hosted Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany in 1898 and Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia in 1936. In the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Orient House remained east of the cease-fire line, in the area occupied by Jordan. In 1948-1950, the UNRWA headquarters were located in the Orient House; two years later, its owner turned it into a luxury hotel called "The New Orient House". Following the 1967 Six-Day War and the capture of East Jerusalem by Israel, the hotel was closed and the building mostly neglected. In 1983, the Arab Scientific Association, a façade for PLO's local branch, led by Faisal Husseini, rented a part of the house. In 1988, Israel closed the house and forbade PLO activity in it. It was renewed 4 years later in 1992. It was then rented and renovated by Faisal Husseini. In an exchange of letters preceding the 1993 Oslo Accords, Israel promised that it would allow the house to operate in the future. In August 2001, following the events of the Al-Aqsa Intifada and in response to the Sbarro restaurant massacre, Israeli authorities took over the house again. Items stolen by the Israeli government included personal belongings, confidential information relating to the Jerusalem issue, documents referring to the 1991 Madrid conference and the Arab Studies Society photography collection. Also the office of the late Faisal al-Husseini was completely emptied. External links Orient House The Looted Archives of the Orient House, Summer 2001, Issue 13, Jerusalem Quarterly | Orient_House |@lemmatized orient:7 house:12 former:1 plo:4 headquarters:3 jerusalem:5 east:3 build:1 ismail:1 musa:1 al:4 husseini:4 inherit:1 husayni:1 family:2 since:1 intend:1 residence:1 vacate:1 time:1 host:2 important:1 guest:1 kaiser:1 wilhelm:1 ii:1 germany:1 emperor:1 haile:1 selassie:1 ethiopia:1 arab:3 israeli:3 war:2 remain:1 cease:1 fire:1 line:1 area:1 occupy:1 jordan:1 unrwa:1 locate:1 two:1 year:2 later:2 owner:1 turn:1 luxury:1 hotel:2 call:1 new:1 follow:2 six:1 day:1 capture:1 israel:3 close:2 building:1 mostly:1 neglect:1 scientific:1 association:1 façade:1 local:1 branch:1 lead:1 faisal:3 rent:2 part:1 forbade:1 activity:1 renew:1 renovate:1 exchange:1 letter:1 precede:1 oslo:1 accord:1 promise:1 would:1 allow:1 operate:1 future:1 august:1 event:1 aqsa:1 intifada:1 response:1 sbarro:1 restaurant:1 massacre:1 authority:1 take:1 item:1 steal:1 government:1 include:1 personal:1 belonging:1 confidential:1 information:1 relate:1 issue:2 document:1 refer:1 madrid:1 conference:1 study:1 society:1 photography:1 collection:1 also:1 office:1 late:1 completely:1 empty:1 external:1 link:1 looted:1 archive:1 summer:1 quarterly:1 |@bigram al_husayni:1 kaiser_wilhelm:1 emperor_haile:1 haile_selassie:1 selassie_ethiopia:1 luxury_hotel:1 al_aqsa:1 aqsa_intifada:1 external_link:1 |
3,470 | MIT_License | The MIT License is a free software license originating at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), used by the MIT X Consortium. It is a permissive license, meaning that it permits reuse within proprietary software on the condition that the license is distributed with that software. The license is also GPL-compatible, meaning that the GPL permits combination and redistribution with software that uses the MIT License. According to the Free Software Foundation, the MIT License is more accurately called the X11 license, since MIT has used many licenses for software and the license was first drafted for the X Window System. Software packages that use the MIT License include Expat, PuTTY, the Mono development platform class libraries, Ruby on Rails, Lua 5.0 onwards and the X Window System, for which the license was written. Some software packages dual license their products under the MIT License, such as the JavaScript library jQuery, which is licensed under both the MIT and GNU General Public License licenses. http://docs.jquery.com/Licensing License terms The license is as follows: Copyright (c) <year> <copyright holders> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Modified versions of the license The license can be modified to suit particular needs. For example, the Free Software Foundation agreed in 1998 to use a modified MIT License for ncurses, which adds this clause: Except as contained in this notice, the name(s) of the above copyright holders shall not be used in advertising or otherwise to promote the sale, use or other dealings in this Software without prior written authorization. The XFree86 Project uses a modified MIT License for XFree86 version 4.4 onward. The license includes a clause that requires attribution in software documentation. The Free Software Foundation contends that this addition is incompatible with the version 2 of the GPL, but compatible with version 3. The end-user documentation included with the redistribution, if any, must include the following acknowledgment: "This product includes software developed by The XFree86 Project, Inc (http://www.xfree86.org/) and its contributors", in the same place and form as other third-party acknowledgments. Alternately, this acknowledgment may appear in the software itself, in the same form and location as other such third-party acknowledgments. Comparison to other licenses The MIT License is similar to the 3-clause "modified" BSD license, except that the BSD license contains a notice prohibiting the use of the name of the copyright holder in promotion. This is sometimes present in versions of the MIT License, as noted above. The original BSD license also includes a clause requiring all advertising of the software to display a notice crediting its authors. This "advertising clause" (since disavowed by UC Berkeley ) is only present in the modified MIT License used by XFree86. The MIT License states more explicitly the rights given to the end-user, including the right to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell the software. A 2-clause BSD-style license used by FreeBSD (and preferred for NetBSD) is essentially identical to the MIT License, as it contains neither an advertising clause, nor a promotional use of copyright holder's name prohibition. Also similar in terms is the ISC license, which has a simpler language. The University of Illinois/NCSA Open Source License combines text from both the MIT and BSD licenses; the license grant and disclaimer are taken from the MIT License. See also List of software that uses the MIT License External links The MIT License template The X Window System Trap opinion essay of Richard Stallman. References | MIT_License |@lemmatized mit:20 license:42 free:5 software:26 originate:1 massachusetts:1 institute:1 technology:1 use:16 x:4 consortium:1 permissive:1 mean:2 permit:3 reuse:1 within:1 proprietary:1 condition:2 distribute:3 also:4 gpl:3 compatible:2 combination:1 redistribution:2 accord:1 foundation:3 accurately:1 call:1 since:2 many:1 first:1 draft:1 window:3 system:3 package:2 include:10 expat:1 putty:1 mono:1 development:1 platform:1 class:1 library:2 ruby:1 rail:1 lua:1 onwards:1 write:2 dual:1 product:2 javascript:1 jquery:2 gnu:1 general:1 public:1 http:2 doc:1 com:1 term:2 follow:1 copyright:7 c:1 year:1 holder:5 permission:2 hereby:1 grant:2 charge:1 person:2 obtain:1 copy:5 associate:1 documentation:3 file:1 deal:1 without:4 restriction:1 limitation:1 right:3 modify:4 merge:2 publish:2 sublicense:2 sell:2 furnish:1 subject:1 following:2 notice:5 shall:3 substantial:1 portion:1 provide:1 warranty:2 kind:1 express:1 imply:1 limited:1 merchantability:1 fitness:1 particular:2 purpose:1 noninfringement:1 event:1 author:2 liable:1 claim:1 damage:1 liability:1 whether:1 action:1 contract:1 tort:1 otherwise:2 arise:1 connection:1 dealing:2 modified:4 version:5 suit:1 need:1 example:1 agree:1 ncurses:1 add:1 clause:7 except:2 contain:3 name:3 advertising:4 promote:1 sale:1 prior:1 authorization:1 project:2 onward:1 require:2 attribution:1 contend:1 addition:1 incompatible:1 end:2 user:2 must:1 acknowledgment:4 develop:1 inc:1 www:1 org:1 contributor:1 place:1 form:2 third:2 party:2 alternately:1 may:1 appear:1 location:1 comparison:1 similar:2 bsd:5 prohibit:1 promotion:1 sometimes:1 present:2 note:1 original:1 display:1 credit:1 disavow:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 state:1 explicitly:1 give:1 style:1 freebsd:1 prefer:1 netbsd:1 essentially:1 identical:1 neither:1 promotional:1 prohibition:1 isc:1 simpler:1 language:1 university:1 illinois:1 ncsa:1 open:1 source:1 combine:1 text:1 disclaimer:1 take:1 see:1 list:1 external:1 link:1 template:1 trap:1 opinion:1 essay:1 richard:1 stallman:1 reference:1 |@bigram copyright_holder:5 http_www:1 bsd_license:4 uc_berkeley:1 external_link:1 richard_stallman:1 |
3,471 | Basketball | Basketball is a team sport in which two teams of five active players each try to score points against one another by placing a ball through a 10 feet (3.048 m) high hoop (the goal) under organized rules. Basketball is one of the most popular and widely viewed sports in the world. Points are scored by throwing (shooting) the ball through the basket above; the team with more points at the end of the game wins. The ball can be advanced on the court by bouncing it (dribbling) or passing it between teammates. Disruptive physical contact (foul) is not permitted and there are restrictions on how the ball can be handled (violations). Through time, basketball has developed to involve common techniques of shooting, passing and dribbling, as well as players' positions, and offensive and defensive structures. Typically, the tallest members of a team will play center or one of two forward positions, while shorter players or those who possess the best ball handling skills and speed, play the guard positions. While competitive basketball is carefully regulated, numerous variations of basketball have developed for casual play. In some countries, basketball is also a popular spectator sport. While competitive basketball is primarily an indoor sport, played on a basketball court, less regulated variations have become exceedingly popular as an outdoor sport among both inner city and rural groups. History The first basketball court: Springfield College. The first rules, court, and game In early December 1891, Dr. James Naismith, a Canadian physical education professor from McGill University of Montréal and instructor at YMCA Training School (today, Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts, USA, sought a vigorous indoor game to keep his students occupied and at proper levels of fitness during the long New England winters. After rejecting other ideas as either too rough or poorly suited to walled-in gymnasiums, he wrote the basic rules and nailed a peach basket onto a 10-foot (3.05 m) elevated track. In contrast with modern basketball nets, this peach basket retained its bottom, and balls had to be retrieved manually after each "basket" or point scored; this proved inefficient, however, so a hole was drilled into the bottom of the basket, allowing the balls to be poked out with a long dowel each time. The peach baskets were used until 1906 when they were finally replaced by metal hoops with backboards. A further change was soon made, so the ball merely passed through, paving the way for the game we know today. A soccer ball was used to shoot goals. Whenever a person got the ball in the basket, his team would gain a point. Whichever team got the most points won the game. The baskets were originally nailed to the mezzanine balcony of the playing court, but this proved impractical when spectators on the balcony began to interfere with shots. The backboard was introduced to prevent this interference; it had the additional effect of allowing rebound shots. Thinkquest, Basketball. Accessed 2009.01.20. Naismith's handwritten diaries, discovered by his granddaughter in early 2006, indicate that he was nervous about the new game he had invented, which incorporated rules from a children's game called "Duck on a Rock", as many had failed before it. Naismith called the new game "Basket Ball". The first official game was played in the YMCA gymnasium on January 20, 1892 with nine players. The game ended at 1-0; the shot was made from , on a court just half the size of a present-day Streetball or National Basketball Association (NBA) court. By 1897–1898 teams of five became standard. Women's basketball Women's basketball began in 1892 at Smith College when Senda Berenson, a physical education teacher, modified Naismith's rules for women. Shortly after she was hired at Smith, she went to Naismith to learn more about the game. Fascinated by the new sport and the values it could teach, she organized the first women’s collegiate basketball game on March 21, 1893, when her Smith freshmen and sophomores played against one another. Her rules were first published in 1899 and two years later Berenson became the editor of A.G. Spalding’s first Women's Basketball Guide, which further spread her version of basketball for women. Surge in popularity Basketball's early adherents were dispatched to YMCAs throughout the United States, and it quickly spread through the USA and Canada. By 1895, it was well established at several women's high schools. While the YMCA was responsible for initially developing and spreading the game, within a decade it discouraged the new sport, as rough play and rowdy crowds began to detract from the YMCA's primary mission. However, other amateur sports clubs, colleges, and professional clubs quickly filled the void. In the years before World War I, the Amateur Athletic Union and the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (forerunner of the NCAA) vied for control over the rules for the game. The first pro league, the National Basketball League, was formed in 1898 to protect players from exploitation and to promote a less rough game. This league only lasted five years. Basketball Hall of Fame founded By the 1950s, basketball had become a major college sport, thus paving the way for a growth of interest in professional basketball. In 1959, a basketball hall of fame was founded in Springfield, Massachusetts, site of the first game. Its rosters include the names of great players, coaches, referees and people who have contributed significantly to the development of the game. Development of equipment and technique Basketball was originally played with a soccer ball. The first balls made specifically for basketball were brown, and it was only in the late 1950s that Tony Hinkle, searching for a ball that would be more visible to players and spectators alike, introduced the orange ball that is now in common use. Dribbling was not part of the original game except for the "bounce pass" to teammates. Passing the ball was the primary means of ball movement. Dribbling was eventually introduced but limited by the asymmetric shape of early balls. Dribbling only became a major part of the game around the 1950s, as manufacturing improved the ball shape. Historical antecedents Basketball, netball, dodgeball, volleyball, and lacrosse are the only ball games which have been identified as being invented by North Americans. Other ball games, such as baseball and Canadian football, have Commonwealth of Nations, European, Asian or African connections. Although there is no direct evidence as yet that the idea of basketball came from the ancient Mesoamerican ballgame, knowledge of that game had been available for at least 50 years prior to Naismith's creation, in the writings of John Lloyd Stephens and Alexander von Humboldt. Stephens' works especially, which included drawings by Frederick Catherwood, were available at most educational institutions in the 19th century and also had wide popular circulation. Early college basketball development Dr. James Naismith was instrumental in establishing college basketball. He coached at the University of Kansas for six years, before handing the reins to renowned coach Forrest "Phog" Allen. Naismith's disciple Amos Alonzo Stagg brought basketball to the University of Chicago, while Adolph Rupp, a student of Naismith's at Kansas, enjoyed great success as coach at the University of Kentucky. On February 9, 1895, the first intercollegiate 5-on-5 game was played at Hamline University between Hamline and the School of Agriculture, which was affiliated with University of Minnesota. Hamline University Athletics: Hutton Arena Hamline University Athletics: Admission Athletics Intro Page The School of Agriculture won in a 9-3 game. In 1901, colleges, including the University of Chicago, Columbia University, Dartmouth College, the University of Minnesota, the U.S. Naval Academy, the University of Utah and Yale University began sponsoring men's games. In 1905, frequent injuries on the football field prompted President Theodore Roosevelt to suggest that colleges form a governing body, resulting in the creation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS). In 1910, that body would change its name to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Early women's basketball development In 1892, the University of California and Miss Head's School played the first women's interinstitutional game. Berenson's freshmen played the sophomore class in the first women's intercollegiate basketball game at Smith College, March 21, 1893. The same year, Mount Holyoke and Sophie Newcomb College (coached by Clara Gregory Baer) women began playing basketball. By 1895, the game had spread to colleges across the country, including Wellesley, Vassar, and Bryn Mawr. The first intercollegiate women's game was on April 4, 1896. Stanford women played Berkeley, 9-on-9, ending in a 2-1 Stanford victory. Women's basketball development was more structured than that for men in the early years. In 1905, the National Women's Basketball Committee's Executive Committee on Basket Ball Rules was created by the American Physical Education Association. These rules called for six to nine players per team and 11 officials. The International Women's Sports Federation (1924) included a women's basketball competition. 37 women's high school varsity basketball or state tournaments were held by 1925. And in 1926, the Amateur Athletic Union backed the first national women's basketball championship, complete with men's rules. The Edmonton Grads, a touring Canadian women's team based in Edmonton, Alberta, operated between 1915 and 1940. The Grads toured all over North America, and were exceptionally successful. They posted a record of 522 wins and only 20 losses over that span, as they met any team which wanted to challenge them, funding their tours from gate receipts. The Grads also shone on several exhibition trips to Europe, and won four consecutive exhibition Olympics tournaments, in 1924, 1928, 1932, and 1936; however, women's basketball was not an official Olympic sport until 1976. The Grads' players were unpaid, and had to remain single. The Grads' style focused on team play, without overly emphasizing skills of individual players. The first women's AAU All-America team was chosen in 1929. Women's industrial leagues sprang up throughout the United States, producing famous athletes, including Babe Didrikson of the Golden Cyclones, and the All-American Red Heads Team, which competed against men's teams, using men's rules. By 1938, the women's national championship changed from a three-court game to two-court game with six players per team. First Canadian interuniversity game The first Canadian interuniversity basketball game was played at the YMCA in Kingston, Ontario on February 6, 1904, when McGill University visited Queen's University. McGill won 9-7 in overtime; the score was 7-7 at the end of regulation play, and a ten-minute overtime period settled the outcome. A good turnout of spectators watched the game. Queen's Journal, vol. 31, no. 7, February 16, 1904; 105 years of Canadian university basketball, by Earl Zukerman, http://www.cisport.ca/e/m_basketball/story_detail.cfm?id=13618 Early American professional and barnstorming teams Teams abounded throughout the 1920s. There were hundreds of men's professional basketball teams in towns and cities all over the United States, and little organization of the professional game. Players jumped from team to team and teams played in armories and smoky dance halls. Leagues came and went. Barnstorming squads such as the Original Celtics and two all-African American teams, the New York Renaissance Five ("Rens") and (still in existence as of 2009) the Harlem Globetrotters played up to two hundred games a year on their national tours. American national college championships The first men's national championship tournament, the National Association of Intercollegiate Basketball tournament, which still exists as the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) tournament, was organized in 1937. The first national championship for NCAA teams, the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) in New York, was organized in 1938; the NCAA national tournament would begin one year later. College basketball was rocked by gambling scandals from 1948 to 1951, when dozens of players from top teams were implicated in match fixing and point shaving. Partially spurred by an association with cheating, the NIT lost support to the NCAA tournament. U.S. high school basketball Before widespread school district consolidation, most United States high schools were far smaller than their present day counterparts. During the first decades of the 20th century, basketball quickly became the ideal interscholastic sport due to its modest equipment and personnel requirements. In the days before widespread television coverage of professional and college sports, the popularity of high school basketball was unrivaled in many parts of America. Perhaps the most legendary of high school teams was Indiana's Franklin Wonder Five, which took the nation by storm during the 1920s, dominating Indiana basketball and earning national recognition. Today virtually every high school in the United States fields a basketball team in varsity competition. Basketball's popularity remains high, both in rural areas where they carry the identification of the entire community, as well as at some larger schools known for their basketball teams where many players go on to participate at higher levels of competition after graduation. In the 2003–04 season, 1,002,797 boys and girls represented their schools in interscholastic basketball competition, according to the National Federation of State High School Associations. The states of Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky are particularly well known for their residents' devotion to high school basketball, commonly called Hoosier Hysteria in Indiana; the critically acclaimed film Hoosiers shows high school basketball's depth of meaning to these rural communities. National Basketball Association In 1946, the Basketball Association of America (BAA) was formed, organizing the top professional teams and leading to greater popularity of the professional game. The first game was played in Toronto, Ontario, Canada between the Toronto Huskies and New York Knickerbockers on November 1, 1946. Three seasons later, in 1949, the BAA became the National Basketball Association (NBA). An upstart organization, the American Basketball Association, emerged in 1967 and briefly threatened the NBA's dominance until the ABA-NBA merger in 1976. Today the NBA is the top professional basketball league in the world in terms of popularity, salaries, talent, and level of competition. The NBA has featured many famous players, including George Mikan, the first dominating "big man"; ball-handling wizard Bob Cousy and defensive genius Bill Russell of the Boston Celtics; Wilt Chamberlain, who originally played for the barnstorming Harlem Globetrotters; all-around stars Oscar Robertson and Jerry West; more recent big men Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Karl Malone; playmaker John Stockton; crowd-pleasing forward Julius Erving; European stars Dirk Nowitzki and Drazen Petrovic and the three players who many credit with ushering the professional game to its highest level of popularity: Larry Bird, Earvin "Magic" Johnson, and Michael Jordan. In 2001, the NBA formed a developmental league, the NBDL. As of 2008, the league has sixteen teams. Basketball teams make up approximately 13 percent of franchised sports in the U.S, and an average of 17,558 spectators regularly attend basketball games in the NBA, with the Chicago Bulls (22,103), Detroit Pistons (22,076) and Cleveland Cavaliers (20,499) topping the popularity stakes. The combined revenue from the 30 NBA teams is approximately $3.37 billion and rising. IBISWorld Women's National Basketball Association The NBA-backed Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) began in 1997. Though it had shaky attendance figures, several marquee players (Lisa Leslie, Diana Taurasi, and Candace Parker among others) have helped the league's popularity and level of competition. Other professional women's basketball leagues in the United States, such as the American Basketball League (1996-1998), have folded in part because of the popularity of the WNBA. The WNBA has been looked at by many as a niche league. However, the league has recently taken steps forward. In June 2007, the WNBA signed a contract extension with ESPN. The new television deal runs from 2009 to 2016. Along with this deal, came the first ever rights fees to be paid to a women's professional sports league. Over the eight years of the contract, "millions and millions of dollars" will be "dispersed to the league's teams." The WNBA gets more viewers on national television broadcasts (413,000) than both the MLS (253,000) Street & Smith's SportsBusiness Journal, MLS attendance, TV viewership numbers slip and the NHL (310,732) Street & Smith's SportsBusiness Journal, NHL’s attendance, TV ratings both showing increases which is a good sign for the growth of the league. In a March 12, 2009 article, NBA commissioner David Stern said that in the bad economy, "the NBA is far less profitable than the WNBA. We're losing a lot of money amongst a large number of teams. We're budgeting the WNBA to break even this year." Television New Zealand, BASKETBALL | NBA getting through tough times Philippine Basketball Association The Philippine Basketball Association is the second oldest professional league in the world. The first game was played on April 9, 1975 at the Araneta Coliseum in Cubao, Quezon City. Philippines. It was founded as a "rebellion" of several teams from the now-defunct Manila Industrial and Commercial Athletic Association which was tightly controlled by the Basketball Association of the Philippines (now defunct), the then-FIBA recognized national association. Nine teams from the MICAA participated in the league's first season that opened in April 9, 1975. The Philippine Basketball Association features several famous basketball players like current superstars Gary David, James Yap, Mark Caguioa, Willie Miller, Kelly Williams, Cyrus Baguio and many others. Former PBA Superstar features Allan Caidic, Benjie Paras, Robert Jaworski, Ramon Fernandez, Francis Arnaiz, Atoy Co, Bogs Adornado, Philip Cezar, Alvin Patrimonio, Jojo Lastimosa, and many others. International basketball XX. Olympic games Munich 1972 Krešimir Ćosić of Yugoslavia (blue shirt) vs. Petr Novicky of Czechoslovakia The International Basketball Federation was formed in 1932 by eight founding nations: Argentina, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Romania and Switzerland. At this time, the organization only oversaw amateur players. Its acronym, derived from the French Fédération Internationale de Basketball Amateur, was thus "FIBA." Men's Basketball was first included in the Berlin Olympic Games in 1936, although a demonstration tournament was held in 1904. The United States defeated Canada in the first final, played outdoors. This competition has usually been dominated by the United States, whose team has won all but three titles, the first loss in a controversial final game in Munich in 1972 against the Soviet Union. In 1950 the first FIBA World Championship for men was held in Argentina. Three years later, the first FIBA World Championship for Women was held in Chile. Women's basketball was added to the Olympics in 1976, which were held in Montreal, Canada with teams such as the Soviet Union, Brazil and Australia rivaling the American squads. Pros in the Olympics FIBA dropped the distinction between amateur and professional players in 1989, and in 1992, professional players played for the first time in the Olympic Games. The United States' dominance continued with the introduction of their Dream Team. However, with developing programs elsewhere, other national teams started to beat the United States. A team made entirely of NBA players finished sixth in the 2002 World Championships in Indianapolis, behind Yugoslavia, Argentina, Germany, New Zealand and Spain. In the 2004 Athens Olympics, the United States suffered its first Olympic loss while using professional players, falling to Puerto Rico (in a 19-point loss) and Lithuania in group games, and being eliminated in the semifinals by Argentina. It eventually won the bronze medal defeating Lithuania, finishing behind Argentina and Italy. International stars in the NBA Worldwide, basketball tournaments are held for boys and girls of all age levels. The global popularity of the sport is reflected in the nationalities represented in the NBA. Players from all over the globe can be found in NBA teams: Chicago Bulls star forward Luol Deng is a Sudanese refugee who settled in Great Britain. Steve Nash, who won the 2005 and 2006 NBA MVP award, is a South Africa-born Canadian. Andrea Bargnani of the Toronto Raptors, top pick in the 2006 NBA Draft, is from Italy. In addition, American superstar Kobe Bryant spent much of his childhood in Italy while his father was playing there. Dallas Mavericks superstar and 2007 NBA MVP Dirk Nowitzki is German. All-Star Pau Gasol of the Los Angeles Lakers is from Spain. 2005 NBA Draft top overall pick Andrew Bogut of the Milwaukee Bucks is Australian. Also, 2008–09 rookie Nathan Jawai is the first Indigenous Australian ever to play in the league. Houston Rockets center Yao Ming is from China. All star and former three point champion Peja Stojakovic is Serbian. All star Andrei Kirilenko is Russian. Phoenix Suns guard Leandro Barbosa and Denver Nuggets forward Nenê are Brazilian. Cleveland Cavaliers big man Žydrūnas Ilgauskas and Linas Kleiza from Denver Nuggets are Lithuanians. Perhaps no NBA team is as identified by international players as the San Antonio Spurs. The team's three most prominent players are all international—Tim Duncan of the U.S. Virgin Islands, Manu Ginobili of Argentina and Tony Parker of France. (Duncan competes for the United States internationally, as the Virgin Islands did not field a basketball team for international competition until well after Duncan started playing internationally, and all U.S. Virgin Islands natives are United States citizens by birth.) Ginobili's countryman Andrés Nocioni plays for the Sacramento Kings. Even in the 90's, many non-American players made their names in the NBA, such as Croats Dražen Petrović and Toni Kukoč, Serb Vlade Divac, Lithuanians Arvydas Sabonis and Šarūnas Marčiulionis and German Detlef Schrempf. Globalization of basketball The all-tournament teams at the two most recent FIBA World Championships, held in 2002 in Indianapolis and 2006 in Japan, demonstrate the globalization of the game equally dramatically. Only one member of either team was American, namely Carmelo Anthony in 2006. The 2002 team featured Nowitzki, Ginobili, Yao, Peja Stojakovic of Yugoslavia (now of Serbia), and Pero Cameron of New Zealand. Ginobili also made the 2006 team; the other members were Anthony, Gasol, his Spanish teammate Jorge Garbajosa and Theodoros Papaloukas of Greece. The only players on either team to never have joined the NBA are Cameron and Papaloukas. The strength of international Basketball is evident in the fact that the last three FIBA world championships were won (in order) by Serbia (Yugoslavia in 1998) and Spain. Rules and regulations Measurements and time limits discussed in this section often vary among tournaments and organizations; international and NBA rules are used in this section. The object of the game is to outscore one's opponents by throwing the ball through the opponents' basket from above while preventing the opponents from doing so on their own. An attempt to score in this way is called a shot. A successful shot is worth two points, or three points if it is taken from beyond the three-point arc which is from the basket in international games and in NBA games. Playing regulations Games are played in four quarters of 10 (international) or 12 minutes (NBA). College games use two 20-minute halves while most high school games use eight minute quarters. Fifteen minutes are allowed for a half-time break, and two minutes are allowed at the other breaks. Overtime periods are five minutes long. Teams exchange baskets for the second half. The time allowed is actual playing time; the clock is stopped while the play is not active. Therefore, games generally take much longer to complete than the allotted game time, typically about two hours. Five players from each team (out of a twelve player roster) may be on the court at one time. Substitutions are unlimited but can only be done when play is stopped. Teams also have a coach, who oversees the development and strategies of the team, and other team personnel such as assistant coaches, managers, statisticians, doctors and trainers. For both men's and women's teams, a standard uniform consists of a pair of shorts and a jersey with a clearly visible number, unique within the team, printed on both the front and back. Players wear high-top sneakers that provide extra ankle support. Typically, team names, players' names and, outside of North America, sponsors are printed on the uniforms. A limited number of time-outs, clock stoppages requested by a coach for a short meeting with the players, are allowed. They generally last no longer than one minute unless, for televised games, a commercial break is needed. The game is controlled by the officials consisting of the referee ("crew chief" in men's college and the NBA), one or two umpires ("referees" in men's college and the NBA) and the table officials. For college, the NBA, and many high schools, there are a total of three referees on the court. The table officials are responsible for keeping track of each teams scoring, timekeeping, individual and team fouls, player substitutions, team possession arrow, and the shot clock. Equipment Traditional eight-panel basketball The only essential equipment in basketball is the basketball and the court: a flat, rectangular surface with baskets at opposite ends. Competitive levels require the use of more equipment such as clocks, scoresheets, scoreboard(s), alternating possession arrows, and whistle-operated stop-clock systems. An outdoor basketball net. A regulation basketball court in international games is 28 by 15 meters (approx. 92 by 49 ft) and in the NBA is 94 by 50 feet (29 by 15 m). Most courts are made of wood. A steel basket with net and backboard hang over each end of the court. At almost all levels of competition, the top of the rim is exactly above the court and inside the baseline. While variation is possible in the dimensions of the court and backboard, it is considered important for the basket to be of the correct height; a rim that is off by but a few inches can have an adverse effect on shooting. There are also regulations on the size a basketball should be. If women are playing, the official basketball size is 28.5" in circumference (size 6) and a weight of 20 oz. For men, the official ball is 29.5" in circumference (size 7) and weighs 22 oz. Violations The ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between players, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running). The ball must stay within the court; the last team to touch the ball before it travels out of bounds forfeits possession. The ball is out of bounds if touches or crosses over a boundary line, or touches a player who is out of bounds. This is contrast to other sports such as football (soccer), volleyball, and tennis (but not rugby or American football) where the ball (or player) is still considered in if any part of it is touching a boundary line. The ball-handler may not move both feet without dribbling, known as traveling, nor may he dribble with both hands or catch the ball in between dribbles, a violation called double dribbling. A player's hand cannot be under the ball while dribbling; doing so is known as carrying the ball. A team, once having established ball control in the front half of the court, may not return the ball to the backcourt. The ball may not be kicked nor struck with the fist. A violation of these rules results in loss of possession, or, if committed by the defense, a reset of the shot clock. There are limits imposed on the time taken before progressing the ball past halfway (8 seconds in international and NBA; 10 seconds in NCAA and high school), before attempting a shot (24 seconds in the NBA, 30 seconds in NCAA women's and Canadian Interuniversity Sport play for both sexes, and 35 seconds in NCAA men's play), holding the ball while closely guarded (5 seconds), and remaining in the restricted area (the lane, or "key") (3 seconds). These rules are designed to promote more offense. No player may interfere with the basket or ball on its downward flight to the basket, or while it is on the rim (or, in the NBA, while it is directly above the basket), a violation known as goaltending. If a defensive player goaltends, the attempted shot is considered to have been successful. If a teammate of the shooter goaltends, the basket is cancelled and play continues with the defensive team being given possession. Fouls The referee signals that a foul has been committed. An attempt to unfairly disadvantage an opponent through physical contact is illegal and is called a foul. These are most commonly committed by defensive players; however, they can be committed by offensive players as well. Players who are fouled either receive the ball to pass inbounds again, or receive one or more free throws if they are fouled in the act of shooting, depending on whether the shot was successful. One point is awarded for making a free throw, which is attempted from a line from the basket. The referee may use discretion in calling fouls (for example, by considering whether an unfair advantage was gained), sometimes making fouls controversial calls. The calling of fouls can vary between games, leagues and even between referees. A player or coach who shows poor sportsmanship, for instance, by arguing with a referee or by fighting with another player, can be charged with a more serious foul called a technical foul. The penalty involves free throws (which unlike a personal foul, the other team can choose any player to shoot the free throws) and varies between leagues. Repeated incidents can result in disqualification. Blatant fouls with excessive contact or that are not an attempt to play the ball are called unsportsmanlike fouls (or flagrant fouls in the NBA) and typically will result in ejection. If a team exceeds a certain limit of team fouls in a given period (quarter or half) – four for NBA and international games – the opposing team is awarded one or two free throws on all subsequent fouls for that period, the number depending on the league. In the US college game if a team surpasses 7 fouls in the half the opposing team is awarded a one-and-one free throw (a player making the first is given a second). If a team exceeds 10 fouls in the half the opposing team is awarded two free throws on all subsequent fouls for the half. A player who, in an international game, commits five fouls (including technical fouls), or in an NBA game, commits six fouls (excluding technical fouls) is not allowed to participate for the rest of the game, and is said to have "fouled out". After a team has committed a specified number of fouls, it is said to be "in the penalty". On scoreboards, this is usually signified with an indicator light reading "Bonus" or "Penalty" with an illuminated directional arrow indicating that team is to receive free throws when fouled by the opposing team. (Some scoreboards also indicate the number of fouls committed.) The number of free throws awarded increases with the number of fouls committed. Initially, one shot is awarded, but after a certain number of additional fouls are committed the opposing team may receive (a) one shot with a chance for a second shot if the first shot is made, called shooting "one-and-one", or (b) two shots. If a team misses the first shot (or "front end") of a one-and-one situation, the opposing team may reclaim possession of the ball and continue play. If a team misses the first shot of a two-shot situation, the opposing team must wait for the completion of the second shot before attempting to reclaim possession of the ball and continuing play. If a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is unsuccessful, the player is awarded a number of free throws equal to the value of the attempted shot. A player fouled while attempting a regular two-point shot, then, receives two shots. A player fouled while attempting a three-point shot, on the other hand, receives three shots. If a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is successful, typically the player will be awarded one additional free throw for one point. In combination with a regular shot, this is called a "three-point play" (or more colloquially, an "and one") because of the basket made at the time of the foul (2 points) and the additional free throw (1 point). Four-point plays, while rare, can also occur. Common techniques and practices Positions and structures Basketball positions in the offensive zone Although the rules do not specify any positions whatsoever, they have evolved as part of basketball. During the first five decades of basketball's evolution, one guard, two forwards, and two centers or two guards, two forwards, and one center were used. Since the 1980s, more specific positions have evolved, namely: point guard: usually the fastest player on the team, organizes the team's offense by controlling the ball and making sure that it gets to the right player at the right time shooting guard: creates a high volume of shots on offense; guards the opponent's best perimeter player on defense small forward: often primarily responsible for scoring points via cuts to the basket and dribble penetration; on defense seeks rebounds and steals, but sometimes plays more actively power forward: plays offensively often with his back to the basket; on defense, plays under the basket (in a zone defense) or against the opposing power forward (in man-to-man defense) center: uses size to score (on offense), to protect the basket closely (on defense), or to rebound. The above descriptions are flexible. On some occasions, teams will choose to use a three guard offense, replacing one of the forwards or the center with a third guard. The most commonly interchanged positions are point guard and shooting guard, especially if both players have good leadership and ball handling skills. There are two main defensive strategies: zone defense and man-to-man defense. Zone defense involves players in defensive positions guarding whichever opponent is in their zone. In man-to-man defense, each defensive player guards a specific opponent and tries to prevent him from taking action. Offensive plays are more varied, normally involving planned passes and movement by players without the ball. A quick movement by an offensive player without the ball to gain an advantageous position is a cut. A legal attempt by an offensive player to stop an opponent from guarding a teammate, by standing in the defender's way such that the teammate cuts next to him, is a screen or pick. The two plays are combined in the pick and roll, in which a player sets a pick and then "rolls" away from the pick towards the basket. Screens and cuts are very important in offensive plays; these allow the quick passes and teamwork which can lead to a successful basket. Teams almost always have several offensive plays planned to ensure their movement is not predictable. On court, the point guard is usually responsible for indicating which play will occur. Defensive and offensive structures, and positions, are more emphasized in higher levels in basketball; it is these that a coach normally requests a time-out to discuss. Shooting Player releases a short jump shot, while her defender is either knocked down, or trying to "take a charge." Shooting is the act of attempting to score points by throwing the ball through the basket. While methods can vary with players and situations, the most common technique can be outlined here. The player should be positioned facing the basket with feet about shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent, and back straight. The player holds the ball to rest in the dominant hand's fingertips (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand on the side of the ball. To aim the ball, the player's elbow should be aligned vertically, with the forearm facing in the direction of the basket. The ball is shot by bending and extending the knees and extending the shooting arm to become straight; the ball rolls off the finger tips while the wrist completes a full downward flex motion. When the shooting arm is stationary for a moment after the ball released, it is known as a follow-through; it is incorporated to maintain accuracy. Generally, the non-shooting arm is used only to guide the shot, not to power it. Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to deaden its impact with the rim. The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat arguable, but generally coaches will profess proper arch. Most players shoot directly into the basket, but shooters may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket. The two most common shots that use the above described set up are the set shot and the jump shot. The set shot is taken from a standing position, with neither foot leaving the floor, typically used for free throws. The jump shot is taken while in mid-air, near the top of the jump. This provides much greater power and range, and it also allows the player to elevate over the defender. Failure to release the ball before returning the feet to the ground is a traveling violation. Another common shot is called the layup. This shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket, and to "lay" the ball "up" and into the basket, typically off the backboard (the backboard-free, underhand version is called a finger roll). The most crowd-pleasing, and typically highest-percentage accuracy shot is the slam dunk, in which the player jumps very high, and throws the ball downward, straight through the hoop. Another shot that is becoming common is the "circus shot". The circus shot is a low-percentage shot that is flipped, heaved, scooped, or flung toward the hoop while the shooter is off-balance, airborne, falling down, and/or facing away from the basket. A shot that misses both the rim and the backboard completely is referred to as an air ball. A particularly bad shot, or one that only hits the backboard, is jocularly called a brick. Rebounding The objective of rebounding is to successfully gain possession of the basketball after a missed field goal or free throw, as it rebounds from the hoop or backboard. This plays a major role in the game, as most possessions end when a team misses a shot. There are two categories of rebounds: offensive rebounds, in which the ball is recovered by the offensive side and does not change possession, and defensive rebounds, in which the defending team gains possession of the loose ball. The majority of rebounds are defensive, as the team on defense tends to be in better position to recover missed shots. Passing A pass is a method of moving the ball between players. Most passes are accompanied by a step forward to increase power and are followed through with the hands to ensure accuracy. A staple pass is the chest pass. The ball is passed directly from the passer's chest to the receiver's chest. A proper chest pass involves an outward snap of the thumbs to add velocity and leaves the defence little time to react. Another type of pass is the bounce pass. Here, the passer bounces the ball crisply about two-thirds of the way from his own chest to the receiver. The ball strikes the court and bounces up toward the receiver. The bounce pass takes longer to complete than the chest pass, but it is also harder for the opposing team to intercept (kicking the ball deliberately is a violation). Thus, players often use the bounce pass in crowded moments, or to pass around a defender. The overhead pass is used to pass the ball over a defender. The ball is released while over the passer's head. The outlet pass occurs after a team gets a defensive rebound. The next pass after the rebound is the outlet pass. The crucial aspect of any good pass is being impossible to intercept. Good passers can pass the ball with great accuracy and touch and know exactly where each of their teammates like to receive the ball. A special way of doing this is passing the ball without looking at the receiving teammate. This is called a no-look pass. Another advanced style of passing is the behind-the-back pass which, as the description implies, involves throwing the ball behind the passer's back to a teammate. Although some players can perform them effectively, many coaches discourage no-look or behind-the-back passes, believing them to be fundamentally unsound, difficult to control, and more likely to result in turnovers or violations. Dribbling A U.S. Naval Academy ("Navy") player, left, posts up a U.S. Military Academy ("Army") defender Dribbling is the act of bouncing the ball continuously with one hand, and is a requirement for a player to take steps with the ball. To dribble, a player pushes the ball down towards the ground with the fingertips rather than patting it; this ensures greater control. When dribbling past an opponent, the dribbler should dribble with the hand farthest from the opponent, making it more difficult for the defensive player to get to the ball. It is therefore important for a player to be able to dribble competently with both hands. Good dribblers (or "ball handlers") tend to bounce the ball low to the ground, reducing the travel from the floor to the hand, making it more difficult for the defender to "steal" the ball. Additionally, good ball handlers frequently dribble behind their backs, between their legs, and change hands and directions of the dribble frequently, making a less predictable dribbling pattern that is more difficult to defend. This is called a crossover, which is the most effective way to pass defenders while dribbling. A skilled player can dribble without watching the ball, using the dribbling motion or peripheral vision to keep track of the ball's location. By not having to focus on the ball, a player can look for teammates or scoring opportunities, as well as avoid the danger of someone stealing the ball from him/her. Blocking A block is performed when, after a shot is attempted, a defender attempts to alter the shot by touching the ball. In almost all variants of play, it is illegal to touch the ball after it is in the downward part of its arc; this is known as goaltending. It is also illegal to block a shot after it has touched the backboard, or when any part of the ball is directly above the rim. To block a shot, a player has to be able to reach a point higher than where the shot is released. Thus, height can be an advantage in blocking. Players at the taller power forward or center positions generally record more blocks than players at the shorter guard positions. However, with good timing and sufficient vertical leap, even shorter players can be effective at blocking shots. Height At the professional level, most male players are above and most women above . Guards, for whom physical coordination and ball-handling skills are crucial, tend to be the smallest players. Almost all forwards in the men's pro leagues are or taller. Most centers are over tall. According to a survey given to all NBA teams, the average height of all NBA players is just under , with the average weight being close to . The tallest players ever in the NBA were Manute Bol and Gheorghe Mureşan, who were both tall. The tallest current NBA player is Yao Ming, who stands at . The shortest player ever to play in the NBA is Muggsy Bogues at . Other short players have thrived at the pro level. Anthony "Spud" Webb was just tall, but had a 42-inch (1.07 m) vertical leap, giving him significant height when jumping. The shortest player in the NBA as of the 2006-07 season is Earl Boykins at 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m). While shorter players are often not very good at defending against shooting, their ability to navigate quickly through crowded areas of the court and steal the ball by reaching low are strengths. Variations and similar games Variations of basketball are activities based on the game of basketball, using common basketball skills and equipment (primarily the ball and basket). Some variations are only superficial rules changes, while others are distinct games with varying degrees of basketball influences. Other variations include children's games, contests or activities meant to help players reinforce skills. Wheelchair basketball, created by disabled World War II veterans, Learn Basketball on FindSportsNow is played on specially designed wheelchairs for the physically impaired. The world governing body of wheelchair basketball is the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Welcome to the IWBF website! (IWBF). Water basketball, played in a swimming pool, merges basketball and water polo rules. Beach basketball is played in a circular court with no backboard on the goal, no out-of-bounds rule with the ball movement to be done via passes or 2 1/2 steps, as dribbling is next to impossible on a soft surface. Beachbasketball.com web site There are many variations as well played in informal settings without referees or strict rules. Perhaps the single most common variation is the half court game. Only one basket is used, and the ball must be "cleared" - passed or dribbled outside the half-court or three-point line - each time possession of the ball changes from one team to the other. Half-court games require less cardiovascular stamina, since players need not run back and forth a full court. Half-court games also raise the number of players that can use a court, an important benefit when many players want to play. A popular version of the half-court game is 21. Two-point shots count as two points and shots from behind the three-point line count three. A player who makes a basket is awarded up to three extra free throws (or unlimited if you are playing "all day"), worth the usual one point. When a shot is missed, if one of the other players tips the ball in with two while it is in the air, the score of the player who missed the shot goes back to zero, or if they have surpassed 13, their score goes back to 13. This is called a "tip". If a missed shot is "tipped" in, but the player who tips it in only uses one hand, then the player who shot it is out of the game and has to catch an air ball to get back in. The first player to reach exactly 21 points wins. If they go over, their score goes back to 13. Other variations include streetball, Unicycle basketball, knockout, Around the World, and one-on-one, a variation in which two players will use only a small section of the court (often no more than a half of a court) and compete to play the ball into a single hoop. Such games tend to emphasize individual dribbling and ball stealing skills over shooting and team play. References See also A monument to Lithuanian basketball in Vilnius Basketball moves Basketball position Basketball at the Summer Olympics International Basketball Federation Continental Basketball Association National Basketball Association (NBA) ULEB Premier Basketball League Philippine Basketball Association FIBA World Championship FIBA World Championship for Women Wheelchair basketball Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) External links Historical Naismith Museum & Basketball Hall of Fame - Almonte, ON Basketball Hall of Fame - Springfield, MA Hoopedia - The Basketball Wiki (hosted by the NBA) Hometown Sports Heroes New Rule Changes for High School Basketball Organizations Basketball at the Olympic Games International Basketball Federation National Basketball Association Women's National Basketball Association Continental Basketball Association (oldest league in the world) National Wheelchair Basketball Association Other Basketball.com website Eurobasket website Basketball-Reference.com: Basketball Statistics, Analysis and History Ontario historical plaque - Dr. James Naismith Historical List of American Professional Basketball Teams be-x-old:Баскетбол | Basketball |@lemmatized basketball:129 team:92 sport:19 two:31 five:9 active:2 player:108 try:4 score:13 point:32 one:36 another:7 place:1 ball:100 foot:8 high:24 hoop:6 goal:4 organize:6 rule:21 popular:5 widely:1 view:1 world:15 throw:21 shoot:14 basket:40 end:8 game:76 win:11 advance:2 court:32 bounce:10 dribble:20 pass:18 teammate:10 disruptive:1 physical:6 contact:3 foul:35 permit:1 restriction:1 handle:3 violation:8 time:18 develop:4 involve:6 common:9 technique:4 shooting:7 passing:2 dribbling:7 well:8 position:17 offensive:11 defensive:13 structure:3 typically:8 tall:6 member:3 play:58 center:8 forward:14 short:10 possess:1 best:2 skill:7 speed:1 guard:18 competitive:3 carefully:1 regulate:1 numerous:1 variation:11 casual:1 country:2 also:14 spectator:5 primarily:3 indoor:2 less:5 regulated:1 become:9 exceedingly:1 outdoor:2 among:3 inner:1 city:3 rural:3 group:2 history:2 first:39 springfield:5 college:21 early:8 december:1 dr:3 james:4 naismith:11 canadian:8 education:3 professor:1 mcgill:3 university:17 montréal:1 instructor:1 ymca:5 train:1 school:21 today:4 massachusetts:2 usa:2 seek:2 vigorous:1 keep:3 student:2 occupy:1 proper:3 level:11 fitness:1 long:6 new:13 england:1 winter:1 reject:1 idea:2 either:5 rough:3 poorly:1 suit:1 wall:1 gymnasium:2 write:1 basic:1 nail:2 peach:3 onto:1 elevate:2 track:3 contrast:2 modern:1 net:3 retain:1 bottom:2 retrieve:1 manually:1 prove:2 inefficient:1 however:7 hole:1 drill:1 allow:9 poke:1 dowel:1 use:24 finally:1 replace:2 metal:1 backboard:12 change:8 soon:1 make:18 merely:1 pave:2 way:7 know:9 soccer:3 whenever:1 person:1 get:8 would:4 gain:5 whichever:2 originally:3 mezzanine:1 balcony:2 playing:2 impractical:1 begin:7 interfere:2 shot:60 introduce:3 prevent:3 interference:1 additional:4 effect:2 rebound:11 thinkquest:1 accessed:1 handwritten:1 diary:1 discover:1 granddaughter:1 indicate:4 nervous:1 invent:2 incorporate:2 child:2 call:20 duck:1 rock:2 many:13 fail:1 official:8 january:1 nine:3 half:15 size:6 present:2 day:4 streetball:2 national:28 association:29 nba:45 standard:2 woman:37 smith:6 senda:1 berenson:3 teacher:1 modify:1 shortly:1 hire:1 go:7 learn:2 fascinate:1 value:2 could:1 teach:1 collegiate:2 march:3 freshman:2 sophomore:2 publish:1 year:13 later:4 editor:1 g:1 spalding:1 guide:2 far:3 spread:4 version:3 surge:1 popularity:10 adherent:1 dispatch:1 ymcas:1 throughout:3 united:15 state:18 quickly:4 canada:4 establish:3 several:6 responsible:4 initially:2 within:3 decade:3 discourage:2 rowdy:1 crowd:4 detract:1 primary:2 mission:1 amateur:6 club:2 professional:18 fill:1 void:1 war:2 athletic:6 union:4 intercollegiate:7 forerunner:1 ncaa:8 vie:1 control:7 pro:4 league:25 form:5 protect:2 exploitation:1 promote:2 last:4 hall:5 fame:4 found:4 major:3 thus:4 growth:2 interest:1 site:2 roster:2 include:11 name:5 great:7 coach:12 referee:9 people:1 contribute:1 significantly:1 development:6 equipment:6 specifically:1 brown:1 late:1 tony:2 hinkle:1 search:1 visible:2 alike:1 orange:1 part:8 original:2 except:1 pas:17 mean:3 movement:5 eventually:2 limit:4 asymmetric:1 shape:2 around:4 manufacturing:1 improve:1 historical:4 antecedent:1 netball:1 dodgeball:1 volleyball:2 lacrosse:1 identify:2 north:3 american:14 baseball:1 football:4 commonwealth:1 nation:3 european:2 asian:1 african:2 connection:1 although:4 direct:1 evidence:1 yet:1 come:3 ancient:1 mesoamerican:1 ballgame:1 knowledge:1 available:2 least:1 prior:1 creation:2 writing:1 john:2 lloyd:1 stephen:2 alexander:1 von:1 humboldt:1 work:1 especially:2 drawing:1 frederick:1 catherwood:1 educational:1 institution:1 century:2 wide:1 circulation:1 instrumental:1 kansa:2 six:4 hand:13 rein:1 renowned:1 forrest:1 phog:1 allen:1 disciple:1 amos:1 alonzo:1 stagg:1 bring:1 chicago:4 adolph:1 rupp:1 enjoy:1 success:1 kentucky:2 february:3 hamline:4 agriculture:2 affiliate:1 minnesota:2 athletics:4 hutton:1 arena:1 admission:1 intro:1 page:1 columbia:1 dartmouth:1 u:8 naval:2 academy:3 utah:1 yale:1 sponsor:2 men:16 frequent:1 injury:1 field:4 prompt:1 president:1 theodore:1 roosevelt:1 suggest:1 govern:2 body:3 result:5 iaaus:1 california:1 miss:7 head:4 interinstitutional:1 class:1 mount:1 holyoke:1 sophie:1 newcomb:1 clara:1 gregory:1 baer:1 across:1 wellesley:1 vassar:1 bryn:1 mawr:1 april:3 stanford:2 berkeley:1 victory:1 structured:1 committee:2 executive:1 create:3 per:2 international:18 federation:6 competition:9 varsity:2 tournament:12 hold:9 back:14 championship:11 complete:4 edmonton:2 grad:5 tour:4 base:2 alberta:1 operate:2 america:5 exceptionally:1 successful:6 post:2 record:2 loss:5 span:1 meet:1 want:2 challenge:1 fund:1 gate:1 receipt:1 shine:1 exhibition:2 trip:1 europe:1 four:4 consecutive:1 olympics:5 olympic:6 unpaid:1 remain:3 single:3 style:2 focus:2 without:7 overly:1 emphasize:2 individual:3 aau:1 choose:3 industrial:2 spring:1 produce:1 famous:3 athlete:1 babe:1 didrikson:1 golden:1 cyclone:1 red:1 compete:2 three:19 interuniversity:3 kingston:1 ontario:3 visit:1 queen:2 overtime:3 regulation:5 ten:1 minute:8 period:4 settle:2 outcome:1 good:10 turnout:1 watch:2 journal:3 vol:1 earl:2 zukerman:1 http:1 www:1 cisport:1 ca:1 e:1 cfm:1 id:1 barnstorm:2 abound:1 hundred:2 town:1 little:2 organization:5 jump:6 armory:1 smoky:1 dance:1 squad:2 celtic:2 york:3 renaissance:1 rens:1 still:3 existence:1 harlem:2 globetrotter:2 championships:1 exist:1 naia:1 invitation:1 nit:2 gamble:1 scandal:1 dozen:1 top:9 implicate:1 match:1 fixing:1 shaving:1 partially:1 spur:2 cheating:1 lose:2 support:2 widespread:2 district:1 consolidation:1 small:4 counterpart:1 ideal:2 interscholastic:2 due:1 modest:1 personnel:2 requirement:2 television:4 coverage:1 unrivaled:1 perhaps:3 legendary:1 indiana:4 franklin:1 wonder:1 take:11 storm:1 dominate:2 earn:1 recognition:1 virtually:1 every:1 area:3 carry:2 identification:1 entire:1 community:2 large:2 participate:3 graduation:1 season:4 boy:2 girl:2 represent:2 accord:2 illinois:1 particularly:2 resident:1 devotion:1 commonly:3 hoosier:2 hysteria:1 critically:1 acclaim:1 film:1 show:2 depth:1 baa:2 lead:2 toronto:3 husky:1 knickerbockers:1 november:1 upstart:1 emerge:1 briefly:1 threaten:1 dominance:2 aba:1 merger:1 term:1 salary:1 talent:1 feature:4 george:1 mikan:1 dominating:1 big:3 man:8 wizard:1 bob:1 cousy:1 genius:1 bill:1 russell:1 boston:1 wilt:1 chamberlain:1 barnstorming:1 star:7 oscar:1 robertson:1 jerry:1 west:1 recent:2 kareem:1 abdul:1 jabbar:1 karl:1 malone:1 playmaker:1 stockton:1 please:1 julius:1 erving:1 dirk:2 nowitzki:3 drazen:1 petrovic:1 credit:1 usher:1 larry:1 bird:1 earvin:1 magic:1 johnson:1 michael:1 jordan:1 developmental:1 nbdl:1 sixteen:1 approximately:2 percent:1 franchised:1 average:3 regularly:1 attend:1 bull:2 detroit:1 piston:1 cleveland:2 cavalier:2 stake:1 combined:1 revenue:1 billion:1 rise:1 ibisworld:1 wnba:8 though:1 shaky:1 attendance:3 figure:1 marquee:1 lisa:1 leslie:1 diana:1 taurasi:1 candace:1 parker:2 others:4 help:2 fold:1 look:5 niche:1 recently:1 step:4 june:1 sign:2 contract:2 extension:1 espn:1 deal:2 run:3 along:1 ever:4 right:3 fee:1 pay:1 eight:4 million:2 dollar:1 disperse:1 viewer:1 broadcast:1 ml:1 street:2 sportsbusiness:2 mls:1 tv:2 viewership:1 number:12 slip:1 nhl:2 rating:1 showing:1 increase:3 article:1 commissioner:1 david:2 stern:1 say:3 bad:2 economy:1 profitable:1 lot:1 money:1 amongst:1 budget:1 break:4 even:4 zealand:3 tough:1 philippine:6 second:12 old:3 araneta:1 coliseum:1 cubao:1 quezon:1 rebellion:1 defunct:2 manila:1 commercial:2 tightly:1 fiba:9 recognize:1 micaa:1 open:1 like:2 current:2 superstar:4 gary:1 yap:1 mark:1 caguioa:1 willie:1 miller:1 kelly:1 williams:1 cyrus:1 baguio:1 former:2 pba:1 allan:1 caidic:1 benjie:1 para:1 robert:1 jaworski:1 ramon:1 fernandez:1 francis:1 arnaiz:1 atoy:1 co:1 bog:1 adornado:1 philip:1 cezar:1 alvin:1 patrimonio:1 jojo:1 lastimosa:1 xx:1 munich:2 krešimir:1 ćosić:1 yugoslavia:4 blue:1 shirt:1 v:1 petr:1 novicky:1 czechoslovakia:2 argentina:6 greece:2 italy:4 latvia:1 portugal:1 romania:1 switzerland:1 oversee:2 acronym:1 derive:1 french:1 fédération:1 internationale:1 de:1 berlin:1 demonstration:1 defeat:2 final:2 played:1 outdoors:1 usually:4 whose:1 title:1 controversial:2 soviet:2 chile:1 add:2 montreal:1 brazil:1 australia:1 rival:1 drop:1 distinction:1 continue:4 introduction:1 dream:1 program:1 elsewhere:1 start:2 beat:1 entirely:1 finish:2 sixth:1 indianapolis:2 behind:7 germany:1 spain:3 athens:1 suffer:1 fall:2 puerto:1 rico:1 lithuania:2 eliminate:1 semifinal:1 bronze:1 medal:1 worldwide:1 age:1 global:1 reflect:1 nationality:1 globe:1 find:1 luol:1 deng:1 sudanese:1 refugee:1 britain:1 steve:1 nash:1 mvp:2 award:10 south:1 africa:1 born:1 andrea:1 bargnani:1 raptor:1 pick:6 draft:2 addition:1 kobe:1 bryant:1 spend:1 much:3 childhood:1 father:1 dallas:1 maverick:1 german:2 pau:1 gasol:2 los:1 angeles:1 lakers:1 overall:1 andrew:1 bogut:1 milwaukee:1 buck:1 australian:2 rookie:1 nathan:1 jawai:1 indigenous:1 houston:1 rocket:1 yao:3 ming:2 china:1 champion:1 peja:2 stojakovic:2 serbian:1 andrei:1 kirilenko:1 russian:1 phoenix:1 sun:1 leandro:1 barbosa:1 denver:2 nugget:2 nenê:1 brazilian:1 žydrūnas:1 ilgauskas:1 linas:1 kleiza:1 lithuanian:2 san:1 antonio:1 prominent:1 tim:1 duncan:3 virgin:3 island:2 manu:1 ginobili:4 france:1 competes:1 internationally:2 islands:1 native:1 citizen:1 birth:1 countryman:1 andrés:1 nocioni:1 sacramento:1 king:1 non:2 croat:1 dražen:1 petrović:1 toni:1 kukoč:1 serb:1 vlade:1 divac:1 lithuanians:1 arvydas:1 sabonis:1 šarūnas:1 marčiulionis:1 detlef:1 schrempf:1 globalization:2 japan:1 demonstrate:1 equally:1 dramatically:1 namely:2 carmelo:1 anthony:3 serbia:2 pero:1 cameron:2 spanish:1 jorge:1 garbajosa:1 theodoros:1 papaloukas:2 never:1 join:1 strength:1 evident:1 fact:1 order:1 measurement:1 discuss:2 section:3 often:7 vary:4 object:1 outscore:1 opponent:10 attempt:14 worth:2 beyond:1 arc:2 quarter:3 fifteen:1 exchange:1 actual:1 clock:6 stop:4 therefore:2 generally:5 allotted:1 hour:1 twelve:1 may:11 substitution:2 unlimited:2 strategy:2 assistant:1 manager:1 statistician:1 doctor:1 trainer:1 uniform:2 consist:2 pair:1 jersey:1 clearly:1 unique:1 print:2 front:3 wear:1 sneaker:1 provide:2 extra:2 ankle:1 outside:2 limited:1 stoppage:1 request:2 meeting:1 unless:1 televise:1 need:2 crew:1 chief:1 umpire:1 table:2 total:1 timekeeping:1 possession:12 arrow:3 traditional:1 panel:1 essential:1 flat:1 rectangular:1 surface:2 opposite:1 require:3 scoresheets:1 scoreboard:3 alternate:1 whistle:1 system:1 meter:1 approx:1 ft:1 wood:1 steel:1 hang:1 almost:4 rim:6 exactly:3 inside:1 baseline:1 possible:1 dimension:1 consider:4 important:4 correct:1 height:5 inch:3 adverse:1 circumference:2 weight:2 oz:2 weighs:1 toward:4 tap:1 roll:5 must:3 stay:1 touch:8 travel:3 bound:4 forfeits:1 cross:1 boundary:2 line:5 tennis:1 rugby:1 handler:3 move:3 traveling:1 catch:2 double:1 cannot:1 return:2 backcourt:1 kick:2 strike:2 fist:1 commit:10 defense:12 reset:1 impose:1 progress:1 past:2 halfway:1 sex:1 closely:2 restricted:1 lane:1 key:1 design:2 offense:5 downward:4 flight:1 directly:4 goaltending:2 goaltends:2 attempted:2 shooter:3 cancel:1 give:5 signal:1 unfairly:1 disadvantage:1 illegal:3 receive:8 inbounds:1 free:16 act:3 depend:2 whether:2 discretion:1 example:1 unfair:1 advantage:2 sometimes:2 fouls:1 poor:1 sportsmanship:1 instance:1 argue:1 fight:1 charge:2 serious:1 technical:3 penalty:3 unlike:1 personal:1 varies:1 repeated:1 incident:1 disqualification:1 blatant:1 excessive:1 unsportsmanlike:1 flagrant:1 ejection:1 exceed:2 certain:2 opposing:1 subsequent:2 surpass:2 oppose:8 exclude:1 rest:2 specified:1 signify:1 indicator:1 light:1 read:1 bonus:1 illuminated:1 directional:1 chance:1 b:1 situation:3 reclaim:2 wait:1 completion:1 unsuccessful:1 equal:1 regular:2 combination:1 colloquially:1 rare:1 occur:3 practice:1 zone:5 specify:1 whatsoever:1 evolve:2 evolution:1 since:2 specific:2 fast:1 sure:1 volume:1 perimeter:1 via:2 cut:4 penetration:1 steal:5 actively:1 power:6 offensively:1 us:1 description:2 flexible:1 occasion:1 third:2 interchanged:1 leadership:1 handling:2 main:1 action:1 varied:1 normally:2 plan:2 quick:2 advantageous:1 legal:1 stand:3 defender:9 next:3 screen:2 combine:1 set:4 away:2 towards:2 teamwork:1 always:1 ensure:3 predictable:2 emphasized:1 release:5 knock:1 method:2 outline:1 face:2 shoulder:1 width:1 apart:1 knee:2 slightly:2 bent:1 straight:3 dominant:1 fingertip:2 arm:4 side:2 aim:1 elbow:1 align:1 vertically:1 forearm:1 facing:1 direction:2 bend:1 extend:2 finger:2 tip:5 wrist:1 full:2 flex:1 motion:3 stationary:1 moment:2 follow:2 maintain:1 accuracy:4 put:1 steady:1 backspin:1 deaden:1 impact:1 trajectory:1 somewhat:1 arguable:1 profess:1 arch:1 redirect:1 describe:1 neither:1 leave:3 floor:2 mid:1 air:4 near:1 range:1 failure:1 ground:3 layup:1 lay:1 underhand:1 pleasing:1 percentage:2 slam:1 dunk:1 circus:2 low:3 flip:1 heave:1 scoop:1 flung:1 balance:1 airborne:1 completely:1 refer:1 hit:1 jocularly:1 brick:1 objective:1 rebounding:1 successfully:1 missed:3 role:1 category:1 recover:2 defending:1 loose:1 majority:1 tends:1 accompany:1 staple:1 chest:6 passer:5 receiver:3 outward:1 snap:1 thumb:1 velocity:1 defence:1 react:1 type:1 crisply:1 hard:1 intercept:2 deliberately:1 crowded:1 overhead:1 outlet:2 crucial:2 aspect:1 impossible:2 special:1 advanced:1 implies:1 perform:2 effectively:1 believe:1 fundamentally:1 unsound:1 difficult:4 likely:1 turnover:1 navy:1 military:1 army:1 continuously:1 push:1 rather:1 pat:1 dribbler:2 farthest:1 able:2 competently:1 tend:3 reduce:1 additionally:1 frequently:2 leg:1 pattern:1 defend:2 crossover:1 effective:2 skilled:1 peripheral:1 vision:1 location:1 opportunity:1 avoid:1 danger:1 someone:1 block:7 alter:1 variant:1 reach:3 taller:2 timing:1 sufficient:1 vertical:2 leap:2 male:1 coordination:1 survey:1 close:1 manute:1 bol:1 gheorghe:1 mureşan:1 muggsy:1 bogues:1 thrive:1 spud:1 webb:1 significant:1 jumping:1 boykins:1 ability:1 navigate:1 strengths:1 similar:1 activity:2 superficial:1 distinct:1 degree:1 influence:1 contest:1 reinforce:1 wheelchair:6 disabled:1 ii:1 veteran:1 findsportsnow:1 specially:1 physically:1 impaired:1 welcome:1 iwbf:2 website:3 water:2 swimming:1 pool:1 merge:1 polo:1 beach:1 circular:1 soft:1 beachbasketball:1 com:3 web:1 informal:1 setting:1 strict:1 clear:1 cardiovascular:1 stamen:1 forth:1 raise:1 benefit:1 count:2 usual:1 zero:1 unicycle:1 knockout:1 reference:2 see:1 monument:1 vilnius:1 summer:1 continental:2 uleb:1 premier:1 external:1 link:1 museum:1 almonte:1 hoopedia:1 wiki:1 host:1 hometown:1 heroes:1 eurobasket:1 statistic:1 analysis:1 plaque:1 list:1 x:1 баскетбол:1 |@bigram springfield_massachusetts:2 hole_drill:1 collegiate_basketball:1 freshman_sophomore:1 surge_popularity:1 amateur_athletic:2 intercollegiate_athletic:2 hall_fame:4 ball_dribble:4 von_humboldt:1 adolph_rupp:1 theodore_roosevelt:1 collegiate_athletic:1 mount_holyoke:1 bryn_mawr:1 varsity_basketball:1 edmonton_alberta:1 gate_receipt:1 canadian_interuniversity:3 kingston_ontario:1 http_www:1 cfm_id:1 harlem_globetrotter:2 intercollegiate_athletics:1 match_fixing:1 ncaa_tournament:1 hoosier_hysteria:1 critically_acclaim:1 toronto_ontario:1 wilt_chamberlain:1 oscar_robertson:1 kareem_abdul:1 abdul_jabbar:1 karl_malone:1 julius_erving:1 cleveland_cavalier:2 fédération_internationale:1 soviet_union:2 puerto_rico:1 bronze_medal:1 sudanese_refugee:1 nba_mvp:2 mvp_award:1 toronto_raptor:1 kobe_bryant:1 dallas_maverick:1 los_angeles:1 angeles_lakers:1 milwaukee_buck:1 yao_ming:2 denver_nugget:2 san_antonio:1 antonio_spur:1 adverse_effect:1 football_soccer:1 interuniversity_sport:1 unfair_advantage:1 slam_dunk:1 wheelchair_basketball:5 swimming_pool:1 summer_olympics:1 external_link:1 |
3,472 | Afonso_IV_of_Portugal | Afonso IV English Alphonzo or Alphonse), or Affonso (Archaic Portuguese), Alfonso or Alphonso (Portuguese-Galician) or Alphonsus (Latin). (; 8 February 1291 – 28 May 1357), called the Brave (), was the seventh king of Portugal and the Algarve from 1325 until his death. He was the only legitimate son of Dinis of Portugal by his wife Elizabeth of Aragon. Afonso, born in Lisbon, was the rightful heir to the Portuguese throne. However, he was not, according to several sources, Dinis' favourite son; his half-brother, the illegitimate Afonso Sanches, enjoyed full royal favour. From early in life, the notorious rivalry led to several outbreaks of civil war. On January 7, 1325, Afonso's father died and he became king, taking full revenge on his brother. His rival was sentenced to exile in Castile, and stripped of all the lands and fiefdoms donated by their common father. Afonso Sanches, however, did not sit still. From Castile, he orchestrated a series of attempts to usurp the crown for himself. After a few failed attempts at invasion, both brothers signed a peace treaty, arranged by Afonso's mother Queen Elizabeth. In 1309, Afonso IV married Infanta Beatrice of Castile, daughter of King Sancho IV of Castile by his wife Maria de Molina. The first-born of this union, Infanta Maria of Portugal, married King Alfonso XI of Castile in 1328, at the same time that Afonso IV's heir, Peter I of Portugal, was promised to another Castilian infanta, Constance of Penafiel. These arrangements were imperiled by the ill will of Alfonso XI of Castile, who was, at the time, publicly mistreating his wife. Afonso IV was not happy to see his daughter abused, and started a war against Castile. Peace arrived four years later, with the intervention of Infanta Maria herself. A peace treaty was signed in Seville in 1339 and, in the next year, Portuguese troops played an important role in the victory of the Battle of Rio Salado over the Marinid Moors in October 1340. The last part of Afonso IV's reign is marked not by open warfare against Castile, but by political intrigue. Civil war between King Pedro of Castile and his half-brother Henry of Trastamara led to the exile of many Castilian nobles to Portugal. These immigrants immediately created a faction among the Portuguese court, aiming at privileges and power that, somehow, could compensate what they lost at home. The faction grew in power, especially after Inês de Castro, daughter of an important nobleman and maid of the Crown Princess Constance, became the lover of her lady's husband: Peter, the heir of Portugal. Afonso IV was displeased with his son's choice of lovers, and hoped that the relationship would be a futile one. Unfortunately for internal politics, it was not. Peter was openly in love with Ines, recognized all the children she bore, and, worst of all, favoured the Castilians that surrounded her. Moreover, after his wife's death in 1349, Peter refused the idea of marrying anyone other than Ines herself. The situation became worse as the years passed and the aging Afonso lost control over his court. Peter's only male heir, future king Fernando of Portugal, was a sickly child, while the illegitimate children sired with Ines thrived. Worried about his legitimate grandson's life, and the growing power of Castile within Portugal's borders, Afonso ordered the murder of Inês de Castro in 1355. He expected his son to give in, but the heir was not able to forgive him for the act. Enraged at the barbaric act, Peter put himself at the head of an army and devastated the country between the Douro and the Minho rivers before he was reconciled to his father in early 1357. Afonso died almost immediately after, in Lisbon in May As king, Afonso IV is remembered as a soldier and a valiant general, hence the nickname the Brave. But perhaps his most important contribution was the importance he gave to the Portuguese navy. Afonso IV granted public funding to raise a proper commercial fleet and ordered the first maritime explorations. The Canary Islands (today a part of Spain) were discovered during his reign. Ancestors +Afonso's ancestors in three generations Afonso IV of Portugal Father: Denis of Portugal Father's father: Afonso III of Portugal Father's father's father: Afonso II of Portugal Father's father's mother: Urraca of Castile Father's mother: Beatrice of Castile Father's mother's father: Alfonso X of Castile Father's mother's mother: Maria de Guzmán Mother: Elizabeth of Aragon Mother's father: Peter III of Aragon Mother's father's father: James I of Aragon Mother's father's mother: Violant of Hungary Mother's mother: Constance of Sicily Mother's mother's father: Manfred of Sicily Mother's mother's mother: Beatrice of Savoy Marriage and descendants Afonso married Beatrice of Castile (1293–1359) in 1309, daughter of Sancho IV, King of Castile, and Maria de Molina and had four sons and three daughters. NameBirthDeathNotesBy Beatrice of Castile (1293–1359; married in 1309)Infanta Maria13131357Queen of Castile by marriage to Alfonso XI of Castile.Infante Afonso13151315 Infante Dinis (Denis)13171318 Infante PedroApril 8, 1320January 18, 1367Succeeded him as Peter I, 8th King of Portugal.Infanta IsabelDecember 21, 1324July 11, 1326 Infante João (John)September 23, 1326June 21, 1327 Infanta Leonor (Eleanor)13281348Queen of Aragon by marriage to Peter IV, King of Aragon.Illegitimate offspringMaria Afonso13161384Natural daughter. Notes | Afonso_IV_of_Portugal |@lemmatized afonso:21 iv:12 english:1 alphonzo:1 alphonse:1 affonso:1 archaic:1 portuguese:6 alfonso:5 alphonso:1 galician:1 alphonsus:1 latin:1 february:1 may:2 call:1 brave:2 seventh:1 king:10 portugal:13 algarve:1 death:2 legitimate:2 son:5 dinis:3 wife:4 elizabeth:3 aragon:6 bear:1 lisbon:2 rightful:1 heir:5 throne:1 however:2 accord:1 several:2 source:1 favourite:1 half:2 brother:4 illegitimate:3 sanches:2 enjoy:1 full:2 royal:1 favour:2 early:2 life:2 notorious:1 rivalry:1 lead:2 outbreak:1 civil:2 war:3 january:1 father:20 die:2 become:3 take:1 revenge:1 rival:1 sentence:1 exile:2 castile:18 strip:1 land:1 fiefdom:1 donate:1 common:1 sit:1 still:1 orchestrate:1 series:1 attempt:2 usurp:1 crown:2 failed:1 invasion:1 sign:2 peace:3 treaty:2 arrange:1 mother:18 queen:1 married:2 infanta:7 beatrice:5 daughter:6 sancho:2 maria:5 de:5 molina:2 first:2 born:1 union:1 marry:3 xi:3 time:2 peter:9 promise:1 another:1 castilian:3 constance:3 penafiel:1 arrangement:1 imperil:1 ill:1 publicly:1 mistreat:1 happy:1 see:1 abuse:1 start:1 arrive:1 four:2 year:3 later:1 intervention:1 seville:1 next:1 troop:1 play:1 important:3 role:1 victory:1 battle:1 rio:1 salado:1 marinid:1 moor:1 october:1 last:1 part:2 reign:2 mark:1 open:1 warfare:1 political:1 intrigue:1 pedro:1 henry:1 trastamara:1 many:1 noble:1 immigrant:1 immediately:2 create:1 faction:2 among:1 court:2 aim:1 privilege:1 power:3 somehow:1 could:1 compensate:1 lose:2 home:1 grow:2 especially:1 inês:2 castro:2 nobleman:1 maid:1 princess:1 lover:2 lady:1 husband:1 displease:1 choice:1 hop:1 relationship:1 would:1 futile:1 one:1 unfortunately:1 internal:1 politics:1 openly:1 love:1 ines:3 recognize:1 child:3 bore:1 bad:2 surround:1 moreover:1 refuse:1 idea:1 anyone:1 situation:1 pass:1 age:1 control:1 male:1 future:1 fernando:1 sickly:1 sire:1 thrive:1 worry:1 grandson:1 within:1 border:1 order:2 murder:1 expect:1 give:2 able:1 forgive:1 act:2 enrage:1 barbaric:1 put:1 head:1 army:1 devastate:1 country:1 douro:1 minho:1 river:1 reconcile:1 almost:1 remember:1 soldier:1 valiant:1 general:1 hence:1 nickname:1 perhaps:1 contribution:1 importance:1 navy:1 grant:1 public:1 funding:1 raise:1 proper:1 commercial:1 fleet:1 maritime:1 exploration:1 canary:1 island:1 today:1 spain:1 discover:1 ancestor:2 three:2 generation:1 denis:2 iii:2 ii:1 urraca:1 x:1 guzmán:1 james:1 violant:1 hungary:1 sicily:2 manfred:1 savoy:1 marriage:3 descendant:1 namebirthdeathnotesby:1 infante:4 pedroapril:1 isabeldecember:1 joão:1 john:1 september:1 leonor:1 eleanor:1 offspringmaria:1 note:1 |@bigram portuguese_galician:1 rightful_heir:1 queen_elizabeth:1 beatrice_castile:4 alfonso_xi:3 xi_castile:3 sickly_child:1 canary_island:1 |
3,473 | Interferon | Interferons (IFNs) are natural cell-signaling proteins produced by the cells of the immune system of most vertebrates in response to challenges such as viruses, parasites and tumor cells. Interferons belong to the large class of glycoproteins known as cytokines. Interferons are produced by a wide variety of cells in response to the presence of double-stranded RNA, a key indicator of viral infection. Interferons assist the immune response by inhibiting viral replication within host cells, activating natural killer cells and macrophages, increasing antigen presentation to lymphocytes, and inducing the resistance of host cells to viral infection. Types of interferon There are three major classes of interferons that have been described for humans according to the type of receptor through which they signal: Interferon type I: All type I IFNs bind to a specific cell surface receptor complex known as the IFN-α receptor (IFNAR) that consists of IFNAR1 and IFNAR2 chains. The type I interferons present in humans are IFN-α, IFN-β and IFN-ω. Interferon type II: Binds to IFNGR. In humans this is IFN-γ. Interferon type III: Signal through a receptor complex consisting of IL10R2 (also called CRF2-4) and IFNLR1 (also called CRF2-12). Interferon type III is not accepted as a separate classification in mainstream Medicine. Vilcek, Novel interferons. Nature Immunology, 2003, Volume 4, pages 8-9 Signaling pathway While there is evidence to suggest other signaling mechanisms exist, the JAK-STAT signaling pathway is the best-characterised and commonly accepted IFN signaling pathway. Regulated genes Type I, II and III IFNs regulate approximately 2000 genes. Relatively little is known of these interferon regulated genes. INTERFEROME is a database of interferon regulated genes and attempts to bridge the gap in knowledge by identifying and integrating information on IRGs. Natural function and synthesis Interferons in general have several effects in common. They are antiviral and possess antioncogenic properties, macrophage and natural killer cell activation, and enhancement of major histocompatibility complex glycoprotein classes I and II, and thus presentation of foreign (microbial) peptides to T cells. In a majority of cases, the production of interferons is induced in response to microbes such as viruses and bacteria and their products (viral glycoproteins, viral RNA, bacterial endotoxin, bacterial flagella, CpG sites), as well as mitogens and other cytokines, for example interleukin 1, interleukin 2, interleukin-12, tumor necrosis factor and colony-stimulating factor, that are synthesised in the response to the appearance of various antigens in the body. Their metabolism and excretion take place mainly in the liver and kidneys. They rarely pass the placenta but they can cross the blood-brain barrier. The therapeutically used forms are denoted by Greek letters indicating their origin: leukocytes, fibroblasts, and lymphocytes for interferon-alpha, -beta and -gamma, respectively. Viral induction of interferons All classes of interferon are very important in fighting RNA virus infections. However, their presence also accounts for some of the host symptoms, such as sore muscles and fever. They are secreted when abnormally large amounts of dsRNA are found in a cell. dsRNA is normally present in very low quantities. The dsRNA acts like a trigger for the production of interferon (via Toll Like Receptor 3 (TLR 3), a pattern recognition receptor of the innate immune system which leads to activation of the transcription factor IRF3 and late phase NF kappa B). The gene that codes for this cytokine is switched on in an infected cell, and the interferon synthesized and secreted to surrounding cells. As the original cell dies from the cytolytic RNA virus, thousands of viruses will infect nearby cells. However, these cells have received interferon, which essentially warns these other cells of the virus. They then start producing large amounts of a protein known as protein kinase R (or PKR). If a virus infects a cell that has been “pre-warned” by interferon, the PKR is indirectly activated by the dsRNA, and begins transferring phosphate groups (phosphorylating) to a protein known as eIF-2, a eukaryotic translation initiation factor. After phosphorylation, eIF2 forms an inactive complex with eIF2B, thereby leading to reduced translation initiation and reduced protein synthesis. This inhibits viral replication and normal cell ribosome function, which may lead to killing both the virus and susceptible host cells. Various RNA species within the cell are degraded by activated RNAse L, another interferon-induced gene, thereby further reducing protein synthesis. Furthermore, interferon leads to upregulation of MHC I and therefore to increased presentation of viral peptides to cytotoxic CD8 T cells, as well as to a change in the proteasome (exchange of some beta subunits by b1i, b2i, b5i - then known as the immunoproteasome) which leads to increased production of MHC I compatible peptides. Interferon can cause increased p53 activity in virus infected cells. It acts as an inducer and causes increased production of the p53 gene product. This promotes apoptosis, limiting the ability of the virus to spread. Increased levels of transcription are observed even in cells which are not infected, but only infected cells show increased apoptosis. This increased transcription may serve to prepare susceptible cells so they can respond quickly in the case of infection. When p53 is induced by viral presence, it behaves differently than it usually does. Some p53 target genes are expressed under viral load, but others, especially those that respond to DNA damage, aren’t. One of the genes that is not activated is p21, which can promote cell survival. Leaving this gene inactive would help promote the apoptotic effect. Interferon enhances the apoptotic effects of p53, but it is not strictly required. Normal cells exhibit a stronger apoptotic response than cells without p53. Additionally, interferon has been shown to have therapeutic effect against certain cancers. It is probable that one mechanism of this effect is p53 induction. This could be useful clinically: Interferons could supplement or replace chemotherapy drugs that activate p53 but also cause unwanted side effects. Some of these side effects can be serious, severe and permanent. Virus resistance to interferons In a study of the blocking of interferon (IFN) by the Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV), a group of researchers infected human recombinant IFN-alpha with JEV, DEN-2, and PL406, which are all viruses, and found that some viruses have manifested methods of avoiding the IFN-alpha/beta response. These viruses therefore have the ability to carry on viral replication and production of new viruses as they normally would in the absence of IFN. The ways that viruses find a way around the IFN response is through the inhibition of interferon signaling, production, and the blocking of the functions of IFN-induced proteins. It is not unusual to find viruses encoding for a multiple number of mechanisms to allow them to elude the IFN response at many different levels. While doing the study with JEV, Lin and his coworkers found that IFN-alpha's inability to block JEV means that JEV may be able to block IFN-alpha signaling which in turn would prevent IFN from having STAT1, STAT2, ISGF3, and IRF-9 signaling. DEN-2 also significantly reduces interferon ability to active JAK-STAT. Some other viral gene products that have been found to have an effect on IFN signaling include EBNA-2, Polyomavirus large T antigen, EBV EBNA1, HPV E7, HCMV, and HHV8. Several poxviruses encode a soluble IFN receptor homologue that acts as a decoy to inhibit the biological activity of IFN, and that activity is for IFN to bind to their cognate receptors on the cell surface to initiate a signaling cascade, known as the Janus kinase(JAK)-signal transducer and activation of transcription(Stat) pathways. For example, a group of researchers found that the B18R protein, which acts as a type 1 IFN receptor and is produced by the vaccinia virus, inhibited IFN's ability to begin the phosphorylation of JAK1 which reduced the antiviral effect of IFN. Some viruses can encode proteins that bind to dsRNA. In a study where the researchers infected Human U cells with reovirus-sigma3 protein and then, using the Western blot test, they found that reovirus-sigma3 protein does bind to dsRNA. Along with that, another study in which the researchers infected mouse L cells with vaccinia virus E3L found that E3L encodes the p25 protein that binds to dsRNA. Without double stranded RNA (dsRNA), because it is bound to by the proteins, it is not able to create IFN-induced PKR and 2'-5' oligoadenylate-synthetase making IFN ineffective. It was also found that JEV was able to inhibit IFN-alpha's ability to activate or create ISGs such as PKR. PKR was not able to be found in the JEV infected cells and PKR RNA levels were found to be lower in those same infected cells, and this disruption of PKR can occur, for example, in cells infected with flavaviruses. The H5N1 influenza virus, also known as bird flu, has been shown to have resistance to interferon and other anti-viral cytokines. This is part of the reason for its high mortality rates in humans. It is resistant due to a single amino acid mutation in Non-Structural protein 1 (NS1), the precise mechanism of how this confers immunity is unclear . Pharmaceutical uses Three vials filled with human leukocyte interferon. Uses Just as their natural function, interferons have antiviral, antiseptic and antioncogenic properties when administered as drugs. Interferon therapy is used (in combination with chemotherapy and radiation) as a treatment for many cancers. More than half of hepatitis C patients treated with interferon respond with viral elimination (sustained virological response), better blood tests and better liver histology (detected on biopsy). There is some evidence that giving interferon immediately following infection can prevent chronic hepatitis C. However, people infected by HCV often do not display symptoms of HCV infection until months or years later making early treatment difficult. Interferons (interferon beta-1a and interferon beta-1b ) are also used in the treatment and control of multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune disorder. Administered intranasally in very low doses, interferon is extensively used in Eastern Europe and Russia as a method to prevent and treat viral respiratory diseases such as cold and flu. However, mechanisms of such action of interferon are not well understood; it is thought that doses must be larger by several orders of magnitude to have any effect on the virus. Consequently, most Western scientists are skeptical of any claims of good efficacy. http://www.pathobiologics.org/ivphc/ref/iav121604.doc Route of administration When used in the systemic therapy, IFN-α and IFN-γ are mostly administered by an intramuscular injection. The injection of interferons in the muscle, in the vein, or under skin is generally well tolerated. Interferon alpha can also be induced with small imidazoquinoline molecules by activation of TLR7 receptor. Aldara (Imiquimod) cream works with this mechanism to induce IFN alpha and IL12 and approved by FDA to treat Actinic keratosis, Superficial Basal Cell Carcinoma, and External Genital Warts. Adverse effects The most frequent adverse effects are flu-like symptoms: increased body temperature, feeling ill, fatigue, headache, muscle pain, convulsion, dizziness, hair thinning, and depression. Erythema, pain and hardness on the spot of injection are also frequently observed. Interferon therapy causes immunosuppression, in particular through neutropenia and can result in some infections manifesting in unusual ways. All known adverse effects are usually reversible and disappear within a year after the therapy has been finished. Types Several different types of interferon are now approved for use in humans. MultiferonTM(HuIFN-alpha-Le) in 14 EU countries March 10th 2009. The human subtype Interferon Alpha (HuIFN-alpha-Le) is approved for Adjuvant treatment of high-risk patients with cutaneous melanoma, stages IIb-III stage http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanoma#Staging , after 2 initial cycles of dacarbazine (DTIC) Läkemedelsverkerhttp http://www.lakemedelsverket.se/SPC_PIL/Pdf/enhumspc/Multiferon%203%20milj%20IE%20solu%20f%20inj%20pre-filled%20syringe%20ENG.pdf . The approval is based on the study performed in Germany Stadler http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a748028298~db=all~order=page FDA approved pegylated interferon-alpha, in which polyethylene glycol is added to make the interferon last longer in the body. (Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b was approved in January 2001; pegylated interferon-alpha-2a was approved in October 2002.) The pegylated form is injected once weekly, rather than three times per week for conventional interferon-alpha. Used in combination with the antiviral drug ribavirin, pegylated interferon produces sustained cure rates of 75% or better in people with genotype 2 or 3 hepatitis C (which is easier to treat) but still less than 50% in people with genotype 1 (which is most common in the U.S. and Western Europe). Interferon-beta (Interferon beta-1a and Interferon beta-1b) is used in the treatment and control of multiple sclerosis. By an as-yet-unknown mechanism, interferon-beta inhibits the production of Th1 cytokines and the activation of monocytes. History While aiming to develop an improved vaccine for smallpox, two Japanese virologists, Yasu-ichi Nagano and Yasuhiko Kojima working at the Institute for Infectious Diseases at the University of Tokyo, noticed that rabbit-skin or testis previously inoculated with UV-inactivated virus exhibited inhibition of viral growth when re-infected at the same site with live virus. They hypothesised that this was due to some inhibitory factor, and began to characterise it by fractionation of the UV-irradiated viral homogenates using an ultracentrifuge. They published these findings in 1954 in the French journal now known as “Journal de la Société de Biologie”. While this paper demonstrated that the activity could be separated from the virus particles, it could not reconcile the antiviral activity demonstrated in the rabbit skin experiments, with the observation that the same supernatant led to the production of antiviral antibodies in mice. A further paper in 1958, involving triple-ultracentrifugation of the homogenate demonstrated that the inhibitory factor was distinct from the virus particles, leading to trace contamination being ascribed to the 1954 observations. Meanwhile, the British virologist Alick Isaacs and the Swiss researcher Jean Lindenmann, at the National Institute for Medical Research in London, noticed an interference effect caused by heat-inactivated influenza virus on the growth of live influenza virus in chicken egg membranes in a nutritive solution chorioallantoic membrane. They published their results in 1957; in this paper they coined the term ‘interferon’, and today that specific interfering agent is known as a ‘Type I interferon’. Mergiran, TC. Worldbook Science Year, 1980 Nagano’s work was never fully appreciated in the scientific community; possibly because it was printed in French, but also because his in vivo system was perhaps too complex to provide clear results in the characterisation and purification of interferon. As time passed, Nagano became aware that his work had not been widely recognised, yet did not actively seek revaluation of his status in field of interferon research. As such, the majority of the credit for discovery of the interferon goes to Isaacs and Lindenmann, with whom there is no record of Nagano ever having made personal contact. International Society For Interferon And Cytokine Research, October 2005 Volume 12, No. 3. As a drug Interferon was scarce and expensive until 1980 when the interferon gene was inserted into bacteria using recombinant DNA technology, allowing mass cultivation and purification from bacterial cultures or derived from yeast (e.g. Reiferon Retard is the first yeast derived interferon-alpha 2a). Global sales ~ 5 billion US $. The second most successful pharmaceutical ever to come from genetic engineering. Miscellaneous facts Interferon is species-specific: the substance prepared from infected eggs protected only chicken cells from virus infection, while the similar substance prepared from mice protected only mouse cells. Produced by many cells in the human body by a receptor dependent feedback mechanism. Interferons are part of the "first-wave" immune response of the innate immune system, acting within hours, whereas antibody production takes days. A book was written about it: Toine Pieters, Interferon: The Science and Selling of a Miracle Drug (London: Routledge, 2005), xiv+264 pp., ISBN 0-415-34246-5. This book charts the beginnings, history and fate of interferon. The story of its development and use is one of survival in the face of remarkable cycles of promise, hope and disappointment as a miracle drug. The book demonstrates how research on interferon led to new clinical definitions of cancer and a new rational for therapeutic use of the drug. Moreover, through the lens of interferon's voyage the author explores the interaction between the laboratories of science, medicine and society: from the post-penicillin era to the genetics revolution in medicine. There are two types of IFNs: Type I (binding to IFN-aR1 and IFN-aR2c receptors; IFNAR1 chain is not the major ligand-binding chain), and type II (binding to IFN-gammaR1 and IFN-gammaR2 receptors). In general, exposure of human cells to viruses or double stranded RNAs induces the production of IFN-a, IFN-b, and IFN-o species. For the most part, the IFN-alpha species are not glycosylated, although some contain carbohydrates. The IFN-alpha family represents a family of related and homologous proteins, each exhibiting a unique activity profile. Each IFN-a species seems to exhibit a distinct profile of activities [antiviral, antiproliferative, and stimulation of cytotoxic activities of natural killer (NK) cells and T cells] The IFNs and IFN-like molecules signal through the Jak-Stat pathway. The receptor for the Type I IFNs consists of two chains, IFN-aR1 and IFN-aR2c. The ligand INF-alpha is a monomer that binds to the two-chain complex of IFN-aR1 and INF-aR2c. Within each subtype of mammalian Type I IFN, there is additional variability in gene duplication. The IFN-a genes are duplicated to a much greater extent than any other subtype of Type I IFN. This observation in conjunction with the observation that the IFN-a subtypes generally possess the highest specific antiviral activity imply that physiologically, the body likely uses IFN-a as the primary antiviral defense protein and that the major function of IFN-a is defense. STRUCTURE: The Type I IFNs consist of five a-helices (labeled A–E) which are linked by one overhand loop (AB loop) and three shorter segments (BC, CD, and DE loops). Helices A, B, C, and E are arranged in an antiparallel fashion to form a left-handed four-helix bundle. The AB loop contains short segments of 3_10 helix and is best described in three segments labeled AB1, AB2, and AB3. In all Type I IFNs, the AB1 loop encircles and is linked to helix E by a disulfide bond. An additional disulfide bond is observed in most IFN-a subtypes but not IFN-b, which connects the N-terminus of the molecule to helix C. The AB loop is critical for high-affinity IFNAR2 binding and suggest that sequence differences in this region may hold the key to differences in biological activity between the different IFN-a subtypes. The NMR structure of IFNAR2 has been determined and exhibits the same general structure as IFN-gammaR1. However, the interdomain angle is approximately 90 degrees rather than 120 degrees. Only loops in N-terminal domain (L2–L4) have been shown to be important for IFN-a2 binding. The IFNs were the first of the proteins we now recognize as members of the Class II cytokine family. IFNa2 contain 165 amino acids; according to circular dichroism measurements ~68% of the residues adopt helical conformation.INFa2 is composed of five a-helices, labeled A–E, linked by one long overhand connection (AB loop) and three short segments (BC, CD and DE loops). The topology of the molecule resembles the classical up-up-down-down four-helixbundle motif; helices A, B, C, and E comprise the helix bundle. Type I IFNs are stable at acidic pH (pH 2) and are represented by two major subtypes, the fibroblast or beta interferon (IFN-b) and the leukocyte or alpha family of interferons (IFN-a).The only known interferon of type II is IFN-g, which is produced exclusively by lymphocytes. Pharmaceutical forms of interferons in the market + Generic name Trade name Interferon alpha 2a Roferon A Interferon alpha 2b§ Intron A Human leukocyte Interferon-alpha (HuIFN-alpha-Le) Multiferon Interferon beta 1a, liquid form Rebif Interferon beta 1a, lyophilized Avonex Interferon beta 1a, biogeneric (Iran) Cinnovex Interferon beta 1b Betaseron / Betaferon Pegylated interferon alpha 2a Pegasys Pegylated interferon alpha 2a (Egypt) Reiferon Retard Pegylated interferon alpha 2b PegIntron Pegylated interferon alpha 2b plus ribavirin (Canada) Pegetron § also marketed in India as Reliferon, a product of Reliance Biopharmaceuticals See also Immunotherapy Immunosuppression Immunosuppressive drug ATC code L03#L03AB Interferons References | Interferon |@lemmatized interferon:90 ifns:10 natural:6 cell:42 signal:11 protein:17 produce:7 immune:5 system:4 vertebrate:1 response:11 challenge:1 virus:30 parasite:1 tumor:2 belong:1 large:5 class:5 glycoprotein:3 know:10 cytokine:7 wide:1 variety:1 presence:3 double:3 strand:3 rna:8 key:2 indicator:1 viral:17 infection:8 assist:1 inhibit:6 replication:3 within:5 host:4 activate:5 killer:3 macrophage:2 increase:6 antigen:3 presentation:3 lymphocyte:2 induce:6 resistance:3 type:23 three:6 major:5 describe:2 human:12 accord:2 receptor:14 bind:10 specific:4 surface:2 complex:6 ifn:57 α:3 ifnar:1 consist:2 chain:5 present:2 β:1 ω:1 ii:6 ifngr:1 γ:2 iii:4 consisting:1 also:13 call:2 accept:2 separate:2 classification:1 mainstream:1 medicine:3 vilcek:1 novel:1 nature:1 immunology:1 volume:2 page:2 pathway:4 evidence:2 suggest:2 mechanism:8 exist:1 jak:4 stat:4 best:2 characterise:2 commonly:1 regulate:4 gene:14 approximately:2 relatively:1 little:1 interferome:1 database:1 attempt:1 bridge:1 gap:1 knowledge:1 identify:1 integrate:1 information:1 irgs:1 function:5 synthesis:3 general:3 several:4 effect:14 common:2 antiviral:9 possess:2 antioncogenic:2 property:2 activation:5 enhancement:1 histocompatibility:1 thus:1 foreign:1 microbial:1 peptide:3 majority:2 case:2 production:10 microbes:1 bacteria:2 product:4 bacterial:3 endotoxin:1 flagellum:1 cpg:1 site:2 well:5 mitogen:1 example:3 interleukin:3 necrosis:1 factor:6 colony:1 stimulating:1 synthesise:1 appearance:1 various:2 body:5 metabolism:1 excretion:1 take:2 place:1 mainly:1 liver:2 kidney:1 rarely:1 pass:2 placenta:1 cross:1 blood:2 brain:1 barrier:1 therapeutically:1 use:15 form:6 denote:1 greek:1 letter:1 indicate:1 origin:1 leukocyte:4 fibroblast:2 lymphocytes:1 alpha:28 beta:14 gamma:1 respectively:1 induction:2 important:2 fight:1 however:5 account:1 symptom:3 sore:1 muscle:3 fever:1 secrete:2 abnormally:1 amount:2 dsrna:8 find:12 normally:2 low:3 quantity:1 act:5 like:4 trigger:1 via:1 toll:1 tlr:1 pattern:1 recognition:1 innate:2 lead:8 transcription:4 late:1 phase:1 nf:1 kappa:1 b:6 cod:1 switch:1 infected:3 synthesize:1 surround:1 original:1 dy:1 cytolytic:1 thousand:1 infect:12 nearby:1 receive:1 essentially:1 warn:2 start:1 kinase:2 r:1 pkr:7 pre:1 indirectly:1 begin:3 transfer:1 phosphate:1 group:3 phosphorylating:1 eif:1 eukaryotic:1 translation:2 initiation:2 phosphorylation:2 inactive:2 thereby:2 reduce:4 reduced:1 normal:2 ribosome:1 may:4 kill:1 susceptible:2 specie:5 degrade:1 activated:1 rnase:1 l:2 another:2 induced:3 far:1 furthermore:1 upregulation:1 mhc:2 therefore:2 cytotoxic:2 change:1 proteasome:1 exchange:1 subunit:1 immunoproteasome:1 compatible:1 cause:5 increased:3 activity:10 inducer:1 promote:3 apoptosis:2 limit:1 ability:5 spread:1 level:3 observe:3 even:1 show:4 serve:1 prepare:3 respond:3 quickly:1 behave:1 differently:1 usually:2 target:1 express:1 load:1 others:1 especially:1 dna:2 damage:1 one:5 survival:2 leave:1 would:3 help:1 apoptotic:3 enhance:1 strictly:1 require:1 exhibit:5 strong:1 without:2 additionally:1 therapeutic:2 certain:1 cancer:3 probable:1 could:4 useful:1 clinically:1 supplement:1 replace:1 chemotherapy:2 drug:8 unwanted:1 side:2 serious:1 severe:1 permanent:1 study:5 blocking:2 japanese:2 encephalitis:1 jev:7 researcher:5 recombinant:2 den:2 manifest:2 method:2 avoid:1 carry:1 new:3 absence:1 way:3 viruses:1 around:1 inhibition:2 signaling:3 unusual:2 encode:4 multiple:3 number:1 allow:2 elude:1 many:3 different:3 lin:1 coworkers:1 inability:1 block:2 mean:1 able:4 turn:1 prevent:3 irf:1 significantly:1 active:1 include:1 ebna:1 polyomavirus:1 ebv:1 hpv:1 hcmv:1 poxvirus:1 soluble:1 homologue:1 decoy:1 biological:2 cognate:1 initiate:1 cascade:1 janus:1 transducer:1 pathways:1 vaccinia:2 u:3 reovirus:2 western:3 blot:1 test:2 along:1 mouse:4 create:2 oligoadenylate:1 synthetase:1 make:4 ineffective:1 isgs:1 disruption:1 occur:1 flavaviruses:1 influenza:3 bird:1 flu:3 anti:1 part:3 reason:1 high:4 mortality:1 rate:2 resistant:1 due:2 single:1 amino:2 acid:2 mutation:1 non:1 structural:1 precise:1 confers:1 immunity:1 unclear:1 pharmaceutical:3 us:1 vial:1 fill:2 antiseptic:1 administer:3 therapy:4 combination:2 radiation:1 treatment:5 half:1 hepatitis:3 c:6 patient:2 treat:4 elimination:1 sustained:1 virological:1 good:3 histology:1 detect:1 biopsy:1 give:1 immediately:1 follow:1 chronic:1 people:3 hcv:2 often:1 display:1 month:1 year:3 later:1 early:1 difficult:1 control:2 sclerosis:2 autoimmune:1 disorder:1 intranasally:1 dos:1 extensively:1 eastern:1 europe:2 russia:1 respiratory:1 disease:2 cold:1 action:1 understood:1 think:1 dose:1 must:1 order:2 magnitude:1 consequently:1 scientist:1 skeptical:1 claim:1 efficacy:1 http:4 www:3 pathobiologics:1 org:2 ivphc:1 ref:1 doc:1 route:1 administration:1 systemic:1 mostly:1 intramuscular:1 injection:3 vein:1 skin:3 generally:2 tolerate:1 small:1 imidazoquinoline:1 molecule:4 aldara:1 imiquimod:1 cream:1 work:4 approve:6 fda:2 actinic:1 keratosis:1 superficial:1 basal:1 carcinoma:1 external:1 genital:1 wart:1 adverse:3 frequent:1 temperature:1 feel:1 ill:1 fatigue:1 headache:1 pain:2 convulsion:1 dizziness:1 hair:1 thinning:1 depression:1 erythema:1 hardness:1 spot:1 frequently:1 immunosuppression:2 particular:1 neutropenia:1 result:3 known:2 reversible:1 disappear:1 finish:1 multiferontm:1 huifn:3 le:3 eu:1 country:1 march:1 subtype:3 adjuvant:1 risk:1 cutaneous:1 melanoma:2 stag:1 iib:1 stage:1 en:1 wikipedia:1 wiki:1 staging:1 initial:1 cycle:2 dacarbazine:1 dtic:1 läkemedelsverkerhttp:1 lakemedelsverket:1 se:1 pdf:2 enhumspc:1 multiferon:2 approval:1 base:1 perform:1 germany:1 stadler:1 informaworld:1 com:1 smpp:1 content:2 db:1 pegylated:9 polyethylene:1 glycol:1 add:1 last:1 longer:1 january:1 october:2 inject:1 weekly:1 rather:2 time:2 per:1 week:1 conventional:1 ribavirin:2 sustain:1 cure:1 genotype:2 easy:1 still:1 less:1 yet:2 unknown:1 monocyte:1 history:2 aim:1 develop:1 improved:1 vaccine:1 smallpox:1 two:5 virologist:2 yasu:1 ichi:1 nagano:4 yasuhiko:1 kojima:1 institute:2 infectious:1 university:1 tokyo:1 notice:2 rabbit:2 testis:1 previously:1 inoculate:1 uv:2 inactivated:2 growth:2 live:2 hypothesise:1 inhibitory:2 fractionation:1 irradiated:1 homogenate:2 ultracentrifuge:1 publish:2 finding:1 french:2 journal:2 de:4 la:1 société:1 biologie:1 paper:3 demonstrate:4 particle:2 reconcile:1 experiment:1 observation:4 supernatant:1 antibody:2 involve:1 triple:1 ultracentrifugation:1 distinct:2 trace:1 contamination:1 ascribe:1 meanwhile:1 british:1 alick:1 isaac:1 swiss:1 jean:1 lindenmann:2 national:1 medical:1 research:4 london:2 interference:1 heat:1 chicken:2 egg:2 membrane:2 nutritive:1 solution:1 chorioallantoic:1 coin:1 term:1 today:1 interfere:1 agent:1 mergiran:1 tc:1 worldbook:1 science:3 never:1 fully:1 appreciate:1 scientific:1 community:1 possibly:1 print:1 vivo:1 perhaps:1 provide:1 clear:1 characterisation:1 purification:2 become:1 aware:1 widely:1 recognise:1 actively:1 seek:1 revaluation:1 status:1 field:1 credit:1 discovery:1 go:1 isaacs:1 record:1 ever:2 personal:1 contact:1 international:1 society:2 scarce:1 expensive:1 insert:1 technology:1 mass:1 cultivation:1 culture:1 derive:2 yeast:2 e:6 g:2 reiferon:2 retard:2 first:3 global:1 sale:1 billion:1 second:1 successful:1 come:1 genetic:1 engineering:1 miscellaneous:1 fact:1 substance:2 protect:2 similar:1 dependent:1 feedback:1 wave:1 hour:1 whereas:1 day:1 book:3 write:1 toine:1 pieters:1 selling:1 miracle:2 routledge:1 xiv:1 pp:1 isbn:1 chart:1 beginning:1 fate:1 story:1 development:1 face:1 remarkable:1 promise:1 hope:1 disappointment:1 clinical:1 definition:1 rational:1 moreover:1 lens:1 voyage:1 author:1 explore:1 interaction:1 laboratory:1 post:1 penicillin:1 era:1 genetics:1 revolution:1 ligand:2 binding:3 exposure:1 glycosylated:1 although:1 contain:3 carbohydrate:1 family:4 represent:2 related:1 homologous:1 unique:1 profile:2 seem:1 antiproliferative:1 stimulation:1 nk:1 consists:1 inf:2 monomer:1 mammalian:1 additional:2 variability:1 duplication:1 duplicate:1 much:1 great:1 extent:1 conjunction:1 subtypes:4 imply:1 physiologically:1 likely:1 primary:1 defense:2 structure:3 five:2 helix:7 label:3 link:3 overhand:2 loop:9 ab:4 short:3 segment:4 bc:2 cd:2 helices:2 arrange:1 antiparallel:1 fashion:1 left:1 hand:1 four:2 bundle:2 encircles:1 disulfide:2 bond:2 connect:1 n:2 terminus:1 critical:1 affinity:1 sequence:1 difference:2 region:1 hold:1 nmr:1 determine:1 interdomain:1 angle:1 degree:2 terminal:1 domain:1 recognize:1 member:1 circular:1 dichroism:1 measurement:1 residue:1 adopt:1 helical:1 conformation:1 compose:1 long:1 connection:1 topology:1 resemble:1 classical:1 helixbundle:1 motif:1 comprise:1 stable:1 acidic:1 ph:2 exclusively:1 market:2 generic:1 name:2 trade:1 roferon:1 intron:1 liquid:1 rebif:1 lyophilize:1 avonex:1 biogeneric:1 iran:1 cinnovex:1 betaseron:1 betaferon:1 pegasys:1 egypt:1 pegintron:1 plus:1 canada:1 pegetron:1 india:1 reliferon:1 reliance:1 biopharmaceuticals:1 see:1 immunotherapy:1 immunosuppressive:1 atc:1 code:1 reference:1 |@bigram strand_rna:3 viral_infection:2 immune_response:2 viral_replication:3 type_ifns:6 viral_rna:1 bacterial_flagellum:1 tumor_necrosis:1 necrosis_factor:1 metabolism_excretion:1 liver_kidney:1 interferon_alpha:15 alpha_beta:2 beta_gamma:1 innate_immune:2 virus_infect:2 protein_kinase:1 cytotoxic_cell:1 behave_differently:1 ifn_alpha:8 influenza_virus:3 mortality_rate:1 amino_acid:2 interferon_beta:10 beta_interferon:4 multiple_sclerosis:2 autoimmune_disorder:1 http_www:3 intramuscular_injection:1 approve_fda:1 cell_carcinoma:1 adverse_effect:3 en_wikipedia:1 org_wiki:1 fda_approve:1 pegylated_interferon:8 polyethylene_glycol:1 infectious_disease:1 la_société:1 recombinant_dna:1 ligand_binding:1 gene_duplication:1 helix_bundle:2 disulfide_bond:2 circular_dichroism:1 immunosuppressive_drug:1 atc_code:1 |
3,474 | Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament | The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament logo, known widely as the peace symbol. The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) is an organisation that advocates unilateral nuclear disarmament by Britain. It also campaigns for international nuclear disarmament and tighter international arms regulation through agreements such as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. It opposes military action that may result in the use of nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and the building of nuclear power stations in the UK. CND was formed in 1957 and has periodically been at the forefront of the peace movement in the United Kingdom over half a century. It claims to be Europe's largest single-issue peace campaign. Since 1958, it has organised the Aldermaston March, which is held over the Easter weekend from Trafalgar Square, London, to the Atomic Weapons Establishment near Aldermaston. The organisation is led by an elected chair, who is currently Kate Hudson. The First Wave 1958-1963 CND was founded in November 1957. J. B. Priestley had written an article for the New Statesman, published on 2 November 1957, "Britain and the Nuclear Bombs". Priestley's article was heavily critical of Aneurin Bevan for abandoning his arguments in favour of unilateral nuclear disarmament. The journal received numerous letters of support for Priestley's article. Public opposition to nuclear weapons had emerged in Britain in the mid-fifties when the government announced its decision to manufacture a hydrogen bomb. Between 1955 and 1962 a significant minority, varying from 19% to 33%, expressed disapproval of its manufacture. W.P.Snyder, The Politics of British Defense Policy, 1945-1962, Ohio University Press, 1964 At the end of November 1957, Kingsley Martin, editor of the New Statesman, chaired a meeting of fifty people in Canon John Collins's rooms to launch the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Canon Collins was chosen as its Chairman, Bertrand Russell as its President and Peggy Duff as its organising secretary. The other members of its executive committee were Richie Calder, journalist James Cameron, Howard Davies, Michael Foot, Arthur Goss, Kingsley Martin, J. B. Priestley and Joseph Rotblat. CND held its inaugural public meeting at Central Hall, Westminster, on 17 February 1958. Five thousand people attended and afterwards a few hundred marched to Downing Street. John Minnion and Philip Bolsover (eds.) The CND Story, Alison and Busby, 1983, ISBN 0 85031 487 9 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) CND draw support from a range of interests, including scientists, religious leaders, academics, journalists, writers, actors and musicians. Its sponsors included John Arlott, Peggy Ashcroft, the Bishop of Birmingham Dr J. L. Wilson, Benjamin Britten, Viscount Chaplin, Michael de la Bédoyère, Bob Edwards, MP, Dame Edith Evans, A.S.Frere, Gerald Gardiner, QC, Victor Gollancz, Dr I.Grunfeld, E.M.Forster, Barbara Hepworth, Patrick Heron, Rev. Trevor Huddleston, Sir Julian Huxley, Edward Hyams, the Bishop of Llandaff Dr Glyn Simon, Doris Lessing, Sir Compton Mackenzie, the Very Rev George McLeod, Miles Malleson, Denis Matthews, Sir Francis Meynell, Henry Moore, John Napper, Ben Nicholson, Sir Herbert Read, Flora Robson, Michael Tippett, the cartoonist 'Vicky', Professor C. H. Waddington and Barbara Wootton. Christopher Driver, The Disarmers: A Study in Protest, Hodder and Stoughton, 1964 Other prominent founding members of CND were Fenner Brockway, E. P. Thompson, A. J. P. Taylor, Anthony Greenwood, Lord Simon, D. H. Pennington, Eric Baker and Dora Russell. Organisations that had previously opposed British nuclear weapons supported CND, including the British Peace Committee, the Direct Action Committee, The history of CND the National Committee for the Abolition of Nuclear Weapons Tests and the Quakers. The CND sign was designed in 1958 by Gerald Holtom and in the following decade becae an international peace symbol. It is based on the semaphore symbols for "N" and "D" (for Nuclear Disarmament) within a circle. Holtom later said that it also symbolised "an individual in despair, with hands palm outstretched outwards and downwards in the manner of Goya's peasant before the firing squad." CND website In Easter 1958, a 52-mile march from London to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston was organised by the Direct Action Committee, supported by CND after some initial reluctance. The march was the subject of a documentary by Lindsay Anderson, March to Aldermaston. Thereafter, CND organised annual Easter marches starting at Aldermaston and ending in London. 60,000 people participated in the 1959 march and 150,000 in the 1961 and 1962 marches. Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, Continuum International Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0826458149 CND supporters were generally left of centre in politics. About three-quarters of CND supporters were Labour voters Frank Parkin, Middle Class Radicalism: The Social Bases of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Manchester University Press, 1968, p.39 and many of the early executive committee were Labour Party members, hoping to persuade Labour to adopt a unilateralist policy. The Labour Party voted at its 1960 Conference for unilateral nuclear disarmament. Hugh Gaitskell, the Party leader, received the vote with a promise to "fight, fight, and fight again" against the decision and it was overturned at the 1961 Conference. Its founders envisaged CND as a campaign by eminent individuals who would work through the Labour Party and lobby government for a change in defence policy, but they were overtaken by the huge enthusiasm the campaign generated and CND rapidly became a mass movement. A network of autonomous branches and specialist groups (such as Christian CND) sprang up. The Aldermaston march, CND's logo and its slogan "Ban the Bomb" became icons and part of the youth culture of the sixties. These different conceptions of the campaign - influential lobby group or popular protest movement - caused friction between leaders and supporters. Until the formation of a national council in 1961, supporters and local groups had no formal voice in the national organisation, which until then had been led by the self-appointed executive committee. In 1960 Bertrand Russell resigned from the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in order to form the Committee of 100. The Committee of 100, founded in reaction to what it regarded as the tameness of CND, became, in effect, its direct-action wing, supported by many in CND, including some of its founders, but opposed by the CND leadership who would not countenance any sort of unlawful protest. The Committee of 100 organised large sit-down demonstrations in London and at military bases. It later became involved in other political campaigns, including Biafra, the Vietnam war and housing in the UK. It was dissolved in 1968. When direct action came to the fore again in the 1980s, it was generally accepted by the peace movement as a legitimate form of protest. A brief history of CND As it did not have a national membership until 1966, the strength of CND's support can be estimated only from the numbers of those attending demonstrations or expressing approval in opinion polls. It has been claimed that many people who supported unilateral nuclear disarmament disapproved of CND's mass protests. Public support for unilateralism reached its peak at 33% in 1960 and then fell, remaining at around 25% ever since. April Carter, Direct Action and Liberal Democracy, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973, p.64 Andy Byrom, "British attitudes on nuclear weapons", Journal of Public Affairs, 7: 71-77, 2007 Attendance at CND and Committee of 100 demonstrations continued to rise until about 1963. On the 1963 Aldermaston march, a clandestine group calling itself Spies for Peace distributed leaflets about a secret government establishment, RSG 6, that the march was passing. The leaflet said that RSG 6 was to be the local HQ for a military dictatorship after nuclear war. A large group left the march, much against the wishes of the CND leadership, to demonstrate at RSG 6. Later, when the march reached London, there were disorderly demonstrations in which anarchists were prominent, quickly deprecated in the press and in parliament. No Aldermaston March took place in 1964, partly because of the events of 1963, but it was resumed in 1965. The Cuban Missile Crisis in the Autumn of 1962, in which the United States blockaded a Soviet attempt to put nuclear missiles on Cuba, created some anxiety about the possibility of imminent nuclear war and CND organised demonstrations on the issue. But six months after the crisis, a Gallup Poll found that public worry about nuclear weapons had fallen back to its lowest point since 1957, and there was a view, disputed by CND supporters, Nigel Young, "Cuba '62", in Minnion and Bolsover, p61 that Kennedy's success in facing down Khrushchev turned the British public away from CND. John Collins helped to form the International Confederation for Disarmament and Peace in 1963 Oxford Conference of Non-aligned Peace Organizations and resigned as chairman of CND in 1964. He had been unpopular with many CND supporters and he found himself out of sympathy with the direction the movement was taking. Support for CND dwindled after the 1963 Test Ban Treaty. From the mid-sixties, the anti-war movement's preoccupation with the Vietnam War tended to eclipse concern about nuclear weapons but CND continued to campaign against them. The Second Wave 1980-89 In the 1980s, CND underwent a major revival, its membership increasing from 4,000 to 100,000 between 1979 and 1984. This was a response to increasing tension between the superpowers following the deployment of American Pershing missiles in Western Europe, SS20s in the Soviet Bloc countries and Britain's replacement of the Polaris armed submarine fleet with Trident missiles in 1982. The NATO exercise Able Archer 83 also added to international tension. CND attracted supporters who opposed the Government’s civil defence plans as outlined in an official booklet, Protect and Survive. This publication was ridiculed in a popular pamphlet, Protest and Survive, by E.P.Thompson, a leading anti-nuclear campaigner of the period. Public support for unilateralism reached its highest level since the 1960s. Caedel, Martin, "Britain's Nuclear Disarmers", in Laqueur, W., European Peace Movements and the Future of the Western Alliance, Transaction Publishers, 1985, p.233 ISBN 0-88-738-0352 More women than men supported it. The British anti-nuclear movement at this time differed from the movement of the 1960s. Many groups sprang up independently of CND, some affiliating later. CND's previous objection to civil disobedience was dropped and it became a normal part of anti-nuclear protest. The women's movement had a strong influence, much of it emanating from the Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp. The Labour Party adopted unilateralism in the 1970s, though it dropped it after 1983. New CND sections were formed, including Ex-services CND, Green CND, Student CND, Trade Union CND, and Youth CND. A network of protesters, calling itself Cruise Watch, tracked and harassed Cruise missiles whenever they were carried on public roads. After a while, the missiles traveled only at night under police escort. The peace movement of early 80s was the largest in modern history. In October 1981, 250,000 people joined an anti-nuclear demonstration in London. In October 1983, three million people took part in simultaneous demonstrations across Europe, 300,000 of them in London. David Cortright, Peace: A History of Movements and Ideas, Cambridge University Press, 2008 ISBN 0521854024 Organised opposition to CND CND's growing support in the 1980s provoked opposition from several sources, notably Peace Through Nato, the British Atlantic Committee (which received government funding), Lords Hansard Women and Families for Defence (set up by right-wing journalist Lady Olga Maitland) and the Coalition for Peace through Security (CPS), in which the future Conservative MP Julian Lewis was involved. The government also took direct steps to counter the influence of CND, Secretary of State for Defence Michael Heseltine setting up Defence Secretariat 19 "to explain to the public the facts about the Government's policy on deterrence and multilateral disarmament". Commons Hansard Gerald Vaughan, a government minister, tried to halve government funding for the Citizens Advice Bureau, apparently because Joan Ruddock, CND's chair, was employed part-time at his local bureau. Bruce Kent, the general secretary of CND and a Roman Catholic priest, was warned by Cardinal Basil Hume not to become too involved in politics. The activities of anti-CND organisations included publication, debate, counter-demonstrations against CND and, it is claimed, untruthful personal attacks on CND members. A draft CPS leaflet alleged that Bruce Kent had links with the IRA. Kent claimed that the CPS placed a spy in CND (in fact MI5 had done so - see below). The CPS attracted criticism for refusing to reveal the source of its funds whilst alleging that the anti-nuclear movement was funded by the Soviet Union. Bruce Kent, Undiscovered Ends, pp. 179-181. Some of CND's opponents tried to portray it as a Communist or Soviet-dominated organisation. Communists have played an active role in the organisation, but others in CND dispute the amount of influence they have had. In 1990 it was discovered in the archive of the Stasi (the state security service of the former German Democratic Republic) that one member of CND's governing council, Vic Allen, had passed information to them about CND. This discovery was made public in a BBC TV programme in 1999, reviving debate about CND's supposed Soviet links. Allen stood against Joan Ruddock for the leadership of CND in 1985, but was defeated. Responding to revelations about Allen, Ruddock said, "He certainly had no influence on national CND, and as a pro-Soviet could never have succeeded to the chair. CND was as opposed to Soviet nuclear weapons as Western ones." Commons Hansard BBC News Opinion polls in 1982 and 1983 showed that public support for unilateralism had fallen from 31% in September 1982 to 21% in January 1983 and 19% in May 1983, though it is hard to say whether this was a result of the propaganda campaign against CND or not. State surveillance of CND The security service (MI5) has carried out surveillance of CND members it considered to be subversive. From the late 1960s until the mid-1970s, MI5 designated CND as subversive by virtue of its being "communist controlled". (Its chair from 1971-77, John Cox, was a member of the Communist Party.) From the late 1970s, it was downgraded to "communist-penetrated". MI5 says it has no current investigations in this area. MI5 website In 1985, Cathy Massiter, an MI5 officer who had been responsible for the surveillance of CND from 1981 to 1983, resigned and made disclosures to a Channel 4 20/20 Vision programme, "MI5's Official Secrets". BBC News Dale Campbell-Savours, MP, in Hansard, 24 July 1986 She said that her work was determined more by the political importance of CND than by any security threat posed by subversive elements within it. In 1983, she analysed telephone intercepts on John Cox that gave her access to conversations with Joan Ruddock and Bruce Kent. On the basis of Ruddock's contacts, MI5 suspected her of being a communist sympathiser and it was suggested that Bruce Kent might be a crypto-communist. MI5 placed a spy, Harry Newton, in the CND office. When Michael Heseltine became Secretary of State for Defence, Massiter prepared a report on CND for him. She was asked to provide information for Defence Secretariat 19 about leading CND personnel but was instructed to include only information from published sources. Ruddock claims that DS19 released distorted information regarding her political party affiliations to the media and Conservative Party candidates. Center for Democracy and Technology, Domestic Intelligence Agencies: The Mixed Record of the UK’s MI5 Current CND Support for CND fell after the end of the Cold war. It had not succeeded in converting the British public to unilateralism and even after the collapse of the Soviet Union British nuclear weapons still have majority support. CND's policy of opposing American nuclear bases, however, was and is more in tune with public opinion. James Hinton "Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament", in Roger S.Powers, Protest, Power and Change, Taylor and Francis, 1997. ISBN 0815309139 In 2006 CND launched a campaign against nuclear power which proved popular. Its membership, which had fallen to 32,000, increased threefold after Prime Minister Tony Blair made a commitment to nuclear energy. "CND membership booms after nuclear U-turn", The Independent, 17 July 2006 In recent years it has extended its campaigns to include opposition to U.S. and British policy in the Middle East, rather as it broadened its anti-nuclear campaigns in the 1960s to include opposition to the Vietnam War. In collaboration with the Stop the War Coalition and the Muslim Association of Britain, CND has organised anti-war marches under the slogan "Don't Attack Iraq", including protests on September 28, 2002 and February 15, 2003. It also organised a vigil for the victims of the London bombings. CND campaigns against the Trident missile. In March 2007 it organised a rally in Parliament Square to coincide with the Commons motion to renew the weapons system. The rally was attended by over 1,000 people. It was addressed by Labour MPs Jon Trickett, Emily Thornberry, John McDonnell, Michael Meacher, Diane Abbott and Jeremy Corbyn, and Elfyn Llwyd of Plaid Cymru and Angus MacNeil of the Scottish National Party. In the House of Commons, 161 MPs (88 of them Labour) voted against the renewal of Trident and the Government motion was carried only with the support of Conservatives. House of Commons Library, Labour Backbench Rebellions since 1997 CND's current strategic objectives are: The elimination of British nuclear weapons and global abolition of nuclear weapons. It campaigns for the cancellation of Trident by the British government and against the deployment of nuclear weapons in Britain. The abolition of weapons of mass destruction, in particular chemical and biological weapons. CND wants a ban on the manufacture, testing and use of depleted uranium weapons A nuclear-free, less militarised and more secure Europe. It supports the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). It opposes US military bases and nuclear weapons in Europe and British membership of NATO. The closure of the nuclear power industry. CND aims and policies Structure CND has a national organisation based in London, national groups in Wales, Ireland and Scotland, regional groups in Cambridgeshire, Cumbria, the East Midlands, Kent, London, Manchester, Merseyside, Mid Somerset, Norwich, South Cheshire and North Staffordshire, Southern England, South West England, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex, Tyne and Wear, the West Midlands and Yorkshire, and local branches. There are four "specialist sections": Trade Union CND, Christian CND, Labour CND and Ex-Services CND CND Constitution , which have rights of representation on the governing council. There are also parliamentary, youth and student groups. The Council is made up of the chair of CND, the treasurer, 3 vice-chairs, 15 directly elected members, a representative of each of the specialist sections, 1 from Student CND, 3 from Youth CND and 27 from the regional groups. Employees sit on the Council but do not vote. Chairs of CND since 1958 Canon John Collins 1958–1964 Olive Gibbs 1964–1967 Sheila Oakes 1967–1968 Malcolm Caldwell 1968–1970 April Carter 1970–1971 John Cox 1971–1977 Bruce Kent 1977–1979 Hugh Jenkins 1979–1981 Joan Ruddock 1981–1985 Paul Johns 1985 – 1987 Bruce Kent 1987 –1990 Marjorie Thompson 1990–1993 Janet Bloomfield 1993–1996 David Knight 1996–2001 Carol Naughton 2001–2003 Kate Hudson 2003– General Secretaries of CND since 1958 Peggy Duff 1958–1967 Dick Nettleton 1967–1973 Dan Smith 1974–1975 Duncan Rees 1976–1979 Bruce Kent 1979–1985 Meg Beresford 1985–1990 Gary Lefley, 1990–1994 Membership 1970-1995 taken from Social Movements in Britain, Paul Byrne, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-07123-2 (1997), p.91. YearMembersYearMembers 1970 2,120 1986 84,000 1971 2,047 1987 75,000 1972 2,389 1988 72,000 1973 2,367 1989 62,000 1974 2350 1990 62,000 1975 2536 1991 60,000 1976 3220 1992 57,000 1977 4,287 1993 52,000 1978 3,220 1994 47,000 1979 4,287 1995 47,700 1980 9,000 1996 1981 20,000 1997 1982 50,000 1998 1983 75,000 1999 1984 100,000 2000 1985 92,000 2001 Archives Much of National CND's historical archive is at the Modern Records Centre at the University of Warwick and the London School of Economics, although records of local and regional groups are spread throughout the country in public and private collections. References See also Anti-war Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (NZ) European Nuclear Disarmament European Peace Marches Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp Independent Nuclear Disarmament Election Committee Koeberg Alert Nuclear disarmament Nuclear-Free Future Award Nuclear-free zone Nuclear proliferation Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom Peace movement Further reading CND - Now More Than Ever: The Story of a Peace Movement, Kate Hudson, Vision Paperbacks, ISBN 1-904132-69-3 (2005) Holger Nehring (2001), 'From Gentleman's Club to Folk Festival: The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in Manchester, 1958-63', North West Labour History Journal, Number 26. pp. 18–28 Holger Nehring (2006), 'Diverging perceptions of security: NATO and the protests against nuclear weapons', in Andreas Wenger, et al. (eds.), Transforming NATO in the Cold War: Challenges beyond Deterrence in the 1960s (London: Routledge, 2006) Holger Nehring (2005), 'National Internationalists: British and West German Protests against Nuclear Weapons, the Politics of Transnational Communications and the Social History of the Cold War, 1957–1964', Contemporary European History 14, no. 4 Holger Nehring (2005), 'Politics, Symbols and the Public Sphere: The Protests against Nuclear Weapons in Britain and West Germany, 1958-1963', Zeithistorische Forschungen 2, no. 2 Holger Nehring (2005), 'The British and West German Protests against Nuclear Weapons and the Cultures of the Cold War, 1957–64', Contemporary British History 19, no. 2 (2005) The Disarmers: A Study in Protest, Christopher Driver, Hodder and Stoughton (1964) Social Movements in Britain, Paul Byrne, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-07123-2 (1997) A commitment to Campaign: A Sociological Study of CND, John Mattausch, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-2908-2 (1989) The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Paul Byrne, Routledge, ISBN 0-7099-3260-X (1988) The CND Story: The first 25 years of CND in the words of the people involved, John Minnion and Philip Bolsover Ed., Allison & Busby, ISBN 0-85031-487-9 (1983) The Protest Makers: The British Nuclear Disarmament of 1958-1965, Twenty Years On, Richard Taylor and Colin Pritchard, Pergamon Press, ISBN 0-08-025211-7 (1980) Left, Left, Left: A personal account of six protest campaigns 1945-65, Peggy Duff, Allison and Busby, ISBN 0-85031-056-3 (1971) Middle class radicalism: The Social Bases of the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Frank Parkin, Manchester University Press (1968) From Protest to Resistance, A Peace News pamphlet, Mushroom Books (1981) ISBN 0-90712-302-3 External links Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament home page History of CND on CND website BBC Report of the 1960 Aldermaston March BBC Report of CND Protest in London 22 October 1983 Catalogue of the CND papers at the Archives Division of the London School of Economics Exhibition - CND: The story of a peace movement (LSE Archives) Anniversary demo at nuclear site CND veterans remain unbowed, 50 years on A new generation of CND goes on the march Activists mark Chernobyl disaster | Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament |@lemmatized campaign:27 nuclear:63 disarmament:24 logo:2 know:1 widely:1 peace:21 symbol:4 cnd:104 organisation:9 advocate:1 unilateral:4 britain:10 also:7 international:6 tight:1 arm:2 regulation:1 agreement:1 non:2 proliferation:2 treaty:2 oppose:7 military:4 action:6 may:2 result:2 use:2 chemical:2 biological:2 weapon:24 building:1 power:5 station:1 uk:3 form:5 periodically:1 forefront:1 movement:18 united:3 kingdom:2 half:1 century:1 claim:5 europe:6 large:4 single:1 issue:2 since:7 organise:7 aldermaston:9 march:19 hold:2 easter:3 weekend:1 trafalgar:1 square:2 london:15 atomic:2 establishment:3 near:1 lead:4 elected:1 chair:8 currently:1 kate:3 hudson:3 first:2 wave:2 found:3 november:3 j:4 b:2 priestley:4 write:1 article:3 new:4 statesman:2 publish:2 bomb:3 heavily:1 critical:1 aneurin:1 bevan:1 abandon:1 argument:1 favour:1 journal:3 receive:3 numerous:1 letter:1 support:17 public:15 opposition:5 emerge:1 mid:4 fifty:2 government:11 announce:1 decision:2 manufacture:3 hydrogen:1 significant:1 minority:1 vary:1 express:2 disapproval:1 w:2 p:8 snyder:1 politics:5 british:19 defense:1 policy:7 ohio:1 university:6 press:7 end:4 kingsley:2 martin:3 editor:1 meeting:2 people:8 canon:3 john:14 collins:4 room:1 launch:2 choose:1 chairman:2 bertrand:2 russell:3 president:1 peggy:4 duff:3 secretary:5 member:8 executive:3 committee:13 richie:1 calder:1 journalist:3 james:2 cameron:1 howard:1 davy:1 michael:6 foot:1 arthur:1 go:2 joseph:1 rotblat:1 inaugural:1 central:1 hall:1 westminster:1 february:2 five:1 thousand:1 attend:3 afterwards:1 hundred:1 street:1 minnion:3 philip:2 bolsover:3 eds:2 story:4 alison:1 busby:3 isbn:14 draw:1 range:1 interest:1 include:11 scientist:1 religious:1 leader:3 academic:1 writer:1 actor:1 musician:1 sponsor:1 arlott:1 ashcroft:1 bishop:2 birmingham:1 dr:3 l:1 wilson:1 benjamin:1 britten:1 viscount:1 chaplin:1 de:1 la:1 bédoyère:1 bob:1 edward:2 mp:5 dame:1 edith:1 evans:1 frere:1 gerald:3 gardiner:1 qc:1 victor:1 gollancz:1 grunfeld:1 e:3 forster:1 barbara:2 hepworth:1 patrick:1 heron:1 rev:2 trevor:1 huddleston:1 sir:4 julian:2 huxley:1 hyams:1 llandaff:1 glyn:1 simon:2 doris:1 lessing:1 compton:1 mackenzie:1 george:1 mcleod:1 mile:2 malleson:1 denis:1 matthew:1 francis:2 meynell:1 henry:1 moore:1 napper:1 ben:1 nicholson:1 herbert:1 read:2 flora:1 robson:1 tippett:1 cartoonist:1 vicky:1 professor:1 c:1 h:2 waddington:1 wootton:1 christopher:2 driver:2 disarmer:3 study:3 protest:18 hodder:2 stoughton:2 prominent:2 fenner:1 brockway:1 thompson:3 taylor:3 anthony:1 greenwood:1 lord:2 pennington:1 eric:1 baker:1 dora:1 previously:1 direct:6 history:9 national:10 abolition:3 test:3 quaker:1 sign:1 design:1 holtom:2 following:1 decade:1 becae:1 base:7 semaphore:1 n:1 within:2 circle:1 later:4 say:6 symbolise:1 individual:2 despair:1 hand:1 palm:1 outstretched:1 outwards:1 downwards:1 manner:1 goya:1 peasant:1 firing:1 squad:1 website:3 research:1 initial:1 reluctance:1 subject:1 documentary:1 lindsay:1 anderson:1 thereafter:1 annual:1 start:1 participate:1 peter:1 barberis:1 mchugh:1 mike:1 tyldesley:1 encyclopedia:1 irish:1 political:4 organization:2 continuum:1 publishing:1 supporter:7 generally:2 leave:5 centre:2 three:2 quarter:1 labour:11 voter:1 frank:2 parkin:2 middle:3 class:2 radicalism:2 social:5 manchester:5 many:5 early:2 party:9 hop:1 persuade:1 adopt:2 unilateralist:1 vote:4 conference:3 hugh:2 gaitskell:1 promise:1 fight:3 overturn:1 founder:2 envisage:1 eminent:1 would:2 work:2 lobby:2 change:2 defence:7 overtake:1 huge:1 enthusiasm:1 generate:1 rapidly:1 become:7 mass:3 network:2 autonomous:1 branch:2 specialist:3 group:11 christian:2 spring:2 slogan:2 ban:3 icon:1 part:4 youth:4 culture:2 sixty:2 different:1 conception:1 influential:1 popular:3 cause:1 friction:1 formation:1 council:5 local:5 formal:1 voice:1 self:1 appoint:1 resign:3 order:1 reaction:1 regard:2 tameness:1 effect:1 wing:2 leadership:3 countenance:1 sort:1 unlawful:1 organised:3 sit:2 demonstration:8 involve:3 biafra:1 vietnam:3 war:13 housing:1 dissolve:1 come:1 fore:1 accept:1 legitimate:1 brief:1 membership:6 strength:1 estimate:1 number:2 approval:1 opinion:3 poll:3 disapprove:1 unilateralism:5 reach:3 peak:1 fell:2 remain:2 around:1 ever:2 april:2 carter:2 liberal:1 democracy:2 routledge:5 kegan:1 paul:5 andy:1 byrom:1 attitude:1 affair:1 attendance:1 continue:2 rise:1 clandestine:1 call:2 spy:3 distribute:1 leaflet:3 secret:2 rsg:3 pass:2 hq:1 dictatorship:1 much:3 wish:1 demonstrate:1 disorderly:1 anarchist:1 quickly:1 deprecate:1 parliament:2 take:5 place:3 partly:1 event:1 resume:1 cuban:1 missile:7 crisis:2 autumn:1 state:5 blockade:1 soviet:8 attempt:1 put:1 cuba:2 create:1 anxiety:1 possibility:1 imminent:1 six:2 month:1 gallup:1 find:2 worry:1 fall:3 back:1 low:1 point:1 view:1 dispute:2 nigel:1 young:1 kennedy:1 success:1 face:1 khrushchev:1 turn:2 away:1 help:1 confederation:1 oxford:1 align:1 unpopular:1 sympathy:1 direction:1 dwindle:1 anti:10 preoccupation:1 tend:1 eclipse:1 concern:1 second:1 undergo:1 major:1 revival:1 increase:3 response:1 tension:2 superpower:1 follow:1 deployment:2 american:2 pershing:1 western:3 bloc:1 country:2 replacement:1 polaris:1 submarine:1 fleet:1 trident:4 nato:5 exercise:1 able:1 archer:1 add:1 attract:2 civil:2 plan:1 outline:1 official:2 booklet:1 protect:1 survive:2 publication:2 ridicule:1 pamphlet:2 campaigner:1 period:1 high:1 level:1 caedel:1 laqueur:1 european:4 future:3 alliance:1 transaction:1 publisher:1 woman:5 men:1 time:2 differ:1 independently:1 affiliating:1 previous:1 objection:1 disobedience:1 drop:2 normal:1 strong:1 influence:4 emanate:1 greenham:2 common:7 camp:2 though:2 section:3 ex:2 service:4 green:1 student:3 trade:2 union:4 protester:1 cruise:2 watch:1 track:1 harass:1 whenever:1 carry:3 road:1 travel:1 night:1 police:1 escort:1 modern:2 october:3 join:1 million:1 simultaneous:1 across:1 david:2 cortright:1 idea:1 cambridge:1 grow:1 provoked:1 several:1 source:3 notably:1 atlantic:1 funding:2 hansard:4 family:1 set:2 right:2 lady:1 olga:1 maitland:1 coalition:2 security:6 cps:4 conservative:3 lewis:1 step:1 counter:2 heseltine:2 secretariat:2 explain:1 fact:2 deterrence:2 multilateral:1 vaughan:1 minister:2 try:2 halve:1 citizen:1 advice:1 bureau:2 apparently:1 joan:4 ruddock:7 employ:1 bruce:8 kent:10 general:2 roman:1 catholic:1 priest:1 warn:1 cardinal:1 basil:1 hume:1 involved:1 activity:1 debate:2 untruthful:1 personal:2 attack:2 draft:1 allege:2 link:3 ira:1 see:2 criticism:1 refuse:1 reveal:1 fund:2 whilst:1 undiscovered:1 pp:2 opponent:1 portray:1 communist:7 dominated:1 play:1 active:1 role:1 others:1 amount:1 discover:1 archive:5 stasi:1 former:1 german:3 democratic:1 republic:1 one:2 govern:2 vic:1 allen:3 information:4 discovery:1 make:4 bbc:5 tv:1 programme:2 revive:1 suppose:1 stood:1 defeat:1 respond:1 revelation:1 certainly:1 pro:1 could:1 never:1 succeed:2 news:3 show:1 september:2 january:1 hard:1 whether:1 propaganda:1 surveillance:3 consider:1 subversive:3 late:2 designate:1 virtue:1 control:1 cox:3 downgrade:1 penetrate:1 current:3 investigation:1 area:1 cathy:1 massiter:2 officer:1 responsible:1 disclosure:1 channel:1 vision:2 dale:1 campbell:1 savour:1 july:2 determine:1 importance:1 threat:1 pose:1 element:1 analyse:1 telephone:1 intercept:1 give:1 access:1 conversation:1 basis:1 contact:1 suspect:1 sympathiser:1 suggest:1 might:1 crypto:1 harry:1 newton:1 office:1 prepare:1 report:3 ask:1 provide:1 personnel:1 instruct:1 release:1 distorted:1 affiliation:1 medium:1 candidate:1 center:1 technology:1 domestic:1 intelligence:1 agency:1 mixed:1 record:3 cold:4 convert:1 even:1 collapse:1 still:1 majority:1 however:1 tune:1 hinton:1 roger:1 prove:1 threefold:1 prime:1 tony:1 blair:1 commitment:2 energy:1 boom:1 u:3 independent:2 recent:1 year:4 extend:1 east:2 rather:1 broaden:1 collaboration:1 stop:1 muslim:1 association:1 iraq:1 vigil:1 victim:1 bombing:1 rally:2 coincide:1 motion:2 renew:1 system:1 address:1 jon:1 trickett:1 emily:1 thornberry:1 mcdonnell:1 meacher:1 diane:1 abbott:1 jeremy:1 corbyn:1 elfyn:1 llwyd:1 plaid:1 cymru:1 angus:1 macneil:1 scottish:1 house:2 renewal:1 library:1 backbench:1 rebellion:1 strategic:1 objective:1 elimination:1 global:1 cancellation:1 destruction:1 particular:1 want:1 depleted:1 uranium:1 free:3 less:1 militarised:1 secure:1 co:1 operation:1 osce:1 closure:1 industry:1 aim:1 structure:1 wale:1 ireland:1 scotland:1 regional:3 cambridgeshire:1 cumbria:1 midland:2 merseyside:1 somerset:1 norwich:1 south:2 cheshire:1 north:2 staffordshire:1 southern:1 england:2 west:6 suffolk:1 surrey:1 sussex:1 tyne:1 wear:1 yorkshire:1 four:1 constitution:1 representation:1 parliamentary:1 treasurer:1 vice:1 directly:1 elect:1 representative:1 employee:1 olive:1 gibbs:1 sheila:1 oakes:1 malcolm:1 caldwell:1 jenkins:1 marjorie:1 janet:1 bloomfield:1 knight:1 carol:1 naughton:1 dick:1 nettleton:1 dan:1 smith:1 duncan:1 rees:1 meg:1 beresford:1 gary:1 lefley:1 byrne:3 yearmembersyearmembers:1 historical:1 warwick:1 school:2 economics:2 although:1 spread:1 throughout:1 private:1 collection:1 reference:1 nz:1 election:1 koeberg:1 alert:1 award:1 zone:1 far:1 paperback:1 holger:5 nehring:5 gentleman:1 club:1 folk:1 festival:1 diverge:1 perception:1 andreas:1 wenger:1 et:1 al:1 transform:1 challenge:1 beyond:1 internationalist:1 transnational:1 communication:1 contemporary:2 sphere:1 germany:1 zeithistorische:1 forschungen:1 sociological:1 mattausch:1 x:1 word:1 ed:1 allison:2 maker:1 twenty:1 richard:1 colin:1 pritchard:1 pergamon:1 account:1 resistance:1 mushroom:1 book:1 external:1 home:1 page:1 catalogue:1 paper:1 division:1 exhibition:1 lse:1 anniversary:1 demo:1 site:1 veteran:1 unbowed:1 generation:1 activists:1 mark:1 chernobyl:1 disaster:1 |@bigram nuclear_disarmament:22 aldermaston_march:5 trafalgar_square:1 aneurin_bevan:1 nuclear_weapon:17 express_disapproval:1 bertrand_russell:2 peggy_ashcroft:1 benjamin_britten:1 victor_gollancz:1 julian_huxley:1 hodder_stoughton:2 firing_squad:1 lindsay_anderson:1 hugh_gaitskell:1 opinion_poll:2 routledge_kegan:1 kegan_paul:1 cuban_missile:1 gallup_poll:1 pershing_missile:1 trident_missile:2 civil_disobedience:1 cruise_missile:1 michael_heseltine:2 soviet_union:2 bbc_news:2 taylor_francis:1 prime_minister:1 tony_blair:1 plaid_cymru:1 depleted_uranium:1 tyne_wear:1 holger_nehring:5 et_al:1 external_link:1 chernobyl_disaster:1 |
3,475 | Antigonid_dynasty | Coin of Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed") (382 BC - 301 BC). The Antigonid dynasty was a dynasty of Hellenistic kings descended from Alexander the Great's general Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed"). History Succeeding the Antipatrid dynasty in much of Macedonia, Antigonus ruled mostly over Asia Minor and northern Syria. His attempts to take control of the whole of Alexander's empire led to his defeat and death at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Antigonus's son Demetrius I Poliorcetes survived the battle, and managed to seize control of Macedon itself a few years later, but eventually lost his throne, dying in prison. After a period of confusion, Demetrius's son Antigonus II Gonatas was able to establish the family's control over the old Kingdom of Macedon, as well as over most of the Greek city-states, by 276 BC. Legacy It was one of four empires formed by Alexander's successors, the others being the Seleucid dynasty, Ptolemaic dynasty and Attalid dynasty. The last scion of the dynasty, Perseus of Macedon, who reigned between 179-168 BCE was recognized as a champion of Greek freedom against Rome. Nonetheless he proved unable to stop the advancing Roman legions and the Greek's defeat at the Battle of Pydna signaled the end of the dynasty. Britannica, Antigonid dynasty, 2008, O.Ed. "Philip’s successor, Perseus (reigned 179–168 bc), was recognized as a champion of Greek freedom against Rome. But Perseus’ failure to deploy his full resources brought about his defeat (168) at Pydna in Macedonia and signaled the end of the dynasty." Dynasty Coin of Antigonus II Gonatas The members of the Antingonid dynasty were: Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes (294 BC-287 BC) Antigonus II Gonatas (276 BC-239 BC) Demetrius II (239 BC-229 BC) Antigonus III Doson (229 BC - 221 BC) Philip V (221 BC-179 BC) Perseus (179 BC-168 BC) The Greek rebel against Rome and last King of Macedonia, Andriscus, claimed to be the son of Perseus. References See also List of kings of Macedon | Antigonid_dynasty |@lemmatized coin:2 antigonus:9 monophthalmus:3 one:3 eye:2 bc:17 antigonid:2 dynasty:12 hellenistic:1 king:3 descend:1 alexander:3 great:1 general:1 history:1 succeed:1 antipatrid:1 much:1 macedonia:3 rule:1 mostly:1 asia:1 minor:1 northern:1 syria:1 attempt:1 take:1 control:3 whole:1 empire:2 lead:1 defeat:3 death:1 battle:3 ipsus:1 son:3 demetrius:4 poliorcetes:2 survive:1 manage:1 seize:1 macedon:4 year:1 later:1 eventually:1 lose:1 throne:1 die:1 prison:1 period:1 confusion:1 ii:4 gonatas:3 able:1 establish:1 family:1 old:1 kingdom:1 well:1 greek:5 city:1 state:1 legacy:1 four:1 form:1 successor:2 others:1 seleucid:1 ptolemaic:1 attalid:1 last:2 scion:1 perseus:5 reign:2 bce:1 recognize:2 champion:2 freedom:2 rome:3 nonetheless:1 prove:1 unable:1 stop:1 advance:1 roman:1 legion:1 pydna:2 signal:2 end:2 britannica:1 ed:1 philip:2 failure:1 deploy:1 full:1 resource:1 bring:1 member:1 antingonid:1 iii:1 doson:1 v:1 rebel:1 andriscus:1 claim:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 |@bigram seleucid_dynasty:1 ptolemaic_dynasty:1 |
3,476 | Miss_Congeniality_(film) | Miss Congeniality is a 2000 comedy directed by Donald Petrie, starring Sandra Bullock and Benjamin Bratt. A sequel, Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous was released in 2005. Cast Sandra Bullock — Gracie Hart Michael Caine — Victor Melling Benjamin Bratt — Eric Matthews Candice Bergen — Kathy Morningside Heather Burns — Cheryl Frasier (Miss Rhode Island) Steve Monroe — Frank Tobin/Morningside Ernie Hudson — Harry McDonald William Shatner — Stan Fields Plot Gracie Hart (Sandra Bullock) is an FBI agent who goes undercover in the fictional Miss United States scholarship program/beauty pageant in San Antonio, Texas on the lookout for a terrorist. She, who is not traditionally attractive, is turned into a more attractive woman going by the name of Gracie Lou Freebush, with the same tomboyish habits (eg. snorting while laughing). She is seen overreacting to a gun-toting Texan, wearing a Tyrolean for her talent competition, much to the dismay of her mentor, Victor Melling (Michael Caine) and the director of the competition and former queen, Kathy Morningside (Candice Bergen), and using her on-stage talent to demonstrate self-defense techniques. In the pageant itself, Hart, competing on behalf of the state of New Jersey was tabbed to advance to the top 10, but gets through on talent alone for the rest of the pageant. She was eventually placed as runner up (Cheryl Frasier/Miss Rhode Island won). It is revealed at the end of the movie that Morningside and her son, Frank Morningside (gone under the name Tobin to hide his many crimes) have plotted to sabotage the pageant. They are caught after the title crown (which is rigged with a bomb) detonates at conclusion of the pageant, and Gracie is awarded "Miss Congeniality" (although The Miss Congeniality award is usually given during the pageant itself, a custom in pageants such as Miss USA and Miss Universe) and starts a relationship with her partner Eric Matthews (Benjamin Bratt). Reception The movie was a box office hit, grossing more than $106 million at the U.S. box office and grossed over $212 million worldwide. It was nominated for several awards, including two Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture - Comedy/Musical for Sandra Bullock and Best Original Song - Motion Picture for Bosson's "One in a Million". DVD Release According to DvdTown, the DVD was released on June 1, 2004, including two commentaries, some deleted scenes, the theatrical trailer, and two documentaries. On March 3, 2005, a deluxe edition of the film was released, including different cover art for the DVD and menu. It contained the same features as the other DVD version plus a quiz hosted by William Shatner and a sneak peek at the second film. No Blu-ray edition has been released yet. External links | Miss_Congeniality_(film) |@lemmatized miss:9 congeniality:4 comedy:2 direct:1 donald:1 petrie:1 star:1 sandra:4 bullock:4 benjamin:3 bratt:3 sequel:1 arm:1 fabulous:1 release:5 cast:1 gracie:4 hart:3 michael:2 caine:2 victor:2 melling:2 eric:2 matthew:2 candice:2 bergen:2 kathy:2 morningside:5 heather:1 burn:1 cheryl:2 frasier:2 rhode:2 island:2 steve:1 monroe:1 frank:2 tobin:2 ernie:1 hudson:1 harry:1 mcdonald:1 william:2 shatner:2 stan:1 field:1 plot:2 fbi:1 agent:1 go:3 undercover:1 fictional:1 united:1 state:2 scholarship:1 program:1 beauty:1 pageant:7 san:1 antonio:1 texas:1 lookout:1 terrorist:1 traditionally:1 attractive:2 turn:1 woman:1 name:2 lou:1 freebush:1 tomboyish:1 habit:1 eg:1 snort:1 laugh:1 see:1 overreact:1 gun:1 toting:1 texan:1 wear:1 tyrolean:1 talent:3 competition:2 much:1 dismay:1 mentor:1 director:1 former:1 queen:1 use:1 stage:1 demonstrate:1 self:1 defense:1 technique:1 compete:1 behalf:1 new:1 jersey:1 tabbed:1 advance:1 top:1 get:1 alone:1 rest:1 eventually:1 place:1 runner:1 win:1 reveal:1 end:1 movie:2 son:1 hide:1 many:1 crime:1 sabotage:1 catch:1 title:1 crown:1 rig:1 bomb:1 detonate:1 conclusion:1 award:3 although:1 usually:1 give:1 custom:1 usa:1 universe:1 start:1 relationship:1 partner:1 reception:1 box:2 office:2 hit:1 gross:2 million:3 u:1 worldwide:1 nominate:1 several:1 include:3 two:3 golden:1 globe:1 best:2 performance:1 actress:1 motion:2 picture:2 musical:1 original:1 song:1 bosson:1 one:1 dvd:4 accord:1 dvdtown:1 june:1 commentary:1 deleted:1 scene:1 theatrical:1 trailer:1 documentary:1 march:1 deluxe:1 edition:2 film:2 different:1 cover:1 art:1 menu:1 contain:1 feature:1 version:1 plus:1 quiz:1 host:1 sneak:1 peek:1 second:1 blu:1 ray:1 yet:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram miss_congeniality:4 sandra_bullock:4 benjamin_bratt:3 michael_caine:2 candice_bergen:2 rhode_island:2 william_shatner:2 beauty_pageant:1 san_antonio:1 golden_globe:1 motion_picture:2 deleted_scene:1 theatrical_trailer:1 deluxe_edition:1 blu_ray:1 external_link:1 |
3,477 | Addition | 3 + 2 = 5 with apples, a popular choice in textbooks From Enderton (p.138): "...select two sets K and L with card K = 2 and card L = 3. Sets of fingers are handy; sets of apples are preferred by textbooks." Addition is the mathematical process of putting things together. The plus sign "+" means that numbers are added together. For example, in the picture on the right, there are 3 + 2 apples—meaning three apples and two other apples—which is the same as five apples, since 3 + 2 = 5. Besides counts of fruit, addition can also represent combining other physical and abstract quantities using different kinds of numbers: negative numbers, fractions, irrational numbers, vectors, and more. As a mathematical operation, addition follows several important patterns. It is commutative, meaning that order does not matter, and it is associative, meaning that one can add more than two numbers (see Summation). Repeated addition of 1 is the same as counting; addition of 0 does not change a number. Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and multiplication. All of these rules can be proven, starting with the addition of natural numbers and generalizing up through the real numbers and beyond. General binary operations that continue these patterns are studied in abstract algebra. Performing addition is one of the simplest numerical tasks. Addition of very small numbers is accessible to toddlers; the most basic task, 1 + 1, can be performed by infants as young as five months and even some animals. In primary education, children learn to add numbers in the decimal system, starting with single digits and progressively tackling more difficult problems. Mechanical aids range from the ancient abacus to the modern computer, where research on the most efficient implementations of addition continues to this day. Notation and terminology The plus sign Addition is written using the plus sign "+" between the terms; that is, in infix notation. The result is expressed with an equals sign. For example, (verbally, "one plus one equals two") (verbally, "two plus two equals four") (see "associativity" below) (see "multiplication" below) There are also situations where addition is "understood" even though no symbol appears: 5 + 12 = 17 A column of numbers, with the last number in the column underlined, usually indicates that the numbers in the column are to be added, with the sum written below the underlined number. A whole number followed immediately by a fraction indicates the sum of the two, called a mixed number. Devine et al. p.263 For example, 3½ = 3 + ½ = 3.5. This notation can cause confusion since in most other contexts juxtaposition denotes multiplication instead. The numbers or the objects to be added are generally called the "terms", the "addends", or the "summands"; this terminology carries over to the summation of multiple terms. This is to be distinguished from factors, which are multiplied. Some authors call the first addend the augend. In fact, during the Renaissance, many authors did not consider the first addend an "addend" at all. Today, due to the symmetry of addition, "augend" is rarely used, and both terms are generally called addends. Schwartzman p.19 All of this terminology derives from Latin. "Addition" and "add" are English words derived from the Latin verb addere, which is in turn a compound of ad "to" and dare "to give", from the Proto-Indo-European root "to give"; thus to add is to give to. Using the gerundive suffix -nd results in "addend", "thing to be added". "Addend" is not a Latin word; in Latin it must be further conjugated, as in numerus addendus "the number to be added". Likewise from augere "to increase", one gets "augend", "thing to be increased". Redrawn illustration from The Art of Nombryng, one of the first English arithmetic texts, in the 15th century Karpinski pp.56–57, reproduced on p.104 "Sum" and "summand" derive from the Latin noun summa "the highest, the top" and associated verb summare. This is appropriate not only because the sum of two positive numbers is greater than either, but because it was once common to add upward, contrary to the modern practice of adding downward, so that a sum was literally higher than the addends. Schwartzman (p.212) attributes adding upwards to the Greeks and Romans, saying it was about as common as adding downwards. On the other hand, Karpinski (p.103) writes that Leonard of Pisa "introduces the novelty of writing the sum above the addends"; it is unclear whether Karpinski is claiming this as an original invention or simply the introduction of the practice to Europe. Addere and summare date back at least to Boethius, if not to earlier Roman writers such as Vitruvius and Frontinus; Boethius also used several other terms for the addition operation. The later Middle English terms "adden" and "adding" were popularized by Chaucer. Karpinski pp.150–153 Interpretations Addition is used to model countless physical processes. Even for the simple case of adding natural numbers, there are many possible interpretations and even more visual representations. Combining sets Possibly the most fundamental interpretation of addition lies in combining sets: When two or more disjoint collections are combined into a single collection, the number of objects in the single collection is the sum of the number of objects in the original collections. This interpretation is easy to visualize, with little danger of ambiguity. It is also useful in higher mathematics; for the rigorous definition it inspires, see Natural numbers below. However, it is not obvious how one should extend this version of addition to include fractional numbers or negative numbers. See this article for an example of the sophistication involved in adding with sets of "fractional cardinality". One possible fix is to consider collections of objects that can be easily divided, such as pies or, still better, segmented rods. Adding it up (p.73) compares adding measuring rods to adding sets of cats: "For example, inches can be subdivided into parts, which are hard to tell from the wholes, except that they are shorter; whereas it is painful to cats to divide them into parts, and it seriously changes their nature." Rather than just combining collections of segments, rods can be joined end-to-end, which illustrates another conception of addition: adding not the rods but the lengths of the rods. Extending a length A second interpretation of addition comes from extending an initial length by a given length: When an original length is extended by a given amount, the final length is the sum of the original length and the length of the extension. A number-line visualization of the algebraic addition 2 + 4 = 6. A translation by 2 followed by a translation by 4 is the same as a translation by 6. A number-line visualization of the unary addition 2 + 4 = 6. A translation by 4 is equivalent to four translations by 1. The sum a + b can be interpreted as a binary operation that combines a and b, in an algebraic sense, or it can be interpreted as the addition of b more units to a. Under the latter interpretation, the parts of a sum a + b play asymmetric roles, and the operation a + b is viewed as applying the unary operation +b to a. Instead of calling both a and b addends, it is more appropriate to call a the augend in this case, since a plays a passive role. The unary view is also useful when discussing subtraction, because each unary addition operation has an inverse unary subtraction operation. and vice versa. Properties Commutativity 4 + 2 = 2 + 4 with blocks Addition is commutative, meaning that one can reverse the terms in a sum left-to-right, and the result will be the same. Symbolically, if a and b are any two numbers, then a + b = b + a. The fact that addition is commutative is known as the "commutative law of addition". This phrase suggests that there are other commutative laws: for example, there is a commutative law of multiplication. However, many binary operations are not commutative, such as subtraction and division, so it is misleading to speak of an unqualified "commutative law". Associativity 2+(1+3) = (2+1)+3 with segmented rods A somewhat subtler property of addition is associativity, which comes up when one tries to define repeated addition. Should the expression "a + b + c" be defined to mean (a + b) + c or a + (b + c)? That addition is associative tells us that the choice of definition is irrelevant. For any three numbers a, b, and c, it is true that (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). For example, (1 + 2) + 3 = 3 + 3 = 6 = 1 + 5 = 1 + (2 + 3). Not all operations are associative, so in expressions with other operations like subtraction, it is important to specify the order of operations. Zero and one 5 + 0 = 5 with bags of dots When adding zero to any number, the quantity does not change; zero is the identity element for addition, also known as the additive identity. In symbols, for any a, a + 0 = 0 + a = a. This law was first identified in Brahmagupta's Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628, although he wrote it as three separate laws, depending on whether a is negative, positive, or zero itself, and he used words rather than algebraic symbols. Later Indian mathematicians refined the concept; around the year 830, Mahavira wrote, "zero becomes the same as what is added to it", corresponding to the unary statement 0 + a = a. In the 12th century, Bhaskara wrote, "In the addition of cipher, or subtraction of it, the quantity, positive or negative, remains the same", corresponding to the unary statement a + 0 = a. Kaplan pp.69–71 In the context of integers, addition of one also plays a special role: for any integer a, the integer (a + 1) is the least integer greater than a, also known as the successor of a. Because of this succession, the value of some a + b can also be seen as the successor of a, making addition iterated succession. Units In order to numerically add physical quantities with units, they must first be expressed with common unit. For example, if a measure of 5 feet is extended by 2 inches, the sum is 62 inches, since 60 inches is synonymous with 5 feet. On the other hand, it is usually meaningless to try to add 3 meters and 4 square meters, since those units are incomparable; this sort of consideration is fundamental in dimensional analysis. Performing addition Innate ability Studies on mathematical development starting around the 1980s have exploited the phenomenon of habituation: infants look longer at situations that are unexpected. Wynn p.5 A seminal experiment by Karen Wynn in 1992 involving Mickey Mouse dolls manipulated behind a screen demonstrated that five-month-old infants expect 1 + 1 to be 2, and they are comparatively surprised when a physical situation seems to imply that 1 + 1 is either 1 or 3. This finding has since been affirmed by a variety of laboratories using different methodologies. Wynn p.15 Another 1992 experiment with older toddlers, between 18 to 35 months, exploited their development of motor control by allowing them to retrieve ping-pong balls from a box; the youngest responded well for small numbers, while older subjects were able to compute sums up to 5. Wynn p.17 Even some nonhuman animals show a limited ability to add, particularly primates. In a 1995 experiment imitating Wynn's 1992 result (but using eggplants instead of dolls), rhesus macaques and cottontop tamarins performed similarly to human infants. More dramatically, after being taught the meanings of the Arabic numerals 0 through 4, one chimpanzee was able to compute the sum of two numerals without further training. Wynn p.19 Elementary methods Typically children master the art of counting first, and this skill extends into a form of addition called "counting-on"; asked to find three plus two, children count two past three, saying "four, five", and arriving at five. This strategy seems almost universal; children can easily pick it up from peers or teachers, and some even invent it independently. F. Smith p.130 Those who count to add also quickly learn to exploit the commutativity of addition by counting up from the larger number. Decimal system Single-digit addition table with various strategies colored: 0 in blue; 1,2 in light blue; (near) doubles in (light) green; making ten in red; 5,10 in gray. Compare figures in Van de Walle pp.160–164 The prerequisite to addition in the decimal system is the internalization of the 100 single-digit "addition facts". One could memorize all the facts by rote, but pattern-based strategies are more enlightening and, for most people, more efficient: Fosnot and Dolk p. 99 One or two more: Adding 1 or 2 is a basic task, and it can be accomplished through counting on or, ultimately, intuition. Zero: Since zero is the additive identity, adding zero is trivial. Nonetheless, some children are introduced to addition as a process that always increases the addends; word problems may help rationalize the "exception" of zero. Doubles: Adding a number to itself is related to counting by two and to multiplication. Doubles facts form a backbone for many related facts, and fortunately, children find them relatively easy to grasp. near-doubles... Five and ten... Making ten: An advanced strategy uses 10 as an intermediate for sums involving 8 or 9; for example, 8 + 6 = 8 + 2 + 4 = 10 + 4 = 14. In traditional mathematics, to add multidigit numbers, one typically aligns the addends vertically and adds the columns, starting from the ones column on the right. If a column exceeds ten, the extra digit is "carried" into the next column. The word "carry" may be inappropriate for education; Van de Walle (p.211) calls it "obsolete and conceptually misleading", preferring the word "trade". For a more detailed description of this algorithm, see Elementary arithmetic: Addition. An alternate strategy starts adding from the most significant digit on the left; this route makes carrying a little clumsier, but it is faster at getting a rough estimate of the sum. There are many different standards-based mathematics methods, but many mathematics curricula such as TERC omit any instruction in traditional methods familiar to parents or mathematics professionals in favor of exploration of new methods. Fraction: Addition Scientific notation: Operations Roman arithmetic: Addition Computers Addition with an op-amp. See Summing amplifier for details. Analog computers work directly with physical quantities, so their addition mechanisms depend on the form of the addends. A mechanical adder might represent two addends as the positions of sliding blocks, in which case they can be added with an averaging lever. If the addends are the rotation speeds of two shafts, they can be added with a differential. A hydraulic adder can add the pressures in two chambers by exploiting Newton's second law to balance forces on an assembly of pistons. The most common situation for a general-purpose analog computer is to add two voltages (referenced to ground); this can be accomplished roughly with a resistor network, but a better design exploits an operational amplifier. Truitt and Rogers pp.1;44–49 and pp.2;77–78 Addition is also fundamental to the operation of digital computers, where the efficiency of addition, in particular the carry mechanism, is an important limitation to overall performance. Part of Charles Babbage's Difference Engine including the addition and carry mechanisms Adding machines, mechanical calculators whose primary function was addition, were the earliest automatic, digital computers. Wilhelm Schickard's 1623 Calculating Clock could add and subtract, but it was severely limited by an awkward carry mechanism. As he wrote to Johannes Kepler describing the novel device, "You would burst out laughing if you were present to see how it carries by itself from one column of tens to the next..." Adding 999,999 and 1 on Schickard's machine would require enough force to propagate the carries that the gears might be damaged, so he limited his machines to six digits, even though Kepler's work required more. By 1642 Blaise Pascal independently developed an adding machine with an ingenious gravity-assisted carry mechanism. Pascal's calculator was limited by its carry mechanism in a different sense: its wheels turned only one way, so it could add but not subtract, except by the method of complements. By 1674 Gottfried Leibniz made the first mechanical multiplier; it was still powered, if not motivated, by addition. Williams pp.122–140 "Full adder" logic circuit that adds two binary digits, A and B, along with a carry input Cin, producing the sum bit, S, and a carry output, Cout. Adders execute integer addition in electronic digital computers, usually using binary arithmetic. The simplest architecture is the ripple carry adder, which follows the standard multi-digit algorithm taught to children. One slight improvement is the carry skip design, again following human intuition; one does not perform all the carries in computing 999 + 1, but one bypasses the group of 9s and skips to the answer. Flynn and Overman pp.2, 8 Since they compute digits one at a time, the above methods are too slow for most modern purposes. In modern digital computers, integer addition is typically the fastest arithmetic instruction, yet it has the largest impact on performance, since it underlies all the floating-point operations as well as such basic tasks as address generation during memory access and fetching instructions during branching. To increase speed, modern designs calculate digits in parallel; these schemes go by such names as carry select, carry lookahead, and the Ling pseudocarry. Almost all modern implementations are, in fact, hybrids of these last three designs. Flynn and Overman pp.1–9 Unlike addition on paper, addition on a computer often changes the addends. On the ancient abacus and adding board, both addends are destroyed, leaving only the sum. The influence of the abacus on mathematical thinking was strong enough that early Latin texts often claimed that in the process of adding "a number to a number", both numbers vanish. Karpinski pp.102–103 In modern times, the ADD instruction of a microprocessor replaces the augend with the sum but preserves the addend. The identity of the augend and addend varies with architecture. For ADD in x86 see Horowitz and Hill p.679; for ADD in 68k see p.767. In a high-level programming language, evaluating a + b does not change either a or b; to change the value of a one uses the addition assignment operator a += b. Addition of natural and real numbers In order to prove the usual properties of addition, one must first define addition for the context in question. Addition is first defined on the natural numbers. In set theory, addition is then extended to progressively larger sets that include the natural numbers: the integers, the rational numbers, and the real numbers. Enderton chapters 4 and 5, for example, follow this development. (In mathematics education, California standards; see grades 2, 3, and 4. positive fractions are added before negative numbers are even considered; this is also the historical route. Baez (p.37) explains the historical development, in "stark contrast" with the set theory presentation: "Apparently, half an apple is easier to understand than a negative apple!" ) Natural numbers There are two popular ways to define the sum of two natural numbers a and b. If one defines natural numbers to be the cardinalities of finite sets, (the cardinality of a set is the number of elements in the set), then it is appropriate to define their sum as follows: Let N(S) be the cardinality of a set S. Take two disjoint sets A and B, with N(A) = a and N(B) = b. Then a + b is defined as . Begle p.49, Johnson p.120, Devine et al. p.75 Here, A U B is the union of A and B. An alternate version of this definition allows A and B to possibly overlap and then takes their disjoint union, a mechanism which allows any common elements to be separated out and therefore counted twice. The other popular definition is recursive: Let n+ be the successor of n, that is the number following n in the natural numbers, so 0+=1, 1+=2. Define a + 0 = a. Define the general sum recursively by a + (b+) = (a + b)+. Hence 1+1=1+0+=(1+0)+=1+=2. Enderton p.79 Again, there are minor variations upon this definition in the literature. Taken literally, the above definition is an application of the Recursion Theorem on the poset N². For a version that applies to any poset with the descending chain condition, see Bergman p.100. On the other hand, some sources prefer to use a restricted Recursion Theorem that applies only to the set of natural numbers. One then considers a to be temporarily "fixed", applies recursion on b to define a function "a + ", and pastes these unary operations for all a together to form the full binary operation. Enderton (p.79) observes, "But we want one binary operation +, not all these little one-place functions." This recursive formulation of addition was developed by Dedekind as early as 1854, and he would expand upon it in the following decades. Ferreirós p.223 He proved the associative and commutative properties, among others, through mathematical induction; for examples of such inductive proofs, see Addition of natural numbers. Integers Defining (−2) + 1 using only addition of positive numbers: (2 − 4) + (3 − 2) = 5 − 6. The simplest conception of an integer is that it consists of an absolute value (which is a natural number) and a sign (generally either positive or negative). The integer zero is a special third case, being neither positive nor negative. The corresponding definition of addition must proceed by cases: For an integer n, let |n| be its absolute value. Let a and b be integers. If either a or b is zero, treat it as an identity. If a and b are both positive, define a + b = |a| + |b|. If a and b are both negative, define a + b = −(|a|+|b|). If a and b have different signs, define a + b to be the difference between |a| and |b|, with the sign of the term whose absolute value is larger. K. Smith p.234, Sparks and Rees p.66 Although this definition can be useful for concrete problems, it is far too complicated to produce elegant general proofs; there are too many cases to consider. A much more convenient conception of the integers is the Grothendieck group construction. The essential observation is that every integer can be expressed (not uniquely) as the difference of two natural numbers, so we may as well define an integer as the difference of two natural numbers. Addition is then defined to be compatible with subtraction: Given two integers a − b and c − d, where a, b, c, and d are natural numbers, define (a − b) + (c − d) = (a + c) − (b + d). Enderton p.92 Rational numbers (Fractions) Addition of rational numbers can be computed using the least common denominator, but a conceptually simpler definition involves only integer addition and multiplication: Define The commutativity and associativity of rational addition is an easy consequence of the laws of integer arithmetic. The verifications are carried out in Enderton p.104 and sketched for a general field of fractions over a commutative ring in Dummit and Foote p.263. For a more rigorous and general discussion, see field of fractions. Real numbers Adding π2/6 and e using Dedekind cuts of rationals A common construction of the set of real numbers is the Dedekind completion of the set of rational numbers. A real number is defined to be a Dedekind cut of rationals: a non-empty set of rationals that is closed downward and has no greatest element. The sum of real numbers a and b is defined element by element: Define Enderton p.114 This definition was first published, in a slightly modified form, by Richard Dedekind in 1872. Ferreirós p.135; see section 6 of Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen. The commutativity and associativity of real addition are immediate; defining the real number 0 to be the set of negative rationals, it is easily seen to be the additive identity. Probably the trickiest part of this construction pertaining to addition is the definition of additive inverses. The intuitive approach, inverting every element of a cut and taking its complement, works only for irrational numbers; see Enderton p.117 for details. Adding π2/6 and e using Cauchy sequences of rationals Unfortunately, dealing with multiplication of Dedekind cuts is a case-by-case nightmare similar to the addition of signed integers. Another approach is the metric completion of the rational numbers. A real number is essentially defined to be the a limit of a Cauchy sequence of rationals, lim an. Addition is defined term by term: Define Textbook constructions are usually not so cavalier with the "lim" symbol; see Burrill (p. 138) for a more careful, drawn-out development of addition with Cauchy sequences. This definition was first published by Georg Cantor, also in 1872, although his formalism was slightly different. Ferreirós p.128 One must prove that this operation is well-defined, dealing with co-Cauchy sequences. Once that task is done, all the properties of real addition follow immediately from the properties of rational numbers. Furthermore, the other arithmetic operations, including multiplication, have straightforward, analogous definitions. Burrill p.140 Generalizations There are many things that can be added: numbers, vectors, matrices, spaces, shapes, sets, functions, equations, strings, chains... —Alexander Bogomolny There are many binary operations that can be viewed as generalizations of the addition operation on the real numbers. The field of abstract algebra is centrally concerned with such generalized operations, and they also appear in set theory and category theory. Addition in abstract algebra In linear algebra, a vector space is an algebraic structure that allows for adding any two vectors and for scaling vectors. A familiar vector space is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers; the ordered pair (a,b) is interpreted as a vector from the origin in the Euclidean plane to the point (a,b) in the plane. The sum of two vectors is obtained by adding their individual coordinates: (a,b) + (c,d) = (a+c,b+d). This addition operation is central to classical mechanics, in which vectors are interpreted as forces. In modular arithmetic, the set of integers modulo 12 has twelve elements; it inherits an addition operation from the integers that is central to musical set theory. The set of integers modulo 2 has just two elements; the addition operation it inherits is known in Boolean logic as the "exclusive or" function. In geometry, the sum of two angle measures is often taken to be their sum as real numbers modulo 2π. This amounts to an addition operation on the circle, which in turn generalizes to addition operations on many-dimensional tori. The general theory of abstract algebra allows an "addition" operation to be any associative and commutative operation on a set. Basic algebraic structures with such an addition operation include commutative monoids and abelian groups. Addition in set theory and category theory A far-reaching generalization of addition of natural numbers is the addition of ordinal numbers and cardinal numbers in set theory. These give two different generalizations of addition of natural numbers to the transfinite. Unlike most addition operations, addition of ordinal numbers is not commutative. Addition of cardinal numbers, however, is a commutative operation closely related to the disjoint union operation. In category theory, disjoint union is seen as a particular case of the coproduct operation, and general coproducts are perhaps the most abstract of all the generalizations of addition. Some coproducts, such as Direct sum and Wedge sum, are named to evoke their connection with addition. Related operations Arithmetic Subtraction can be thought of as a kind of addition—that is, the addition of an additive inverse. Subtraction is itself a sort of inverse to addition, in that adding x and subtracting x are inverse functions. Given a set with an addition operation, one cannot always define a corresponding subtraction operation on that set; the set of natural numbers is a simple example. On the other hand, a subtraction operation uniquely determines an addition operation, an additive inverse operation, and an additive identity; for this reason, an additive group can be described as a set that is closed under subtraction. The set still must be nonempty. Dummit and Foote (p.48) discuss this criterion written multiplicatively. Multiplication can be thought of as repeated addition. If a single term x appears in a sum n times, then the sum is the product of n and x. If n is not a natural number, the product may still make sense; for example, multiplication by −1 yields the additive inverse of a number. A circular slide rule In the real and complex numbers, addition and multiplication can be interchanged by the exponential function: ea + b = ea eb. Rudin p.178 This identity allows multiplication to be carried out by consulting a table of logarithms and computing addition by hand; it also enables multiplication on a slide rule. The formula is still a good first-order approximation in the broad context of Lie groups, where it relates multiplication of infinitesimal group elements with addition of vectors in the associated Lie algebra. Lee p.526, Proposition 20.9 There are even more generalizations of multiplication than addition. Linderholm (p.49) observes, "By multiplication, properly speaking, a mathematician may mean practically anything. By addition he may mean a great variety of things, but not so great a variety as he will mean by 'multiplication'." In general, multiplication operations always distribute over addition; this requirement is formalized in the definition of a ring. In some contexts, such as the integers, distributivity over addition and the existence of a multiplicative identity is enough to uniquely determine the multiplication operation. The distributive property also provides information about addition; by expanding the product (1 + 1)(a + b) in both ways, one concludes that addition is forced to be commutative. For this reason, ring addition is commutative in general. Dummit and Foote p.224. For this argument to work, one still must assume that addition is a group operation and that multiplication has an identity. Division is an arithmetic operation remotely related to addition. Since a/b = a(b−1), division is right distributive over addition: (a + b) / c = a / c + b / c. For an example of left and right distributivity, see Loday, especially p.15. However, division is not left distributive over addition; 1/ (2 + 2) is not the same as 1/2 + 1/2. Ordering Log-log plot of x + 1 and max (x, 1) from x = 0.001 to 1000 Compare Viro Figure 1 (p.2) The maximum operation "max (a, b)" is a binary operation similar to addition. In fact, if two nonnegative numbers a and b are of different orders of magnitude, then their sum is approximately equal to their maximum. This approximation is extremely useful in the applications of mathematics, for example in truncating Taylor series. However, it presents a perpetual difficulty in numerical analysis, essentially since "max" is not invertible. If b is much greater than a, then a straightforward calculation of (a + b) − b can accumulate an unacceptable round-off error, perhaps even returning zero. See also Loss of significance. The approximation becomes exact in a kind of infinite limit; if either a or b is an infinite cardinal number, their cardinal sum is exactly equal to the greater of the two. Enderton calls this statement the "Absorption Law of Cardinal Arithmetic"; it depends on the comparability of cardinals and therefore on the Axiom of Choice. Accordingly, there is no subtraction operation for infinite cardinals. Enderton p.164 Maximization is commutative and associative, like addition. Furthermore, since addition preserves the ordering of real numbers, addition distributes over "max" in the same way that multiplication distributes over addition: a + max (b, c) = max (a + b, a + c). For these reasons, in tropical geometry one replaces multiplication with addition and addition with maximization. In this context, addition is called "tropical multiplication", maximization is called "tropical addition", and the tropical "additive identity" is negative infinity. Mikhalkin p.1 Some authors prefer to replace addition with minimization; then the additive identity is positive infinity. Akian et al. p.4 Tying these observations together, tropical addition is approximately related to regular addition through the logarithm: log (a + b) ≈ max (log a, log b), which becomes more accurate as the base of the logarithm increases. Mikhalkin p.2 The approximation can be made exact by extracting a constant h, named by analogy with Planck's constant from quantum mechanics, Litvinov et al. p.3 and taking the "classical limit" as h tends to zero: In this sense, the maximum operation is a dequantized version of addition. Viro p.4 Other ways to add Incrementation, also known as the successor operation, is the addition of 1 to a number. Summation describes the addition of arbitrarily many numbers, usually more than just two. It includes the idea of the sum of a single number, which is itself, and the empty sum, which is zero. Martin p.49 An infinite summation is a delicate procedure known as a series. Stewart p.8 Counting a finite set is equivalent to summing 1 over the set. Integration is a kind of "summation" over a continuum, or more precisely and generally, over a differentiable manifold. Integration over a zero-dimensional manifold reduces to summation. Linear combinations combine multiplication and summation; they are sums in which each term has a multiplier, usually a real or complex number. Linear combinations are especially useful in contexts where straightforward addition would violate some normalization rule, such as mixing of strategies in game theory or superposition of states in quantum mechanics. Convolution is used to add two independent random variables defined by distribution functions. Its usual definition combines integration, subtraction, and multiplication. In general, convolution is useful as a kind of domain-side addition; by contrast, vector addition is a kind of range-side addition. In literature In chapter 9 of Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass, the White Queen asks Alice, "And you do Addition? ... What's one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one?" Alice admits that she lost count, and the Red Queen declares, "She can't do Addition". In George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, the value of 2 + 2 is questioned; the State contends that if it declares 2 + 2 = 5, then it is so. See Two plus two make five for the history of this idea. Notes References History Elementary mathematics Education California State Board of Education mathematics content standards Adopted December 1997, accessed December 2005. Cognitive science Mathematical exposition Advanced mathematics Mathematical research Litvinov, Maslov, and Sobolevskii (1999). Idempotent mathematics and interval analysis. Reliable Computing, Kluwer. Viro, Oleg (2000). Dequantization of real algebraic geometry on logarithmic paper. (HTML) Plenary talk at 3rd ECM, Barcelona. Computing be-x-old:Складаньне | Addition |@lemmatized apple:8 popular:3 choice:3 textbook:3 enderton:10 p:50 select:2 two:37 set:36 k:3 l:2 card:2 finger:1 handy:1 prefer:4 addition:134 mathematical:7 process:4 put:1 thing:5 together:4 plus:7 sign:7 mean:9 number:89 add:56 example:15 picture:1 right:5 three:6 five:7 since:12 besides:1 count:11 fruit:1 also:19 represent:2 combine:8 physical:5 abstract:6 quantity:5 use:18 different:8 kind:6 negative:11 fraction:7 irrational:2 vector:11 operation:51 follow:9 several:2 important:3 pattern:3 commutative:17 order:7 matter:1 associative:6 one:44 see:23 summation:7 repeat:2 counting:1 change:6 obey:1 predictable:1 rule:5 concern:2 related:2 subtraction:14 multiplication:25 prove:4 start:5 natural:20 generalize:1 real:18 beyond:1 general:11 binary:9 continue:2 study:2 algebra:6 perform:5 simple:6 numerical:2 task:5 small:2 accessible:1 toddler:2 basic:4 infant:4 young:2 month:3 even:10 animal:2 primary:2 education:5 child:7 learn:2 decimal:3 system:3 single:7 digit:9 progressively:2 tackle:1 difficult:1 problem:3 mechanical:4 aid:1 range:2 ancient:2 abacus:3 modern:7 computer:9 research:2 efficient:2 implementation:2 day:1 notation:4 terminology:3 write:9 term:12 infix:1 result:4 express:3 equal:5 verbally:2 four:4 associativity:5 situation:4 understood:1 though:2 symbol:4 appear:3 column:8 last:2 underline:1 usually:6 indicate:2 sum:37 underlined:1 whole:2 immediately:2 call:11 mixed:1 devine:2 et:4 al:4 cause:1 confusion:1 contexts:1 juxtaposition:1 denote:1 instead:3 object:4 generally:4 addends:1 summands:1 carry:19 multiple:1 distinguish:1 factor:1 multiply:1 author:3 first:12 addend:18 augend:6 fact:7 renaissance:1 many:11 consider:5 today:1 due:1 symmetry:1 rarely:1 schwartzman:2 derive:3 latin:6 english:3 word:6 verb:2 addere:2 turn:3 compound:1 ad:1 dare:1 give:8 proto:1 indo:1 european:1 root:1 thus:1 gerundive:1 suffix:1 nd:1 must:7 far:3 conjugated:1 numerus:1 addendus:1 likewise:1 augere:1 increase:5 get:2 redrawn:1 illustration:1 art:2 nombryng:1 arithmetic:11 text:2 century:2 karpinski:5 pp:10 reproduce:1 summand:1 noun:1 summa:1 high:4 top:1 associate:1 summare:2 appropriate:3 positive:9 great:7 either:6 common:7 upward:1 contrary:1 practice:2 downward:2 literally:2 attribute:1 upwards:1 greek:1 roman:3 say:2 downwards:1 hand:5 leonard:1 pisa:1 introduce:2 novelty:1 unclear:1 whether:2 claim:2 original:4 invention:1 simply:1 introduction:1 europe:1 date:1 back:1 least:3 boethius:2 earlier:1 writer:1 vitruvius:1 frontinus:1 late:1 middle:1 adden:1 popularize:1 chaucer:1 interpretation:6 model:1 countless:1 case:9 possible:2 visual:1 representation:1 possibly:2 fundamental:3 lie:3 disjoint:5 collection:6 easy:4 visualize:1 little:3 danger:1 ambiguity:1 useful:6 mathematics:11 rigorous:2 definition:15 inspire:1 however:5 obvious:1 extend:7 version:4 include:6 fractional:2 article:1 sophistication:1 involve:4 cardinality:4 fix:2 easily:3 divide:2 pie:1 still:6 well:5 segment:3 rod:6 compare:3 measure:3 cat:2 inch:4 subdivide:1 part:5 hard:1 tell:2 except:2 shorter:1 whereas:1 painful:1 seriously:1 nature:1 rather:2 join:1 end:2 illustrate:1 another:3 conception:3 length:8 second:2 come:2 initial:1 amount:2 final:1 extension:1 line:2 visualization:2 algebraic:6 translation:5 unary:8 equivalent:2 b:68 interpret:4 sense:4 unit:5 latter:1 play:3 asymmetric:1 role:3 view:3 apply:3 passive:1 discuss:1 inverse:7 vice:1 versa:1 property:7 commutativity:4 block:2 reverse:1 leave:2 symbolically:1 know:6 law:9 phrase:1 suggest:1 division:4 mislead:1 speak:1 unqualified:1 somewhat:1 subtle:1 try:2 define:29 expression:2 c:17 u:2 irrelevant:1 true:1 like:2 specify:1 zero:15 bag:1 dot:1 identity:12 element:10 additive:11 identify:1 brahmagupta:1 brahmasphutasiddhanta:1 although:3 separate:2 depend:3 later:1 indian:1 mathematician:2 refine:1 concept:1 around:2 year:1 mahavira:1 become:3 correspond:1 statement:3 bhaskara:1 cipher:1 remain:1 corresponding:3 kaplan:1 context:6 integer:23 special:2 successor:4 succession:2 value:6 make:8 iterate:1 numerically:1 foot:2 synonymous:1 meaningless:1 meter:2 square:1 incomparable:1 sort:2 consideration:1 dimensional:3 analysis:3 innate:1 ability:2 development:5 exploit:5 phenomenon:1 habituation:1 look:2 long:1 unexpected:1 wynn:6 seminal:1 experiment:3 karen:1 mickey:1 mouse:1 doll:2 manipulate:1 behind:1 screen:1 demonstrate:1 old:4 expect:1 comparatively:1 surprised:1 seem:2 imply:1 finding:1 affirm:1 variety:3 laboratory:1 methodology:1 motor:1 control:1 allow:6 retrieve:1 ping:1 pong:1 ball:1 box:1 respond:1 subject:1 able:2 compute:7 nonhuman:1 show:1 limited:1 particularly:1 primate:1 imitate:1 eggplant:1 rhesus:1 macaque:1 cottontop:1 tamarin:1 similarly:1 human:2 dramatically:1 teach:1 meaning:1 arabic:1 numeral:2 chimpanzee:1 without:1 training:1 elementary:3 method:6 typically:3 master:1 skill:1 form:5 ask:1 find:2 past:1 arrive:1 strategy:6 almost:2 universal:1 pick:1 peer:1 teacher:1 invent:1 independently:2 f:1 smith:2 quickly:1 large:4 table:2 various:1 color:1 blue:2 light:2 near:2 double:4 green:1 ten:5 red:2 gray:1 figure:2 van:2 de:2 walle:2 prerequisite:1 internalization:1 could:3 memorize:1 rote:1 base:3 enlightening:1 people:1 fosnot:1 dolk:1 accomplish:2 ultimately:1 intuition:2 trivial:1 nonetheless:1 always:3 may:6 help:1 rationalize:1 exception:1 relate:6 facts:1 backbone:1 fortunately:1 relatively:1 grasp:1 advanced:1 intermediate:1 traditional:2 multidigit:1 align:1 vertically:1 exceed:1 extra:1 carried:1 next:2 inappropriate:1 obsolete:1 conceptually:2 misleading:1 trade:1 detailed:1 description:1 algorithm:2 alternate:2 significant:1 left:3 route:2 clumsier:1 faster:1 rough:1 estimate:1 standard:4 curricula:1 terc:1 omit:1 instruction:4 familiar:2 parent:1 professional:1 favor:1 exploration:1 new:1 scientific:1 op:1 amp:1 amplifier:2 detail:2 analog:2 work:4 directly:1 mechanism:7 adder:5 might:2 position:1 slide:3 average:1 lever:1 rotation:1 speed:2 shaft:1 differential:1 hydraulic:1 pressure:1 chamber:1 newton:1 balance:1 force:4 assembly:1 piston:1 purpose:2 voltage:1 reference:2 grind:1 roughly:1 resistor:1 network:1 good:2 design:4 operational:1 truitt:1 rogers:1 digital:4 efficiency:1 particular:2 limitation:1 overall:1 performance:2 charles:1 babbage:1 difference:4 engine:1 machine:4 calculator:2 whose:2 function:8 early:3 automatic:1 wilhelm:1 schickard:2 calculate:2 clock:1 subtract:3 severely:1 limit:6 awkward:1 johannes:1 kepler:2 describe:3 novel:1 device:1 would:4 burst:1 laugh:1 present:2 require:2 enough:3 propagate:1 gear:1 damage:1 six:1 blaise:1 pascal:2 develop:2 ingenious:1 gravity:1 assist:1 wheel:1 way:5 complement:2 gottfried:1 leibniz:1 multiplier:2 power:1 motivate:1 williams:1 full:2 logic:2 circuit:1 along:1 input:1 cin:1 produce:2 bit:1 output:1 cout:1 execute:1 electronic:1 architecture:2 ripple:1 multi:1 taught:1 slight:1 improvement:1 skip:2 bypass:1 group:7 answer:1 flynn:2 overman:2 digits:1 time:3 slow:1 fast:1 yet:1 impact:1 underlie:1 float:1 point:2 address:1 generation:1 memory:1 access:2 fetching:1 branch:1 parallel:1 scheme:1 go:1 name:3 lookahead:1 ling:1 pseudocarry:1 hybrid:1 unlike:2 paper:2 often:3 board:2 destroy:1 influence:1 thinking:1 strong:1 vanish:1 microprocessor:1 replace:3 preserve:2 varies:1 horowitz:1 hill:1 level:1 programming:1 language:1 evaluate:1 assignment:1 operator:1 usual:2 question:2 theory:11 rational:13 chapter:2 california:2 grade:1 historical:2 baez:1 explain:1 stark:1 contrast:2 presentation:1 apparently:1 half:1 understand:1 finite:2 let:4 n:11 take:6 begle:1 johnson:1 union:4 overlap:1 therefore:2 twice:1 recursive:2 recursively:1 hence:1 minor:1 variation:1 upon:2 literature:2 application:2 recursion:3 theorem:2 poset:2 descend:1 chain:2 condition:1 bergman:1 source:1 restricted:1 temporarily:1 applies:1 paste:1 observes:2 want:1 place:1 formulation:1 dedekind:6 expand:2 following:1 decade:1 ferreirós:3 among:1 others:1 induction:1 inductive:1 proof:2 consist:1 absolute:3 third:1 neither:1 proceed:1 treat:1 spark:1 rees:1 concrete:1 complicate:1 elegant:1 much:2 convenient:1 grothendieck:1 construction:4 essential:1 observation:2 every:2 uniquely:3 compatible:1 denominator:1 consequence:1 verification:1 sketch:1 field:3 ring:3 dummit:3 foote:3 discussion:1 e:2 cut:4 completion:2 non:1 empty:2 close:2 publish:2 slightly:2 modify:1 richard:1 section:1 stetigkeit:1 und:1 irrationale:1 zahlen:1 immediate:1 probably:1 tricky:1 pertain:1 intuitive:1 approach:2 invert:1 cauchy:4 sequence:4 unfortunately:1 deal:2 nightmare:1 similar:2 signed:1 metric:1 essentially:2 lim:2 cavalier:1 burrill:2 careful:1 drawn:1 georg:1 cantor:1 formalism:1 co:1 furthermore:2 straigh:3 tforward:3 analogous:1 generalization:6 matrix:1 space:3 shape:1 equation:1 string:1 alexander:1 bogomolny:1 centrally:1 generalized:1 category:3 linear:3 structure:2 scale:1 ordered:2 pair:2 origin:1 euclidean:1 plane:2 obtain:1 individual:1 coordinate:1 central:2 classical:2 mechanic:3 modular:1 modulo:3 twelve:1 inherit:2 musical:1 boolean:1 exclusive:1 geometry:3 angle:1 circle:1 generalizes:1 torus:1 monoids:1 abelian:1 reach:1 ordinal:2 cardinal:7 transfinite:1 closely:1 coproduct:1 coproducts:2 perhaps:2 direct:1 wedge:1 evoke:1 connection:1 think:2 x:8 cannot:1 determine:2 reason:3 nonempty:1 discus:1 criterion:1 multiplicatively:1 repeated:1 product:3 yield:1 circular:1 complex:2 interchange:1 exponential:1 ea:2 eb:1 rudin:1 consult:1 logarithm:3 enable:1 formula:1 approximation:4 broad:1 infinitesimal:1 associated:1 lee:1 proposition:1 linderholm:1 properly:1 speaking:1 practically:1 anything:1 distribute:2 requirement:1 formalize:1 distributivity:2 existence:1 multiplicative:1 distributive:3 provide:1 information:1 conclude:1 argument:1 assume:1 remotely:1 loday:1 especially:2 log:5 plot:1 max:7 viro:3 maximum:3 nonnegative:1 magnitude:1 approximately:2 extremely:1 truncate:1 taylor:1 series:2 perpetual:1 difficulty:1 invertible:1 calculation:1 accumulate:1 unacceptable:1 round:1 error:1 return:1 loss:1 significance:1 exact:2 infinite:4 exactly:1 absorption:1 comparability:1 axiom:1 accordingly:1 maximization:3 ordering:1 distributes:1 tropical:5 infinity:2 mikhalkin:2 minimization:1 akian:1 tie:1 regular:1 accurate:1 extract:1 constant:2 h:2 analogy:1 planck:1 quantum:2 litvinov:2 tend:1 dequantized:1 incrementation:1 arbitrarily:1 idea:2 martin:1 delicate:1 procedure:1 stewart:1 integration:3 continuum:1 precisely:1 differentiable:1 manifold:2 reduces:1 combination:2 violate:1 normalization:1 mixing:1 game:1 superposition:1 state:3 convolution:2 independent:1 random:1 variable:1 distribution:1 domain:1 side:2 lewis:1 carroll:1 glass:1 white:1 queen:2 asks:1 alice:2 admit:1 lose:1 declares:1 george:1 orwell:1 nineteen:1 eighty:1 contend:1 declare:1 history:2 note:1 content:1 adopt:1 december:2 cognitive:1 science:1 exposition:1 advance:1 maslov:1 sobolevskii:1 idempotent:1 interval:1 reliable:1 computing:1 kluwer:1 oleg:1 dequantization:1 logarithmic:1 html:1 plenary:1 talk:1 ecm:1 barcelona:1 складаньне:1 |@bigram subtraction_multiplication:2 abstract_algebra:4 infix_notation:1 et_al:4 proto_indo:1 indo_european:1 unclear_whether:1 vice_versa:1 mickey_mouse:1 ping_pong:1 rhesus_macaque:1 arabic_numeral:1 op_amp:1 operational_amplifier:1 charles_babbage:1 mechanical_calculator:1 wilhelm_schickard:1 add_subtract:2 johannes_kepler:1 blaise_pascal:1 gottfried_leibniz:1 stark_contrast:1 disjoint_union:3 associative_commutative:2 mathematical_induction:1 commutativity_associativity:2 commutative_ring:1 dummit_foote:3 richard_dedekind:1 additive_inverse:4 cauchy_sequence:4 signed_integer:1 georg_cantor:1 ordered_pair:2 modular_arithmetic:1 integer_modulo:2 boolean_logic:1 closely_relate:1 uniquely_determine:2 exponential_function:1 lie_algebra:1 multiplicative_identity:1 log_log:2 axiom_choice:1 commutative_associative:1 planck_constant:1 quantum_mechanic:2 differentiable_manifold:1 dimensional_manifold:1 random_variable:1 lewis_carroll:1 george_orwell:1 orwell_nineteen:1 nineteen_eighty:1 algebraic_geometry:1 |
3,478 | Egolessness | In psychology, egolessness is an emotional state where one feels no ego (or self); of having no distinct being apart from the world around oneself. From the view of Western psychoanalysis and therapy, the state of "oneness" can be either positive or negative depending on the patient, and in the context in which these feelings occur in each patient. The described feeling of oneness (of being inextricably woven to the fabric of one's surroundings or environment) is thought to be akin to egolessness. Lifestyles of communal ownership (no individual property) and the "vow of poverty" in many monastic traditions may also be intended to make selflessness easier to maintain; that its practitioners may continuously remain in a meditative state of mind. In some forms of meditation in Asian religions, egolessness is a mental state that is sought after. While at the basic levels, meditation is geared toward relaxation, the practice of advanced meditators may be aimed toward the purpose of dividing one from their awareness of "self," to a certain degree, and for a certain time. The ritual and religious treatment of meditation functions so that the individual learns to take the practice with seriousness; learning to gradually control their degree of relaxation such that undesired and harmful schisms do not occur to the psyche. Note that the term "selflessness" is similar in literal meaning ("ego" is the Latin word for "I") but differs in nuance and usage. One would describe a set of acts as "selfless" (altruistic) when they are not selfish — when they benefit others more than oneself. One would say that a person is "egoless" when he or she feels or acts in a way that suggests that the self is irrelevant (regardless of whether the act or attitude had any benefit to self or others). In other words, "selfless" is the opposite of "selfish" while "egoless" is orthogonal to both. The closest antonyms to "egolessness" are "egotism" (an inflated or disproportionate sense of self worth or one's own important) or possibly solipsism. Ego loss is commonly experienced by those under the influence of psychedelic drugs. See also Anatman Anatta Moksha Baqaa Ego Ego reduction Fanaa List of Buddhist topics Mindfulness Shunyata Nirvana External Links The training of the will to do | Egolessness |@lemmatized psychology:1 egolessness:4 emotional:1 state:4 one:6 feel:2 ego:5 self:5 distinct:1 apart:1 world:1 around:1 oneself:2 view:1 western:1 psychoanalysis:1 therapy:1 oneness:2 either:1 positive:1 negative:1 depending:1 patient:2 context:1 feeling:2 occur:2 described:1 inextricably:1 weave:1 fabric:1 surroundings:1 environment:1 think:1 akin:1 lifestyle:1 communal:1 ownership:1 individual:2 property:1 vow:1 poverty:1 many:1 monastic:1 tradition:1 may:3 also:2 intend:1 make:1 selflessness:2 easy:1 maintain:1 practitioner:1 continuously:1 remain:1 meditative:1 mind:1 form:1 meditation:3 asian:1 religion:1 mental:1 seek:1 basic:1 level:1 gear:1 toward:2 relaxation:2 practice:2 advanced:1 meditators:1 aim:1 purpose:1 divide:1 awareness:1 certain:2 degree:2 time:1 ritual:1 religious:1 treatment:1 function:1 learn:2 take:1 seriousness:1 gradually:1 control:1 undesired:1 harmful:1 schism:1 psyche:1 note:1 term:1 similar:1 literal:1 meaning:1 latin:1 word:2 differs:1 nuance:1 usage:1 would:2 describe:1 set:1 act:3 selfless:2 altruistic:1 selfish:2 benefit:2 others:2 say:1 person:1 egoless:2 way:1 suggest:1 irrelevant:1 regardless:1 whether:1 attitude:1 opposite:1 orthogonal:1 close:1 antonym:1 egotism:1 inflate:1 disproportionate:1 sense:1 worth:1 important:1 possibly:1 solipsism:1 loss:1 commonly:1 experience:1 influence:1 psychedelic:1 drug:1 see:1 anatman:1 anatta:1 moksha:1 baqaa:1 reduction:1 fanaa:1 list:1 buddhist:1 topic:1 mindfulness:1 shunyata:1 nirvana:1 external:1 link:1 training:1 |@bigram vow_poverty:1 psychedelic_drug:1 external_link:1 |
3,479 | James_Heckman | James Joseph Heckman (born 19 April 1944) is an American economist and Nobel laureate. He is the Henry Schultz Distinguished Service Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago, Distinguished Chair of Microeconometrics at University College, London, and University College, Dublin. Heckman shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 2000 with Daniel McFadden for his pioneering work in econometrics and microeconomics. He is considered to be among the ten most influential economists in the world. http://ideas.repec.org/top/top.person.all.html IDEAS/RePEc Biography Early years Heckman was born to John Jacob Heckman and Bernice Irene Medley in Chicago, Illinois. Heckman received his B.A. in mathematics from Colorado College, and received his Ph.D. from Princeton University in economics in 1971. Heckman then served as an Assistant Professor at Columbia University before moving to the University of Chicago in 1973. In addition to serving as the Henry B. Schultz Distinguished Service Professor of Economics, Heckman is also the director of the Economics Research Center and the Center for Social Program Evaluation at the Irving B. Harris School of Public Policy. In 2004, he was appointed as the Distinguished Chair of Microeconometrics at University College, London. In June 2006 he was appointed as the Professor of Science and Society at University College Dublin. University College Dublin web site. Heckman is also a senior research fellow at the American Bar Foundation. Research Heckman is noted for his contributions to selection bias and self-selection analysis especially Heckman correction, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics. He is also well-known for his empirical research in labor economics, particularly regarding the efficacy of early childhood education programs. Heckman's work has been devoted to the development of a scientific basis for economic policy evaluation, with special emphasis on models of individuals and disaggregated groups, and to the problems and possibilities created by heterogeneity, diversity, and unobserved counterfactual states. In the early 1990s, his pioneering research on the outcomes of people who obtain the GED certificate received national attention. His recent research focuses on human development and lifecycle skill formation, with a special emphasis on the economics of early childhood education. Professor Heckman has published over 200 articles and several books. His most recent books include Inequality in America: What Role for Human Capital Policy? (with Alan Krueger); Evaluating Human Capital Policy, Law, and Employment: Lessons from Latin America and the Caribbean (with Carmen Pages); and the Handbook of Econometrics, volumes 5, 6A, and 6B (edited with Edward Leamer). Heckman has contributed policy analysis to Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign. Personal life Heckman is married to sociologist, Lynne Pettle, with whom he has two children; son Jonathan (b. 1982), a physicist, and daughter Alma (b. 1986). See also List of economists List of think tanks References External links Interview with James J. Heckman in The Region, Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank, 2005 James J. Heckman's Homepage at the University of Chicago IDEAS/RePEc | James_Heckman |@lemmatized james:3 joseph:1 heckman:16 bear:2 april:1 american:2 economist:3 nobel:3 laureate:1 henry:2 schultz:2 distinguish:3 service:2 professor:5 economics:8 university:10 chicago:4 chair:2 microeconometrics:2 college:6 london:2 dublin:3 share:1 memorial:1 prize:2 daniel:1 mcfadden:1 pioneering:1 work:2 econometrics:2 microeconomics:1 consider:1 among:1 ten:1 influential:1 world:1 http:1 idea:3 repec:3 org:1 top:2 person:1 html:1 biography:1 early:4 year:1 john:1 jacob:1 bernice:1 irene:1 medley:1 illinois:1 receive:3 b:5 mathematics:1 colorado:1 ph:1 princeton:1 serve:2 assistant:1 columbia:1 move:1 addition:1 also:4 director:1 research:6 center:2 social:1 program:2 evaluation:2 irving:1 harris:1 school:1 public:1 policy:5 appoint:2 distinguished:1 june:1 science:1 society:1 web:1 site:1 senior:1 fellow:1 bar:1 foundation:1 note:1 contribution:1 selection:2 bias:1 self:1 analysis:2 especially:1 correction:1 award:1 well:1 know:1 empirical:1 labor:1 particularly:1 regard:1 efficacy:1 childhood:2 education:2 devote:1 development:2 scientific:1 basis:1 economic:1 special:2 emphasis:2 model:1 individual:1 disaggregated:1 group:1 problem:1 possibility:1 create:1 heterogeneity:1 diversity:1 unobserved:1 counterfactual:1 state:1 pioneer:1 outcome:1 people:1 obtain:1 ged:1 certificate:1 national:1 attention:1 recent:2 focus:1 human:3 lifecycle:1 skill:1 formation:1 publish:1 article:1 several:1 book:2 include:1 inequality:1 america:2 role:1 capital:2 alan:1 krueger:1 evaluate:1 law:1 employment:1 lesson:1 latin:1 caribbean:1 carmen:1 page:1 handbook:1 volume:1 edit:1 edward:1 leamer:1 contribute:1 barack:1 obama:1 presidential:1 campaign:1 personal:1 life:1 marry:1 sociologist:1 lynne:1 pettle:1 two:1 child:1 son:1 jonathan:1 physicist:1 daughter:1 alma:1 see:1 list:2 think:1 tank:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 interview:1 j:2 region:1 minneapolis:1 federal:1 reserve:1 bank:1 homepage:1 |@bigram nobel_laureate:1 idea_repec:3 chicago_illinois:1 nobel_prize:1 alan_krueger:1 barack_obama:1 external_link:1 |
3,480 | Mount_Saint_Vincent_University | Mount Saint Vincent University is a university located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Locally referred to as The Mount, it has a 135-year academic tradition of offering Canada’s most progressive and unique degree programs. Profile Mount Saint Vincent University is a leader in flexible education, professional studies, traditional arts and science and applied research. The Mount is nationally recognized for its small class sizes, which allow for personalized attention, lively group discussions and small team projects that create classes that are enriched by the background and experience of each student. Quick Facts Approximately 5,000 students from 60 countries More than 23,000 alumnae around the world Average class size of 23 students Faculty devote more time to teaching than most other universities First university in the Maritimes to offer Co-operative Education First English-speaking Bachelor of Public Relations Only university in Atlantic Canada to offer Child and Youth Study Home to a nationally recognized art gallery Jake Yorke, a chemistry major, was named the Mount's first Rhodes Scholar in 2007 Offers the largest Education program in Nova Scotia Student exchange agreements with 14 universities on four continents The regional leader in Distance Education with 190 courses and 14 programs History Mount Saint Vincent University Entrance from the Bedford Highway, Halifax From its inception, the Mount has been concerned about the welfare and fortune of individuals and communities, at home and abroad. Established by the Sisters of Charity in 1873, the Mount was one of the only institutions of higher education for women in Canada at a time when women could not vote. The original purpose of the academy was to train novices and young sisters as teachers, but the Sisters also recognized a need to educate other young women. Mabel H. Laine, Margaret Young, Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. Over the ensuing years, the order developed a convent, schools, an orphanage, and health care facilities throughout the Halifax area, as well as across North America. By 1912, the Sisters of Charity recognized the need to offer greater opportunity through university education and adopted a progressive plan to establish a college for young women. It was two years later, in 1914 that the Sisters partnered with Dalhousie University, enabling Mount Saint Vincent to offer the first two years of a bachelor’s degree program to be credited toward a Dalhousie degree. In 1925, the Nova Scotia Legislature awarded the Mount the right to grant its own degrees, making it the only independent women’s college in the British Commonwealth. Our History, Mount Saint Vincent University. By 1951, degrees were offered in Arts, Secretarial Science, Music, Home Economics, Library Science, Nursing and Education. A new charter was granted in 1966 and the College became Mount Saint Vincent University, bringing forth the establishment of a Board of Governors and Senate. This was also a period of tremendous growth – with enrolment increases, new construction and new agreements. The University continued to evolve with the expansion of programs during the 1970s and entered into several new fields, including Child Study, Public Relations, Gerontology, Tourism and Hospitality Management, Cooperative Education and Distance Education. In July 1988, the Sisters of Charity officially transferred ownership of the institution to the Board of Governors. New ideas and innovation continued to steer the Mount forward on a progressive path from the early 1990s through to today. Now in its 135th year, the Mount is building on its distinct features and esteemed history to become an environment for transformative learning and a university with unparalleled social impact – at home, across the country, and overseas. Programs Mount Saint Vincent University offers a unique mix of 38 undergraduate degrees in liberal arts and sciences and an array of professional programs including Applied Human Nutrition, Business Administration, Child and Youth Study, Public Relations, and Tourism and Hospitality Management. Following consolidation of post-secondary programs across Nova Scotia in the 1990s, the Mount became home to the only Education program in the Halifax area. The Department of Applied Human Nutrition has an accredited dietetic program. The University is accredited by a professional organization such as the Dietitians of Canada and the university's graduates may subsequently become registered dietitians. List of universities with accredited dietetic programs During the 1995 G7 summit, Mount Saint Vincent University awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree to Hillary Rodham Clinton. Athletics Home to the Mystics, the Mount competes in the Atlantic Colleges Athletic Association (ACAA) in Women’s and Men’s Basketball, Soccer and Women’s Volleyball. With some of the top athletes in the country, the Mystics hold a number of regional championship titles in all sports. Both the Men’s and Women’s Basketball teams were undefeated for two straight years in regular season play (2006-07, 2007-08) and went on to capture silver at the national championships in 2007-08. Notable graduates Paul D. McNair See also List of current and historical women's universities and colleges Higher education in Nova Scotia List of universities in Nova Scotia Canadian Interuniversity Sport Canadian government scientific research organizations Canadian university scientific research organizations Canadian industrial research and development organizations List of colleges and universities named after people References External links Mount Saint Vincent University - official website MSVU Art Gallery -- official website | Mount_Saint_Vincent_University |@lemmatized mount:19 saint:9 vincent:9 university:24 locate:1 halifax:4 nova:6 scotia:6 canada:6 locally:1 refer:1 year:6 academic:1 tradition:1 offer:8 progressive:3 unique:2 degree:7 program:11 profile:1 leader:2 flexible:1 education:11 professional:3 study:4 traditional:1 art:5 science:4 apply:1 research:4 nationally:2 recognize:4 small:2 class:3 size:2 allow:1 personalized:1 attention:1 lively:1 group:1 discussion:1 team:2 project:1 create:1 enrich:1 background:1 experience:1 student:4 quick:1 fact:1 approximately:1 country:3 alumna:1 around:1 world:1 average:1 faculty:1 devote:1 time:2 teach:1 first:4 maritimes:1 co:1 operative:1 english:1 speak:1 bachelor:2 public:3 relation:3 atlantic:2 child:3 youth:2 home:6 gallery:2 jake:1 yorke:1 chemistry:1 major:1 name:2 rhodes:1 scholar:1 large:1 exchange:1 agreement:2 four:1 continent:1 regional:2 distance:2 course:1 history:3 entrance:1 bedford:1 highway:1 inception:1 concern:1 welfare:1 fortune:1 individual:1 community:1 abroad:1 establish:2 sister:6 charity:3 one:1 institution:2 high:2 woman:9 could:1 vote:1 original:1 purpose:1 academy:1 train:1 novice:1 young:4 teacher:1 also:3 need:2 educate:1 mabel:1 h:1 laine:1 margaret:1 encyclopedia:1 music:2 ensue:1 order:1 develop:1 convent:1 school:1 orphanage:1 health:1 care:1 facility:1 throughout:1 area:2 well:1 across:3 north:1 america:1 great:1 opportunity:1 adopt:1 plan:1 college:6 two:3 later:1 partner:1 dalhousie:2 enable:1 credit:1 toward:1 legislature:1 award:2 right:1 grant:2 make:1 independent:1 british:1 commonwealth:1 secretarial:1 economics:1 library:1 nursing:1 new:5 charter:1 become:4 bring:1 forth:1 establishment:1 board:2 governor:2 senate:1 period:1 tremendous:1 growth:1 enrolment:1 increase:1 construction:1 continue:2 evolve:1 expansion:1 enter:1 several:1 field:1 include:2 gerontology:1 tourism:2 hospitality:2 management:2 cooperative:1 july:1 officially:1 transfer:1 ownership:1 idea:1 innovation:1 steer:1 forward:1 path:1 early:1 today:1 build:1 distinct:1 feature:1 esteem:1 environment:1 transformative:1 learning:1 unparalleled:1 social:1 impact:1 overseas:1 mix:1 undergraduate:1 liberal:1 array:1 applied:2 human:2 nutrition:2 business:1 administration:1 follow:1 consolidation:1 post:1 secondary:1 department:1 accredit:2 dietetic:2 organization:4 dietitian:2 graduate:2 may:1 subsequently:1 registered:1 list:4 accredited:1 summit:1 honorary:1 doctor:1 law:1 hillary:1 rodham:1 clinton:1 athletics:1 mystic:2 compete:1 athletic:1 association:1 acaa:1 men:2 basketball:2 soccer:1 volleyball:1 top:1 athlete:1 hold:1 number:1 championship:2 title:1 sport:2 undefeated:1 straight:1 regular:1 season:1 play:1 go:1 capture:1 silver:1 national:1 notable:1 paul:1 mcnair:1 see:1 current:1 historical:1 canadian:4 interuniversity:1 government:1 scientific:2 industrial:1 development:1 people:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:2 msvu:1 |@bigram halifax_nova:1 nova_scotia:6 co_operative:1 health_care:1 bachelor_degree:1 hillary_rodham:1 rodham_clinton:1 canadian_interuniversity:1 interuniversity_sport:1 external_link:1 |
3,481 | Haskell_(programming_language) | Haskell is a standardized, purely functional programming language with non-strict semantics, named after logician Haskell Curry. History Following the release of Miranda by Research Software Ltd, in 1985, interest in lazy functional languages grew. By 1987, more than a dozen non-strict, purely functional programming languages existed. Of these, Miranda was the most widely used, but was not in the public domain. At the conference on Functional Programming Languages and Computer Architecture (FPCA '87) in Portland, Oregon, a meeting was held during which participants formed a strong consensus that a committee should be formed to define an open standard for such languages. The committee's purpose was to consolidate the existing functional languages into a common one that would serve as a basis for future research in functional-language design. The first version of Haskell ("Haskell 1.0") was defined in 1990. The committee's efforts resulted in a series of language definitions. In late 1997, the series culminated in Haskell 98, intended to specify a stable, minimal, portable version of the language and an accompanying standard library for teaching, and as a base for future extensions. The committee expressly welcomed the creation of extensions and variants of Haskell 98 via adding and incorporating experimental features. In February 1999, the Haskell 98 language standard was originally published as "The Haskell 98 Report". In January 2003, a revised version was published as "Haskell 98 Language and Libraries: The Revised Report". The language continues to evolve rapidly, with the GHC implementation representing the current de facto standard. In early 2006, the process of defining a successor to the Haskell 98 standard, informally named Haskell′ ("Haskell Prime"), was begun. This process is intended to produce a minor revision of Haskell 98. Features and extensions Characteristic features of Haskell include lazy evaluation, pattern matching, currying, list comprehensions List comprehensions have been adopted by . , guards, definable operators, and single assignment. The language also supports recursive functions and algebraic data types, and less common concepts including monads and type classes. The combination of such features can make functions which would be difficult to write in a procedural programming language almost trivial to implement in Haskell. Several variants have been developed: parallelizable versions from MIT and Glasgow University, both called Parallel Haskell; more parallel and distributed versions called Distributed Haskell (formerly Goffin) and Eden; a speculatively evaluating version called Eager Haskell and several object oriented versions: Haskell++, O'Haskell and Mondrian. Concurrent Clean is a close relative of Haskell, whose biggest deviation from Haskell is in the use of uniqueness types for input instead of monads. Applications Haskell is increasingly being used in commercial situations See Industrial Haskell Group for collaborative development, Commercial Users of Functional Programming for specific projects and Haskell in industry for a list of companies using Haskell commercially . Audrey Tang's Pugs is an implementation for the long-forthcoming Perl 6 language with an interpreter and compilers that proved useful after just a few months of its writing; similarly, GHC is often a testbed for advanced functional programming features and optimizations. Darcs is a revision control system written in Haskell, with several innovative features. Linspire GNU/Linux chose Haskell for system tools development. Xmonad is a window manager for the X Window System, written entirely in Haskell. Bluespec SystemVerilog is a language for semiconductor design that is an extension of Haskell. Additionally, Bluespec, Inc.'s tools are implemented in Haskell. Cryptol, a language and toolchain for developing and verifying cryptographic algorithms, is implemented in Haskell. Examples A simple example that is often used to demonstrate the syntax of functional languages is the factorial function for non-negative integers, shown in Haskell: factorial :: Integer -> Integer factorial 0 = 1 factorial n | n > 0 = n * factorial (n-1) Or in one line: factorial n = if n > 0 then n * factorial (n-1) else 1 This describes the factorial as a recursive function, with one terminating base case. It is similar to the descriptions of factorials found in mathematics textbooks. Much of Haskell code is similar to standard mathematical notation in facility and syntax. The first line of the factorial function describes the types of this function; while it is optional, it is considered to be good style HaskellWiki: Type signatures as good style to include it. It can be read as the function factorial (factorial) has type (::) from integer to integer (Integer -> Integer). That is, it takes an integer as an argument, and returns another integer. The type of a definition is inferred automatically if the programmer didn't supply a type annotation. The second line relies on pattern matching, an important feature of Haskell. Note that parameters of a function are not in parentheses but separated by spaces. When the function's argument is 0 (zero) it will return the integer 1 (one). For all other cases the third line is tried. This is the recursion, and executes the function again until the base case is reached. A guard protects the third line from negative numbers for which a factorial is undefined. Without the guard this function would recurse through all negative numbers without ever reaching the base case of 0. As it is, the pattern matching is not complete: if a negative integer is passed to the factorial function as an argument, the program will fail with a runtime error. A final case could check for this error condition and print an appropriate error message instead. The "Prelude" is a number of small functions analogous to C's standard library. Using the Prelude, we can express the factorial function as: factorial n = product (enumFromTo 1 n) As the name n does not really contribute to the clarity of the function, this function might be better expressed in the point-free style HaskellWiki: Pointfree of unspecified arguments. Using the function composition operator (expressed as a dot in Haskell) to compose the product function with the curried enumeration function, it becomes: factorial = product . enumFromTo 1 In the Hugs interpreter, you often need to define the function and use it on the same line separated by a where or let..in, meaning you need to enter this to test the above examples and see the output 120: let { factorial 0 = 1; factorial n | n > 0 = n * factorial (n-1) } in factorial 5 or factorial 5 where factorial = product . enumFromTo 1 The GHCi interpreter doesn't have this restriction and function definitions can be entered on one line and referenced later. More complex examples A simple Reverse Polish Notation calculator expressed with the higher-order function foldl whose argument f is defined in a where clause using pattern matching and the type class Read: calc :: String -> [Float] calc = foldl f [] . words where f (x:y:zs) "+" = (y + x):zs f (x:y:zs) "-" = (y - x):zs f (x:y:zs) "*" = (y * x):zs f (x:y:zs) "/" = (y / x):zs f xs y = read y : xs The empty list is the initial state, and f interprets one word at a time, either matching two numbers from the head of the list and pushing the result back in, or parsing the word as a floating-point number and prepending it to the list. The following definition produces the list of Fibonacci numbers in linear time: fibs = 0 : 1 : zipWith (+) fibs (tail fibs) The infinite list is produced by corecursion — the latter values of the list are computed on demand starting from the initial two items 0 and 1. This kind of a definition relies on lazy evaluation, an important feature of Haskell programming. For an example of how the evaluation evolves, the following illustrates the values of fibs and tail fibs after the computation of six items and shows how zipWith (+) has produced four items and proceeds to produce the next item: fibs = 0 : 1 : 1 : 2 : 3 : 5 : ... + + + + + + tail fibs = 1 : 1 : 2 : 3 : 5 : ... = = = = = = zipWith ... = 1 : 2 : 3 : 5 : 8 : ... fibs = 0 : 1 : 1 : 2 : 3 : 5 : 8 : ... The same function, written using GHC's parallel list comprehension syntax (GHC extensions must be enabled using a special command-line flag '-fglasgow-exts'; see GHC's manual for more): fibs = 0 : 1 : [ a+b | a <- fibs | b <- tail fibs ] The factorial we saw previously can be written as a sequence of functions: factorial n = (foldl (.) id [\x -> x*k | k <- [1..n]]) 1 A remarkably concise function that returns the list of Hamming numbers in order: hamming = 1 : map (2*) hamming `merge` map (3*) hamming `merge` map (5*) hamming where merge (x:xs) (y:ys) | x < y = x : xs `merge` (y:ys) | x > y = y : (x:xs) `merge` ys | otherwise = x : xs `merge` ys Like the various fibs solutions displayed above, this uses corecursion to produce a list of numbers on demand, starting from the base case of 1 and building new items based on the preceding part of the list. In this case the producer merge is defined in a where clause and used as an operator by enclosing it in back-quotes. The branches of the guards define how merge merges two ascending lists into one ascending list without duplicate items. Monads and Input/Output As Haskell is a pure functional language, functions cannot have side effects. Being non-strict, it also does not have a well-defined evaluation order. This is a challenge for real programs, which among other things need to interact with an environment. Haskell solves this with monadic types that leverages the type system to ensure the proper sequencing of imperative constructs. The typical example is I/O, but monads are useful for many other purposes, including mutable state, concurrency and transactional memory, exception handling, and error propagation. Haskell provides a special syntax for monadic expressions, so that side-effecting programs can be written in a style similar to current imperative programming languages; no knowledge of the mathematics behind monadic I/O is required for this. The following program reads a name from the command line and outputs a greeting message: main = do putStrLn "What's your name?" name <- getLine putStr ("Hello, " ++ name ++ "!\n") The do-notation eases working with monads. This do-expression is equivalent to, but (arguably) easier to write and understand than, the de-sugared version employing the monadic operators directly: main = putStrLn "What's your name?" >> getLine >>= \ name -> putStr ("Hello, " ++ name ++ "!\n") See also wikibooks:Transwiki:List of hello world programs#Haskell for another example that prints text. Criticism Jan-Willem Maessen, in 2002, and Simon Peyton Jones, in 2003, discussed problems associated with lazy evaluation while also acknowledging the theoretical motivation for it Jan-Willem Maessen. Eager Haskell: Resource-bounded execution yields efficient iteration. Proceedings of the 2002 ACM SIGPLAN workshop on Haskell. Simon Peyton Jones. Wearing the hair shirt: a retrospective on Haskell. Invited talk at POPL 2003. , in addition to purely practical considerations such as improved performance. Lazy evaluation can lead to excellent performance, such as in The Computer Language Benchmarks Game They note that, in addition to adding some performance overhead, laziness makes it more difficult for programmers to reason about the performance of their code (specifically with regard to memory usage). Bastiaan Heeren, Daan Leijen, and Arjan van IJzendoorn in 2003 also observed some stumbling blocks for Haskell learners: "The subtle syntax and sophisticated type system of Haskell are a double edged sword — highly appreciated by experienced programmers but also a source of frustration among beginners, since the generality of Haskell often leads to cryptic error messages." Bastiaan Heeren, Daan Leijen, Arjan van IJzendoorn. Helium, for learning Haskell. Proceedings of the 2003 ACM SIGPLAN workshop on Haskell. To address these, they developed an advanced interpreter called Helium which improved the user-friendliness of error messages by limiting the generality of some Haskell features, and in particular removing support for type classes. Implementations The following all comply fully, or very nearly, with the Haskell 98 standard, and are distributed under open source licenses. There are currently no proprietary Haskell implementations. The Glasgow Haskell Compiler (GHC) compiles to native code on a number of different architectures—as well as to ANSI C—using C-- as an intermediate language. GHC is probably the most popular Haskell compiler, and there are quite a few useful libraries (e.g. bindings to OpenGL) that will work only with GHC. Gofer was an educational dialect of Haskell, with a feature called "constructor classes", developed by Mark Jones. It was supplanted by Hugs (see below). HBC is another native-code Haskell compiler. It has not been actively developed for some time but is still usable. Helium is a newer dialect of Haskell. The focus is on making it easy to learn by providing clearer error messages. It currently lacks full support for type classes, rendering it incompatible with many Haskell programs. The Utrecht Haskell Compiler (UHC) is a Haskell implementation from Utrecht University. UHC supports almost all Haskell 98 features plus many experimental extensions. It is implemented using attribute grammars and is currently mainly used for research into generated type systems and language extensions. Hugs, the Haskell User's Gofer System, is a bytecode interpreter. It offers fast compilation of programs and reasonable execution speed. It also comes with a simple graphics library. Hugs is good for people learning the basics of Haskell, but is by no means a "toy" implementation. It is the most portable and lightweight of the Haskell implementations. Jhc is a Haskell compiler written by John Meacham emphasising speed and efficiency of generated programs as well as exploration of new program transformations. LHC, is a recent fork of Jhc. nhc98 is another bytecode compiler, but the bytecode runs significantly faster than with Hugs. Nhc98 focuses on minimizing memory usage, and is a particularly good choice for older, slower machines. Yhc, the York Haskell Compiler is a fork of nhc98, with the goals of being simpler, more portable and more efficient, and integrating support for Hat, the Haskell tracer. It also features a JavaScript backend allowing users to run Haskell programs in a web browser. Libraries Since January 2007, libraries and applications written in Haskell have been collected on "Hackage", an online database of open source Haskell software using Cabal packaging tool. By May 2009 there were some 1250 packages available. Hackage provides a central point for the distribution of Haskell software, via Cabal, and has become a hub for new Haskell development activity. Installing new Haskell software via Hackage is possible via the cabal-install tool: $ cabal install xmonad which recursively installs required dependencies if they are available on Hackage. This makes installation of Haskell code easier than had been possible previously. The Haskell Platform To cope with the growing number of libraries, the Haskell Platform was launched in September 2008 to provide a standard, quality-assured suite of Haskell libraries, available on every machine. The library standardisation project is modelled on GNOME's release process. The first release of the Haskell Platform was in May 2009. GUI Widget Toolkits qtHaskell -- A binding of Qt for Haskell wxHaskell -- A binding of wxWidgets for Haskell Gtk2Hs -- A binding of Gtk for Haskell Related projects O'Haskell — an extension of Haskell adding object-orientation and concurrent programming support. Pugs — a compiler and interpreter for the Perl 6 programming language LOLITA and Darcs — large applications written in Haskell Xmonad — a window manager written in Haskell (under 1200 lines) Jaskell — a functional scripting programming language that runs in Java VM Curry — a language based on Haskell House — an operating system written using Haskell WinHugs — Haskell interpreter for Windows References External links HaskellWiki - The Haskell Home Page A History of Haskell: being lazy with class - History of Haskell Haskell Humor Haskell vs. Ada vs. C++ vs. Awk vs. ... An Experiment in Software Prototyping Productivity (a PostScript file) The Evolution of a Haskell Programmer - a slightly humorous overview of different programming styles available in Haskell An Online Bibliography of Haskell Research ePolyglot - combining Haskell, Python and Eiffel SE-Radio Podcast with Simon Peyton Jones on Haskell Techworld interview on innovations of Haskell Haskell functions for Javascript The Haskell Sequence, weekly news site for Haskell Monad Reader, a (essentially) quarterly journal of Haskell Tutorials Real World Haskell - a fast-moving book focusing on practical examples, published under a Creative Commons license Learn You a Haskell For Great Good! - a humorous introductory tutorial with illustrations Yet Another Haskell Tutorial - an Haskell tutorial by Hal Daume III; assumes much less prior knowledge than the official tutorial A Gentle Introduction to Haskell 98 (a more advanced tutorial, also available as pdf file) Haskell Tutorial for C Programmers by Eric Etheridge List of Tutorials at Haskell.org Haskell Idioms | Haskell_(programming_language) |@lemmatized haskell:111 standardized:1 purely:3 functional:11 programming:11 language:26 non:4 strict:3 semantics:1 name:10 logician:1 curry:3 history:3 follow:3 release:3 miranda:2 research:4 software:5 ltd:1 interest:1 lazy:6 grow:2 dozen:1 exist:2 widely:1 use:18 public:1 domain:1 conference:1 computer:2 architecture:2 fpca:1 portland:1 oregon:1 meeting:1 hold:1 participant:1 form:2 strong:1 consensus:1 committee:4 define:8 open:3 standard:9 purpose:2 consolidate:1 common:3 one:7 would:3 serve:1 basis:1 future:2 design:2 first:3 version:8 effort:1 result:2 series:2 definition:5 late:1 culminate:1 intend:2 specify:1 stable:1 minimal:1 portable:3 accompany:1 library:10 teaching:1 base:7 extension:8 expressly:1 welcome:1 creation:1 variant:2 via:4 add:3 incorporate:1 experimental:2 feature:12 february:1 originally:1 publish:3 report:2 january:2 revised:2 continue:1 evolve:2 rapidly:1 ghc:8 implementation:7 represent:1 current:2 de:2 facto:1 early:1 process:3 successor:1 informally:1 prime:1 begin:1 produce:6 minor:1 revision:2 characteristic:1 include:4 evaluation:6 pattern:4 matching:4 list:17 comprehension:3 adopt:1 guard:4 definable:1 operator:4 single:1 assignment:1 also:9 support:6 recursive:2 function:27 algebraic:1 data:1 type:15 less:2 concept:1 monad:6 class:6 combination:1 make:4 difficult:2 write:12 procedural:1 almost:2 trivial:1 implement:4 several:3 develop:5 parallelizable:1 mit:1 glasgow:2 university:2 call:5 parallel:3 distributed:1 distribute:2 formerly:1 goffin:1 eden:1 speculatively:1 evaluate:1 eager:2 object:2 orient:1 mondrian:1 concurrent:2 clean:1 close:1 relative:1 whose:2 big:1 deviation:1 uniqueness:1 input:2 instead:2 application:3 increasingly:1 commercial:2 situation:1 see:5 industrial:1 group:1 collaborative:1 development:3 user:4 specific:1 project:3 industry:1 company:1 commercially:1 audrey:1 tang:1 pug:2 long:1 forthcoming:1 perl:2 interpreter:7 compiler:9 prove:1 useful:3 month:1 writing:1 similarly:1 often:4 testbed:1 advanced:3 optimization:1 darcs:2 control:1 system:8 innovative:1 linspire:1 gnu:1 linux:1 chose:1 tool:4 xmonad:3 window:4 manager:2 x:20 entirely:1 bluespec:2 systemverilog:1 semiconductor:1 additionally:1 inc:1 cryptol:1 toolchain:1 verify:1 cryptographic:1 algorithm:1 examples:2 simple:3 example:6 demonstrate:1 syntax:5 factorial:25 negative:4 integer:11 show:2 n:19 line:10 else:1 describe:2 terminate:1 case:7 similar:3 description:1 find:1 mathematics:2 textbook:1 much:2 code:5 mathematical:1 notation:3 facility:1 optional:1 consider:1 good:6 style:5 haskellwiki:3 signature:1 read:4 take:1 argument:5 return:3 another:5 infer:1 automatically:1 programmer:5 supply:1 annotation:1 second:1 relies:1 important:2 note:2 parameter:1 parenthesis:1 separate:2 space:1 zero:1 third:2 try:1 recursion:1 execute:1 reach:2 protect:1 number:10 undefined:1 without:3 recurse:1 ever:1 complete:1 pass:1 program:11 fail:1 runtime:1 error:7 final:1 could:1 check:1 condition:1 print:2 appropriate:1 message:5 prelude:2 small:1 analogous:1 c:5 express:4 product:4 enumfromto:3 really:1 contribute:1 clarity:1 might:1 point:3 free:1 pointfree:1 unspecified:1 composition:1 dot:1 compose:1 curried:1 enumeration:1 become:2 hug:5 need:3 let:2 mean:2 enter:2 test:1 output:3 ghci:1 restriction:1 reference:2 later:1 complex:1 reverse:1 polish:1 calculator:1 high:1 order:3 foldl:3 f:8 clause:2 calc:2 string:1 float:2 word:3 z:8 xs:3 empty:1 initial:2 state:2 interprets:1 time:3 either:1 match:1 two:3 head:1 push:1 back:2 parse:1 prepending:1 following:2 fibonacci:1 linear:1 fibs:2 zipwith:3 fib:10 tail:4 infinite:1 corecursion:2 latter:1 value:2 compute:1 demand:2 start:2 item:6 kind:1 rely:1 illustrate:1 computation:1 six:1 four:1 proceeds:1 next:1 must:1 enable:1 special:2 command:2 flag:1 fglasgow:1 exts:1 manual:1 b:2 saw:1 previously:2 sequence:2 id:1 k:2 remarkably:1 concise:1 ham:4 hamming:1 map:3 merge:8 ys:1 otherwise:1 like:1 various:1 solution:1 display:1 build:1 new:5 precede:1 part:1 producer:1 enclose:1 quote:1 branch:1 merges:1 ascend:2 duplicate:1 pure:1 cannot:1 side:2 effect:2 well:3 challenge:1 real:2 among:2 thing:1 interact:1 environment:1 solve:1 monadic:4 leverage:1 ensure:1 proper:1 sequencing:1 imperative:2 construct:1 typical:1 many:3 mutable:1 concurrency:1 transactional:1 memory:3 exception:1 handling:1 propagation:1 provide:4 expression:2 knowledge:2 behind:1 require:1 greeting:1 main:2 putstrln:2 getline:2 putstr:2 hello:3 ease:1 work:2 equivalent:1 arguably:1 easy:3 understand:1 sugar:1 employ:1 directly:1 wikibooks:1 transwiki:1 world:2 text:1 criticism:1 jan:2 willem:2 maessen:2 simon:3 peyton:3 jones:4 discuss:1 problem:1 associate:1 acknowledge:1 theoretical:1 motivation:1 resource:1 bounded:1 execution:2 yield:1 efficient:2 iteration:1 proceeding:2 acm:2 sigplan:2 workshop:2 wear:1 hair:1 shirt:1 retrospective:1 invite:1 talk:1 popl:1 addition:2 practical:2 consideration:1 improved:1 performance:4 lead:2 excellent:1 benchmark:1 game:1 overhead:1 laziness:1 reason:1 specifically:1 regard:1 usage:2 bastiaan:2 heeren:2 daan:2 leijen:2 arjan:2 van:2 ijzendoorn:2 observe:1 stumbling:1 block:1 learner:1 subtle:1 sophisticated:1 double:1 edged:1 sword:1 highly:1 appreciate:1 experienced:1 source:3 frustration:1 beginner:1 since:2 generality:2 cryptic:1 helium:3 learn:4 address:1 improve:1 friendliness:1 limit:1 particular:1 remove:1 comply:1 fully:1 nearly:1 license:2 currently:3 proprietary:1 compile:1 native:2 different:2 ansi:1 intermediate:1 probably:1 popular:1 quite:1 e:1 g:1 binding:4 opengl:1 gofer:2 educational:1 dialect:2 constructor:1 mark:1 supplant:1 hbc:1 actively:1 still:1 usable:1 focus:3 clear:1 lack:1 full:1 render:1 incompatible:1 utrecht:2 uhc:2 plus:1 attribute:1 grammar:1 mainly:1 generated:2 bytecode:3 offer:1 fast:2 compilation:1 reasonable:1 speed:2 come:1 graphic:1 people:1 basic:1 toy:1 lightweight:1 jhc:2 john:1 meacham:1 emphasise:1 efficiency:1 exploration:1 transformation:1 lhc:1 recent:1 fork:2 run:3 significantly:1 faster:1 minimize:1 particularly:1 choice:1 old:1 slow:1 machine:2 yhc:1 york:1 goal:1 simpler:1 integrate:1 hat:1 tracer:1 javascript:2 backend:1 allow:1 web:1 browser:1 collect:1 hackage:4 online:2 database:1 cabal:4 packaging:1 may:2 package:1 available:5 central:1 distribution:1 hub:1 activity:1 instal:1 possible:2 install:3 recursively:1 required:1 dependency:1 installation:1 platform:3 cope:1 launch:1 september:1 quality:1 assure:1 suite:1 every:1 standardisation:1 model:1 gnome:1 gui:1 widget:1 toolkits:1 qthaskell:1 qt:1 wxhaskell:1 wxwidgets:1 gtk:1 related:1 orientation:1 lolita:1 large:1 jaskell:1 scripting:1 java:1 vm:1 house:1 operating:1 winhugs:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 humor:1 v:4 ada:1 awk:1 experiment:1 prototyping:1 productivity:1 postscript:1 file:2 evolution:1 slightly:1 humorous:2 overview:1 bibliography:1 epolyglot:1 combining:1 python:1 eiffel:1 se:1 radio:1 podcast:1 techworld:1 interview:1 innovation:1 weekly:1 news:1 site:1 reader:1 essentially:1 quarterly:1 journal:1 tutorial:8 move:1 book:1 creative:1 great:1 introductory:1 illustration:1 yet:1 hal:1 daume:1 iii:1 assumes:1 prior:1 official:1 gentle:1 introduction:1 pdf:1 eric:1 etheridge:1 org:1 idiom:1 |@bigram portland_oregon:1 haskell_haskell:5 de_facto:1 lazy_evaluation:4 pattern_matching:4 gnu_linux:1 cryptographic_algorithm:1 factorial_factorial:5 tail_fib:4 input_output:1 transwiki_list:1 stumbling_block:1 haskell_compiler:6 web_browser:1 external_link:1 introductory_tutorial:1 |
3,482 | Francophone | The adjective francophone (alternately Francophone) means French-speaking, typically as primary language, whether referring to individuals, groups, or places. Often, the word is used as a noun to describe a natively French-speaking person. va=Francophone - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary francophone definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta In a narrower sense, the notion of 'francophone' reaches beyond the dictionary definition of "French language speaker". The term specifically refers to people whose cultural background is primarily associated with French language, regardless of ethnic and geographical differences. The francophone culture beyond Europe is the legacy of the French colonial empire and that of Belgium (Congo, Burundi and Rwanda). Mainly or partially francophone countries include France, Belgium (Wallonia is almost entirely francophone, and there is a large French-speaking community in the Brussels-Capital Region and a few bordering municipalities), Canada (the province of Quebec is mostly francophone, and there are large French-speaking communities in Ontario, New Brunswick and other Canadian provinces), Switzerland, Haiti, Lebanon and the French West Indies, several countries in Africa that are former French or Belgian colonies, and Tahiti in the South Pacific. These countries are members of the Francophonie organization. Member states of the Francophonie organization Legend : ▪ Francophone minorities See also Acadiana region, Louisiana Anglophone Cajun Francophile Francophobia Francophonie French Canadian French language: Geographic distribution List of countries where French is an official language Lusophone, Hispanophone, Russophone Spoken languages of Canada Footnotes | Francophone |@lemmatized adjective:1 francophone:10 alternately:1 mean:1 french:12 speaking:1 typically:1 primary:1 language:6 whether:1 refer:2 individual:1 group:1 place:1 often:1 word:1 use:1 noun:1 describe:1 natively:1 speak:3 person:1 va:1 definition:3 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 dictionary:3 msn:1 encarta:1 narrow:1 sense:1 notion:1 reach:1 beyond:2 speaker:1 term:1 specifically:1 people:1 whose:1 cultural:1 background:1 primarily:1 associate:1 regardless:1 ethnic:1 geographical:1 difference:1 culture:1 europe:1 legacy:1 colonial:1 empire:1 belgium:2 congo:1 burundi:1 rwanda:1 mainly:1 partially:1 country:4 include:1 france:1 wallonia:1 almost:1 entirely:1 large:2 community:2 brussels:1 capital:1 region:2 bordering:1 municipality:1 canada:2 province:2 quebec:1 mostly:1 ontario:1 new:1 brunswick:1 canadian:2 switzerland:1 haiti:1 lebanon:1 west:1 indie:1 several:1 africa:1 former:1 belgian:1 colony:1 tahiti:1 south:1 pacific:1 member:2 francophonie:3 organization:2 state:1 legend:1 minority:1 see:1 also:1 acadiana:1 louisiana:1 anglophone:1 cajun:1 francophile:1 francophobia:1 geographic:1 distribution:1 list:1 official:1 lusophone:1 hispanophone:1 russophone:1 spoken:1 footnote:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 msn_encarta:1 burundi_rwanda:1 west_indie:1 |
3,483 | Operations_research | Operations Research (OR) in the USA, Canada, South Africa and Australia, and Operational Research in Europe, is an interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics and formal science that uses methods such as mathematical modeling, statistics, and algorithms to arrive at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex problems. It is typically concerned with optimizing the maxima (profit, assembly line performance, crop yield, bandwidth, etc) or minima (loss, risk, etc.) of some objective function. Operations research helps management achieve its goals using scientific methods. Overview The terms operations research and management science are often used synonymously. When a distinction is drawn, management science generally implies a closer relationship to the problems of business management. The field of operations research is closely related to Industrial engineering. Industrial engineers typically consider Operations Research (OR) techniques to be a major part of their toolset. Some of the primary tools used by operations researchers are statistics, optimization, probability theory, queuing theory, game theory, graph theory, decision analysis, and simulation. Because of the computational nature of these fields, OR also has ties to computer science, and operations researchers use custom-written and off-the-shelf software. Operations research is distinguished by its frequent use to examine an entire management information system, rather than concentrating only on specific elements (though this is often done as well). An operations researcher faced with a new problem is expected to determine which techniques are most appropriate given the nature of the system, the goals for improvement, and constraints on time and computing power. For this and other reasons, the human element of OR is vital. Like any other tools, OR techniques cannot solve problems by themselves. History Some say that Charles Babbage (1791-1871) is the "father of operations research" because his research into the cost of transportation and sorting of mail led to England's universal "Penny Post" in 1840, and studies into the dynamical behaviour of railway vehicles in defence of the GWR's broad gauge. M.S. Sodhi, "What about the 'O' in O.R.?" OR/MS Today, December, 2007, p. 12, http://www.lionhrtpub.com/orms/orms-12-07/frqed.html The modern field of operations research arose during World War II. Modern operations research originated at the Bawdsey Research Station in the UK in 1937 and was the result of an initiative of the station's superintendent, A. P. Rowe. Rowe conceived the idea as a means to analyse and improve the working of the UK's early warning radar system, Chain Home (CH). Initially, he analyzed the operating of the radar equipment and its communication networks, expanding later to include the operating personnel's behaviour. This revealed unappreciated limitations of the CH network and allowed remedial action to be taken. Scientists in the United Kingdom including Patrick Blackett, Cecil Gordon, C. H. Waddington, Owen Wansbrough-Jones and Frank Yates, and in the United States with George Dantzig looked for ways to make better decisions in such areas as logistics and training schedules. After the war it began to be applied to similar problems in industry. World War II Blackett's team undertook a number of crucial analyses that aided the war effort. Britain introduced the convoy system to reduce shipping losses, but while the principle of using warships to accompany merchant ships was generally accepted, it was unclear whether it was better for convoys to be small or large. Convoys travel at the speed of the slowest member, so small convoys can travel faster. It was also argued that small convoys would be harder for German U-boats to detect. On the other hand, large convoys could deploy more warships against an attacker. Blackett's staff showed that the losses suffered by convoys depended largely on the number of escort vessels present, rather than on the overall size of the convoy. Their conclusion, therefore, was that a few large convoys are more defensible than many small ones. "Numbers are Essential": Victory in the North Atlantic Reconsidered, March-May 1943 In another piece of work, Blackett's team analysed a report of a survey carried out by RAF Bomber Command. For the survey, Bomber Command inspected all bombers returning from bombing raids over Germany over a particular period. All damage inflicted by German air defenses was noted and the recommendation was given that armour be added in the most heavily damaged areas. Their suggestion to remove some of the crew so that an aircraft loss would result in fewer personnel loss was rejected by RAF command. Blackett's team instead made the surprising and counter-intuitive recommendation that the armour be placed in the areas which were completely untouched by damage in the bombers which returned. They reasoned that the survey was biased, since it only included aircraft that returned to Britain. The untouched areas of returning aircraft were probably vital areas, which, if hit, would result in the loss of the aircraft. Map of Kammhuber Line When Germany organised its air defences into the Kammhuber Line, it was realised that if the RAF bombers were to fly in a bomber stream they could overwhelm the night fighters who flew in individual cells directed to their targets by ground controllers. It was then a matter of calculating the statistical loss from collisions against the statistical loss from night fighters to calculate how close the bombers should fly to minimise RAF losses. The "exchange rate" ratio of output to input was a characteristic feature of operations research. By comparing the number of flying hours put in by Allied aircraft to the number of U-boat sightings in a given area, it was possible to redistribute aircraft to more productive patrol areas. Comparison of exchange rates established "effectiveness ratios" useful in planning. The ratio of 60 mines laid per ship sunk was common to several campaigns: German mines in British ports, British mines on German routes, and United States mines in Japanese routes. Operations research doubled the success rate of aerial attacks on submarines by recommending a shallower detonation setting on the depth charges being dropped by aircraft. The depth charges had previously been set to detonate at the depth where the shock of the explosion would be most efficiently transferred through the water, but submarines were unable to reach that depth in the limited time available after being spotted by the aircraft. Shallower detonation depth settings reduced the distance of the detonation from the submarine: a close detonation with lower shock transmission efficiency was more destructive than a more distant detonation with better transmission. Operations research doubled the on-target bomb rate of B-29s bombing Japan from the Marianas Islands by increasing the training ratio from 4 to 10 percent of flying hours; revealed that wolf-packs of three United States submarines were the most effective number to enable all members of the pack to engage targets discovered on their individual patrol stations; revealed that glossy enamel paint was more effective camouflage for night fighters than traditional dull camouflage paint finish, and the smooth paint finish increased airspeed by reducing skin friction. On land, the operational research sections of the Army Operational Research Group (AORG) of the Ministry of Supply were landed in Normandy in 1944, and they followed British forces in the advance across Europe. They analysed, among other topics, the effectiveness of artillery, aerial bombing, and anti-tank shooting. After World War II After World War II, military operational research in the United Kingdom became known as "operational analysis" (OA) within the UK Ministry of Defence, where OR stands for "Operational Requirement". With expanded techniques and growing awareness, military OR or OA was no longer limited to only operations, but was extended to encompass equipment procurement, training, logistics and infrastructure. Vietnam The influence of systems analysis on the Vietnam war is debated by scholars. Van Creveld, in 'Command at War' argues that the influence has been exaggerated, but on the other hand, it 'did help create the information pathologies' in the war and 'made no small contribution to its outcome' Van Creveld, Command at War, p 241 Scope of operations research Examples of applications in which operations research is currently used include: critical path analysis or project planning: identifying those processes in a complex project which affect the overall duration of the project designing the layout of a factory for efficient flow of materials constructing a telecommunications network at low cost while still guaranteeing QoS (quality of service) or QoE (Quality of Experience) if particular connections become very busy or get damaged road traffic management and 'one way' street allocations i.e. allocation problems. determining the routes of school buses (or city buses) so that as few buses are needed as possible designing the layout of a computer chip to reduce manufacturing time (therefore reducing cost) managing the flow of raw materials and products in a supply chain based on uncertain demand for the finished products efficient messaging and customer response tactics robotizing or automating human-driven operations processes globalizing operations processes in order to take advantage of cheaper materials, labor, land or other productivity inputs managing freight transportation and delivery systems (Examples: LTL Shipping, intermodal freight transport) scheduling: personnel staffing manufacturing steps project tasks network data traffic: these are known as queueing models or queueing systems. sports events and their television coverage blending of raw materials in oil refineries determining optimal prices, in many retail and B2B settings, within the disciplines of pricing science Operations research is also used extensively in government where evidence-based policy is used. Societies and journals Societies The International Federation of Operational Research Societies IFORS is an umbrella organization for operations research societies worldwide. Significant among these are: Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS) INFORMS The Operational Research Society. The OR Society EURO is the association of European Operational Research Societies. EURO CORS is the Canadian Operational Research Society. CORS ASOR is the Australian Society for Operations Research. ASOR MORS is the Military Operations Research Society MORS : based in the United States since 1966 with the objective of enhancing the quality and usefulness of military operations research analysis in support of defense decisions. (MORS) ORSNZ is the Operations Research Society of New Zealand. ORSNZ ORSP is the Operations Research Society of the Philippines ORSP ORSI the Operational Research Society of India, ORSI and ORSSA the Operations Research Society of South Africa. ORSSA Other important Operations Research organizations are: Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization (SISO) SISO Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation and Education Conference (I/ITSEC) I/ITSEC In 2004 INFORMS began an initiative to market the OR profession better, including a website entitled The Science of Better The Science of Better which provides an introduction to OR and examples of successful applications of OR to industrial problems. Journals INFORMS publishes twelve scholarly journals about operations research, including the top two journals in their class, according to 2005 Journal Citation Reports. INFORMS Journals They are: Decision Analysis Information Systems Research INFORMS Journal on Computing INFORMS Transactions on Education (an open access journal) Interfaces: An International Journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences Management Science: A Journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences Manufacturing & Service Operations Management Marketing Science Mathematics of Operations Research Operations Research: A Journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences Organization Science Transportation Science. Other journals European Journal of Operational Research (EJOR): Founded in 1975 and is presently by far the largest operational research journal in the world, with its around 9,000 pages of published papers per year. In 2004, its total number of citations was the second largest amongst Operational Research and Management Science journals; INFOR Journal: published and sponsored by the Canadian Operational Research Society; Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation (JDMS): Applications, Methodology, Technology: a quarterly journal devoted to advancing the science of modeling and simulation as it relates to the military and defense. JDMS Journal of the Operational Research Society (JORS): an official journal of The OR Society; The OR Society; Journal of Simulation (JOS): an official journal of The OR Society; The OR Society; Military Operations Research (MOR): published by the Military Operations Research Society; Opsearch: official journal of the Operational Research Society of India; OR Insight: a quarterly journal of The OR Society; The OR Society; TOP: the official journal of the Spanish Society of Statistics and Operations Research. TOP See also Operation research topics Assignment problem Decision Analysis Dynamic programming Linear programming Inventory theory Optimal Maintenance Optimization Real options analysis Scheduling Stochastic processes Systems analysis Systems thinking Operation researchers Operations researcher category Russell L. Ackoff Anthony Stafford Beer Alfred Blumstein C. West Churchman George Dantzig Richard Karp Frederick W. Lanchester Thomas L. Magnanti Alvin E. Roth Related fields Database normalization Industrial Engineering Industrial organization Management science Managerial economics Military simulation Modeling & Simulation Search Based Software Engineering Simulation System Dynamics System Safety Systems theory Wargaming Further reading C. West Churchman, Russell L. Ackoff & E. L. Arnoff, Introduction to Operations Research, New York: J. Wiley and Sons, 1957 Joseph G. Ecker & Michael Kupferschmid, Introduction to Operations Research, Krieger Publishing Co. Frederick S. Hillier & Gerald J. Lieberman, Introduction to Operations Research, McGraw-Hill: Boston MA; 8th. (International) Edition, 2005 Maurice W. Kirby, Operational Research in War and Peace, Imperial College Press, London, 2003 Michael Pidd, Tools for Thinking: Modelling in Management Science, J. Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester; 2nd. Edition, 2003 Hamdy A. Taha, Operations Research: An Introduction, Prentice Hall; 8th. Edition, 2006 Wayne Winston, Operations Research: Applications and Algorithms, Duxbury Press; 4th. Edition, 2003 References External links INFORMS OR/MS Resource Collection: a comprehensive set of OR links. International Federation of Operational Research Societies | Operations_research |@lemmatized operation:48 research:59 usa:1 canada:1 south:2 africa:2 australia:1 operational:19 europe:2 interdisciplinary:1 branch:1 applied:1 mathematics:2 formal:1 science:18 use:10 method:2 mathematical:1 modeling:3 statistic:3 algorithm:2 arrive:1 optimal:4 near:1 solution:1 complex:2 problem:8 typically:2 concern:1 optimize:1 maximum:1 profit:1 assembly:1 line:3 performance:1 crop:1 yield:1 bandwidth:1 etc:2 minimum:1 loss:9 risk:1 objective:2 function:1 help:2 management:15 achieve:1 goal:2 scientific:1 overview:1 term:1 often:2 synonymously:1 distinction:1 draw:1 generally:2 imply:1 close:3 relationship:1 business:1 field:4 closely:1 relate:2 industrial:5 engineering:3 engineer:1 consider:1 technique:4 major:1 part:1 toolset:1 primary:1 tool:3 researcher:5 optimization:2 probability:1 theory:6 queue:3 game:1 graph:1 decision:5 analysis:10 simulation:9 computational:1 nature:2 also:4 tie:1 computer:2 custom:1 write:1 shelf:1 software:2 distinguish:1 frequent:1 examine:1 entire:1 information:3 system:13 rather:2 concentrate:1 specific:1 element:2 though:1 well:3 face:1 new:3 expect:1 determine:3 appropriate:1 give:3 improvement:1 constraint:1 time:3 compute:2 power:1 reason:2 human:2 vital:2 like:1 cannot:1 solve:1 history:1 say:1 charles:1 babbage:1 father:1 cost:3 transportation:3 sorting:1 mail:1 lead:1 england:1 universal:1 penny:1 post:1 study:1 dynamical:1 behaviour:2 railway:1 vehicle:1 defence:3 gwr:1 broad:1 gauge:1 sodhi:1 r:1 today:1 december:1 p:3 http:1 www:1 lionhrtpub:1 com:1 orms:2 frqed:1 html:1 modern:2 arise:1 world:5 war:11 ii:4 originate:1 bawdsey:1 station:3 uk:3 result:3 initiative:2 superintendent:1 rowe:2 conceive:1 idea:1 mean:1 analyse:3 improve:1 working:1 early:1 warn:1 radar:2 chain:2 home:1 ch:2 initially:1 analyze:1 operating:2 equipment:2 communication:1 network:4 expand:1 later:1 include:6 personnel:3 reveal:3 unappreciated:1 limitation:1 allow:1 remedial:1 action:1 take:2 scientist:1 united:6 kingdom:2 patrick:1 blackett:5 cecil:1 gordon:1 c:3 h:1 waddington:1 owen:1 wansbrough:1 jones:1 frank:1 yates:1 state:4 george:2 dantzig:2 look:1 way:2 make:3 good:4 area:7 logistics:2 training:4 schedule:2 begin:2 apply:1 similar:1 industry:2 team:3 undertake:1 number:7 crucial:1 aid:1 effort:1 britain:2 introduce:1 convoy:9 reduce:5 shipping:2 principle:1 warship:2 accompany:1 merchant:1 ship:2 accept:1 unclear:1 whether:1 small:5 large:5 travel:2 speed:1 slow:1 member:2 faster:1 argue:1 would:4 hard:1 german:4 u:2 boat:2 detect:1 hand:2 could:2 deploy:1 attacker:1 staff:2 show:1 suffer:1 depend:1 largely:1 escort:1 vessel:1 present:1 overall:2 size:1 conclusion:1 therefore:2 defensible:1 many:2 one:2 essential:1 victory:1 north:1 atlantic:1 reconsidered:1 march:1 may:1 another:1 piece:1 work:1 report:2 survey:3 carry:1 raf:4 bomber:7 command:5 inspect:1 return:4 bomb:3 raid:1 germany:2 particular:2 period:1 damage:4 inflict:1 air:2 defense:4 note:1 recommendation:2 armour:2 add:1 heavily:1 suggestion:1 remove:1 crew:1 aircraft:8 reject:1 instead:1 surprising:1 counter:1 intuitive:1 place:1 completely:1 untouched:2 bias:1 since:2 probably:1 hit:1 map:1 kammhuber:2 organise:1 realise:1 fly:5 stream:1 overwhelm:1 night:3 fighter:3 individual:2 cell:1 direct:1 target:3 ground:1 controller:1 matter:1 calculate:2 statistical:2 collision:1 minimise:1 exchange:2 rate:4 ratio:4 output:1 input:2 characteristic:1 feature:1 compare:1 hour:2 put:1 allied:1 sighting:1 possible:2 redistribute:1 productive:1 patrol:2 comparison:1 establish:1 effectiveness:2 useful:1 planning:2 mine:4 lay:1 per:2 sunk:1 common:1 several:1 campaign:1 british:3 port:1 route:3 japanese:1 double:2 success:1 aerial:2 attack:1 submarine:4 recommend:1 shallow:2 detonation:5 set:3 depth:5 charge:2 drop:1 previously:1 detonate:1 shock:2 explosion:1 efficiently:1 transfer:1 water:1 unable:1 reach:1 limited:1 available:1 spot:1 setting:2 distance:1 low:2 transmission:2 efficiency:1 destructive:1 distant:1 b:1 japan:1 marianas:1 island:1 increase:2 percent:1 wolf:1 pack:2 three:1 effective:2 enable:1 engage:1 discover:1 glossy:1 enamel:1 paint:3 camouflage:2 traditional:1 dull:1 finish:3 smooth:1 airspeed:1 skin:1 friction:1 land:3 section:1 army:1 group:1 aorg:1 ministry:2 supply:2 normandy:1 follow:1 force:1 advance:2 across:1 among:2 topic:2 artillery:1 bombing:1 anti:1 tank:1 shooting:1 military:8 become:2 know:2 oa:2 within:2 stand:1 requirement:1 expanded:1 grow:1 awareness:1 longer:1 limit:1 extend:1 encompass:1 procurement:1 infrastructure:1 vietnam:2 influence:2 debate:1 scholar:1 van:2 creveld:2 argues:1 exaggerate:1 create:1 pathology:1 contribution:1 outcome:1 scope:1 example:3 application:4 currently:1 critical:1 path:1 project:4 identify:1 process:4 affect:1 duration:1 design:2 layout:2 factory:1 efficient:2 flow:2 material:4 construct:1 telecommunication:1 still:1 guarantee:1 qos:1 quality:3 service:2 qoe:1 experience:1 connection:1 busy:1 get:1 road:1 traffic:2 street:1 allocation:2 e:3 school:1 bus:3 city:1 need:1 chip:1 manufacturing:1 manage:2 raw:2 product:2 base:4 uncertain:1 demand:1 messaging:1 customer:1 response:1 tactic:1 robotizing:1 automate:1 drive:1 globalize:1 order:1 advantage:1 cheap:1 labor:1 productivity:1 freight:2 delivery:1 ltl:1 intermodal:1 transport:1 scheduling:1 manufacture:2 step:1 task:1 data:1 model:2 sport:1 event:1 television:1 coverage:1 blending:1 oil:1 refinery:1 price:2 retail:1 discipline:1 extensively:1 government:1 evidence:1 policy:1 society:25 journal:25 societies:1 international:4 federation:2 ifors:1 umbrella:1 organization:5 worldwide:1 significant:1 institute:4 informs:5 inform:3 euro:2 association:1 european:2 cors:2 canadian:2 asor:2 australian:1 mors:3 enhance:1 usefulness:1 support:1 orsnz:2 zealand:1 orsp:2 philippine:1 orsi:2 india:2 orssa:2 important:1 interoperability:1 standard:1 siso:2 interservice:1 education:2 conference:1 itsec:2 market:1 profession:1 website:1 entitle:1 provide:1 introduction:5 successful:1 publishes:1 twelve:1 scholarly:1 top:3 two:1 class:1 accord:1 citation:2 transaction:1 open:1 access:1 interface:1 sciences:1 marketing:1 ejor:1 found:1 presently:1 far:1 around:1 page:1 published:1 paper:1 year:1 total:1 second:1 amongst:1 infor:1 publish:3 sponsor:1 jdms:2 methodology:1 technology:1 quarterly:2 devote:1 jors:1 official:4 jos:1 mor:1 opsearch:1 insight:1 spanish:1 see:1 assignment:1 dynamic:2 programming:1 linear:1 program:1 inventory:1 maintenance:1 real:1 option:1 stochastic:1 think:1 category:1 russell:2 l:4 ackoff:2 anthony:1 stafford:1 beer:1 alfred:1 blumstein:1 west:2 churchman:2 richard:1 karp:1 frederick:2 w:2 lanchester:1 thomas:1 magnanti:1 alvin:1 roth:1 related:1 database:1 normalization:1 managerial:1 economics:1 search:1 safety:1 wargaming:1 reading:1 arnoff:1 york:1 j:3 wiley:2 son:2 joseph:1 g:1 ecker:1 michael:2 kupferschmid:1 krieger:1 co:1 hillier:1 gerald:1 lieberman:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 boston:1 edition:4 maurice:1 kirby:1 peace:1 imperial:1 college:1 press:2 london:1 pidd:1 thinking:1 modelling:1 ltd:1 chichester:1 hamdy:1 taha:1 prentice:1 hall:1 wayne:1 winston:1 duxbury:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 ms:1 resource:1 collection:1 comprehensive:1 |@bigram applied_mathematics:1 closely_relate:1 charles_babbage:1 http_www:1 george_dantzig:2 unclear_whether:1 raf_bomber:2 counter_intuitive:1 aerial_bombing:1 van_creveld:2 raw_material:2 oil_refinery:1 modeling_simulation:2 database_normalization:1 wiley_son:2 mcgraw_hill:1 prentice_hall:1 external_link:1 |
3,484 | Politics_of_Burkina_Faso | Politics of Burkina Faso takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Burkina Faso is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The party system is dominated by the Congress for Democracy and Progress. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Political history In 1990, the Popular Front held its first National Congress, which formed a committee to draft a national constitution. The constitution was approved by referendum in 1991. In 1992, Blaise Compaoré was elected president, running unopposed after the opposition boycotted the election because of Compaoré's refusal to accede to demands of the opposition such as a sovereign National Conference to set modalities. The opposition did participate in the following year's legislative elections, in which the ODP/MT won a majority of seats. The government of the Fourth Republic includes a strong presidency, a prime minister, a Council of Ministers presided over by the president, a two-chamber National Assembly, and the judiciary. The legislature and judiciary are independent but remain susceptible to outside influence. In 1995, Burkina held its first multiparty municipal elections since independence. With minor exceptions, balloting was considered free and fair by the local human rights organizations which monitored the contest. The president's ODP/MT won over 1,100 of some 1,700 councillor seats being contested. In February 1996, the ruling ODP/MT merged with several small opposition parties to form the Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP). This effectively co-opted much of what little viable opposition to Compaoré existed. The remaining opposition parties regrouped in preparation for 1997 legislative elections and the 1998 presidential election. The 1997 legislative elections, which international observers pronounced to be substantially free, fair, and transparent, resulted in a large CDP majority--101 to 111 seats. Government Executive branch |President |Blaise Compaoré |CDP |15 October 1987 |- |Prime Minister |Tertius Zongo | |4 June 2007 |} The president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term and may serve unlimited terms. The prime minister is appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature. The constitution of June 2, 1991, established a semi-presidential government with a parliament (Assemblée) which can be dissolved by the President of the Republic, who is elected for a term of 5 years. The year 2000 saw a constitutional amendment reducing the presidential term from 7 to 5 years, which was enforced during the 2005 elections. Another change according to the amendment would have prevented sitting president Blaise Compaoré from being re-elected. However, notwithstanding a challenge by other presidential candidates, in October 2005, the constitutional council ruled that because Compaoré was already a sitting president in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the end of his second term in office, thereby clearing the way for his candidacy in the 2005 election. On November 13 Compaoré was reelected in a landslide due to a divided political opposition. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 111 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation. Political parties and elections Political pressure groups Burkinabe General Confederation of Labor or CGTB; Burkinabe Movement for Human Rights or HBDHP; Group of 14 February; National Confederation of Burkinabe Workers or CNTB; National Organization of Free Unions or ONSL; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities Administrative divisions Burkina Faso is divided into 13 regions and 45 provinces: Regions: Boucle du Mouhoun, Cascades, Centre, Centre-Est, Centre-Nord, Centre-Ouest, Centre-Sud, Est, Hauts-Bassins, Nord, Plateau-Central, Sahel, Sud-Ouest Provinces: Balé, Bam, Banwa, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Comoe, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houet, Ioba, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komondjari, Kompienga, Kossi, Koulpelogo, Kouritenga, Kourweogo, Leraba, Loroum, Mouhoun, Namentenga, Nahouri, Nayala, Noumbiel, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Sanguie, Sanmatenga, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Tuy, Yagha, Yatenga, Ziro, Zondoma, Zoundweogo International organization participation ACCT, ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ITUC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO International Relationships The current ambassador of Burkina Faso to Canada is Juliette Bonkoungou. The current ambassador of Burkina Faso to Mexico is Jonathan Hodgson The former ambassador of Burkina Faso to the United States was Tertius Zongo, he left his post when appointed Prime Minister in July 2007; the US Ambassador to Burkina Faso is Jeanine Jackson. | Politics_of_Burkina_Faso |@lemmatized politics:1 burkina:8 faso:7 take:1 place:1 framework:1 presidential:5 republic:3 whereby:1 president:10 head:2 state:2 government:6 multi:1 party:5 system:2 executive:3 power:2 exercise:1 legislative:5 vest:1 parliament:2 dominate:1 congress:3 democracy:2 progress:2 judiciary:3 independent:2 legislature:3 political:5 history:1 popular:2 front:1 hold:2 first:2 national:7 form:2 committee:1 draft:1 constitution:3 approve:1 referendum:1 blaise:3 compaoré:7 elect:5 run:1 unopposed:1 opposition:7 boycott:1 election:9 refusal:1 accede:1 demand:1 sovereign:1 conference:1 set:1 modality:1 participate:1 following:1 year:6 odp:3 mt:3 win:2 majority:2 seat:3 fourth:1 include:1 strong:1 presidency:1 prime:4 minister:5 council:2 preside:1 two:1 chamber:1 assembly:2 remain:2 susceptible:1 outside:1 influence:1 multiparty:1 municipal:1 since:1 independence:1 minor:1 exception:1 balloting:1 consider:1 free:3 fair:2 local:1 human:2 right:2 organization:4 monitor:1 contest:2 councillor:1 february:2 ruling:1 merge:1 several:1 small:1 cdp:3 effectively:1 co:1 opt:1 much:1 little:1 viable:1 exist:1 regroup:1 preparation:1 international:3 observer:1 pronounce:1 substantially:1 transparent:1 result:1 large:1 branch:2 october:2 tertius:2 zongo:2 june:2 vote:1 seven:1 term:6 may:1 serve:1 unlimited:1 appoint:2 consent:1 establish:1 semi:1 assemblée:2 dissolve:1 saw:1 constitutional:2 amendment:3 reduce:1 enforce:1 another:1 change:1 accord:1 would:2 prevent:1 sit:2 however:1 notwithstanding:1 challenge:1 candidate:1 rule:1 already:1 apply:1 end:1 second:1 office:1 thereby:1 clear:1 way:1 candidacy:1 november:1 reelect:1 landslide:1 due:1 divided:1 nationale:1 member:1 five:1 proportional:1 representation:1 pressure:1 group:3 burkinabe:3 general:1 confederation:2 labor:1 cgtb:1 movement:1 hbdhp:1 worker:1 cntb:1 union:1 onsl:1 watchdog:1 action:1 throughout:1 country:1 community:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 region:2 province:2 boucle:1 du:1 mouhoun:2 cascade:1 centre:5 est:2 nord:2 ouest:2 sud:2 hauts:1 bassins:1 plateau:1 central:1 sahel:1 balé:1 bam:1 banwa:1 bazega:1 bougouriba:1 boulgou:1 boulkiemde:1 comoe:1 ganzourgou:1 gnagna:1 gourma:1 houet:1 ioba:1 kadiogo:1 kenedougou:1 komondjari:1 kompienga:1 kossi:1 koulpelogo:1 kouritenga:1 kourweogo:1 leraba:1 loroum:1 namentenga:1 nahouri:1 nayala:1 noumbiel:1 oubritenga:1 oudalan:1 passore:1 poni:1 sanguie:1 sanmatenga:1 seno:1 sissili:1 soum:1 sourou:1 tapoa:1 tuy:1 yagha:1 yatenga:1 ziro:1 zondoma:1 zoundweogo:1 participation:1 acct:1 acp:1 afdb:1 eca:1 ecowas:1 entente:1 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:1 ituc:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 itu:1 nam:1 oau:1 oic:1 opcw:1 pca:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wadb:2 regional:1 waemu:1 wco:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 relationships:1 current:2 ambassador:4 canada:1 juliette:1 bonkoungou:1 mexico:1 jonathan:1 hodgson:1 former:1 united:1 leave:1 post:1 july:1 u:1 jeanine:1 jackson:1 |@bigram burkina_faso:7 judiciary_independent:2 blaise_compaoré:3 prime_minister:4 presidential_election:1 constitutional_amendment:1 presidential_candidate:1 legislative_branch:1 assembly_assemblée:1 assemblée_nationale:1 proportional_representation:1 participation_acct:1 acct_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 eca_ecowas:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icc:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_pca:1 pca_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 wco_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 |
3,485 | Abraham | Abraham ( Ashkenazi Avrohom or Avruhom ; , ; Ge'ez: , ) features in the Book of Genesis as the founding patriarch of the Israelites, Ishmaelites, Midianites and Edomite peoples. He is widely regarded as the patriarch of Jews, Christians, and Muslims and the founder of monotheism. According to , his name was changed by God from Abram (probably meaning "the father is exalted") to Abraham, a name which Genesis explains as meaning "father of many". Abraham was the tenth generation from Noah and the 20th from Adam . His father was Terah, and his brothers were Nahor and Haran. According to Genesis, Abraham was sent by God from his home in Ur of the Chaldees to Canaan, the land promised to his descendants by Yahweh. There Abraham entered into a covenant: in exchange for recognition of YHWH as his God, Abraham will be blessed with innumerable progeny and the land would belong to his descendants. Judaism, Christianity and Islam are sometimes referred to as the "Abrahamic religions" because of the progenitor role Abraham plays in their holy books. In the Jewish tradition, he is called Avraham Avinu or "Abraham, our Father". God promised Abraham that through his offspring, all the nations of the world will come to be blessed (), interpreted in Christian tradition as a reference particularly to Christ. Jews, Christians, and Muslims consider him father of the people of Israel through his son Isaac (cf. , ) by his wife Sarah. For Muslims, he is a prophet of Islam and the ancestor of Muhammad through his other son Ishmael - born to him by his second wife, Hagar. (Jews and Christians refer to Hagar as Sarah's servant). Abraham is also a progenitor of the Semitic tribes of the Negev who trace their descent from their common ancestor Sheba (). Etymology Abraham's original name was Abram (, Standard Avram Tiberian ) meaning either "exalted father" or " father is exalted" (compare Abiram). For the later part of his life, he was called Abraham, which the text glosses as av hamon (goyim) "father of many (nations)" [See ]; however the name does not have any literal meaning in Hebrew. JewishEncyclopedia.com Many interpretations were offered based on modern textual and linguistic analysis, including an analysis of a first element abr- "chief", which however yields a meaningless second element. Keil suggests there was once a word raham (רָהָם) in Hebrew, meaning "multitude", even though it has not survived into any attested text. The word ruhâm has this meaning in Arabic. (K.F. Keil (1869), Biblical commentary on the Old Testament, vol. 1, p. 224) Genesis narrative Whilst Abraham is mentioned many times in the Hebrew Bible, the story of his life is found in Genesis, from chapter 11:26 to 25:10. Early life According to Genesis, Abraham was born in Ur of the Chaldees and given the name Abram. He was the son of Terah and the brother of Nahor and Haran. He married Sarai, who was barren, and there also his brother Haran died after becoming the father of Lot. Terah, with his surviving sons and their families, then departed for Canaan, but settled in Haran, where Terah died at the age of 205. Genesis 11:27-11:32 Following the death of Terah, when Abram was seventy-five, the Lord spoke to Abram, telling him to leave his father's house and his kindred and the land of his birth and go "to the land that I will show you", where Abram will become a great nation. So Abram departed Haran with his wife Sarai and his nephew Lot and all their followers and flocks, and they traveled to Canaan, where, at Shechem, the Lord gave the land to him and his seed. There Abram built an altar to the Lord and continued to travel towards the south. Genesis 12:1-9 Pharaoh and Abimelech On two separate occasions, Abram/Abraham travels south, where he tells his wife to pretend to be his sister because he fears he would otherwise be killed because of her. On each occasion, the ruler in question, first Pharaoh and later Abimelech, is attracted to Sarai/Sarah and attempts to marry her. On both occasions the Lord and the ruler send Abraham away with great wealth.... Genesis 12:9-20 Genesis 20 Mamre Following the period spent in Egypt, Abram, Sarai and his nephew Lot, returned to Ai in Canaan. There they dwelt for some time, their herds increasing, until strife arose between the herdsmen. Abram thereupon proposed to Lot that they should separate, allowing Lot the first choice. Lot took the fertile land lying east of the Jordan River and near to Sodom and Gomorrah, while Abram lived in Canaan, moving down to the oaks of Mamre in Hebron, where he built an altar to the Lord. Genesis 13 After this, an invading force from Northern Mesopotamia, led by Chedorlaomer, king of Elam attacked and subdued the Cities of the Plain, forcing them to pay tribute. After twelve years, these cities rebelled. The following year Chedorlaomer and his allies returned, defeating the rebels and taking many captive, including Lot. Abraham assembled his men and chased after the invaders, defeating them near Damascus. Upon his return he is met by the king of Salem, Melchizedek, who blesses him. The king of Sodom offers Abraham the rescued goods as reward, but Abraham refuses, so that the king of Sodom cannot say "I have made Abram rich." Genesis 14 During this period, Sarai, being barren, offers her handmaiden, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar soon conceives. Sarai, jealous of this, treats Hagar harshly, forcing her to flee. When in the desert, the Lord appears to Hagar, telling her to return, but promising that her son shall also be the father of a "multitude". Her son is called Ishmael. Genesis 16 When Abram is ninety-nine, the Lord again appears to him and affirms his promise. A covenant is entered into: Sarai will give to birth to a son who will be called Isaac and Abram's house must from thenceforth be circumcised. It is promised that Isaac will father twelve princes, who will become a great nation. Abram's name is changed to Abraham and Sarai's to Sarah. Genesis 17 Soon after, the sins of Sodom and Gomorrah bring two angels down to investigate. Abraham pleads with them to spare the city if first fifty, then forty-five, then forty, then thirty, then twenty, and finally ten righteous men are found in the city. In each case the angels agree that the city would be spared. They enter the city, where they meet Lot, who offers them hospitality. Soon a crowd gathers around Lot's house, demanding the two angels that they may "know" them. Lot offers his daughters, but the men of the city press forward until the angels smite them with blindness. In the morning Lot is told to flee and not to look back as the cities are destroyed. However, his wife disobeys and is turned into a pillar of salt. Genesis 18-19 After this Abraham enters into a treaty with Abimelech at Beer-sheba. Genesis 21:22-34 Covenants A recurring feature of the story of Abraham are the covenants between him and The Lord, which are reiterated and reaffirmed several times. When Abram is told to leave Ur, The Lord promises "I will make you into a great nation". Genesis 20:1-7 After parting from Lot, God reappears and promises "All the land that you can see" to Abraham and that his seed would be "like the dust of the earth" in number. Genesis 13:14-17 Following the battle of the Vale of Siddim, the Lord appears and reaffirms the promise. Further, it is prophesied that "your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own, and they will be enslaved and mistreated four hundred years." Abraham makes a sacrifice and enters into a covenant: "To your descendants I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river, the Euphrates, the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaites, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites and Jebusites." Genesis 15 This covenant refers to Abraham's descendants through his son Isaac. When Abram was ninety-nine years old, The Lord again appeared to him to reaffirm the covenant and changed his name to Abraham. Abraham is instructed, for his part, to circumcise all of his house. Genesis 17 Binding of Isaac Some time after the birth of Isaac, Abraham was commanded by the Lord to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of Moriah. The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God taught him. He commanded the servant to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone to the mountain, Isaac carrying the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac repeatedly asked Abraham where the animal for the burnt offering was. Abraham then replied that The Lord would provide one. Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was prevented by an angel, and given on that spot a ram which he sacrificed in place of his son. Thus it is said, "On the mountain the Lord provides." As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham did not return to Hebron, Sarah's encampment, but instead went to Beersheba, Keturah's encampment, and it is to Beersheba that Abraham's servant brought Rebecca, Isaac's patrilineal parallel cousin who became his wife. Genesis 22 Later Years Sarah died aged about 127, and was buried in the Cave of the Patriarchs near Hebron, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite, along with the adjoining field. Abraham, being reminded by this occurrence, probably, of his own great age, and the consequent uncertainty of his life, became solicitous to secure an alliance between Isaac and a female branch of his own family. Eliezer his steward was therefore sent into Mesopotamia, to find from Abraham's kindred a wife for his son Isaac. Eliezer went on his commission with prudence, and returned with Rebekah, daughter of Bethuel, granddaughter of Nahor, and, consequently, Abraham's grandniece and Isaac's first-cousin once removed. Many biblical commentators believe that Rebekah was still a child when she married Isaac, while Isaac was forty years of age. Genesis 23-24 Abraham lived a long time after these events. After the death of Sarah, he took another wife, a concubine named Keturah and she bore Abraham six sons, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah. Genesis 25:1-6 Abraham died at the age of 175 years. Jewish legend says that he was meant to live to 180 years, but God purposely took his life because he felt that Abraham did not need to go through the pain of seeing Esau's wicked deeds. He was buried by his sons Isaac (aged about 76 years) and Ishmael (aged about 89 years), in the Cave of the Patriarchs (also known as the Cave of Machpelah), which is where he had deposited the remains of his beloved Sarah. Genesis 25:9 Genesis 23:19 Significance Abraham is held as a founding father in the Jewish, Christian and Islamic religions. Genesis states that the nation of Israel descended from him through his second son, Isaac. Many Arab nations are said to have descended from him through his first son, Ishmael, and Muslims believe that the prophet Muhammad is his direct descendent. In Christianity Abraham Sacrificing Isaac by Laurent de La Hire, 1650 (Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Orléans). In the New Testament Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of faith (see e.g., Hebrews 11), and the apostle Paul uses him as an example of salvation by faith, as the progenitor of the Christ (or Messiah) (see Galatians ). 17th century Russian icon of Abraham (Andrei Rublev Museum, Moscow). Authors of the New Testament report that Jesus cited Abraham to support belief in the resurrection of the dead. "But concerning the dead, that they rise, have you not read in the Book of Moses, in the burning bush passage, how God spoke to him, saying, 'I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob'? He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living. You are therefore greatly mistaken" (Mark ). The New Testament also sees Abraham as an obedient man of God, and Abraham's interrupted attempt to offer up Isaac is seen as the supreme act of perfect faith in God. "By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, 'In Isaac your seed shall be called', concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense" (). The imagery of a father sacrificing his son is seen as a type of God the Father offering his Son on Golgatha. The traditional view in Christianity is that the chief promise made to Abraham in Genesis 12 is that through Abraham's seed, all the people of earth would be blessed. Notwithstanding this, John the Baptist specifically taught that merely being of Abraham's seed was no guarantee of salvation. The promise in Genesis is considered to have been fulfilled through Abraham's seed, Jesus. It is also a consequence of this promise that Christianity is open to people of all races and not limited to Jews. Liturgical commemoration The Roman Catholic Church calls Abraham "our father in Faith," in the Eucharistic prayer of the Roman Canon, recited during the Mass (see Abraham in the Catholic liturgy). He is also commemorated in the calendars of saints of several denominations: on August 20 by the Maronite Church, August 28 in the Coptic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, with the full office for the latter, and on October 9 by the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod. He is also regarded as the patron saint of those in the hospitality industry. *Holweck, F. G., A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co. 1924. The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as the "Righteous Forefather Abraham", with two feast days in its liturgical calendar. The first time is on October 9 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, October 9 falls on October 22 of the modern Gregorian Calendar), where he is commemorated together with his nephew "Righteous Lot". The other on the "Sunday of the Forefathers" (two Sundays before Christmas), where he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. Abraham is also mentioned in the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great, just before the Anaphora. Abraham and Sarah are invoked in the prayers said by the priest over a newly married couple at the Sacred Mystery of Crowning (i.e., the Sacrament of Marriage). In Islam Fresco with image of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son, Ishmael, in Shiraz Abraham, known as Ibrahim in Arabic, is very important in Islam, both in his own right as a prophet as well as being the father of Ishmael and Isaac. Ishmael, his firstborn son, is considered the Father of the Arabised Arabs, and Isaac is considered the Father of the Hebrews. Islam teaches that Ishmael was the son Abraham nearly sacrificed on Moriah. To support this view Muslims use various proofs, including the belief that at the time Ishmael was his only son. Abraham is revered by Muslims as one of the Prophets in Islam, and is commonly termed Khalil Ullah, "Friend of God". Abraham is considered a Hanif, that is, a discoverer of monotheism. Abraham is mentioned in many passages in 25 Qur'anic suras (chapters). The number of repetitions of his name in the Qur'an is second only to Moses. Ibrahim, Encyclopedia of Islam Abraham's footprint is displayed outside the Kaaba, which is on a stone, protected and guarded by Mutawa (Religious Police). The annual Hajj, the fifth pillar of Islam, follows Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael's journey to the sacred place of the Kaaba. Islamic tradition narrates that Abraham's subsequent visits to the Northern Arabian region, after leaving Ishmael and Hagar (in the area that would later become the Islamic holy city of Mecca), were not only to visit Ishmael but also to construct the first house of worship for God (that is, the monotheistic concept and model of God), the Kaaba -as per God's command. The Eid ul-Adha ceremony is focused on Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his promised son on God's command. In turn, God spared his son's life and instead substituted a sheep. This was Abraham's test of faith. On Eid ul-Adha, Muslims sacrifice a domestic animal — a sheep, goat, cow, buffalo or camel — as a symbol of Abraham's sacrifice, and divide the meat among the family members, friends, relatives, and most importantly, the poor. Arab connection A line in the Book of Jubilees (20:13) mentions that the descendants of Abraham's son by Hagar, Ishmael, as well as his descendants by Keturah, became the "Arabians" or "Arabs". The 1st century Jewish historian Josephus similarly described the descendants of Ishmael (i.e. the Ishmaelites) as an "Arabian" people. Antiquities of the Jews, book 1, 12:4 He also calls Ishmael the "founder" (κτίστης) of the "Arabians". Antiquities of the Jews, book 1, 12:2 Some Biblical scholars also believe that the area outlined in Genesis as the final destination of Ishmael and his descendants ("from Havilah to Assyria") refers to the Arabian peninsula. This has led to a commonplace view that modern Semitic-speaking Arabs are descended from Abraham via Ishmael, in addition to various other tribes who intermixed with the Ishmaelites, such as Joktan, Sheba, Dedan, Broham, etc. Both Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions speak of earlier inhabitants of Arabia. Classical Arab historians traced the true Arabs (i.e., the original Arabs from Yemen) to Qahtan and the Arabicised Arabs (people from the region of Mecca, who assimilated into the Arabs) to Adnan, said to be an ancestor of Muhammad, and have further equated Ishmael with A'raq Al-Thara, said to be ancestor of Adnan. Umm Salama, one of Muhammad's wives, wrote that this was done using the following hermeneutical reasoning: Thara means moist earth, Abraham was not consumed by hell-fire, fire does not consume moist earth, thus A'raq al-Thara must be Ishmael son of Abraham. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad (Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya), Volume I, translated by professor Trevor Le Gassick, reviewed by Dr. Ahmed Fareed Garnet Publishing Limited, 8 Southern Court, South Street Reading RG1 4QS, UK; The Center for Muslim Contribution to Civilization, 1998, pp. 50-52; Textual criticism Writers have regarded the life of Abraham in various ways. He has been viewed as a chieftain of the Amorites, as the head of a great Semitic migration from Mesopotamia; or, since Ur and Haran were seats of Moon-worship, he has been identified with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evidence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram/Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. The discovery of the name Abi-ramu on Babylonian contracts of about 2000 BCE does not prove the Abraham of the Old Testament to be a historical person, even as the fact that there were Amorites in Babylonia at the same period does not make it certain that the 'patriarch' was one of their number. Michael Astour in The Anchor Bible Dictionary (s.v. "Amraphel", "Arioch" and "Chedorlaomer"), explains the story of Genesis 14 as a product of anti-Babylonian propaganda during the Babylonian captivity of the Jews: "After Böhl's widely accepted, but wrong, identification of mTu-ud-hul-a with one of the Hittite kings named Tudhaliyas, Tadmor found the correct solution by equating him with the Assyrian king Sennacherib (see Tidal). Astour (1966) identified the remaining two kings of the Chedorlaomer texts with Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria (see Arioch) and with the Chaldean Merodach-baladan (see Amraphel). The common denominator between these four rulers is that each of them, independently, occupied Babylon, oppressed it to a greater or lesser degree, and took away its sacred divine images, including the statue of its chief god Marduk; furthermore, all of them came to a tragic end. 3. Relationship to Genesis 14. All attempts to reconstruct the link between the Chedorlaomer texts and Genesis 14 remain speculative. However, the available evidence seems consistent with the following hypothesis: A Jew in Babylon, versed in Akkadian language and cuneiform script, found in an early version of the Chedorlaomer texts certain things consistent with his anti-Babylonian feelings." (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, s.v. "Chedorlaomer") Another scholar, criticizing Kitchen's maximalist viewpoint, considers a relationship between the tablet and Gen. speculative, also identifies but identifies Tudhula as a veiled reference to Sennacherib of Assyria, and Chedorlaomer, i.e. Kudur-Nahhunte, as "a recollection of a 12th century BCE king of Elam who briefly ruled Babylon." ("Finding Historical Memories in the Patriarchal Narratives" by Ronald Hindel, BAR, Jul/Aug 1995) The Anchor Bible Dictionary suggests that the biblical account was in all probability derived from a text very closely related to the Chedorlaomer Tablets. The Chedorlaomer Tablets are thought to be from the 6th or 7th century BCE, well after the time of Hammurabi, at roughly the time when Gen. through Deu. are thought to have come into their present form (e.g. see the Documentary Hypothesis). While Astour's identifications of the figures these tablets refer to is certainly open to question, he does cautiously support a link between them and Gen. 14:1. Hammurabi is never known to have campaigned near the Dead Sea at all, although his son had. Writes Astour, "This identification, once widely accepted, was later virtually abandoned, mainly because Hammurabi was never active in the West." The Chedorlaomer Tablets, then, appear to still be the closest archaeological parallel to the kings of the Eastern coalition mentioned in Gen. 14:1. The only problem is, that in all probability, they refer to kings that were from widely separated times, having conquered Babylon in different eras. Linguistically, it seems, there is little reason to reject the identification of Hammurabi with Amraphel, but the narrative does not make sense in light of modern archeology when it is made. A number of scholars also say that the connection does not make sense on chronological grounds, since it would place Abram later than the traditional date, but on this, see the section on chronology below. Many scholars claim, on the basis of archaeological and philological evidence, that many stories in the Pentateuch, including the accounts about Abraham and Moses, were written under King Josiah (7th century BCE) or King Hezekiah (8th century BCE) in order to provide a historical framework for the monotheistic belief in Yahweh. Some scholars point out that the archives of neighboring countries with written records that survive, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., show no trace of the stories of the Bible or its main characters before 650 BCE. Such claims are detailed in "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by William G. Dever (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003). Another similar book by Neil A. Silberman and Israel Finkelstein is "The Bible Unearthed" (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2001). Even so, the Moabite Stele mentions king Omri of Israel, and many scholars draw parallels between the Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I and the Shishaq of the Bible (1 Ki. 11:40; 14:25; and 2 Chr. 12:2-9), and between the king David of the Bible and a ninth-century BCE inscription that appears to refer to the House of David. Dating and historicity Traditional dating According to calculations directly derived from the Masoretic Hebrew Torah, Abraham was born 1,948 years after biblical creation and lived for 175 years (Genesis 25:7), which would correspond to a life spanning from 1812 BCE to 1637 BCE by Jewish dating. The figures in the Book of Jubilees have Abraham born 1,876 years after creation, and 534 years before the Exodus; the ages provided in the Samaritan version of Genesis agree closely with those of Jubilees before the Deluge, but after the Deluge, they add roughly 100 years to each of the ages of the Patriarchs in the Masoretic Text, resulting in the figure of 2,247 years after creation for Abraham's birth. The Greek Septuagint version adds around 100 years to nearly all of the patriarchs' births, producing the even higher figure of 3,312 years after creation for Abraham's birth. Other interpretations of Biblical chronology place Abraham's birth at 2008 AM (Anno Mundi). In Genesis 11:32 : Abraham was the youngest son of Terah who died in Haran aged 205, in year 2083 AM. In Gen.12:4 we learn that at that time Abraham was 75 years old. In other words Abraham was born when his father Terah was 130 years old. (205-75 = 130). Therefore Abraham was born in year 2008 AM. History of dating attempts When cuneiform was first deciphered, Theophilus Pinches translated some Babylonian tablets which were part of the Spartoli collection in the British Museum. In particular, he believed he found in the Chedorlaomer Text, currently thought to have been written in the 6th to the 7th century BCE, the names of three of the kings of the Eastern coalition fighting against the five kings from the Vale of Siddim in Gen. 14:1. This is the only part of Genesis which seems to set Abraham in a context of wider political history, and the idea of many 19th/early 20th century exegetes and assyriologists was that it seemed to offer an opening to date Abraham, if the kings in question could only be identified. In 1887, Schrader then was the first to propose that Amraphel could be an alternate spelling for Hammurabi (cf. the ISBE of 1915, s.v. "Hammurabi"). Vincent Scheil subsequently found a tablet in the Imperial Ottoman Museum in Istanbul from Hammurabi to a king of the very same name, i.e. Kuder-Lagomer, as in Pinches' tablet. Thus are achieved the following correspondences: Name from Gen. 14:1 Name from Archaeology Amraphel king of Shinar Hammurabi (="Ammurapi") king of Babylonia Arioch king of Ellasar Eri-aku king of Larsa (i.e. Assyria) Chedorlaomer king of Elam (= Chodollogomor in the LXX) Kudur-Lagamar king of Elam Tidal, king of nations (i.e. goyim, lit. 'nations') Tudhulu, son of Gazza By 1915, many scholars had become largely convinced that the kings of Gen. 14:1 had been identified (cf. again the ISBE of 1915, s.v. Hammurabi, which mentions the identification as doubtful, and also The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1917, s.v. "Amraphel", and Donald A. MacKenzie's 1915 Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, who has (p. 247) "The identification of Hammurabi with Amraphel is now generally accepted"). The terminal -bi on the end of Hammurabi's name was seen to parallel Amraphel since the cuneiform symbol for -bi can also be pronounced -pi. Tablets were known in which the initial symbol for Hammurabi, pronounced as kh to yield Khammurabi, had been dropped, such that Ammurapi was a viable pronunciation. Supposing him to have been deified in his lifetime or afterwards yielded Ammurabi-il, which was suitably close to the Bible's Amraphel. Albright was instrumental in synchronizing Hammurabi with Assyrian and Egyptian contemporaries, such that Hammurabi is now thought to have lived in the late 18th century, not in the 19th as assumed by the long chronology. Since many confessional and evangelical theologians may feel disinclined to state that the dates of the Bible might be in error, some of these began synchronizing Abram with the empire of Sargon I (23rd century in the short chronology), and the work of Schrader, Pinches and Scheil fell out of favor with them. Later research into the culture of Mesoportamia and Syria in the second millennium BCE have seemed to undercut attempts to tie Abraham in with a definite century, and to treat him as a strictly historical figure. Little now remains of the attempts of scholars of previous generations to identify names such as Amraphel with major historical figures like Hammurabhi. The Encyclopedia Britannica article on "Amraphel" has: "Scholars of previous generations tried to identify these names with important historical figures—e.g., Amraphel with Hammurabi of Babylon—but little remains today of these suppositions." While it is widely admitted that there is no archaeological evidence to prove the existence of Abraham, apparent parallels to Genesis in the archaeological record assure that speculations on the patriarch's historicity and on the period that would best fit the account in Genesis remain alive in religious circles. See also Abraham's bosom Abrahamic religions Gathering of Israel Genealogies of Genesis Islamic view of Abraham Kabbalah List of founders of major religions The Book of Genesis The Pearl of Great Price, Book of Abraham Abraham's Gate at Tel Dan Notes References Rosenberg, David. Abraham: The First Historical Biography. Basic Books/Perseus Books Group, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2006. ISBN 0-465-07094-9. Holweck, F. G. A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co. 1924. Latter-day Saint Bible Dictionary Nibley, Hugh W. Abraham's Temple Drama Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism Beer, Leben Abraham's Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, trans. Henrietta Szold (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1909) Book of Abraham LDS scripture Pearl of Great Price Bloch, Israel und die Völker (Berlin: Harz, 1922) Torcszyner, "The Riddle in the Bible," Hebrew Union College Annual 1 (1924) Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews Kohler, "The Pre-Talmudic Haggada," Jewish Quarterly Review 7 (July 1895): 587. André Flury-Schölch: Abrahams Segen und die Völker. Synchrone und diachrone Untersuchungen zu Gen 12,1-3 unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der intertextuellen Beziehungen zu Gen 18, 22, 26, 28, Sir 44, Jer 4 und Ps 72 (Forschung zur Bibel 115), Würzburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-429-02738-4 | Abraham |@lemmatized abraham:102 ashkenazi:1 avrohom:1 avruhom:1 ge:1 ez:1 feature:2 book:15 genesis:40 found:2 patriarch:9 israelite:2 ishmaelites:3 midianites:1 edomite:1 people:6 widely:5 regard:3 jew:10 christian:6 muslim:6 founder:3 monotheism:2 accord:4 name:19 change:4 god:25 abram:22 probably:2 mean:5 father:20 exalt:3 explain:3 many:14 tenth:1 generation:3 noah:1 adam:1 terah:7 brother:3 nahor:3 haran:7 send:3 home:1 ur:4 chaldee:2 canaan:5 land:10 promise:13 descendant:9 yahweh:2 enter:4 covenant:7 exchange:1 recognition:1 yhwh:1 bless:4 innumerable:1 progeny:1 would:11 belong:1 judaism:2 christianity:4 islam:8 sometimes:1 refer:6 abrahamic:2 religion:4 progenitor:3 role:1 play:1 holy:2 jewish:7 tradition:5 call:7 avraham:1 avinu:1 offspring:1 nation:9 world:1 come:4 interpret:1 reference:3 particularly:1 christ:2 consider:6 israel:6 son:30 isaac:24 cf:3 wife:9 sarah:10 prophet:5 ancestor:5 muhammad:5 ishmael:19 bear:5 second:5 hagar:9 servant:3 also:18 semitic:3 tribe:2 negev:1 trace:3 descent:1 common:2 sheba:3 etymology:1 original:2 standard:1 avram:1 tiberian:1 meaning:3 either:1 compare:1 abiram:1 late:2 part:5 life:9 text:8 gloss:1 av:1 hamon:1 goy:2 see:16 however:4 literal:1 hebrew:6 jewishencyclopedia:1 com:1 interpretation:2 offer:11 base:1 modern:4 textual:2 linguistic:1 analysis:2 include:5 first:11 element:2 abr:1 chief:3 yield:3 meaningless:1 keil:2 suggest:2 word:3 raham:1 ר:1 ה:1 ם:1 multitude:2 even:6 though:1 survive:3 attested:1 ruhâm:1 arabic:2 k:1 f:3 biblical:7 commentary:1 old:5 testament:5 vol:1 p:3 narrative:4 whilst:1 mention:8 time:11 bible:12 story:6 find:8 chapter:2 early:5 give:5 marry:4 sarai:9 barren:2 die:7 become:8 lot:13 family:3 depart:2 settle:1 age:10 follow:5 death:2 seventy:1 five:3 lord:14 speak:3 tell:5 leave:3 house:6 kindred:2 birth:7 go:4 show:2 great:11 nephew:3 follower:1 flock:1 travel:4 shechem:1 seed:7 build:2 altar:2 continue:1 towards:1 south:3 pharaoh:3 abimelech:3 two:7 separate:3 occasion:3 pretend:1 sister:1 fear:1 otherwise:1 kill:1 ruler:3 question:3 later:6 attract:1 attempt:6 away:2 wealth:1 mamre:2 period:4 spend:1 egypt:3 return:6 ai:1 dwell:1 herd:1 increase:1 strife:1 arise:1 herdsman:1 thereupon:1 propose:2 allow:1 choice:1 take:5 fertile:1 lie:1 east:2 jordan:1 river:3 near:4 sodom:4 gomorrah:2 live:5 move:1 oak:1 hebron:4 invade:1 force:3 northern:2 mesopotamia:3 lead:2 chedorlaomer:13 king:26 elam:4 attack:1 subdue:1 city:9 plain:1 pay:1 tribute:1 twelve:2 year:22 rebel:2 following:4 ally:1 defeat:2 captive:1 assemble:1 men:3 chase:1 invader:1 damascus:1 upon:2 meet:2 salem:1 melchizedek:1 rescued:1 good:1 reward:2 refuse:1 cannot:1 say:10 make:8 rich:1 handmaiden:1 soon:3 conceives:1 jealous:1 treat:2 harshly:1 flee:2 desert:1 appear:6 shall:2 ninety:2 nine:2 affirm:1 must:2 thenceforth:1 circumcise:2 prince:1 sin:1 bring:2 angel:5 investigate:1 pleads:1 spare:1 fifty:1 forty:3 thirty:1 twenty:1 finally:1 ten:1 righteous:3 case:1 agree:2 spar:2 hospitality:2 crowd:1 gather:1 around:2 demand:1 may:2 know:5 daughter:2 press:1 forward:1 smite:1 blindness:1 morning:1 look:1 back:1 destroy:1 disobeys:1 turn:2 pillar:2 salt:1 treaty:1 beer:2 recur:1 reiterate:1 reaffirm:3 several:2 reappears:1 like:2 dust:1 earth:4 number:4 battle:1 vale:2 siddim:2 far:1 prophesy:1 stranger:1 country:2 enslave:1 mistreat:1 four:2 hundred:1 sacrifice:12 enters:1 euphrates:1 kenites:1 kenizzites:1 kadmonites:1 hittite:3 perizzites:1 rephaites:1 amorites:3 canaanite:1 girgashites:1 jebusites:1 instruct:1 binding:1 command:4 moriah:2 three:2 day:3 mount:1 teach:3 remain:5 proceed:1 alone:1 mountain:2 carry:1 wood:1 along:2 way:2 repeatedly:1 ask:1 animal:2 burnt:1 offering:1 reply:1 provide:4 one:5 prevent:1 spot:1 ram:1 place:4 thus:3 obedience:1 receive:3 another:4 numerous:1 abundant:1 prosperity:1 event:2 encampment:2 instead:2 beersheba:2 keturah:3 rebecca:1 patrilineal:1 parallel:5 cousin:2 bury:2 cave:3 purchase:1 ephron:1 adjoin:1 field:1 remind:1 occurrence:1 consequent:1 uncertainty:1 solicitous:1 secure:1 alliance:1 female:1 branch:1 eliezer:2 steward:1 therefore:3 commission:1 prudence:1 rebekah:2 bethuel:1 granddaughter:1 consequently:1 grandniece:1 remove:1 commentator:1 believe:4 still:2 child:1 long:2 concubine:1 bore:1 six:1 zimran:1 jokshan:1 medan:1 midian:1 ishbak:1 shuah:1 legend:3 purposely:1 felt:1 need:1 pain:1 esau:1 wicked:1 deed:1 machpelah:1 deposit:1 remains:2 beloved:1 significance:1 hold:2 islamic:5 state:2 descend:3 arab:9 direct:1 descendent:1 laurent:1 de:1 la:1 hire:1 musée:1 des:1 beau:1 art:1 orléans:1 new:4 prominently:1 man:2 faith:6 e:10 g:6 hebrews:1 apostle:1 paul:1 use:3 example:1 salvation:2 messiah:1 galatian:1 century:12 russian:1 icon:1 andrei:1 rublev:1 museum:3 moscow:1 author:1 report:1 jesus:3 cite:1 support:3 belief:3 resurrection:1 dead:5 concern:1 rise:1 read:2 moses:3 burning:1 bush:1 passage:2 jacob:1 living:1 greatly:1 mistaken:1 mark:1 obedient:1 interrupt:1 supreme:1 act:1 perfect:1 test:2 begotten:1 conclude:1 able:1 raise:1 figurative:1 sense:3 imagery:1 type:1 golgatha:1 traditional:4 view:5 notwithstanding:1 john:1 baptist:1 specifically:1 merely:1 guarantee:1 fulfil:1 consequence:1 open:2 race:1 limit:2 liturgical:2 commemoration:1 roman:3 catholic:4 church:8 eucharistic:1 prayer:2 canon:1 recite:1 mass:1 liturgy:2 commemorate:4 calendar:4 saint:6 denomination:1 august:2 maronite:1 coptic:1 assyrian:3 full:1 office:1 latter:2 october:4 lutheran:1 missouri:1 synod:1 patron:1 industry:1 holweck:2 biographical:2 dictionary:6 st:2 louis:3 mo:2 b:3 herder:2 co:3 eastern:3 orthodox:1 forefather:2 feast:1 julian:1 fall:1 gregorian:1 together:2 sunday:2 christmas:1 divine:2 basil:1 anaphora:1 invoke:1 priest:1 newly:1 couple:1 sacred:3 mystery:1 crown:1 sacrament:1 marriage:1 fresco:1 image:2 ibrahim:3 shiraz:1 important:2 right:1 well:3 firstborn:1 arabised:1 nearly:2 muslims:2 various:3 proof:1 revere:1 commonly:1 term:1 khalil:1 ullah:1 friend:2 hanif:1 discoverer:1 qur:2 anic:1 sura:1 repetition:1 encyclopedia:3 footprint:1 display:1 outside:1 kaaba:3 stone:1 protect:1 guard:1 mutawa:1 religious:2 police:1 annual:2 hajj:1 fifth:1 journey:1 narrates:1 subsequent:1 visit:2 arabian:4 region:2 area:2 mecca:2 construct:1 worship:2 monotheistic:2 concept:1 model:1 per:1 eid:2 ul:2 adha:2 ceremony:1 focus:1 willingness:1 promised:1 substitute:1 sheep:2 domestic:1 goat:1 cow:1 buffalo:1 camel:1 symbol:3 divide:1 meat:1 among:1 member:1 relative:1 importantly:1 poor:1 connection:2 line:1 jubilee:3 arabians:1 arabs:1 historian:2 josephus:1 similarly:1 describe:1 antiquity:2 κτίστης:1 scholar:9 outline:1 final:1 destination:1 havilah:1 assyria:6 refers:1 peninsula:1 commonplace:1 speaking:1 via:1 addition:1 intermix:1 joktan:1 dedan:1 broham:1 etc:2 judeo:1 inhabitant:1 arabia:1 classical:1 true:1 yemen:1 qahtan:1 arabicised:1 assimilate:1 adnan:2 equate:2 raq:2 al:4 thara:3 umm:1 salama:1 write:4 hermeneutical:1 reasoning:1 moist:2 consume:2 hell:1 fire:2 sira:1 nabawiyya:1 volume:1 translate:2 professor:1 trevor:1 le:1 gassick:1 review:2 dr:1 ahmed:1 fareed:1 garnet:1 publishing:1 southern:1 court:1 street:1 uk:1 center:1 contribution:1 civilization:1 pp:1 criticism:1 writer:1 chieftain:1 head:1 migration:1 since:4 seat:1 moon:2 identify:6 character:2 literary:1 evidence:4 locale:1 originally:1 associate:1 double:1 personage:1 combine:1 although:2 discovery:1 abi:1 ramu:1 babylonian:5 contract:1 bce:11 prove:2 historical:7 person:1 fact:1 babylonia:3 certain:2 michael:1 astour:4 anchor:3 v:5 amraphel:12 arioch:3 product:1 anti:2 propaganda:1 captivity:1 böhl:1 accept:3 wrong:1 identification:6 mtu:1 ud:1 hul:1 tudhaliyas:1 tadmor:1 correct:1 solution:1 sennacherib:2 tidal:2 tukulti:1 ninurta:1 chaldean:1 merodach:1 baladan:1 denominator:1 independently:1 occupy:1 babylon:5 oppress:1 less:1 degree:1 statue:1 marduk:1 furthermore:1 tragic:1 end:2 relationship:2 reconstruct:1 link:2 speculative:2 available:1 seem:5 consistent:2 hypothesis:2 verse:1 akkadian:1 language:1 cuneiform:3 script:1 version:3 thing:1 feeling:1 criticize:1 kitchen:1 maximalist:1 viewpoint:1 tablet:9 gen:10 identifies:2 tudhula:1 veiled:1 kudur:2 nahhunte:1 recollection:1 briefly:1 rule:1 memory:1 patriarchal:1 ronald:1 hindel:1 bar:1 jul:1 aug:1 suggests:1 account:3 probability:2 derive:2 closely:2 relate:1 think:4 hammurabi:15 roughly:2 deu:1 present:1 form:1 documentary:1 figure:7 certainly:1 cautiously:1 never:2 campaign:1 sea:1 writes:1 virtually:1 abandon:1 mainly:1 active:1 west:1 close:2 archaeological:4 coalition:2 problem:1 conquer:1 different:1 era:1 linguistically:1 little:3 reason:1 reject:1 light:1 archeology:1 chronological:1 ground:1 date:5 section:1 chronology:4 claim:2 basis:1 philological:1 pentateuch:1 josiah:1 hezekiah:1 order:1 framework:1 point:1 archive:1 neighbor:1 record:2 main:1 detail:1 william:2 dever:1 eerdmans:1 publish:1 grand:1 rapid:1 mi:1 similar:1 neil:1 silberman:1 finkelstein:1 unearthed:1 simon:1 schuster:1 york:1 moabite:1 stele:1 omri:1 draw:1 egyptian:2 shoshenq:1 shishaq:1 ki:1 chr:1 david:3 ninth:1 inscription:1 dating:2 historicity:2 calculation:1 directly:1 masoretic:2 torah:1 creation:4 correspond:1 span:1 born:1 exodus:1 samaritan:1 deluge:2 add:2 result:1 greek:1 septuagint:1 produce:1 high:1 anno:1 mundi:1 young:1 learn:1 history:2 decipher:1 theophilus:1 pinch:3 spartoli:1 collection:1 british:1 particular:1 currently:1 fight:1 set:1 context:1 wide:1 political:1 idea:1 exegete:1 assyriologists:1 opening:1 could:2 schrader:2 alternate:1 spelling:1 isbe:2 vincent:1 scheil:2 subsequently:1 imperial:1 ottoman:1 istanbul:1 kuder:1 lagomer:1 achieve:1 correspondence:1 archaeology:1 shinar:1 ammurapi:2 ellasar:1 eri:1 aku:1 larsa:1 chodollogomor:1 lxx:1 lagamar:1 lit:1 tudhulu:1 gazza:1 largely:1 convinced:1 doubtful:1 donald:1 mackenzie:1 myth:1 generally:1 terminal:1 bi:2 pronounce:2 pi:1 initial:1 kh:1 khammurabi:1 drop:1 viable:1 pronunciation:1 suppose:1 deify:1 lifetime:1 afterwards:1 ammurabi:1 il:1 suitably:1 albright:1 instrumental:1 synchronize:2 contemporary:1 assume:1 confessional:1 evangelical:1 theologian:1 feel:1 disincline:1 might:1 error:1 begin:1 empire:1 sargon:1 short:1 work:1 fell:1 favor:1 research:1 culture:1 mesoportamia:1 syria:1 millennium:1 undercut:1 tie:1 definite:1 strictly:1 previous:2 major:2 hammurabhi:1 britannica:1 article:1 try:1 today:1 supposition:1 admit:1 existence:1 apparent:1 assure:1 speculation:1 best:1 fit:1 alive:1 circle:1 bosom:1 gathering:1 genealogy:1 kabbalah:1 list:1 pearl:2 price:2 gate:1 tel:1 dan:1 note:1 rosenberg:1 biography:1 basic:1 perseus:1 group:1 cambridge:1 massachusetts:1 isbn:2 nibley:1 hugh:1 w:1 temple:1 drama:1 vermis:1 scripture:2 leben:1 ginzberg:2 trans:1 henrietta:1 szold:1 philadelphia:1 publication:1 society:1 america:1 lds:1 bloch:1 und:4 völker:2 berlin:1 harz:1 torcszyner:1 riddle:1 union:1 college:1 kohler:1 pre:1 talmudic:1 haggada:1 quarterly:1 july:1 andré:1 flury:1 schölch:1 segen:1 synchrone:1 diachrone:1 untersuchungen:1 zu:2 unter:1 besonderer:1 berücksichtigung:1 der:1 intertextuellen:1 beziehungen:1 sir:1 jer:1 forschung:1 zur:1 bibel:1 würzburg:1 |@bigram ge_ez:1 abrahamic_religion:2 jewishencyclopedia_com:1 ר_ה:1 hebrew_bible:1 sodom_gomorrah:2 pay_tribute:1 beer_sheba:1 burnt_offering:1 prophet_muhammad:2 des_beau:1 andrei_rublev:1 eucharistic_prayer:1 missouri_synod:1 patron_saint:1 biographical_dictionary:2 eastern_orthodox:1 liturgical_calendar:1 julian_calendar:1 gregorian_calendar:1 divine_liturgy:1 qur_anic:1 eid_ul:2 ul_adha:2 sheep_goat:1 arabian_peninsula:1 judeo_christian:1 textual_criticism:1 babylonian_captivity:1 tukulti_ninurta:1 merodach_baladan:1 cuneiform_script:1 jul_aug:1 closely_relate:1 dever_william:1 israel_finkelstein:1 bible_unearthed:1 simon_schuster:1 masoretic_hebrew:1 masoretic_text:1 anno_mundi:1 babylonia_assyria:1 confessional_evangelical:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 archaeological_evidence:1 tel_dan:1 louis_ginzberg:1 unter_besonderer:1 |
3,486 | John_Graves_Simcoe | John Graves Simcoe (February 25, 1752 – October 26, 1806) was the first Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada (modern-day southern Ontario and the watersheds of Georgian Bay and Lake Superior) from 1791-1796. He founded York (now Toronto) and was instrumental in introducing institutions such as the courts, trial by jury, English common law, freehold land tenure, and for abolishing slavery in Upper Canada long before it was abolished in the British Empire as a whole (it had disappeared from Upper Canada by 1810, but was not abolished throughout the Empire until 1834). Early life John Graves Simcoe was the only son of John and Katherine Simcoe (although his parents had four children, he was the only one to live past childhood). His father, a captain in the Royal Navy, commanded the 60-gun HMS Pembroke, with James Cook as his sailing master, during the 1758 siege of Louisbourg. His father died of pneumonia a few months prior to the siege of Quebec, and the family moved to his mother's home in Exeter. His paternal grandparents were William and Mary (née Hutchinson) Simcoe. He was educated at Exeter Grammar School and Eton College. After a year at Merton College, Oxford, he was admitted to Lincoln's Inn, but then decided to follow the military career for which his father had intended him. He was initiated into Freemasonry in Union Lodge, Exeter on November 2, 1773. Union Lodge. Minute Book (1766-1789). p113. His godfather was British admiral Samuel Graves. Simcoe would marry Graves' ward, Elizabeth Posthuma Gwillim, in 1782. The Simcoes' had five daughters prior to their posting in Canada. Son Francis was born in 1791. Their Canadian born daughter, Katherine, died in infancy in York, Upper Canada. She is buried in the Victoria Square Memorial Park on Portland Avenue. Military career In 1770, Simcoe entered the British Army as an ensign in the 35th Regiment of Foot. His unit was dispatched to America, where he saw action in the Siege of Boston. During the siege, he purchased a captaincy in the grenadier company of the 40th Regiment of Foot. With the 40th, he saw action in the New York, New Jersey and Philadelphia campaigns. Simcoe commanded the 40th at the Battle of Brandywine, where he was also wounded. In 1777, Simcoe sought to form a Loyalist regiment of free blacks from Boston, but instead was offered to command the Queen's Rangers, a well-trained light infantry unit comprising of 11 companies of 30 men, 1 grenadier and 1 hussar, and the rest light infantry. The Queen's Rangers saw extensive action during the Philadelphia campaign, including a successful surprise attack (planned and executed by Simcoe), at the Battle of Crooked Billet. In 1778, Simcoe commanded the attack on Judge William Hancock's house, killing 20 Americans in their sleep and wounding 12 others. William Hancock was also killed even though he was not with the Americans. The massacre took place at night and with bayonets. On June 28 of that year, Simcoe and his Queen's Rangers took part in the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse, in and near Freehold, New Jersey. During the winter of 1779, Simcoe attempted to capture George Washington, but decided that his men would not shoot the future president. During that year, Armand Tuffin de La Rouërie captured Simcoe. Simcoe was released in 1781, just in time to see action at the Siege of Yorktown He was invalided back to England in December of that year as a Lieutenant-Colonel. Simcoe wrote a book on his experiences with the Rangers, titled A Journal of the Operations of the Queen's Rangers from the end of the year 1777 to the conclusion of the late American War, which was published in 1787. Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada The Province of Upper Canada was created under the Constitutional Act of 1791. Simcoe was appointed lieutenant governor and made plans to move to Upper Canada with his wife Elizabeth and daughter Sophia, leaving three other daughters behind with their aunt. They left England in September and arrived on November 11. This was too late in the year to make the trip to Upper Canada and the Simcoes spent the winter in Quebec City. The next spring they moved to Kingston and then Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake). Constitutional Act stipulated that the provincial government would consist of the Lieutenant-Governor, an appointed Executive Council and Legislative Council and an elected Legislative Assembly. The first meeting of the nine-member Legislative Council and sixteen-member Legislative Assembly took place at Newark on September 17, 1792. Simcoe's first priority was dealing with the effects of the Northwest Indian War. War broke out between Britain and France in 1791, and although the United States pledged neutrality its sympathies were with France. Simcoe's instructions were not to cause the United States any reason to mistrust Britain, but at the same time to keep the Indians on both sides of the border friendly to Britain. Simcoe denied the existence of the boundary defined in the Treaty of Paris (1783) on the grounds that the Americans had nullified the treaty. Taylor pg. 269 The British wished for the Indians to form a buffer state between the two countries. The Indians in the Ohio area were in an ongoing war with the United States called the Northwest Indian War. The Indians asked for military support from the British in this war, which Britain initially refused but they did supply the Indians with weapons in 1794. In February 1794, the Governor in Chief Lord Dorchester, anticipating that the Americans would honour their treaty with France, said that war was likely to break out between the countries before the year was out. His statement encouraged the Indians in their war. Dorchester ordered Simcoe to rally the Indians and arm the vessels on the Great Lakes. He also build Fort Miamis (in present day Maumee, Ohio) to supply the Indians in the upcoming war. Americans were expelled from a settlement on southern Lake Erie which had threatened British control of the lake. George Washington denounced the "irregular and high-handed proceeding of Mr. Simcoe" Taylor pg. 284 While Dorchester planned for a defensive war, Simcoe urged London to declare war "Upper Canada is not to be defended by remaining within the boundary line" Taylor pg. 287 Lord Dorchester was given an official reprimand for his strong speech against the Americans in 1794. Simcoe realized that Newark made an unsuitable capital because it was right on the United States border and subject to attack. He proposed moving the capital to a more defensible position in the middle of Upper Canada's southwestern peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Huron. He named the new location London and renamed the river as the Thames in anticipation of the change. Lord Dorchester, rejected this proposal but accepted Simcoe's second choice of Toronto. Simcoe moved the capital to Toronto in 1793 and renamed the location York after Frederick, Duke of York, George III's second son. Simcoe began construction of two main routes through Ontario which were intended to aid in the defence of Upper Canada but would also help encourage settlement and trade throughout the province. Yonge Street, named after the Minister of War Sir George Yonge, was built north-south along the fur trade route between Lake Ontario and Lake Simcoe. Soldiers of the Queen's Rangers began cutting the road in August 1793, reaching Holland Landing in 1796. Another road, Dundas Street named for the Colonial Secretary Henry Dundas, was built east-west between Hamilton and York. The Indians were defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers which resulted in the peace Treaty of Greenville. The British while still at war with France could not afford to antagonise the Americans and in the Jay Treaty they agreed to abandon the frontier forts and to relocate on their side of the border agreed to in the Treaty of Paris. The plan for an Indian buffer state failed and after the surrender of Fort Niagara in November, 1796 the two countries directly faced each other over the Niagara river. Later career In July 1796 poor health forced Simcoe to return to Britain. He was unable to return to Upper Canada and resigned his office in 1798. He became Colonel of the 81st Foot in 1798, but exchanged it for the 22nd Foot less than six months later. He later served briefly as the commander of British forces in St. Domingo (Haiti) and commander of the Western District in Britain. In 1806, he was appointed commander-in-chief of India but died in Exeter before assuming that post. He was buried in Wolford Chapel on the Simcoe family estate near Honiton, Devon. The Ontario Heritage Foundation acquired title to the chapel in 1982. Legacy The 1903 unveiling of the General John Graves Simcoe monument at Queen's Park in Toronto. Act Against Slavery passed in 1793 and eventually led to the abolition of slavery in Upper Canada by 1810. It was superseded by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 that abolished slavery across the British Empire. A plaque placed by the Ontario Heritage Foundation in Exeter's cathedral precinct commemorates his life. The town of Simcoe in southwestern Ontario is named after him. Simcoe County to the west and north of Lake Simcoe is also named after him. Lake Simcoe, meanwhile, was named by John Graves Simcoe for his father. Civic Holiday, a statutory holiday celebrated throughout Canada under a variety of names by region, Holidays in the Provinces and Territories was established in honour of Simcoe by the Toronto City Council in 1869. Toronto.com - A holiday with history Other Ontario municipalities and then other provinces soon took up the holiday as well, leading to its Canada-wide status, but without any attribution to Simcoe himself. In 1965, the Toronto City Council declared the holiday would henceforth be known as Simcoe Day within Toronto. Attempts have been made to have the official provincial name—still Civic Holiday—amended, but none have succeeded. Simcoe's regiment still exists as the Queen's York Rangers, an armoured reconnaissance regiment of the Canadian Forces reserves. A school in St. Catharines, Ontario, Governor Simcoe Secondary School, was named after him. A school in London, Ontario was named after him, Governor Simcoe Public School. Grades K - 8. The now closed and demolished school was located at the corner of Simcoe and Clarence Streets. Simcoe Street and John Street in downtown Toronto along with Simcoe Place (office tower) in downtown Toronto are all located near the fort where Simcoe lived during his early years in York. Simcoe named London, Ontario and the River Thames. Simcoe named his summer home Castle Frank (located in what is now named Cabbagetown, a neighbourhood in Downtown Toronto) for his first and favourite son (preceded by eight daughters), Francis Gwillim. The real Castle Frank Simcoe Island, located near Kingston, Ontario, was named for him. Simcoe Hall, located on the St. George campus of the University of Toronto, was named for him. There are two places named for Simcoe with the title Lord. However, Simcoe was never a Lord in his life time: Lord Simcoe Drive in Brampton, Ontario Lord Simcoe Hotel, which operated from 1956 to 1981 Footnotes References External links Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online John Graves Simcoe's biography Massacre at Hancock's Bridge Massacre at Hancock's Bridge 2 The Real Castle Frank (Toronto Star) | John_Graves_Simcoe |@lemmatized john:7 graf:6 simcoe:54 february:2 october:1 first:4 lieutenant:5 governor:7 upper:13 canada:16 modern:1 day:3 southern:2 ontario:12 watershed:1 georgian:1 bay:1 lake:11 superior:1 found:1 york:8 toronto:13 instrumental:1 introduce:1 institution:1 court:1 trial:1 jury:1 english:1 common:1 law:1 freehold:2 land:1 tenure:1 abolish:4 slavery:5 long:1 british:9 empire:3 whole:1 disappear:1 throughout:3 early:2 life:3 son:4 katherine:2 although:2 parent:1 four:1 child:1 one:1 live:2 past:1 childhood:1 father:4 captain:1 royal:1 navy:1 command:4 gun:1 hm:1 pembroke:1 james:1 cook:1 sailing:1 master:1 siege:5 louisbourg:1 die:3 pneumonia:1 month:2 prior:2 quebec:2 family:2 move:5 mother:1 home:2 exeter:5 paternal:1 grandparent:1 william:3 mary:1 née:1 hutchinson:1 educate:1 grammar:1 school:6 eton:1 college:2 year:8 merton:1 oxford:1 admit:1 lincoln:1 inn:1 decide:2 follow:1 military:3 career:3 intend:2 initiate:1 freemasonry:1 union:2 lodge:2 november:3 minute:1 book:2 godfather:1 admiral:1 samuel:1 would:6 marry:1 ward:1 elizabeth:2 posthuma:1 gwillim:2 simcoes:2 five:1 daughter:5 posting:1 francis:2 bear:2 canadian:3 infancy:1 bury:2 victoria:1 square:1 memorial:1 park:2 portland:1 avenue:1 enter:1 army:1 ensign:1 regiment:5 foot:4 unit:2 dispatch:1 america:1 saw:3 action:4 boston:2 purchase:1 captaincy:1 grenadier:2 company:2 new:4 jersey:2 philadelphia:2 campaign:2 battle:4 brandywine:1 also:5 wound:2 seek:1 form:2 loyalist:1 free:1 black:1 instead:1 offer:1 queen:7 ranger:7 well:2 train:1 light:2 infantry:2 comprising:1 men:2 hussar:1 rest:1 extensive:1 include:1 successful:1 surprise:1 attack:3 plan:4 execute:1 crooked:1 billet:1 judge:1 hancock:4 house:1 kill:2 american:8 sleep:1 others:1 even:1 though:1 massacre:3 take:4 place:5 night:1 bayonet:1 june:1 part:1 monmouth:1 courthouse:1 near:4 winter:2 attempt:2 capture:2 george:5 washington:2 shoot:1 future:1 president:1 armand:1 tuffin:1 de:1 la:1 rouërie:1 release:1 time:3 see:1 yorktown:1 invalid:1 back:1 england:2 december:1 colonel:2 write:1 experience:1 title:3 journal:1 operation:1 end:1 conclusion:1 late:2 war:13 publish:1 province:4 create:1 constitutional:2 act:4 appoint:3 make:4 wife:1 sophia:1 leave:2 three:1 behind:1 aunt:1 september:2 arrive:1 trip:1 spend:1 city:3 next:1 spring:1 kingston:2 newark:3 niagara:3 stipulate:1 provincial:2 government:1 consist:1 executive:1 council:5 legislative:4 elected:1 assembly:2 meeting:1 nine:1 member:2 sixteen:1 priority:1 deal:1 effect:1 northwest:2 indian:12 break:2 britain:6 france:4 united:4 state:6 pledge:1 neutrality:1 sympathy:1 instruction:1 cause:1 reason:1 mistrust:1 keep:1 side:2 border:3 friendly:1 deny:1 existence:1 boundary:2 define:1 treaty:6 paris:2 ground:1 nullify:1 taylor:3 pg:3 wish:1 buffer:2 two:4 country:3 ohio:2 area:1 ongoing:1 call:1 ask:1 support:1 initially:1 refuse:1 supply:2 weapon:1 chief:2 lord:7 dorchester:5 anticipate:1 honour:2 say:1 likely:1 statement:1 encourage:2 order:1 rally:1 arm:1 vessel:1 great:1 build:3 fort:4 miami:1 present:1 maumee:1 upcoming:1 expel:1 settlement:2 erie:2 threaten:1 control:1 denounce:1 irregular:1 high:1 hand:1 proceeding:1 mr:1 defensive:1 urge:1 london:4 declare:2 defend:1 remain:1 within:2 line:1 give:1 official:2 reprimand:1 strong:1 speech:1 realize:1 unsuitable:1 capital:3 right:1 subject:1 propose:1 defensible:1 position:1 middle:1 southwestern:2 peninsula:1 huron:1 name:16 location:2 rename:2 river:3 thames:2 anticipation:1 change:1 reject:1 proposal:1 accept:1 second:2 choice:1 frederick:1 duke:1 iii:1 begin:2 construction:1 main:1 route:2 aid:1 defence:1 help:1 trade:2 yonge:2 street:5 minister:1 sir:1 north:2 south:1 along:2 fur:1 soldier:1 cut:1 road:2 august:1 reach:1 holland:1 landing:1 another:1 dundas:2 colonial:1 secretary:1 henry:1 east:1 west:2 hamilton:1 defeat:1 fall:1 timber:1 result:1 peace:1 greenville:1 still:3 could:1 afford:1 antagonise:1 jay:1 agree:2 abandon:1 frontier:1 relocate:1 fail:1 surrender:1 directly:1 face:1 later:3 july:1 poor:1 health:1 force:3 return:2 unable:1 resign:1 office:2 become:1 exchange:1 less:1 six:1 serve:1 briefly:1 commander:3 st:3 domingo:1 haiti:1 western:1 district:1 india:1 assume:1 post:1 wolford:1 chapel:2 estate:1 honiton:1 devon:1 heritage:2 foundation:2 acquire:1 legacy:1 unveiling:1 general:1 monument:1 pass:1 eventually:1 lead:2 abolition:2 supersede:1 across:1 plaque:1 cathedral:1 precinct:1 commemorate:1 town:1 county:1 meanwhile:1 civic:2 holiday:7 statutory:1 celebrate:1 variety:1 region:1 territory:1 establish:1 com:1 history:1 municipality:1 soon:1 wide:1 status:1 without:1 attribution:1 henceforth:1 know:1 amend:1 none:1 succeed:1 exist:1 armoured:1 reconnaissance:1 reserve:1 catharines:1 secondary:1 public:1 grade:1 k:1 close:1 demolished:1 locate:5 corner:1 clarence:1 downtown:3 tower:1 summer:1 castle:3 frank:3 cabbagetown:1 neighbourhood:1 favourite:1 precede:1 eight:1 real:2 island:1 hall:1 campus:1 university:1 however:1 never:1 drive:1 brampton:1 hotel:1 operate:1 footnote:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 biography:3 dictionary:1 online:1 grave:1 bridge:2 star:1 |@bigram graf_simcoe:5 lieutenant_governor:4 abolish_slavery:2 paternal_grandparent:1 eton_college:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 legislative_assembly:2 lake_erie:2 lake_huron:1 commander_chief:1 abolition_slavery:1 statutory_holiday:1 st_catharines:1 kingston_ontario:1 external_link:1 |
3,487 | Go_Fish | Go fish (or simply fish) is a simple card game. It is usually played by two to five players, Game rules although theoretically it can be played with up to ten. Go fish should not be confused with the card game literature, which is also commonly called fish. Basic game Using a standard 52 card deck, five cards are dealt to each player, or seven if there are four or fewer. "If the players number four or less they seven cards but if they are more they are receive five cards" Official Rules of Card Games: How to Play the Go Fish Card Game. The remaining card pack is placed between the players, usually sprawled out in a non-orderly pile referenced as the "ocean" or "pool". "The rest [of the pack] should be placed at the center [of the table,] or fish pond/pool where players will draw them from. <ref>"Players that do not have the requested cards tell their counterparts to 'go fish', which [means the player must] choose one card from the pool of cards at the center. Offical Rules of Card Games: How to Play the Go Fish Card Game</ref> The player whose turn it is to play asks another player for their cards of a particular rank. For example, "Steve, do you have any threes?" Players can not ask for a card they are not holding. "Players are not allowed to ask for cards that they are not holding". What Are The Rules Of The Game Go Fish? The recipient of the request must then hand over all cards of that rank. If the call was successful, the same player has another turn. "If your opponent does have those cards they must give All of them to you... ...You also can go again." Go Fish Rules If the player who was asked has no cards of that rank, they say "go fish", and the asking player draws a card from the ocean. The turn then passes to the player who was asked. When one player has four of the same cards of a given rank, they form a book'', and the cards are placed face up on the table. The game is not over when a player runs out of cards. That player simply draws a card from the ocean, and the turn passes to the next player in the rotation. The game ends when all cards have been used, and all books have been obtained. Whoever has the most books wins. Variations There are a number of variations of these basic rules: Each player only gets one turn even if the call is successful. Players form pairs instead of books of four. Players form books of three, enabling any other player to place the same number card down as their own. For example, if John places down three 5s, and Agatha has the last 5, she can play it to get points. Extra conditions are added under which a player's turn continues. For example, if the card fished from the pack matches the rank that was asked for, or if it completes a book. With three or more players, all players must respond to each call. A player draws a card from the pack only if no opponent has a card of the requested rank, and then the turn passes clockwise. Players ask for a specific card instead of a rank. A player must still have at least one card of the named rank in order to ask, and must expose that card when asking. This is similar to Happy Families. In the event that a player runs out of cards he should draw a new hand from the top of the pack. If a player runs out of cards he must wait until the game is over and cannot gain any more cards or books. When a player is told to "Go fish!" they then draw a card directly from their opponent's hand, not from the card pack. Then the player who has been "fished" draws a replacement card from the pack and play continues. Instead of cards being placed in a stack, they can be spread out to form a "pond" on the table. "Fisherman's Luck" variation: If the card drawn is what the player asked for, then it is shown to the other players and then the player draws another card. "KP" variation: The game ends when any player runs out of cards. Players count their pairs but deduct one pair for every card they are holding. The player with the highest number of pairs AFTER the deductions is the winner. "KP Advanced" variation: Same as above, but if the last player to ask for a card is not the first person to run out of cards, then the asker of the card is exempt from having to take deductions. "KP Tournament" variation: After each round of a KP variation game, players receive a point for every pair. However, if they have more cards in their hands than they have pairs, they go into negative points during deductions. First player to 52 points wins the tournament. Strategy If, when fishing, a player draws a rank they did not have, they should ask for it on their next turn. Otherwise, they should rotate among the ranks that they already hold. In the more difficult variants, strategy often requires memorizing what cards each player possesses. Unlike many card games, Go Fish is very much dependent on the honor system; lying about the contents of one's hand is difficult to prevent. Special card decks Instead of using a standard 52 playing card deck, various speciality decks have been manufactured including the 42 card Kids Classic Go Fish Card Game by U.S. Games Systems, Inc. ISBN 1-57281-308-3, Other specialist card packs which can be used to play Go Fish type games have also been produced including the Safari Pals packs which uses animal characteristics to form the sets. References External links Rules of Card Games: Go Fish, The Card Games Website United States Playing Card Company (USPC) Childrens Card Games Rules U.S. Games Systems, Inc. web site See also Literature (card game) | Go_Fish |@lemmatized go:15 fish:18 simply:2 simple:1 card:60 game:23 usually:2 play:10 two:1 five:3 player:44 rule:8 although:1 theoretically:1 ten:1 confuse:1 literature:2 also:4 commonly:1 call:4 basic:2 use:5 standard:2 deck:4 deal:1 seven:2 four:4 number:4 less:1 receive:2 official:1 remain:1 pack:9 place:6 sprawl:1 non:1 orderly:1 pile:1 reference:2 ocean:3 pool:3 rest:1 center:2 table:3 pond:2 draw:9 ref:2 request:2 tell:2 counterpart:1 mean:1 must:7 choose:1 one:6 offical:1 whose:1 turn:8 asks:1 another:3 particular:1 rank:10 example:3 steve:1 three:4 ask:12 hold:4 allow:1 recipient:1 hand:5 successful:2 opponent:3 give:2 say:1 pass:3 form:5 book:7 face:1 run:5 next:2 rotation:1 end:2 obtain:1 whoever:1 win:2 variation:7 get:2 even:1 pair:6 instead:4 enable:1 john:1 agatha:1 last:2 point:4 extra:1 condition:1 add:1 continue:2 match:1 complete:1 respond:1 requested:1 clockwise:1 specific:1 still:1 least:1 name:1 order:1 expose:1 similar:1 happy:1 family:1 event:1 new:1 top:1 wait:1 cannot:1 gain:1 directly:1 replacement:1 stack:1 spread:1 fisherman:1 luck:1 drawn:1 show:1 kp:4 count:1 deduct:1 every:2 high:1 deduction:3 winner:1 advanced:1 first:2 person:1 asker:1 exempt:1 take:1 tournament:2 round:1 however:1 negative:1 strategy:2 fishing:1 otherwise:1 rotate:1 among:1 already:1 difficult:2 variant:1 often:1 require:1 memorize:1 possess:1 unlike:1 many:1 much:1 dependent:1 honor:1 system:3 lie:1 content:1 prevent:1 special:1 various:1 speciality:1 manufacture:1 include:2 kid:1 classic:1 u:2 inc:2 isbn:1 specialist:1 type:1 produce:1 safari:1 pal:1 animal:1 characteristic:1 set:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 united:1 state:1 company:1 uspc:1 childrens:1 web:1 site:1 see:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
3,488 | Antisemitism | Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also known as Judeophobia) is a term used to describe prejudice against or hostility towards Jews, often rooted in hatred of their religious/cultural/ethnic background. While the term's etymology might suggest that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic peoples, it has been used exclusively to refer to hostility toward Jews since its initial usage. "Antisemitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but Jews." Lewis, Bernard. "Semites and Antisemites", Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East, The Library Press, 1973. See, for example: "Anti-Semitism", Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2006. Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews, HarperPerennial 1988, p 133 ff. Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism", The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University on March 24, 2004. Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from individual expressions of hatred and discrimination against individual Jews to organized violent attacks by mobs or even state police or military attacks on entire Jewish communities. Extreme instances of persecution include the First Crusade of 1096, the expulsion from England in 1290, the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, the expulsion from Portugal in 1497, various pogroms, and perhaps the most infamous, the Holocaust under Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Forms The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism: Flannery, Edward H. The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism, Stimulus Books, first published 1965, this edition 2004. political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples Cicero and Charles Lindbergh; theological or religious antisemitism, sometimes known as anti-Judaism; nationalistic antisemitism, citing Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as kashrut and Shabbat; and racial antisemitism, as practiced in the Holocaust by the Nazis. In addition, from the 1990s, some writers claim to have identified a new antisemitism, a form of antisemitism coming simultaneously from the far left, the far right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to Zionism and a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and which may deploy traditional antisemitism motifs. Chesler, Phyllis. The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It, Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181 Kinsella, Warren. The New antisemitism, accessed March 5, 2006 "Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of antisemitism", The Guardian, August 8, 2004. Endelman, Todd M. "Antisemitism in Western Europe Today" in Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World. University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65-79 Matas, David. Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and antisemitism, p.31. Dundurn Press, 2005. Etymology and usage Usage Despite the use of the prefix "anti," the terms Semitic and anti-Semitic are not directly opposed to each other (unlike similar-seeming terms such as anti-American). Antisemitism refers specifically to prejudice against Jews alone and in general http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/antisemitism , despite the fact that there are other speakers of Semitic languages (e.g. Arabs or Assyrians) and that not all Jews speak a Semitic language. (In fact, at the time of the origin of the term, most Jews spoke Yiddish or Ladino, both Indo-European languages.) Both terms anti-Semitism and antisemitism are in common use. There are some arguments over which term is to be preferred. All major dictionaries prefer a hyphenated form, i.e. anti-Semitism or anti-semitism. Scholarly usage is divided. Some scholars favor usage of the unhyphenated form antisemitism to avoid possible confusion involving whether the term refers specifically to Jews, or to Semitic-language speakers as a whole. Accessed August 21, 2006 Bauer, Yehuda. . Accessed March 12, 2006. Bauer, Yehuda. A History of the Holocaust, Franklin Watts, 1982, p. 52. ISBN 0-531-05641-4 Almog, Shmuel. "What's in a Hyphen?", SICSA Report: Newsletter of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (Summer 1989). Etymology Cover page of Marr's The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism, 1880 edition The word antisemitic ( in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase "antisemitic prejudices" (). In: Alex Bein. The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, Page 594. ISBN 0838632521 Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize Ernest Renan's ideas about how "Semitic races" were inferior to "Aryan races." These pseudo-scientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings Semitic was synonymous with Jewish, in contrast to its usage by Renan and others. In 1873 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet "The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective." ("Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet.") in which he used the word "Semitismus" interchangeably with the word "Judentum" to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish,or the Jewish spirit). Although he did not use the word "Antisemitismus" in the pamphlet, the coining of the latter word followed naturally from the word "Semitismus", and indicated either opposition to the Jews as a people, or else oppositon to jewishness or the Jewish spirit, which he saw as infiltrating German culture. Wilhelm Marr. Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet. Rudolph Costenoble. 1879, 8th edition. Archive.org In his next pamphlet, "The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit", published in 1880, Marr developed his ideas further and coined the related German word Antisemitismus - antisemitism, derived from the word "Semitismus" that he had earlier used. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the "League of Antisemites" ("Antisemiten-Liga"), the first German organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence, and advocating their forced removal from the country. So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published "Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte," and Wilhelm Scherer used the term "Antisemiten" in the January issue of "Neue Freie Presse". The related word semitism was coined around 1885. Definitions Antisemitic caricature by C.Léandre (France, 1898) Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews." Professor Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne further expanded on Professor Fein's definition by describing the structure of antisemitic beliefs. To antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the antisemites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character." Bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism. Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism", The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University on March 24, 2004. There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State defines antisemitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as "hatred toward Jews — individually and as a group — that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name=USDS>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258.htm "Report on Global Anti-Semitism"], U.S. State Department, January 5, 2005.</ref> In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC), a body of the European Union, developed a more detailed discussion: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. In addition, such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm humanity, and it is often used to blame Jews for 'why things go wrong'." The EUMC then listed "contemporary examples of antisemitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere." These included: "Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews; accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust; and accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. The EUMC also discussed ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, e.g. Denying the Jewish people the right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor; Applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation; Using the symbols and images associated with classic anti-Semitism (e.g. claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis; Drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis; Holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the State of Israel. The EUMC added that criticism of Israel cannot be regarded as antisemitism so long as it is "similar to that leveled against any other country." "Working definition of antisemitism", EUMC. (see anti-Zionism below). European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, , accessed March 12, 2006. To encourage additional usage of the definition, the European Forum on Antisemitism has commissioned translations of the working definition into numerous languages. 1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite" Adolphe Willette: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" Evolution of usage as a term In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (Antisemitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe in the latter 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. Richard S. Geehr. Karl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna, Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1989. ISBN 0814320554 In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, The New York Times notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. Dr. Karl Lueger Dead; Anti-Semitic Leader and Mayor of Vienna Was 66 Years Old. The New York Times, March 11, 1910. In 1895 A. C. Cuza organized the Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, organization, or political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic. The early zionist pioneer, Judah Leib Pinsker, in a pamphlet written in 1882, said that antisemitism was an inherited predisposition: In the aftermath of Kristallnacht, Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race." Daily Telegraph, November 12, 1938. Cited in Gilbert, Martin. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142. After Hitler's rise to power, and particularly after the extent of the Nazi genocide of Jews became known, the term "antisemitism" acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term. Jacob Rader Marcus. United States Jewry, 1776-1985. Wayne State University Press, 1989, page 286. ISBN 0814321860 Alex Bein. The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, Page 580. ISBN 0838632521 Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no antisemites in the world... Nobody says, 'I am antisemitic.'" You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion." Yehuda Bauer: The Most Ancient Group Prejudice in Leo Eitinger (1984): The Anti-Semitism of Our Time. Oslo. Nansen Committee. p.14. citing from: Jocelyn Hellig (2003): The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851683135. p.73 History Ancient world Examples of antipathy to Jews and Judaism during ancient times are abundant. Statements exhibiting prejudice towards Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Daniels. J,L, Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period in JBL 98 (1979) P.45 - 65 There are examples of Greek rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. Philo of Alexandria described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE. Colpe, Carsten (Berlin). "Anti-Semitism." Brill's New Pauly. Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider . Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 28 April 2008 Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at first antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome, Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period beginning in about 160 CE. According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million." Carroll, James. Constantine's Sword (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p.26 Explaining Jews, Part III: A very insecure people::By Dennis Prager Persecutions in the Middle Ages From the 9th century CE, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews (and Christians) as dhimmi, and were allowed to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century, when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place in the Iberian Peninsula; those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 267-268. Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906 ed. Harzig, Hoerder & Shubert, 2003, p. 42. Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. Despite the Qur'an's prohibition, Jews were also forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries. The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147, Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 2, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. were far more fundamentalist in outlook, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Frank and Leaman, 2003, p. 137-138. The Almohads The Forgotten Refugees Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms, where Jews were increasingly forced to convert to Christianity from the 13th century. Sephardim Kraemer, 2005, pp. 16-17. During the Middle Ages in Europe there was persecution against Jews in many places, with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. A main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. The persecution hit its first peak during the Crusades. In the First Crusade (1096) flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were destroyed; see German Crusade, 1096. In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in Germany were subject to several massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including in, 1290, the banishing of all English Jews; in 1396, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and, in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland. Why the Jews? - Black Death As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by the July 6, 1348, papal bull and an additional bull in 1348, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt alive in Strasbourg, where the plague hadn't yet affected the city. Seventeenth century During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in hundreds of thousands. First, the Chmielnicki Uprising when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's Cossacks massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and jasyr (captivity in the Ottoman Empire). "Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." Judaism Timeline 1618-1770, CBS News. Accessed May 13, 2007. "... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage." Martin Gilbert. Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past, Columbia University Press, 1999, ISBN 0231109652, p. 219. Eighteenth century In 1744, Frederick II of Prussia limited the number of Jews allowed to live in Breslau to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged a similar practice in other Prussian cities. In 1750 he issued the Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft: the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting Simon Dubnow). In the same year, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known as malke-geld (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his Toleranzpatent, on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution." In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews of the Pale of Settlement to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland. The Virtual Jewish History Tour By Rebecca Weiner Nineteenth century Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan." In 1850 the German composer Richard Wagner published Das Judenthum in der Musik ("Jewishness in Music") under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries (and rivals) Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture. The Dreyfus Affair highlights anti-semitism during the 19th Century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment at Devil's Island. The actual spy Marie Charles Esterhazy was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French and everyone chose a side regarding whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Emile Zola accused the army of polluting the French Justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: eighty percent of the press in France condemned Dreyfus. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying anti-semitism of the time period. Rapport, Michael. (2005) Nineteenth Century Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Adolf Stoecker (1835-1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, antiliberal political party called The Christian Social Party (Germany). However, this party did not attract as many votes as the Nazi party, which flourished in part because of The Great Depression which hit Germany especially hard during the early 1930's. Harold M. Green (2003). "Adolf Stoecker:Portrait of a Demagogue." Politics and Policy31(1):106-129; D.A. Jeremy Telman (1995) "Adolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission." Jewish History9(2):93-112 Twentieth century Russian Tsar-Stop your cruel oppression of the Jews! (1904) In the first half of the twentieth century, in the USA, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrollment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The Leo Frank lynching by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870. In the beginning of 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented incidents of blood libel in Europe. Unproven rumours of Jews killing Christians were used as justification for killing of Jews by Christians. Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent. The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Such views were also shared by some prominent politicians; Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for president Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money." Two common Anti-semitic depictions of Jews during Nazi Germany: on the left is the Capitalist/Communist global parasite depiction; on the right is the Wandering Jew. In the 1940s the aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led The America First Committee in opposing any involvement in the war against Fascism. During his July 1936 visit he wrote letters saying that there was “more intelligent leadership in Germany than is generally recognized.” The German American Bund held parades in New York City during the late 1930s where Nazi uniforms were worn and flags featuring swastikas were raised alongside American flags. The US House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) was very active in denying the Bund's ability to operate. With the start of US involvement in World War II most of the Bund's members were placed in internment camps, and some were deported at the end of the war. Sometimes, during race riots, as in Detroit in 1943, Jewish businesses were targeted for looting and burning. In Nazi occupied Europe, oppressive discrimination of the Jews and denial of basic civil rights, escalated into a campaign of mass murder, culminating, from 1941 to 1945, in genocide: the Holocaust. Saul Friedlander (2008) The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews. London, Phoenix Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed. Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995) Dawidowicz, Lucy. The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975. This is seen by many as the culmination of generations of antisemitism in Europe. Antisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for personal conflicts in Soviet Russia, starting from conflict between Stalin and Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-writing poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or arrested. This culminated in the so-called Doctors' Plot. Similar anti-Jewish propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of the Polish Jewish survivors out of the country. After the war, the Kielce pogrom and "March 1968 events" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The common theme behind the anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland were blood libel rumours. The cult of Simon of Trent was disbanded in 1965 by Pope Paul VI, and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact. Christianity and antisemitism Religious antisemitism is also known as anti-Judaism. As the name implies, it was the practice of Judaism itself that was the defining characteristic of the antisemitic attacks. Under this version of antisemitism, attacks would often stop if Jews stopped practicing or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion, and sometimes, liturgical exclusion of Jewish converts (the case of Christianized Marranos or Iberian Jews in the late 15th and 16th centuries convicted of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs). See, for example, Flannery, Edward H. The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism, Stimulus Books, first published 1985, this edition 2004. Jews have lived as a religious minority in Christian and Muslim lands since the Roman Empire became Christian. Christianity and Islam have both portrayed Jews as those who rejected God's truth. Christians and Muslims have, over the centuries, alternately lived in peace with Jews and persecuted them. New Testament and antisemitism Certain historians have noted that the New Testament, although recognized as being largely authored by Jews within a Jewish cultural context, has been singled out for its progressively antagonistic tone and hostile attitude toward Jews. Particularly, the Gospel of John has been singled out in antisemitic texts, because it includes many anti-Jewish episodes, and it contains many references to Jews in a pejorative manner. Flannery (2004) pp. 33 has repeatedly been employed for antisemitic purposes. The verse speaks of violence suffered at the hands of one's own countrymen. It claims that the Churches in Judea had been persecuted by the Jews who killed Jesus and that such people displease God, oppose all men, and had prevented Paul from speaking to the gentile nations concerning the New Testament message. During the Second Temple period there were sectarian differences among Jewish religious groups regarding communication with Gentiles. see the JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA entry Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah The JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA entry Phinehas the Model Zealot states: 'Others threaten to slay any uncircumcised Gentile who listens to a discourse on God and His laws, unless he undergoes the rite of circumcision [comp. Sanh. 59a; Sifre, Deut. 345]; should he refuse to do so, they kill him instantly. From this practise they have received the name of 'Zealots' or 'Sicarii.' The JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA entry | BET HILLEL AND BET SHAMMAI explains: As all the nations around Judea made common cause with the Romans, the Zealots were naturally inflamed against every one of them; and therefore the Shammaites proposed to prevent all communication between Jew and Gentile, by prohibiting the Jews from buying any article of food or drink from their heathen neighbors. The Hillelites, still moderate in their religious and political views, would not agree to such sharply defined exclusiveness; but when the Sanhedrin was called together to consider the propriety of such measures, the Shammaites, with the aid of the Zealots, gained the day. Eleazar ben Ananias invited the disciples of both schools to meet at his house. Armed men were stationed at the door, and instructed to permit every one to enter, but no one to leave. During the discussions that were carried on under these circumstances, many Hillelites are said to have been killed; and there and then the remainder adopted the restrictive propositions of the Shammaites, known in the Talmud as "The Eighteen Articles." On account of the violence which attended those enactments, and because of the radicalism of the enactments themselves, the day on which the Shammaites thus triumphed over the Hillelites was thereafter regarded as a day of misfortune (Tosef., Shab. i. 16 et seq.; Shab. 13a, 17a; Yer. Shab. i. 3c). The verse has created significant debate among scholars because some feel it contradicts the other writings attributed to Paul, and because Paul did not have an attitude of revulsion toward his life as a Pharisee before Christianity. Richardson (1986) pp. 21-22 The New Testament states that while on trial, Jesus was struck in the face by a Jewish guard for allegedly speaking ill of the high priest (). Such incidents were the source of the myth of the wandering Jew, who was doomed to the punishment of endless roaming and suffering fated to never die. Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 32 The death of Jesus, according to the New Testament, was done in brutal mockery by the Roman soldiers. Pontius Pilate's words () imply that the Jews were entirely responsible for the killing. When Jesus is nailed to the cross, the New Testament states that those present mocked Jesus (); some have speculated that the unnamed individuals were in fact Jews. Further speculation states that the overall impression on Christians was that the Jews controlled the events that lead to the death of Jesus, Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 35 although the Roman involvement in the affair, specifically the form of execution, is attested to within the New Testament text. The process by which some believe that Christians began to see Judaism first as a rival, and then as a scapegoat, is seen as traceable through select passages in the New Testament, as well as early Christian writings and of the Apostolic fathers. The destruction of the Second Temple was seen as judgement from God to the Jews for the death of Jesus. Richardson (1986) pp. 23 Parallel passages to this effect can be seen in the Old Testament nevi'im (prophets), specifically Book of Jeremiah, which speaks of the judgement, destruction, and deportation of the Jewish nation from Jerusalem by the Babylonians (under Nebuchadrezzar II in 587 BC ). The majority of the New Testament was written by Jews who became followers of Jesus, and all but two books (Luke and Acts) are traditionally attributed to such Jewish followers. Nevertheless, there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some see as antisemitic, or have been used for antisemitic purposes, most notably: Jesus speaking to a group of Pharisees: "I know that you are descendants of Abraham; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you. I speak of what I have seen with my Father, and you do what you have heard from your father." They answered him, "Abraham is our father." Jesus said to them, "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did. ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. Which of you convicts me of sin? If I tell the truth, why do you not believe me? He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God." (, ) Stephen speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: "You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the Holy Spirit. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it." (, RSV) "Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie — behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you." (, RSV). "Who is a liar but he who denies that Jesus is the Christ? He is antichrist who denies the Father and the Son. Whoever denies the Son does not have the Father either; he who acknowledges the Son has the Father also"(). Some biblical scholars point out that Jesus and Stephen are presented as Jews speaking to other Jews, and that their use of broad accusation against Israel is borrowed from Moses and the later Jewish prophets (e.g. ; ; , ; ; ; ; ). Jesus once calls his own disciple Peter 'Satan' (). Drawing from the Jewish prophet Jeremiah (), the New Testament taught that with the death of Jesus a new covenant was established which rendered obsolete - and in many respects seen as superseding - the first covenant established by Moses (; ). Observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes Judaism. This New Testament teaching, and later variations to it, are part of what is called supersessionism. However, the early Jewish followers of Jesus continued to practice circumcision and observe dietary laws, which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first Gentile Christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after Jesus' death (; ; ). The New Testament holds that Jesus' (Jewish) disciple Judas Iscariot (), the Roman governor Pontius Pilate along with Roman forces (; ) and Jewish leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus (). Diaspora Jews are not blamed for events which were outside their control. After Jesus' death, the New Testament portrays the Jewish religious authorities in Jerusalem as hostile to Jesus' followers, and as occasionally using force against them. Stephen is executed by stoning (). Before his conversion, Saul puts followers of Jesus in prison (; ; ). After his conversion, Saul is whipped at various times by Jewish authorities (), and is accused by Jewish authorities before Roman courts (e.g., ). However, opposition from Gentiles is also cited repeatedly (; ; ). More generally, there are widespread references in the New Testament to suffering experienced by Jesus' followers at the hands of others (; ; ; ; ; ; ). See Joseph Atwill's interview on the The Roots of Anti-Semitism The Codex Sinaiticus contains two extra books in the New Testament - the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistle of Barnabas. The latter goes out of its way to claim that it was the Jews, not the Romans, who killed Jesus, and is full of anti-Semitism. The Epistle of Barnabas was removed from later versions of the Bible; Professor Bart Ehrman said "the suffering of Jews in the subsequent centuries would, if possible, have been even worse had the Epistle of Barnabas remained". Early Christianity A number of early and influential Church works — such as the dialogues of Justin Martyr, the homilies of John Chrysostom, and the testimonies of church father Cyprian — are strongly anti-Jewish. During a discussion on the celebration of Easter during the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, Roman emperor Constantine said, ...it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. (...) Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way. Eusebius. "Life of Constantine (Book III)", 337 CE, accessed March 12, 2006. Prejudice against Jews in the Roman Empire was formalized in 438, when the Code of Theodosius II established Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The Justinian Code a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the sixth and seventh century, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now Granada), a Spanish town in Andalucia, the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian concubines and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic Iberia, the Third Council of Toledo ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth). Roth, A. M. Roth, and Roth, Norman. Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain, Brill Academic, 1994. Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism. Medieval and Renaissance Europe Antisemitism was widespread in Europe during the Middle Ages. In those times, a main cause of prejudice against Jews in Europe was the religious one. Although not part of Roman Catholic dogma, many Christians, including members of the clergy, held the Jewish people collectively responsible for the death of Jesus, a practice originated by Melito of Sardis. Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed the doors for many professions to the Jews, pushing them into occupations considered socially inferior such as accounting, rent-collecting and moneylending, which was tolerated then as a "necessary evil". Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. , accessed March 12, 2006. During the Black Death, Jews were accused as being the cause, and were often killed. See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in L'Histoire magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 There were expulsions of Jews from England, France, Germany, Portugal and Spain during the Middle Ages as a result of antisemitism. 18th century Frankfurt Judensau German for "Jews' sow", Judensau was the derogatory and dehumanizing imagery of Jews that appeared around the 13th century. Its popularity lasted for over 600 years and was revived by the Nazis. The Jews, typically portrayed in obscene contact with unclean animals such as pigs or owls or representing a devil, appeared on cathedral or church ceilings, pillars, utensils, etchings, etc. Often, the images combined several antisemitic motifs and included derisive prose or poetry. "Dozens of Judensaus... intersect with the portrayal of the Jew as a Christ killer. Various illustrations of the murder of Simon of Trent blended images of Judensau, the devil, the murder of little Simon himself, and the Crucifixion. In the seventeenth-century engraving from Frankfurt Cohen's book includes an earlier variation of the same image. ... a well-dressed, very contemporary-looking Jew has mounted the sow backward and holds her tail, while a second Jew sucks at her milk and a third eats her feces. The horned devil, himself wearing a Jewish badge, looks on and the butchered Simon, splayed as if on a cross, appears on a panel above." Jeremy Cohen (2007): Christ Killers: The Jews and the Passion from the Bible to the Big Screen. Oxford University Press. p.208 ISBN 0195178416 In Shakespeare's "Merchant of Venice," considered to be one of the greatest romantic comedies of all time, the villain Shylock was a Jewish moneylender. By the end of the play he is mocked on the streets after his daughter elopes with a Christian. Shylock, then, compulsorily converts to Christianity as a part of a deal gone wrong. This has raised profound implications regarding Shakespeare and antisemitism. On Beyond Shylock by Bradley S. Berens During the Middle Ages, the story of Jephonias, Transitus or Dormitio Virginis, the original 5th or 6th century text the Jew who tried to overturn Mary's funeral bier, changed from his converting to Christianity into his simply having his hands cut off by an angel. Self-Description and the Antisemite: Denying Privileged Access A 15th century German woodcut showing an alleged host desecration.1: the hosts are stolen2: the hosts bleed when pierced by a Jew3: the Jews are arrested4: they are burned alive. On many occasions, Jews were subjected to blood libels, false accusations of drinking the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian Eucharist. Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations varying with place and time, and determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Often Jews were barred from all occupations but money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden. 19th and 20th century Branford Clarke illustration in Heroes of the Fiery Cross by Bishop Alma White 1928 Published by the Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath, NJ Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Roman Catholic Church still incorporated strong antisemitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial antisemitism. Pope Pius VII (1800-1823) had the walls of the Jewish Ghetto in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were released by Napoleon, and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the Papal States in 1870. Additionally, official organizations such as the Jesuits banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian David Kertzer, working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book The Popes Against the Jews that in the 19th and early 20th centuries the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of antisemitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations Rabbi David G. Dalin, for example, criticized Kertzer in the Weekly Standard for using evidence selectively. The Second Vatican Council, the Nostra Aetate document, and the efforts of Pope John Paul II have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however. The Nazis used Martin Luther's book, On the Jews and Their Lies, to claim a moral righteousness for their ideology. Martin Luther in his On the Jews and Their Lies (1543) even went so far as to advocate the murder of those Jews who refused to convert to Christianity, writing that "we are at fault in not slaying them" Luther, Martin. On the Jews and Their Lies, cited in Robert.Michael. "Luther,Luther Scholars, and the Jews," Encounter 46 ( Autumn 1985) No.4.343-344 In 1994, the Church Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States and a member of the Lutheran World Federation publicly rejected Luther's antisemitic writings. The controversial document Dabru Emet was issued by many American Jewish scholars in 2000 as a statement about Jewish-Christian relations. This document says, "Nazism was not a Christian phenomenon. Without the long history of Christian anti-Judaism and Christian violence against Jews, Nazi ideology could not have taken hold nor could it have been carried out. Too many Christians participated in, or were sympathetic to, Nazi atrocities against Jews. Other Christians did not protest sufficiently against these atrocities. But Nazism itself was not an inevitable outcome of Christianity." Accusations of deicide Though never a part of Christian dogma, many Christians, including members of the clergy, held the Jewish people under an antisemitic canard to be collectively responsible for deicide, the killing of Jesus, whom they believed to be the son of God. Nostra Aetate: a milestone - Pier Francesco Fumagalli According to this interpretation, the Jews present at Jesus’ death as well as the Jewish people collectively and for all time had committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing. The accusation has been the most powerful warrant for antisemitism by Christians. Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 26 Passion plays are dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of Jesus and have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during Lent. These plays historically blamed the Jews for the death of Jesus in a polemical fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to crucifixion and a Jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, The Boston Globe explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks — or pogroms — on Europe's Jewish communities". Sennott, Charles M. "In Poland, new 'Passion' plays on old hatreds", The Boston Globe, April 10, 2004. Islam and antisemitism Various definitions of antisemitism in the context of Islam are given. The extent of antisemitism among Muslims varies depending on the chosen definition: Scholars like Claude Cahen and Shelomo Dov Goitein define it to be the animosity specifically applied to Jews only and do not include discriminations practiced against Non-Muslims in general. Shelomo Dov Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: An Abrudgment in One Volume, p. 293 "Dhimma" by Claude Cahen in Encyclopedia of Islam The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, Antisemitism For these scholars, antisemitism in Medieval Islam has been local and sporadic rather than general and endemic [Shelomo Dov Goitein], not at all present [Claude Cahen], or rarely present. According to Bernard Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism", The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University on March 24, 2004 For Lewis, from the late nineteenth century, movements appear among Muslims of which for the first time one can legitimately use the term anti-semitic. Lewis(1984), p.184 Jews in Islamic texts Leon Poliakov, Poliakov Walter Laqueur, and Jane Gerber, Gerber 78 suggest that passages in the Qur'an contain attacks on Jews for their refusal to recognize Muhammad as a prophet of God. "The Qurʾān is engaged mainly in dealing with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament." Uri Rubin, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Jews and Judaism Muhammad had also friends among Jews and there are also Qur'anic verses showing respect for the Jews (e.g. see , ) Poliakov (1961), pg. 27 Glazov, Jamie, "Symposium: The Koran and Anti-Semitism", FrontPageMag.com, June 25, 2004. (retrieved May 3, 2006) and preaching tolerance (e.g. see ). Laqueur 192 The Qur'an differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, Poliakov states. Laqueur argues that the conflicting statements about Jews in the Muslim holy text has defined Arab and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising Islamic fundamentalism. Laqueur 191 During Muhammad's life, Jews lived in the Arabian Peninsula, especially in and around Medina. They reportedly refused Muhammad's offer for them to convert and accept him as the Prophet. F.E.Peters(2003), p.103 According to F.E. Peters, they also began to secretly to conspire with Muhammad's enemies in Mecca to overthrow him (despite having signed a peace treaty Samuel Rosenblatt, Essays on Antisemitism: The Jews of Islam, p.112 ). F.E.Peters(2003), p.194 The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), pp.43-44 After each major battle, Muhammad accused one of the Jewish tribes of treachery and attacked it. Two Jewish tribes were expelled and the last one was wiped out. Esposito (1998), pp.10-11 Samuel Rosenblatt states that these incidents were not part of policies directed exclusively against Jews, and that Muhammad was more severe with Arab pagans than with Jews. The words "humility" and "humiliation" occur frequently in the Qur'an and later Muslim literature in relation to Jews. According to Lewis, "This, in Islamic view, is their just punishment for their past rebelliousness, and is manifested in their present impotence between the mighty powers of Christendom and Islam." The standard Quranic reference to Jews is verse : "And remember ye said: "O Moses! we cannot endure one kind of food (always); so beseech thy Lord for us to produce for us of what the earth groweth, -its pot-herbs, and cucumbers, Its garlic, lentils, and onions." He said: "Will ye exchange the better for the worse? Go ye down to any town, and ye shall find what ye want!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; they drew on themselves the wrath of Allah. This because they went on rejecting the Signs of Allah and slaying His Messengers without just cause. This because they rebelled and went on transgressing. " Lewis (1999), p. 128 The Qur'an associates Jews with interconfessional strife and rivalry (Qur'an ). It claims that Jews believe that they are children of God (Qur'an ) and that only they will achieve salvation.() According to the Qur'an, Jews blasphemously claim that Ezra is the son of God, as Christians claim Jesus is, (Qur'an ) and that God’s hand is fettered. (Qur'an ) Together with the pagans, Jews are, “the most vehement of men in enmity to those who believe”. (Qur'an ) Some of those who are Jews, Here the Qur'an uses an Arabic expression alladhina hadu ("those who are Jewish"), which appears in the Qur'an ten times. "Yahud". Encyclopedia of Islam "pervert words from their meanings", (Qur'an ) have committed wrongdoing, for which God has "forbidden some good things that were previously permitted them", (Qur'an ) they listen for the sake of mendacity, (Qur'an ) and some of them have committed usury and will receive "a painful doom." (Qur'an ) The Qur'an gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "...but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers."(Qur'an ) In the Muslim view, the crucifixion of Jesus was an illusion, and thus the Jewish plots against him ended in complete failure. Lewis (1999), p. 120 In numerous verses (; ; ; ; , , ; ) Gerber (1986), p. 91 the Qur'an accuses Jews of deliberately obscuring and perverting scripture. Gerber (1986), p. 78 Differences with Christianity Bernard Lewis holds that Muslims were not antisemitic in the way Christians were for the most part because: The gospels are not part of the educational system in Muslim society and therefore Muslims are not brought up with the stories of Jewish deicide; on the contrary the notion of deicide is rejected by the Qur'an as a blasphemous absurdity. Muhammad and his early followers were not Jews and therefore they did not present themselves as the true Israel nor felt threatened by survival of the old Israel. The Qur'an was not viewed by Muslims as a fulfillment of the Hebrew Bible but rather a restorer of its original messages that had been distorted over time; Thus no clash of interpretations between Judaism and Islam could arise. Muhammad was not killed by the Jewish community and he was victorious in the clash with the Jewish community in Medina. Muhammad did not claim to have been Son of God or Messiah but only a prophet; a claim to which Jews reproached less. Muslims saw the conflict between Muhammad and the Jews as something of minor importance in Muhammad's career. Lewis (1999), p.117-118 Status of Jews under Muslim rule Traditionally Jews living in Muslim lands, known (along with Christians) as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religion and to administer their internal affairs but subject to certain conditions. Lewis (1984), pp.10,20 They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to Muslims. Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims. Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27 Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The most degrading one was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Qur'an or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic. Lewis (1999), p.131 Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession. Lewis (1999), p.131; (1984), pp.8,62 The notable examples of massacre of Jews include the 1066 Granada massacre, when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, crucified Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day." Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906 ed. This was the first persecution of Jews on the Peninsula under Islamic rule. There was also the killing or forcibly conversion of them by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century. Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p.77 Notable examples of the cases where the choice of residence was taken away from them includes confining Jews to walled quarters (mellahs) in Morocco beginning from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century. Lewis (1984), p. 28 Most conversions were voluntary and happened for various reasons. However, there were some forced conversions in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus as well as in Persia. Lewis (1984), pp.17,18,94,95; Stillman (1979), p.27 Pre-modern times The portrayal of the Jews in the early Islamic texts played a key role in shaping the attitudes towards them in the Muslim societies. According to Jane Gerber, "the Muslim is continually influenced by the theological threads of anti-Semitism embedded in the earliest chapters of Islamic history." Gerber (1986), p. 82 In the light of the Jewish defeat at the hands of Muhammad, Muslims traditionally viewed Jews with contempt and as objects of ridicule. Jews were seen as hostile, cunning, and vindictive, but nevertheless weak and ineffectual. Cowardice was the quality most frequently attributed to Jews. Another stereotype associated with the Jews was their alleged propensity to trickery and deceit. While most anti-Jewish polemicists saw those qualities as inherently Jewish, Ibn Khaldun attributed them to the mistreatment of Jews at the hands of the dominant nations. For that reason, says ibn Khaldun, Jews "are renowned, in every age and climate, for their wickedness and their slyness". Lewis (1999), pp. 129–130 Some Muslim writers have inserted racial overtones in their anti-Jewish polemics. Al-Jahiz speaks of the deterioration of the Jewish stock due to excessive inbreeding. Ibn Hazm also implies racial qualities in his attacks on the Jews. However, these were exceptions, and the racial theme left little or no trace in the medieval Muslim anti-Jewish writings. Lewis (1999), pp. 131–132 Anti-Jewish sentiments usually flared up at times of the Muslim political or military weakness or when Muslims felt that some Jews had overstepped the boundary of humiliation prescribed to them by the Islamic law. Lewis (1999), p. 130; Gerber (1986), p. 83 In Moorish Spain, ibn Hazm and Abu Ishaq focused their anti-Jewish writings on the latter allegation. This was also the chief motivation behind the 1066 Granada massacre, when "[m]ore than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day", and in Fez in 1033, when 6,000 Jews were killed. Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10-11. There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465. Gerber (1986), p. 84 Islamic law does not differentiate between Jews and Christians in their status as dhimmis. According to Bernard Lewis, the normal practice of Muslim governments until modern times was consistent with this aspect of sharia law. This view is countered by Jane Gerber, who maintains that of all dhimmis, Jews had the lowest status. Gerber maintains that this situation was especially pronounced in the latter centuries, when Christian communities enjoyed protection, unavailable to the Jews, under the provisions of Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire. For example, in 18th century Damascus, a Muslim noble held a festival, inviting to it all social classes in descending order, according to their social status: the Jews outranked only the peasants and prostitutes. Gerber (1986), pp. 84–85 In 1865, when the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed, Cevdet Pasha, a high-ranking official observed: "whereas in former times, in the Ottoman State, the communities were ranked, with the Muslims first, then the Greeks, then the Armenians, then the Jews, now all of them were put on the same level. Some Greeks objected to this, saying: 'The government has put us together with the Jews. We were content with the supremacy of Islam.'" Lewis (1999), pp. 136–137; Gerber (1986), p. 86 Some scholars have questioned the correctness of the term "antisemitism" to Muslim culture in pre-modern times. Cahen, Cl. "ḎH̲imma." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.21 November 2006> Mark Cohen (1995) p. xvii Nissim Rejwan, Israel's Place in the Middle East: A Pluralist Perspective, University Press of Florida, p.31 Robert Chazan and Alan Davies argue that the most obvious difference between pre-modern Islam and pre-modern Christendom was the "rich melange of racial, ethic, and religious communities" in Islamic countries, within which "the Jews were by no means obvious as lone dissenters, as they had been earlier in the world of polytheism or subsequently in most of medieval Christendom." According to Chazan and Davies, this lack of uniqueness ameliorated the circumstances of Jews in the medieval world of Islam. Encyclopedia of religion, anti-semitism article. According to Norman Stillman, antisemitism, understood as hatred of Jews as Jews, "did exist in the medieval Arab world even in the period of greatest tolerance". Stillman (1979), p. 63 Nineteenth century Historian Martin Gilbert writes that in the 19th century the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. There was a massacre of Jews in Baghdad in 1828 and in 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the Torah scrolls. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted. Gilbert, Martin. Dearest Auntie Fori. The Story of the Jewish People. HarperCollins, 2002, pp. 179-182. There was another massacre in Barfurush in 1867. In 1840, the Jews of Damascus were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having used their blood to bake Passover bread or Matza. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. Throughout the 1860s, the Jews of Libya were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in Marrakech and Fez in Morroco. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in Tunis, and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on Jerba Island. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in Demnat, Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in Jerusalem asked the Ottoman authorities in Constantinople to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from Russia. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in Tripolitania. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan." According to Mark Cohen in The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, most scholars conclude that Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose in the nineteenth century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized"). Mark Cohen (2002), p.208 20th century The massacres of Jews in Muslim countries continued into the 20th century. Martin Gilbert writes that 40 Jews were murdered in Taza, Morocco in 1903. In 1905, old laws were revived in Yemen forbidding Jews from raising their voices in front of Muslims, building their houses higher than Muslims, or engaging in any traditional Muslim trade or occupation. The Jewish quarter in Fez was almost destroyed by a Muslim mob in 1912. There were Nazi-inspired pogroms in Algeria in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in Iraq and Libya in the 1940s (see Farhud). Pro-Nazi Muslims slaughtered dozens of Jews in Baghdad in 1941. George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the Arab world to several factors, including the breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and traditional Islamic society; domination by Western colonial powers under which Jews gained a disproportionately larger role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of Arab nationalism, whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment against Jewish nationalism and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular regimes to scapegoat local Jews for political purposes. Gruen, George E. "The Other Refugees: Jews of the Arab World", The Jerusalem Letter, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, June 1, 1988. Antagonism and violence increased still further as resentment against Zionist efforts in the British Mandate of Palestine spread. Anti-Zionist propaganda in the Middle East frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries. Arabic- and Turkish-editions of Hitler's Mein Kampf and The Protocols of the Elders of Zion have found an audience in the region with limited critical response by local intellectuals and media. See International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust. According to Robert Satloff, Muslims and Arabs were involved both as rescuers and as perpetrators of the Holocaust during Italian and German Nazi occupation of Morocco, Tunisia and Libya. Righteous Muslims. A briefing by Robert Satloff by Rachel Silverman, Jewish Exponent, December 14, 2006 (Middle East Forum, December 11, 2006) Antisemitism has been reportedly found in Arab and Iranian media and schoolbooks. For example, the Center for Religious Freedom of Freedom House analyzed a set of Saudi Ministry of Education textbooks in use during the current academic year in Islamic studies courses for elementary and secondary school students. Among the statements and ideas found against non-Wahhabi Muslims and "non-believers" were those that teach Muslims to "hate" Christians, Jews, "polytheists" and other "unbelievers," including non-Wahhabi Muslims, though, incongruously, not to treat them "unjustly"; teach the infamous forgeries The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, as historical fact and relate modern events to it; teach that "Jews and the Christians are enemies of the [Muslim] believers" and that "the clash" between the two realms is perpetual; instruct that "fighting between Muslims and Jews" will continue until Judgment Day, and that the Muslims are promised victory over the Jews in the end; cite a selective teaching of violence against Jews, while in the same lesson, ignoring the passages of the Qur'an and hadiths that counsel tolerance; include a map of the Middle East that labels Israel within its pre-1967 borders as "Palestine: occupied 1948"; discuss Jews in violent terms, blaming them for virtually all the "subversion" and wars of the modern world. freedomhouse.org: Press Release A of Saudi Arabia's curriculum has been released to the press by the Hudson Institute. Twenty-first century New York Times Critic-at-large Edward Rothstein compares the extent of antisemitic Islamic visions of Jews, "the historical distortions they codify and the readiness with which they are taught to children and are secularized into political action," with the Nazi propaganda that led to the Holocaust. Nazis’ ‘Terrible Weapon,’ Aimed at Minds and Hearts, Edward Rothstein, February 23, 2009 According to Newsweek, "Indeed, anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic." Anti-Semitism In Araby, Josef Joffe, NEWSWEEK, From the magazine issue dated Mar 9, 2009 [ http://www.newsweek.com/id/186974] Tesco Ireland, the country's largest supermarket, had to apologise for selling anti Jewish literature to its customers. Sheikh Dr Shaheed Satardien, head of the Muslim Council of Ireland, said this was effectively "polluting the minds of impressionable young [Islamic] people with hate and anger towards the Jewish community" http://www.tribune.ie/archive/article/2006/may/21/tesco-apologises-and-withdraws-anti-jewish-literat/ Racial antisemitism Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-"Europeans" as inferior. It more specifically claims that the so-called Nordic Europeans are superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their "alien" extra-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion. Anthropologists discussed whether the Jews possessed any Arabic-Armenoid, African-Nubian or Asian-Turkic ancestries. Since World War II racial antisemitism has rarely appeared outside of Neo-Nazi and white supremacist movements. Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the emancipation of the Jews, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism. New antisemitism In recent years some scholars have advanced the concept of New antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and argue that the language of Anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack the Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to antisemitism. Sources for the following are: Bauer, Yehuda. "Problems of Contemporary Anti-Semitism", 2003, retrieved April 22, 2006. Chesler, Phyllis. The New Anti-Semitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It, Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181. Doward, Jamie. Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of anti-semitism, The Guardian, August 8, 2004. Kinsella, Warren. The New anti-Semitism, accessed March 5, 2006. Sacks, Jonathan. "The New Antisemitism", Ha'aretz, September 6, 2002, retrieved on January 10, 2007. Strauss, Mark. "Antiglobalism's Jewish Problem" in Rosenbaum, Ron (ed). Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism, Random House 2004, p 272. The concept has been criticized by those who argue it is used to stifle debate and deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, is intended to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies. Klug, Brian. The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism. The Nation, posted January 15, 2004 (February 2, 2004 issue), accessed January 9, 2006; and Lerner, Michael. There Is No New Anti-Semitism, posted February 5, 2007, accessed February 6, 2007. Bans on kosher slaughter Kosher slaughter is currently banned alongside of Islamic Dhabīḥah Halal slaughter in Norway, Switzerland and Sweden, and partially banned in the Netherlands (for older animals only, who are considered to take longer to lose consciousness). Support for these bans does come from groups like PETA on the grounds that failing to stun the animal hurts it and is cruel. Sources for the following are: Some people claim that these laws exist because of antisemitic or islamophobic sentiments, as many of them were indeed initiated by antisemites, whereas others believe that they exist solely because of concerns for animal rights. One of the main reasons the Chassidim were excommunicated by the contemporary Jewry was their development of the Chasidische Hallaf, the principal modern utensil in Shechitah A Simple Jew: Question & Answer With Akiva Of Mystical Paths - Shechita . The Swiss banned kosher slaughter in 1902 and saw an antisemitic backlash against a proposal to lift the ban a century later. Berlin, Howard, "Jews, Muslims on same side of several battles", NewsJournal, March 8, 2004 Both the Netherlands and Switzerland have considered extending the ban in order to prohibit importing kosher products. The former chief rabbi of Norway, Michael Melchior, argues that antisemitism is a motive for the bans: "I won't say this is the only motivation, but it's certainly no coincidence that one of the first things Nazi Germany forbade was kosher slaughter. I also know that during the original debate on this issue in Norway, where shechitah has been banned since 1930, one of the parliamentarians said straight out, 'If they don't like it, let them go live somewhere else.'" World Net Daily, "Europe's new face of antisemitism: 5 countries now ban production of kosher meat as synagogues burn, boycott of Israel continues", December 3, 2002 Current situation A report from the U.S. State Department from March 14 2008 detailed "an upsurge" across the world of antisemitism -- hostility and discrimination toward Jewish people. On August, 2005, the United States expressed 'serious concern' over anti-Christian and anti-Jewish passages in Pakistani textbooks and termed them as "unacceptable and inciteful". http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=53011 United States In the United States, in the context of the "Global War on Terrorism" there have been statements by both the Democrat Ernest Hollings and the Republican Pat Buchanan that suggest that the George W. Bush administration went to war in order to win Jewish supporters. Some note these statements echo Lindberg’s 1941 claim before the US entered World War II that a Jewish minority was pushing America into a war against its interests. During 2004, a number of prominent public figures accused Jewish members of the Bush administration of tricking America into war against Saddam Hussein to help Israel. U.S. Senator Ernest Hollings (D-South Carolina) claimed that the US action against Saddam was undertaken 'to secure Israel.' Television talk show host Pat Buchanan said a 'cabal' had managed 'to snare our country in a series of wars that are not in America’s interests.'" Both these statements were labeled antisemitic by Dr. Rafael Medoff, director of the David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies. Rafael Medoff, President Lindbergh? Roth's New Novel Raises Questions About Antisemitism in the 1940s--and Today, David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies, September 2004. Retrieved June 20, 2007. On April 3, 2006, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights announced its finding that incidents of antisemitism are a "serious problem" on college campuses throughout the United States. The Commission recommended that the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights protect college students from antisemitism through vigorous enforcement of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and further recommended that Congress clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights: . April 3, 2006 On July 28, 2006, Naveed Afzal Haq shot six women, one fatally, in the Seattle Jewish Federation shooting. Police have classified the shooting as a hate crime based on Haq statements during a 9-1-1 call. Associated Press. "1 Killed, 5 Wounded in Seattle Jewish Center Shooting", Fox News, July 29, 2006. On September 19, 2006, Yale University founded The Yale Initiative for Interdisciplinary Study of Antisemitism, the first North American university-based center for study of the subject, as part of its Institution for Social and Policy Studies. Director Charles Small of the Center cited the increase in antisemitism worldwide in recent years as generating a "need to understand the current manifestation of this disease". Yale creates center to study antisemitism Associated Press, September 19, 2006 According to an Anti-Defamation League survey 14 percent of U.S. residents had antisemitic views. The 2005 survey found "35 percent of foreign-born Hispanics" and "36 percent of African-Americans hold strong antisemitic beliefs, four times more than the 9 percent for whites". ADL Survey: Anti-Semitism Declines Slightly in America; 14 Percent of Americans Hold 'Strong' Anti-Semitic Beliefs A 2009 study published in Boston Review found that nearly 25% of non-Jewish Americans blamed Jews for the 2008-9 financial crisis, with a higher percentage among Democrats than Republicans. State of the Nation: Anti-Semitism and the economic crisis by Neil Malhotra and Yotam Margalit in Boston Review Europe Antisemitism has increased significantly in Europe since 2000, with significant increases in verbal attacks against Jews and vandalism such as graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. Physical assaults against Jews including beatings, stabbings and other violence increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death. Since 2000, Austria and Germany have consistently had the highest rates of physical violence, verbal attacks, and vandalism against Jews. Anti-Semitism In Germany Today: Its Roots And Tendencies - Susanne Urban The Netherlands and Sweden have also consistently had high rates of anti-semitic attacks since 2000, being only behind Austria and Germany. The 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Antisemitism. Much of the new European antisemitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running Arab-Israeli conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant Arab communities in European cities. However, compared to France, the United Kingdom and much of the rest of Europe, in Germany Arab and pro-Palestinian groups are involved in only a very small percentage of antisemitic incidents. Indigenous Germans are far more likely to commit violent antisemitic acts, attack Jews verbally or vandalize Jewish property. This is also true of Sweden and Austria. Stephen Roth Institute, Tel Aviv University, http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/. According to The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, most of the current antisemitism in Europe, with exceptions to Germany, Austria, and Sweden, comes from militant Islamic and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside. "Annual Reports: General Analysis, 2004", The Steven Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University, accessed March 12, 2006. The Interior Minister of Germany, Wolfgang Schaeuble, points out the official policy of Germany: "We will not tolerate any form of extremism, xenophobia or anti-Semitism." Although the number of right-wing groups and organisations grew from 141 (2001) Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. Verfassungsschutzbericht 2003. Annual Report. 2003, Page 29 to 182 (2006), Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. Verfassungsschutzbericht 2006. Annual Report. 2006, Page 51 especially in the formerly communist East Germany, Germany's measures against right wing groups and antisemitism are effective, despite Germany having the highest rates of antisemitic acts in Europe. According to the annual reports of the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution the overall number of far-right extremists in Germany dropped during the last years from 49,700 (2001), 45,000 (2002), 41,500 (2003), 40,700 (2004), 39,000 (2005), to 38,600 in 2006. Germany provided several million Euros to fund "nationwide programs aimed at fighting far-right extremism, including teams of traveling consultants, and victims' groups." The Associated Press. "Berlin police say 16 arrested during neo-Nazi demonstration". International Herald Tribune. October 22, 2006 Despite these facts, Israeli Ambassador Shimon Stein warned in October 2006 that Jews in Germany feel increasingly "unsafe," stating that they "are not able to live a normal Jewish life" and that heavy security surrounds most synagogues or Jewish community centers. Yosef Havlin, Rabbi at the Chabad Lubavitch Frankfurt does not agree with the Israeli Ambassador and states in an interview with Der Spiegel magazine in September 2007, that the German public does not support Nazis, instead he has personally experienced the support of Germans, as a Jew and Rabbi he "feels welcome in his (hometown) Frankfurt, he is not afraid, the city is no-go-area". Der Spiegel. "Wir dürfen uns auf keinen Fall verstecken". Der Spiegel. September 12, 2007 Despite this comment, on the 11th of September, 2007 an antisemitic incident occurred whereby Frankfurt Rabbi, Zalman Gurevitch, was stabbed repeatedly, the attacker subsequently threatening in German "I'll kill you, you (expletive) Jew." In 2005 the UK Parliament set up an all-party inquiry into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. The inquiry stated that "until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the Jewish community and beyond [had been] that antisemitism had receded to the point that it existed only on the margins of society." It found a reversal of this progress since 2000. It aimed to investigate the problem, identify the sources of contemporary antisemitism and make recommendations to improve the situation. On January 1,, 2006, Britain's chief rabbi, Sir Jonathan Sacks, warned that what he called a "tsunami of antisemitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC's Radio Four, Sacks said: "A number of my rabbinical colleagues throughout Europe have been assaulted and attacked on the streets. We've had synagogues desecrated. We've had Jewish schools burnt to the ground - not here but in France. People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because ... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making ... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable." Gillan, Audrey. "Chief rabbi fears 'tsunami' of hatred", Guardian, January 2, 2006. France is home to Western Europe’s largest Muslim population (about 4 million) as well as the continent’s largest Jewish community (about 600,000). Jewish leaders decry an intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of Arab or African heritage, but also growing among Caribbean islanders from former French colonies. Jews for Le Pen by Daniel Ben-Simon. Haaretz. 25/03/07 However, it is Muslims rather than Jews who can expect to suffer more from bigotry in France, stated Holocaust survivor and former French cabinet minister Simone Veil. "Let's not exaggerate," she said. While noting that radical Islamists are behind some violent incidents against Jews in certain French neighbourhoods, "Anti-Arab sentiment is much stronger in France than anti-Semitism." France's Jewish community is much more integrated than its 5 to 6 million Muslims, she noted, claiming Muslim youth are moved by a militant and anti-Jewish hierarchy. Former Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy denounced the killing of Ilan Halimi on 13 February 2006 as an antisemitic crime. Independent voices, including leading Jewish philanthropist Baron Eric de Rothschild who received an honorary doctorate from Hebrew University, suggest that the extent of antisemitism in Europe has been exaggerated. In an interview with the Jerusalem Post he says that "some of the complaints emanating from Israel about the treatment of French Jews amount to 'an element of schadenfreude (taking pleasure at another's misfortune) on the part of those who have already made aliya: When the cousins come over, they say, It's terrible [in France] - you have to come to Israel." About France he says: "People are in fact philo-Semitic in the government, mayors, to an extent which goes beyond pure electoral calculations" and "the one thing you can't say is that France is an anti-Semitic country." Krieger, Leila Hilary. "Rothschild: France not anti-Semitic". Jerusalem Post, Jun. 15, 2006 Middle East According to the Pew Global Attitudes Project released on August 14, 2005, high percentages of the populations of six Muslim-majority countries have negative views of Jews. To a questionnaire asking respondents to give their views of members of various religions along a spectrum from "very favorable" to "very unfavorable," 60% of Turks, 88% of Moroccans, 99% of Lebanese Muslims and 100% of Jordanians checked either "somewhat unfavorable" or "very unfavorable" for Jews. PEW Globel Attitudes Report statistics on how the world views different religious groups In the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders — for instance, comparing Israel's treatment of the Palestinians to Nazi Germany's treatment of Jews. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries. In Egypt, Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of Henry Ford's antisemitic treatise, The International Jew, complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover. Examples of anti-Semitism in the Arab and Muslim world on intelligence.org.il, site of the Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center at the Center for Special Studies (C.S.S), Israel. Accessed 24 September 2006. The Saudi Arabian government website initially stated that Jews would not be granted tourist visas to enter the country. "Official Saudi Arabia Tourism Website: No Jews Allowed. 'Jewish People' May Not Receive Travel Visas Required To Travel Into The Kingdom" by Congressman Anthony D. Weiner (D-Queens & Brooklyn) February 26, 2004 "Jews barred in Saudi tourist drive" (BBC) February 27, 2004. It has since removed this statement, and apologized for posting "erroneous information". Members of religions other than Islam, including Jews, are not permitted to practice their religion publicly in Saudi Arabia; Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that "the Jews" are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as factual. CMIP report: "The Jews in World History according to the Saudi textbooks". The Danger of World Jewry, by Abdullah al-Tall, pp. 140–141 (Arabic). Hadith and Islamic Culture, Grade 10, (2001) pp. 103–104. 2006 Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerance, Report by Center for Religious Freedom of Freedom House. 2006 In 2001, Arab Radio and Television of Saudi Arabia produced a 30-part television miniseries entitled "Horseman Without a Horse", a dramatization of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. ADL One Saudi Arabian government newspaper suggested that hatred of all Jews is justifiable. Al-Riyadh, Saudi government daily, April 15, 2002, Turki 'Abdallah as-Sudayri, All of History is against Them Saudi textbooks vilify Jews (and Christians and non-Wahabi Muslims): according to the May 21, 2006 issue of The Washington Post, Saudi textbooks claimed by them to have been sanitized of antisemitism still call Jews apes (and Christians swine); demand that students avoid and not befriend Jews; claim that Jews worship the devil; and encourage Muslims to engage in Jihad to vanquish Jews. Shea, Nina. "This is a Saudi textbook. (After the intolerance was removed.)", The Washington Post, May 21, 2006, p. B01. Al-Manar recently aired a drama series, called The Diaspora, which observers allege is based on historical antisemitic allegations. BBC reporters who watched the series said that correspondents who have viewed The Diaspora note that it quotes extensively from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a notorious 19th century publication used by the Nazis among others to fuel race hatred. BBC NEWS | World | Europe | France offers 'hate TV' reprieve Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians. Bernard Lewis. The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press, 1984, page 33. Aluma Solnick. Based on Koranic Verses, Interpretations, and Traditions, Muslim Clerics State: The Jews Are the Descendants of Apes, Pigs, And Other Animals. MEMRI Special Report - No. 11, November 1, 2002 Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais is the leading imam of the Grand mosque located in the Islamic holy city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Neil J. Kressel. "The Urgent Need to Study Islamic Anti-Semitism", The Chronicle of Higher Education, The Chronical Review, March 12, 2004. Tom Gross, "Living in a Bubble: The BBC’s very own Mideast foreign policy"., National Review, June 18, 2004. The BBC aired a Panorama episode, entitled A Question of Leadership, which reported that al-Sudais referred to Jews as "the scum of the human race" and "offspring of apes and pigs", and stated, "the worst [...] of the enemies of Islam are those [...] whom he [...] made monkeys and pigs, the aggressive Jews and oppressive Zionists and those that follow them [...] Monkeys and pigs and worshippers of false Gods who are the Jews and the Zionists." In another sermon, on April 19, 2002, he declared that Jews are "evil offspring, infidels, distorters of [others'] words, calf-worshippers, prophet-murderers, prophecy-deniers [...] the scum of the human race whom Allah cursed and turned into apes and pigs [...]" "Jews In The Koran And Early Islamic Traditions" by Dr. Leah Kinberg. Lecture delivered in May 2003, Monash University, Melbourne, quoting On December 11, 2006 the "International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust" opened in Tehran, Iran with widespread condemnation. "Iran hosts Holocaust conference". CNN. Accessed 27-12-2006. The conference, called for by and held at the behest of Ahmadinejad, was widely described as a "Holocaust denial conference" or a "meeting of Holocaust deniers", "Across Europe, outrage over meeting of Holocaust deniers in Iran". International Herald Tribune. Accessed 11-12-2006. "Holocaust deniers gather in Iran for 'scientific' conference". The Guardian. Accessed 11-12-2006. "Holocaust Deniers and Skeptics Gather in Iran", The New York Times. Accessed 11-12-2006. "Iran students rebel over Holocaust denial." United Press International. Accessed 12-12-2006. "Iran Further Isolates Itself with 'Holocaust Denial'" Weekend Edition, National Public Radio. Accessed 17-12-2006. "Statement on Holocaust Denial Conference Sponsored by Iranian Regime", The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, December 12, 2006. though Iran has said that it was not a Holocaust denial conference. "Berlin Counters Holocaust Conference" Spiegel Online. Accessed 27-12-2006. On May 5, 2001, after Shimon Peres visited Egypt, the Egyptian al-Akhbar internet paper stated that: "lies and deceit are not foreign to Jews[...]. For this reason, Allah changed their shape and made them into monkeys and pigs." Anti-Semitism in the Egyptian Media: February 2001 - February 2002, "Classic Anti-Semitic Stereotypes", Anti Defamation League. Accessed March 4, 2007. In Israel, Zalman Gilichenski has warned about the spread of antisemitism among immigrants from Russia in the last decade. See his website and by example Israel's nightmare: Homegrown neo-Nazis in the Holy Land, The Independent, London, 2007-10-09 See also 1968 Polish political crisis Anti-globalization and antisemitism Anti-Judaism Anti-Semite and Jew Anti-Zionism Antisemitic canard Antisemitism around the world Antisemitism in Europe (Middle Ages) Antisemitism in the Arab world Blood libel Christianity and antisemitism Criticism of Judaism Dreyfus affair Farhud General Order No. 11 (1862) Heroes of the Fiery Cross History of antisemitism Holocaust denial Host desecration Islam and antisemitism The Ku Klux Klan In Prophecy May Laws Nazi propaganda Nazism New antisemitism Persecution of Jews Philo-Semitism Racial policy of Nazi Germany Secondary antisemitism Self-hating Jew Semiticization Timeline of antisemitism Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944-1946 Zionist Occupation Government Unification Church and antisemitism </div> Notes References Bodansky, Yossef. Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument, Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999. Carr, Steven Alan. Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II, Cambridge University Press 2001. Chanes, Jerome A. Antisemitism: A Reference Handbook, ABC-CLIO, 2004. Cohn, Norman. Warrant for Genocide, Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996. Falk, Avner. Anti-Semitism: The History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred. Wesport, Connecticut, Praeger, 2008. ISBN 9780313353840. Freudmann, Lillian C. Antisemitism in the New Testament, University Press of America, 1994. Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7 Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes. Johnson, Paul: A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987) ISBN 0-06-091533-1 Laqueur, Walter. The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530429-2 Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8 Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7 Lipstadt, Deborah. Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, Penguin, 1994. McKain, Mark. Anti-Semitism: At Issue, Greenhaven Press, 2005. Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of Antisemitism, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007 Perry, Marvin and Frederick Schweitzer. Anti-Semitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present. Palgrave Macmillan. 2002. Poliakov, Leon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8 Prager, Dennis, Telushkin, Joseph. Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism. Touchstone (reprint), 1985. Roth, Philip. The Plot Against America, 2004 Selzer, Michael (ed). "Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America, New York 1972. Steinweis, Alan E. Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X. Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0 Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online Anti-semitism entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901-1906 ed. Further reading List of Anti-Semitic Attacks Worldwide in 2007 List of Anti-Semitic Attacks Worldwide in 2006 Anti-Semitism Multimedia AJC Survey of Anti-Semitism, Roots and Responses Global Anti-Semitism (ADL compilation of modern day anti-semitism happening around the world.) "Experts explore effects of Ahmadinejad anti-Semitism", Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles, March 9, 2007 Arab Antisemitism Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism Stav, Arieh (1999). Peace: The Arabian Caricature - A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-215-X Falk, Avner. (2008). Anti-Semitism: The History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred. Wesport, Connecticut, Praeger, ISBN 9780313353840 Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today) Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA) Anti-Semitism and responses The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary anti-Semitism and Racism hosted by the Tel Aviv University - (includes an annual report) Jews, the End of the Vertical Alliance, and Contemporary Antisemitism An Israeli point of view on antisemitism, by Steve Plaut Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports State University of New York at Buffalo, The Jedwabne Tragedy Jews in Poland today Anti-Defamation League's report on International Anti-Semitism The Middle East Media Research Institute - documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media. Judeophobia: A short course on the history of anti-Semitism at Zionism and Israel Information Center. If Not Together, How?: Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists. Vintage Postcards with an Anti-Jewish theme What makes an anti-Semite? Dina Porat, Haaretz, January 27, 2007 "Post Modern" Post-Modern Anti-Semitism: Part I Judeophobia: Anti-Judaism, Anti-Semitism, Anti-Zionism An Attempt to Identify the Root Cause of Antisemitism by A.B. Yehoshua, Azure, Spring 2008. External links Why the Jews? Real Causes or mere excuses? United States Holocaust Memorial Museum - Special Focus: Antisemitism; and Encyclopedia 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Antisemitism and anti-Israelism Antisemitism measuring 2,000 Year Timeline of Jewish Persecution What is Left Anti-Semitism? Voices of the Holocaust - a learning resource from the British Library A course on Judeophobia Tel Aviv University on antisemitism 2006 UK Parliamentary Inquiry into antisemitism The New Anti-Judaism - according to Professor Irwin Cotler, Dr. Rivka Shafek Lissak Antisemitism in modern Ukraine Yale Initiative for the Interdisciplinary Study of Antisemitism Human Rights First Antisemitism Program | Antisemitism |@lemmatized antisemitism:141 also:26 spell:1 anti:127 semitism:68 know:12 judeophobia:4 term:16 use:30 describe:5 prejudice:11 hostility:4 towards:8 jew:299 often:8 root:5 hatred:18 religious:21 cultural:3 ethnic:1 background:1 etymology:3 might:1 suggest:5 direct:4 semitic:24 people:24 exclusively:2 refer:3 toward:8 since:12 initial:1 usage:9 never:4 anywhere:1 concern:5 anyone:3 lewis:29 bernard:11 semite:6 antisemites:7 islam:25 history:22 idea:7 men:4 event:6 middle:19 east:11 library:2 press:26 see:27 example:15 encyclopaedia:3 britannica:3 johnson:2 paul:7 harperperennial:1 p:45 ff:1 new:55 american:13 scholar:16 volume:5 winter:3 pp:27 paper:5 base:7 lecture:4 deliver:5 brandeis:3 university:31 march:17 may:15 manifest:3 many:24 way:9 range:2 individual:6 expression:2 discrimination:6 organize:2 violent:4 attack:26 mob:7 even:10 state:46 police:3 military:2 entire:2 jewish:151 community:18 extreme:1 instance:2 persecution:11 include:21 first:25 crusade:7 expulsion:6 england:2 spanish:2 inquisition:1 spain:5 portugal:2 various:7 pogrom:5 perhaps:1 infamous:2 holocaust:37 adolf:4 hitler:4 nazi:27 germany:26 form:7 roman:20 catholic:11 historian:7 edward:6 flannery:4 distinguish:1 four:5 variety:1 h:2 anguish:2 twenty:3 three:4 century:55 stimulus:2 book:13 publish:12 edition:8 political:11 economic:4 give:6 cicero:1 charles:5 lindbergh:3 theological:2 sometimes:3 judaism:19 nationalistic:2 cite:8 voltaire:1 enlightenment:1 thinker:1 supposedly:1 certain:5 characteristic:2 greed:1 arrogance:1 observe:5 custom:2 kashrut:1 shabbat:2 racial:12 practice:14 addition:2 writer:4 claim:21 identify:5 come:8 simultaneously:2 far:15 left:3 right:18 radical:3 tend:3 focus:4 opposition:5 zionism:9 homeland:2 israel:32 deploy:1 traditional:3 motif:2 chesler:2 phyllis:2 current:6 crisis:5 must:3 jossey:2 bass:2 kinsella:2 warren:2 access:22 predict:2 record:3 level:4 hate:9 militant:4 islamic:27 medium:8 accuse:15 stir:2 wave:2 guardian:4 august:5 endelman:1 todd:1 western:3 europe:29 today:9 contemporary:14 canada:1 world:36 toronto:1 matas:1 david:6 aftershock:1 dundurn:1 despite:8 prefix:1 directly:1 oppose:4 unlike:1 similar:4 seeming:1 refers:2 specifically:7 alone:1 general:8 http:6 www:6 merriam:1 webster:1 com:4 dictionary:4 fact:7 speaker:2 language:6 e:18 g:10 arab:28 assyrian:1 speak:9 time:27 origin:2 yiddish:3 ladino:1 indo:1 european:11 common:5 argument:1 prefer:2 major:2 hyphenated:1 scholarly:2 divide:1 favor:1 unhyphenated:1 avoid:2 possible:3 confusion:1 involve:4 whether:3 whole:2 bauer:5 yehuda:5 franklin:2 watt:1 isbn:20 almog:1 shmuel:1 hyphen:1 sicsa:2 report:17 newsletter:1 vidal:1 sassoon:1 international:9 center:14 study:21 summer:1 cover:3 page:7 marr:6 victory:4 germanicism:1 word:17 antisemitic:36 german:19 probably:1 austrian:1 moritz:1 steinschneider:2 phrase:2 alex:2 bein:2 question:7 biography:2 problem:6 fairleigh:2 dickinson:2 characterize:3 ernest:3 renan:2 race:12 inferior:5 aryan:1 pseudo:1 scientific:2 theory:2 civilization:1 progress:2 become:7 quite:2 widespread:4 second:6 half:3 especially:8 prussian:2 heinrich:1 von:1 treitschke:2 much:6 promote:6 racism:6 writing:6 synonymous:1 contrast:1 others:10 journalist:1 wilhelm:5 pamphlet:5 spirit:7 germanic:2 non:11 perspective:3 der:6 sieg:2 de:8 judenthums:2 über:2 das:3 germanenthum:2 vom:2 nicht:2 confessionellen:2 standpunkt:2 au:2 betrachtet:2 semitismus:3 interchangeably:1 judentum:1 denote:1 jewry:4 collective:5 jewishness:3 quality:4 although:6 antisemitismus:2 coining:1 latter:5 follow:5 naturally:2 indicate:1 either:5 else:2 oppositon:1 saw:6 infiltrating:1 culture:8 rudolph:1 costenoble:1 archive:3 org:3 next:2 develop:4 coin:2 related:3 derive:1 earlier:3 popular:2 year:14 found:5 league:5 antisemiten:3 liga:2 organization:4 commit:6 combat:1 allege:3 threat:1 pose:1 influence:3 advocate:2 force:9 removal:1 country:19 ascertain:1 widely:2 print:1 zwanglose:1 antisemitische:1 hefte:1 scherer:1 january:8 issue:8 neue:2 freie:1 presse:1 around:7 definition:10 caricature:2 c:6 léandre:1 france:17 though:5 number:15 authority:6 formal:1 city:9 york:11 professor:5 helen:1 fein:2 defines:2 persisting:1 latent:1 structure:2 hostile:5 belief:4 attitude:8 myth:4 ideology:3 folklore:1 imagery:4 action:5 social:8 legal:4 mobilization:1 violence:12 result:6 design:1 distance:1 displace:1 destroy:6 dietz:1 bering:1 cologne:1 expand:2 partially:2 totally:1 bad:11 nature:3 trait:1 incorrigible:1 remain:3 essentially:1 alien:3 surrounding:1 society:11 bring:2 disaster:1 host:10 secretly:3 therefore:7 feel:3 oblige:3 unmask:1 conspiratorial:1 character:1 define:5 special:4 case:6 different:6 rest:2 accord:28 mark:8 two:9 distinct:3 feature:4 judge:2 standard:6 apply:4 cosmic:2 evil:4 thus:4 perfectly:1 persecute:4 without:5 necessarily:1 unless:4 display:1 one:28 specific:1 effort:5 governmental:1 body:2 formally:1 united:13 department:5 global:9 individually:1 group:14 attribute:7 religion:15 ethnicity:2 ref:2 name:3 usds:1 gov:1 drl:1 rls:1 htm:1 u:16 monitoring:2 centre:2 xenophobia:3 eumc:5 union:3 detailed:2 discussion:3 perception:1 express:2 rhetorical:1 physical:3 manifestation:3 property:2 institution:3 facility:1 could:8 target:3 conceive:1 collectivity:1 frequently:7 charge:2 conspire:3 harm:1 humanity:2 blame:6 thing:5 go:15 wrong:2 list:3 public:9 life:12 school:5 workplace:1 sphere:1 make:9 mendacious:1 dehumanize:2 demonize:3 stereotypical:1 allegation:3 responsible:6 real:3 imagined:1 wrongdoing:2 single:3 person:4 deny:7 citizen:3 loyal:1 alleged:3 priority:1 worldwide:4 interest:4 nation:9 discuss:3 self:5 determination:1 existence:1 racist:2 endeavor:1 double:1 require:2 behavior:1 expect:2 demand:2 democratic:1 symbol:5 image:4 associate:5 classic:2 kill:21 jesus:35 blood:8 libel:6 israeli:8 draw:3 comparison:1 policy:9 hold:13 collectively:4 add:1 criticism:5 cannot:3 regard:5 long:4 work:6 encourage:3 additional:2 forum:3 commission:4 translation:2 numerous:4 paris:1 election:1 poster:1 candidat:1 antisémite:1 adolphe:1 willette:1 enemy:4 evolution:1 identification:1 antisemite:3 politically:1 advantageous:1 karl:3 lueger:5 mayor:4 fin:2 siècle:2 vienna:3 skillfully:1 exploited:1 channel:2 discontent:1 advantage:1 richard:4 geehr:1 wayne:2 detroit:2 obituary:1 note:7 chairman:2 christian:48 parliament:2 diet:1 low:2 austria:7 dr:5 dead:2 leader:7 old:8 cuza:1 alliance:2 semitique:1 universelle:1 bucharest:1 period:10 war:15 ii:12 animosity:3 commonplace:1 uncommon:1 party:6 early:17 zionist:9 pioneer:2 judah:1 leib:1 pinsker:1 write:13 say:26 inherited:1 predisposition:1 aftermath:1 kristallnacht:2 goebbels:1 announce:3 desire:2 restrict:2 provoke:1 future:2 parasite:2 daily:3 telegraph:1 november:3 gilbert:7 martin:9 prelude:1 destruction:6 harper:1 collins:1 rise:4 power:3 particularly:3 extent:5 genocide:3 acquire:1 pejorative:3 connotation:1 full:2 circle:1 shift:1 era:1 decade:3 jacob:1 rader:1 marcus:1 nobody:1 fashion:2 ancient:4 leo:2 eitinger:1 oslo:1 nansen:1 committee:4 jocelyn:1 hellig:1 short:2 oneworld:1 publication:4 antipathy:1 abundant:1 statement:10 exhibit:1 find:13 pagan:3 greek:4 daniel:2 j:3 l:3 hellenistic:1 jbl:1 ruler:3 desecrate:2 temple:4 ban:14 circumcision:3 observance:2 etc:3 riot:2 alexandria:3 bce:2 philo:3 ce:5 thousand:6 die:5 diaspora:4 nile:1 island:3 elephantine:1 mercenary:1 experience:4 colpe:1 carsten:1 berlin:5 brill:8 pauly:1 antiquity:2 volumes:1 edit:2 hubert:1 cancik:1 helmuth:1 schneider:1 online:5 april:8 relationship:1 occupy:3 empire:9 antagonistic:2 several:12 rebellion:1 suetonius:1 emperor:2 tiberius:1 expel:4 rome:2 live:7 english:2 gibbon:2 tolerant:2 beginning:4 james:2 carroll:2 account:2 total:1 population:8 ratio:1 factor:3 conversion:11 intervene:1 would:11 million:8 instead:2 something:2 like:4 constantine:3 sword:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 explain:2 part:17 iii:2 insecure:1 dennis:2 prager:2 age:9 medieval:10 classify:2 dhimmi:1 allow:4 freely:1 rule:5 golden:1 last:6 least:1 muslim:67 take:7 place:6 iberian:2 peninsula:3 occur:3 córdoba:1 granada:7 schweitzer:5 perry:5 gottheil:2 meyer:2 kayserling:2 encyclopedia:13 ed:9 harzig:1 hoerder:1 shubert:1 decree:1 order:7 synagogue:10 enact:1 egypt:3 syria:1 iraq:2 yemen:3 qur:26 prohibition:2 convert:11 face:6 death:19 morocco:6 baghdad:4 treatment:4 almohads:2 control:5 almoravid:1 maghribi:1 andalusian:1 territory:1 encyclopædia:2 retrieve:5 september:9 fundamentalist:1 outlook:1 treat:2 dhimmis:5 harshly:1 choice:3 emigrate:1 frank:2 leaman:1 forgotten:1 refugees:1 family:5 maimonides:1 flee:3 land:5 northward:1 settle:1 grow:5 kingdom:3 increasingly:4 christianity:12 sephardim:1 kraemer:1 massacre:12 main:3 justification:2 hit:2 peak:2 flourish:2 rhine:1 danube:1 subject:8 shepherd:2 banishing:1 expelled:1 poland:8 black:3 epidemic:2 devastate:2 mid:2 annihilate:1 scapegoat:3 rumor:1 spread:5 cause:9 disease:3 deliberately:2 poison:1 well:6 hundred:3 pope:5 clement:1 vi:4 try:2 protect:4 july:4 papal:2 bull:2 month:1 later:5 burnt:1 alive:2 strasbourg:1 plague:1 yet:2 affect:1 seventeenth:2 late:8 polish:4 lithuanian:1 commonwealth:2 conflict:8 lose:2 third:4 loss:1 count:1 chmielnicki:2 uprise:1 bohdan:1 khmelnytsky:1 cossack:3 ten:4 eastern:5 southern:1 area:3 ukraine:3 precise:1 decrease:2 estimate:1 emigration:1 jasyr:1 captivity:1 ottoman:6 bogdan:2 chmelnitzki:1 lead:8 uprising:1 timeline:3 cbs:1 news:4 murder:10 throughout:7 soldier:2 rampage:1 journey:1 traveling:1 search:1 past:3 columbia:1 eighteenth:1 frederick:2 prussia:1 limit:2 breslau:1 call:13 revidiertes:1 privilegium:1 und:1 reglement:1 vor:1 judenschaft:1 alternative:1 abstain:1 marriage:2 leave:4 quote:5 simon:6 dubnow:1 archduchess:1 maria:1 theresa:1 bohemia:1 soon:1 reverse:1 position:5 condition:3 jews:10 pay:2 readmission:1 every:4 extortion:1 malke:1 geld:1 queen:2 money:3 introduce:1 law:12 son:7 joseph:4 abolish:1 toleranzpatent:1 hebrew:4 eliminate:1 judicial:1 autonomy:1 annul:1 moses:4 mendelssohn:2 tolerance:5 dangerous:1 play:6 open:2 empress:1 russia:5 catherine:1 pale:1 settlement:1 stay:1 shtetls:1 forbid:3 return:1 town:3 partition:1 virtual:1 tour:1 rebecca:1 weiner:2 nineteenth:5 worsen:2 benny:3 morris:5 degradation:2 phenomenon:3 stone:5 throwing:2 child:7 traveler:2 little:6 fellow:2 six:5 troop:2 fat:3 toddler:2 teach:9 throw:2 urchin:2 great:10 coolness:2 waddle:2 man:2 literally:2 spit:2 upon:2 gaberdine:2 submit:2 worth:2 offer:4 strike:3 mahommedan:2 composer:2 wagner:2 judenthum:1 musik:2 music:1 pseudonym:1 zeitschrift:1 für:3 essay:2 begin:4 rival:2 felix:1 giacomo:1 meyerbeer:1 harmful:1 element:3 dreyfus:7 affair:5 highlight:1 alfred:1 artillery:1 captain:1 french:8 army:2 pass:1 secret:1 convict:3 sentence:1 imprisonment:1 devil:6 actual:1 spy:1 marie:1 esterhazy:1 acquit:1 uproar:1 among:15 everyone:1 choose:2 side:2 actually:2 guilty:2 emile:1 zola:1 pollute:2 justice:1 system:2 however:9 consensus:1 eighty:1 percent:6 condemn:3 majority:5 reveal:1 underlie:1 rapport:1 michael:6 palgrave:2 macmillan:3 stoecker:3 lutheran:4 court:3 chaplain:1 kaiser:1 antiliberal:1 attract:1 vote:1 depression:1 hard:1 harold:1 green:1 portrait:1 demagogue:1 politics:1 jeremy:2 telman:1 mission:1 twentieth:2 russian:1 tsar:1 stop:3 cruel:2 oppression:1 usa:1 discriminate:1 employment:1 residential:1 resort:1 membership:1 club:1 tightened:1 quota:1 enrollment:1 college:3 lynching:1 prominent:4 marietta:1 georgia:1 turn:2 spotlight:1 build:2 support:5 renewal:1 ku:2 klux:2 klan:2 inactive:1 beilis:1 trial:3 represent:4 incident:8 unproven:1 rumour:2 america:11 reach:2 interwar:1 automobile:1 manufacturer:1 henry:2 ford:2 propagate:1 newspaper:3 dearborn:1 independent:3 radio:4 speech:1 father:15 coughlin:1 attacked:1 roosevelt:2 deal:3 notion:2 financial:2 conspiracy:3 view:14 share:1 politician:1 louis:1 mcfadden:1 house:10 banking:1 currency:1 president:2 decision:1 abandon:1 gold:1 gentile:8 slip:1 lawful:1 depiction:2 capitalist:1 communist:3 wander:1 aviator:1 involvement:3 fascism:1 visit:2 letter:2 intelligent:1 leadership:2 generally:2 recognize:3 bund:3 parade:1 uniform:1 worn:1 flags:1 swastika:1 raise:4 alongside:2 flag:1 un:2 activity:1 huac:1 active:1 ability:1 operate:1 start:2 member:7 internment:1 camp:1 deport:1 end:7 business:1 loot:2 burn:6 oppressive:2 denial:9 basic:1 civil:5 escalate:1 campaign:2 mass:1 culminate:2 saul:3 friedlander:1 extermination:2 london:2 phoenix:1 eleven:1 eventually:1 wolfgang:2 benz:1 dimension:2 volksmords:1 zahl:1 jüdischen:1 opfer:1 nationalsozialismus:1 munich:1 deutscher:1 taschebuch:1 verlag:1 gutman:1 reference:7 october:3 dawidowicz:1 lucy:1 holt:1 rinehart:1 winston:1 culmination:1 generation:1 commonly:1 instrument:2 personal:1 soviet:1 stalin:1 trotsky:1 continue:5 official:8 propaganda:6 ussr:1 height:1 rootless:1 cosmopolitan:1 euphemism:1 poet:1 painter:1 sculptor:1 arrest:3 doctor:1 plot:3 flight:1 survivor:2 kielce:1 theme:3 behind:4 postwar:1 cult:1 trent:2 disband:1 shrine:1 erect:1 dismantle:1 remove:4 calendar:2 veneration:1 forbidden:5 handful:1 extremist:2 still:5 narrative:1 imply:3 version:3 change:5 faith:1 liturgical:1 exclusion:1 christianized:1 marrano:1 practise:2 minority:2 portrayed:1 reject:4 god:18 truth:6 alternately:1 peace:3 testament:19 largely:1 author:1 within:5 context:4 progressively:1 tone:1 gospel:2 john:3 text:6 episode:2 contain:3 manner:1 repeatedly:3 employ:1 purpose:3 verse:6 speaks:2 suffer:3 hand:7 countryman:1 church:14 judea:2 displease:1 prevent:2 message:3 sectarian:1 difference:3 communication:2 entry:5 torah:2 phinehas:1 model:2 zealot:4 threaten:3 slay:3 uncircumcised:2 listen:2 discourse:3 undergo:1 rite:1 comp:1 sanh:1 sifre:1 deut:1 refuse:3 instantly:1 receive:6 sicarii:1 bet:2 hillel:1 shammai:1 explains:1 inflame:1 shammaites:4 propose:1 prohibit:3 buy:1 article:5 food:2 drink:2 heathen:1 neighbor:1 hillelites:3 moderate:1 agree:2 sharply:1 defined:1 exclusiveness:1 sanhedrin:1 together:4 consider:6 propriety:1 measure:3 aid:1 gain:3 day:9 eleazar:1 ben:2 ananias:1 invite:2 disciple:3 meet:1 arm:2 station:1 door:2 instruct:2 permit:3 enter:3 carry:2 circumstance:2 remainder:1 adopt:3 restrictive:1 proposition:1 talmud:1 eighteen:1 attend:1 enactment:2 radicalism:1 triumph:1 thereafter:1 misfortune:2 tosef:1 shab:3 et:1 seq:1 yer:1 create:2 significant:2 debate:3 contradict:1 revulsion:1 pharisee:2 richardson:2 guard:1 allegedly:1 ill:1 high:9 priest:1 source:5 wandering:1 doom:2 punishment:2 endless:1 roaming:1 suffering:2 brutal:1 mockery:2 pontius:2 pilate:2 entirely:1 killing:5 nail:1 cross:4 present:9 mock:2 speculate:1 unnamed:1 speculation:1 overall:2 impression:1 execution:2 attest:1 process:1 believe:8 traceable:1 select:1 passage:6 apostolic:1 judgement:2 parallel:1 effect:2 nevus:1 im:1 prophet:8 jeremiah:2 deportation:1 jerusalem:9 babylonian:1 nebuchadrezzar:1 bc:1 follower:7 luke:1 act:4 traditionally:4 nevertheless:2 notably:1 speaking:1 descendant:3 abraham:4 seek:2 hear:3 answer:2 murderer:2 nothing:2 lie:7 liar:2 tell:2 sin:3 reason:6 stephen:6 council:11 stiff:1 necked:1 heart:2 ear:1 always:2 resist:1 holy:5 beforehand:1 righteous:3 betray:1 angel:2 keep:2 rsv:2 behold:2 satan:2 bow:1 foot:1 learn:2 love:1 christ:3 antichrist:1 whoever:1 acknowledge:1 biblical:1 point:4 broad:2 accusation:4 borrow:1 peter:4 covenant:3 establish:3 render:1 obsolete:1 respect:2 supersede:1 teaching:3 variation:2 supersessionism:1 dietary:1 failure:2 matter:1 controversy:1 dispute:1 judas:1 iscariot:1 governor:1 along:3 vary:2 degree:2 outside:2 portray:2 occasionally:1 execute:1 put:3 prison:1 whip:1 atwill:1 interview:4 codex:1 sinaiticus:1 extra:2 hermas:1 epistle:3 barnabas:3 bible:3 bart:1 ehrman:1 subsequent:1 worse:1 influential:1 dialogue:1 justin:1 martyr:1 homily:1 chrysostom:1 testimony:2 cyprian:1 strongly:1 celebration:2 easter:1 nicaea:1 appear:8 unworthy:1 feast:1 impiously:1 defile:1 enormous:1 deservedly:1 afflict:1 blindness:1 soul:1 let:3 detestable:1 crowd:3 saviour:1 eusebius:1 formalize:1 code:2 theodosius:1 justinian:1 strip:1 sixth:1 seventh:1 orleans:1 enforce:1 provision:2 restriction:3 elvira:1 andalucia:1 woman:2 marry:1 catholicism:3 extend:2 hospitality:1 concubine:1 bless:1 field:1 iberia:1 toledo:2 bear:2 baptize:1 twelfth:1 forced:2 initiate:2 liber:1 judicum:1 roth:11 norman:4 visigoth:1 academic:2 renaissance:1 dogma:2 clergy:2 originate:1 melito:1 sardis:1 socio:2 local:5 close:1 profession:2 push:2 occupation:6 socially:1 accounting:1 rent:1 collecting:1 moneylending:1 tolerate:3 necessary:1 paley:1 susan:1 koesters:1 adrian:1 stéphane:1 barry:1 norbert:1 gualde:1 la:1 plus:1 grande:1 épidémie:1 histoire:2 magazine:3 n:2 june:5 frankfurt:5 judensau:3 sow:2 derogatory:1 popularity:1 revive:2 typically:1 obscene:1 contact:1 unclean:1 animal:5 pig:8 owl:1 cathedral:1 ceiling:1 pillar:2 utensil:2 etching:1 combine:1 derisive:1 prose:1 poetry:1 dozen:2 judensaus:1 intersect:1 portrayal:2 killer:2 illustration:2 blend:1 crucifixion:3 engrave:1 cohen:5 dress:1 look:2 mount:1 backward:1 tail:1 suck:1 milk:1 eat:1 feces:1 horned:1 wear:1 badge:1 butchered:1 splay:1 panel:1 passion:3 big:1 screen:1 oxford:4 shakespeare:2 merchant:1 venice:1 romantic:1 comedy:1 villain:1 shylock:3 moneylender:1 street:3 daughter:1 elope:1 compulsorily:1 profound:1 implication:1 beyond:4 bradley:1 berens:1 story:3 jephonias:1 transitus:1 dormitio:1 virginis:1 original:3 overturn:1 mary:1 funeral:1 bier:1 simply:1 cut:1 description:1 denying:1 privilege:1 woodcut:1 show:3 desecration:3 bleed:1 pierce:1 occasion:1 false:2 eucharist:1 wide:1 exclude:1 trade:2 determine:1 compete:1 bar:2 lending:1 peddling:1 branford:1 clarke:1 hero:2 fiery:2 bishop:2 alma:1 white:4 fire:2 zarephath:1 nj:1 incorporate:1 strong:4 increase:6 attempt:3 separate:1 ground:5 pius:1 vii:1 wall:2 ghetto:2 rebuilt:1 release:4 napoleon:1 additionally:1 jesuit:1 candidate:1 descend:2 clear:1 grandfather:2 belong:1 brown:1 kertzer:3 vatican:2 argue:6 adhere:1 distinction:1 good:5 kind:6 descent:1 intend:2 regardless:1 criticize:4 bank:1 care:1 accumulation:1 wealth:2 remind:1 critic:2 relation:3 rabbi:7 dalin:1 weekly:1 evidence:1 selectively:1 nostra:2 aetate:2 document:4 help:2 reconcile:1 recent:3 luther:6 moral:1 righteousness:1 fault:1 robert:5 encounter:2 autumn:1 evangelical:1 large:7 denomination:1 federation:2 publicly:2 controversial:1 dabru:1 emet:1 nazism:3 participate:1 sympathetic:1 atrocity:2 protest:1 sufficiently:1 inevitable:1 outcome:1 deicide:5 canard:2 milestone:1 pier:1 francesco:1 fumagalli:1 interpretation:3 powerful:1 warrant:2 dramatic:1 staging:1 historically:2 remembrance:1 lent:1 polemical:1 depict:1 assume:1 eternal:1 guilt:1 boston:4 globe:2 prompt:1 vicious:1 pogroms:1 sennott:1 muslims:4 varies:1 depend:1 claude:3 cahen:4 shelomo:3 dov:3 goitein:3 mediterranean:1 abrudgment:1 dhimma:1 sporadic:1 rather:3 endemic:2 rarely:3 movement:4 legitimately:1 leon:2 poliakov:5 walter:2 laqueur:5 jane:4 gerber:13 refusal:1 muhammad:13 qurʾān:1 engage:3 mainly:2 sinner:1 shape:3 uri:1 rubin:1 friends:1 anic:1 pg:1 glazov:1 jamie:2 symposium:1 koran:2 frontpagemag:1 preach:1 differentiates:1 conflicting:1 fundamentalism:1 arabian:5 medina:2 reportedly:2 accept:1 f:3 mecca:2 overthrow:1 sign:2 treaty:1 samuel:2 rosenblatt:2 cambridge:2 battle:2 tribe:2 treachery:1 wipe:1 esposito:1 severe:1 humility:1 humiliation:3 literature:2 rebelliousness:1 impotence:1 mighty:1 christendom:3 quranic:1 remember:1 ye:5 endure:1 beseech:1 thy:1 lord:1 produce:2 earth:1 groweth:1 pot:1 herb:1 cucumber:1 garlic:1 lentil:1 onion:1 exchange:1 shall:1 want:1 misery:1 wrath:1 allah:4 messenger:1 rebel:2 transgressing:1 interconfessional:1 strife:1 rivalry:1 achieve:1 salvation:1 blasphemously:1 ezra:1 fetter:1 vehement:1 enmity:1 arabic:4 alladhina:1 hadu:1 yahud:2 pervert:1 meaning:1 previously:1 sake:1 mendacity:1 usury:1 painful:1 credence:1 scheme:2 best:1 schemer:1 illusion:1 complete:2 accuses:1 obscure:1 perverting:1 scripture:1 educational:1 contrary:1 blasphemous:1 absurdity:1 true:2 felt:2 survival:1 fulfillment:1 restorer:1 distort:1 clash:3 arise:1 victorious:1 messiah:1 reproach:1 less:1 minor:1 importance:1 career:1 status:5 living:2 administer:1 internal:1 jizya:1 per:1 caput:1 tax:1 impose:1 free:2 adult:1 male:1 disability:2 highly:2 symbolic:1 degrading:1 requirement:1 distinctive:1 clothing:1 hadith:3 invent:1 enforcement:2 erratic:1 martyrdom:1 exile:1 compulsion:1 mostly:1 residence:2 notable:2 storm:1 royal:1 palace:1 crucify:1 vizier:1 ibn:5 naghrela:1 fell:2 forcibly:1 almohad:2 dynasty:2 al:10 andalus:2 stillman:6 away:1 confine:1 quarter:3 mellahs:1 voluntary:1 happen:3 north:2 africa:1 persia:1 pre:5 modern:13 key:1 role:3 continually:1 thread:1 embed:1 chapter:1 light:1 defeat:1 contempt:1 object:2 ridicule:1 cunning:1 vindictive:1 weak:1 ineffectual:1 cowardice:1 another:4 stereotype:2 propensity:1 trickery:1 deceit:2 polemicist:1 inherently:1 khaldun:2 mistreatment:1 dominant:1 renowned:1 climate:1 wickedness:1 slyness:1 insert:1 overtone:1 polemic:1 jahiz:1 deterioration:1 stock:1 due:1 excessive:1 inbreeding:1 hazm:2 exception:2 trace:1 sentiment:3 usually:1 flare:1 weakness:1 overstep:1 boundary:1 prescribe:1 moorish:1 abu:1 ishaq:1 chief:4 motivation:2 ore:1 fez:4 victim:2 vintage:2 differentiate:1 normal:2 government:9 consistent:1 aspect:1 sharia:1 counter:3 maintain:2 situation:3 pronounce:1 enjoy:1 protection:4 unavailable:1 capitulation:1 damascus:2 noble:1 festival:1 class:1 outrank:1 peasant:1 prostitute:1 equality:1 proclaim:1 cevdet:1 pasha:1 rank:2 whereas:3 former:5 armenian:1 content:1 supremacy:1 correctness:1 cl:1 ḏh:1 imma:1 bearman:2 th:2 bianquis:2 bosworth:2 van:2 donzel:2 w:5 heinrichs:2 xvii:1 nissim:1 rejwan:1 pluralist:1 florida:1 chazan:2 alan:3 davy:2 obvious:2 rich:1 melange:1 ethic:1 mean:1 lone:1 dissenter:1 polytheism:1 subsequently:3 lack:1 uniqueness:1 ameliorate:1 understood:1 exist:4 persian:1 mesh:1 burst:1 scroll:1 forcible:1 avert:1 dear:1 auntie:1 fori:1 harpercollins:2 barfurush:1 falsely:1 monk:1 servant:1 bake:1 passover:1 bread:1 matza:1 barber:1 torture:2 confess:1 save:1 libya:3 punitive:1 taxation:1 marrakech:1 morroco:1 tunis:1 home:2 store:1 jerba:1 demnat:1 elsewhere:1 daylight:1 ask:2 constantinople:1 arrive:1 ransack:1 tripolitania:1 handbook:2 conclude:1 arose:1 backdrop:1 nationalism:4 import:2 primarily:1 nationalistically:1 mind:3 islamize:1 taza:1 voice:3 front:1 almost:1 inspire:1 algeria:1 massive:1 farhud:2 pro:2 slaughter:6 george:3 gruen:2 increased:1 breakdown:1 domination:1 colonial:1 disproportionately:1 commercial:1 professional:1 administrative:1 region:2 whose:1 proponent:2 resentment:3 readiness:2 unpopular:1 regime:2 refugee:1 antagonism:1 british:4 mandate:1 palestine:2 terminology:2 minimization:2 overt:2 acceptance:3 sanctioned:2 historical:5 turkish:1 mein:1 kampf:1 protocol:5 elder:5 zion:5 audience:1 limited:1 critical:1 response:2 intellectual:1 conference:9 review:6 vision:3 satloff:2 rescuer:1 perpetrator:2 italian:1 tunisia:1 briefing:1 rachel:1 silverman:1 exponent:1 december:5 iranian:2 schoolbook:1 freedom:4 analyze:1 set:2 saudi:16 ministry:1 education:3 textbook:5 course:3 elementary:1 secondary:2 student:5 wahhabi:2 believer:2 polytheist:1 unbeliever:1 incongruously:1 unjustly:1 forgery:1 relate:1 realm:1 perpetual:1 fight:2 judgment:1 promise:1 selective:1 lesson:1 ignore:1 counsel:1 map:1 label:2 border:1 occupied:1 virtually:1 subversion:1 freedomhouse:1 arabia:6 curriculum:2 hudson:1 institute:8 rothstein:2 compare:4 distortion:1 codify:1 secularize:1 nazis:2 terrible:2 weapon:1 aim:3 february:9 newsweek:3 indeed:2 stuff:1 mouthing:1 particular:1 hijab:1 hookah:1 darkest:1 creed:1 longer:1 polite:1 west:1 culturally:1 araby:1 josef:1 joffe:1 date:2 mar:1 id:1 tesco:2 ireland:2 supermarket:1 apologise:2 sell:1 customer:1 sheikh:1 shaheed:1 satardien:1 head:1 effectively:1 impressionable:1 young:2 anger:1 tribune:3 ie:1 withdraws:1 literat:1 mainstream:1 eugenics:2 categorize:1 europeans:1 nordic:1 superior:1 emphasize:1 redemption:1 anthropologist:1 possess:1 armenoid:1 african:3 nubian:1 asian:1 turkic:1 ancestry:1 neo:3 supremacist:1 replace:1 industrial:1 revolution:1 emancipation:1 rapidly:1 urbanized:1 mobility:1 temper:1 combination:1 success:1 newer:1 virulent:1 advance:1 concept:3 creation:1 broadly:1 disproportionate:1 unique:1 following:2 doward:1 sack:3 jonathan:2 ha:1 aretz:1 strauss:1 antiglobalism:1 rosenbaum:1 ron:1 forget:1 random:1 stifle:1 deflect:1 attention:1 legitimate:1 taint:1 klug:1 brian:1 post:9 lerner:1 kosher:6 currently:1 dhabīḥah:1 halal:1 norway:3 switzerland:2 sweden:4 netherlands:3 consciousness:1 peta:1 fail:1 stun:1 hurt:1 islamophobic:1 solely:1 chassid:1 excommunicate:1 development:1 chasidische:1 hallaf:1 principal:1 shechitah:2 simple:1 akiva:1 mystical:1 path:1 shechita:1 swiss:1 backlash:1 proposal:1 lift:1 howard:1 newsjournal:1 product:1 melchior:1 motive:1 win:2 certainly:1 coincidence:1 forbade:1 parliamentarian:1 straight:1 somewhere:1 net:1 production:1 meat:1 boycott:1 upsurge:1 across:2 serious:3 pakistani:1 unacceptable:1 inciteful:1 expressindia:1 fullstory:1 php:1 newsid:1 terrorism:2 democrat:2 hollings:2 republican:2 pat:2 buchanan:2 bush:2 administration:2 supporter:1 echo:1 lindberg:1 figure:1 trick:1 saddam:2 hussein:1 senator:1 south:1 carolina:1 undertake:1 secure:1 television:3 talk:1 cabal:1 manage:1 snare:1 series:3 rafael:2 medoff:2 director:2 wyman:2 novel:1 finding:2 campus:2 recommend:2 office:5 vigorous:1 title:2 congress:1 clarify:1 applies:1 naveed:1 afzal:1 haq:2 shot:1 fatally:1 seattle:2 shoot:2 shooting:1 crime:2 associated:2 wound:1 fox:1 yale:4 initiative:2 interdisciplinary:2 small:2 generate:1 need:2 understand:1 defamation:3 survey:4 resident:1 foreign:3 born:1 hispanic:1 adl:3 decline:1 slightly:1 nearly:1 percentage:3 neil:2 malhotra:1 yotam:1 margalit:1 significantly:1 verbal:2 vandalism:2 graffiti:1 bombing:1 cemetery:1 assault:4 beating:1 stabbings:1 markedly:1 injury:1 consistently:2 rate:3 tendency:1 susanne:1 urban:1 spill:1 running:1 immigrant:3 palestinian:2 indigenous:1 likely:1 verbally:1 vandalize:1 tel:4 aviv:4 tau:1 ac:1 il:2 reside:1 annual:5 analysis:1 steven:2 interior:2 minister:3 schaeuble:1 extremism:2 wing:2 organisation:1 bundesamt:2 verfassungsschutz:2 federal:3 constitution:3 verfassungsschutzbericht:2 formerly:1 effective:1 drop:1 provide:1 euro:1 fund:1 nationwide:1 program:2 team:1 travel:3 consultant:1 demonstration:1 herald:2 ambassador:2 shimon:2 stein:1 warn:3 unsafe:1 able:1 heavy:1 security:1 surround:1 yosef:1 havlin:1 chabad:1 lubavitch:1 spiegel:4 personally:1 feels:1 welcome:1 hometown:1 afraid:1 wir:1 dürfen:1 uns:1 auf:1 keinen:1 fall:1 verstecken:1 comment:1 whereby:1 zalman:2 gurevitch:1 stab:1 attacker:1 expletive:1 uk:2 inquiry:4 recently:2 prevailing:1 opinion:1 recede:1 margin:1 reversal:1 investigate:1 recommendation:1 improve:1 britain:1 sir:1 tsunami:2 globally:1 bbc:6 rabbinical:1 colleague:1 silence:1 extraordinary:1 feeling:1 making:1 uncomfortable:1 gillan:1 audrey:1 fear:1 continent:1 decry:1 intensifying:1 heritage:1 caribbean:1 islander:1 colony:1 le:1 pen:1 haaretz:2 bigotry:1 cabinet:1 simone:1 veil:1 exaggerate:2 islamist:1 neighbourhood:1 integrated:1 youth:1 move:1 hierarchy:1 nicolas:1 sarkozy:1 denounce:1 ilan:1 halimi:1 philanthropist:1 baron:1 eric:1 rothschild:2 honorary:1 doctorate:1 complaint:1 emanate:1 amount:1 schadenfreude:1 pleasure:1 already:1 aliya:1 cousin:1 pure:1 electoral:1 calculation:1 krieger:1 leila:1 hilary:1 jun:1 pew:2 project:1 negative:1 questionnaire:1 respondent:1 spectrum:1 favorable:1 unfavorable:3 turk:1 moroccan:1 lebanese:1 jordanian:1 check:1 somewhat:1 globel:1 statistic:1 dar:1 fadhilah:1 treatise:1 distinctly:1 intelligence:2 site:1 information:3 website:3 initially:1 grant:1 tourist:2 visa:2 tourism:1 congressman:1 anthony:1 brooklyn:1 drive:1 apologize:1 erroneous:1 proof:1 factual:1 cmip:1 textbooks:1 danger:1 abdullah:1 tall:1 grade:1 intolerance:2 miniseries:1 entitle:2 horseman:1 horse:1 dramatization:1 justifiable:1 riyadh:1 turki:1 abdallah:1 sudayri:1 vilify:1 wahabi:1 washington:2 sanitize:1 ape:5 christians:1 swine:1 befriend:1 worship:1 jihad:1 vanquish:1 shea:1 nina:1 manar:1 air:2 drama:1 observers:1 reporter:1 watch:1 correspondent:1 extensively:1 notorious:1 fuel:1 tv:1 reprieve:1 cleric:2 conventional:1 epithet:1 princeton:3 aluma:1 solnick:1 koranic:1 tradition:2 memri:1 abdul:1 rahman:1 sudais:2 imam:1 grand:1 mosque:1 locate:1 kressel:1 urgent:1 chronicle:1 chronical:1 tom:1 gross:1 bubble:1 mideast:1 national:2 panorama:1 scum:2 human:3 offspring:2 monkey:3 aggressive:1 worshipper:2 sermon:1 declare:1 infidel:1 distorters:1 calf:1 prophecy:2 denier:5 curse:1 leah:1 kinberg:1 monash:1 melbourne:1 tehran:1 iran:8 condemnation:1 cnn:1 behest:1 ahmadinejad:2 meeting:2 outrage:1 gather:2 skeptic:1 isolate:1 weekend:1 sponsor:1 secretary:1 peres:1 egyptian:2 akhbar:1 internet:1 gilichenski:1 nightmare:1 homegrown:1 globalization:1 hat:1 semiticization:1 unification:1 div:1 bodansky:1 yossef:1 freeman:1 strategic:1 carr:1 hollywood:1 chanes:1 jerome:1 abc:1 clio:1 cohn:1 eyre:1 spottiswoode:1 serif:1 falk:2 avner:2 psychoanalysis:2 wesport:2 connecticut:2 praeger:2 freudmann:1 lillian:1 berger:1 hilberg:1 raul:1 holmes:1 meier:1 publisher:1 norton:1 co:1 lipstadt:1 deborah:1 memory:1 penguin:1 mckain:1 greenhaven:1 philip:2 rosen:1 scarecrow:1 inc:1 marvin:1 judaica:1 cd:1 rom:1 cecil:1 keter:1 telushkin:1 touchstone:1 reprint:1 selzer:1 kike:1 documentary:1 steinweis:1 harvard:1 x:2 philadelphia:1 gotthard:1 deutsch:1 read:1 multimedia:1 ajc:1 compilation:1 expert:1 explore:1 journal:1 los:1 angeles:1 stav:1 arieh:1 gefen:1 publishing:1 coordination:1 annotate:1 bibliography:1 responses:1 vertical:1 steve:1 plaut:1 ecri:1 buffalo:1 jedwabne:1 tragedy:1 research:2 rosenblum:1 working:1 tool:1 activist:1 postcard:1 dina:1 porat:1 b:1 yehoshua:1 azure:1 spring:1 external:1 link:1 mere:1 excuse:1 memorial:1 museum:1 israelism:1 resource:1 parliamentary:1 irwin:1 cotler:1 rivka:1 shafek:1 lissak:1 |@bigram anti_semitism:66 bernard_semite:2 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 spanish_inquisition:1 adolf_hitler:1 charles_lindbergh:2 enlightenment_thinker:1 jossey_bass:2 anti_semitic:15 http_www:6 merriam_webster:1 indo_european:1 bauer_yehuda:3 fairleigh_dickinson:2 ernest_renan:1 über_das:2 racism_xenophobia:2 self_determination:1 blood_libel:6 animosity_towards:2 daily_telegraph:1 harper_collins:1 pejorative_connotation:1 oneworld_publication:1 philo_alexandria:1 brill_brill:3 edward_gibbon:1 houghton_mifflin:1 dennis_prager:1 iberian_peninsula:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_online:1 rhine_danube:1 pope_clement:1 papal_bull:1 burnt_alive:1 polish_lithuanian:1 lithuanian_commonwealth:1 hundred_thousand:1 bohdan_khmelnytsky:1 ottoman_empire:4 archduchess_austria:1 maria_theresa:1 nineteenth_century:5 benny_morris:2 richard_wagner:1 der_musik:1 neue_zeitschrift:1 zeitschrift_für:1 für_musik:1 felix_mendelssohn:1 dreyfus_affair:2 emile_zola:1 palgrave_macmillan:2 kaiser_wilhelm:1 anti_semite:4 twentieth_century:2 ku_klux:2 klux_klan:2 interwar_period:1 dearborn_independent:1 franklin_roosevelt:1 internment_camp:1 holt_rinehart:1 rinehart_winston:1 painter_sculptor:1 attitude_toward:1 et_seq:1 pontius_pilate:2 nevus_im:1 holy_spirit:1 jesus_christ:1 prophet_jeremiah:1 render_obsolete:1 judas_iscariot:1 codex_sinaiticus:1 shepherd_hermas:1 epistle_barnabas:3 bart_ehrman:1 justin_martyr:1 john_chrysostom:1 council_nicaea:1 brill_academic:1 roman_catholicism:1 melito_sardis:1 socio_economic:2 eat_feces:1 romantic_comedy:1 profound_implication:1 branford_clarke:1 hero_fiery:2 pope_pius:1 pius_vii:1 accumulation_wealth:1 martin_luther:2 evangelical_lutheran:1 collective_guilt:1 boston_globe:2 walter_laqueur:1 qur_anic:1 anic_verse:1 islamic_fundamentalism:1 arabian_peninsula:1 ye_shall:1 qur_qur:1 crucifixion_jesus:1 hebrew_bible:1 per_caput:1 qur_hadith:2 almohad_dynasty:2 al_andalus:2 ibn_khaldun:2 al_jahiz:1 encyclopaedia_islam:2 bearman_th:2 th_bianquis:2 bianquis_c:2 van_donzel:2 donzel_w:2 heinrichs_brill:2 torah_scroll:1 forcible_conversion:1 falsely_accuse:1 mandate_palestine:1 holocaust_denial:8 hitler_mein:1 mein_kampf:1 elder_zion:5 morocco_tunisia:1 tunisia_libya:1 saudi_arabia:6 tesco_ireland:1 white_supremacist:1 ha_aretz:1 somewhere_else:1 expressindia_com:1 pat_buchanan:2 w_bush:1 saddam_hussein:1 david_wyman:2 wyman_institute:2 hate_crime:1 anti_defamation:3 defamation_league:3 tel_aviv:4 bundesamt_für:2 für_verfassungsschutz:2 herald_tribune:2 chabad_lubavitch:1 der_spiegel:3 holocaust_survivor:1 nicolas_sarkozy:1 honorary_doctorate:1 pew_global:1 dar_al:1 saudi_arabian:3 riyadh_saudi:1 al_manar:1 bbc_news:1 ape_pig:4 abdul_rahman:1 mecca_saudi:1 monash_university:1 tehran_iran:1 holocaust_denier:4 shimon_peres:1 abc_clio:1 eyre_spottiswoode:1 connecticut_praeger:2 harpercollins_publisher:1 laqueur_walter:1 princeton_princeton:1 semite_anti:1 semite_inquiry:1 w_norton:1 encyclopedia_judaica:1 judaica_cd:1 cd_rom:1 cecil_roth:1 roth_keter:1 los_angeles:1 annotate_bibliography:1 external_link:1 |
3,489 | Book_of_Malachi | Malachi (or Malachias, מַלְאָכִי, Malʾaḫi, Mál'akhî) is a book of the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh, written by the prophet Malachi. Possibly this is not the name of the author, since Malachi means 'my messenger' or 'my angel' in Hebrew. The author The last of the twelve minor prophets (canonically), the final book of the Hebrew Bible in Christian, but not Jewish tradition is commonly attributed to a prophet by the name of Malachi. Although the appellation Malachi has frequently been understood as a proper name, its Hebrew meaning is simply "My [i.e., God's] messenger" (or 'His messenger' in the Septuagint). This sobriquet occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and in 3:1, although it is highly unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both of these references. Thus, there is substantial debate regarding the identity of the author of the biblical book of Malachi. The Jewish Targum identifies Ezra (or Esdras) as the author of Malachi. St. Jerome suggests this may be because Ezra is seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the 'great synagogue'. There is, however, no historical evidence to support this claim. Some scholars note affinities between Zechariah 9-14 and the book of Malachi. Zechariah 9, Zechariah 12, and Malachi 1 are all introduced as "Oracle, the word of Yahweh." Many scholars argue that this collection originally consisted of three independent and anonymous prophecies. Two were subsequently appended to the book of Zechariah (as what scholars refer to as Deutero-Zechariah) and the third became the book of Malachi. As a result, most scholars consider the book of Malachi to be the work of a single author who may or may not have been identified by the title Malachi. The present division of the oracles results in a total of twelve books of minor prophets – a number parallelling the sons of Jacob who became the heads of the twelve tribes of Israel. The Catholic Encyclopedia asserts that "We are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the name Mál'akhîyah, that is 'Messenger of Yah'". Nothing is known of the biography of the author of the book of Malachi although it has been suggested that he may have been Levitical (which is curious, considering that Ezra was a priest.) The books of Zechariah and Haggai were written during the lifetime of Ezra (see 5:1), perhaps this may explain the similarities in style. Although the Ezra theory is disputed, no other authorship theories are dominant. According to the editors of the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary, Malachi at the Easton's Bible Dictionary the name "Malachi" is not a proper noun and is assumed to be an abbreviation of ("messenger of Yhwh"). The Septuagint superscription is ὲν χειρὶ ἀγγήλου αὐτοῦ, (by the hand of his messenger/angel). Wellhausen, Abraham Kuenen, and Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Nowack consider Malachi, 1:1 a late addition, pointing to Zechariah, 9:1, 12:1. Carl Heinrich Cornill states that Zechariah, 9-14 and Malachi are anonymous, and were, therefore, placed at the end of the prophetical books. According to , Malachi, 3:1 ("Behold, I will send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way before me...") is evidence that the proper name originated in a misconception of the word. The interpretation of the Septuagint found an echo among the ancient Fathers of the Church and ecclesiastical writers, and even gave rise, especially among the disciples of Origen of Alexandria, to the "strangest fancies". Prefaces to the Commentaries on the Minor Prophets., Jerome, 406: Origen and his followers believe that (according to his name) he was an angel. But we reject this view altogether, lest we be compelled to accept the doctrine of the fall of souls from heaven. Period There are very few historical details in the book of Malachi. The greatest clue as to its dating may lie in the fact that the Persian-era term for governor (pehâ) is used in 1:8. This points to a post-exilic date of composition both because of the use of the Persian period term and because Judah had a king before the exile. Since, in the same verse, the temple has been rebuilt, the book must also be later than 515 BC. Malachi was apparently known to the author of Ecclesiasticus early in the Second Century BCE. Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position between Haggai and Zechariah, slightly before Nehemiah came to Jerusalem in 445 BC. Aim The book of Malachi was written to correct the lax religious and social behavior of the Israelites – particularly the priests – in post-exilic Jerusalem. Although the prophets urged the people of Judah and Israel to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their covenant with Yahweh, it was not long after they had been restored to the land and to Temple worship that the people’s commitment to their God began, once again, to wane. It was in this context that the prophet commonly referred to as Malachi delivered his prophecy. In 1:2, Malachi has the people of Israel question God’s love for them. This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation which Malachi addresses. The graveness of the situation is also indicated by the dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience. Malachi proceeds to accuse his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves. One way in which this disrespect is made manifest is through the substandard sacrifices which Malachi claims are being offered by the priests. While Yahweh demands animals that are “without blemish” (Leviticus 1:3, NRSV), the priests, who were “to determine whether the animal was acceptable” (Mason 143), were offering blind, lame and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice. In 2:10, Malachi addresses the issue of divorce. On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem (“Why then are we faithless to one another ... ?” 2:10) and as a religious problem (“Judah ... has married the daughter of a foreign god” 2:11). In contrast to the book of Ezra, Malachi urges the people to remain steadfast to the wives of their youth. Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God’s justice. He reminds them that God is just, exhorting them to be faithful as they await that justice. Malachi quickly goes on to point out that the people have not been faithful. In fact, the people are not giving God all that God deserves. Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full tithe to the Lord. The result of these shortcomings is that the people come to believe that no good comes out of serving God. Malachi assures the faithful among his audience that in the eschaton, the differences between those who served God faithfully and those who did not will become clear. The book concludes by calling upon the teachings of Moses and by promising that Elijah will return prior to the Day of the Lord. Interpretations The book of Malachi is divided into three chapters in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint and four chapters in the Latin Vulgate. The fourth chapter in the Vulgate consists of the remainder of the third chapter starting at verse 3:19. In Christianity The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible supplies headings for the book as follows: + Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV Verse Reference Heading 1:1 (Superscription) 1:2-2:9 Israel Preferred to Edom 2:10-17 The Covenant Profaned by Judah 3:1-7 The Coming Messenger 3:8-15 Do Not Rob God 4:1-5 The Great Day of the Lord (3:19-24 in Hebrew) It must be noted that the majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles. According to this schema, the book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between Yahweh and the various groups within the Israelite community. In the course of the book’s three or four chapters, Yahweh is vindicated while those who do not adhere to the law of Moses are condemned. Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a suzerain treaty or a covenant – one of the major themes throughout the Hebrew Scriptures. Implicit in the prophet’s condemnation of Israel’s religious practices is a call to keep Yahweh’s statutes. The book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Bible. Malachi appeals to the story of the rivalry between Jacob and Esau and of Yahweh’s preference for Jacob contained in Book of Genesis 25-28. Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob (Israel), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God’s chosen people. In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the Levitical Code (eg. Leviticus 1:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices. In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels. Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which Ezra vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of Jewish wives (a practice which Ezra promoted). Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, “For I hate divorce, says the Lord . . .” (2:16). In many places throughout the Hebrew Scriptures – particularly the book of Hosea – Israel is figured as Yahweh’s wife or bride. Malachi’s discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor. Malachi could very well be urging his audience not to break faith with Yahweh (the God of Israel) by adopting new gods or idols. It is quite likely that, since the people of Judah were questioning Yahweh’s love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might be tempted to adopt foreign gods. William LaSor suggests that, because the restoration to the land of Judah had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendor of the messianic age which had been prophesied, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion. Indeed, the fourth dispute asserts that judgment is coming in the form of a messenger who “is like refiner’s fire and like fullers’ soap . . .” (3:2). Following this, the prophet provides another example of wrongdoing in the fifth dispute – that is, failing to offer full tithes. In this discussion, Malachi has Yahweh request the people to “Bring the full tithe . . . [and] see if I will not open the windows of heaven for you and pour down on you an overflowing blessing” (3:10). This request offers the opportunity for the people to amend their ways. It also stresses that keeping the Lord’s statutes will not only allow the people to avoid God’s wrath, but will also lead to God’s blessing. In the sixth dispute, the people of Israel illustrate the extent of their disillusionment. Malachi has them say “’It is vain to serve God . . . Now we count the arrogant happy; evildoers not only prosper, but when they put God to the test they escape’” (3:14-15). Once again, Malachi has Yahweh assure the people that the wicked will be punished and the faithful will be rewarded. In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to “Remember the teaching of my servant Moses, that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel” (4:4; 3:22, MT). Before the Day of the Lord, Malachi declares that Elijah (who “ascended in a whirlwind into heaven . . . [,]” 2 Kings 2:11) will return to earth in order that people might follow in God’s ways. Primarily because of its messianic promise, the book of Malachi is frequently referred to in the Christian New Testament. What follows is a brief comparison between the book of Malachi and the New Testament texts which refer to it (as suggested in Hill 84-88). + Use of the book of Malachi in the New Testament (NRSV) Malachi New Testament "Yet I have loved Jacob but I have hated Esau" (1:2-3) "'I have loved Jacob, but I have hated Esau.'" (Romans 9:13) "And if I am a master, where is the respect due me?" (1:6) "Why do you call me "Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I tell you?" (Luke 6:46) "the Lord's table" (1:7, 12) "the table of the Lord" (1 Corinthians 10:21) "For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations," (1:11) "so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you" (2 Thessalonians 1:12) "Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?" (Revelation 15:4) "For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts. But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts," (2:7-8) "therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach" (Matthew 23:3) "Have we not all one father?" (2:10) "yet for us there is one God, the Father," (1 Corinthians 8:6) "See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me," (3:1) "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way;" (Mark 1:2) "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you" (Matthew 11:10†, Luke 7:27) "But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?" (3:2) "for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?" (Revelation 6:17) "and he will purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver," (3:3) "so that the genuineness of your faith . . . being more precious than gold that, though perishable, is tested by fire . . ." (1 Peter 1:7) "against those who oppress the hired workers in their wages," (3:5) "Listen! The wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud," (James 5:4) "For I the LORD do not change;" (3:6) "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever." (Hebrews 13:8) "Return to me, and I will return to you," (3:7) "Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you" (James 4:8) "But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise," (3:20, 4:2) "By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us," (Luke 1:78) "Lo, I will send you the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes." (3:23, 4:5) "he is Elijah who is to come." (Matthew 11:14) "Elijah has already come," (Matthew 17:12) "Elijah has come," (Mark 9:13) "Lo, I will send you the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes. He will turn the hearts of parents to their children and the hearts of children to their parents," (3:23-24, 4:5-6) "With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous," (Luke 1:17) Although many Christians believe that the messianic prophecies of the book of Malachi have been fulfilled in the life, ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, most Jews continue to await the coming of the prophet Elijah who will prepare the way for the Lord. The Latter-day Saints differ significantly in this regard as noted below. Mormon Beliefs about Malachi and Elijah The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the prophet Elijah appeared to Joseph Smith on April 3, 1836 (Passover) and restored important "keys" (Priesthood authority) related to temple work and family history/genealogical record-keeping. (Doctrine and Covenants Section 110) This is in direct fulfillment of Malachi's prophesy at the end of chapter 4. As recorded in Joseph Smith's history, Moroni appeared to Joseph in the year 1823 and told him that parts of Malachi chapter 3 and all of chapter 4 had not yet been fulfilled but soon would be. Malachi's teachings on the blessings of tithing are also considered very important in LDS doctrine, and were repeated by the resurrected Savior in the Book of Mormon (3 Nephi 24,25). References Further reading The original version of this article was prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at Acadia Divinity College Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897. Hill, Andrew E. Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. The Anchor Bible Volume 25D. Toronto: Doubleday, 1998. LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. Mason, Rex. The Books of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1977. Singer, Isidore & Adolf Guttmacher. "Book of Malachi." JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2002. Van Hoonacker, A. "Malachias (Malachi)." Catholic Encyclopedia. Transcribed by Thomas J. Bress. 2003. | Book_of_Malachi |@lemmatized malachi:64 malachias:2 מ:1 ל:1 א:1 כ:1 י:1 malʾaḫi:1 mál:2 akhî:1 book:36 bible:11 old:3 testament:7 jewish:5 tanakh:1 write:3 prophet:14 possibly:1 name:11 author:8 since:3 mean:1 messenger:13 angel:3 hebrew:7 last:1 twelve:3 minor:3 canonically:1 final:1 christian:3 tradition:1 commonly:2 attribute:1 although:6 appellation:1 frequently:2 understand:3 proper:3 meaning:1 simply:1 e:2 god:26 septuagint:4 sobriquet:1 occur:1 superscription:3 highly:1 unlikely:1 word:3 refer:5 character:1 reference:3 thus:1 substantial:1 debate:1 regard:2 identity:1 biblical:1 targum:1 identifies:1 ezra:8 esdras:1 st:1 jerome:2 suggest:5 may:8 see:7 intermediary:1 great:7 synagogue:1 however:1 historical:2 evidence:2 support:1 claim:2 scholar:6 note:3 affinity:1 zechariah:10 introduce:1 oracle:3 yahweh:12 many:4 argue:1 collection:1 originally:1 consist:2 three:3 independent:1 anonymous:2 prophecy:3 two:2 subsequently:1 append:1 scholars:1 deutero:1 third:3 become:4 result:4 consider:5 work:2 single:1 identify:1 title:1 present:1 division:1 total:1 number:1 parallel:1 son:1 jacob:6 head:2 tribe:1 israel:10 catholic:2 encyclopedia:2 assert:2 doubt:1 presence:1 abbreviation:2 akhîyah:1 yah:1 nothing:1 know:2 biography:1 levitical:2 curious:1 priest:7 haggai:3 lifetime:1 perhaps:1 explain:1 similarity:1 style:2 theory:2 dispute:7 authorship:1 dominant:1 accord:4 editor:1 easton:3 dictionary:3 noun:1 assume:1 yhwh:1 ὲν:1 χειρὶ:1 ἀγγήλου:1 αὐτοῦ:1 hand:1 wellhausen:1 abraham:1 kuenen:1 wilhelm:1 gustav:1 hermann:1 nowack:1 late:1 addition:1 point:3 carl:1 heinrich:1 cornill:1 state:1 therefore:2 place:2 end:2 prophetical:1 behold:1 send:6 shall:2 prepare:6 way:9 originate:1 misconception:1 interpretation:2 find:2 echo:1 among:4 ancient:1 father:3 church:2 ecclesiastical:1 writer:1 even:1 give:2 rise:2 especially:1 disciple:1 origen:2 alexandria:1 strange:1 fancy:1 preface:1 commentary:3 follower:1 believe:3 reject:1 view:1 altogether:1 l:1 compel:1 accept:1 doctrine:3 fall:1 soul:1 heaven:3 period:2 detail:1 clue:1 dating:1 lie:1 fact:2 persian:2 era:1 term:2 governor:1 pehâ:1 use:3 post:2 exilic:2 date:1 composition:1 judah:6 king:2 exile:2 verse:4 temple:3 rebuild:1 must:2 also:7 later:1 bc:2 apparently:1 ecclesiasticus:1 early:1 second:2 century:1 bce:1 development:1 theme:3 assign:1 position:1 slightly:1 nehemiah:1 come:13 jerusalem:2 aim:1 correct:1 lax:1 religious:3 social:2 behavior:1 israelite:2 particularly:2 urge:3 people:18 punishment:1 fail:3 uphold:1 covenant:5 long:1 restore:2 land:2 worship:1 commitment:1 begin:1 wane:1 context:1 deliver:1 question:3 love:4 introduction:2 illustrate:2 severity:1 situation:2 address:2 graveness:1 indicate:1 dialectical:1 confront:1 audience:7 proceeds:1 accuse:1 respect:2 deserve:2 one:6 disrespect:1 make:2 manifest:1 substandard:1 sacrifice:4 offer:7 demand:1 animal:3 without:1 blemish:1 leviticus:2 nrsv:3 determine:1 whether:1 acceptable:1 mason:2 blind:1 lame:1 sick:1 think:1 nobody:1 would:2 notice:1 issue:1 divorce:7 topic:1 deal:1 problem:2 faithless:1 another:2 marry:1 daughter:1 foreign:4 contrast:1 remain:1 steadfast:1 wife:5 youth:1 criticize:1 justice:3 remind:2 exhort:2 faithful:4 await:2 quickly:1 go:2 unacceptable:2 neglect:1 full:3 tithe:4 lord:18 shortcoming:1 good:1 serve:3 assure:2 eschaton:1 difference:1 faithfully:1 clear:1 conclude:1 call:3 upon:4 teaching:3 moses:3 promise:2 elijah:11 return:4 prior:1 day:9 divide:1 chapter:9 greek:1 four:2 latin:1 vulgate:2 fourth:2 remainder:1 start:1 christianity:1 new:9 revised:1 standard:1 version:2 supply:1 heading:2 follow:5 prefer:1 edom:1 profane:1 rob:1 majority:1 six:1 distinct:1 schema:1 consists:1 series:1 various:2 group:1 within:1 community:1 course:2 vindicate:1 adhere:1 law:1 condemn:4 whole:1 structure:1 along:1 line:1 judicial:1 trial:1 suzerain:1 treaty:1 major:1 throughout:2 scriptures:2 implicit:1 condemnation:1 practice:6 keep:4 statute:3 draw:4 appeal:1 story:1 rivalry:1 esau:3 preference:1 contain:1 genesis:1 descendant:2 continue:2 favour:3 chosen:1 code:1 eg:1 concern:1 likely:2 intend:1 argument:1 level:1 appear:5 attack:1 either:1 vehemently:1 alternatively:1 could:2 promote:1 adamant:1 nationality:1 valid:1 reason:1 terminate:1 marriage:1 hate:1 say:3 hosea:1 figure:1 bride:1 discussion:2 understood:1 conform:1 metaphor:1 well:1 break:2 faith:2 adopt:2 idol:1 quite:2 might:2 tempt:1 william:3 lasor:2 restoration:1 anything:1 like:4 prophesied:1 splendor:1 messianic:3 age:1 prophesy:2 disillusion:1 religion:1 indeed:1 judgment:2 form:2 refiner:1 fire:2 fuller:1 soap:1 provide:1 example:1 wrongdoing:1 fifth:1 request:2 bring:1 open:1 window:1 pour:1 overflow:1 blessing:3 opportunity:1 amend:1 stress:1 allow:1 avoid:1 wrath:2 lead:1 sixth:1 extent:1 disillusionment:1 vain:1 count:1 arrogant:1 happy:1 evildoer:1 prosper:1 put:1 test:2 escape:1 wicked:1 punish:1 reward:1 light:1 imminent:1 remember:1 servant:1 ordinance:1 command:1 horeb:1 mt:1 declares:1 ascend:1 whirlwind:1 earth:1 order:1 primarily:1 brief:1 comparison:1 text:1 hill:2 yet:3 hat:2 romans:1 master:1 due:1 tell:2 luke:4 table:2 corinthian:2 rising:1 sun:2 set:1 nation:1 jesus:4 glorify:2 thessalonian:1 fear:1 revelation:2 lip:1 guard:1 knowledge:1 seek:1 instruction:2 mouth:1 host:2 turn:3 aside:1 cause:1 stumble:1 corrupt:1 levi:2 whatever:1 teach:3 matthew:4 u:2 ahead:2 mark:2 endure:1 stand:2 able:1 purify:1 refine:1 gold:2 silver:1 genuineness:1 precious:1 though:1 perishable:1 peter:1 oppress:1 hired:1 worker:1 wage:2 listen:1 laborer:1 mow:1 field:1 back:1 fraud:1 jam:1 change:1 christ:2 yesterday:1 today:1 forever:1 hebrews:1 near:2 james:1 revere:1 righteousness:1 tender:1 mercy:1 dawn:1 high:1 lo:2 terrible:2 already:1 heart:3 parent:3 child:3 spirit:1 power:1 disobedient:1 wisdom:1 righteous:1 fulfil:2 life:1 ministry:1 death:1 resurrection:1 nazareth:1 jew:1 latter:2 saint:2 differ:1 significantly:1 mormon:2 belief:1 joseph:3 smith:2 april:1 passover:1 important:2 key:1 priesthood:1 authority:1 relate:1 family:1 history:2 genealogical:1 record:2 section:1 direct:1 fulfillment:1 moroni:1 year:1 part:1 soon:1 lds:1 repeat:1 resurrected:1 savior:1 nephi:1 far:1 read:1 original:1 article:1 acadia:1 divinity:1 college:1 andrew:1 translation:1 anchor:1 volume:1 toronto:1 doubleday:1 sanford:1 et:1 al:1 survey:1 message:1 background:1 grand:1 rapid:1 b:1 eerdmans:1 rex:1 cambridge:2 english:1 york:1 university:1 press:1 singer:1 isidore:1 adolf:1 guttmacher:1 jewishencyclopedia:1 com:1 van:1 hoonacker:1 transcribe:1 thomas:1 j:1 bress:1 |@bigram מ_ל:1 ל_א:1 hebrew_bible:2 easton_bible:3 origen_alexandria:1 post_exilic:2 haggai_zechariah:2 latin_vulgate:1 hebrew_scriptures:2 jacob_esau:1 matthew_luke:1 gold_silver:1 wage_laborer:1 jesus_christ:2 prophet_elijah:4 messianic_prophecy:1 jesus_nazareth:1 joseph_smith:2 doctrine_covenant:1 lasor_william:1 sanford_et:1 et_al:1 jewishencyclopedia_com:1 |
3,490 | Konrad_Emil_Bloch | The plaque for Konrad Emil Bloch in Nysa Konrad Emil Bloch (b. January 21 1912 – October 15 2000) was a German American biochemist. Bloch received Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1964 (joint with Feodor Lynen) for discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. Biography Bloch was born in Neisse (Nysa) in the German Empire's Prussian Province of Silesia. From 1930 to 1934, he studied chemistry at the Technical University of Munich. In 1934, due to the Nazi persecutions of Jews, he fled to the Schweizerische Forschungsinstitut in Davos, Switzerland, before moving to the United States in 1936. Later he was appointed to the department of biological chemistry at Yale Medical School. In the United States, Bloch enrolled at Columbia University, and received a Ph.D in biochemistry in 1938. He taught at Columbia from 1939 to 1946. From there he went to the university of Chicago and then to Harvard University as Higgins Professor of Biochemistry in 1954, a post he held until his retirement in 1982. Bloch shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1964 with Feodor Lynen, for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. Fellow of the Royal Society in 1985. Bloch died in Lexington, Massachusetts of congestive heart failure, aged 88. External links Nobel Prize Biography | Konrad_Emil_Bloch |@lemmatized plaque:1 konrad:2 emil:2 bloch:7 nysa:2 b:1 january:1 october:1 german:2 american:1 biochemist:1 receive:2 nobel:3 prize:3 medicine:2 physiology:2 joint:1 feodor:2 lynen:2 discovery:2 concern:2 mechanism:2 regulation:2 cholesterol:2 fatty:2 acid:2 metabolism:2 biography:2 bear:1 neisse:1 empire:1 prussian:1 province:1 silesia:1 study:1 chemistry:2 technical:1 university:4 munich:1 due:1 nazi:1 persecution:1 jew:1 flee:1 schweizerische:1 forschungsinstitut:1 davos:1 switzerland:1 move:1 united:2 state:2 later:1 appoint:1 department:1 biological:1 yale:1 medical:1 school:1 enrol:1 columbia:2 ph:1 biochemistry:2 teach:1 go:1 chicago:1 harvard:1 higgins:1 professor:1 post:1 hold:1 retirement:1 share:1 fellow:1 royal:1 society:1 die:1 lexington:1 massachusetts:1 congestive:1 heart:1 failure:1 age:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram nobel_prize:3 fatty_acid:2 davos_switzerland:1 congestive_heart:1 external_link:1 |
3,491 | Neo_Geo_Pocket | The Neo Geo Pocket was SNK's first hand held video game system, released in Japan in late 1998; however, lower than expected sales resulted in its discontinuation in 1999, and was immediately succeeded by the Neo Geo Pocket Color. The system only had a retail release within the Japan and Hong Kong market. Though the system enjoyed only a short life, there were some significant games released on the system such as Samurai Shodown, and King of Fighters R-1. The entire Neo Geo Pocket game library included: Melan Chan's Growth Diary, Puzzle Link, Pocket Tennis, Neo Cup 98, Neo Cup 98 plus, King of Fighters, Samurai Shodown, Master of Syougi, Neo Cherry Master, Baseball Stars. The Neo Geo Pocket Color game library is mostly backward compatible with the Neo Geo Pocket, meaning that the majority of the newer color games can play on the Neo Geo Pocket. There are, however, notable exceptions such as Sonic the Hedgehog Pocket Adventure and SNK vs. Capcom: Match Of The Millennium. The newer Neo Geo Pocket Color is fully backward compatible and can play all games released for the Neo Geo Pocket. Specifications 16 bit TOSHIBA TLCS-900H high performance core CPU 32 bit/16 bit register bank cofiguration at 6.144 MHz Virtual screen 256×256 - 16 palettes/plane, 64 sprites/frame Z80 8 bit cpu to control the soundchip SN76489 soundchip equivalent (3 square wave tone generators + 1 white noise generator + direct access to the 2 Digital-to-analog_converters) I/O serial SIO 1 channel 19200 bit/s See also List of Neo Geo Pocket Color games References External links | Neo_Geo_Pocket |@lemmatized neo:12 geo:9 pocket:11 snk:2 first:1 hand:1 hold:1 video:1 game:7 system:4 release:4 japan:2 late:1 however:2 low:1 expect:1 sale:1 result:1 discontinuation:1 immediately:1 succeed:1 color:5 retail:1 within:1 hong:1 kong:1 market:1 though:1 enjoy:1 short:1 life:1 significant:1 samurai:2 shodown:2 king:2 fighter:2 r:1 entire:1 library:2 include:1 melan:1 chan:1 growth:1 diary:1 puzzle:1 link:2 tennis:1 cup:2 plus:1 master:2 syougi:1 cherry:1 baseball:1 star:1 mostly:1 backward:2 compatible:2 mean:1 majority:1 new:2 play:2 notable:1 exception:1 sonic:1 hedgehog:1 adventure:1 v:1 capcom:1 match:1 millennium:1 fully:1 specification:1 bit:5 toshiba:1 tlc:1 high:1 performance:1 core:1 cpu:2 register:1 bank:1 cofiguration:1 mhz:1 virtual:1 screen:1 palette:1 plane:1 sprite:1 frame:1 control:1 soundchip:2 equivalent:1 square:1 wave:1 tone:1 generator:2 white:1 noise:1 direct:1 access:1 digital:1 serial:1 sio:1 channel:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 reference:1 external:1 |@bigram neo_geo:9 geo_pocket:9 hong_kong:1 backward_compatible:2 sonic_hedgehog:1 external_link:1 |
3,492 | John_Hay | John Milton Hay (October 8, 1838 – July 1, 1905) was an American statesman, diplomat, author, journalist, and private secretary and assistant to Abraham Lincoln. Life Hay was born in Salem, Indiana, of Scottish ancestry, raised in Warsaw, Illinois, and educated at Brown University (1858), where he joined Theta Delta Chi. At Brown, he developed an interest in poetry, and Hay became a part of Providence's literary circle which included Sarah Helen Whitman and Nora Perry. When he graduated, he was named Class Poet. Encyclopedia Brunoniana | Hay, John He began his public career as a secretary to Abraham Lincoln at age 22, while technically a clerk in the Interior Department. At a time when most of Lincoln's cabinet was hostile to him and vying for position and influence, Hay served also as a friend, confidant and companion, as well as a performer of odd jobs. He lived in the northeast corner bedroom on the second floor of the White House. He shared that room with his fellow secretary John G. Nicolay, who was six years older. For a few months, he served in the Union army under Generals Hunter and Gillmore. He rose to the rank of major and was later brevetted lieutenant colonel and colonel. Hay's diary and writings during the Civil War are basic historical sources. Some have credited Hay with being the real author of President Lincoln's Letter to Mrs. Bixby, consoling her for the loss of her sons in the war. American Heritage Magazine Hay was present when President Lincoln died after being shot at Ford's Theatre. Hay and Nicolay wrote a formal 10-volume biography of Lincoln (Abraham Lincoln: A History, 1890) and prepared an edition of his collected works. In 1861, he was admitted to practice in the Supreme Court of Illinois. Portions of Hay's diaries and letters from 1861–1870, published in the book Lincoln and the Civil War, show the President in a far more intimate light. The portrait of Abraham Lincoln is affectionate, certainly biased in Lincoln's favor, but also contains insights and anecdotes of the homely and humorous sort that Lincoln enjoyed. He was secretary of legation at Paris and Madrid, and chargé d'affaires at Vienna. For six years he was an editor of the New York Tribune. Hay was named U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1897 when William McKinley became President. Some of the recognition of the longstanding community of interests between that country and the United States came as a result of Hay's stay there. In August 1898, Hay was named Secretary of State and helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris of 1898. Hay continued serving as Secretary of State after Theodore Roosevelt succeeded McKinley, serving until his own death in 1905. His contributions included the adoption of an Open Door Policy in China (announced on January 2, 1900) which may have been a contributing factor in the Boxer Rebellion, and the preparations for the Panama Canal. He negotiated the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901), the Hay-Herran Treaty (1903), and the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty (1903), all of which were instrumental clearing the way for the construction and usage of the Canal. In all, he brought about more than 50 treaties, including the settlement of the Samoan dispute, as a result of which the United States secured Tutuila, with an excellent harbor in the Pacific; a definitive Alaskan boundary treaty in 1903; the negotiation of reciprocity treaties with Argentina, France, Germany, Cuba, and the British West Indies; the negotiation of new treaties with Spain; and the negotiation of a treaty with Denmark for the cession of the Danish West India Islands. New International Encyclopedia. In 1904, Hay was one of the first seven chosen for membership in the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Legacy Hay is also renowned for his comment, written in a letter to President Theodore Roosevelt, describing the Spanish-American War as a "splendid little war." Regarding a misunderstanding between Theodore Roosevelt and Mark Hanna, Hay had commented, "This wordy city poisons men, who might be friends, against each other" (from Theodore Roosevelt by Henery F. Pringle, page 349). Hay appears as a prominent character in Gore Vidal's historical novels Lincoln and Empire. He appears, portrayed by John Huston, in the 1975 film The Wind and the Lion, a fictionalization of the Perdicaris Affair in Morocco in 1904. He is portrayed in the 1997 miniseries Rough Riders by actor and legendary United States Marine R. Lee Ermey. Hay was President Theodore Roosevelt's Secretary of State. After Roosevelt signed an executive order setting aside land in the Benguet region of the Philippines for a military reservation under the United States Army, the John Hay Air Base of Baguio City was established on October 25, 1903 and named in his honor. John Hay Air Base was used for rest and recreation for U.S. military personnel and the dependents of U.S. military personnel in the Philippines as well as Department of Defense employees and their dependents. The 690-hectare property was finally turned over to the Philippines 1991 upon the expiration of the R.P.-U.S. Bases Agreement. Since 1997 it has been in the hands of a private developer, on a long term lease, which has transformed the property into a world class resort. Hay was a close friend of Henry Brooks Adams, American historian and author. In 1884, architect Henry Hobson Richardson designed adjoining townhouses for Hay and Adams on Lafayette Square in Washington, D.C.. The houses were demolished in 1927 and the site is now occupied by the Hay-Adams Hotel. Brown University's John Hay Library housed the entire library collection from its construction in 1910 until the John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Library was built in 1964. In 1971, when physical science materials were transferred to the new Sciences Library, the John Hay Library became exclusively a repository for the library's Special Collections. Hay married Clara Louise Stone, with whom he had four children. They are buried together in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland, Ohio. Their daughter Alice Evelyn Hay married New York politician James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.. Their daughter Helen Julia Hay, a writer and poet, married Payne Whitney of the influential Whitney family; their children were U.S. ambassador John Hay Whitney and Joan Whitney Payson. Hay's New Hampshire estate has been conserved as part of the John Hay National Wildlife Refuge, the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests' John Hay Land Studies Center, and the Garden Conservancy's Fells Reservation. The Fells, a local nonprofit organization that has maintained and managed the John Hay Estate on Lake Sunapee for over a decade, acquired the northern half of the property from the US Fish and Wildlife Service on March 25, 2008. Books by Hay Abraham Lincoln: A History (with John G. Nicolay, 1890) The Bread-winners (1883) Castilian Days (1875) Pike County Ballads and Other Poems (1871) Poems (1890) See also References Lorenzo Sears, John Hay, Author and Statesman (New York, 1914) Warren Zimmermann, First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power (New York, 2002) Robert L. Gale, John Hay (Boston, 1978) Mellander, Gustavo A.(1971) The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Daville,Ill.:Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568. Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1563281554. OCLC 42970390. William Roscoe Thayer, The Life and Letters of John Hay (Boston: 1915) John Hay Land Studies Center John Hay National Wildlife Refuge The Fells Reservation External links John Hay Biography John Hay, Abraham Lincoln's Friend Camp John Hay Resort Retrieved on 2008-11-01 | John_Hay |@lemmatized john:22 milton:1 hay:46 october:2 july:1 american:6 statesman:2 diplomat:1 author:4 journalist:1 private:2 secretary:7 assistant:1 abraham:6 lincoln:14 life:2 bear:1 salem:1 indiana:1 scottish:1 ancestry:1 raise:1 warsaw:1 illinois:2 educate:1 brown:3 university:2 join:1 theta:1 delta:1 chi:1 develop:1 interest:2 poetry:1 become:3 part:2 providence:1 literary:1 circle:1 include:3 sarah:1 helen:2 whitman:1 nora:1 perry:1 graduate:1 name:4 class:2 poet:2 encyclopedia:2 brunoniana:1 begin:1 public:1 career:1 age:1 technically:1 clerk:1 interior:1 department:2 time:1 cabinet:1 hostile:1 vie:1 position:1 influence:1 serve:4 also:4 friend:4 confidant:1 companion:1 well:2 performer:1 odd:1 job:1 live:1 northeast:1 corner:1 bedroom:1 second:1 floor:1 white:1 house:3 share:1 room:1 fellow:1 g:2 nicolay:3 six:2 year:4 old:1 month:1 union:1 army:2 general:1 hunter:1 gillmore:1 rise:1 rank:1 major:1 later:1 brevet:1 lieutenant:1 colonel:2 diary:2 writing:1 civil:2 war:5 basic:1 historical:2 source:1 credit:1 real:1 president:6 letter:5 mrs:1 bixby:1 console:1 loss:1 son:1 heritage:1 magazine:1 present:1 die:1 shoot:1 ford:1 theatre:1 write:2 formal:1 volume:1 biography:2 history:2 prepare:1 edition:1 collected:1 work:1 admit:1 practice:1 supreme:1 court:1 portion:1 publish:1 book:2 show:1 far:1 intimate:1 light:1 portrait:1 affectionate:1 certainly:1 bias:1 favor:1 contain:1 insight:1 anecdote:1 homely:1 humorous:1 sort:1 enjoyed:1 legation:1 paris:2 madrid:1 chargé:1 affaire:1 vienna:1 editor:1 new:9 york:4 tribune:1 u:6 ambassador:2 united:6 kingdom:1 william:2 mckinley:2 recognition:1 longstanding:1 community:1 country:2 state:8 come:1 result:2 stay:1 august:1 help:1 negotiate:2 treaty:9 continued:1 theodore:5 roosevelt:6 succeed:1 death:1 contribution:1 adoption:1 open:1 door:1 policy:1 china:1 announce:1 january:1 may:1 contribute:1 factor:1 boxer:1 rebellion:1 preparation:1 panama:2 canal:2 pauncefote:1 herran:1 bunau:1 varilla:1 instrumental:1 clear:1 way:1 construction:2 usage:1 bring:1 settlement:1 samoan:1 dispute:1 secure:1 tutuila:1 excellent:1 harbor:1 pacific:1 definitive:1 alaskan:1 boundary:1 negotiation:3 reciprocity:1 argentina:1 france:1 germany:1 cuba:1 british:1 west:2 indie:1 spain:1 denmark:1 cession:1 danish:1 india:1 island:1 international:1 one:1 first:2 seven:1 chosen:1 membership:1 academy:1 art:1 legacy:1 renowned:1 comment:2 describe:1 spanish:1 splendid:1 little:1 regard:1 misunderstanding:1 mark:1 hanna:1 wordy:1 city:2 poison:1 men:1 might:1 henery:1 f:1 pringle:1 page:1 appear:2 prominent:1 character:1 gore:1 vidal:1 novel:1 empire:1 portray:2 huston:1 film:1 wind:1 lion:1 fictionalization:1 perdicaris:1 affair:1 morocco:1 miniseries:1 rough:1 rider:1 actor:1 legendary:1 marine:1 r:2 lee:1 ermey:1 sign:1 executive:1 order:1 set:1 aside:1 land:3 benguet:1 region:1 philippine:3 military:3 reservation:3 air:2 base:3 baguio:1 establish:1 honor:1 use:1 rest:1 recreation:1 personnel:2 dependent:2 defense:1 employee:1 hectare:1 property:3 finally:1 turn:1 upon:1 expiration:1 p:1 agreement:1 since:1 hand:1 developer:1 long:1 term:1 lease:1 transform:1 world:2 resort:2 close:1 henry:2 brook:1 adams:2 historian:1 architect:1 hobson:1 richardson:1 design:1 adjoining:1 townhouses:1 adam:1 lafayette:1 square:1 washington:1 c:1 demolish:1 site:1 occupy:1 hotel:1 library:6 entire:1 collection:2 rockefeller:1 jr:2 build:1 physical:1 science:2 material:1 transfer:1 exclusively:1 repository:1 special:1 marry:3 clara:1 louise:1 stone:1 four:1 child:2 bury:1 together:1 lake:2 view:1 cemetery:1 cleveland:1 ohio:1 daughter:2 alice:1 evelyn:1 politician:1 james:1 wolcott:1 wadsworth:1 julia:1 writer:1 payne:1 whitney:4 influential:1 family:1 joan:1 payson:1 hampshire:2 estate:2 conserve:1 national:2 wildlife:3 refuge:2 society:1 protection:1 forest:1 study:2 center:2 garden:1 conservancy:1 fell:3 local:1 nonprofit:1 organization:1 maintain:1 manage:1 sunapee:1 decade:1 acquire:1 northern:1 half:1 fish:1 service:1 march:1 bread:1 winner:1 castilian:1 day:1 pike:1 county:1 ballad:1 poem:2 see:1 reference:1 lorenzo:1 sears:1 warren:1 zimmermann:1 great:1 triumph:1 five:1 make:1 power:1 robert:1 l:1 gale:1 boston:2 mellander:3 gustavo:2 panamanian:1 politics:1 intriguing:1 formative:1 daville:1 ill:1 interstate:1 publisher:1 oclc:2 nelly:1 maldonado:1 charles:1 edward:1 magoon:1 río:1 piedras:1 puerto:1 rico:1 editorial:1 plaza:1 mayor:1 isbn:1 roscoe:1 thayer:1 external:1 link:1 camp:1 retrieve:1 |@bigram abraham_lincoln:6 friend_confidant:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 supreme_court:1 chargé_affaire:1 william_mckinley:1 theodore_roosevelt:5 boxer_rebellion:1 panama_canal:1 west_indie:1 gore_vidal:1 rough_rider:1 lee_ermey:1 wildlife_refuge:2 nonprofit_organization:1 fish_wildlife:1 mellander_gustavo:2 río_piedras:1 puerto_rico:1 external_link:1 |
3,493 | Anarcho-capitalism | Anarcho-capitalism (a form of free-market anarchism), is an individualist anarchist Adams, Ian. 2002. Political Ideology Today. p. 135. Manchester University Press; Ostergaard, Geoffrey. 2003. Anarchism. In W. Outwaite (Ed.), The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. p. 14. Blackwell Publishing political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state and the elevation of the sovereign individual in a free market. In an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services are provided by voluntarily-funded competitors such as private defense agencies rather than through compulsory taxation, and money is privately produced in an open market. Because personal and economic activities are regulated by the natural laws of the market through private law rather than through politics, victimless crimes and crimes against the state would be rendered moot. Anarcho-capitalists argue for a society based in voluntary trade of private property (including money, consumer goods, land, and capital goods) and services in order to maximize individual liberty and prosperity, but also recognize charity and communal arrangements as part of the same voluntary ethic. Hess, Karl. The Death of Politics. Interview in Playboy Magazine, March 1969 Though anarcho-capitalists are known for asserting a right to private (individualized or joint non-public) property, some propose that non-state public/community property can also exist in an anarcho-capitalist society. Holcombe, Randall G., Common Property in Anarcho-Capitalism, Journal of Libertarian Studies, Volume 19, No. 2 (Spring 2005):3–29. For them, what is important is that it is acquired and transferred without help or hindrance from the compulsory state. Anarcho-capitalist libertarians believe that the only just, and/or most economically-beneficial, way to acquire property is through voluntary trade, gift, or labor-based original appropriation, rather than through aggression or fraud. Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Abridged Paperback Edition (1996), p. 282</ref> Anarcho-capitalists see free-market capitalism as the basis for a free and prosperous society. Murray Rothbard said that the difference between free-market capitalism and "state capitalism" is the difference between "peaceful, voluntary exchange" and a collusive partnership between business and government that uses coercion to subvert the free market. Rothbard, Murray N., A Future of Peace and Capitalism; Murray N. Rothbard, Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty. "Capitalism," as anarcho-capitalists employ the term, is not to be confused with state monopoly capitalism, crony capitalism, corporatism, or contemporary mixed economies, wherein natural market incentives and disincentives are skewed by state intervention. Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press 2001. p. 33 So they reject the state, based on the belief that states are aggressive entities which steal property (through taxation and expropriation), initiate aggression, are a compulsory monopoly on the use of defensive and/or punitive force, use their coercive powers to benefit some businesses and individuals at the expense of others, create monopolies, restrict trade, and restrict personal freedoms via drug laws, compulsory education, conscription, laws on food and morality, and the like. The embrace of unfettered capitalism leads to considerable tension between anarcho-capitalists and many social anarchists who tend to distrust the market, and believe that free-market capitalism is inherently authoritarian. Philosophy Varieties of anarcho-capitalism Various theorists have differing, though similar, legal philosophies which are considered to fall under "anarcho-capitalism." The first well-known version of anarcho-capitalism was formulated by Austrian School economist and libertarian Murray Rothbard in the mid-twentieth century, synthesizing elements from the Austrian School of economics, classical liberalism, and nineteenth century American individualist anarchists Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker (rejecting their labor theory of value and the normative implications they derived from it). "A student and disciple of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the nineteenth century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker." Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, 1987, ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 290 In Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism, there would first be the implementation of a mutually agreed-upon libertarian "legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow." Rothbard, Murray. For A New Liberty. 12 The Public Sector, III: Police, Law, and the Courts This legal code would recognize sovereignty of the individual and the principle of non-aggression. However, in David D. Friedman's anarcho-capitalism, "the systems of law will be produced for profit on the open market", Friedman, David. The Machinery of Freedom. Second edition. La Salle, Ill, Open Court, pp. 116-117. which he believes would lead to a generally libertarian society if not an absolute one. Rothbard bases his philosophy on absolutist natural law grounds but also gives economic explanations of why he thinks anarcho-capitalism is preferable on pragmatic grounds. Friedman says he is not an absolutist rights theorist but is also "not a utilitarian", however, he does believe that "utilitarian arguments are usually the best way to defend libertarian views". Friedman, David D. The Machinery of Freedom. Chapter 42 Peter Leeson argues that "the case for anarchy derives its strength from empirical evidence, not theory." Leeson, Peter. "Anarchy Unbound; Or, Why Self-Governance Works Better Than You Think." Cato Unbound. Cato Institute. August 6, 2007. Hans-Hermann Hoppe, meanwhile, uses "argumentation ethics" for his foundation of "private property anarchism", Hans-Hermann Hoppe "Argumentation Ethics". Retrieved 6 February 2007. which is closer to Rothbard's natural law approach. The nonaggression axiom The term anarcho-capitalism was most likely coined in 1968 by Jarrett Wollstein and revived by economist Murray Rothbard. Rothbard, Murray N. (1988) "What's Wrong with Liberty Poll; or, How I Became a Libertarian", Liberty, July 1988, p.53 Rothbard used the term anarcho-capitalism to distinguish his philosophy from anarchism that opposes private property, libertarianism. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 30 July 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://search.eb.com/eb/article-234237 as well as to distinguish it from other forms of individualist anarchism. Murray Newton Rothbard Egalitarianism As A Revolt Against Nature And Other Essays: and other essays. Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2000. p.207 Other terms sometimes used for this philosophy, though not necessarily outside anarcho-capitalist circles, include: anti-state capitalism anti-state marketism anarcho-liberalism Andrew Rutten. "Can Anarchy Save Us from Leviathan?" in The Independent Review vol. 3 nr. 4 p. 581. "He claims that the only consistent liberal is an anarcho-liberal." capitalist anarchism market anarchism free market anarchism individualist anarchism "Murray N. Rothbard (1926–1995), American economist, historian, and individualist anarchist." Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Abridged Paperback Edition (1996), p. 282 "Although there are many honorable exceptions who still embrace the "socialist" label, most people who call themselves individualist anarchists today are followers of Murray Rothbard's Austrian economics, and have abandoned the labor theory of value." Carson, Kevin. Mutualist Political Economy, Preface. natural order ordered anarchy polycentric law the private-law society private-property anarchy Hoppe, Hans-Hermann (2001)"Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography" Retrieved 23 May 2005 pure capitalism radical capitalism stateless capitalism stateless society stateless liberalism voluntaryism Anarcho-capitalism, as formulated by Rothbard and others, holds strongly to the central libertarian nonaggression axiom: [...] The basic axiom of libertarian political theory holds that every man is a self owner, having absolute jurisdiction over his own body. In effect, this means that no one else may justly invade, or aggress against, another's person. It follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or "mixes his labor with." From these twin axioms self-ownership and "homesteading" stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free-market society. This system establishes the right of every man to his own person, the right of donation, of bequest (and, concomitantly, the right to receive the bequest or inheritance), and the right of contractual exchange of property titles. Rothbard, Murray N. (1982) "Law, Property Rights, and Air Pollution" Cato Journal 2, No. 1 (Spring 1982): pp. 55–99. Retrieved 20 May 2005 Rothbard's defense of the self-ownership principle stems from what he believed to be his falsification of all other alternatives, namely that either a group of people can own another group of people, or the other alternative, that no single person has full ownership over one's self. Rothbard dismisses these two cases on the basis that they cannot result in an universal ethic, i.e., a just natural law that can govern all people, independent of place and time. The only alternative that remains to Rothbard is self-ownership, which he believes is both axiomatic and universal. Rothbard, Murray N. (1982) The Ethics of Liberty Humanities Press ISBN 0-8147-7506-3:p162 Retrieved 20 May 2005 In general, the nonaggression axiom can be said to be a prohibition against the initiation of force, or the threat of force, against persons (i.e., direct violence, assault, murder) or property (i.e., fraud, burglary, theft, taxation). Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) For a new Liberty Collier Books, A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York: pp.24–25. Retrieved 20 May 2005 The initiation of force is usually referred to as aggression or coercion. The difference between anarcho-capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom. Minarchist libertarians, such as most people involved in libertarian political parties, would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form, retaining at the very least public police, courts and military; others, however, might give further allowance for other government programs. In contrast, anarcho-capitalists reject any level of state intervention, defining the state as a coercive monopoly and, as the only entity in human society that derives its income from legal aggression, an entity that inherently violates the central axiom of libertarianism. Some anarcho-capitalists, such as Rothbard, accept the nonaggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or natural law basis. It is in terms of the non-aggression principle that Rothbard defined anarchism; he defined "anarchism as a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression ['against person and property']" and said that "what anarchism proposes to do, then, is to abolish the State, i.e. to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion." Rothbard, Murray N. (1975) Society Without A State (pdf) Libertarian Forum newsletter (January 1975) In an interview with New Banner, Rothbard said that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism." Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal (25 February 1972) Property Private property Central to anarcho-capitalism are the concepts of self-ownership and original appropriation: Everyone is the proper owner of his own physical body as well as of all places and nature-given goods that he occupies and puts to use by means of his body, provided only that no one else has already occupied or used the same places and goods before him. This ownership of "originally appropriated" places and goods by a person implies his right to use and transform these places and goods in any way he sees fit, provided only that he does not change thereby uninvitedly the physical integrity of places and goods originally appropriated by another person. In particular, once a place or good has been first appropriated by, in John Locke's phrase, 'mixing one's labor' with it, ownership in such places and goods can be acquired only by means of a voluntary contractual transfer of its property title from a previous to a later owner. Hoppe, Hans-Hermann (2002) "Rothbardian Ethics" Retrieved 23 May 2005 Anarcho-capitalism uses the following terms in ways that may differ from common usage or various anarchist movements. Anarchism: any philosophy that opposes all forms of initiatory coercion (includes opposition to the State) Contract: a voluntary binding agreement between persons Coercion: physical force or threat of such against persons or property Capitalism: economic system where the means of production are privately owned, and where investments, production, distribution, income, and prices are determined through the operation of a free market rather than by government Free market: a market where all decisions regarding transfer of money, goods (including capital goods), and services are voluntary Fraud: inducing one to part with something of value through the use of dishonesty State: an organization that taxes and engages in regularized and institutionalized aggressive coercion Voluntary: any action not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by any human agency Anarcho-capitalists support unrestricted private ownership of the means of production and the liberty to operate them for profit, without coercive interference by the state and non-state collectives. This is the root of anarcho-capitalist property rights, and where they differ from collectivist forms of anarchism such as anarcho-communism where the means of production are controlled by the whole community and the product of labor is collectivized in a pool of goods and distributed "according to need." Anarcho-capitalists advocate individual or joint (i.e. private) ownership of the means of production and the product of labor regardless of what the individual "needs" or does not need. As Rothbard says, "if every man has the right to own his own body and if he must use and transform material natural objects in order to survive, then he has the right to own the product that he has made." After property is created through labor it may then only exchange hands legitimately by trade or gift; forced transfers are considered illegitimate. Original appropriation allows an individual to claim any never-before used resources, including land, and by improving or otherwise using it, own it with the same "absolute right" as his own body. According to Rothbard, property can only come about through labor, therefore original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it; it is only by using land by mixing one's labor with it that original appropriation is legitimized: "Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be." Rothbard notes that the resource need not continue to be used in order for it to be the person's property, "for once his labor is mixed with the natural resource, it remains his owned land. His labor has been irretrievably mixed with the land, and the land is therefore his or his assigns’ in perpetuity." Rothbard, Murray N. (1962) Man, Economy & State with Power and Market Ludwig von Mises Institute ISBN 0-945466-30-7 ch2 Retrieved 19 May 2005 As a practical matter, in terms of the ownership of land, anarcho-capitalists recognize that there are few (if any) parcels of land left on Earth whose ownership was not at some point in time obtained in violation of the homestead principle, through seizure by the state or put in private hands with the assistance of the state. Rothbard says, It is not enough to call simply for defense of "the rights of private property"; there must be an adequate theory of justice in property rights, else any property that some State once decreed to be "private" must now be defended by libertarians, no matter how unjust the procedure or how mischievous its consequences. Rothbard says in "Justice and Property Right" that "any identifiable owner (the original victim of theft or his heir) must be accorded his property." In the case of slavery, Rothbard says that in many cases "the old plantations and the heirs and descendants of the former slaves can be identified, and the reparations can become highly specific indeed." He believes slaves rightfully own any land they were forced to work on under the "homestead principle." If property is held by the state, Rothbard advocates its confiscation and return to the private sector: "any property in the hands of the State is in the hands of thieves, and should be liberated as quickly as possible." For example, he proposes that State universities be seized by the students and faculty under the homestead principle. Rothbard also supports expropriation of nominally "private property" if it is the result of state-initiated force, such as businesses who receive grants and subsidies. He proposes that businesses who receive at least 50% of their funding from the state be confiscated by the workers. He says, "What we libertarians object to, then, is not government per se but crime, what we object to is unjust or criminal property titles; what we are for is not "private" property per se but just, innocent, non-criminal private property." Likewise, Karl Hess says, "libertarianism wants to advance principles of property but that it in no way wishes to defend, willy nilly, all property which now is called private...Much of that property is stolen. Much is of dubious title. All of it is deeply intertwined with an immoral, coercive state system." Hess, Karl (1969) Letter From Washington The Libertatian Forum Vol. I, No. VI (15 June 1969) Retrieved 5 August 2006 By accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights, anarcho-capitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle: "For, apart from ruling out as unjustified all activities such as murder, homicide, rape, trespass, robbery, burglary, theft, and fraud, the ethics of private property is also incompatible with the existence of a state defined as an agency that possesses a compulsory territorial monopoly of ultimate decision-making (jurisdiction) and/or the right to tax." Intellectual property The positions on intellectual property vary according to the anarcho-capitalist theorist. Libertarian views range from support for all, to opposition to all intellectual property rights. Kinsella, Stephen. Against Intellectual Property. Journal of Libertarian Studies. Volume 15, no. 2 (Spring 2001): 1–53 Rothbard argues that patents are coercive monopolistic privileges granted by the state, and says they would not exist in a free society, because they prohibit individuals from independently coming up with the same invention. On the other hand, he holds that copyrights are in some situations compatible with a free society. His argument is that when a copyright notice is on a piece of literary work this is a signal that the creator of the work does not consent to anyone to using it unless they agree to not to copy it, hence if it is used this constitutes a contract. Rothbard, Murray. Man, Economy & State. http://mises.org/rothbard/mes/chap10e.asp#7._Patents_Copyrights Anarcho-capitalist Stephan Kinsella Kinsella, Stephan. What It Means to Be an Anarcho-capitalist. 2004 LewRockwell.com opposes both patent and copyright intellectual property. Common property Though anarcho-capitalists assert a right to private property, some anarcho-capitalists also point out that common, i.e. community, property can exist by right in an anarcho-capitalist system. Just as an individual comes to own that which was unowned by mixing his labor with it or using it regularly, a whole community or society can come to own a thing in common by mixing their labor with it collectively, meaning that no individual may appropriate it as his own. This may apply to roads, parks, rivers, and portions of oceans. Holcombe, Randall G., Common Property in Anarcho-Capitalism, Journal of Libertarian Studies, Volume 19, No. 2 (Spring 2005):3–29. Anarcho-capitalist theorist Roderick Long gives the following example: "Consider a village near a lake. It is common for the villagers to walk down to the lake to go fishing. In the early days of the community it's hard to get to the lake because of all the bushes and fallen branches in the way. But over time the way is cleared and a path forms — not through any coordinated efforts, but simply as a result of all the individuals walking by that way day after day. The cleared path is the product of labor — not any individual's labor, but all of them together. If one villager decided to take advantage of the now-created path by setting up a gate and charging tolls, he would be violating the collective property right that the villagers together have earned." Long, Roderick T. 199. "A Plea for Public Property." Formulations 5, no. 3 (Spring) Nevertheless, since property that is owned collectively tends to lose the level of accountability found in individual ownership to the extent of the number of owners — or make such accountability proportionately more complex, anarcho-capitalists generally distrust and seek to avoid intentional communal arrangements. Privatization, decentralization, and individualization are often anarcho-capitalist goals. But in some cases, they not only provide a challenge, but are considered next to impossible. Established ocean routes, for example, are generally seen as unavailable for private appropriation. Anarcho-capitalists tend to concur with free-market environmentalists regarding the environmentally destructive tendencies of the state and other communal arrangements. Air, water, and land pollution, for example, are seen as the result of collectivization of ownership. Central governments generally strike down individual or class action censure of polluters in order to benefit "the many", and legal or economic subsidy of heavy industry is justified by many politicians for job creation within a political territory. The contractual society A postage stamp celebrating the thousandth anniversary of the Icelandic parliament. According to a theory associated with the economist David Friedman, medieval Icelandic society had some features of anarcho-capitalism. Chieftaincies could be bought and sold, and were not geographical monopolies; individuals could voluntarily choose membership in any chieftain's clan. The society envisioned by anarcho-capitalists has been called the Contractual Society "... a society based purely on voluntary action, entirely unhampered by violence or threats of violence." in which anarcho-capitalists claim the system relies on voluntary agreements (contracts) between individuals as the legal framework. It is difficult to predict precisely what the particulars of this society will look like because of the details and complexities of contracts. One particular ramification is that transfer of property and services must be considered voluntary on the part of both parties. No external entities can force an individual to accept or deny a particular transaction. An employer might offer insurance and death benefits to same-sex couples; another might refuse to recognize any union outside his or her own faith. Individuals are free to enter into or reject contractual agreements as they see fit. Rothbard points out that corporations would exist in a free society, as they are simply the pooling of capital. He says limited liability for corporations could also exist through contract: "Corporations are not at all monopolistic privileges; they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital. On the purely free market, such men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation ...." Corporations created in this way would not, however, be able to replicate the limit on liabilities arising non-contractually, such as liability in tort for environmental disasters or personal injury, which corporations currently enjoy. Rothbard himself acknowledges that "limited liability for torts is the illegitimate conferring of a special privilege" Rothbard, Murray N. (1962) Man, Economy & State with Power and Market http://mises.org/rothbard/mes/chap15d.asp#_ftn11 There are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard himself asserts that the right to contract is based in inalienable human rights and therefore any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will, which would, for instance, prevent a person from permanently selling himself or herself into unindentured slavery. Other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract. Nozick, Robert (1973) Anarchy, State, and Utopia Included in the right of contract is the right to contract oneself out for employment by others. Unlike anarcho-communists, anarcho-capitalists support the liberty of individuals to be self-employed or to contract to be employees of others, whichever they prefer and the freedom to pay and receive wages. Some anarcho-capitalists prefer to see self-employment prevail over wage labor. For example, David Friedman has expressed preference for a society where "almost everyone is self-employed" and "instead of corporations there are large groups of entrepreneurs related by trade, not authority. Each sells not his time, but what his time produces." Friedman, David. The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism. Harper & Row. pp. 144–145 Others, such as Rothbard, do not express a preference either way but justify employment as a natural occurrence in a free market that is not immoral in any way. Law and order and the use of violence Different anarcho-capitalists propose different forms of anarcho-capitalism, and one area of disagreement is in the area of law. Morris and Linda Tannehill, in The Market for Liberty, object to any statutory law whatsoever. They assert that all one has to do is ask if one is aggressing against another (see tort and contract law) in order to decide if an act is right or wrong. Brown, Susan Love, The Free Market as Salvation from Government: The Anarcho-Capitalist View, Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture, edited by James G. Carrier, Berg/Oxford, 1997, p. 113. However, Murray Rothbard, while also supporting a natural prohibition on force and fraud, supports the establishment of a mutually agreed-upon centralized libertarian legal code which private courts would pledge to follow. Such a code for Internet commerce, called The Common Economic Protocols was developed by Andre Goldman. Unlike both the Tannehills and Rothbard who see an ideological commonality of ethics and morality as a requirement, David Friedman proposes that "the systems of law will be produced for profit on the open market, just as books and bras are produced today. There could be competition among different brands of law, just as there is competition among different brands of cars." Friedman says whether this would lead to a libertarian society "remains to be proven." He says it is a possibility that very unlibertarian laws may result, such as laws against drugs. But, he thinks this would be rare. He reasons that "if the value of a law to it supporters is less than its cost to its victims, that law...will not survive in an anarcho-capitalist society." Friedman, David. The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism. Harper & Row. pp. 127–128 Anarcho-capitalists only accept collective defense of individual liberty (i.e., courts, military or police forces) insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis. But, their complaint is not just that the state's defensive services are funded by taxation but that the state assumes it is the only legitimate practitioner of physical force. That is, it forcibly prevents the private sector from providing comprehensive security, such as a police, judicial, and prison systems to protect individuals from aggressors. Anarcho-capitalists believe that there is nothing morally superior about the state which would grant it, but not private individuals, a right to use physical force to restrain aggressors. Also, if competition in security provision were allowed to exist, prices would be lower and services would be better according to anarcho-capitalists. According to Molinari, "Under a regime of liberty, the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries."<ref name="Molinari-1849">Molinari, Gustave de (1849) The Production of Security (trans. J. Huston McCulloch)'.' Retrieved 15 July 2006. Proponents point out that private systems of justice and defense already exist, naturally forming where the market is allowed to compensate for the failure of the state: private arbitration, security guards, neighborhood watch groups, and so on. Friedman, David D. (1973) The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism Harper & Row ISBN 0-06-091010-0 ch29 These private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as Private Defense Agencies (PDAs). The defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on coercive taxation, or by cooperative self-help by groups of individuals. Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) For a new Liberty Collier Books, A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York: pp.223. Retrieved 5 August 2006. Murray Rothbard admired the American Revolution and believed it is the only U.S. war that can be justified. Like classical liberalism, and unlike anarcho-pacifism, anarcho-capitalism permits the use of force, as long as it is in the defense of persons or property. The permissible extent of this defensive use of force is an arguable point among anarcho-capitalists. Retributive justice, meaning retaliatory force, is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho-capitalist society. Some believe prisons or indentured servitude would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho-capitalist property relations, while others believe exile or forced restitution are sufficient. O'Keeffe, Matthew (1989) "Retribution versus Restitution" Legal Notes No.5, Libertarian Alliance ISBN 1-870614-22-4 Retrieved 19 May 2005 Bruce L. Benson notes that, in the interest of deterring crime, legal codes may impose punitive damages for intentional torts. For instance, a thief who breaks into a house by picking a lock and is caught before taking anything would still owe the victim for violating the sanctity of his property rights. Benson opins that, despite the lack of objectively measurable losses in such cases, "standardized rules that are generally perceived to be fair by members of the community would, in all likelihood, be established through precedent, allowing judgments to specify payments that are reasonably appropriate for most criminal offenses." The Tannehills raise a similar example, noting that a bank robber who had an attack of conscience and returned the money would still owe reparations for endangering the employees' and customers' lives and safety, in addition to the costs of the defense agency answering the teller's call for help. But the robber's loss of reputation would be even more damaging. Specialized companies would list aggressors so that anyone wishing to do business with a man could first check his record. The bank robber would find insurance companies listing him as a very poor risk, and other firms would be reluctant to enter into contracts with him. One difficult application of defensive aggression is the act of revolutionary violence (including anarcho-capitalist revolution) against tyrannical regimes. Many anarcho-capitalists admire the American Revolution as the legitimate act of individuals working together to fight against tyrannical restrictions of their liberties. In fact, according to Murray Rothbard, the American Revolutionary War was the only war involving the United States that could be justified. Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) Interview Reason February 1973. Retrieved 10 August 2005. Some anarcho-capitalists, i.e. Samuel Edward Konkin III feel that violent revolution is counter-productive and prefer voluntary forms of economic secession to the extent possible. History and influences Classical liberalism Gustave de Molinari (1819–1912). Classical liberalism is the primary influence with the longest history on anarcho-capitalist theory. Classical liberals have had two main themes since John Locke first expounded the philosophy: the liberty of man, and limitations of state power. The liberty of man was expressed in terms of natural rights, while limiting the state was based (for Locke) on a consent theory. In the 19th century, classical liberals led the attack against statism. One notable was Frederic Bastiat (The Law), who wrote, "The state is the great fiction by which everybody seeks to live at the expense of everybody else." Henry David Thoreau wrote, "I heartily accept the motto, 'That government is best which governs least'; and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe, 'That government is best which governs not at all'; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have." Thoreau, Henry David (1849) Civil Disobedience The early liberals believed that the state should confine its role to protecting individual liberty and property, and opposed all but the most minimal economic regulations. The "normative core" of classical liberalism is the idea that in an environment of laissez-faire, a spontaneous order of cooperation in exchanging goods and services emerges that satisfies human wants. Razeen, Sally. Classical Liberalism and International Economic Order: Studies in Theory and Intellectual History, Routledge (UK) ISBN 0-415-16493-1, 1998, p. 17 Some individualists came to realize that the liberal state itself takes property forcefully through taxation in order to fund its protection services, and therefore it seemed logically inconsistent to oppose theft while also supporting a tax-funded protector. So, they advocated what may be seen as classical liberalism taken to the extreme by only supporting voluntarily funded defense by competing private providers. One of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of privatizing protection of individual liberty and property was France's Jakob Mauvillon in the 18th century. Later, in the 1840s, Julius Faucher and Gustave de Molinari advocated the same. Molinari, in his essay The Production of Security, argued, "No government should have the right to prevent another government from going into competition with it, or to require consumers of security to come exclusively to it for this commodity." Molinari and this new type of anti-state liberal grounded their reasoning on liberal ideals and classical economics. Historian and libertarian Ralph Raico asserts what that these liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism." Raico, Ralph (2004) Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS Unlike the liberalism of Locke, which saw the state as evolving from society, the anti-state liberals saw a fundamental conflict between the voluntary interactions of people society and the institutions of force the State. This society versus state idea was expressed in various ways: natural society vs. artificial society, liberty vs. authority, society of contract vs. society of authority, and industrial society vs. militant society, just to name a few. The anti-state liberal tradition in Europe and the United States continued after Molinari in the early writings of Herbert Spencer, as well as in thinkers such as Paul Émile de Puydt and Auberon Herbert. Ulrike Heider, in discussing the "anarcho-capitalists family tree," notes Max Stirner as the "founder of individualist anarchism" and "ancestor of laissez-faire liberalism." Heider, Ulrike. Anarchism: Left, Right and Green, San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1994, pp. 95–96 According to Heider, Stirner wants to "abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members" and "derives his identity solely from property" with the question of property to be resolved by a 'war of all against all'." Stirner argued against the existence of the state in a fundamentally anti-collectivist way, to be replaced by a "Union of Egoists" but was not more explicit than that in his book The Ego and Its Own published in 1844. Later, in the early 20th century, the mantle of anti-state liberalism was taken by the "Old Right". These were minarchist, antiwar, anti-imperialist, and (later) anti-New Dealers. Some of the most notable members of the Old Right were Albert Jay Nock, Rose Wilder Lane, Isabel Paterson, Frank Chodorov, Garet Garrett, and H. L. Mencken. In the 1950s, the new "fusion conservatism", also called "cold war conservatism", took hold of the right wing in the U.S., stressing anti-communism. This induced the libertarian Old Right to split off from the right, and seek alliances with the (now left-wing) antiwar movement, and to start specifically libertarian organizations such as the (U.S.) Libertarian Party. Nineteenth century individualist anarchism in the United States Lysander Spooner (1808–87). Rothbard was influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists "...only a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in Power and Market, and some article writers were influenced by these men. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment." DeLeon, David. The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978, p. 127 (who were also influenced by classical liberalism). In the winter of 1949, influenced by several nineteenth-century individualists anarchists, Rothbard decided to reject minimal state laissez-faire and embrace individualist anarchism. Gordon, David. The Essential Rothbard. Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007. pp. 12-13. Rothbard said in 1965 "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View." A Way Out. May-June, 1965. Later republished in Egalitarianism As A Revolt Against Nature by Rothbard, 1974. Later published in Journal of Libertarian Studies, 2000. The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View "Lysander Spooner and Benjamin T. Tucker were unsurpassed as political philosophers and nothing is more needed today than a revival and development of the largely forgotten legacy they left to political philosophy." However, he thought they had a faulty understanding of economics. The 19th century individualists had a labor theory of value, as influenced by the classical economists, but Rothbard was a student of neoclassical economics which does not agree with the labor theory of value. So, Rothbard sought to meld 19th century individualists' advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics: "There is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics', a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung". "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View, Journal of Libertarian Studies, vol. 20, no. 1, p. 7 (1965, 2000) Rothbard held that the economic consequences of their political system they advocate would not result in an economy with people being paid in proportion to labor amounts, nor would profit and interest disappear as they expected. Tucker thought that unregulated banking and money issuance would cause increases in the money supply so that interest rates would drop to zero or near to it. Rothbard, disagreed with this, as he explains in The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View. He says that first of all Tucker was wrong to think that that would cause the money supply to increase, because he says that the money supply in a free market would be self-regulating. If it were not, then inflation would occur, so it is not necessarily desirable to increase the money supply in the first place. Secondly, he says that Tucker is wrong to think that interest would disappear regardless, because people in general do not wish to lend their money to others without compensation so there is no reason why this would change just because banking was unregulated. Also, Tucker held a labor theory of value. As a result, he thought that in a free market that people would be paid in proportion to how much labor they exerted and that if they were not then exploitation or "usury" was taking place. As he explains in State Socialism and Anarchism, his theory was that unregulated banking would cause more money to be available and that this would allow proliferation of new businesses, which would in turn raise demand for labor. This led him to believe that the labor theory of value would be vindicated, and equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay. Again, as a neoclassical economist, Rothbard did not agree with the labor theory. He believed that prices of goods and services are proportional to marginal utility rather than to labor amounts in free market. And he did not think that there was anything exploitative about people receiving an income according to how much others subjectively value their labor or what that labor produces, even if it means people laboring the same amount receive different incomes. Benjamin Tucker opposed vast concentrations of wealth, which he believed were made possible by government intervention and state protected monopolies. He believed the most dangerous state intervention was the requirement that individuals obtain charters in order to operate banks and what he believed to be the illegality of issuing private money, which he believed caused capital to concentrate in the hands of a privileged few which he called the "banking monopoly." He believed anyone should be able to engage in banking that wished, without requiring state permission, and issue private money. Though he was supporter of laissez-faire, late in life he said that State intervention had allowed some extreme concentrations of resources to such a degree that even if laissez-faire were instituted, it would be too late for competition to be able to release those resources (he gave Standard Oil as an example). Tucker, Benjamin. State Socialism and Anarchism Anarcho-capitalists also oppose governmental restrictions on banking. They, like all Austrian economists, believe that monopoly can only come about through government intervention. Individualists anarchists have long argued that monopoly on credit and land interferes with the functioning of a free market economy. Although anarcho-capitalists disagree on the critical topics of profit, social egalitarianism, and the proper scope of private property, both schools of thought agree on other issues. Of particular importance to anarcho-capitalists and the individualists are the ideas of "sovereignty of the individual", a market economy, and the opposition to collectivism. A defining point that they agree on is that defense of liberty and property should be provided in the free market rather than by the State. Tucker said, "[D]efense is a service like any other service; that it is labor both useful and desired, and therefore an economic commodity subject to the law of supply and demand; that in a free market this commodity would be furnished at the cost of production; that, competition prevailing, patronage would go to those who furnished the best article at the lowest price; that the production and sale of this commodity are now monopolized by the State; and that the State, like almost all monopolists, charges exorbitant prices." Tucker, Benjamin. "Instead of a Book" (1893) But, again, since anarcho-capitalists disagree with Tucker's labor theory of value, they disagree that free market competition would cause protection (or anything else) to be provided "at cost." Like the individualists, anarcho-capitalists believe that land may be originally appropriated by, and only by, occupation or use; however, most individualists of the nineteenth-century believed it must continually be in use to retain title. Lysander Spooner was an exception from those who believed in the "occupation and use" theory, and believed in full private property rights in land, like Rothbard. Watner, Carl. Spooner Vs. Liberty in The Libertarian Forum. March 1975. Volume VII, No 3. ISSN 0047-4517. pp. 5–6. The Austrian School Murray Rothbard (1926–95). The Austrian School of economics was founded with the publication of Carl Menger's 1871 book Principles of Economics. Members of this school approach economics as an a priori system like logic or mathematics, rather than as an empirical science like geology. It attempts to discover axioms of human action (called "praxeology" in the Austrian tradition) and make deductions therefrom. Some of these praxeological axioms are: humans act purposefully; humans prefer more of a good to less; humans prefer to receive a good sooner rather than later; and each party to a trade benefits ex ante. Even in the early days, Austrian economics was used as a theoretical weapon against socialism and statist socialist policy. Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, a colleague of Menger, wrote one of the first critiques of socialism ever written in his treatise The Exploitation Theory of Socialism-Communism. Later, Friedrich Hayek wrote The Road to Serfdom, asserting that a command economy destroys the information function of prices, and that authority over the economy leads to totalitarianism. Another very influential Austrian economist was Ludwig von Mises, author of the praxeological work Human Action. Murray Rothbard, a student of Mises, is the man who attempted to meld Austrian economics with classical liberalism and individualist anarchism, and is credited with coining the term "anarcho-capitalism". He wrote his first paper advocating "private property anarchism" in 1949, and later came up with the alternative name "anarcho-capitalism." He was probably the first to use "libertarian" in its current (U.S.) pro-capitalist sense. He was a trained economist, but also knowledgeable in history and political philosophy. When young, he considered himself part of the Old Right, an anti-statist and anti-interventionist branch of the U.S. Republican party. When interventionist cold warriors of the National Review, such as William Buckley, gained influence in the Republican party in the 1950s, Rothbard quit that group and formed an alliance with left-wing antiwar groups, noting an antiwar tradition among a number of self-styled left-wingers and to a degree closer to the Old Right conservatives. He believed that the cold warriors were more indebted in theory to the left and imperialist progressives, especially in regards to Trotskyist theory.". Rothbard, Murray N. . Retrieved 10 September 2006. Later, Rothbard initially opposed the founding of the U.S. Libertarian Party but joined the LP in 1973 and became one of its leading activists. In the late 1950s, Rothbard was briefly involved with Ayn Rand's Objectivism, but later had a falling out. Rothbard's books, such as Man, Economy, and State, Power and Market, The Ethics of Liberty, and For a New Liberty, are considered by some to be classics of natural law libertarian thought. Historical precedents similar to anarcho-capitalism 19th century interpretation of the Althing in the Icelandic Commonwealth, which authors such as David Friedman and Roderick Long believe to have some features of anarcho-capitalist society. To the extent that anarcho-capitalism is thought of as a theory or ideology—rather than a social process—critics say that it is unlikely ever to be more than a utopian ideal. Some, however, point to actual situations where protection of individual liberty and property has been voluntarily funded rather than being provided by a state through taxation. Medieval Iceland According to David Friedman, "Medieval Icelandic institutions have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions." Friedman, David D. (1979) Private Creation and Enforcement of Law: A Historical Case. Retrieved 12 August 2005. While not directly labeling it anarcho-capitalist, he argues that the Icelandic Commonwealth between 930 and 1262 had "some features" of an anarcho-capitalist society while there was a single legal system, enforcement of law was entirely private and highly capitalist; and so provides some evidence of how such a society would function. "Even where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially "public" offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system." The American Old West According to the research of Terry L. Anderson and P. J. Hill, the Old West in the United States in the period of 1830 to 1900 was similar to anarcho-capitalism in that "private agencies provided the necessary basis for an orderly society in which property was protected and conflicts were resolved," and that the common popular perception that the Old West was chaotic with little respect for property rights is incorrect. Anderson, Terry L. and Hill, P. J. An American Experiment in Anarcho-Capitalism: The Not So Wild, Wild West, The Journal of Libertarian Studies Since squatters had no claim to western lands under federal law, extra-legal organizations formed to fill the void. Benson explains: Early Pennsylvania Murray Rothbard's history of Colonial America Conceived in Liberty discussed a period where Pennsylvania fell into Anarchism and how William Penn struggled for about a decade to reinstate his government over a people who didn't want it. Theoretical and material variance among anarcho-capitalists A notable dispute within the anarcho-capitalist movement concerns the question of whether anarcho-capitalist society is justified on deontological or consequentialist ethics, or both. Natural-law anarcho-capitalism (as advocated by Rothbard) holds that a universal system of rights can be derived from natural law. Some other anarcho-capitalists do not rely upon the idea of natural rights, but instead present economic justifications for a free-market capitalist society. This latter approach, which has been called the Chicago School version Tame, Chris R. October 1983. The Chicago School: Lessons from the Thirties for the Eighties. Economic Affairs. p. 56 has been offered by David D. Friedman in The Machinery of Freedom. Also unlike other anarcho-capitalists, most notably Rothbard, Friedman has never tried to deny the theoretical cogency of the neoclassical literature on "market failure," nor has he been inclined to attack economic efficiency as a normative benchmark. In addition to differences over justifications, there are differences in regard to the systems proposed. In Friedman's version, private defense or protection agencies and courts not only defend legal rights but supply the actual content of these rights and all claims on the market. People will have the law system they pay for, and because of economic efficiency considerations resulting from individuals' utility functions, such law will tend to be libertarian in nature but will differ from place to place and from agency to agency depending on the tastes of the people who buy the law. Rothbardian anarcho-capitalists lean toward libertarian political deactivism in which political means are used to speed the obsolescence of the state. Friedmanites, on the other hand, prefer to rely more heavily on market processes in the evolution of polycentric law by centering on tort and contract law, and by exposing the inefficiencies and inconsistencies of criminal law, or crimes against the state. Anarcho-capitalism today Roderick Long, founder of the Molinari Institute, is one of many contemporary anarcho-capitalists. Besides the well-known David D. Friedman, many others carry on and evolve the anarcho-capitalist traditions. They include Randy Barnett, Ian Bernard, Walter Block, Gene Callahan, Bryan Caplan, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Scott Horton, Penn Jillette, Stephan Kinsella, Roderick Long, Carlo Lottieri, Wendy McElroy, Stefan Molyneux, Robert P. Murphy, Jan Narveson, Justin Raimondo, Lew Rockwell, Joseph Salerno, Jeremy Sapienza, George H. Smith, Joseph Sobran, Mark Thornton, Mary Ruwart, Jeffrey Tucker and Thomas Woods,. Criticisms of anarcho-capitalism Criticisms of anarcho-capitalism fall into several categories: practical criticisms that hold that anarcho-capitalism is unworkable in practice; critiques that hold that capitalism requires a coercive force (public or private) to exist and that a society can be anarchist or capitalist, but not both; general critiques of the morality of capitalism and liberalism, which also apply to anarcho-capitalism; and a utilitarian critique, which claims that anarcho-capitalism would not maximize utility. Another critique that an anarcho-capitalist society would degenerate into a "war of all against all". For example, Noam Chomsky says, "Anarcho-capitalism, in my opinion, is a doctrinal system which, if ever implemented, would lead to forms of tyranny and oppression that have few counterparts in human history." Lane, Tom. "Noam Chomsky On Anarchism" Znet (1996) Other critics argue that the free rider problem makes the provision of protection services in an anarcho-capitalist society impractical. Another State would replace the first Some argue that a private defense agency would inevitably gain a defense monopoly through Economy of scale thus securing significant market power and undermining potential entrants into the market. It has also been argued that PDAs find to be financially advantageous to collude, and form a cartel with other PDAs, after achieving a level of popularity that would give them an edge over competitors. Anarcho-capitalists dismiss this claim, citing the power of market competition as a check on monopoly, the defensive nature of private security, and the level of offensive force that is required to prevent competition. Moreover, the anarcho-capitalists further counter this claim by arguing that it only creates a circular and contradicting argument, in which it implicitly advocates a monopoly on force to stop a monopoly on force from arising. On page 41 of The Market for Liberty, the Tannehills point out that "[Government] attracts the worst kind of men to its ranks, shackles progress, forces its citizens to act against their own judgment, and causes recurring internal and external strife by its coercive existence. In view of all this, the question becomes not, “Who will protect us from aggression?” but “Who will protect us from the governmental ‘protectors’?” The contradiction of hiring an agency of institutionalized violence to protect us from violence is even more foolhardy than buying a cat to protect one’s parakeet." Linda & Morris Tannehill. The Market for Liberty (San Francisco: Fox & Wilkes, 1993), p. 41. Originally published 1970. The Tannehills, however, maintain that no coercive monopoly of force can arise on a truly free market. They write on page 81 that "A private defense service company, competing in an open market, couldn’t use force to hold onto its customers—if it tried to compel people to deal with it, it would compel them to buy protection from its competitors and drive itself out of business. The only way a private defense service company can make money is by protecting its customers from aggression, and the profit motive guarantees that this will be its only function and that it will perform this function well." Linda & Morris Tannehill. The Market for Liberty, p. 81. They go on to write: Private defense service employees would not have the legal immunity which so often protects governmental policemen. If they committed an aggressive act, they would have to pay for it, just the same as would any other individual. A defense service detective who beat a suspect up wouldn’t be able to hide behind a government uniform or take refuge in a position of superior political power. Defense service companies would be no more immune from having to pay for acts of initiated force and fraud than would bakers or shotgun manufacturers. ... Because of this, managers of defense service companies would quickly fire any employee who showed any tendency to initiate force against anyone, including prisoners. To keep such an employee would be too dangerously expensive for them. A job with a defense agency wouldn’t be a position of power over others, as a police force job is, so it wouldn't attract the kind of people who enjoy wielding power over others, as a police job does. In fact, a defense agency would be the worst and most dangerous possible place for sadists! Government police can afford to be brutal—they have immunity from prosecution in all but the most flagrant cases, and their “customers” can’t desert them in favor of a competent protection and defense agency. But for a free-market defense service company to be guilty of brutality would be disastrous. Force—even retaliatory force—would always be used only as a last resort; it would never be used first, as it is by governmental police. Linda & Morris Tannehill. The Market for Liberty, p. 84. Nonetheless, some critics point out that PDAs much like cartels such as OPEC and international mafia groups such as Cosa Nostra, would eventually engage in the same business model in order to maximize profit. Randall G. Holcombe, on an essay titled Is Government Inevitable? argues that: Firms might prey on their competitors' customers, as competing mafia groups do, to show those customers that their current protective firm is not doing the job and thus to induce them to switch protection firms. This action seems to be a profit-maximizing strategy; hence, protection firms that do not prey on noncustomers may not survive. Holcombe states that "the mafia offers protection for a fee, but it also uses its resources for predation; and thus profit-maximizing firms could be expected to employ them in the dual roles of protection and predation." Minarchist critics argue that, if monopolies of force are inevitable, community-controlled monopolies are preferable to privately controlled ones. Anarchist critics of private defense agencies state that community militias should exist alongside or instead of private defense agencies. Other critics, both anarchist and minarchist, argue that formal police forces, whether community controlled or privately controlled, have institutional flaws which informal defense arrangements do not. Malatesta, Errico, 1921, in a letter to Venturini. Anarcho-capitalism and other anarchist schools Some scholars do not consider anarcho-capitalism to be a form of anarchism, while others do. Some socialist anarchists argue that anarcho-capitalism is not a form of anarchism due to their belief that capitalism is inherently authoritarian. In particular they argue that certain capitalist transactions are not voluntary, and that maintaining the capitalist character of a society requires coercion, which is incompatible with an anarchist society. Moreover, capitalistic market activity is essentially dependent on private ownership and a particular form of exchange of goods where selling and buying. On the other hand, anarcho-capitalists such as Per Bylund, webmaster of the anarchism without adjectives website anarchism.net, note that the disconnect among non-anarcho-capitalist anarchists is likely the result of an "unfortunate situation of fundamental misinterpretation of anarcho-capitalism." Bylund asks, "How can one from this historical heritage claim to be both anarchist and advocate of the exploitative system of capitalism?" and answers it by pointing out that "no one can, and no one does. There are no anarchists approving of such a system, even anarcho-capitalists (for the most part) do not." Bylund, Per. Anarchism, Capitalism, and Anarcho-Capitalism, anarchism.net. July 6, 2004. Bylund explains this as follows: Murray N. Rothbard notes that the capitalist system of today is, indeed, not properly anarchistic because it is so often in collusion with the state. According to Rothbard, "what Marx and later writers have done is to lump together two extremely different and even contradictory concepts and actions under the same portmanteau term. These two contradictory concepts are what I would call 'free-market capitalism' on the one hand, and 'state capitalism' on the other." Rothbard, Murray N. Future of Peace and Capitalism, James H. Weaver, ed., Modern Political Economy (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1973), pp. 419-430 "The difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism," writes Rothbard, "is precisely the difference between, on the one hand, peaceful, voluntary exchange, and on the other, violent expropriation." He goes on to point out that he is "very optimistic about the future of free-market capitalism. I’m not optimistic about the future of state capitalism—or rather, I am optimistic, because I think it will eventually come to an end. State capitalism inevitably creates all sorts of problems which become insoluble." Ibid. Murray Rothbard maintains that anarcho-capitalism is the only true form of anarchism Rothbard, Murray N. Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard. The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal. 25 February 1972. – the only form of anarchism that could possibly exist in reality, as, he argues, any other form presupposes an authoritarian enforcement of political ideology (redistribution of private property, etc). In short, while granting that certain non-coercive hierarchies will exist under an anarcho-capitalist system, they will have no real authority except over their own property: a worker existing within such a 'hierarchy' (answerable to management, bosses, etc) is free at all times to abandon this voluntary 'hierarchy' and 1) create an organization within which he/she is at (or somewhere near) the top of the 'hierarchy' (entrepreneurship), 2) join an existing 'hierarchy' (wherein he/she will likely be lower in the scheme of things), or 3) abandon these hierarchies altogether and join/form a non-hierarchical association such as a cooperative, commune, etc. Since there will be no taxes, such cooperative organizations (labour unions, communes, voluntary socialist associations wherein the product of the labour and of the capital goods of those who join which they were able to peaceably acquire would be shared amongst all who joined, etc) would, under anarcho-capitalism, enjoy the freedom to do as they please (provided, of course that they set up their operation on their own -or un-owned- property, in other words so long as they do so without force). According to this argument, the free market is simply the natural situation that would result from people being free from authority, and entails the establishment of all voluntary associations in society: cooperatives, non-profit organizations (which would, just as today, be funded by individuals for their existence), businesses, etc. (in short, a free market does not equal the end of civil society, which continues to be a critique of anarcho-capitalism). Moreover, anarcho-capitalists (as well as classical liberal minarchists and others) argue that the application of so-called "leftist" anarchist ideals (e.g. the forceful redistribution of wealth from one set of people to another) requires an authoritarian body of some sort that will impose this ideology. (Voluntaryist socialism, of course, is completely compatible with anarcho-capitalism.) Some also argue that human beings are motivated primarily by the fulfillment of their own needs and wants. Thus, to forcefully prevent people from accumulating private capital, which could result in further fulfillment of human desires, there would necessarily be a redistributive organization of some sort which would have the authority to, in essence, exact a tax and re-allocate the resulting resources to a larger group of people. This body would thus inherently have political power and would be nothing short of a state. The difference between such an arrangement and an anarcho-capitalist system is precisely the voluntary nature of organization within anarcho-capitalism contrasted with a centralized ideology and a paired enforcement mechanism which would be necessary under a coercively 'egalitarian'-anarchist system. Stability of anarcho-capitalist legal institutions Two of the more prominent academics who have given some serious thought to essentially anarcho-capitalist legal institutions are Richard Posner, who is now a Federal Appeals Judge and a prolific legal scholar, and economist William Landes. In their 1975 paper "The Private Enforcement of Law", William Landes and Richard Posner. The Private Enforcement of Law 4 Journal of Legal Studies 1. they discuss a previous thought experiment undertaken by Becker and Stigler in which it was proposed that law enforcement could be privatized, and they explain why they believe such a system would not be economically efficient. According to David D. Friedman's later rebuke "Efficient Institutions for the Private Enforcement of Law", David D. Friedman. Efficient Institutions for the Private Enforcement of Law also available as an article on Google Scholar13 Journal of Legal Studies 379. Friedman, however, proceeds to argue that "the inefficiency Landes and Posner have demonstrated in the particular private enforcement institutions they describe can be eliminated by minor changes in the institutions." Anarcho-capitalist literature Nonfiction The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism. Murray Rothbard founder of anarcho-capitalism: Man, Economy, and State Austrian micro– and macroeconomics, Power and Market Classification of State economic interventions, The Ethics of Liberty Moral justification of a free society For a New Liberty An outline of how an anarcho-capitalist society could work Frederic Bastiat, The Law Radical classical liberalism Bruce L. Benson: The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State Bruce L. Benson: To Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice Davidson & Rees-Mogg, The Sovereign Individual Historians look at technology and its implications David D. Friedman, The Machinery of Freedom Classic consequentialist defense of anarchism Auberon Herbert, The Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State Hans-Hermann Hoppe, The Economics and Ethics of Private Property Hans-Hermann Hoppe, A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Democracy: The God That Failed Albert Jay Nock, Our Enemy the State Oppenheimer's thesis applied to early US history John Frederic Kosanke, Civilization 101 An anarcho-capitalist primer Stefan Molyneux, Universally Preferable Behavior Stefan Molyneux, Everyday Anarchy Stefan Molyneux, Practical Anarchy Franz Oppenheimer, The State Analysis of State; political means vs. economic means Herbert Spencer, Social Statics Includes the essay "The Right to Ignore the State" Linda and Morris Tannehill, The Market for Liberty Classic on Private defense agencies George H Smith, Justice Entrepreneurship in a Free Market Examines the Epistemic and entrepreneurial role of Justice agencies. Edward P Stringham, Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice 700 page book presenting the major arguments historical studies about anarcho capitalism. Fiction Anarcho-capitalism has been examined in certain works of literature, particularly science fiction. An early example is Robert A. Heinlein's 1966 novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress, in which he explores what he terms "rational anarchism". A contemporary anarcho-capitalistic work of science fiction is John C. Wright's The Golden Age. In The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Anton Wilson the Discordian Society headed by the character Hagbard Celine is anarcho-capitalist. The manifesto of the society in the novel 'Never Whistle While You're Pissing' contains Celine's Laws, three laws regarding government and social interaction. Cyberpunk and postcyberpunk authors have been particularly fascinated by the idea of the break-down of the nation-state. Several stories of Vernor Vinge, including Marooned in Realtime, feature anarcho-capitalist societies, often portrayed in a favorable light. Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash and The Diamond Age, Max Barry's Jennifer Government, Cory Doctorow's Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom, and L. Neil Smith's The Probability Broach all explore anarcho-capitalist ideas. The cyberpunk portrayal of anarchy varies from the downright grim to the cheerfully optimistic, and it need not imply anything specific about the writer's political views. Neal Stephenson, in particular, refrains from sweeping political statements when deliberately provoked. Ken MacLeod's Fall Revolution series explores the future consequences of the breakdown of current political systems within a revolutionary context. The second novel of the series The Stone Canal deals specifically with an anarcho-capitalist society and explores issues of self-ownership, privatization of police and courts of law, and the consequences of a contractual society. In Matt Stone's (Richard D. Fuerle) novelette On the Steppes of Central Asia an American grad student is invited to work for a newspaper in Mongolia, and discovers that the Mongolian society is indeed stateless in a semi-anarcho-capitalist way. The novelette was originally written to advertise Fuerle's 1986 economics treatise The Pure Logic of Choice . J. Neil Schulman's novel Alongside Night involves the occurrence of the achievement of a market anarchist society through Agorism. See also Schools of thought Agorism Autarchism Crypto-anarchism Kritarchy Market populism Anarcho-syndicalism Concepts Economic secession Polycentric law Private currency Tax resistance Private defense agency Dispute resolution organization Free market road Privatization in criminal justice Private production of law Aggression insurance Private police Citations References Bruce Benson: The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State Hart, David M.: Gustave de Molinari and the Anti-Statist Liberal Tradition Retrieved 14 September 2005 Hoppe, Hans-Hermann: A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism Hoppe, Hans-Hermann: Democracy: The God That Failed Rothbard, Murray: For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto Rothbard, Murray: The Ethics of Liberty Spooner, Lysander: (1867) No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority Retrieved 19 May 2005 Tannehill, Linda and Morris: The Market For Liberty Tucker, Benjamin: (1888) State Socialism and Anarchism:How Far They Agree, and Wherein They Differ Liberty 5.16, no. 120 (10 March 1888), pp. 2–3.Retrieved 20 May 2005 Tucker, Benjamin: (1926) Labor and its Pay Retrieved 20 May 2005 Sources that consider anarcho-capitalism a form of anarchism As a form of individualist anarchism Bottomore, Tom. Dictionary of Marxist Thought, Anarchism entry, p.21 1991 Barry, Norman. Modern Political Theory, 2000, Palgrave, p. 70 Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today, Manchester University Press (2002) ISBN 0-7190-6020-6, p. 135 Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics, Nelson Thomas 2003 ISBN 0-7487-7096-8, p. 91 Heider, Ulrike. Anarchism:Left, Right, and Green, City Lights, 1994. p. 3. Ostergaard, Geoffrey. Resisting the Nation State — the anarchist and pacifist tradition, Anarchism As A Tradition of Political Thought. Peace Pledge Union Publications ISBN 0902680358 Brooks, Frank H. (ed) (1994) The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908), Transaction Publishers, Preface p. xi Tormey, Simon. Anti-Capitalism, One World, 2004, pp. 118–119 Raico, Ralph. Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century, Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS, 2004 Offer, John. Herbert Spencer: Critical Assessments, Routledge (UK) (2000), p. 243 Busky, Donald. Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey, Praeger/Greenwood (2000), p. 4 Heywood, Andrew. Politics: Second Edition, Palgrave (2002), p. 61 Sources claiming that individualist anarchism was reborn as anarcho-capitalism Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, 1991, ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 11 Levy, Carl. "Anarchism", Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 MS Encarta (UK). As a form of anarchism in general Sylvan, Richard. "Anarchism". A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.231 Perlin, Terry M. Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979, p. 7 DeLeon, David. "The Beginning of Another Cycle", The American as Anarchist: Reflections of Indigenous Radicalism, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, p. 117 & 123 Brown, Susan Love, "The Free Market as Salvation from Government: The Anarcho-Capitalist View", Meanings of the Market: The * Free Market in Western Culture, edited by James G. Carrier, Berg/Oxford, 1997, p. 99 Kearney, Richard. Continental Philosophy in the 20th Century, Routledge (UK) (2003), p. 336 Sargent, Lyman Tower. Extremism in America: A Reader, NYU Press (1995), p. 11 Sanders, John T.; Narveson, For and Against the State, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1996, ISBN 0-8476-8165-3 review Goodwin, Barbara. Using Political Ideas, fourth edition, John Wiley & Sons (1987), p. 137 Sources that do not consider anarcho-capitalism to be a form of anarchism Meltzer, Albert. Anarchism: Arguments For and Against AK Press, (2000) p.50 Sabatini, Peter. " Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy" in Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed #41, Fall/Winter 1994-5. Further reading Murray Rothbard Father of modern anarcho-capitalism: , A general book on Austrian economics. , Classification of economic interventions by the state. , Moral justification of a free society. Frederic Bastiat, The Law Radical classical liberalism Davidson & Rees-Mogg, The Sovereign Individual Historians look at technology & implications David D. Friedman, The Machinery of Freedom Classic utilitarian defense of anarchism Auberon Herbert, The Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State Albert Jay Nock, Our Enemy the State Oppenheimer's thesis applied to early US history John Frederic Kosanke, Civilization 101 An anarcho-capitalist primer (webbed) Franz Oppenheimer, The State Analysis of State; political means vs. economic means Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia Seminal work of 20th century academic political philosophy concerning libertarianism Herbert Spencer, Social Statics Includes the essay "The Right to Ignore the State" Morris and Linda Tannehill, The Market for Liberty Classic on private defense agencies (PDAs) Robert Paul Wolff, In Defense of Anarchism, influential defence of anarchism within contemporary analytical philosophy Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography Hans-Hermann Hoppe, The Economics and Ethics of Private Property External links Ludwig von Mises Institute is a research and educational center of classical liberalism; including anarcho-capitalism, libertarian political theory, and the Austrian School of economics. anti-state.com, the "online center for market anarchism," has one of the more active forums and an archive of theoretical and practical articles from notable anarcho-capitalists Strike The Root is an anarcho-capitalist website featuring essays, news, and a forum. Anarcho-capitalist FAQ. Bryan Caplan's "Anarchism Theory FAQ" is written from the perspective of an anarcho-capitalist. LewRockwell.com is a site hosting libertarian, minarchist, as well as anarcho-capitalist articles, run by Lew Rockwell with the slogan "anti-state, anti-war, pro-market." The Molinari Institute operated by Roderick Long, offers online resources for those interested in exploring the ideas of market anarchism | Anarcho-capitalism |@lemmatized anarcho:149 capitalism:88 form:26 free:47 market:77 anarchism:60 individualist:25 anarchist:29 adam:3 ian:4 political:33 ideology:7 today:10 p:39 manchester:3 university:6 press:8 ostergaard:2 geoffrey:2 w:1 outwaite:1 ed:3 blackwell:5 dictionary:2 modern:4 social:8 thought:11 publish:6 philosophy:14 advocate:10 elimination:1 state:106 elevation:1 sovereign:3 individual:37 capitalist:96 society:57 law:53 enforcement:11 court:10 security:9 service:19 provide:12 voluntarily:4 funded:2 competitor:4 private:66 defense:34 agency:20 rather:13 compulsory:5 taxation:7 money:14 privately:4 produce:6 open:5 personal:3 economic:19 activity:3 regulate:1 natural:19 politics:4 victimless:1 crime:5 would:81 render:1 moot:1 argue:20 base:7 voluntary:21 trade:6 property:73 include:13 consumer:2 good:19 land:15 capital:8 order:13 maximize:3 liberty:38 prosperity:1 also:25 recognize:5 charity:1 communal:3 arrangement:5 part:5 ethic:14 hess:3 karl:3 death:2 interview:5 playboy:1 magazine:1 march:3 though:5 know:4 assert:6 right:57 individualized:1 joint:2 non:11 public:7 propose:8 community:10 exist:13 holcombe:4 randall:3 g:6 common:9 journal:12 libertarian:38 study:11 volume:4 spring:5 important:1 acquire:4 transfer:5 without:9 help:3 hindrance:1 believe:28 economically:2 beneficial:1 way:16 gift:2 labor:33 original:6 appropriation:6 aggression:11 fraud:7 avrich:2 paul:4 voice:2 oral:2 history:10 america:4 abridge:2 paperback:2 edition:5 ref:2 see:11 basis:5 prosperous:1 murray:37 rothbard:83 say:23 difference:8 peaceful:2 exchange:6 collusive:1 partnership:1 business:9 government:23 use:34 coercion:8 subvert:1 n:16 future:5 peace:3 leave:5 prospect:1 employ:4 term:11 confuse:1 monopoly:17 crony:1 corporatism:1 contemporary:6 mixed:3 economy:15 wherein:4 incentive:1 disincentive:1 skew:1 intervention:9 reject:5 belief:2 aggressive:4 entity:4 steal:2 expropriation:3 initiate:2 defensive:5 punitive:2 force:33 coercive:10 power:13 benefit:4 expense:2 others:14 create:7 restrict:2 freedom:11 via:1 drug:2 education:1 conscription:1 food:1 morality:3 like:13 embrace:3 unfettered:1 lead:7 considerable:1 tension:1 many:8 tend:4 distrust:2 inherently:4 authoritarian:4 variety:1 various:3 theorist:4 differ:5 similar:4 legal:20 consider:11 fall:6 first:14 well:9 version:3 formulate:2 austrian:16 school:11 economist:16 mid:1 twentieth:1 century:17 synthesize:1 element:1 economics:18 classical:17 liberalism:20 nineteenth:5 american:13 lysander:6 spooner:11 benjamin:8 tucker:19 theory:26 value:10 normative:3 implication:3 derive:4 student:5 disciple:1 ludwig:6 von:7 mi:7 combine:1 laissez:6 faire:6 teacher:1 absolutist:3 view:11 human:13 rejection:1 absorb:1 encyclopaedia:2 isbn:11 rothbardian:3 implementation:1 mutually:2 agree:8 upon:3 code:5 generally:6 accept:6 pledge:3 follow:4 new:17 sector:3 iii:2 police:12 sovereignty:2 principle:10 however:10 david:24 friedman:23 system:29 profit:10 machinery:8 second:3 la:1 salle:1 ill:1 pp:12 absolute:3 one:29 ground:3 give:8 explanation:2 think:11 preferable:3 pragmatic:1 utilitarian:4 argument:6 usually:2 best:4 defend:4 chapter:1 peter:3 leeson:2 case:10 anarchy:13 derives:1 strength:1 empirical:2 evidence:2 unbound:2 self:14 governance:1 work:13 cato:3 institute:8 august:5 han:6 hermann:12 hoppe:12 meanwhile:1 argumentation:2 foundation:1 hans:6 retrieve:19 february:4 close:1 approach:3 nonaggression:4 axiom:10 likely:3 coin:2 jarrett:1 wollstein:1 revive:1 wrong:6 poll:1 become:5 july:4 distinguish:2 oppose:8 libertarianism:5 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 online:4 http:3 search:1 eb:2 com:4 article:6 newton:1 egalitarianism:3 revolt:2 nature:6 essay:7 sometimes:2 necessarily:3 outside:2 circle:1 anti:17 marketism:1 andrew:2 rutten:1 save:1 u:12 leviathan:1 independent:2 review:3 vol:3 nr:1 claim:12 consistent:1 liberal:14 historian:4 although:2 honorable:1 exception:2 still:3 socialist:4 label:2 people:20 call:13 follower:1 abandon:3 carson:1 kevin:1 mutualist:1 preface:2 polycentric:3 annotated:2 bibliography:2 may:21 pure:2 radical:6 stateless:4 voluntaryism:1 hold:11 strongly:1 central:5 basic:1 every:3 man:12 owner:5 jurisdiction:2 body:8 effect:1 mean:16 else:5 justly:2 invade:1 aggress:2 another:11 person:13 whatever:1 previously:1 unowned:2 resource:10 appropriate:7 mix:5 twin:1 ownership:15 homesteading:1 stem:2 justification:5 entire:1 title:7 establish:3 donation:2 bequest:2 concomitantly:1 receive:8 inheritance:1 contractual:6 air:2 pollution:2 falsification:1 alternative:4 namely:1 either:2 group:11 single:2 full:4 dismiss:2 two:5 cannot:1 result:12 universal:3 e:10 govern:3 place:13 time:6 remain:3 axiomatic:2 humanity:1 general:5 prohibition:2 initiation:2 threat:3 direct:1 violence:7 assault:1 murder:2 burglary:2 theft:4 collier:2 book:11 division:2 macmillan:2 co:2 inc:2 york:2 refer:2 largely:2 degree:3 take:9 minarchist:5 involve:4 party:7 retain:3 small:1 less:3 invasive:3 least:3 military:2 might:6 allowance:1 program:1 contrast:2 level:4 define:5 income:4 violate:5 intrinsic:1 moral:3 sanction:1 abolish:3 regularized:2 institution:12 pdf:1 forum:5 newsletter:1 january:1 banner:3 expression:2 exclusive:2 fortnightly:2 concept:4 everyone:2 proper:2 physical:5 occupy:2 put:2 already:2 originally:5 imply:2 transform:2 fit:3 change:3 thereby:1 uninvitedly:1 integrity:1 particular:9 john:10 locke:4 phrase:1 previous:2 late:5 following:3 usage:1 movement:3 initiatory:1 opposition:3 contract:18 binding:1 agreement:3 production:10 investment:1 distribution:1 price:6 determine:1 operation:2 decision:2 regard:5 induce:3 something:1 dishonesty:1 organization:11 tax:6 engages:1 institutionalized:2 action:7 influence:9 perpetrate:1 support:8 unrestricted:1 operate:3 interference:2 collective:3 root:2 collectivist:2 communism:3 control:5 whole:2 product:6 collectivize:1 pool:2 distribute:1 accord:15 need:6 regardless:2 must:6 material:2 object:4 survive:3 make:6 hand:10 legitimately:1 illegitimate:2 allow:6 never:4 used:1 improve:1 otherwise:1 come:10 therefore:4 legitimate:3 merely:1 build:1 fence:1 around:1 legitimize:1 attempt:3 someone:1 whoever:1 user:1 turn:2 note:8 continue:3 owned:1 irretrievably:1 fore:1 assigns:1 perpetuity:1 mises:2 practical:4 matter:2 parcel:1 earth:1 whose:1 point:11 obtain:2 violation:1 homestead:3 seizure:1 assistance:1 enough:1 simply:5 adequate:1 justice:10 decree:1 unjust:2 procedure:1 mischievous:1 consequence:5 identifiable:1 victim:3 heir:2 slavery:2 old:9 plantation:1 descendant:1 former:1 slave:2 identify:1 reparation:2 highly:2 specific:2 indeed:3 rightfully:1 confiscation:1 return:2 thief:2 liberate:1 quickly:2 possible:4 example:9 seize:1 faculty:1 nominally:1 initiated:2 grant:5 subsidy:2 funding:1 confiscate:1 worker:2 libertarians:1 per:4 se:2 criminal:6 innocent:1 likewise:1 want:5 advance:1 wish:4 willy:1 nilly:1 much:5 dubious:1 deeply:1 intertwine:1 immoral:2 letter:2 washington:1 libertatian:1 vi:1 june:2 definition:1 deny:3 legitimacy:1 apart:1 rule:2 unjustified:1 homicide:1 rape:1 trespass:1 robbery:1 incompatible:2 existence:4 possess:1 territorial:1 ultimate:1 making:1 intellectual:6 position:3 vary:1 range:1 kinsella:4 stephen:1 patent:2 monopolistic:2 privilege:4 prohibit:1 independently:1 invention:1 copyright:3 situation:4 compatible:2 notice:1 piece:1 literary:1 signal:1 creator:1 consent:2 anyone:4 unless:1 copy:1 hence:2 constitute:1 org:2 mes:2 asp:2 stephan:3 lewrockwell:2 regularly:1 thing:2 collectively:2 apply:4 road:3 park:1 river:1 portion:1 ocean:2 roderick:6 long:10 village:1 near:3 lake:3 villager:3 walk:2 go:5 fishing:1 early:9 day:4 hard:1 get:1 bush:1 branch:2 clear:1 path:3 coordinated:1 effort:1 cleared:1 together:3 decide:3 advantage:1 set:3 gate:1 charge:2 toll:1 earn:1 plea:1 formulation:1 nevertheless:1 since:5 lose:1 accountability:2 find:3 extent:4 number:2 proportionately:1 complex:1 seek:4 avoid:1 intentional:2 privatization:4 decentralization:1 individualization:1 often:5 goal:1 challenge:1 next:1 impossible:1 route:1 unavailable:1 concur:1 environmentalist:1 environmentally:1 destructive:1 tendency:2 water:1 collectivization:1 strike:2 class:1 censure:1 polluter:1 heavy:1 industry:3 justify:5 politician:1 job:5 creation:2 within:7 territory:1 postage:1 stamp:1 celebrate:1 thousandth:1 anniversary:1 icelandic:6 parliament:1 associate:1 medieval:3 feature:5 chieftaincy:1 could:13 buy:4 sell:3 geographical:1 choose:2 membership:1 chieftain:1 clan:1 envision:1 purely:2 entirely:2 un:2 hamper:1 rely:5 framework:1 difficult:2 predict:1 precisely:3 look:3 detail:1 complexity:1 ramification:1 external:3 transaction:4 employer:1 offer:5 insurance:3 sex:1 couple:1 refuse:1 union:4 faith:1 enter:2 corporation:7 pooling:1 limited:1 liability:5 association:4 men:4 announce:1 creditor:1 limit:5 specifically:3 invest:1 able:5 replicate:1 arise:3 contractually:1 tort:5 environmental:1 disaster:1 injury:1 currently:1 enjoy:3 acknowledge:1 conferring:1 special:1 interpretation:3 inalienable:1 implicitly:2 void:2 instance:2 prevent:5 permanently:1 unindentured:1 conclude:1 ban:1 unacceptably:1 nozick:2 robert:7 utopia:2 oneself:1 employment:3 unlike:5 communist:1 employee:5 whichever:1 prefer:6 pay:10 wage:2 prevail:1 express:4 preference:2 almost:3 instead:4 large:2 entrepreneur:1 relate:1 authority:8 guide:3 harper:3 row:3 occurrence:2 different:7 area:2 disagreement:1 morris:7 linda:7 tannehill:7 statutory:1 whatsoever:1 ask:1 act:8 brown:2 susan:2 love:2 salvation:2 meaning:2 western:3 culture:2 edit:2 james:3 carrier:2 berg:2 oxford:2 establishment:2 centralize:1 internet:1 commerce:1 protocol:1 develop:1 andre:1 goldman:1 tannehills:4 ideological:1 commonality:1 requirement:2 bra:1 competition:9 among:6 brand:2 car:1 whether:3 proven:1 possibility:2 unlibertarian:1 rare:1 reason:3 supporters:1 cost:4 insofar:1 explicitly:1 complaint:1 fund:5 assume:1 practitioner:1 forcibly:1 comprehensive:1 judicial:1 prison:2 protect:10 aggressor:3 nothing:3 morally:1 superior:2 restrain:1 provision:2 low:3 molinari:11 regime:2 name:3 gustave:4 de:7 trans:1 j:4 huston:1 mcculloch:1 proponent:1 naturally:1 compensate:1 failure:2 arbitration:1 guard:1 neighborhood:1 watch:1 generically:1 pdas:2 unable:1 protection:13 finance:1 charitable:1 cooperative:4 admire:2 revolution:5 war:7 pacifism:1 permit:1 permissible:1 arguable:1 retributive:1 retaliatory:2 component:1 imagine:1 indenture:1 servitude:1 justifiable:1 deal:4 relation:1 exile:1 restitution:2 sufficient:1 keeffe:1 matthew:1 retribution:1 versus:2 alliance:3 bruce:4 l:7 benson:6 interest:4 deter:1 impose:2 damage:1 break:2 house:1 pick:1 lock:1 catch:1 anything:4 owe:2 sanctity:1 opins:1 despite:1 lack:1 objectively:1 measurable:1 loss:2 standardize:1 perceive:1 fair:1 member:4 likelihood:1 precedent:2 judgment:2 specify:1 payment:1 reasonably:1 offense:2 raise:2 bank:3 robber:3 attack:3 conscience:1 endanger:1 customer:6 life:2 safety:1 addition:2 answer:2 teller:1 reputation:1 even:9 damaging:1 specialized:1 company:7 list:3 check:2 record:1 poor:1 risk:1 firm:6 reluctant:1 application:2 revolutionary:3 tyrannical:2 fight:1 restriction:2 fact:2 united:4 samuel:1 edward:2 konkin:1 feel:1 violent:2 counter:2 productive:1 secession:2 primary:1 main:1 theme:1 expound:1 limitation:1 statism:1 notable:5 frederic:5 bastiat:3 write:11 great:1 fiction:4 everybody:2 live:1 henry:2 thoreau:2 heartily:1 motto:1 rapidly:1 systematically:1 carry:2 finally:1 amount:5 prepare:1 kind:3 civil:2 disobedience:1 confine:1 role:3 minimal:2 regulation:1 core:1 idea:9 environment:2 spontaneous:1 cooperation:1 emerge:1 satisfies:1 razeen:1 sally:1 international:2 routledge:3 uk:4 realize:1 forcefully:2 seem:2 logically:1 inconsistent:1 protector:2 extreme:2 compete:3 provider:1 discuss:5 privatize:2 france:1 jakob:1 mauvillon:1 later:11 julius:1 faucher:1 require:6 exclusively:1 commodity:4 type:1 reasoning:1 ideal:3 ralph:3 raico:3 philosopher:2 authentic:2 german:2 ecole:2 polytechnique:2 centre:2 recherce:2 en:2 epistemologie:2 appliquee:2 unité:2 associée:2 au:2 cnrs:2 saw:2 evolve:3 fundamental:3 conflict:2 interaction:2 v:7 artificial:1 industrial:1 militant:1 tradition:8 europe:1 writing:1 herbert:7 spencer:4 thinker:1 émile:1 puydt:1 auberon:3 ulrike:3 heider:4 family:1 tree:1 max:2 stirner:3 founder:3 ancestor:1 left:4 green:2 san:2 francisco:2 city:2 light:3 responsible:1 identity:1 solely:1 question:3 resolve:2 fundamentally:1 replace:2 egoist:1 explicit:1 ego:1 mantle:1 antiwar:4 imperialist:2 dealer:1 albert:4 jay:3 nock:3 rise:1 wild:3 lane:2 isabel:1 paterson:1 frank:2 chodorov:1 garet:1 garrett:1 h:5 mencken:1 fusion:1 conservatism:2 cold:3 wing:3 stress:1 split:1 start:1 writer:3 consciously:1 automatic:1 deleon:2 reflection:2 indigenous:2 radicalism:2 hopkins:2 winter:2 several:4 gordon:1 essential:1 doctrine:4 republish:1 unsurpassed:1 needed:1 revival:1 development:1 forget:1 legacy:1 faulty:1 understanding:1 neoclassical:3 meld:2 advocacy:1 scientific:1 working:1 easily:1 incorporate:1 weltanschauung:1 proportion:2 disappear:2 expect:2 unregulated:3 banking:6 issuance:1 cause:5 increase:3 supply:6 rate:1 drop:1 zero:1 disagree:4 explain:5 regulating:1 inflation:1 occur:1 desirable:1 secondly:1 lend:1 compensation:1 exert:1 exploitation:2 usury:1 socialism:10 available:2 proliferation:1 demand:2 vindicate:1 equal:3 proportional:1 marginal:1 utility:3 exploitative:2 subjectively:1 vast:1 concentration:2 wealth:2 protected:1 dangerous:2 charter:1 illegality:1 issue:4 caused:1 concentrate:1 engage:2 permission:1 supporter:1 release:1 standard:1 oil:1 governmental:4 credit:2 interferes:1 functioning:1 critical:2 topic:1 scope:1 importance:1 collectivism:1 efense:1 useful:1 desire:3 subject:1 furnish:2 prevailing:1 patronage:1 sale:1 monopolize:1 monopolist:1 exorbitant:1 occupation:2 continually:1 watner:1 carl:3 vii:1 issn:1 found:1 publication:2 menger:2 priori:1 logic:2 mathematics:1 science:3 geology:1 discover:1 praxeology:1 deduction:1 therefrom:1 praxeological:2 purposefully:1 sooner:1 ex:1 ante:1 theoretical:4 weapon:1 statist:3 policy:1 eugen:1 böhm:1 bawerk:1 colleague:1 critique:6 ever:3 treatise:2 friedrich:1 hayek:1 serfdom:1 command:1 destroy:1 information:1 function:6 totalitarianism:1 influential:2 author:3 paper:2 probably:1 current:3 pro:2 sense:1 trained:1 knowledgeable:1 young:1 interventionist:2 republican:2 warrior:2 national:1 william:4 buckley:1 gain:2 quit:1 style:1 winger:1 closer:1 conservative:1 indebted:1 progressive:1 especially:1 trotskyist:1 september:2 initially:1 founding:1 join:5 lp:1 leading:1 activist:1 briefly:1 ayn:1 rand:1 objectivism:1 classic:5 historical:4 althing:1 commonwealth:2 process:2 critic:6 unlikely:1 utopian:1 actual:2 iceland:1 peculiar:1 interesting:1 characteristic:1 invent:1 mad:1 test:1 length:1 supplant:1 directly:1 essentially:4 lot:1 affect:1 pursue:1 collect:1 fine:1 thus:6 west:4 research:2 terry:3 anderson:2 hill:2 period:2 necessary:2 orderly:1 popular:1 perception:1 chaotic:1 little:1 respect:1 incorrect:1 experiment:2 squatter:1 federal:2 extra:1 fill:1 pennsylvania:2 colonial:1 conceive:1 fell:1 penn:2 struggle:1 decade:1 reinstate:1 variance:1 dispute:2 concern:2 deontological:1 consequentialist:2 present:2 latter:1 chicago:2 tame:1 chris:1 r:1 october:1 lesson:1 thirty:1 eighty:1 affair:1 notably:1 try:2 cogency:1 literature:3 incline:1 efficiency:2 benchmark:1 content:1 consideration:1 depend:1 taste:1 lean:1 toward:1 deactivism:1 speed:1 obsolescence:1 friedmanites:1 heavily:1 evolution:1 center:3 expose:1 inefficiency:2 inconsistency:1 besides:1 randy:1 barnett:1 bernard:1 walter:1 block:1 gene:1 callahan:1 bryan:2 caplan:2 scott:1 horton:1 jillette:1 carlo:1 lottieri:1 wendy:1 mcelroy:1 stefan:4 molyneux:4 murphy:1 jan:1 narveson:2 justin:1 raimondo:1 lew:2 rockwell:2 joseph:2 salerno:1 jeremy:1 sapienza:1 george:2 smith:3 sobran:1 mark:1 thornton:1 mary:1 ruwart:1 jeffrey:1 thomas:2 wood:1 criticism:3 category:1 unworkable:1 practice:1 degenerate:1 noam:2 chomsky:2 opinion:1 doctrinal:1 implement:1 tyranny:1 oppression:1 counterpart:1 tom:2 znet:1 rider:1 problem:2 impractical:1 inevitably:2 scale:1 secure:1 significant:1 undermining:1 potential:1 entrant:1 pda:3 financially:1 advantageous:1 collude:1 cartel:2 achieve:1 popularity:1 edge:1 cite:1 offensive:1 moreover:3 far:2 circular:1 contradict:1 stop:1 page:3 attract:2 bad:2 rank:1 shackle:1 progress:1 citizen:1 recur:1 internal:1 strife:1 contradiction:1 hire:1 foolhardy:1 cat:1 parakeet:1 fox:1 wilkes:1 maintain:3 truly:1 onto:1 compel:2 drive:1 motive:1 guarantee:1 perform:1 immunity:2 policeman:1 commit:1 detective:1 beat:1 suspect:1 hide:1 behind:1 uniform:1 refuge:1 immune:1 baker:1 shotgun:1 manufacturer:1 manager:1 fire:1 show:2 prisoner:1 keep:1 dangerously:1 expensive:1 wield:1 sadist:1 afford:1 brutal:1 prosecution:1 flagrant:1 desert:1 favor:1 competent:1 guilty:1 brutality:1 disastrous:1 always:1 last:1 resort:1 nonetheless:1 opec:1 mafia:3 cosa:1 nostra:1 eventually:2 model:1 inevitable:2 prey:2 protective:1 switch:1 maximizing:2 strategy:1 noncustomers:1 fee:1 predation:2 dual:1 militia:1 alongside:2 formal:1 institutional:1 flaw:1 informal:1 malatesta:1 errico:1 venturini:1 scholar:2 due:1 certain:3 character:2 capitalistic:2 dependent:1 selling:1 buying:1 bylund:4 webmaster:1 adjective:1 website:2 net:2 disconnect:1 unfortunate:1 misinterpretation:1 asks:1 heritage:1 approve:1 properly:1 anarchistic:1 collusion:1 marx:1 lump:1 gether:1 extremely:1 contradictory:2 portmanteau:1 weaver:1 boston:1 allyn:1 bacon:1 optimistic:4 capi:1 talism:1 end:2 sort:3 insoluble:1 ibid:1 true:1 possibly:1 reality:1 presuppose:1 redistribution:2 etc:5 short:3 hierarchy:6 real:1 except:1 answerable:1 management:1 boss:1 somewhere:1 top:1 entrepreneurship:2 scheme:1 altogether:1 hierarchical:1 commune:2 labour:2 peaceably:1 share:1 amongst:1 please:1 course:2 word:1 entail:1 minarchists:1 leftist:1 forceful:1 voluntaryist:1 completely:1 motivate:1 primarily:1 fulfillment:2 accumulate:1 redistributive:1 essence:1 exact:1 allocate:1 resulting:1 centralized:1 paired:1 mechanism:1 coercively:1 egalitarian:1 stability:1 prominent:1 academic:2 serious:1 richard:5 posner:3 appeal:1 judge:1 prolific:1 landes:3 undertake:1 becker:1 stigler:1 efficient:3 rebuke:1 google:1 proceeds:1 demonstrate:1 describe:1 eliminate:1 minor:1 nonfiction:2 partial:1 micro:1 macroeconomics:1 classification:2 outline:1 enterprise:2 serve:1 davidson:2 rees:2 mogg:2 technology:2 compulsion:2 democracy:2 god:2 fail:2 enemy:2 oppenheimer:4 thesis:2 kosanke:2 civilization:2 primer:2 universally:1 behavior:1 everyday:1 franz:2 analysis:2 static:2 ignore:2 examine:2 epistemic:1 entrepreneurial:1 stringham:1 choice:2 major:1 particularly:2 heinlein:1 novel:4 moon:1 harsh:1 mistress:1 explore:5 rational:1 c:1 wright:1 golden:1 age:2 illuminatus:1 trilogy:1 anton:1 wilson:1 discordian:1 head:1 hagbard:1 celine:2 manifesto:2 whistle:1 piss:1 contains:1 three:1 cyberpunk:2 postcyberpunk:1 fascinate:1 nation:2 story:1 vernor:1 vinge:1 maroon:1 realtime:1 portray:1 favorable:1 neal:2 stephenson:2 snow:1 crash:1 diamond:1 barry:2 jennifer:1 cory:1 doctorow:1 magic:1 kingdom:1 neil:2 probability:1 broach:1 portrayal:1 varies:1 downright:1 grim:1 cheerfully:1 refrain:1 sweep:1 statement:1 deliberately:1 provoke:1 ken:1 macleod:1 series:2 breakdown:1 context:1 stone:2 canal:1 matt:1 fuerle:2 novelette:2 steppe:1 asia:1 grad:1 invite:1 newspaper:1 mongolia:1 discovers:1 mongolian:1 semi:1 advertise:1 schulman:1 night:1 achievement:1 agorism:2 autarchism:1 crypto:1 kritarchy:1 populism:1 syndicalism:1 currency:1 resistance:1 resolution:1 citation:1 reference:1 hart:1 treason:1 constitution:1 source:3 bottomore:1 marxist:1 entry:1 norman:1 palgrave:2 moyra:1 key:1 nelson:1 resist:1 pacifist:1 brook:1 anthology:1 publisher:2 xi:1 tormey:1 simon:1 world:1 assessment:1 busky:1 donald:1 democratic:1 global:1 survey:1 praeger:1 greenwood:1 heywood:1 reborn:1 levy:1 microsoft:1 encarta:2 encyclopedia:1 sylvan:1 companion:1 editor:1 goodin:1 pettit:1 philip:1 publishing:1 perlin:1 brunswick:1 nj:1 beginning:1 cycle:1 kearney:1 continental:1 sargent:1 lyman:1 tower:1 extremism:1 reader:1 nyu:1 sander:1 rowman:1 littlefield:1 goodwin:1 barbara:1 fourth:1 wiley:1 son:1 meltzer:1 ak:1 sabatini:1 bogus:1 arm:1 reading:1 father:1 web:1 seminal:1 wolff:1 defence:1 analytical:1 link:1 educational:1 active:1 archive:1 news:1 faq:2 perspective:1 site:1 host:1 run:1 slogan:1 interested:1 |@bigram anarcho_capitalism:54 anarchism_individualist:2 individualist_anarchist:9 anarcho_capitalist:88 victimless_crime:1 render_moot:1 avrich_paul:2 murray_rothbard:16 rothbard_murray:17 crony_capitalism:1 twentieth_century:1 classical_liberalism:12 nineteenth_century:5 lysander_spooner:5 spooner_benjamin:3 benjamin_tucker:4 austrian_economist:3 ludwig_von:6 laissez_faire:6 blackwell_encyclopaedia:2 la_salle:1 cato_institute:1 han_hermann:6 hermann_hoppe:8 hans_hermann:6 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_online:1 individualist_anarchism:9 hoppe_hans:4 annotated_bibliography:2 coercive_monopoly:2 banner_fortnightly:2 fortnightly_libertarian:2 anarcho_communism:1 von_mises:1 mises_institute:1 per_se:2 karl_hess:1 decision_making:1 lewrockwell_com:2 postage_stamp:1 limited_liability:1 anarcho_communist:1 harper_row:3 tannehill_market:6 retributive_justice:1 punitive_damage:1 frederic_bastiat:3 david_thoreau:1 civil_disobedience:1 ecole_polytechnique:2 herbert_spencer:4 max_stirner:1 san_francisco:2 anti_imperialist:1 l_mencken:1 spooner_tucker:4 neoclassical_economics:1 self_regulating:1 neoclassical_economist:1 marginal_utility:1 tucker_benjamin:4 anything_else:1 carl_menger:1 eugen_von:1 von_böhm:1 böhm_bawerk:1 socialism_communism:1 friedrich_hayek:1 road_serfdom:1 anti_statist:2 ayn_rand:1 rely_heavily:1 bryan_caplan:2 wendy_mcelroy:1 justin_raimondo:1 lew_rockwell:2 joseph_sobran:1 maximize_utility:1 noam_chomsky:2 linda_morris:5 profit_motive:1 immunity_prosecution:1 maximize_profit:1 profit_maximizing:2 allyn_bacon:1 richard_posner:2 science_fiction:2 robert_heinlein:1 harsh_mistress:1 illuminatus_trilogy:1 anton_wilson:1 vernor_vinge:1 neal_stephenson:2 cory_doctorow:1 ken_macleod:1 anarcho_syndicalism:1 praeger_greenwood:1 microsoft_encarta:1 encarta_online:1 blackwell_publishing:1 brunswick_nj:1 rowman_littlefield:1 littlefield_publisher:1 wiley_son:1 robert_nozick:1 external_link:1 |
3,494 | Celts | Diachronic distribution of Celtic peoples: Celts ( or , see names of the Celts; the most common academic usage is with a velar "c", pronounced as "k"), is a modern term used to describe any of the European peoples who spoke, or speak, a Celtic language. The term is also used in a wider sense to describe the modern descendants of those peoples, notably those who participate in a Celtic culture. The historical Celts were a diverse group of tribal societies in Iron Age Europe. Proto-Celtic culture formed in the Early Iron Age in Central Europe (Hallstatt period, named for the site in present-day Austria). By the later Iron Age (La Tène period), Celts had expanded over a wide range of lands: as far west as Ireland and the Iberian Peninsula, as far east as Galatia (central Anatolia), and as far north as Scotland. Britannica (Turkey) People and Culture The earliest direct attestation of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions, beginning from the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested only in inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic is attested from about the fourth century AD in ogham inscriptions. Literary tradition begins with Old Irish from about the eighth century. Coherent texts of Early Irish literature, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge, survive in 12th century recensions. By the early first millennium AD, following the expansion of the Roman Empire and the Great Migrations (Migration Period) of Germanic peoples, Celtic culture had become restricted to the British Isles (Insular Celtic), and the Continental Celtic languages ceased to be widely used by the sixth century. "Celtic Europe" today refers to the lands surrounding the Irish Sea, as well as Cornwall and Brittany on either side of the English Channel. Names and terminology The origin of the various names used since classical times for the people known today as the Celts is obscure and has been controversial. The Latin name Celtus (pl. Celti or Celtae; Greek Κέλτης pl. Κέλται or Κελτός pl. Κελτοί, Keltai or Keltoi) seems to have been borrowed from Greek, itself taken from a native Celtic tribal name (cf. Celtici). Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1.1: "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae live, another in which the Aquitani live, and the third are those who in their own tongue are called Celts (Celtae), in our language Gauls (Galli). In Greek, the first literary reference to the Celtic people, as Κελτοί (Κeltoi), is by the Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus in 517 BC; he says that the town of Massilia (Marseille) is near the Celts and also mentions a Celtic town of Nyrex (possibly Noreia in Austria). Herodotus seems to locate the Keltoi at the source of the Danube and/or in Iberia, but the passage is unclear. The English word Celt is modern, attested from 1707 in the writings of Edward Lhuyd whose work, along with that of other late 17th century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of these early inhabitants of Great Britain. (Lhuyd, p. 290) Lhuyd, E. "Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain." (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, 1971. ISBN 0-7165-0031-0 Latin Gallus might originally be from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the early 400s BC Celtic expansions into Italy. Its root may be the Common Celtic *galno, meaning 'power' or 'strength'. The Greek Galatai seems to be based on the same root, borrowed directly from the same hypothetical Celtic source which gave us Galli (the suffix -atai is simply an ethnic name indicator). (see Galatia in Anatolia) The English form Gaul comes from the French Gaule and Gaulois, which is the traditional rendering of Latin Gallia and Gallus, -icus respectively. However, the diphthong au points to a different origin, namely a Romance adaptation of the Germanic *Walha-. (see Gaul: Name) The English word 'Welsh' originates from the word wælisc, the Anglo-Saxon form of walhiska-, the Germanic word for "foreign". 'Celticity' generally refers to the cultural commonalities of these peoples, based on similarities in language, material artifacts, social organisation and mythological factors. Earlier theories were that this indicated a common racial origin but more recent theories are reflective of culture and language rather than race. Celtic cultures seem to have had numerous diverse characteristics but the commonality between these diverse peoples was the use of a Celtic language. 'Celtic' is a descriptor of a family of languages and, more generally, means 'of the Celts,' or 'in the style of the Celts'. It has also been used to refer to several archaeological cultures defined by unique sets of artifacts. The link between language and artifact is aided by the presence of inscriptions. (see Celtic (disambiguation) for other applications of the term) Today, the term 'Celtic' is generally used to describe the languages and respective cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man and Brittany, also known as the Six Celtic Nations. These are the regions where four Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent as mother tongues: Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton plus two recent revivals, Cornish (one of the Brythonic languages) and Manx (one of the Goidelic languages). There are also attempts to revive the Cumbric language (a Brythonic language from Northwest England and Southwest Scotland). 'Celtic' is also sometimes used to describe regions of Continental Europe that have Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language has survived; these areas include the western Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Portugal, and north-central Spain (Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, Extremadura), and to a lesser degree, France. (see Modern Celts) 'Continental Celts' refers to the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe. 'Insular Celts' refers to the Celtic-speaking people of the British Isles and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating insular Celts from west Britain and so are grouped accordingly. Origins Overview of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. The territories of some major Celtic tribes of the late La Tène period are labeled. The Celtic languages form a branch of the larger Indo-European family. By the time speakers of Celtic languages enter history around 400 BC (Brennus's attack on Rome in 387 BC), they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of Central Europe, the Iberian peninsula, Ireland and Britain. Some scholars think that the Urnfield culture of northern Germany and the Netherlands represents an origin for the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European family. This culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age, from ca. 1200 BC until 700 BC, itself following the Unetice and Tumulus cultures. The Urnfield period saw a dramatic increase in population in the region, probably due to innovations in technology and agricultural practices. The Greek historian Ephoros of Cyme in Asia Minor, writing in the fourth century BC, believed that the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the Rhine who were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea". The spread of iron-working led to the development of the Hallstatt culture directly from the Urnfield (c. 700 to 500 BC). Proto-Celtic, the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic languages, is considered by this school of thought to have been spoken at the time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures, in the early first millennium BC. The spread of the Celtic languages to Iberia, Ireland and Britain would have occurred during the first half of the 1st millennium BC, the earliest chariot burials in Britain dating to ca. 500 BC. Over the centuries they developed into the separate Celtiberian, Goidelic and Brythonic languages. The Hallstatt culture was succeeded by the La Tène culture of central Europe, and during the final stages of the Iron Age gradually transformed into the explicitly Celtic culture of early historical times. Celtic river-names are found in great numbers around the upper reaches of the Danube and Rhine, which led many Celtic scholars to place the ethnogenesis of the Celts in this area. Diodorus Siculus and Strabo both suggest that the Celtic heartland was in southern France. The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls. Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tene, it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern France, see Encyclopedia Britannica for 1813. Almagro-Gorbea 2001 p 95. La lengua de los Celtas y otros pueblos indoeuropeos de la península ibérica. In Almagro-Gorbea, M., Mariné, M. and Álvarez-Sanchís, J.R. (eds) Celtas y Vettones, pp. 115-121. Ávila: Diputación Provincial de Ávila. proposed the origins of the Celts could be traced back to the third millennium BC, seeking the initial roots in the Bell Beaker culture, thus offering the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the different Celtic peoples, and the existence of ancestral traditions an ancient perspective. Meanwhile, genetics, history, and archaeological researcher and writer Stephen Oppenheimer suggests the Celts were a Mediterranean people first established in what is now southern France by the end of the last glacial maxum, around 11,000BC. From there through further integration with what might have been proto-Basque populations, these people spread outward into Italy, Spain, the British Isles and Germany. Indeed, Celtic origin myths recorded in Medieval Scotland and Ireland suggest a possible beginning in Anatolia and then to Iberia via Egypt. But, in his 2006 book The Origins of the British, revised in 2007, he argued that neither Anglo-Saxons nor Celts had much impact on the genetics of the inhabitants of the British Isles, and that British ancestry mainly traces back to the Palaeolithic Iberian people, now represented by Basques, instead. Linguistic evidence The Proto-Celtic language is usually dated to the early European Iron Age. The earliest records of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul, the oldest of which still predate the La Tène period. Other early inscriptions are Gaulish, appearing from the early La Tène period in inscriptions in the area of Massilia, in the Greek alphabet. Celtiberian inscriptions appear comparatively late, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic is available only from about AD 400, in the form of Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions. Besides epigraphical evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is toponymy. e.g. Patrick Sims-Williams, Ancient Celtic Placenames in Europe and Asia Minor, Publications of the Philological Society, No. 39 (2006); Bethany Fox, The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland See also List of Celtic place names in Portugal. Archaeological evidence Map of the Hallstatt Culture In various academic disciplines the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon, through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. However, archaeological finds from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures were rare in the Iberian Peninsula, and did not provide enough evidence for a cultural scenario comparable to that of Central Europe. It is considered equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Peninsular Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture, leading to a more recent approach that introduces a 'proto-Celtic' substratum and a process of Celticization having its initial roots in the Bronze Age Bell Beaker culture. The Celts in Iberia: An Overview - Alberto J. Lorrio (Universidad de Alicante) & Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) - Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, Volume 6: 167-254 The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, February 1, 2005 The Iron Age Hallstatt (c. 800-475 BC) and La Tène (c. 500-50 BC) cultures are typically associated with Proto-Celtic and Celtic culture. F. Fleming, Heroes of the Dawn: Celtic Myth, 1996. p. 9 & 134. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BCE to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BCE) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from Greek, and later Etruscan civilizations. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century. The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical Celtic Gaul. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language, material culture, and political affiliation do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions". * Otto Hermann Frey, "A new approach to early Celtic art". Setting the Glauberg finds in context of shifting iconography, Royal Irish Academy (2004) Thus, while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the Gauls, the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers. Hallstatt & La Tene cultures Historical evidence Polybius published a history of Rome about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome. Pausanias in the second century BC says that the Gauls "originally called Celts live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea". Posidonius described the southern Gauls about 100 BC. Though his original work is lost it was used by later writers such as Strabo. The latter, writing in the early first century AD, deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy and Galatia. Caesar wrote extensively about his Gallic Wars in 58-51 BC. Diodorus Siculus wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his first century History. Distribution Continental Celts Gaul <center>Repartition of Gaul ca. 54 BC At the dawn of history in Europe, the Celts then living in what is now France were known as Gauls to the Romans. The territory of these peoples probably included the low countries, the Alps and what is now northern Italy. Their descendants were described by Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars. Eastern Gaul was the centre of the western La Tene culture. In later Iron Age Gaul, the social organization was similar to that of the Romans, with large towns. From the third century BC the Gauls adopted coinage, and texts with Greek characters are known in southern Gaul from the second century. Greek traders founded Massalia in about 600 BC, with exchange up the Rhone valley, but trade was disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in Italy. The Romans arrived in the Rhone valley in the second century BC and encountered a Gaul that was mostly Celtic-speaking. Rome needed land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the Saluvii at Entremont in 124-123 BC. Gradually Roman control extended, and the Roman Province of Gallia Transalpina was formed along the Mediterranean coast. The remainder was known as Gallia Comata - "Hairy Gaul". In 58 BC, the Helvetii planned to migrate westward but were forced back by Julius Caesar. He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul, and by 55 BC, most of Gaul had been overrun. In 52 BC, Vercingetorix led a revolt against the Roman occupation but was defeated at the siege of Alesia and surrendered. Following the Gallic Wars of 58-51 BC, Celticia formed the main part of Roman Gaul. Place name analysis shows that Celtic was used east of the Garonne river and south of the Seine and Marne. Iberia Main language areas in Iberia, showing Celtic languages in blue, circa 200 BC. Until the end of the 19th century, traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts acknowledged the celts of the Iberian Peninsula Chambers's information for the people pg50 Brownson's Quarterly Review pg505 as a material culture relatable to the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Since according to the definition of the Iron Age in the 19th century Celtic populations were rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe, the celts of the Iberian Peninsula were ignored substancially until the end of the 20th century. Three divisions of the celts of the Iberian Peninsula were assumed to have existed: the celtiberians in the mountains near the center of the peninsula, the celtici in the southwest, and the celts in the northwest. Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind Modern scholarship, however, has clearly proven that Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in Iberia, particularly in the western and northern regions. The Celts in Iberia were divided into two main archaeological and cultural groups , even though that division is not very clear: One group was spread out along Galicia and the Iberian Atlantic shores. They were made up of the Lusitanians (in Portugal) and the Celtic region that Strabo called Celtica in the southwestern Iberian peninsula , including the Algarve, which was inhabited by the Celtici, the Vettones and Vacceani peoples (of central-western Spain and Portugal), and the Gallaecian, Astures and Cantabrian peoples of the Castro culture of northern and northwestern Spain and Portugal. The Celtiberian group of central Spain and the upper Ebro valley. This group originated when Celts migrated from what is now France and integrated with the local Iberian people. The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticization process in the rest of the Peninsula. The process of celticization of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is, however, not a simple celtiberian question. Recent investigations about the Callaici and Bracari Coutinhas, José Manuel (2006), Aproximação à identidade etno-cultural dos Callaici Bracari, Porto. in northwestern Portugal are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture (language, art and religion) in western Iberia. Archeological site of Tavira, official website Alps and Po Valley It had been known for long time that there was an early Celtic (Lepontic, sometimes called Cisalpine Celtic) presence in Northern Italy since inscriptions dated to the sixth century BC have been found there. The site of Golasecca, where the Ticino exits from Lake Maggiore, was particularly suitable for long-distance exchanges, in which Golaseccans acted as intermediaries between Etruscans and the Halstatt culture of Austria, supported on the all-important trade in salt. Situation of the Golasecca culture to the south of the Hallstatt culture. In 391 BC Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the Appeninne mountains and the Alps" according to Diodorus Siculus. The Po Valley and the rest of northern Italy (known to the Romans as Cisalpine Gaul) was inhabited by Celtic-speakers who founded cities such as Milan. Later the Roman army was routed at the battle of Allia and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the Senones. At the battle of Telamon in 225 BC a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed. The defeat of the combined Samnite, Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the Third Samnite War sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe, but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy. The Celts settled much further south of the Po River than many maps show. Remnants in the town of Doccia, in the province of Emilia-Romagna, showcase Celtic houses in very good condition dating from about the 4th century BC. Eastward expansion Celtic tribes in S.E.E c. 1st century BC (in blue) The Celts also expanded down the Danube river and its tributaries. One of the most influential tribes, the Scordisci, had established their capital at Singidunum in 3rd century BC, which is present-day Belgrade, Serbia. The concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries shows a density of population in the Tisza valley of modern-day Vojvodina, Serbia, Hungary and into Ukraine. Expansion into Romania was however blocked by the Dacians. Further south, Celts settled in Thrace (Bulgaria), which they ruled for over a century, and Anatolia, where they settled as the Galatians (see also: Gallic Invasion of Greece). Despite their geographical isolation from the rest of the Celtic world, the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least seven hundred years. St Jerome, who visited Ancyra (modern-day Ankara) in 373 AD, likened their language to that of the Treveri of northern Gaul. The Boii tribe gave their name to Bohemia, Bologna and possibly Bavaria, and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and Slovakia. A celtic coin (Biatec) from Bratislava's mint is displayed on today's Slovak 5 crown coin. As there is no archaeological evidence for large scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion. However, the Celtic invasions of Italy and the expedition in Greece and western Anatolia, are well documented in Greek and Latin history. There are records of Celtic mercenaries in Egypt serving the Ptolemies. Thousands were employed in 283-246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC. They attempted to overthrow Ptolemy II.c nvas Insular Celts Principal sites in Roman Britain, with indication of the Celtic tribes. Tribes of Wales at the time of the Roman invasion. Exact boundaries are conjectural. Celtic dagger found in Britain. A large portion of the indigenous populations of Britain and Ireland today may be partially descended from the ancient peoples that have long inhabited these lands, before the coming of Celtic and later Germanic peoples, language and culture. Little is known of their original culture and language, but remnants of the latter may remain in the names of some geographical features, such as the rivers Clyde, Tamar and Thames, whose etymology is unclear but possibly derive from a pre-Celtic substrate (Gelling). By the Roman period, however, most of the inhabitants of the isles of Ireland and Britain were speaking Goidelic or Brythonic languages, close counterparts to the Celtic languages spoken on the European mainland. Historians explained this as the result of successive invasions from the European continent by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over the course of several centuries, though this is now generally seen as only the elite. The Book of Leinster, written in the twelfth century, but drawing on a much earlier Irish oral tradition, states that the first Celts to arrive in Ireland were from Iberia. In 1946 the Celtic scholar T. F. O'Rahilly published his extremely influential model of the early history of Ireland which postulated four separate waves of Celtic invaders. It is still not known what languages were spoken by the peoples of Ireland and Britain before the arrival of the Celts. Later research indicated that the culture may have developed gradually and continuously between the Celts and the indigenous people of Britain or Spain. Similarly in Ireland little archaeological evidence was found for large intrusive groups of Celtic immigrants, suggesting to archaeologists such as Colin Renfrew that the native late Bronze Age inhabitants gradually absorbed European Celtic influences and language. Julius Caesar wrote of people in Britain who came from Belgium (the Belgae), but archaeological evidence which was interpreted in the 1930s as confirming this was contradicted by later interpretations. The archaeological evidence is of substantial cultural continuity through the first millennium BC, although with a significant overlay of selectively-adopted elements of La Tène culture. There are claims of continental-style states appearing in southern England close to the end of the period, possibly reflecting in part immigration by élites from various Gallic states such as those of the Belgae. However, this immigration would be far too late to account for the origins of Insular Celtic languages. In the 1970s the continuity model was popularized by Colin Burgess in his book The Age of Stonehenge which theorised that Celtic culture in Great Britain "emerged" rather than resulted from invasion and that the Celts were not invading aliens, but the descendants of the people of Stonehenge. Genetic studies have supported the prevalence of native populations, ruling out any model of post-Bronze Age cultural and language intrusion that ignore a very high degree of genetic absorpsion. A study by Christian Capelli, David Goldstein and others at University College, London showed that genetic markers associated with Gaelic names in Ireland and Scotland are also common in certain parts of Wales and England (in most cases, The Southeast of England with the lowest counts of these markers) are similar to the genetic markers of the Basque people, who speak a non-Indo-European language. This similarity supported earlier findings in suggesting a large pre-Celtic genetic ancestry, likely going back to the Paleolithic. They suggest that Celtic culture and the Celtic language may have been imported to Britain by cultural contact, not mass invasions around 600 BC. Some recent studies have suggested that, contrary to long-standing beliefs, the Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons) did not wipe out the Romano-British of England but rather, over the course of six centuries, conquered the native Brythonic people of what is now England and south-east Scotland and imposed their culture and language upon them, much as the Gaels may have spread over Northern Britain. This view is supported by the Celtic, or at least non-Germanic, names of some prominent early members of a number of "Anglo-Saxon" dynasties, such as Cerdic of Wessex and Penda of Mercia. "Records of the West Saxon dynasties survive in versions which have been subject to later manipulation, which may make it all the more significant that some of the founding 'Saxon' fathers have British names: Cerdic, Ceawlin, Cenwalh." in: Hills, C., Origins of the English, Duckworth (2003), p. 105. Also "The names Cerdic, Ceawlin and Caedwalla, all in the genealogy of the West Saxon kings, are apparently British." in: Ward-Perkins, B., Why did the Anglo-Saxons not become more British? The English Historical Review 115.462 (June 2000): p513. P. Sims-Williams, Religion and Literature [in Western England, 600–800], Cambridge 1990, p. 26. The Pennines remained a stronghold for Brythonic culture in England, the Cumbric language survived until the 12th Century, whereas in isolated areas of East Anglia, a Brythonic language was only recorded as late as the Saxon period. Parts of the Brythonic culture still survives in the form of the Northumbrian smallpipes and Wrestling (Lancashire and Cumbrian wrestling). Still, others maintain that the picture is mixed and that in some places the indigenous population was indeed wiped out while in others it was assimilated. According to this school of thought the populations of Yorkshire, East Anglia, Northumberland and the Orkney and Shetland Islands are those populations with the fewest traces of ancient (Celtic) British continuation, probably because these are eastern areas which were exposed to invasion from the East by Angles, Saxons and Vikings. "By analyzing 1772 Y chromosomes from 25 predominantly small urban locations, we found that different parts of the British Isles have sharply different paternal histories; the degree of population replacement and genetic continuity shows systematic variation across the sampled areas." The Celtic invasion of the British Isles is difficult to document genetically. Two published books - The Blood of the Isles by Bryan Sykes and The Origins of the British: a Genetic Detective Story by Stephen Oppenheimer - are based upon recent genetic studies, and show that the vast majority of Britons have ancestors from the Iberian Peninsula, as a result of a series of migrations that took place during the Mesolithic and, to a lesser extent, the Neolithic eras. How did pygmy shrews colonize Ireland? Clues from a phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences Irish genes from Galicia Sykes sees little genetic evidence relating to people from the heartland of the Hallstatt and La Tene cultures. On the paternal side he finds that the "Oisin" (R1b) clan is in the majority which has strong affinities to Iberia, with no evidence of a large scale arrival from Central Europe. He considers that the genetic structure of Britain and Ireland is "Celtic, if by that we mean descent from people who were here before the Romans and who spoke a Celtic language." But this language was the result of diffusion rather than migration, and the vast majority of the inhabitants of the British Isles, whether they consider themselves to be "Anglo Saxon", "Celt" or otherwise, are descended from the original Mesolithic hunter-gatherers who migrated north from Iberia approximately 13,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. Evidence for Celts in England can be found in place names, such as those including the Old English element, 'wealh', meaning 'foreigner' or 'stranger'. A smattering of villages around the Fenland town of Wisbech hint at this. West Walton, Walsoken, and the Walpoles indicate the continued presence of an indigenous population, and Wisbech, King's Lynn and Chatteris retain proto-Celtic topographical elements. Villages which exhibit Tydd in their name, eg Tydd St. Giles may obtain that element from the Brythonic word for "small holding". Compare the Welsh "tyddyn". Saxon Etheldreda's 'Liber Eliensis' documents the Fenland tribe of the Girvii (Gywre), who are cited elsewhere as being an independent people with dark hair and their own (Brythonic?) language. It is entirely possible that the Girvii were formed in part by migrating Britons, displaced by Saxon settlers after the legions left the Isles. Romanisation Under Caesar the Romans conquered Celtic Gaul, and from Claudius onward the Roman empire absorbed parts of Britain. Roman local government of these regions closely mirrored pre-Roman 'tribal' boundaries, and archaeological finds suggest native involvement in local government. Latin was the official language of these regions after the conquests. The native peoples under Roman rule became Romanized and keen to adopt Roman ways. Celtic art had already incorporated classical influences, and surviving Gallo-Roman pieces interpret classical subjects or keep faith with old traditions despite a Roman overlay. The Roman occupation of Gaul, and to a lesser extent of Britain, led to Roman-Celtic syncretism (see Roman Gaul, Roman Britain). In the case of the continental Celts, this eventually resulted in a language shift to Vulgar Latin (see also Gallo-Roman culture), while the Insular Celts retained their language. However, the Celts were master horsemen, which so impressed the Romans that they adopted Epona, the Celtic horse goddess, into their pantheon. During and after the fall of the Roman Empire many parts of France threw out their Roman administrators. Gallic Calendar The Coligny Calendar, which was found in 1897 in Coligny, Ain, was engraved on a bronze tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was 1.48 m wide and 0.9 m high (Lambert p.111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century. Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003). La langue gauloise. Paris, Editions Errance. 2nd edition. ISBN 2-87772-224-4. Chapter 9 is titled "Un calandrier gaulois" It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in the Gallic language. The restored tablet contains sixteen vertical columns, with sixty-two months distributed over five years. The French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by druids wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the Julian calendar was imposed throughout the Roman Empire. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or parapegmata) found throughout the Greek and Roman world. Lehoux, D. R. Parapegmata: or Astrology, Weather, and Calendars in the Ancient World, pp63-5. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, 2000. There were four major festivals in the Gallic Calendar: "Imbolc" on 1 February, possibly linked to the lactation of the ewes and sacred to the Irish Goddess Brigid. "Beltaine" on 1 May, connected to fertility and warmth, possibly linked to the Sun God Belenos. "Lúnasa" on 1 August, connected with the harvest and associated with the God Lugh. And finally "Samhain" on 1 November, possibly the start of the year. James, Simon (1993). "Exploring the World of the Celts" Reprint, 2002. pp-155. Two of these festivals, Beltaine and Lúnasa are shown on the Coligny Calendar by sigils, and it is not too much of a stretch of the imagination to match the first month on the Calendar (Samonios) to Samhain. Imbolc does not seem to be shown at all however. The Coligny Calendar, Roman Britain, 2/10/01: The Celtic Calendar seems to be based on astronomy Celtic Astrology but how any astrology system would have worked is harder to tell. We have to base our knowledge on Old Irish manuscripts, none of which have been published or fully translated. It seems to have been based on an indigenous Irish symbol system, and not that of any of the more commonly-known astrological systems such as Western, Chinese or Vedic astrology. Society To the extent that sources are available, they depict a pre-Christian Celtic social structure based formally on class and kingship. Patron-client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the first century BC. In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is evidence of oligarchical republican forms of government eventually emerging in areas in close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies describe them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as druid, poet, and jurist; and everyone else. There are instances recorded where women participated both in warfare and in kingship, although they were in the minority in these areas. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of tanistry, which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of primogeniture where the succession goes to the first born son. Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to the urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in hillforts and duns, drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are over 2000 hill forts known in Britain) The Iron Age, smr.herefordshire.gov.uk contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tene areas, with the many significant oppida of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of Gallia Cisalpina. Slavery as practiced by the Celts was very likely similar to the better documented practice in ancient Greece and Rome. Slaves were acquired from war, raids, penal and debt servitude. Slavery was hereditary, although manumission was possible. The Old Irish word for slave, cacht, and the Welsh term caeth are likely derived from the Latin captus, captive, suggesting that slave trade was an early venue of contact between Latin and Celtic societies. In the Middle Ages, slavery was especially prevalent in the Celtic countries. Simmons, op.cit., citing Wendy Davies, Wales in the Early Middle Ages, 64. Manumissions were discouraged by law and the word for "female slave", cumal, was used as a general unit of value in Ireland. Simmons, op.cit., at 1616, citing Kelly, Guide to Early Irish Law, 96. There is archaeological evidence to suggest that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland trade routes that spanned Eurasia. Large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany have been found by archaeologists. They are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade. The territory held by the Celts contained tin, lead, iron, silver and gold. Beatrice Cauuet (Université Toulouse Le Mirail, UTAH, France) Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewelry for international trade, particularly with the Romans. Local trade was largely in the form of barter, but as with most tribal societies they probably had a reciprocal economy in which goods and other services are not exchanged, but are given on the basis of mutual relationships and the obligations of kinship. Low value coinages of potin, silver and bronze, suitable for use in trade, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent, and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these areas. There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman, and sometimes Greek, alphabets. The Ogham script was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by bards in Ireland, and eventually recorded by monasteries. The oldest recorded rhyming poetry in the world is of Irish origin and is a transcription of a much older epic poem, leading some scholars to claim that the Celts invented Rhyme. They were highly skilled in visual arts and Celtic art produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites. In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative, for example they still used chariots in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans, though when faced with the Romans in Britain, their chariot tactics defeated the invasion attempted by Julius Caesar. The Dying Gaul, a Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late third century BC Capitoline Museums, Rome According to Diodorus Siculus: Clothing During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or tunics and long trousers (called braccae by the Romans Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica ). Clothes were made of wool or linen, with some silk being used by the rich. Cloaks were worn in winter. Brooches and armlets were used but the most famous item of jewellery was the torc. Gender and sexual norms According to Aristotle, most "belligerent nations" are strongly influenced by their women, but the Celts were unusual because of openly preferred male lovers (Politics II 1269b). ; Rankin, H.D. Celts and the Classical World, p.55 H. D. Rankin in Celts and the Classical World notes that "Athenaeus echoes this comment (603a) and so does Ammianus (30.9). It seems to be the general opinion of antiquity." Rankin, p. 55 In book VIII of his Deipnosophists, the Roman Greek rhetorician and grammarian Athenaeus, repeating assertions made by Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC, wrote that Celtic women were beautiful but that the men preferred to sleep together and "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused" (Diod 5:32). Rankin argues that the ultimate source of these assertions is likely to be Poseidonius Rankin, p.78 There are no direct sources from ancient Celtic cultures to confirm or contradict these statements. Rankin speculates that these authors may simply be recording male "bonding rituals". Under Brehon Law, which was written down in early Medieval Ireland after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his maritial duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women. University College, Cork. Cáin Lánamna (Couples Law) . 2005. Access date: 7 March 2006. The sexual freedom of women in Britain was noted by Cassius Dio: Roman History Volume IX Books 71-80, Dio Cassiuss and Earnest Carry translator (1927), Loeb Classical Library ISBN 0674991966. Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views towards gender divisions, though some archaeological evidence does suggest that their views towards gender roles may have been different from those of their contemporary classical counterparts. There are instances recorded where women participated both in warfare and in kingship, although they were in the minority in these areas. Plutarch reports Celtic women acting as ambassadors to avoid a war amongst Celts chiefdoms on the Po valley during the 4th century BC. There are some general indications coming from Iron Age burial sites in the Champagne and Bourgogne regions of Northeastern France suggesting that women may have had roles in combat during the earlier portions of the La Tène period. The evidence is, however, far from conclusive. Examples of individuals buried with both torcs (generally associated as being female grave goods), and weaponry have been identified, and there are some questions regarding the sexing of some skeletons that were buried with warrior assemblages. Among the insular Celts, there is a greater amount of historic documentation to suggest warrior roles for women however. In addition to commentary by Tacitus about Boudica, there are indications from later period histories that also suggest a more substantial role for "women as warriors" in symbolic if not actual roles. Posidonius and Strabo described an island of women where men could not venture to for fear of death and the women ripped each other apart. Other writers, such as Ammianus Marcellinus and Tacitus, mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating, and leading battles. Poseidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily primitivism, extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women. Warfare and weapons A Gallic statue of a Celtic warrior, in the Museum of Brittany Principal sites in Roman Britain, with indication of the Celtic tribes. Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for economic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory. The Celts were described by classical writers such as Strabo, Livy, Pausanias, and Florus as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes. Dionysius said that their "manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in military science. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of wild boars, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all". Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities p259 Excerpts from Book XIV Such descriptions have been challenged by contemporary historians. Polybius (2.33) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a long sword which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing. Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades. Noric steel, steel produced in Noricum, was famous in the Roman Empire period and was used to equip the Roman military "Noricus ensis," Horace, Odes, i. 16.9 . Polybius also asserts that they typically fought naked, "The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life." Polybius, Histories II.28 According to Livy this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor. Livy, History XXII.46 and XXXVIII.21 Head hunting Celts had a reputation as head hunters. According to Paul Jacobsthal, "Amongst the Celts the human head was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world." Paul Jacobsthal Early Celtic Art Arguments for a Celtic cult of the severed head include the many sculptured representations of severed heads in La Tène carvings, and the surviving Celtic mythology, which is full of stories of the severed heads of heroes and the saints who carry their decapitated heads, right down to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, where the Green Knight picks up his own severed head after Gawain has struck it off, just as St. Denis carried his head to the top of Montmartre. A further example of this regeneration after beheading lies in the tales of Connemara's St. Feichin, who after being beheaded by Viking pirates carried his head to the Holy Well on Omey Island and on dipping the head into the well placed it back upon his neck and was restored to full health. Diodorus Siculus, in his 1st century History had this to say about Celtic head-hunting: In Gods and Fighting Men, Lady Gregory's Celtic Revival translation of Irish mythology, heads of men killed in battle are described in the beginning of the story The Fight With The Fir Bolgs as pleasing to Macha, one aspect of the war goddess Morrigu. Religion Polytheism A statuette in the Museum of Brittany, Rennes, probably depicting Brigantia/Brigid: ca. 1st century CE, with iconography derived from Roman statues of Minerva. The Celts had an indigenous polytheistic religion and culture. Many Celtic gods are known from texts and inscriptions from the Roman period, such as Aquae Sulis, while others have been inferred from place names such as Lugdunum (stronghold of Lug). Rites and sacrifices were carried out by priests, known as Druids. The Celts did not see their gods as having a human shape until late in the Iron Age. Celtic shrines were situated in remote areas such as hilltops, groves, and lakes. Celtic religious patterns were regionally variable, however some patterns of deity forms, and ways of worshiping these deities, appear over a wide geographical and temporal range. The Celts worshipped both gods and goddesses. In general, the gods were deities of particular skills, such as the many-skilled Lugh and Dagda, and the goddesses associated with natural features, most particularly rivers, such as Boann, goddess of the River Boyne. This was not universal, however, as Goddesses such as Brighid and The Morrígan were associated with both natural features (holy wells and the River Unius) and skills such as blacksmithing, healing, and warfare. Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise (originally published in French, 1940, reissued 1982) Gods and Heroes of the Celts. Translated by Myles Dillon, Berkeley, CA, Turtle Island Foundation ISBN 0-913666-52-1, pp. 24-46. Triplicities are a common theme in Celtic cosmology and a number of deities were seen as threefold. Sjoestedt (1940) pp.16, 24-46. The Celts had literally hundreds of deities, some unknown outside of a single family or tribe, while others were popular enough to have a following that crossed boundaries of language and culture. For instance, the Irish god Lugh, associated with storms, lightning, and culture, is seen in a similar form as Lugos in Gaul and Lleu in Wales. Similar patterns are also seen with the continental Celtic horse goddess Epona, and what may well be her Irish and Welsh counterparts, Macha and Rhiannon, respectively. Sjoestedt (1940) pp.xiv-xvi, 14-46. Roman reports of the druids mention ceremonies being held in sacred groves. La Tène Celts built temples of varying size and shape, though they also maintained shrines at sacred trees, and votive pools. Cunliffe, Barry, (1997) The Ancient Celts. Oxford, Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-815010-5, pp.202, 204-8. p. 183 (religion) Druids fulfilled a variety of roles in Celtic religion, as priests and religious officiants, but also as judges, sacrificers, teachers, and lore-keepers. In general, they were the "college professors" of their time. Druids organized and ran the religious ceremonies, as well as memorizing and teaching the calendar. Though generally quite accurate, the Celtic calendar required manual correction about every 40 years, therefore knowledge of mathematics was required. Other classes of druids performed ceremonial sacrifices of crops and animals for the perceived benefit of the community. Sjoestedt (1982) pp.xxvi-xix. Celtic Christianity A Celtic cross. While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland moved from Celtic polytheism to Celtic Christianity in the fifth century AD. Ireland was converted under missionaries from Britain such as Patrick. Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of missionary work in Scotland, Saxon parts of Britain and central Europe (see Hiberno-Scottish mission). This brought the early medieval renaissance of Celtic art between 390 and 1200 A.D., developing many of the styles now thought of as typically Celtic, and found through much of Ireland and Britain, including the north-east and far north of Scotland, Orkney and Shetland. This was brought to an end by Roman Catholic and Norman influence, though the Celtic languages, as well as some and some influences from Celtic art, continued. The development of Christianity in Ireland and Britain brought an early medieval renaissance of Celtic art between 400 and 1200, only ended by the Norman Conquest of Ireland in the late 12th century. Notable works produced during this period include the Book of Kells and the Ardagh Chalice. Antiquarian interest from the 17th century led to the term 'Celt' being extended, and rising nationalism brought Celtic revivals from the 19th century. See also Modern Celts Celtic nations Celtic languages Ethnic groups of Europe Notes Literature Thomas M. Charles-Edwards, "Beyond empire II: Christianities of the Celtic peoples," in Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3. Early Medieval Christianities, c.600–c.1100. Edited by Thomas F. X. Noble and Julia M. H. Smith. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008 (Cambridge History of Christianity), 86-106. Alberro, Manuel and Arnold, Bettina (eds.), e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, Volume 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, Center for Celtic Studies, 2005. Collis, John. The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions. Stroud: Tempus Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0-7524-2913-2. Historiography of Celtic studies. Cunliffe, Barry. The Ancient Celts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-815010-5. Cunliffe, Barry. Iron Age Britain. London: Batsford, 2004. ISBN 0-7134-8839-5 Cunliffe, Barry. The Celts: A Very Short Introduction. 2003 Freeman, Philip Mitchell The Earliest Classical Sources on the Celts: A Linguistic and Historical Study. Diss. Harvard University, 1994. (link) Gamito, Teresa J. The Celts in Portugal. In E-Keltoi, Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, vol. 6. 2005. Haywood, John. Historical Atlas of the Celtic World. 2001. James, Simon. Exploring the World of the Celts 1993. James, Simon. The Atlantic Celts - Ancient People Or Modern Invention? Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, August 1999. ISBN 0-299-16674-0. James, Simon & Rigby, Valerie. Britain and the Celtic Iron Age. London: British Museum Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7141-2306-4. Kruta, V., O. Frey, Barry Raftery and M. Szabo. eds. The Celts. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1991. ISBN 0-8478-2193-5. A translation of Les Celtes: Histoire et Dictionnaire 2000. Laing, Lloyd. The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland c. 400–1200 AD. London: Methuen, 1975. ISBN 0-416-82360-2 Laing, Lloyd and Jenifer Laing. Art of the Celts, London: Thames and Hudson, 1992 ISBN 0-500-20256-7 MacKillop, James. A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-19-280120-1 McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History. New York: Penguin, 1985. ISBN 0-14-070832-4 Mallory, J. P. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London: Thames and Hudson, 1991. ISBN 0-500-27616-1. O'Rahilly, T. F. Early Irish History Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1946. Powell, T. G. E. The Celts. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1980. third ed. 1997. ISBN 0-500-27275-1. Raftery, Barry. Pagan Celtic Ireland: The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age. London: Thames & Hudson, 1994. ISBN 0-500-27983-7. External links Additional articles Ancient Celtic music - in the Citizendium Essays on Celtiberian topics - in e-Keltoi, University of Wisconsin, Madison Geography An interactive map showing the lands of the Celts between 800BC and 305AD. Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC), showing the Celtic territories Map of Celtic lands Multimedia "The Celts" - part of Lost Treasures of the Ancient World, Cromwell Productions, 2000. Discussion - with academician Barry Cunliffe, on BBC Radio 4's In Our Time, February 21, 2002. (Streaming Realplayer format) "The Primitive Celts" - part of Terry Jones' Barbarians, June 2006. Organisations newworldcelts.org XIII. International Congress of Celtic Studies in Bonn Special interest Related Nordic-Celtic DNA material - at FamilyTreeDNA.com http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/celts-descended-from-spanish-fishermen-study-finds-416727.html | Celts |@lemmatized diachronic:1 distribution:2 celtic:168 people:37 celt:93 see:18 name:23 common:7 academic:3 usage:1 velar:1 c:10 pronounce:1 k:1 modern:9 term:6 use:20 describe:13 european:10 speak:11 language:58 also:23 wider:1 sense:1 descendant:4 notably:1 participate:4 culture:56 historical:9 diverse:4 group:10 tribal:6 society:10 iron:19 age:25 europe:18 proto:7 form:14 early:34 central:13 hallstatt:16 period:15 site:6 present:3 day:4 austria:4 late:22 la:27 tène:19 expand:2 wide:4 range:2 land:6 far:9 west:5 ireland:29 iberian:15 peninsula:14 east:11 galatia:3 anatolia:5 north:7 scotland:12 britannica:3 turkey:1 direct:2 attestation:1 lepontic:3 inscription:13 begin:2 century:40 bc:49 continental:8 attest:3 place:11 insular:9 fourth:2 ad:7 ogham:3 literary:2 tradition:6 old:8 irish:20 eighth:1 coherent:1 text:3 literature:4 táin:1 bó:1 cúailnge:1 survive:7 recensions:1 first:13 millennium:6 follow:3 expansion:4 roman:60 empire:7 great:8 migration:4 germanic:6 become:4 restrict:1 british:16 isle:11 cease:2 widely:1 sixth:2 today:5 refers:4 surround:1 sea:3 well:11 cornwall:2 brittany:5 either:1 side:2 english:7 channel:1 terminology:1 origin:15 various:4 since:4 classical:9 time:12 know:14 obscure:1 controversial:1 latin:10 celtus:1 pl:3 celti:1 celtae:2 greek:15 κέλτης:1 κέλται:1 κελτός:1 κελτοί:2 keltai:1 keltoi:6 seem:8 borrow:3 take:3 native:6 cf:1 celtici:3 julius:5 caesar:8 commentarii:1 de:6 bello:1 gallico:1 gaul:36 divide:3 three:3 part:13 one:8 belgae:3 live:4 another:1 aquitani:1 third:6 tongue:2 call:5 galli:2 reference:1 κeltoi:1 historian:4 hecataeus:1 miletus:1 say:5 town:6 massilia:2 marseille:1 near:2 mention:3 nyrex:1 possibly:7 noreia:1 herodotus:1 locate:1 source:9 danube:3 iberia:14 passage:1 unclear:2 word:7 writing:1 edward:2 lhuyd:3 whose:2 work:7 along:4 scholar:5 bring:5 attention:1 history:20 inhabitant:6 britain:37 p:13 e:9 archaeologia:1 account:2 custom:2 original:4 reprint:2 ed:4 university:12 press:7 isbn:18 gallus:2 might:3 originally:4 ethnic:3 perhaps:1 italy:10 root:4 may:14 galno:1 mean:5 power:2 strength:3 galatai:1 base:8 directly:2 hypothetical:1 give:4 u:1 suffix:1 atai:1 simply:2 indicator:1 come:6 french:3 gaule:1 gaulois:2 traditional:2 rendering:1 gallia:4 icu:1 respectively:2 however:15 diphthong:1 au:1 point:1 different:5 namely:1 romance:1 adaptation:1 walha:1 welsh:5 originates:1 wælisc:1 anglo:5 saxon:14 walhiska:1 foreign:1 celticity:1 generally:8 cultural:11 commonality:2 similarity:2 material:4 artifact:3 social:3 organisation:2 mythological:1 factor:1 theory:2 indicate:4 racial:1 recent:6 reflective:1 rather:8 race:1 numerous:1 characteristic:1 descriptor:1 family:5 style:4 refer:2 several:3 archaeological:12 define:1 unique:1 set:2 link:8 aid:1 presence:6 disambiguation:1 application:1 respective:1 wale:6 man:1 six:2 nation:3 region:10 four:3 still:6 extent:4 mother:1 gaelic:3 scottish:2 breton:1 plus:1 two:6 revival:3 cornish:1 brythonic:10 manx:1 goidelic:3 languages:2 attempt:3 revive:1 cumbric:2 northwest:2 england:11 southwest:3 sometimes:3 heritage:1 area:19 include:8 western:10 portugal:7 spain:6 galicia:3 asturias:1 cantabria:1 castile:1 león:1 extremadura:1 less:3 degree:3 france:10 mainland:3 derive:4 migrate:5 grouped:1 accordingly:1 overview:2 territory:6 major:4 tribe:13 label:1 branch:2 large:10 indo:4 speaker:3 enter:1 around:7 brennus:1 attack:1 rome:8 already:2 split:1 spread:7 much:8 think:2 urnfield:5 northern:8 germany:4 netherlands:1 represent:2 distinct:2 preeminent:1 bronze:6 ca:5 unetice:1 tumulus:1 saw:1 dramatic:1 increase:1 population:11 probably:6 due:3 innovation:1 technology:1 agricultural:1 practice:4 ephoros:1 cyme:1 asia:3 minor:3 write:10 believe:2 island:5 mouth:1 rhine:2 driven:1 home:2 frequency:1 war:8 violent:1 rising:1 lead:10 development:2 ancestor:2 consider:6 school:3 thought:3 would:5 occur:1 half:1 chariot:3 burial:4 dating:1 develop:5 separate:2 celtiberian:5 succeed:1 final:1 stage:1 gradually:4 transform:1 explicitly:1 river:8 find:15 number:3 upper:2 reach:1 many:8 ethnogenesis:1 diodorus:7 siculus:7 strabo:5 suggest:15 heartland:3 southern:6 former:1 discovery:1 tene:5 encyclopedia:1 almagro:2 gorbea:2 lengua:1 los:1 celtas:2 otros:1 pueblo:1 indoeuropeos:1 península:1 ibérica:1 mariné:1 álvarez:1 sanchís:1 j:5 r:2 vettones:2 pp:7 ávila:2 diputación:1 provincial:1 propose:1 could:3 trace:3 back:5 seek:1 initial:2 bell:2 beaker:2 thus:3 offer:3 dispersion:1 throughout:3 variability:1 existence:1 ancestral:1 ancient:13 perspective:1 meanwhile:1 genetics:2 researcher:1 writer:4 stephen:2 oppenheimer:2 mediterranean:3 establish:2 end:9 last:3 glacial:1 maxum:1 integration:1 basque:3 outward:1 indeed:2 myth:4 record:12 medieval:5 possible:3 beginning:3 via:1 egypt:2 book:8 revise:1 argue:3 neither:1 impact:1 ancestry:2 mainly:1 palaeolithic:1 instead:1 linguistic:2 evidence:19 usually:1 date:5 cisalpine:3 predate:1 gaulish:1 appear:5 alphabet:2 comparatively:1 available:3 primitive:2 besides:1 epigraphical:1 important:2 information:2 toponymy:1 g:2 patrick:2 sims:2 williams:2 placenames:1 publication:1 philological:1 bethany:1 fox:1 south:7 list:1 map:5 discipline:1 phenomenon:1 rare:2 provide:4 enough:2 scenario:2 comparable:1 equally:1 difficult:3 maintain:4 peninsular:1 precede:1 approach:3 introduce:1 substratum:1 process:3 celticization:3 alberto:1 lorrio:1 universidad:2 alicante:1 gonzalo:1 ruiz:1 zapatero:1 complutense:1 madrid:1 journal:3 interdisciplinary:3 study:13 volume:3 february:3 typically:3 associate:8 f:4 fleming:1 hero:3 dawn:2 flourish:1 bce:2 conquest:5 eastern:3 switzerland:1 czech:1 republic:1 slovakia:2 hungary:2 without:1 definite:1 break:1 impetus:1 considerable:1 influence:7 later:5 etruscan:3 civilization:1 shift:3 settlement:3 centre:3 correspond:1 whether:2 whole:2 attribute:1 unified:1 assess:1 archaeologist:4 repeatedly:1 conclude:1 political:2 affiliation:1 necessarily:1 run:2 parallel:1 frey:3 note:4 world:12 uniform:1 localise:1 belief:2 consequence:1 rise:2 artistic:1 expression:1 otto:1 hermann:1 new:5 art:10 glauberg:1 context:1 iconography:2 royal:1 academy:1 certainly:1 artefact:2 contact:5 imply:1 permanent:1 polybius:5 publish:5 conflict:2 pausanias:2 second:3 remote:2 coast:2 enormous:1 tidal:1 posidonius:2 though:8 lose:1 latter:2 deal:3 hispania:1 extensively:1 gallic:9 center:3 repartition:1 low:4 country:2 alp:5 organization:1 similar:6 adopt:5 coinage:2 character:1 trader:1 found:3 massalia:1 exchange:3 rhone:2 valley:8 trade:8 disrupt:1 soon:1 orient:1 po:5 arrive:2 encounter:1 mostly:3 speaking:2 needed:1 communication:1 province:3 fight:7 battle:5 saluvii:1 entremont:1 control:2 extend:2 transalpina:1 remainder:1 comata:1 hairy:1 helvetii:1 plan:1 westward:1 force:2 involve:1 overrun:1 vercingetorix:1 revolt:1 occupation:2 defeat:3 siege:1 alesia:1 surrender:1 celticia:1 main:4 analysis:2 show:11 garonne:1 seine:1 marne:1 blue:2 circa:1 scholarship:2 acknowledge:1 chamber:1 brownson:1 quarterly:1 review:2 relatable:1 accord:7 definition:1 easily:1 ignore:2 substancially:1 division:3 assume:1 exist:2 celtiberians:2 mountain:2 research:2 physical:1 mankind:1 clearly:1 prove:1 substantial:3 particularly:4 even:1 clear:1 atlantic:3 shore:1 make:4 lusitanians:1 celtica:1 southwestern:2 algarve:1 inhabit:3 vacceani:1 gallaecian:1 astures:1 cantabrian:1 castro:1 northwestern:3 ebro:1 originate:1 integrate:1 local:4 key:1 understand:2 rest:4 simple:1 question:2 investigation:1 callaici:2 bracari:2 coutinhas:1 josé:1 manuel:2 aproximação:1 à:1 identidade:1 etno:1 porto:1 religion:6 archeological:1 tavira:1 official:2 website:1 long:8 golasecca:2 ticino:1 exit:1 lake:2 maggiore:1 suitable:2 distance:1 golaseccans:1 act:2 intermediary:1 halstatt:1 support:4 salt:1 situation:1 beyond:2 stream:2 pass:1 seize:1 lay:1 appeninne:1 city:1 milan:1 army:2 rout:1 allia:1 sack:1 senones:1 telamon:1 trap:1 crush:1 combined:1 samnite:2 alliance:1 sound:1 domination:1 armies:1 conquer:4 remaining:1 independent:3 kingdom:1 settle:4 remnant:2 doccia:1 emilia:1 romagna:1 showcase:1 house:1 good:4 condition:1 eastward:1 tributary:1 influential:2 scordisci:1 capital:2 singidunum:1 belgrade:1 serbia:2 concentration:1 hill:3 fort:2 cemetery:2 density:1 tisza:1 vojvodina:1 ukraine:1 romania:1 block:1 dacians:1 thrace:1 bulgaria:1 rule:4 galatian:2 invasion:11 greece:3 despite:2 geographical:3 isolation:1 least:2 seven:1 hundred:2 year:5 st:4 jerome:1 visit:1 ancyra:1 ankara:1 liken:1 treveri:1 boii:1 bohemia:1 bologna:1 bavaria:1 discover:1 poland:1 coin:2 biatec:1 bratislava:1 mint:2 display:1 slovak:1 crown:1 scale:2 current:1 hold:4 expedition:1 document:3 mercenary:1 serve:1 ptolemy:2 thousand:1 employ:1 service:2 overthrow:1 ii:4 nvas:1 principal:3 indication:4 exact:1 boundary:3 conjectural:1 dagger:1 portion:2 indigenous:6 partially:1 descend:3 little:4 remain:2 feature:4 clyde:1 tamar:1 thames:6 etymology:1 pre:7 substrate:1 gel:1 close:3 counterpart:3 explain:1 result:5 successive:1 continent:2 course:2 elite:1 leinster:1 twelfth:1 draw:1 earlier:1 oral:2 state:3 rahilly:2 extremely:1 model:3 postulate:1 wave:1 invader:1 arrival:2 continuously:1 similarly:1 intrusive:1 immigrant:1 colin:3 renfrew:1 absorb:2 belgium:1 interpret:2 confirm:2 contradict:2 interpretation:1 continuity:3 although:5 significant:3 overlay:2 selectively:1 element:4 claim:2 reflect:1 immigration:2 élites:1 popularize:1 burgess:1 stonehenge:2 theorise:1 emerge:2 invade:1 alien:1 genetic:10 prevalence:1 post:1 intrusion:1 high:3 absorpsion:1 christian:4 capelli:1 david:1 goldstein:1 others:6 college:3 london:7 marker:3 certain:1 case:2 southeast:1 count:1 non:3 finding:1 likely:4 go:2 paleolithic:1 import:1 mass:1 contrary:1 standing:1 angle:2 wipe:2 romano:1 impose:2 upon:3 gael:1 view:3 prominent:1 member:1 dynasty:2 cerdic:3 wessex:1 penda:1 mercia:1 version:1 subject:2 manipulation:1 father:1 ceawlin:2 cenwalh:1 duckworth:1 caedwalla:1 genealogy:1 king:4 apparently:1 ward:1 perkins:1 b:2 june:2 cambridge:5 pennines:1 stronghold:2 whereas:1 isolated:1 anglia:2 northumbrian:1 smallpipes:1 wrestling:2 lancashire:1 cumbrian:1 picture:1 mixed:1 assimilate:1 yorkshire:1 northumberland:1 orkney:2 shetland:2 continuation:1 expose:1 viking:2 analyze:1 chromosome:1 predominantly:1 small:2 urban:3 location:1 sharply:1 paternal:2 replacement:1 systematic:1 variation:1 across:1 sample:1 genetically:1 blood:1 bryan:1 sykes:2 detective:1 story:3 vast:2 majority:3 briton:2 series:1 mesolithic:2 neolithic:1 era:1 pygmy:1 shrew:1 colonize:1 clue:1 phylogenetic:1 mitochondrial:1 cytochrome:1 sequence:1 gene:1 relate:2 oisin:1 clan:1 strong:2 affinity:1 structure:3 descent:1 diffusion:1 otherwise:1 hunter:2 gatherer:1 approximately:1 ago:1 ice:1 wealh:1 foreigner:1 stranger:2 smattering:1 village:2 fenland:2 wisbech:2 hint:1 walton:1 walsoken:1 walpole:1 continued:1 lynn:1 chatteris:1 retain:2 topographical:1 exhibit:1 tydd:2 eg:1 giles:1 obtain:1 compare:1 tyddyn:1 etheldreda:1 liber:1 eliensis:1 girvii:2 gywre:1 cite:3 elsewhere:1 dark:1 hair:1 entirely:1 displace:1 settler:1 legion:1 leave:1 romanisation:1 claudius:1 onward:1 government:3 closely:1 mirror:1 involvement:1 romanized:1 keen:1 way:2 incorporate:1 gallo:2 piece:2 keep:1 faith:1 syncretism:1 eventually:4 vulgar:1 master:1 horseman:1 impress:1 epona:2 horse:2 goddess:8 pantheon:1 fall:1 throw:2 administrator:1 calendar:13 coligny:4 engrave:1 tablet:2 preserve:4 fragment:1 lambert:2 lettering:1 accompanying:1 object:1 pierre:1 yves:1 langue:1 gauloise:1 paris:1 edition:2 errance:1 chapter:1 title:1 un:1 calandrier:1 inscriptional:1 restored:1 contains:1 sixteen:1 vertical:1 column:1 sixty:1 month:2 distribute:1 five:1 monard:1 speculate:2 druid:7 wish:1 timekeeping:1 julian:1 general:6 public:1 peg:1 parapegmata:2 lehoux:1 astrology:4 weather:1 phd:1 dissertation:1 toronto:1 festival:2 imbolc:2 lactation:1 ewe:1 sacred:3 brigid:2 beltaine:2 connect:2 fertility:1 warmth:1 sun:1 god:9 belenos:1 lúnasa:2 august:2 harvest:1 lugh:3 finally:1 samhain:2 november:1 start:1 james:5 simon:4 explore:2 sigils:1 stretch:1 imagination:1 match:1 samonios:1 astronomy:1 system:5 hard:1 tell:1 knowledge:2 manuscript:1 none:1 fully:1 translate:2 symbol:2 commonly:1 known:1 astrological:1 chinese:1 vedic:1 depict:3 formally:1 class:3 kingship:3 patron:1 client:1 relationship:2 oligarchical:1 republican:1 description:2 warrior:7 aristocracy:1 intellectual:1 profession:1 poet:1 jurist:1 everyone:1 else:2 instance:4 woman:15 warfare:6 minority:2 office:1 fill:1 election:1 tanistry:1 feudal:1 principle:1 primogeniture:1 succession:1 born:1 son:1 among:2 pattern:4 vary:2 decentralise:1 popular:2 stereotype:1 urbanised:1 hillforts:1 dun:1 drawn:1 smr:1 herefordshire:1 gov:1 uk:3 contrast:1 core:1 oppida:1 cisalpina:1 slavery:3 documented:1 slave:4 acquire:1 raid:2 penal:1 debt:1 servitude:1 hereditary:1 manumission:2 cacht:1 caeth:1 captus:1 captive:1 venue:1 middle:2 especially:1 prevalent:1 simmons:2 op:2 cit:2 wendy:1 davy:1 discourage:1 law:4 female:2 cumal:1 unit:1 value:2 kelly:1 guide:1 network:1 overland:1 route:1 span:1 eurasia:1 prehistoric:1 trackways:1 cross:3 bog:1 create:2 wheeled:1 transport:1 extensive:1 roadway:1 facilitate:1 contain:1 tin:1 silver:2 gold:1 beatrice:1 cauuet:1 université:1 toulouse:1 le:2 mirail:1 utah:1 smith:2 metalworker:1 weapon:3 jewelry:1 international:2 largely:1 barter:1 reciprocal:1 economy:1 basis:1 mutual:1 obligation:1 kinship:1 potin:1 prior:1 limited:1 script:1 ceremonial:3 purpose:1 gravestone:1 bard:1 monastery:1 recorded:1 rhyme:2 poetry:1 transcription:1 epic:2 poem:1 invent:1 highly:1 skilled:2 visual:1 produce:3 intricate:1 beautiful:2 metalwork:1 example:4 distinctive:1 rite:2 regard:3 conservative:1 combat:2 reduce:1 role:7 face:1 tactic:1 die:1 marble:1 copy:1 hellenistic:1 capitoline:1 museum:4 clothing:1 wore:1 sleeved:1 shirt:1 tunic:1 trouser:1 braccae:1 bibliotheca:1 historica:1 clothes:1 wool:1 linen:1 silk:1 rich:1 cloak:1 wear:1 winter:1 brooch:1 armlet:1 famous:2 item:1 jewellery:1 torc:1 gender:3 sexual:2 norm:1 aristotle:1 belligerent:1 strongly:1 unusual:1 openly:1 prefer:2 male:2 lover:1 politics:1 rankin:6 h:3 athenaeus:2 echo:1 comment:2 ammianus:2 opinion:1 antiquity:2 viii:1 deipnosophist:1 rhetorician:1 grammarian:1 repeat:1 assertion:2 men:7 sleep:1 together:1 young:1 insult:1 refuse:1 diod:1 ultimate:1 poseidonius:2 statement:1 author:1 bonding:1 ritual:1 brehon:1 conversion:1 christianity:9 right:2 divorce:1 husband:1 gain:1 property:1 unable:1 perform:2 maritial:1 duty:1 impotence:1 obesity:1 homosexual:1 inclination:1 preference:1 cork:1 cáin:1 lánamna:1 couple:1 access:1 march:1 freedom:1 cassius:2 dio:2 ix:1 earnest:1 carry:5 translator:1 loeb:1 library:1 reliable:1 towards:2 contemporary:2 plutarch:2 report:2 ambassador:1 avoid:1 amongst:2 chiefdoms:1 champagne:1 bourgogne:1 northeastern:1 conclusive:1 individual:1 bury:2 torcs:1 grave:1 weaponry:1 identify:1 sexing:1 skeleton:1 assemblage:1 amount:1 historic:1 documentation:1 addition:1 commentary:1 tacitus:2 boudica:1 symbolic:1 actual:1 venture:1 fear:1 death:1 rip:1 apart:1 marcellinus:1 incite:1 anthropological:1 theme:2 primarily:1 primitivism:1 extreme:1 ferocity:1 cruel:1 sacrificial:1 courage:1 statue:2 regular:1 sport:1 focus:1 hunt:1 organise:1 territorial:1 exert:1 harass:1 rival:1 economic:1 advantage:1 livy:3 florus:1 like:2 wild:3 beast:2 horde:1 dionysius:2 manner:2 fighting:1 measure:1 frenzied:1 erratic:1 procedure:1 quite:2 lack:1 military:2 science:1 moment:1 raise:1 sword:3 aloft:1 smite:1 boar:1 weight:1 body:2 blow:2 hewer:1 wood:1 dig:1 mattock:1 deliver:1 crosswise:1 aim:1 target:1 intend:1 cut:1 entire:1 adversary:1 protective:1 armour:1 halicarnassus:1 excerpt:1 xiv:2 challenge:1 hack:1 edgewise:1 stab:1 frequently:1 order:1 straighten:1 blade:1 noric:1 steel:2 noricum:1 equip:1 noricus:1 ensis:1 horace:1 ode:1 assert:1 naked:2 appearance:1 terrifying:1 spectacle:1 splendid:1 physique:1 prime:1 life:2 true:1 xxii:1 xxxviii:1 head:14 hunting:2 reputation:1 paul:2 jacobsthal:2 human:2 venerate:1 soul:1 emotion:1 divinity:1 argument:1 cult:1 severed:3 sculptured:1 representation:1 carving:1 mythology:3 full:2 saint:1 decapitated:1 sir:1 gawain:2 green:2 knight:2 pick:1 sever:1 strike:1 denis:1 top:1 montmartre:1 regeneration:1 behead:2 lie:1 tale:1 connemara:1 feichin:1 pirate:1 holy:2 omey:1 dip:1 neck:1 restore:1 health:1 lady:1 gregory:1 translation:2 kill:1 fir:1 bolgs:1 please:1 macha:2 aspect:1 morrigu:1 polytheism:2 statuette:1 rennes:1 brigantia:1 ce:1 minerva:1 polytheistic:1 aqua:1 sulis:1 infer:1 lugdunum:1 lug:1 sacrifice:2 priest:2 shape:2 shrine:2 situate:1 hilltop:1 grove:2 religious:3 regionally:1 variable:1 deity:5 worship:2 temporal:1 particular:1 skill:2 dagda:1 natural:2 boann:1 boyne:1 universal:1 brighid:1 morrígan:1 unius:1 blacksmithing:1 healing:1 sjoestedt:4 marie:1 louise:1 reissue:1 myles:1 dillon:1 berkeley:1 turtle:1 foundation:1 triplicity:1 cosmology:1 threefold:1 literally:1 unknown:1 outside:1 single:1 following:1 storm:1 lightning:1 lugos:1 lleu:1 rhiannon:1 xvi:1 ceremony:2 build:1 temple:1 size:1 tree:1 votive:1 pool:1 cunliffe:5 barry:7 oxford:6 fulfil:1 variety:1 officiant:1 judge:1 sacrificer:1 teacher:1 lore:1 keeper:1 professor:1 organize:1 memorizing:1 teach:1 accurate:1 require:2 manual:1 correction:1 every:1 therefore:1 mathematics:1 crop:1 animal:1 perceived:1 benefit:1 community:1 xxvi:1 xix:1 unconquered:1 move:1 fifth:1 convert:1 missionary:3 hiberno:1 mission:1 renaissance:2 catholic:1 norman:2 continue:1 notable:1 kells:1 ardagh:1 chalice:1 antiquarian:1 interest:2 nationalism:1 thomas:2 charles:1 vol:2 edit:1 x:1 noble:1 julia:1 alberro:1 arnold:1 bettina:1 eds:1 wisconsin:3 milwaukee:1 collis:1 john:2 invention:2 stroud:1 tempus:1 publishing:1 historiography:1 batsford:1 short:1 introduction:1 freeman:1 philip:1 mitchell:1 dis:1 harvard:1 gamito:1 teresa:1 haywood:1 atlas:2 madison:2 rigby:1 valerie:1 kruta:1 v:1 raftery:2 szabo:1 york:3 hudson:5 celtes:1 histoire:1 et:1 dictionnaire:1 laing:3 lloyd:2 archaeology:2 methuen:1 jenifer:1 mackillop:1 dictionary:1 mcevedy:1 penguin:2 mallory:1 search:1 dublin:1 institute:1 advanced:1 powell:1 pagan:1 enigma:1 external:1 additional:1 article:1 music:1 citizendium:1 essay:1 topic:1 geography:1 interactive:1 detailed:1 multimedia:1 lost:1 treasure:1 cromwell:1 production:1 discussion:1 academician:1 bbc:1 radio:1 realplayer:1 format:1 terry:1 jones:1 barbarian:1 newworldcelts:1 org:1 xiii:1 congress:1 bonn:1 special:1 nordic:1 dna:1 familytreedna:1 com:1 http:1 www:1 co:1 news:1 spanish:1 fisherman:1 html:1 |@bigram proto_celtic:6 la_tène:19 iberian_peninsula:11 insular_celtic:4 ogham_inscription:2 táin_bó:1 bó_cúailnge:1 julius_caesar:5 caesar_commentarii:1 commentarii_de:1 de_bello:1 bello_gallico:1 edward_lhuyd:1 anglo_saxon:5 scottish_gaelic:1 welsh_breton:1 castile_león:1 insular_celt:5 hallstatt_la:8 tène_culture:9 indo_european:4 hallstatt_culture:6 millennium_bc:5 diodorus_siculus:7 la_tene:5 encyclopedia_britannica:1 la_lengua:1 beaker_culture:2 stephen_oppenheimer:2 cisalpine_gaul:2 sims_williams:2 archaeological_evidence:7 celt_iberian:5 czech_republic:1 tene_culture:3 caesar_gallic:1 migrate_westward:1 josé_manuel:1 lake_maggiore:1 last_remaining:1 emilia_romagna:1 belgrade_serbia:1 vojvodina_serbia:1 germanic_tribe:1 east_anglia:2 orkney_shetland:2 vast_majority:2 mitochondrial_cytochrome:1 mesolithic_hunter:1 hunter_gatherer:1 vulgar_latin:1 coligny_calendar:3 la_langue:1 julian_calendar:1 phd_dissertation:1 god_lugh:2 vedic_astrology:1 everyone_else:1 op_cit:2 capitoline_museum:1 homosexual_inclination:1 cassius_dio:1 dio_cassius:1 loeb_classical:1 ammianus_marcellinus:1 wild_beast:2 wild_boar:1 dionysius_halicarnassus:1 horace_ode:1 severed_head:3 sir_gawain:1 gawain_green:1 statue_minerva:1 marie_louise:1 cunliffe_barry:4 celtic_polytheism:1 norman_conquest:1 book_kells:1 stroud_tempus:1 tempus_publishing:1 thames_hudson:5 london_methuen:1 mackillop_james:1 external_link:1 wisconsin_madison:1 lost_treasure:1 terry_jones:1 http_www:1 |
3,495 | Obfuscation_(software) | Obfuscated code is source code in a computer programming language that has been made difficult to understand. Programmers may deliberately obfuscate code to conceal its purpose (a form of security through obscurity), to deter reverse engineering, or as a puzzle or recreational challenge for readers. Programs known as obfuscators transform human-readable code into obfuscated code using various techniques. Overview Some languages may be more prone to obfuscation than others. Obfuscation: Cloaking your Code from Prying Eyes Jeff Atwood, May 15 2005 C, Obfuscation C++, C++ Tutorials - Obfuscated Code - A Simple Introduction | DreamInCode.net and Perl Pe(a)rls in line noise are most often cited as easy to obfuscate. Macro preprocessors are often used to create hard-to-read code by masking the standard language syntax and grammar from the main body of code. The term shrouded code has also been used. Obfuscating code to prevent reverse engineering is typically done to manage risks that stem from unauthorized access to source code. These risks include loss of intellectual property, ease of probing for application vulnerabilities and loss of revenue that can result when applications are reverse engineered, modified to circumvent metering or usage control and then recompiled. Obfuscating code is, therefore, also a compensating control to manage these risks. The risk is greater in computing environments such as Java and Microsoft's .NET which take advantage of just-in-time compilation technology that allow developers to deploy an application as intermediate code rather than code which has been compiled into machine language before being deployed. Obfuscators may be used to compact object code or interpreted code without affecting its behaviour when size is important. Common cases include MIDlets – in which the meaningful identifiers embedded in the Java class files are replaced with shorter ones – and Javascript code on the web. Programs written in languages such as C or Pascal are compiled into the machine language of a given computer before they are run on it. This conversion is necessary because programmers write source code while computers run machine code. Generally, there is a one way transform from source code to machine code. Machine code is not encrypted and is easy for anyone to see, but the format is so tedious for humans that reverse engineering is slow and difficult. That being said, compilers tend to map source code to machine code in a predictable way, and although optimization obfuscates this, it is often possible to reconstruct a fair copy of the original source code. Java and .NET languages (e.g., Oxygene, C#, Visual Basic) take a different approach to compilation. They are far easier to reverse engineer because they do not compile to machine code, they compile into intermediate code. Microsoft recommends using the Script Encoder to obfuscate the ASP files, so in case the web server is compromised, the cracker would be unable to find out how your ASP applications work. The Script Encoder works also on JScript and VBScript files. Note that the encoded JScript is only functional in Internet Explorer. However, the documentation states, "Note that this encoding only prevents casual viewing of your code; it will not prevent the determined hacker from seeing what you've done and how." Application hardening Obfuscation is one technique used in a process called "application hardening", which also includes such techniques as tamper detection and response, application encryption, and custom virtual machines. Recreational obfuscation Writing and reading obfuscated code can be a brain teaser for programmers. A number of programming contests reward the most creatively obfuscated code: the International Obfuscated C Code Contest, Obfuscated Perl Contest, International Obfuscated Ruby Code Contest, and Obfuscated PostScript Contest. Types of obfuscations include simple keyword substitution, use or non-use of whitespace to create artistic effects, clever self-generating or heavily compressed programs, and programs that are valid and operate similarly in multiple programming languages. Short obfuscated Perl programs printing "Just another Perl hacker" or something similar are often found in signatures of Perl programmers. These are informally known as JAPHs, and the origin of this practice is generally credited to Randal Schwartz. Examples This is an example of a winning entry from the International Obfuscated C Code competition written by Ian Phillipps in 1988 "International Obfuscated C Code Winners 1988 - Least likely to compile successfully" and subsequently reverse engineered by Thomas Ball "Reverse Engineering the Twelve Days of Christmas" by Thomas Ball . #include <stdio.h> main(t,_,a)char *a;{return!0<t?t<3?main(-79,-13,a+main(-87,1-_, main(-86,0,a+1)+a)):1,t<_?main(t+1,_,a):3,main(-94,-27+t,a)&&t==2?_<13? main(2,_+1,"%s %d %d\n"):9:16:t<0?t<-72?main(_,t, "@n'+,#'/*{}w+/w#cdnr/+,{}r/*de}+,/*{*+,/w{%+,/w#q#n+,/#{l,+,/n{n+,/+#n+,/#\ ;#q#n+,/+k#;*+,/'r :'d*'3,}{w+K w'K:'+}e#';dq#'l \ q#'+d'K#!/+k#;q#'r}eKK#}w'r}eKK{nl]'/#;#q#n'){)#}w'){){nl]'/+#n';d}rw' i;# \ ){nl]!/n{n#'; r{#w'r nc{nl]'/#{l,+'K {rw' iK{;[{nl]'/w#q#n'wk nw' \ iwk{KK{nl]!/w{%'l##w#' i; :{nl]'/*{q#'ld;r'}{nlwb!/*de}'c \ ;;{nl'-{}rw]'/+,}##'*}#nc,',#nw]'/+kd'+e}+;#'rdq#w! nr'/ ') }+}{rl#'{n' ')# \ }'+}##(!!/") :t<-50?_==*a?putchar(31[a]):main(-65,_,a+1):main((*a=='/')+t,_,a+1) :0<t?main(2,2,"%s"):*a=='/'||main(0,main(-61,*a, "!ek;dc i@bK'(q)-[w]*%n+r3#l,{}:\nuwloca-O;m .vpbks,fxntdCeghiry"),a+1);} Although unintelligible at first glance, it is a legal C program that when compiled and run will generate the 12 verses of The 12 Days of Christmas. It contains all the strings required for the poem in an encoded form inlined in the code. The code iterates through the 12 days displaying what it needs to. Another example is this short program that generates mazes of arbitrary length: char*M,A,Z,E=40,J[40],T[40];main(C){for(*J=A=scanf(M="%d",&C); -- E; J[ E] =T [E ]= E) printf("._"); for(;(A-=Z=!Z) || (printf("\n|" ) , A = 39 ,C -- ) ; Z || printf (M ))M[Z]=Z[A-(E =A[J-Z])&&!C & A == T[ A] |6<<27<rand()||!C&!Z?J[T[E]=T[A]]=E,J[T[A]=A-Z]=A,"_.":" |"];} Modern C compilers don't allow constant strings to be overwritten, which can be avoided by changing the first line to char M[2],A,Z,E=40,J[40],T[40];main(C){for(*J=A=scanf("%d",&C); Versions of gcc (the GNU Compiler for C) prior to 4.0 can compile the program in its original form if the -fwritable-strings flag is used. This example program in Java computes the days left in a year based on the day: return (int) ((((x - 2) * (x - 3) * (x - 4) * (x - 5) * (x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * 31) / ((x - 2) * (x - 3) * (x - 4) * (x - 5) * (x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 3) * (x - 4) * (x - 5) * (x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * (28 + z)) / ((x - 3) * (x - 4) * (x - 5) * (x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 4) * (x - 5) * (x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * 31) / ((x - 4) * (x - 5) * (x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 5) * (x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * 30) / ((x - 5) * (x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * 31) / ((x - 6) * (x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12 ) + .00001)) + (((x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * 30) / ((x - 7) * (x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * 31) / ((x - 8) * (x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * 31) / ((x - 9) * (x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) * 30) / ((x - 10) * (x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 11) * (x - 12) * 31) / ((x - 11) * (x - 12) + .00001)) + (((x - 12) * 30) / ((x - 12) + .00001)) + 31 + .1) - y; An example of a JAPH: @P=split//,".URRUU\c8R";@d=split//,"\nrekcah xinU / lreP rehtona tsuJ";sub p{ @p{"r$p","u$p"}=(P,P);pipe"r$p","u$p";++$p;($q*=2)+=$f=!fork;map{$P=$P[$f^ord ($p{$_})&6];$p{$_}=/ ^$P/ix?$P:close$_}keys%p}p;p;p;p;p;map{$p{$_}=~/^[P.]/&& close$_}%p;wait until$?;map{/^r/&&<$_>}%p;$_=$d[$q];sleep rand(2)if/\S/;print This slowly displays the text "Just another Perl / Unix hacker", multiple characters at a time, with delays. An explanation can be found here. Some Python examples can be found in the official Python programming FAQ. Step by step The following section gives an example of a developer's attempt to obfuscate a simple program. It is an example, not a set of rules. This simple C program prints out the prime numbers less than 100, using the sieve of Eratosthenes: void primes(int cap) { int i, j, composite; for(i = 2; i < cap; ++i) { composite = 0; for(j = 2; j * j < i; ++j) composite += !(i % j); if(!composite) printf("%d\t", i); } } int main() { primes(100); } The following sequence of transformations reduces the primes program into a single, obfuscated line of code. Rewrite for as while. Use special values. A for loop can be transformed into a while loop followed by a series of cascading if-else statements (in fact in C, a for loop is a thin disguise for a while loop anyway—the differences are mainly in lexical scope.) Also we can take advantage of prior knowledge. If we know that j is 0 we can use it instead of the literal 0— thus not revealing that we are using zero, but a variable that could take any value (but happens to be zero). 0 is a common enough constant, but no programmer ever adds zero or multiplies or divides or subtracts it, so it is an easy place to start for the reverse engineer. So, rewrite the primes function like this: void primes(int cap) { int i, j, composite, t = 0; while(t < cap * cap) { i = t / cap; j = t++ % cap; if(i <= 1); else if(!j) composite = j; else if(j == i && !composite) printf("%d\t",i); else if(j > 1 && j < i) composite += !(i % j); } } int main() { primes(100); } Change iteration into recursion Any loop can be replaced by recursion. Generally one strives to eliminate recursion because of the computational overhead, but it may be deliberately introduced for obfuscation. So, replace the while loop with recursion. Two new parameters are needed by the primes function. Let's also conjoin two statements with the comma operator in the third if block. An additional if-else block must be added to capture the situation in the iterative version where program flow fails all of the if-conditions and the while loop would continue with t incremented by 1: void primes(int cap, int t, int composite) { int i,j; i = t / cap; j = t % cap; if(i <= 1) primes(cap,t+1,composite); else if(!j) primes(cap,t+1,j); else if(j == i && !composite) (printf("%d\t",i), primes(cap,t+1,composite)); else if(j > 1 && j < i) primes(cap,t+1, composite + !(i % j)); else if(t < cap * cap) primes(cap,t+1,composite); } int main() { primes(100,0,0); } Obfuscate constructs and meaningless variable names No construct or name is of itself obfuscating, but context—or rather the lack of it—can make it so. Change the variable names to single letters and replace the if-else structure with the ternary ? conditional operator (e.g. if(A) B else if(C) D else E becomes A ? B : C ? D : E). Reorder expressions to the most counterintuitive that the language will allow: void primes(int m, int t, int c) { int i,j; i = t / m; j = t % m; (i <= 1) ? primes(m,t+1,c) : (!j) ? primes(m,t+1,j) : (j == i && !c) ? (printf("%d\t",i), primes(m,t+1,c)) : (j > 1 && j < i) ? primes(m,t+1,c + !(i % j)) : (t < m * m) ? primes(m,t+1,c) : 0; } int main() { primes(100,0,0); } Remove intermediate variables and literals Remove the intermediate variables i and j and replace them with the expressions they stood for, (t / m) and (t % m): void primes(int m, int t, int c) { ((t / m) <= 1) ? primes(m,t+1,c) : !(t % m) ? primes(m,t+1, t % m) : ((t % m)==(t / m) && !c) ? (printf("%d\t",(t / m)), primes(m,t+1,c)) : ((t % m)> 1 && (t % m) < (t / m)) ? primes(m,t+1,c + !((t / m) % (t % m))) : (t < m * m) ? primes(m,t+1,c) : 0; } int main() { primes(100,0,0); } Obfuscate names again Rename the function primes and the variables m, t, and c to _, __, ___, and ____, respectively: void _(int __, int ___, int ____) { ((___ / __) <= 1) ? _(__,___+1,____) : !(___ % __) ? _(__,___+1,___ % __) : ((___ % __)==(___ / __) && !____) ? (printf("%d\t",(___ / __)), _(__,___+1,____)) : ((___ % __) > 1 && (___ % __) < (___ / __)) ? _(__,___+1,____ + !((___ / __) % (___ % __))) : (___ < __ * __) ? _(__,___+1,____) : 0; } int main() { _(100,0,0); } Remove literals There are quite a few references to the literal 1. One could replace them by dividing a variable by itself each time, knowing it is nonzero, but for the sake of example instead we pass 1 as a (totally unnecessary) parameter from main (and, of course, call it _____). Let's leave the only remaining 0 as a teaser: void _(int __, int ___, int ____, int _____) { ((___ / __) <= _____) ? _(__,___+_____,____,_____) : !(___ % __) ? _(__,___+_____,___ % __, _____) : ((___ % __)==(___ / __) && !____) ? (printf("%d\t",(___ / __)), _(__,___+_____,____,_____)) : ((___ % __) > _____ && (___ % __) < (___ / __)) ? _(__,___+_____,____,_____ + !((___ / __) % (___ % __))) : (___ < __ * __) ? _(__,___+_____,____,_____) : 0; } int main() { _(100,0,0,1); } Remove redundant text Remove white space, type declarations, optional elements like the void and int on function return types, and unambiguous parentheses: _(__,___,____,_____){___/__<=_____?_(__,___+_____,____,_____):!(___%__)?_(__,___+_____,___%__,_____):___%__==___/ __&&!____?(printf("%d\t",___/__),_(__,___+_____,____,_____)):___%__>1&&___%__<___/__?_(__,_____+ ___,____+!(___/__%(___%__),_____)):___<__*__?_(__,___+_____,____,_____):0;}main(){_(100,0,0,1);} It can be seen from this example that the steps are largely intuitive, not fixed rules, and often are applied more than once. This program will run on most systems. The limiting factor generally will be time. This sort of obfuscation by program transformation is relatively easy to apply and can be performed on many simple programs. In the example above, it can be deduced that the obfuscated version is likely to be far less efficient than the original, mainly because of the replacement of an iterative function with a recursive one which will incur much more computational overhead (though both are of order O((n log n)(loglog n)): see Big O notation). Intermediate results are also computed more often than necessary, though an optimizer may use loop-invariant code motion to avoid that. But the recursion is likely to defeat the optimizer. Unintentional obfuscation Obfuscation and optimization are not necessarily opposed, but sometimes unintentional obfuscation occurs when programmers attempt to optimize prematurely (i.e. second-guess the compiler). In fact, with modern optimizing compilers, attempts to do clever tricks are generally self-defeating because they may confuse the optimizer and prevent optimal code being produced. The simplest code is usually the best. Of course, the example above is deliberately contrived just to show the method. Typography In some common typefaces such as Courier New and Lucida Console, some letterforms (glyphs) at typical sizes on a computer screen appear identical: particularly l and 1, and O and 0. Even if not identical, they are close enough that if hidden in the middle of an identifier they are hard to spot. A very simple obfuscation is just to change these letters: while nobody is fooled for long, it wastes time (see below). Obfuscation by code morphing Obfuscation by code morphing refers to obfuscating machine language or object code rather than obfuscating the source code. This is achieved by completely replacing a section of the compiled code with an entirely new block that expects the same machine state when it begins execution as the previous section, and will leave with the same machine state after execution as the original. However, a number of additional operations will be completed as well as some operations with an equivalent effect. Code morphing makes disassembly of a distributed program more difficult. However, by adding unnecessarily complicated operations and hindering compiler-made optimizations, the execution time of the program is increased. For that reason, code morphing should be limited to critical portions of a program and not be used on an entire application. Code morphing is often used in obfuscating the copy protection or other checks that a program makes to determine whether it is a valid, authentic installation, or a pirated copy, in order to make the removal of the copy-protection code more difficult than would otherwise be the case. Code morphing is multilevel technology containing hundreds of unique code transformation patterns, as well as a special layer that transforms some commands into virtual machine commands. Code morphing turns binary code into an undecipherable mess that is not similar to normal compiled code. Obfuscation in malicious software Spammers frequently use obfuscated JavaScript or HTML code in spam messages. The obfuscated message, when displayed by an HTML-capable e-mail client, appears as a reasonably normal message—albeit with obnoxious JavaScript behaviors such as spawning pop-up windows. However, when the source is viewed, the obfuscations make it far more difficult for investigators to discern where the links go, or what the JavaScript code does. For this same reason, JavaScript obfuscation is also often used by malware authors to conceal parts of code that run browser exploits, or that redirect to pages containing exploits. Automated JavaScript obfuscators are currently available on the market. Although the effectiveness of these tools may vary, and the channels through which they are exchanged range from the legal to the manifestly malicious, they are all created for the purpose of confounding casual viewers or inexperienced investigators. The techniques use JavaScript's dynamic nature—a piece of code is stored as an encrypted string, which is decrypted and evaluated. This may be done several times. Other techniques include insertion of dummy code, as well as dummy HTML links to legitimate pages. Obfuscation for VM migration Third-party obfuscators are used to recompile old classes to meet new Java Development Kit definitions avoiding ClassFormatError while migrating from Microsoft Virtual Machine to Java Virtual Machine. Advantages of obfuscation Intellectual property protection Obfuscation is typically used to protect the intellectual property that is present in a software. This includes protecting any trade secrets that may be present in the code as well as protecting licensing implementations to prevent unauthorized use. Reduced security exposure If an application has private information in the code – such as SQL, usernames, and passwords Finding Hardcoded Passwords with Koders.com – then obfuscating code with options such as string encryption can make this information harder to obtain. Size reduction As one of the core techniques of obfuscation is identifier renaming, size reductions are often gained by changing long, descriptive identifiers into, typically, one character identifiers. This can lead to substantial savings in program size, albeit with a resulting loss of maintainability of the code. Many obfuscators also have the ability to remove unused code, leading to further reductions in size. Library linking To fully hide the intent of an obfuscated program, it is common for standard library routines to be statically linked into the obfuscated program and those routines themselves are then obfuscated. This can be useful for avoiding problems like DLL hell. Disadvantages of obfuscation When used alone At best, obfuscation merely makes it time-consuming, but not impossible, to reverse engineer a program. When security is important, measures other than obfuscation should be used. The same trade-offs are made in branches of cryptography: an algorithm may be known to be fast but weak, but if the information is very short-lived there is little incentive, except as an intellectual exercise, for anyone to break it: the information becomes useless before it is broken. No-one can guarantee that obfuscation will present any particular level of difficulty to a reverse engineer. "Can We Obfuscate Programs?" by Boaz Barak Obfuscators do not provide security of a level similar to modern encryption schemes. Even obfuscation with encryption can have flaws. Any program or data that is encrypted must be decrypted before it can be used by the computer. So it must exist, unencrypted, somewhere in memory; a reverse engineer can take a snapshot of that memory. Also, any strong encryption requires a key for decryption. For the program to be executable the key must be provided, leaving another avenue open for reverse engineering. Encryption, hashing, and obfuscation | Tech News on ZDNet Debuggers also provide powerful tools to look at the operation of a running program, and decompilers exist to help make bytecode and machine code human-readable. Reverse engineers can use these tools to crack systems with security dependant on obfuscation, including digital rights management systems. Reverse engineering is partly a study in pattern recognition, and the good engineer quickly learns the quirks of a particular compiler, processor, or even programmer, and can make educated guesses about the original code. Debugging Obfuscated code is extremely difficult to debug. Variable names will no longer make sense, and the structure of the code itself will likely be modified beyond recognition. This fact generally forces developers to maintain two builds: One with the original, unobfuscated source code that can be easily debugged, and another for release. While both builds should be tested to make sure they perform identically, the second build is generally reliably constructed from the first by an obfuscator. This limitation does not apply to intermediate language obfuscators (e.g. for .NET and Java), which generally work on compiled assemblies rather than on source code. Portability Obfuscated code often depends on the particular characteristics of the platform and compiler, making it difficult to manage if either change. This only applies to source code obfuscation. Obfuscation against intermediate languages does not have this limitation, though obfuscation can make it harder or impossible to decompile to a higher level language such as C# or Java. Conflicts with Reflection APIs Reflection is a set of APIs in various languages that allow an object to be examined or created just by knowing its classname at run-time. Many obfuscators allow specified classes to be exempt from renaming; and it is also possible to let a class be renamed and call it by its new name. However, the former option places limits on the dynamism of code, while the latter adds a great deal of complexity and inconvenience to the system. Obfuscating software A vast variety of tools exists to perform or assist with code obfuscation. These include experimental research tools created by academics, hobbyist tools, commercial products written by professionals, and Open-source software. Deobfuscators do the reverse. Software obfuscation tools include specialized obfuscators to demonstrate a relatively limited technique, more general obfuscators which attempt a more thorough obfuscation, and combined-function tools which obfuscate code as part of a larger goal such as software licensing enforcement. See also AARD code Decompilation Quine Polymorphic code Notes References B. Barak, O. Goldreich, R. Impagliazzo, S. Rudich, A. Sahai, S. Vadhan and K. Yang. "On the (Im)possibility of Obfuscating Programs". 21st Annual International Cryptology Conference, Santa Barbara, California, USA. Springer Verlag LNCS Volume 2139, 2001. External links The International Obfuscated C Code Contest Protecting Java Code Via Code Obfuscation Dotfuscator in Visual Studio on MSDN resource page — Visual Studio 2008 documentation for built-in .NET obfuscation Obfuscation tools for .NET, on MSDN — Obfuscation resources for .NET, on the Microsoft Developer Center. Can we obfuscate programs? Yury Lifshits. Lecture Notes on Program Obfuscation (Spring'2005) Obfuscate member names in .NET code Analysis of the 12 days program Analysis of the obfuscated maze generating program Obfuscated Perl program with explanation wiki:BlackBoxComputation | Obfuscation_(software) |@lemmatized obfuscate:32 code:82 source:12 computer:5 program:37 language:14 make:16 difficult:7 understand:1 programmer:7 may:11 deliberately:3 conceal:2 purpose:2 form:3 security:5 obscurity:1 deter:1 reverse:15 engineering:6 puzzle:1 recreational:2 challenge:1 reader:1 know:6 obfuscators:10 transform:4 human:3 readable:2 obfuscated:12 use:26 various:2 technique:7 overview:1 prone:1 obfuscation:39 others:1 cloak:1 pry:1 eye:1 jeff:1 atwood:1 c:38 tutorial:1 simple:7 introduction:1 dreamincode:1 net:8 perl:7 pe:1 rls:1 line:3 noise:1 often:10 cite:1 easy:5 macro:1 preprocessors:1 create:5 hard:3 read:1 mask:1 standard:2 syntax:1 grammar:1 main:25 body:1 term:1 shroud:1 also:13 prevent:5 typically:3 manage:3 risk:4 stem:1 unauthorized:2 access:1 include:10 loss:3 intellectual:4 property:3 ease:1 probe:1 application:9 vulnerability:1 revenue:1 result:2 engineer:9 modify:2 circumvent:1 metering:1 usage:1 control:2 recompiled:1 therefore:1 compensate:1 great:2 compute:3 environment:1 java:9 microsoft:4 take:5 advantage:3 time:9 compilation:2 technology:2 allow:5 developer:4 deploy:2 intermediate:7 rather:4 compile:7 machine:15 compact:1 object:3 interpret:1 without:1 affect:1 behaviour:1 size:6 important:2 common:4 case:3 midlets:1 meaningful:1 identifier:5 embed:1 class:4 file:3 replace:7 short:4 one:10 javascript:7 web:2 write:4 pascal:1 give:2 run:6 conversion:1 necessary:2 generally:8 way:2 encrypt:2 anyone:2 see:6 format:1 tedious:1 slow:1 say:1 compiler:8 tend:1 map:4 predictable:1 although:3 optimization:3 possible:2 reconstruct:1 fair:1 copy:4 original:6 e:18 g:3 oxygene:1 visual:3 basic:1 different:1 approach:1 far:3 recommend:1 script:2 encoder:2 asp:2 server:1 compromise:1 cracker:1 would:3 unable:1 find:5 work:3 jscript:2 vbscript:1 note:4 encoded:2 functional:1 internet:1 explorer:1 however:5 documentation:2 state:3 encode:1 casual:2 viewing:1 determined:1 hacker:3 harden:2 process:1 call:3 tamper:1 detection:1 response:1 encryption:6 custom:1 virtual:4 writing:1 reading:1 brain:1 teaser:2 number:3 contest:6 reward:1 creatively:1 international:6 ruby:1 postscript:1 type:3 keyword:1 substitution:1 non:1 whitespace:1 artistic:1 effect:2 clever:2 self:2 generating:1 heavily:1 compressed:1 valid:2 operate:1 similarly:1 multiple:2 programming:1 print:3 another:5 something:1 similar:3 signature:1 informally:1 japhs:1 origin:1 practice:1 credit:1 randal:1 schwartz:1 example:12 win:1 entry:1 competition:1 ian:1 phillipps:1 winner:1 least:1 likely:4 successfully:1 subsequently:1 thomas:2 ball:2 twelve:1 day:6 christmas:2 stdio:1 h:1 char:3 return:3 n:18 w:14 cdnr:1 r:11 de:2 q:10 l:6 k:7 dq:1 ekk:2 nl:8 rw:3 nc:2 ik:1 wk:1 nw:2 iwk:1 kk:1 ld:1 nlwb:1 kd:1 rdq:1 nr:1 rl:1 putchar:1 ek:1 dc:1 bk:1 nuwloca:1 vpbks:1 fxntdceghiry:1 unintelligible:1 first:3 glance:1 legal:2 generate:3 verse:1 contain:3 string:5 require:2 poem:1 inlined:1 iterate:1 display:3 need:2 maze:2 arbitrary:1 length:1 z:11 j:40 scanf:2 printf:11 rand:2 modern:3 constant:2 overwrite:1 avoid:4 change:6 version:3 gcc:1 gnu:1 prior:2 fwritable:1 flag:1 leave:4 year:1 base:1 int:31 x:132 japh:1 p:26 split:2 urruu:1 nrekcah:1 xinu:1 lrep:1 rehtona:1 tsuj:1 sub:1 u:2 pipe:1 f:2 fork:1 ord:1 ix:1 close:3 key:3 wait:1 sleep:1 slowly:1 text:2 unix:1 character:2 delay:1 explanation:2 python:2 official:1 faq:1 step:3 following:2 section:3 attempt:4 set:2 rule:2 prime:29 less:2 sieve:1 eratosthenes:1 void:8 cap:17 composite:14 sequence:1 transformation:3 reduce:1 primes:1 single:2 rewrite:2 special:2 value:2 loop:8 follow:1 series:1 cascade:1 else:12 statement:2 fact:3 thin:1 disguise:1 anyway:1 difference:1 mainly:2 lexical:1 scope:1 knowledge:1 instead:2 literal:4 thus:1 reveal:1 zero:3 variable:8 could:2 happen:1 enough:2 ever:1 add:4 multiplies:1 divide:2 subtracts:1 place:2 start:1 function:6 like:3 iteration:1 recursion:5 strive:1 eliminate:1 computational:2 overhead:2 introduce:1 two:3 new:5 parameter:2 let:3 conjoin:1 comma:1 operator:2 third:2 block:3 additional:2 must:4 capture:1 situation:1 iterative:2 flow:1 fail:1 condition:1 continue:1 incremented:1 construct:3 meaningless:1 names:1 name:6 context:1 lack:1 letter:2 structure:2 ternary:1 conditional:1 b:3 become:2 reorder:1 expression:2 counterintuitive:1 remove:6 stand:1 rename:4 respectively:1 quite:1 reference:2 nonzero:1 sake:1 pass:1 totally:1 unnecessary:1 course:2 remain:1 redundant:1 white:1 space:1 declaration:1 optional:1 element:1 unambiguous:1 parenthesis:1 largely:1 intuitive:1 fix:1 apply:4 system:4 limiting:1 factor:1 sort:1 relatively:2 perform:3 many:3 deduce:1 efficient:1 replacement:1 recursive:1 incur:1 much:1 though:3 order:2 log:1 loglog:1 big:1 notation:1 optimizer:3 invariant:1 motion:1 defeat:1 unintentional:2 necessarily:1 oppose:1 sometimes:1 occur:1 optimize:2 prematurely:1 second:2 guess:2 trick:1 defeating:1 confuse:1 optimal:1 produce:1 usually:1 best:2 contrive:1 show:1 method:1 typography:1 typeface:1 courier:1 lucida:1 console:1 letterforms:1 glyph:1 typical:1 screen:1 appear:2 identical:2 particularly:1 even:3 hide:2 middle:1 spot:1 nobody:1 fool:1 long:2 waste:1 morph:4 refers:1 achieve:1 completely:1 compiled:3 entirely:1 expect:1 begin:1 execution:3 previous:1 operation:4 complete:1 well:4 equivalent:1 disassembly:1 distributed:1 unnecessarily:1 complicate:1 hinder:1 increase:1 reason:2 morphing:3 limit:2 critical:1 portion:1 entire:1 protection:3 check:1 determine:1 whether:1 authentic:1 installation:1 pirated:1 removal:1 otherwise:1 multilevel:1 hundred:1 unique:1 pattern:2 layer:1 command:2 turn:1 binary:1 undecipherable:1 mess:1 normal:2 malicious:2 software:6 spammer:1 frequently:1 html:3 spam:1 message:3 capable:1 mail:1 client:1 reasonably:1 albeit:2 obnoxious:1 behavior:1 spawn:1 pop:1 window:1 view:1 investigator:2 discern:1 link:5 go:1 malware:1 author:1 part:2 browser:1 exploit:2 redirect:1 page:3 automate:1 currently:1 available:1 market:1 effectiveness:1 tool:9 vary:1 channel:1 exchange:1 range:1 manifestly:1 confound:1 viewer:1 inexperienced:1 dynamic:1 nature:1 piece:1 store:1 encrypted:1 decrypt:2 evaluate:1 several:1 insertion:1 dummy:2 legitimate:1 vm:1 migration:1 party:1 recompile:1 old:1 meet:1 development:1 kit:1 definition:1 classformaterror:1 migrate:1 protect:4 present:3 trade:2 secret:1 license:2 implementation:1 reduced:1 exposure:1 private:1 information:4 sql:1 usernames:1 password:2 hardcoded:1 koders:1 com:1 option:2 harder:1 obtain:1 reduction:3 core:1 gain:1 descriptive:1 lead:2 substantial:1 saving:1 resulting:1 maintainability:1 ability:1 unused:1 library:2 fully:1 intent:1 routine:2 statically:1 useful:1 problem:1 dll:1 hell:1 disadvantage:1 alone:1 merely:1 consuming:1 impossible:2 measure:1 offs:1 branch:1 cryptography:1 algorithm:1 fast:1 weak:1 live:1 little:1 incentive:1 except:1 exercise:1 break:2 useless:1 guarantee:1 particular:3 level:3 difficulty:1 boaz:1 barak:2 provide:3 scheme:1 flaw:1 data:1 exist:2 unencrypted:1 somewhere:1 memory:2 snapshot:1 strong:1 decryption:1 executable:1 avenue:1 open:2 hashing:1 tech:1 news:1 zdnet:1 debugger:1 powerful:1 look:1 running:1 decompilers:1 help:1 bytecode:1 crack:1 dependant:1 digital:1 right:1 management:1 partly:1 study:1 recognition:2 good:1 quickly:1 learn:1 quirk:1 processor:1 educated:1 debug:3 extremely:1 longer:1 sense:1 beyond:1 force:1 maintain:1 build:4 unobfuscated:1 easily:1 release:1 test:1 sure:1 identically:1 reliably:1 obfuscator:1 limitation:2 assembly:1 portability:1 depend:1 characteristic:1 platform:1 either:1 decompile:1 high:1 conflict:1 reflection:2 apis:2 examine:1 classname:1 specify:1 exempt:1 former:1 dynamism:1 latter:1 deal:1 complexity:1 inconvenience:1 vast:1 variety:1 exists:1 assist:1 experimental:1 research:1 academic:1 hobbyist:1 commercial:1 product:1 professional:1 deobfuscators:1 specialized:1 demonstrate:1 limited:1 general:1 thorough:1 combine:1 large:1 goal:1 enforcement:1 aard:1 decompilation:1 quine:1 polymorphic:1 goldreich:1 impagliazzo:1 rudich:1 sahai:1 vadhan:1 yang:1 im:1 possibility:1 annual:1 cryptology:1 conference:1 santa:1 barbara:1 california:1 usa:1 springer:1 verlag:1 lncs:1 volume:1 external:1 via:1 dotfuscator:1 studio:2 msdn:2 resource:2 center:1 yury:1 lifshits:1 lecture:1 spring:1 member:1 analysis:2 wiki:1 blackboxcomputation:1 |@bigram obfuscate_code:9 internet_explorer:1 stdio_h:1 gcc_gnu:1 gnu_compiler:1 lexical_scope:1 int_int:10 limiting_factor:1 optimize_compiler:1 self_defeating:1 santa_barbara:1 springer_verlag:1 external_link:1 |
3,496 | Catharism | Catharism was a name given to a Christian religious sect with dualistic and gnostic elements that appeared in the Languedoc region of France in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries. Catharism had its roots in the Paulician movement in Armenia and the Bogomils of Bulgaria with whom the Paulicians merged. They also became influenced by dualist and, perhaps, Manichaean beliefs. Like many medieval movements, there were various schools of thought and practice amongst the Cathari; some were dualistic, others Gnostic, some closer to orthodoxy while abstaining from an acceptance of Catholic doctrines. The dualist theology was the most prominent, however, and was based upon the complete incompatibility of love and power. As matter was seen as a manifestation of power, it was also incompatible with love. They did not believe in one all-encompassing god, but in two, both equal and comparable in status. They held that the physical world was evil and created by Rex Mundi (translated from Latin as "king of the world"), who encompassed all that was corporeal, chaotic and powerful; the second god, the one whom they worshipped, was entirely disincarnate: a being or principle of pure spirit and completely unsullied by the taint of matter. He was the god of love, order and peace. According to some Cathars, the purpose of man's life on Earth was to transcend matter, perpetually renouncing anything connected with the principle of power and thereby attained union with the principle of love. According to others, man's purpose was to reclaim or redeem matter, spiritualizing and transforming it. This placed them at odds with the Catholic Church in regarding material creation, on behalf of which Jesus had died, as intrinsically evil and implying that God, whose word had created the world in the beginning, was a usurper. Furthermore, as the Cathars saw matter as intrinsically evil, they denied that Jesus could become incarnate and still be the son of God. Cathars vehemently repudiated the significance of the Crucifixion and the Cross. In fact, to the Cathars, Rome's opulent and luxurious church seemed a palpable embodiment and manifestation on Earth of Rex Mundi's sovereignty. The Catholic Church regarded the sect as dangerously heretical. Faced with the rapid spread of the movement across the Languedoc region the Church first sought peaceful attempts at conversion, undertaken by Dominicans. These were not very successful, and after the murder on 15 January 1208 of the papal legate Pierre de Castelnau by a knight in the employ of Count Raymond of Toulouse, the Church called for a crusade, which the French carried out and was known as the Albigensian Crusade. The Papal Legate had involved himself in a dispute between two rivals the Count of Baux and Count Raymond of Toulouse. It is possible that his assassination had little to do with the Cathar heresy. The anti-Cathar Albigensian Crusade, and the inquisition which followed it, entirely eradicated the Cathars. The Albigensian Crusade was undertaken by the French for mainly political purposes as it enabled France to conquer the until then independent principalities, such as Toulouse, of Southern France. The excuse of eradicating Cathars led to a massive genocide in the South of France. The purpose of the genocide may well have been to remove the population resource from which the hitherto independent rulers of the South had drawn their armies and resources. Name Cathars being expelled from Carcassonne in 1209 There is consensus that Cathars is a name given to the movement and not one that its members chose. Indeed, the Cathars had no official name, preferring to refer to themselves only as Bons Hommes et Bonnes Femmes (Good Men and Good Women). The most popular theory is that the word Cathar most likely originated from Greek , meaning "pure ones", a term related to the word Katharsis or Catharsis, meaning "purification". The first recorded use of the word is by religious authority Eckbert von Schönau, who wrote regarding the heretics in Cologne in 1181: ("Our Germany calls them Cathars"). The Cathars were also sometimes referred to as the Albigensians (Albigeois). This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the town of Albi (the ancient Albiga), northeast of Toulouse. The designation is misleading as the movement had no centre and is known to have flourished in several European countries (from Catalonia in northern Spain, to Belgium, and from Italy to the Rhineland). Use of the name came from the fact that a debate was held in Albi between priests and the Cathars; no conclusion was reached, but from then on it was assumed in France that Cathars were supporters of the "Albigensian doctrine". However, few inhabitants of Albi were actually Cathars, and the city gladly accepted Catholicism during the crusade. Origins The Cathars' beliefs are thought to have come originally from Eastern Europe and the Byzantine Empire by way of trade routes. The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the similar Christian movement of the Bogomils ("Friends of God") of Thrace. Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils and the earlier Paulicians as well as the Manicheans and the Christian Gnostics of the first few centuries AD, although, as many scholars, most notably Mark Pegg, have pointed out, it would be erroneous to extrapolate direct, historical connections based on theoretical similarities perceived by modern intellectuals. Much of our existing knowledge of the Cathars is derived from their opponents, the writings of the Cathars mostly having been destroyed because of the doctrinal threat perceived by the Papacy. For this reason it is likely, as with most heretical movements of the period, that we have only a partial view of their beliefs. Conclusions about Cathar ideology continue to be fiercely debated with commentators regularly accusing their opponents of speculation, distortion and bias. There are a few texts from the Cathars themselves which were preserved by their opponents (the Rituel Cathare de Lyon, the Nouveau Testament en Provençal) which give a glimpse of the inner workings of their faith, but these still leave many questions unanswered. One large text which has survived, The Book of Two Principles (Liber de duobus principiis) Dondaine, Antoine. O.P. Un traite neo-manicheen du XIIIe siecle: Le Liber de duobus principiis, suivi d'un fragment de rituel Cathare (Rome: Institutum Historicum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 1939) , elaborates the principles of dualistic theology from the point of view of some of the Albanenses Cathars. It is now generally agreed by most scholars that identifiable Catharism did not emerge until at least 1143, when the first confirmed report of a group espousing similar beliefs is reported being active at Cologne by the cleric Eberwin of Steinfeld. See especially R.I. Moore's The Origins of European Dissent, and the collection of essays Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages: Essays on the Work of R.I. Moore for a consideration of the origins of the Cathars, and proof against identifying earlier heretics in the West, such as those identified in 1025 at Monforte, outside Milan, as being Cathars. Also see Heresies of the High Middle Ages, a collection of pertinent documents on Western heresies of the High Middle Ages, edited by Walter Wakefield and Austin P. Evans. A landmark in the "institutional history" of the Cathars was the Council, held in 1167 at Saint-Félix-Lauragais, attended by many local figures and also by the Bogomil papa Nicetas, the Cathar bishop of (northern) France and a leader of the Cathars of Lombardy. Although there are certainly similarities in theology and practice between Gnostic/dualist groups of Late Antiquity (such as the Marcionites, Manichaeans and Ebionites) and the Cathars, there was not a direct link between the two; Manichaeanism died out in the West by the seventh century. The Cathars were largely a homegrown, Western European/Latin Christian phenomenon, springing up in the Rhineland cities (particularly Cologne) in the mid-twelfth century, northern France around the same time, and particularly southern France — the Languedoc — and the northern Italian cities in the mid-late 12th century. In the Languedoc and northern Italy, the Cathars would enjoy their greatest popularity, surviving in the Languedoc, in much reduced form, up to around 1325 and in the Italian cities until the Inquisitions of the 1260s–1300s finally rooted them out. See Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie's Montaillou: the Promised Land of Error for a respected analysis of the social context of these last French Cathars, and Power and Purity by Carol Lansing for a consideration of 13th-century Catharism in Orvieto. General beliefs Cathars, in general, formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the Catholic Church, protesting what they perceived to be the moral, spiritual and political corruption of the Church. They claimed an Apostolic succession from the founders of Christianity, and saw Rome as having betrayed and corrupted the original purity of the message, particularly since Pope Sylvester I accepted the Donation of Constantine (which at the time was believed to be genuine). Human condition The Cathars believed there existed within mankind a spark of divine light. This light, or spirit, had fallen into captivity within a realm of corruption identified with the physical body and world. This was a distinct feature of classical Gnosticism, of Manichaeism and of the theology of the Bogomils. This concept of the human condition within Catharism was most probably due to direct and indirect historical influences from these older (and sometimes violently suppressed) Gnostic movements. According to the Cathars, the world had been created by a lesser deity, much like the figure known in classical Gnostic myth as the Demiurge. This creative force was identified with Satan; most forms of classical Gnosticism had not made this explicit link between the Demiurge and Satan. Spirit, the vital essence of humanity, was thus trapped in a polluted world created by a usurper God and ruled by his corrupt minions. Eschatology The goal of Cathar eschatology was liberation from the realm of limitation and corruption identified with material existence. The path to liberation first required an awakening to the intrinsic corruption of the medieval "consensus reality", including its ecclesiastical, dogmatic, and social structures. Once cognizant of the grim existential reality of human existence (the "prison" of matter), the path to spiritual liberation became obvious: matter's enslaving bonds must be broken. This was a step-by-step process, accomplished in different measures by each individual. The Cathars accepted the idea of reincarnation. Those who were unable to achieve liberation during their current mortal journey would return another time to continue the struggle for perfection. Thus, it should be understood that reincarnation was neither a necessary nor a desirable event, but a result of the fact that not all humans could break the enthralling chains of matter within a single lifetime. Consolamentum Cathar society was divided into two general categories, the Perfecti (Perfects, Parfaits) and the Credentes (Believers). The Perfecti formed the core of the movement, though the actual number of Perfecti in Cathar society was always relatively small, numbering perhaps a few thousand at any one time. Regardless of their number, they represented the perpetuating heart of the Cathar tradition, the "true Christian Church", as they styled themselves. (When discussing the tenets of Cathar faith it must be understood that the demands of extreme asceticism fell only upon the Perfecti.) An individual entered into the community of Perfecti through a ritual known as the consolamentum, a rite that was both sacramental and sacerdotal in nature: sacramental in that it granted redemption and liberation from this world; sacerdotal in that those who had received this rite functioned in some ways as the Cathar clergy — though the idea of priesthood was explicitly rejected. The consolamentum was the baptism of the Holy Spirit, baptismal regeneration, absolution, and ordination all in one. Upon reception of the consolamentum, the new Perfectus surrendered his or her worldly goods to the community, vested himself in a simple black or blue robe with cord belt, and undertook a life dedicated to following the example of Christ and his Apostles — an often peripatetic life devoted to purity, prayer, preaching and charitable work, or so it was claimed. Above all, the Perfecti were dedicated to enabling others to find the road that led from the dark land ruled by the dark lord, to the realm of light which they believed to be humankind's first source and ultimate end. While the Perfecti vowed themselves to ascetic lives of simplicity, frugality and purity, Cathar credentes (believers) were not expected to adopt the same stringent lifestyle. They were however expected to refrain from eating meat and dairy products, from killing and from swearing oaths. Catharism was above all a populist religion and the numbers of those who considered themselves "believers" in the late twelfth century included a sizable portion of the population of Languedoc, counting among them many noble families and courts. These individuals often drank, ate meat, and led relatively normal lives within medieval society — in contrast to the Perfecti, whom they honored as exemplars. Though unable to embrace the life of chastity, the credentes looked toward an eventual time when this would be their calling and path. Many credentes would also eventually receive the consolamentum as death drew near — performing the ritual of liberation at a moment when the heavy obligations of purity required of Perfecti would be temporally short. Some of those who received the sacrament of the consolamentum upon their death-beds may thereafter have shunned further food or drink in order to speed death. This has been termed the endura. It was claimed by Catharism's opponents that by such self-imposed starvation, the Cathars were committing suicide in order to escape this world. Other than at such moments of extremis, no evidence exists to suggest this was a common Cathar practice. Theology The Catharist concept of Jesus might be called docetistic — theologically speaking it resembled Sabellianism in the West and Adoptionism in the East. Some Cathars believed that Jesus had been a manifestation of spirit unbounded by the limitations of matter — a sort of divine spirit or feeling manifesting within human beings. Many embraced the Gospel of John as their most sacred text, and many rejected the traditional view of the Old Testament — proclaiming that the God of the Old Testament was really the devil, or creative demiurge. They proclaimed that there was a higher God — the True God — and Jesus was or is the messenger. These are views similar to those of Marcion. The God found in the Old Testament had nothing to do with the God of Love known to Cathars. The Old Testament God had created the world as a prison, and demanded from the "prisoners" fearful obedience and worship. This false god was in reality — claimed the Cathari — a blind usurper who under the most false pretexts, tormented and murdered those whom he called, all too possessively, "his children". The false god was, by the Cathari, called Rex Mundi, or The King of the World. This exegesis upon the Old Testament was not unique to the Cathars: it echoes views found in earlier Gnostic movements and foreshadows later critical voices. The dogma of the Trinity and the sacrament of the Eucharist, among others, were rejected as abominations. Belief in metempsychosis, or the transmigration of souls, resulted in the rejection of Hell and Purgatory, which were and are dogmas of the Catholic faith. For the Cathars, this world was the only hell — there was nothing to fear after death, save perhaps rebirth. While this is the understanding of Cathar theology related by the Catholic Church, crucial to the study of the Cathars is their fundamental disagreement with both the Christian interpretation of the Doctrine of "resurrection" (cryptically referred to in and ) as a doctrine of the physical raising of a dead body from the grave. In the book "Massacre at Montsegur" the Cathars are referred to as "Western Buddhists" because of their belief that the Doctrine of "resurrection" taught by Jesus was, in fact, similar to the Buddhist Doctrine of Rebirth (referred to as "reincarnation"). Massacre at Montsegur: A History of the Albigensian Crusade, Zoe Oldenbourg This challenge to the orthodox Christian interpretation of the "resurrection" reflected a conflict previously witnessed during the second and third centuries between Gnosticism and developing "orthodox" Christian theology. Social relationships From the theological underpinnings of the Cathar faith there came practical injunctions that were considered destabilizing to the morals of medieval society. For instance, Cathars rejected the giving of oaths as wrongful; an oath served to place one under the domination of the Demiurge and the world. To reject oaths in this manner was seen as anarchic in a society where illiteracy was widespread and almost all business transactions and pledges of allegiance were based on the giving of oaths. Sexual intercourse and reproduction propagated the slavery of spirit to flesh, hence procreation was considered undesirable. Informal relationships were considered preferable to marriage among Cathar credentes. Perfecti were supposed to have observed complete celibacy, and eventual separation from a partner would be necessary for those who would become Perfecti. For the credentes however, sexual activity was not prohibited, but procreation was strongly discouraged, resulting in the charge by their opponents of sexual perversion. The common English insult "bugger" is derived from "Bulgar", the notion that Cathars followed the "Bulgarian heresy" whose teaching entailed perverse sexual activities which skirted procreation. Killing was abhorrent to the Cathars; so too the copulation that produced enslavement in matter. Consequently, abstention from all animal food (sometimes exempting fish) was enjoined of the Perfecti. (The Perfecti apparently avoided eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction- (they didn't eat eggs or dairy products.) War and capital punishment were also condemned, an abnormality in the medieval age. As a consequence of their rejection of oaths, Cathars also rejected marriage vows. Such was the situation, that when called before the Inquisition, one accused of Catharism needed only to show that he was married for the case to be immediately dismissed. Such teachings, both in theological intent and practical consequence, brought upon the Cathars condemnation from religious and secular authorities as being the enemies of Christian faith and of social order. This portrays the story of a disputation between Saint Dominic and the Cathars (Albigensians), in which the books of both were thrown on a fire and St. Dominic's books were miraculously preserved from the flames. Painting by Pedro Berruguete Suppression In 1147, Pope Eugene III sent a legate to the Cathar district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of Bernard of Clairvaux could not obscure the poor results of this mission, which clearly showed the power of the sect in the Languedoc at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter of St. Chrysogonus to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry of Marcy, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180–81, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry's armed expedition, which took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement. Decisions of Catholic Church councils — in particular, those of the Council of Tours (1163) and of the Third Council of the Lateran (1179) — had scarcely more effect upon the Cathars. When Pope Innocent III came to power in 1198, he was resolved to deal with them. At first Innocent tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the Cathar regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who venerated them, but also with many of the bishops of the region, who resented the considerable authority the Pope had conferred upon his legates. Indeed, one of the key factors in the tolerance towards the heresy was the impact of the Gregorian reforms which had transfered power over the appointment to bishoprics from local lay rulers to the Papacy and the monastic orders, especially the Cistercians whose power was everywhere growing. In 1204, Innocent III suspended a number of bishops in the south of France; in 1205 he appointed a new and vigorous bishop of Toulouse, the former troubadour Foulques. In 1206 Diego of Osma and his canon, the future Saint Dominic, began a programme of conversion in Languedoc; as part of this, Catholic-Cathar public debates were held at Verfeil, Servian, Pamiers, Montréal and elsewhere. Saint Dominic met and debated the Cathars in 1203 during his mission to the Languedoc. He concluded that only preachers who displayed real sanctity, humility and asceticism could win over convinced Cathar believers. The official Church as a rule did not possess these spiritual warrants. Paul Johnson, "A History of Christianity", p251, Atheneum, 1976, ISBN 0689705913 His conviction led eventually to the establishment of the Dominican Order in 1216. The order was to live up to the terms of his famous rebuke, "Zeal must be met by zeal, humility by humility, false sanctity by real sanctity, preaching falsehood by preaching truth." However, even St. Dominic managed only a few converts among the Cathari. Albigensian crusade In January 1208 the papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau was sent to meet the ruler of the area, Count Raymond VI of Toulouse. Known for excommunicating noblemen who protected the Cathars, Castelnau excommunicated Raymond as an abettor of heresy following an allegedly fierce argument during which Raymond supposedly threatened Peter with violence. Shortly thereafter, Castelnau was murdered as he returned to Rome allegedly by a knight in the service of Count Raymond. His body was returned and laid to rest in the Abbey at Saint Gilles. As soon as he heard of the murder, the Pope ordered the legates to preach a crusade against the Cathars and wrote a letter to Phillip Augustus, King of France, appealing for his intervention - or an intervention led by his son, Louis. This was not the first appeal but some have seen the murder of the legate as a turning point in papal policy - whereas it might be more accurate to see it as a fortuitous event in allowing the Pope to excite popular opinion and to renew his pleas for intervention in the south. The entirely biased chronicler of the crusade which was to follow - Peter de Vaux de Cernay portrays the sequence of events in such a way as to make us believe that, having failed in his effort to peacefully demonstrate the errors of Catharism, the Pope then called a formal crusade, appointing a series of leaders to head the assault. The French King refused to lead the crusade himself, nor could he spare his son - despite his victory against John of England, there were still pressing issues with Flanders and the empire and the threat of an Angevin revival. Phillip did however sanction the participation of some of his more bellicose and ambitious - some might say dangerous barons, notably Simon de Montfort and Bouchard de Marly. There followed 20 years of war against the Cathars and their allies in the Languedoc: the Albigensian Crusade. This war pitted the nobles of the north of France against those of the south. The widespread northern enthusiasm for the Crusade was partially inspired by a papal decree permitting the confiscation of lands owned by Cathars and their supporters. This not only angered the lords of the south but also the French King who was at least nominally the suzerain of the lords whose lands were now open to despoliation and seizure. Phillip Augustus wrote to Innocent in strong terms to point this out - but the Pope did not change his policy - and many of those who went to the Midi were aware that the Pope had been equivocal over the seige of Zara and the seizure and looting of Constantinople. As the Languedoc was supposedly teeming with Cathars and Cathar sympathisers, this made the region a target for French noblemen looking to acquire new fiefs. The barons of the north headed south to do battle, their first target the lands of the Trencavel, powerful lords of Albi, Carcassonne and the Razes - but a family with few allies in the Midi. Little was thus done to form a regional coalition and the crusading army was able to take Carcassonne, the Trencavel capital by duplicitous methods - incarcerating Raymond Roger in his own citadel where he died, allegedly of natural causes; champions of the Occitan cause from that day to this belive he was murdered. Simon de Montfort was granted the Trencavel lands by the Pope and did homage for them to the King of France, thus incurring the enmity of Peter of Aragon who had held aloof from the conflict, even acting as a mediator at the time of the seige of Carcassonne. The remainder of the first of the two Cathar wars now essentially focused on Simon's attempt to hold on to his fabulous gains through winters where he was faced, with only a small force of confederates operating from the main winter camp at Fanjeau, with the desertion of local lords who had sworn fealty to him out of necessity - and attempts to enlarge the his new found domains in the summer when his forces were greatly augmented by reinforcements from northern France, Germany and elsewhere. Summer campaigns saw him not only retake, sometimes with brutal reprisals, what he had lost in the 'close' season but also seek to widen his spehere of operation - and we see him in action in the Aveyron at St. Antonin and on the banks of the Rhone at Beaucaire. Simon's greatest triumph was the victory against superior numbers at the battle of Muret - a battle which saw not only the defeat of Raymond of Toulouse and his occitan allies - but also the death of Peter of Aragon - and the effective end of the ambitions of the house of Aragon/Barcelona in the Languedoc. This was in the medium and longer term of much greater significance to the royal house of France than it was to De Montfort - and with the battle of Bouvines was to secure the position of Philip Augustus vis a vis England and the Empire. The battle of Muret was a massive step in the creation of the unified French kingdom and the country we know today - although Edward III, the Black Prince and Henry V would threaten later to shake these foundations. Massacre The crusader army came under the command, both spiritual and military, of the papal legate Arnaud-Amaury, Abbot of Cîteaux. In the first significant engagement of the war, the town of Béziers was besieged on 22 July 1209. The Catholic inhabitants of the city were granted the freedom to leave unharmed, but many refused and opted to stay and fight alongside the Cathars. The Béziers army attempted a sortie but was quickly defeated, then pursued by the crusaders back through the gates and into the city. Arnaud, the Cistercian abbot-commander, is supposed to have been asked how to tell Cathars from Catholics. His reply, recalled by Caesar of Heisterbach, a fellow Cistercian, several hundred years later was "" — "Kill them all, the Lord will recognise His own." "Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eis." Caesarius of Heisterbach, Caesarius Heiserbacencis monachi ordinis Cisterciensis, Dialogus miraculorum, ed. J. Strange, Cologne, 1851, J. M. Heberle, Vol 2 , 296–8. Caesarius (c) was a Cistercian Master of Novices. Another Cistercian writing a few years after the events makes no mention of this remark whilst Caesar of Heisterbach wrote forty years later, however they are consistent with Arnaud's report to the Pope about the massacre. See "Pope Innocent III (1160/61-1216): To Root Up and to Plant" John Clare Moore, p180, BRILL, 2003,ISBN 9004129251 The doors of the church of St Mary Magdalene were broken down and the refugees dragged out and slaughtered. Reportedly, 7,000 people died there including many women and children. Elsewhere in the town many more thousands were mutilated and killed. Prisoners were blinded, dragged behind horses, and used for target practice. Paul Johnson, "A History of Christianity", p252, Atheneum, 1976, ISBN 0689705913 What remained of the city was razed by fire. Arnaud wrote to Pope Innocent III, "Today your Holiness, twenty thousand heretics were put to the sword, regardless of rank, age, or sex." Patrologia Latinae cursus completus, series Latina, 221 vols., ed. J-P Migne ), Paris, Vol. 216:col 139 "The Chronicle of William of Puylaurens: The Albigensian Crusade and Its Aftermath", p128, William, M. D. Sibly, Boydell Press, 2003, ISBN 0851159257 . The permanent population of Béziers at that time was then probably no more than 5,000, but local refugees seeking shelter within the city walls could conceivably have increased the number to 20,000. After the success of his siege of Carcassonne, which followed the massacre at Béziers, Simon de Montfort was designated as leader of the Crusader army. Prominent opponents of the Crusaders were Raymond-Roger de Trencavel, viscount of Carcassonne, and his feudal overlord Peter II, the king of Aragon, who held fiefdoms and had a number of vassals in the region. Peter died fighting against the crusade on September 12, 1213 at the Battle of Muret. Treaty and persecution The war ended in the Treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and that of the Trencavels (Viscounts of Béziers and Carcassonne) of the whole of their fiefs. The independence of the princes of the Languedoc was at an end. But in spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not yet extinguished. In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent III. One of the key goals of the council was to combat the heresy of the Cathars. The Inquisition was established in 1229 to uproot the remaining Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13th century, and a great part of the 14th, it finally succeeded in extirpating the movement. Cathars who refused to recant were hanged, or burned at the stake. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar fortress of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16, 1244, a large and symbolically important massacre took place, where over 200 Cathar perfects were burned in an enormous fire at the prat des cramats near the foot of the castle. Moreover, the Church decreed lesser chastisements against laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars, at the 1235 Council of Narbonne. See the Bull of Innocent IV Ad exstirpanda, 1252. Inquisitors required heretical sympathisers - repentant first offenders - to sew a yellow cross onto their clothes. Weis, René. The Yellow Cross: The Story of the Last Cathars. (Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2000), 11–12. A popular though as yet unsubstantiated theory holds that a small party of Cathar perfects escaped from the fortress before the massacre at prat des cramats. It is widely held in the Cathar region to this day that the escapees took with them le tresor cathar. What this treasure consisted of has been a matter of considerable speculation: claims range from sacred Gnostic texts to the Cathars' accumulated wealth. Hunted by the Inquisition and deserted by the nobles of their districts, the Cathars became more and more scattered fugitives: meeting surreptitiously in forests and mountain wilds. Later insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of Foix, Aimery of Narbonne and Bernard Délicieux (a Franciscan friar later prosecuted for his adherence to another heretical movement, that of the Spiritual Franciscans) at the beginning of the 14th century. But by this time the Inquisition had grown very powerful. Consequently, many were summoned to appear before it. Precise indications of this are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The parfaits only rarely recanted, and hundreds were burned. Repentant lay believers were punished, but their lives were spared as long as they did not relapse. Having recanted, they were obliged to sew yellow crosses onto their outdoor clothing and to live apart from other Catholics, at least for a while. Annihilation After several decades of harassment and re-proselytizing, and perhaps even more importantly, the systematic destruction of their scripture, the sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts. The leaders of a Cathar revival in the Pyrenean foothills, Pierre and Jacques Autier, were executed in 1310. Catharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, under pressure from the Inquisition. After 1330, the records of the Inquisition contain very few proceedings against Cathars. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed in 1321. Other movements, such as the Waldensians and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit, which suffered persecution in the same area survived in remote areas and in small numbers into the 14th and 15th centuries. Some Waldensian ideas were absorbed into early Protestant sects, such as the Hussites, Lollards, and the Moravian Church (Herrnhuters of Germany). It is possible that Cathar ideas were too. Later history After the suppression of Catharism, the descendants of Cathars were at times required to live outside towns and their defenses. They thus retained a certain Cathar identity, despite having returned to the Catholic religion. Any use of the term "Cathar" to refer to people after the suppression of Catharism in the 14th century is a cultural or ancestral reference, and has no religious implication. Nevertheless, interest in the Cathars, their history, legacy and beliefs continues. The publication of the book Crusade against the Grail by a young German Otto Rahn in the 1930s rekindled interest in the connection between the Cathars and the Holy Grail. Rahn was convinced that the 13th century work Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach was a veiled account of the Cathars. His research attracted the attention of the Nazi government and in particular of Heinrich Himmler, who made him archaeologist in the . Also, the Cathars have been depicted in popular books such as The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail as a group of elite nobility somehow connected to "secrets" about the true nature of the Christian faith, although there is no critical proof of such secrets being kept. Pays Cathare The castle of Montségur was razed after 1244; the current fortress follows French military architecture of the 17th century The term Pays Cathare, French meaning "Cathar Country" is used to highlight the Cathar heritage and history of the region where Catharism was traditionally strongest. This area is centred around fortresses such as Montségur and Carcassonne; also the French département of the Aude uses the title Pays Cathare in tourist brochures. Pays Cathare These areas have ruins from the wars against the Cathars which are still visible today. Some criticise the promotion of the identity of Pays Cathare as an exaggeration for tourist purposes. Actually most of the promoted Cathar castles were not built by Cathars but by local lords and later many of them were rebuilt and extended for strategic purposes. Good examples of these are the magnificent castles of Queribus and Peyrepetuse which are both perched on the side of precipitous drops on the last folds of the Corbieres mountains. They were for several hundred years frontier fortresses belonging to the French crown and most of what you will see there today in their well preserved remains dates from a post-Cathar era. Indeed, there is little evdience to suggest that Cathars laid one stone in any fortification. Clearly, Montsegur was a Cathar refuge and a group of Cathars, possibly under the protection of the lords of Cucugnan, briefly took refuge in Queribus - but the link between the citadels and Catharims is otherwise virtually non-existent. Many consider the County of Foix to be the actual historical centre of Catharism. Modern-day Cathars Some residents of the Pays Cathare identify themselves as Cathars even today. They claim to be descended from the Cathars of the Middle Ages. It can be safely assumed that many local people have at least some ancestors who were Cathars. However, the delivering of the consolamentum, on which historical Catharism was based, required a linear succession by a bon homme in good standing. As mentioned above, it is believed that one of the last known bons hommes, Guillaume Belibaste, was burned in 1321. See also Antonin Gadal Brethren of the Free Spirit Cathar Perfect, Credentes Catholicism Christianity Crusades Gnosticism Holy Grail Inquisition Lollards Manicheanism Manisola Montsegur Waldensians Notes References Heresies of the High Middle Ages, Walter Wakefield and Austin P. Evans. Columbia University Press ( October 15, 1991) Original source documents in translation. Bernard Gui, The Inquisitor's Guide: A Medieval Manual on Heretics, translated by Janet Shirley (Ravenhall Books, 2006). A new translation of the fifth part of Gui's famous manual. "Albigenses" by N.A. Weber. "Cathari" by N.A. Weber. The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908. The Trail of Gnosis by Judith Mann | publisher = Gnosis Traditions Press | year = 2002 Histories of the Cathars: Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, trans. Barbara Bray, Vintage Books, 1979 Montsegur and the Mystery of the Cathars, Jean Markale, ISBN , Inner Traditions, http://www.innertraditions.com/titles/momyca.html The Cathars, Malcolm Lambert, ISBN , Blackwell, 1998 The Perfect Heresy, Stephen O'Shea, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 2000, ISBN 0-7607-5219-2 Heresy and the Inquisition II Persecution of Heretics by Dr M D Magee, 12 December 2002. lastours The four cathar castles above Lastours. Foucault's Pendulum, Umberto Eco, ISBN , Ballantine, 1988 The Inquisition Record of Jacques Fournier Bishop of Pamiers (English translation by Nancy P. Stork)The Cathars: The Most Successful Heresy of the Middle Ages, Sean Martin, Pocket Essentials 2005The Corruption of Angels: The Great Inquisition of 1245-1245, 2001, Mark Gregory Pegg. (Princeton University Press, 2001) ISBN . A new and refreshing take on Catharism in Languedoc — argues against any kind of doctrinal unity of mid-13th-century Cathars. Jean Duvernoy's transcriptions of inquisitorial manuscripts, many hitherto unpublishedPower and Purity: Cathar Heresy in Medieval Italy Carol Lansing (Oxford University Press, 1998). Cathars outside of LanguedocTuez-les tous Dieu reconnaîtra les siens. Le massacre de Béziers et la croisade des Albigeois vus par Césaire de Heisterbach Jacques Berlioz (Loubatières, 1994). A discussion of the command "Kill them all, God will know his own." recorded by a contemporary Cistercian Chronicler. In France, an ordeal by fire and a monster weapon called 'Bad Neighbor' , Smithsonian Magazine, pp. 40–51, May 1991, by David Roberts. [Cathars & Catholic Conflict] David George's recently published "The Crusade of Innocents" (amazon.com ISBN ) has as its plot the encounter between a Cathar girl and the leader of the concurrent Chlldren's Crusade Stephen of Cloyes. CATHARS - Memories of an initiate, by the philosopher Yves Maris, AdA inc, 2006. Inquisition & Power by John H. Arnold. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0812236181 An excellent and meticulously researched work dealing with Catharism in the context of the Inquisition's evolution; analyzes Inquisitorial practice as the construction of the "confessing subject". The Origins of European Dissent R.I. Moore. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994. Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe A collection of primary sources, some on Catharism, edited by Edward Peters. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980. The Formation of a Persecuting Society R.I. Moore. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992. Inquisition and Medieval Society'' James Given. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992. Petrus Vallis Caernaii, , Latin Text by Migne Patrologia Latina, vol. 213: col. 0543-0711. An history of the Albigensian war told by a contemporary. External links Cathar castles: Interactive map German Cathars (Katharer) (German) Гора Монсегюр (Blessed Yohanne) and Мощевая Перпертуза The Perfect Heretics: Conference and Book (1995) Apostolic Gnostic Church of American Cathars Kalamazoo International Congress on Medieval Studies Antonin Gadal: L'Œuvre d'un homme inspiré par l'Esprit The paths of Cathars by the philosopher Yves Maris The Gnostic Society Library - Cathar texts Cathar Center of St Andrew in Barcelona (English/Spanish/French) cathares.org (French) Cathar Museum at Mazamet, France Centre d'Etudes Cathares/Cathar Study Centre at Carcassonne, France (French) Story of Catharism (French) Catholic Encylcopedia article, 1917 | Catharism |@lemmatized catharism:20 name:8 give:6 christian:10 religious:4 sect:5 dualistic:3 gnostic:10 element:1 appear:2 languedoc:15 region:8 france:18 century:17 flourish:2 root:3 paulician:1 movement:14 armenia:1 bogomils:4 bulgaria:1 paulicians:2 merge:1 also:16 become:5 influence:2 dualist:3 perhaps:4 manichaean:2 belief:8 like:2 many:18 medieval:10 various:1 school:1 thought:1 practice:5 amongst:1 cathari:5 others:5 closer:1 orthodoxy:1 abstain:1 acceptance:1 catholic:16 doctrine:7 theology:7 prominent:2 however:8 base:4 upon:8 complete:2 incompatibility:1 love:5 power:9 matter:11 see:12 manifestation:3 incompatible:1 believe:7 one:13 encompassing:1 god:16 two:6 equal:1 comparable:1 status:1 hold:9 physical:3 world:12 evil:3 create:5 rex:3 mundi:3 translate:2 latin:3 king:8 encompass:1 corporeal:1 chaotic:1 powerful:3 second:2 worship:2 entirely:3 disincarnate:1 principle:5 pure:2 spirit:9 completely:1 unsullied:1 taint:1 order:9 peace:1 accord:3 cathars:88 purpose:6 man:2 life:7 earth:2 transcend:1 perpetually:1 renounce:1 anything:2 connect:2 thereby:1 attain:1 union:1 reclaim:1 redeem:1 spiritualize:1 transform:1 place:3 odds:1 church:16 regard:3 material:2 creation:2 behalf:1 jesus:6 die:5 intrinsically:2 imply:1 whose:4 word:4 beginning:2 usurper:3 furthermore:1 saw:4 deny:1 could:7 incarnate:1 still:4 son:3 vehemently:1 repudiate:1 significance:2 crucifixion:1 cross:4 fact:4 rome:4 opulent:1 luxurious:1 seem:1 palpable:1 embodiment:1 sovereignty:1 dangerously:1 heretical:4 face:2 rapid:1 spread:1 across:1 first:12 seek:3 peaceful:1 attempt:4 conversion:3 undertake:3 dominican:2 successful:2 murder:6 january:2 papal:6 legate:9 pierre:4 de:19 castelnau:4 knight:2 employ:1 count:6 raymond:9 toulouse:10 call:9 crusade:19 french:15 carry:1 know:8 albigensian:9 involve:1 dispute:1 rival:1 baux:1 possible:2 assassination:1 little:3 cathar:46 heresy:14 anti:2 inquisition:15 follow:8 eradicate:2 mainly:1 political:2 enable:2 conquer:1 independent:2 principality:1 southern:2 excuse:1 lead:6 massive:2 genocide:2 south:8 may:4 well:3 remove:1 population:3 resource:2 hitherto:2 ruler:3 draw:2 army:5 expel:1 carcassonne:11 consensus:2 member:1 choose:1 indeed:3 official:2 prefer:1 refer:6 bons:2 hommes:2 et:2 bonnes:1 femmes:1 good:5 men:1 woman:2 popular:4 theory:2 likely:2 originate:2 greek:1 mean:2 term:7 relate:2 katharsis:1 catharsis:1 purification:1 record:4 use:7 authority:4 eckbert:1 von:2 schönau:1 write:6 heretic:6 cologne:4 germany:3 sometimes:4 albigensians:2 albigeois:2 end:5 chronicler:3 geoffroy:2 du:2 breuil:1 vigeois:1 refers:1 town:5 albi:5 ancient:1 albiga:1 northeast:1 designation:1 mislead:1 centre:5 several:4 european:4 country:3 catalonia:1 northern:8 spain:1 belgium:1 italy:3 rhineland:2 come:5 debate:4 priest:1 conclusion:2 reach:1 assume:2 supporter:2 inhabitant:2 actually:2 city:9 gladly:1 accept:3 catholicism:2 origins:1 think:1 originally:1 eastern:1 europe:2 byzantine:1 empire:3 way:3 trade:1 route:1 bulgarian:2 bougres:1 apply:1 albigenses:2 maintain:1 association:1 similar:4 friend:1 thrace:1 numerous:1 resemblance:1 early:3 manichean:1 ad:2 although:4 scholar:2 notably:2 mark:2 pegg:2 point:4 would:9 erroneous:1 extrapolate:1 direct:3 historical:4 connection:2 theoretical:1 similarity:2 perceive:3 modern:2 intellectual:1 much:4 exist:3 knowledge:1 derive:2 opponent:6 writing:1 mostly:1 destroy:1 doctrinal:2 threat:2 papacy:2 reason:1 period:2 partial:1 view:5 ideology:1 continue:3 fiercely:1 commentator:1 regularly:1 accuse:2 speculation:2 distortion:1 bias:2 text:5 preserve:3 rituel:2 cathare:8 lyon:1 nouveau:1 testament:6 en:1 provençal:1 glimpse:1 inner:2 working:1 faith:6 leave:2 question:1 unanswered:1 large:2 survive:3 book:10 liber:2 duobus:2 principiis:2 dondaine:1 antoine:1 p:5 un:3 traite:1 neo:1 manicheen:1 xiiie:1 siecle:1 le:4 suivi:1 fragment:1 institutum:1 historicum:1 fratrum:1 praedicatorum:1 elaborate:1 albanenses:1 generally:1 agree:1 identifiable:1 emerge:1 least:4 confirmed:1 report:3 group:4 espouse:1 active:1 cleric:1 eberwin:1 steinfeld:1 especially:2 r:4 moore:5 origin:3 dissent:2 collection:3 essay:2 persecute:1 society:9 middle:6 age:8 work:4 consideration:2 proof:2 identify:6 west:3 monforte:1 outside:3 milan:1 high:4 pertinent:1 document:2 western:3 edit:2 walter:2 wakefield:2 austin:2 evans:2 landmark:1 institutional:1 history:9 council:7 saint:5 félix:1 lauragais:1 attend:1 local:6 figure:2 bogomil:1 papa:1 nicetas:1 bishop:7 leader:5 lombardy:1 certainly:1 late:4 antiquity:1 marcionites:1 ebionite:1 link:4 manichaeanism:1 seventh:1 largely:1 homegrown:1 phenomenon:1 spring:1 particularly:3 mid:3 twelfth:2 around:3 time:9 italian:3 enjoy:1 great:6 popularity:1 reduced:1 form:5 finally:2 emmanuel:2 leroy:1 ladurie:2 montaillou:2 promised:2 land:7 error:3 respected:1 analysis:1 social:4 context:2 last:5 purity:6 carol:2 lansing:2 orvieto:1 general:3 sacerdotal:3 party:2 opposition:1 protest:1 moral:2 spiritual:5 corruption:5 claim:6 apostolic:2 succession:2 founder:1 christianity:4 betray:1 corrupt:2 original:2 message:1 since:1 pope:14 sylvester:1 donation:1 constantine:1 genuine:1 human:5 condition:2 within:7 mankind:1 spark:1 divine:2 light:3 fall:1 captivity:1 realm:3 body:3 distinct:1 feature:1 classical:3 gnosticism:4 manichaeism:1 concept:2 probably:2 due:1 indirect:1 old:6 violently:1 suppress:1 less:2 deity:1 myth:1 demiurge:4 creative:2 force:3 satan:2 make:5 explicit:1 vital:1 essence:1 humanity:1 thus:5 trap:1 polluted:1 rule:3 minion:1 eschatology:2 goal:2 liberation:6 limitation:2 existence:2 path:4 require:5 awakening:1 intrinsic:1 reality:3 include:3 ecclesiastical:1 dogmatic:1 structure:1 cognizant:1 grim:1 existential:1 prison:2 obvious:1 enslave:1 bond:1 must:3 break:4 step:3 process:1 accomplish:1 different:1 measure:1 individual:3 idea:4 reincarnation:3 unable:2 achieve:1 current:2 mortal:1 journey:1 return:4 another:3 struggle:1 perfection:1 understood:2 neither:1 necessary:2 desirable:1 event:4 result:4 enthralling:1 chain:1 single:1 lifetime:1 consolamentum:7 divide:1 category:1 perfecti:13 perfect:6 parfait:2 credentes:7 believer:5 core:1 though:4 actual:2 number:9 always:1 relatively:2 small:4 numbering:1 thousand:3 regardless:2 represent:1 perpetuate:1 heart:1 tradition:3 true:3 style:1 discuss:1 tenet:1 demand:2 extreme:1 asceticism:2 fell:1 enter:1 community:2 ritual:2 rite:2 sacramental:2 nature:2 grant:3 redemption:1 receive:3 function:1 clergy:1 priesthood:1 explicitly:1 reject:6 baptism:1 holy:5 baptismal:1 regeneration:1 absolution:1 ordination:1 reception:1 new:8 perfectus:2 surrender:1 worldly:1 vest:1 simple:1 black:2 blue:1 robe:1 cord:1 belt:1 dedicate:2 example:2 christ:1 apostle:1 often:2 peripatetic:1 devote:1 prayer:1 preaching:1 charitable:1 find:5 road:1 dark:2 lord:8 humankind:1 source:3 ultimate:1 vow:2 ascetic:1 simplicity:1 frugality:1 expect:2 adopt:1 stringent:1 lifestyle:1 refrain:1 eat:3 meat:2 dairy:2 product:3 kill:4 swear:2 oath:6 populist:1 religion:2 consider:6 sizable:1 portion:1 among:4 noble:5 family:2 court:1 drink:2 ate:1 normal:1 contrast:1 honor:1 exemplar:1 embrace:2 chastity:1 look:2 toward:1 eventual:2 eventually:2 death:5 near:2 perform:1 moment:2 heavy:1 obligation:1 temporally:1 short:1 sacrament:2 bed:1 thereafter:2 shun:1 food:2 speed:1 endura:1 self:1 impose:1 starvation:1 commit:1 suicide:1 escape:2 extremis:1 evidence:1 suggest:2 common:2 catharist:1 might:3 docetistic:1 theologically:1 speak:1 resemble:1 sabellianism:1 adoptionism:1 east:1 unbounded:1 sort:1 feeling:1 manifesting:1 gospel:1 john:4 sacred:2 traditional:1 proclaim:2 really:1 devil:1 messenger:1 marcion:1 nothing:2 prisoner:2 fearful:1 obedience:1 false:4 blind:2 pretext:1 torment:1 possessively:1 child:2 exegesis:1 unique:1 echo:1 earlier:1 foreshadows:1 later:7 critical:2 voice:1 dogma:2 trinity:1 eucharist:1 abomination:1 metempsychosis:1 transmigration:1 soul:1 rejection:2 hell:2 purgatory:1 fear:1 save:1 rebirth:2 understanding:1 crucial:1 study:3 fundamental:1 disagreement:1 interpretation:2 resurrection:3 cryptically:1 raising:1 dead:1 grave:1 massacre:9 montsegur:5 buddhist:2 taught:1 zoe:1 oldenbourg:1 challenge:1 orthodox:2 reflect:1 conflict:3 previously:1 witness:1 third:2 develop:1 relationship:2 theological:2 underpinnings:1 practical:2 injunction:1 destabilize:1 instance:1 wrongful:1 serve:1 domination:1 manner:1 anarchic:1 illiteracy:1 widespread:2 almost:1 business:1 transaction:1 pledge:1 allegiance:1 sexual:5 intercourse:1 reproduction:2 propagate:1 slavery:1 flesh:1 hence:1 procreation:3 undesirable:1 informal:1 preferable:1 marriage:2 suppose:2 observe:1 celibacy:1 separation:1 partner:1 activity:2 prohibit:1 strongly:1 discourage:1 charge:1 perversion:1 english:3 insult:1 bugger:1 bulgar:1 notion:1 teaching:2 entail:1 perverse:1 skirt:1 killing:1 abhorrent:1 copulation:1 produce:1 enslavement:1 consequently:2 abstention:1 animal:1 exempt:1 fish:1 enjoin:1 apparently:1 avoid:1 egg:1 war:9 capital:2 punishment:1 condemn:1 abnormality:1 consequence:2 situation:1 need:1 show:2 marry:1 case:1 immediately:1 dismiss:1 intent:1 bring:1 condemnation:1 secular:1 enemy:1 portray:2 story:3 disputation:1 dominic:5 throw:1 fire:4 st:7 miraculously:1 flame:1 painting:1 pedro:1 berruguete:1 suppression:3 eugene:1 iii:7 send:3 district:2 arrest:1 progress:1 isolated:1 success:3 bernard:5 clairvaux:1 obscure:1 poor:1 mission:3 clearly:2 cardinal:2 peter:8 chrysogonus:1 toulousain:1 henry:3 marcy:1 albano:1 obtain:1 merely:1 momentary:1 arm:1 expedition:1 take:6 stronghold:1 lavaur:1 extinguish:2 decision:1 particular:2 tour:1 lateran:2 scarcely:1 effect:1 innocent:9 resolve:1 deal:2 try:1 pacific:1 contend:1 protect:2 people:4 venerate:1 resent:1 considerable:2 confer:1 key:2 factor:1 tolerance:1 towards:1 impact:1 gregorian:1 reform:1 transfer:1 appointment:1 bishopric:1 lay:4 monastic:1 cistercian:6 everywhere:1 grow:2 suspend:1 appoint:2 vigorous:1 former:1 troubadour:1 foulques:1 diego:1 osma:1 canon:1 future:1 begin:1 programme:1 part:4 public:1 verfeil:1 servian:1 pamiers:2 montréal:1 elsewhere:3 met:1 conclude:1 preacher:1 display:1 real:2 sanctity:3 humility:3 win:1 convinced:1 possess:1 warrant:1 paul:2 johnson:2 atheneum:2 isbn:11 conviction:1 establishment:1 live:3 famous:2 rebuke:1 zeal:2 meet:3 preach:3 falsehood:1 truth:1 even:4 manage:1 convert:1 area:5 vi:3 excommunicate:2 nobleman:2 abettor:1 allegedly:3 fierce:1 argument:1 supposedly:2 threaten:2 violence:1 shortly:1 service:1 rest:1 abbey:1 gilles:1 soon:1 hear:1 letter:1 phillip:3 augustus:3 appeal:2 intervention:3 louis:1 turn:1 policy:2 whereas:1 accurate:1 fortuitous:1 allow:1 excite:1 opinion:1 renew:1 plea:1 vaux:1 cernay:1 sequence:1 u:1 fail:1 effort:1 peacefully:1 demonstrate:1 formal:1 series:2 head:2 assault:1 refuse:3 spare:1 despite:2 victory:2 england:2 press:10 issue:1 flanders:1 angevin:1 revival:2 sanction:1 participation:1 bellicose:1 ambitious:1 say:1 dangerous:1 baron:2 simon:5 montfort:4 bouchard:1 marly:1 year:6 ally:3 pit:1 north:2 enthusiasm:1 partially:1 inspire:1 decree:2 permit:1 confiscation:1 anger:1 nominally:1 suzerain:1 open:1 despoliation:1 seizure:2 strong:2 change:1 go:1 midi:2 aware:1 equivocal:1 seige:2 zara:1 looting:1 constantinople:1 teem:1 sympathiser:2 target:3 acquire:1 fief:3 battle:6 trencavel:4 razes:1 regional:1 coalition:1 crusading:1 able:1 duplicitous:1 method:1 incarcerate:1 roger:2 citadel:2 natural:1 cause:2 champion:1 occitan:2 day:3 belive:1 homage:1 incur:1 enmity:1 aragon:4 aloof:1 act:1 mediator:1 remainder:1 essentially:1 focus:1 fabulous:1 gain:1 winter:2 confederate:1 operate:1 main:1 camp:1 fanjeau:1 desertion:1 fealty:1 necessity:1 enlarge:1 found:1 domain:1 summer:2 greatly:1 augment:1 reinforcement:1 campaign:1 retake:1 brutal:1 reprisal:1 lose:1 close:1 season:1 widen:1 spehere:1 operation:1 action:1 aveyron:1 antonin:3 bank:1 rhone:1 beaucaire:1 triumph:1 superior:1 muret:3 defeat:2 effective:1 ambition:1 house:3 barcelona:2 medium:1 long:2 royal:1 bouvines:1 secure:1 position:1 philip:1 unified:1 kingdom:1 today:5 edward:2 prince:2 v:1 shake:1 foundation:1 crusader:4 command:2 military:2 arnaud:4 amaury:1 abbot:2 cîteaux:1 significant:1 engagement:1 béziers:5 besiege:2 july:1 freedom:1 unharmed:1 opt:1 stay:1 fight:2 alongside:1 sortie:1 quickly:1 pursue:1 back:1 gate:1 commander:1 ask:1 tell:2 reply:1 recall:1 caesar:2 heisterbach:4 fellow:1 hundred:3 recognise:1 caedite:1 eos:1 novit:1 enim:1 dominus:1 qui:1 sunt:1 eis:1 caesarius:3 heiserbacencis:1 monachi:1 ordinis:1 cisterciensis:1 dialogus:1 miraculorum:1 ed:2 j:3 strange:1 heberle:1 vol:3 c:1 master:1 novice:1 mention:2 remark:1 whilst:1 forty:1 consistent:1 plant:1 clare:1 brill:1 door:1 mary:1 magdalene:1 refugee:2 drag:2 slaughtered:1 reportedly:1 mutilate:1 behind:1 horse:1 remain:3 raze:2 holiness:1 twenty:1 put:1 sword:1 rank:1 sex:1 patrologia:2 latinae:1 cursus:1 completus:1 latina:2 vols:1 migne:2 paris:2 col:2 chronicle:1 william:2 puylaurens:1 aftermath:1 sibly:1 boydell:1 permanent:1 shelter:1 wall:1 conceivably:1 increase:1 siege:1 designate:1 viscount:2 feudal:1 overlord:1 ii:2 fiefdom:1 vassal:1 september:1 treaty:2 persecution:3 dispossess:1 trencavels:1 whole:2 independence:1 spite:1 wholesale:1 yet:2 fourth:1 combat:1 establish:1 uproot:1 operating:1 succeed:1 extirpate:1 recant:3 hang:1 burn:4 stake:1 march:2 fortress:5 montségur:3 troop:1 seneschal:1 archbishop:1 narbonne:3 symbolically:1 important:1 enormous:1 prat:2 des:1 cramats:2 foot:1 castle:6 moreover:1 chastisement:1 layman:1 suspect:1 sympathy:1 bull:1 iv:1 exstirpanda:1 inquisitor:3 repentant:2 offender:1 sew:2 yellow:3 onto:2 clothes:1 wei:1 rené:1 alfred:1 knopf:1 york:2 unsubstantiated:1 widely:1 escapee:1 tresor:1 treasure:1 consist:1 range:1 accumulate:1 wealth:1 hunt:1 desert:1 scattered:1 fugitive:1 meeting:1 surreptitiously:1 forest:1 mountain:2 wild:1 insurrection:1 leadership:1 foix:2 aimery:1 délicieux:1 franciscan:2 friar:1 prosecute:1 adherence:1 summon:1 precise:1 indication:1 register:1 caux:1 jean:3 ablis:1 rarely:1 punish:1 spar:1 relapse:1 oblige:1 outdoor:1 clothing:1 apart:1 annihilation:1 decade:1 harassment:1 proselytizing:1 importantly:1 systematic:1 destruction:1 scripture:1 exhaust:1 adept:1 pyrenean:1 foothill:1 jacques:3 autier:1 execute:2 disappear:1 pressure:1 contain:1 proceeding:1 known:2 guillaume:2 bélibaste:1 waldensians:2 pantheistic:1 brother:2 free:2 suffer:1 remote:1 waldensian:1 absorb:1 protestant:1 hussite:1 lollards:2 moravian:1 herrnhuters:1 descendant:1 defense:1 retain:1 certain:1 identity:2 cultural:1 ancestral:1 reference:2 implication:1 nevertheless:1 interest:2 legacy:1 publication:1 grail:4 young:1 german:3 otto:1 rahn:2 rekindled:1 convince:1 parzival:1 wolfram:1 eschenbach:1 veiled:1 account:1 research:2 attract:1 attention:1 nazi:1 government:1 heinrich:1 himmler:1 archaeologist:1 depict:1 blood:1 elite:1 nobility:1 somehow:1 secret:2 keep:1 pay:6 architecture:1 meaning:1 highlight:1 heritage:1 traditionally:1 département:1 aude:1 title:2 tourist:2 brochure:1 ruin:1 visible:1 criticise:1 promotion:1 exaggeration:1 promoted:1 build:1 rebuild:1 extend:1 strategic:1 magnificent:1 queribus:2 peyrepetuse:1 perch:1 side:1 precipitous:1 drop:1 fold:1 corbieres:1 frontier:1 belong:1 crown:1 date:1 post:1 era:1 evdience:1 stone:1 fortification:1 refuge:2 possibly:1 protection:1 cucugnan:1 briefly:1 catharims:1 otherwise:1 virtually:1 non:1 existent:1 county:1 resident:1 descend:1 safely:1 ancestor:1 delivering:1 linear:1 bon:1 homme:2 standing:1 belibaste:1 gadal:2 manicheanism:1 manisola:1 note:1 columbia:1 university:7 october:1 translation:3 gui:2 guide:1 manual:2 janet:1 shirley:1 ravenhall:1 fifth:1 n:2 weber:2 encyclopedia:1 trail:1 gnosis:2 judith:1 mann:1 publisher:1 roy:1 trans:1 barbara:1 bray:1 vintage:1 mystery:1 markale:1 http:1 www:1 innertraditions:1 com:2 momyca:1 html:1 malcolm:1 lambert:1 blackwell:2 stephen:2 shea:1 barnes:1 dr:1 magee:1 december:1 lastours:2 four:1 foucault:1 pendulum:1 umberto:1 eco:1 ballantine:1 fournier:1 nancy:1 stork:1 sean:1 martin:1 pocket:1 essential:1 angel:1 gregory:1 princeton:1 refreshing:1 argues:1 kind:1 unity:1 duvernoy:1 transcription:1 inquisitorial:2 manuscript:1 unpublishedpower:1 oxford:2 languedoctuez:1 les:2 tous:1 dieu:1 reconnaîtra:1 siens:1 bé:1 ziers:1 la:1 croisade:1 vus:1 par:2 césaire:1 berlioz:1 loubatières:1 discussion:1 contemporary:2 ordeal:1 monster:1 weapon:1 bad:1 neighbor:1 smithsonian:1 magazine:1 pp:1 david:2 robert:1 george:1 recently:1 publish:1 amazon:1 plot:1 encounter:1 girl:1 concurrent:1 chlldren:1 cloyes:1 memory:1 initiate:1 philosopher:2 yves:2 maris:2 ada:1 inc:1 h:1 arnold:1 philadelphia:1 pennsylvania:2 excellent:1 meticulously:1 evolution:1 analyze:1 construction:1 confessing:1 subject:1 toronto:2 primary:1 formation:1 persecuting:1 james:1 ithaca:1 cornell:1 petrus:1 vallis:1 caernaii:1 external:1 interactive:1 map:1 katharer:1 гора:1 монсегюр:1 bless:1 yohanne:1 мощевая:1 перпертуза:1 conference:1 american:1 kalamazoo:1 international:1 congress:1 l:2 œuvre:1 inspiré:1 esprit:1 library:1 texts:1 center:1 andrew:1 spanish:1 cathares:2 org:1 museum:1 mazamet:1 etude:1 encylcopedia:1 article:1 |@bigram papal_legate:4 albigensian_crusade:7 cathar_heresy:2 promised_land:2 apostolic_succession:1 pope_sylvester:1 violently_suppress:1 holy_spirit:1 dairy_product:2 swear_oath:1 commit_suicide:1 sacrament_eucharist:1 transmigration_soul:1 pledge_allegiance:1 sexual_intercourse:1 sexual_perversion:1 sexual_reproduction:1 saint_dominic:3 bernard_clairvaux:1 pope_innocent:4 shortly_thereafter:1 de_montfort:4 battle_bouvines:1 mary_magdalene:1 boydell_press:1 could_conceivably:1 burn_stake:1 alfred_knopf:1 franciscan_friar:1 holy_grail:3 wolfram_von:1 von_eschenbach:1 heinrich_himmler:1 pay_cathare:6 non_existent:1 http_www:1 barnes_noble:1 heresy_inquisition:1 foucault_pendulum:1 umberto_eco:1 oxford_blackwell:1 ithaca_cornell:1 migne_patrologia:1 patrologia_latina:1 external_link:1 un_homme:1 l_esprit:1 |
3,497 | Dune | Erg Chebbi, Morocco Dunes of Maspalomas in Gran Canaria In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by aeolian processes. Dunes are subject to different forms and sizes based on their interaction with the wind. Most kinds of dune are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune, and a shorter "slip face" in the lee of the wind. The "valley" or trough between dunes is called a slack. A "dune field" is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. Large dune fields are known as ergs. Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach. In most cases the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. Although the most widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of dunes are found inland in dry regions and associated with ancient lake or sea beds. Dunes also form under the action of water flow (alluvial processes), on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries and the sea-bed. The modern word "dune" came into English from French circa 1790 but it's an old Indo-European word that's found in most of the Slavic languages as well as the Germanic and Latin languages. In ancient times words cognate to "dune" probably had the meaning of a citadel or built-up hill fortification. dune - Definitions from Dictionary.com Conservation Dune habitats provide niches for highly specialized plants and animals, including numerous rare and endangered species. Due to human population expansion dunes face destruction through recreation and land development, as well as alteration to prevent encroachment on inhabited areas. Some countries, notably the U.S., New Zealand, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and the Netherlands have developed extensive programs of dune protection. In the UK, a Biodiversity Action Plan has been developed to assess dunes loss and prevent future dunes destruction. Dune shapes Crescentic Crescent-shaped mounds are generally wider than they are long. The slipface is on the dune's concave side. These dunes form under winds that blow from one direction, and they also are known as barchans, or transverse dunes. Some types of crescentic dunes move faster over desert surfaces than any other type of dune. A group of dunes moved more than 100 meters per year between 1954 and 1959 in the People's Republic of China's Ningxia Province; similar rates have been recorded in the Western Desert of Egypt. The largest crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths of more than 3 kilometers, are in China's Taklamakan Desert. Linear Straight or slightly sinuous sand ridges typically much longer than they are wide are known as linear dunes. They may be more than long. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes. Many form in bidirectional wind regimes. The long axes of these dunes extend in the resultant direction of sand movement. Linear loess hills known as pahas appear superficially similar. These hills appear to have been formed during the last ice age under permafrost conditions dominated by sparse tundra vegetation. Star Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from the high center of the mound. They tend to accumulate in areas with multidirectional wind regimes. Star dunes grow upward rather than laterally. They dominate the Grand Erg Oriental of the Sahara. In other deserts, they occur around the margins of the sand seas, particularly near topographic barriers. In the southeast Badain Jaran Desert of China, the star dunes are up to 500 meters tall and may be the tallest dunes on Earth. Dome Oval or circular mounds that generally lack a slipface, dome dunes are rare and occur at the far upwind margins of sand seas. Parabolic U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes. Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescent shaped dunes, their crests point upwind. The elongated arms of parabolic dunes follow rather than lead because they have been fixed by vegetation, while the bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward. Longitudinal (Seif) and transverse dunes Seif dunes. Longitudinal dunes (also called Seif dunes, after the Arabic word for "sword"), elongate parallel to the prevailing wind, possibly caused by a larger dune having its smaller sides blown away. Seif dunes are sharp-crested and are common in the Sahara. They range up to in height and in length. In the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula, a region called the Empty Quarter because of its total lack of population, a vast erg called Rub al Khali conatins seif dunes that stretch for almost 200 km and reach heights of over 300 m. Seif dunes are thought to develop from barchans if a change of wind direction occurs. The new wind direction will lead to the development of a new wing and the over development of one of the original wings. If the prevailing wind then becomes dominant for a lengthy period of time the dune will revert to its barchan form, with one exaggerated wing. Should the strong wind then return the exaggerated wing will further extend so that eventually it will be supplied with sand when the prevailing wind returns. The wing will continue to grow under both wind conditions, thus producing a seif dune. On a seif dune the slip face develops on the side facing away from the strong wind, while the slip face of a barchan faces the direction of movement. In the sheltered troughs between highly developed seif dunes barchans may be formed because the wind is unidirectional. A transverse dune is perpendicular to the prevailing wind, probably caused by a steady buildup of sand on an already existing minuscule mound. Reversing dunes Complex dune: Dune 7 in the Namib desert, one of the tallest in the world. Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any of the above shapes. These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions. All these dune shapes may occur in three forms: simple, compound, and complex. Simple dunes are basic forms with a minimum number of slipfaces that define the geometric type. Compound dunes are large dunes on which smaller dunes of similar type and slipface orientation are superimposed, and complex dunes are combinations of two or more dune types. A crescentic dune with a star dune superimposed on its crest is the most common complex dune. Simple dunes represent a wind regime that has not changed in intensity or direction since the formation of the dune, while compound and complex dunes suggest that the intensity and direction of the wind has changed. Dune types The Great Dune of Pyla is the largest dune in Europe. Sub-aqueous dunes Sub-aqueous (underwater) dunes form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of water flow. They are ubiquitous in natural channels such as rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered canals and pipelines. Dunes move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope. These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity in wavelength and height. Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and growth playing a major part in river flooding. Lithified dunes A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or aeolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the hue of the rock. Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as those seen in Zion National Park. A local slang term used for these consolidated dunes is "slickrock", a name that was introduced by pioneers of the old west because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels could not gain purchase on the rock. Coastal dunes Coastal dunes on the Kurnell Peninsula Dunes form where constructive waves encourage the accumulation of sand, and where prevailing onshore winds blow this sand inland. There need to be obstacles e.g. vegetation, pebbles etc. to trap the moving sand grains. As the sand grains get trapped they start to accumulate, this is the start of dune formation. The wind then starts to affect the mound of sand by eroding sand particles from the windward side and depositing them on the leeward side. Gradually this action causes the dune to “migrate” inland, as it does so it accumulates more and more sand. Dunes provide privacy and shelter from the wind. Ecological succession on coastal dunes Coastal dunes in Curonian spit. As a dune forms, plant succession occurs. The conditions on an embryo dune are harsh, with salt spray from the sea carried on strong winds. The dune is well drained and often dry, and composed of calcium carbonate from seashells. Rotting seaweed, brought in by storm waves adds nutrients to allow pioneer species to colonize the dune. These pioneer species are marram grass, sea wort grass and other sea grasses in the UK. These plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the fore-dune typically having deep roots which reach the water table, root nodules that produce nitrogen compounds, and protected stoma, reducing transpiration. Also, the deep roots bind the sand together, and the dune grows into a fore dune as more sand is blown over the grasses. The grasses add nitrogen to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes. Typically these are heather, heaths and gorses. These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration. Heather adds humus to the soil and is usually replaced by coniferous trees, which can tolerate low soil pH, caused by the accumulation and decomposition of organic matter with nitrate leaching. Coniferous forests and heathland are common climax communities for sand dune systems. Young dunes are called yellow dunes, dunes which have high humus content are called grey dunes. Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes. It is usually in the slacks that more rare species are developed and there is a tendency for the dune slacks soil to be waterlogged and where only marsh plants can survive. These plants would include: creeping willow, cotton grass, yellow ins, reeds, and rushes. As for the species, there is a tendency for natterjack toads to breed here. Desertification One way of preventing sand from accumulating in roadways is planting trees and vegetation along the road. Sand dunes can impact humans negatively when they encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move through a few different means, all of them helped along by wind. One way that dunes can move is through saltation, where sand particles skip along the ground like a rock thrown across a pond might skip across the water's surface. When these skipping particles land, they may knock into other particles and cause them to skip as well. With slightly stronger winds, particles collide in mid-air, causing sheet flows. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of meters through such sheet flows. And like snow, sand avalanches, falling down the steep slopes of the dunes that face away from the winds, also moving the dunes forward. Sand threatens buildings and crops in Africa, the Middle East and China. Drenching sand dunes with oil stops their migration, but this approach is highly destructive to the dunes' habitat and uses a finite resource. Sand fences might also work, but researchers are still analyzing optimum fence designs. Preventing sand dunes from overwhelming cities and agricultural areas has become a priority for the United Nations Environment Programme. Examples Sand dunes of Khongoryn Els, Gurvansaikhan NP, Mongolia. Africa Western Sahara Asia The dunes in the Thar desert in Rajasthan, India Tottori Sand Dunes,Tottori Prefecture,Japan Rig-e Jenn in the Central Desert of Iran. Rig-e Lut in the Southeast of Iran. The Ilocos Norte Sand Dunes in the Philippines, particularly Paoay Sand Dunes. Mer'eb Dune (also written as Merheb) in United Arab Emirates, used as an arena for motor sports and skiing. Europe The Dune of Pyla, not far from Bordeaux, France, is the largest sand dune in Europe Sands of Forvie within the Ythan Estuary complex, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Oxwich Dunes, near Swansea on the Gower peninsula in Wales. Winterton Dunes-Norfolk,England North America The Athabasca Sand Dunes, the most northernly sand dunes in the world, located in the Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Saskatchewan, Canada. The Kelso Dunes, in the Mojave desert of California. Great Sand Dunes National Park, Colorado, United States. White Sands National Monument, USA. Indiana Dunes / Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Lake Michigan, USA. Algodones Dunes near Brawley, California, USA. Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes, Central Coast California, USA. Monahans Sandhills State Park near Odessa, Texas. The Killpecker sand dunes of the Red Desert in Southwestern Wyoming, USA Genipabu dunes in Natal, Brazil. Jockey's Ridge State Park - Outer Banks, North Carolina Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area near Florence, Oregon, USA South America Lencóis Maranhenses in the state of Maranhão, Brazil. Genipabu in the Natal city, Brazil. World's highest dunes + Note: This table is based on estimates and incomplete information.Dune Height from Base feet/meters Height from Sea Level feet/meters Location NotesCerro Blanco~3860/1176 ~6791/2,080 Sechura Desert, Nazca Highest in the worldBadain Jaran Dunes ~1640/500 ~6640/2,020 Badain Jaran Desert, Alashan Plain, Inner Mongolia, Gobi Desert, China World's tallest stationary dunes and highest in Asia Mystery of world's tallest sand dunes solved - 24 November 2004 - New Scientist Average Highest Area Dunes 1,526/465? ~6,500/~1,980? Isaouane-n-Tifernine Sand Sea, Algerian Sahara Highest in AfricaBig Daddy/Dune 7 1,256/383 ? Sossusvlei Dunes, Namib Desert, Namibia / Near Walvis Bay Namib Desert, Namibia Mount Tempest ~920/280 ~920/280 Moreton Bay, Brisbane, Australia Highest in AustraliaStar Dune >750/230 ~8,950/2,730 Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve, Colorado, USA Highest in North AmericaDune of Pyla ~345/105 ~699/130 Bay of Arcachon, Aquitaine, France Highest in EuropeMing-Sha Dunes ? 5,660/1,725 Dunhuang Oasis, Taklamakan Desert, Gansu, China Medanoso Dune ? 4,921/1,500 or 7,923/2,415? Atacama Desert, Chile Sand dune systems An example of fencing at Studland (coastal dunes featuring succession) Ashdod Sand Dune, Israel Crymlyn Burrows, Wales Kenfig Burrows, Wales Margam burrows, Wales Studland, Dorset, England Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Alberta/Saskatchewan, Canada Murlough Sand Dunes, Newcastle, Co Down, Northern Ireland Morfa Harlech sand dunes, Gwynedd, Wales Newborough Warren, North Wales Bamburgh Dunes, Northumberland, England Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area, North Bend, Oregon, United States Mediterranean Dune in the southern coast of Lazio, Italy (Circeo National Park) Winterton, Norfolk, England Ynyslas Sand Dunes, Wales Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan, United States Extraterrestrial dunes Dunes can likely be found in any environment where there is a substantial atmosphere, winds, and dust to be blown. Dunes are common on Mars, and have also been observed in the equatorial regions of Titan by the Cassini probe's radar. Titan's dunes include large expanses with modal lengths of about 20–30 km. The regions are not topographically confined, resembling sand seas. These dunes are interpreted to be longitudinal dunes whose crests are oriented parallel to the dominant wind direction, which generally indicates west-to-east wind flow. The sand is likely composed of hydrocarbon particles, possibly with some water ice mixed in. Peeking Through the Haze: Titan's Surface, part II - The Planetary Society Blog | The Planetary Society Images References The Physics of Blown Sand (1941) by Ralph Bagnold "Sand Dune Fixation: A Solar-powered Sahara Seawater Pipeline Macroproject", V. Badescu, R.B. Cathcart and A.A. Bolonkin, LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT 19,(2008): doi: 10.1002/ldr.864. Footnotes External links Coastal Sand Dunes Magilligan Dunes, Northern Ireland Dune pattern identification, U.S. Army Treading Lightly: Minimum Impact Dune Hiking Dune Racers of the Empty Quarter - video of sand dunes in the United Arab Emirates The Bibliography of Aeolian Research Sahara sand dunes forms - as investigated by native offroaders from Egypt Gold Coast Dune Management Policy USGS page on dune types Great Sand Dunes National Park See also Antidune Barchan Earth science Ice dune List of landforms Machair Masseira Médanos Sandhill Strand plain Singing Sand Dunes | Dune |@lemmatized erg:4 chebbi:1 morocco:1 dune:186 maspalomas:1 gran:1 canaria:1 physical:1 geography:1 hill:4 sand:65 build:2 aeolian:3 process:2 subject:1 different:2 form:18 size:1 base:3 interaction:1 wind:28 kind:1 longer:1 windward:2 side:6 push:1 short:1 slip:3 face:7 lee:2 valley:1 trough:2 call:7 slack:5 field:2 area:8 cover:1 extensive:2 large:8 know:5 coastal:9 one:7 set:1 run:1 parallel:3 shoreline:1 directly:1 inland:4 beach:1 case:1 important:1 protect:2 land:4 potential:1 ravage:1 storm:3 wave:3 sea:11 although:1 widely:1 distribute:1 associate:2 region:5 complex:7 find:3 dry:2 ancient:2 lake:2 bed:6 also:10 action:4 water:7 flow:6 alluvial:1 gravel:2 river:3 estuary:3 modern:1 word:4 come:1 english:1 french:1 circa:1 old:2 indo:1 european:1 slavic:1 language:2 well:6 germanic:1 latin:1 time:2 cognate:1 probably:2 meaning:1 citadel:1 fortification:1 definition:1 dictionary:1 com:1 conservation:1 habitat:3 provide:2 niche:1 highly:3 specialized:1 plant:7 animal:1 include:3 numerous:1 rare:3 endangered:1 specie:5 due:1 human:3 population:2 expansion:1 destruction:2 recreation:3 development:4 alteration:1 prevent:4 encroachment:1 inhabited:1 country:1 notably:1 u:4 new:4 zealand:1 united:7 kingdom:1 australia:2 canada:3 netherlands:1 develop:6 program:1 protection:1 uk:2 biodiversity:1 plan:1 assess:1 loss:1 future:1 shape:5 crescentic:4 crescent:2 shaped:3 mound:7 generally:3 wide:2 long:4 slipface:3 concave:1 blow:5 direction:10 barchans:3 transverse:3 type:8 move:8 faster:1 desert:18 surface:3 group:1 meter:5 per:1 year:1 people:1 republic:1 china:6 ningxia:1 province:1 similar:3 rate:1 record:1 western:2 egypt:2 earth:3 mean:3 crest:6 width:1 kilometer:1 taklamakan:2 linear:4 straight:1 slightly:2 sinuous:1 ridge:2 typically:4 much:2 may:7 merge:1 compound:5 many:1 bidirectional:1 regime:3 ax:1 extend:2 resultant:1 movement:2 loess:1 pahas:1 appear:2 superficially:1 last:1 ice:3 age:1 permafrost:1 condition:4 dominate:2 sparse:1 tundra:1 vegetation:4 star:5 radially:1 symmetrical:1 pyramidal:1 slipfaces:3 three:2 arm:3 radiate:1 high:10 center:1 tend:1 accumulate:4 multidirectional:1 grow:3 upward:1 rather:2 laterally:1 grand:1 oriental:1 sahara:6 occur:6 around:1 margin:2 particularly:2 near:6 topographic:1 barrier:1 southeast:2 badain:2 jaran:3 tall:5 dome:2 oval:1 circular:1 lack:2 far:3 upwind:2 parabolic:3 convex:1 nose:1 trail:1 elongated:2 sometimes:1 blowout:1 hairpin:1 unlike:1 point:1 follow:1 lead:2 fix:1 bulk:1 migrate:2 forward:2 longitudinal:3 seif:9 arabic:1 sword:1 elongate:1 prevailing:4 possibly:2 cause:6 small:3 away:3 sharp:1 common:4 range:1 height:5 length:2 southern:2 third:1 arabian:1 peninsula:3 empty:2 quarter:2 total:1 vast:1 rub:1 al:1 khali:1 conatins:1 stretch:1 almost:1 km:2 reach:2 think:1 change:3 wing:5 original:1 become:3 dominant:2 lengthy:1 period:1 revert:1 barchan:3 exaggerated:2 strong:4 return:2 eventually:1 supply:1 continue:1 thus:1 produce:3 sheltered:1 unidirectional:1 perpendicular:1 steady:1 buildup:1 already:1 exist:1 minuscule:1 reverse:3 namib:3 world:5 wherever:1 periodically:1 variety:1 major:3 minor:1 orient:2 opposite:1 simple:3 basic:1 minimum:2 number:1 define:1 geometric:1 orientation:1 superimpose:2 combination:1 two:1 represent:1 intensity:2 since:1 formation:2 suggest:1 great:4 pyla:3 europe:3 sub:2 aqueous:2 underwater:1 ubiquitous:1 natural:1 channel:2 engineered:1 canal:1 pipeline:2 downstream:2 upstream:1 slope:3 erode:2 sediment:1 deposit:3 often:2 continuous:1 train:1 show:1 remarkable:1 similarity:1 wavelength:1 significantly:1 increase:1 resistance:1 presence:1 growth:1 play:1 part:2 flooding:1 lithified:3 dun:1 consolidated:2 sandstone:1 marine:1 compact:1 harden:1 pass:1 rock:4 carry:2 mineral:1 alter:1 hue:1 cross:2 layer:1 stack:1 hatching:1 pattern:2 see:2 zion:1 national:10 park:9 local:1 slang:1 term:1 use:3 slickrock:1 name:1 introduce:1 pioneer:3 west:2 steel:1 rim:1 wagon:1 wheel:1 could:1 gain:1 purchase:1 kurnell:1 constructive:1 encourage:1 accumulation:2 prevail:1 onshore:1 need:1 obstacle:1 e:3 g:1 pebbles:1 etc:1 trap:2 grain:2 get:1 start:3 affect:1 particle:5 leeward:1 gradually:1 privacy:1 shelter:1 ecological:1 succession:3 curonian:1 spit:1 embryo:1 harsh:2 salt:1 spray:1 drain:1 compose:2 calcium:1 carbonate:1 seashell:1 rot:1 seaweed:1 bring:1 add:3 nutrient:1 allow:1 colonize:2 marram:1 grass:6 wort:1 adapt:2 fore:2 deep:2 root:3 table:2 nodule:1 nitrogen:2 stoma:1 reduce:2 transpiration:2 bind:1 together:1 soil:5 less:1 hardy:1 heather:2 heath:1 gorse:1 low:2 content:2 prickly:1 leaf:1 humus:3 usually:2 replace:1 coniferous:2 tree:2 tolerate:1 ph:1 decomposition:1 organic:1 matter:1 nitrate:1 leaching:1 forest:1 heathland:1 climax:1 community:1 system:2 young:1 yellow:2 grey:1 leach:1 occurs:1 wash:1 developed:1 exposed:1 top:1 tendency:2 waterlogged:1 marsh:1 survive:1 would:1 creep:1 willow:1 cotton:1 reed:1 rush:1 natterjack:1 toad:1 breed:1 desertification:1 way:2 roadway:1 along:3 road:1 impact:2 negatively:1 encroach:1 help:1 saltation:1 particles:1 skip:4 ground:1 like:2 throw:1 across:2 pond:1 might:2 knock:1 collide:1 mid:1 air:1 sheet:2 dust:2 ten:1 snow:1 avalanche:1 fall:1 steep:1 threaten:1 building:1 crop:1 africa:2 middle:1 east:2 drench:1 oil:1 stop:1 migration:1 approach:1 destructive:1 finite:1 resource:1 fence:3 work:1 researcher:1 still:1 analyze:1 optimum:1 design:1 overwhelm:1 city:2 agricultural:1 priority:1 nation:1 environment:2 programme:1 example:2 khongoryn:1 el:1 gurvansaikhan:1 np:1 mongolia:2 asia:2 thar:1 rajasthan:1 india:1 tottori:2 prefecture:1 japan:1 rig:2 jenn:1 central:2 iran:2 lut:1 ilocos:1 norte:1 philippine:1 paoay:1 mer:1 eb:1 write:1 merheb:1 arab:2 emirate:1 arena:1 motor:1 sport:1 ski:1 bordeaux:1 france:2 forvie:1 within:1 ythan:1 aberdeenshire:1 scotland:1 oxwich:1 swansea:1 gower:1 wale:6 winterton:2 norfolk:2 england:4 north:5 america:2 athabasca:3 northernly:1 locate:1 provincial:2 saskatchewan:2 kelso:1 mojave:1 california:3 colorado:2 state:6 white:1 monument:1 usa:7 indiana:1 sleep:2 bear:2 lakeshore:2 michigan:2 algodones:1 brawley:1 guadalupe:1 nipomo:1 coast:3 monahans:1 sandhills:1 odessa:1 texas:1 killpecker:1 red:1 southwestern:1 wyoming:1 genipabu:2 natal:2 brazil:3 jockey:1 outer:1 bank:1 carolina:1 oregon:4 florence:1 south:1 lencóis:1 maranhenses:1 maranhão:1 note:1 estimate:1 incomplete:1 information:1 foot:2 level:1 location:1 notescerro:1 blanco:1 sechura:1 nazca:1 worldbadain:1 alashan:1 plain:2 inner:1 gobi:1 stationary:1 mystery:1 solve:1 november:1 scientist:1 average:1 isaouane:1 n:1 tifernine:1 algerian:1 africabig:1 daddy:1 sossusvlei:1 namibia:2 walvis:1 bay:3 mount:1 tempest:1 moreton:1 brisbane:1 australiastar:1 preserve:1 americadune:1 arcachon:1 aquitaine:1 europeming:1 sha:1 dunhuang:1 oasis:1 gansu:1 medanoso:1 atacama:1 chile:1 studland:2 feature:1 ashdod:1 israel:1 crymlyn:1 burrow:3 kenfig:1 margam:1 dorset:1 alberta:1 murlough:1 newcastle:1 co:1 northern:2 ireland:2 morfa:1 harlech:1 gwynedd:1 wales:1 newborough:1 warren:1 bamburgh:1 northumberland:1 bend:1 mediterranean:1 lazio:1 italy:1 circeo:1 ynyslas:1 extraterrestrial:1 likely:2 substantial:1 atmosphere:1 mar:1 observe:1 equatorial:1 titan:3 cassini:1 probe:1 radar:1 expanse:1 modal:1 topographically:1 confine:1 resemble:1 interpret:1 whose:1 indicate:1 hydrocarbon:1 mix:1 peek:1 haze:1 ii:1 planetary:2 society:2 blog:1 image:1 reference:1 physic:1 blown:1 ralph:1 bagnold:1 fixation:1 solar:1 power:1 seawater:1 macroproject:1 v:1 badescu:1 r:1 b:1 cathcart:1 bolonkin:1 degradation:1 doi:1 ldr:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 magilligan:1 identification:1 army:1 tread:1 lightly:1 hike:1 racer:1 video:1 emirates:1 bibliography:1 research:1 investigate:1 native:1 offroaders:1 gold:1 management:1 policy:1 usgs:1 page:1 antidune:1 science:1 list:1 landforms:1 machair:1 masseira:1 médanos:1 sandhill:1 strand:1 sing:1 |@bigram gran_canaria:1 windward_side:2 sand_dune:34 sand_gravel:2 indo_european:1 endangered_specie:1 taklamakan_desert:2 loess_hill:1 sahara_desert:1 seif_dune:8 prevailing_wind:4 arabian_peninsula:1 al_khali:1 dune_dune:3 namib_desert:3 downstream_upstream:1 sediment_deposit:1 kurnell_peninsula:1 calcium_carbonate:1 root_nodule:1 coniferous_tree:1 coniferous_forest:1 dust_storm:1 steep_slope:1 western_sahara:1 thar_desert:1 arab_emirate:1 mojave_desert:1 north_carolina:1 inner_mongolia:1 gobi_desert:1 walvis_bay:1 atacama_desert:1 alberta_saskatchewan:1 external_link:1 arab_emirates:1 |
3,498 | Economy_of_the_Central_African_Republic | The country has rich but largely unexploited natural resources; meanwhile, forestry remains an important part of the CAR economy.The Central African Republic is classified as one of the world's least developed countries, with an estimated annual per capita income of $310 (2000). Sparsely populated and landlocked, the nation is overwhelmingly agrarian, with the vast bulk of the population engaged in subsistence farming and 55% of the country's GDP arising from agriculture. Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates half of GDP. Principal foodcrops include cassava, peanuts, sorghum, millet, maize, sesame, and plantains. Principal cash crops for export include cotton, coffee, and tobacco. Timber has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%. Infrastructure Though periodically unusable, the Ubangi River is an important transportation route.Much of the country's limited electrical supply is provided by hydroelectric plants based in Boali. Fuel supplies must be barged in via the Oubangui River or trucked overland through Cameroon, resulting in frequent shortages of gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. The C.A.R.'s transportation and communication network is limited. The country has only 429 kilometers of paved road, limited international, and no domestic air service, and does not possess a railroad. River traffic on the Oubangui River is impossible from April to July, and conflict in the region has sometimes prevented shipments from moving between Kinshasa and Bangui. The telephone system functions, albeit imperfectly. Four radio stations currently operate in the C.A.R., as well as one television station. Numerous newspapers and pamphlets are published on a regular basis, and one company has begun providing Internet service. Agriculture The Central African Republic's economy is dominated by the cultivation and sale of foodcrops such as yams, cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame, and plantains. The importance of foodcrops over exported cash crops is illustrated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between c. 200,000 and 300,000 tons a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from c. 25,000 to 45,000 tons a year. Foodcrops are not exported in large quantities but they still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus foodcrops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee. Many rural and urban women also transform some foodcrops into alcoholic drinks such as sorghum beer or hard liquor and derive considerable income from the sale of these drinks. Much of the income derived from the sale of foods and alcohol is not "on the books" and thus is not considered in calculating per capita income, which is one reason why official figures for per capita income are not accurate in the case of the CAR. The per capita income of the CAR is often listed as being around $300 a year, said to be one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the more important but unregistered sale of foods, locally-produced alcohol, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicines, for example. The informal economy of the CAR is more important than the formal economy for most American Africans. Natural resources The country has rich but largely unexploited natural resources in the form of diamonds, gold, uranium, and other minerals. Diamonds constitute the most important export of the CAR, frequently accounting for 40-55% of export revenues, but an estimated 30-50% of the diamonds produced each year leave the country clandestinely. There may be petroleum deposits along the country's northern border with Chad. Diamonds are the only of these mineral resources currently being developed; reported sales of largely uncut diamonds make up close to 60% of the CAR's export earnings. Industry contributes less than 20% of the country's GDP, with artesian diamond mining, breweries, and sawmills making up the bulk of the sector. Services currently account for 25% of GDP, largely because of the oversized government bureaucracy and high transportation costs arising from the country's landlocked position. Economic aid and development The CAR is heavily dependent upon multilateral foreign aid and the presence of numerous NGO's which provide numerous services which the government fails to provide. As one UNDP official put it, the CAR is a country "sous serum," or a country hooked up to an IV. (Mehler 2005:150) The very presence of numerous foreign personnel and organizations in the country, including peacekeepers and even refugee camps, provides an important source of revenue for many Central Africans. A bricklayer in Paoua, Central African Republic.In the 40 years since independence, the C.A.R. has made slow progress toward economic development. Economic mismanagement, poor infrastructure, a limited tax base, scarce private investment, and adverse external conditions have led to deficits in both its budget and external trade. Its debt burden is considerable, and the country has seen a decline in per capita GNP over the last 40 years. Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January 1994 had mixed effects on the CAR's economy. Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 70% in 1994 and nearly 50% in 1995. Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 2%. Ongoing violence between the government and rebel military groups over pay issues, living conditions, and political representation has destroyed many businesses in the capital and reduced tax revenues for the government. The IMF approved an Extended Structure Adjustment Facility in 1998. The government has set targets of annual 5% growth and 25% inflation for 2000-2001. Structural adjustment programs with the World Bank and IMF and interest-free credits to support investments in the agriculture, livestock, and transportation sectors have had limited impact. The World Bank and IMF are now encouraging the government to concentrate exclusively on implementing much-needed economic reforms to jump-start the economy and defining its fundamental priorities with the aim of alleviating poverty. As a result, many of the state-owned business entities have been privatized and limited efforts have been made to standardize and simplify labor and investment codes and to address problems of corruption. The Central African Government is currently in the process of adopting new labor and investment codes. Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - $3.007 billion (2007 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 4% (2007 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $700 (2007 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 55% industry: 20% services: 25% (2001 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 0.7% highest 10%: 47.7% (1993) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.9% (2007 est.) Labor force: 1.857 million (2006) Unemployment rate: 8% (23% for Bangui) (2001 est.) Budget: revenues: $250 million expenditures: $273 million (2007 est.) Industries: diamond mining, sawmills, breweries, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles Industrial production growth rate: 3% (2002) Electricity - production: 109 million kWh (2005) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 19.05% hydro: 80.95% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 101.4 million kWh (2005) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2005) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2005) Agriculture - products: cotton, coffee, tobacco, manioc (tapioca), yams, millet, maize, bananas; timber Exports: $146.7 million (f.o.b., 2007 est.) Exports - commodities: diamonds, timber, cotton, coffee, tobacco Exports - partners: Canada 38.8%, Belgium 15.5%, Indonesia 6.5%, Italy 5.2%, France 4.8%, Spain 4.7%, Democratic Republic of the Congo 4.6% (2007) Imports: $237.3 million f.o.b. (2007 est.) Imports - commodities: food, textiles, petroleum products, machinery, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, industrial products Imports - partners: France 16.2%, Netherlands 12.7%, Cameroon 9.5%, US 6.2% (2007) Debt - external: $1.153 billion (2007 est.) Economic aid - recipient: ODA, $95.29 million; note - traditional budget subsidies from France (2005 est.) Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (XAF) per US dollar - 481.8 (2007), 522.59 (2006), 527.47 (2005), 528.29 (2004), 581.2 (2003 Fiscal year: calendar year See also Central African Republic Economy of Africa External links | Economy_of_the_Central_African_Republic |@lemmatized country:15 rich:2 largely:6 unexploited:2 natural:3 resource:4 meanwhile:1 forestry:2 remain:2 important:7 part:1 car:11 economy:8 central:9 african:11 republic:6 classify:1 one:6 world:4 least:1 developed:1 estimate:1 annual:2 per:7 capita:4 income:8 sparsely:1 populate:1 landlocked:3 nation:2 overwhelmingly:1 agrarian:1 vast:1 bulk:2 population:2 engage:1 subsistence:2 farming:1 gdp:10 arise:2 agriculture:6 together:1 backbone:1 living:1 outlying:1 area:1 agricultural:1 sector:4 generate:1 half:1 principal:4 foodcrops:6 include:4 cassava:3 peanut:2 sorghum:3 millet:3 maize:3 sesame:2 plantain:2 cash:5 crop:5 export:13 cotton:6 coffee:5 tobacco:3 timber:4 account:3 earnings:2 diamond:11 industry:4 nearly:2 infrastructure:2 though:1 periodically:1 unusable:1 ubangi:1 river:4 transportation:5 route:1 much:3 limit:4 electrical:2 supply:2 provide:5 hydroelectric:1 plant:1 base:3 boali:1 fuel:3 must:1 barge:1 via:1 oubangui:2 trucked:1 overland:1 cameroon:2 result:2 frequent:1 shortage:1 gasoline:1 diesel:1 jet:1 c:5 r:3 communication:1 network:1 kilometer:1 paved:1 road:1 limited:2 international:1 domestic:1 air:1 service:5 possess:1 railroad:1 traffic:1 impossible:1 april:1 july:1 conflict:1 region:1 sometimes:1 prevent:1 shipment:1 move:1 kinshasa:1 bangui:2 telephone:1 system:2 function:1 albeit:1 imperfectly:1 four:1 radio:1 station:2 currently:4 operate:1 well:1 television:1 numerous:4 newspaper:1 pamphlet:1 publish:1 regular:1 basis:1 company:1 begin:1 internet:1 dominate:1 cultivation:1 sale:7 yam:2 importance:1 exported:2 illustrate:1 fact:1 total:1 production:5 staple:1 food:4 range:2 ton:2 year:8 large:1 quantity:1 still:1 constitute:2 derive:3 far:1 periodic:1 surplus:1 many:4 rural:1 urban:1 woman:1 also:2 transform:1 alcoholic:1 drink:2 beer:1 hard:1 liquor:1 considerable:2 alcohol:2 book:1 thus:1 consider:1 calculate:1 reason:1 official:2 figure:2 accurate:1 case:1 often:1 list:1 around:1 say:1 low:2 mostly:1 report:2 ignore:1 unregistered:1 locally:1 produce:2 ivory:1 bushmeat:1 traditional:2 medicine:1 example:1 informal:1 formal:1 american:1 form:1 gold:1 uranium:1 mineral:2 frequently:1 revenue:4 estimated:2 leave:1 clandestinely:1 may:1 petroleum:2 deposit:1 along:1 northern:1 border:1 chad:1 develop:1 uncut:1 make:4 close:1 contribute:1 less:1 artesian:1 mining:2 brewery:2 sawmill:2 oversized:1 government:7 bureaucracy:1 high:2 cost:1 position:2 economic:6 aid:3 development:3 heavily:1 dependent:1 upon:1 multilateral:1 foreign:2 presence:2 ngo:1 fail:1 undp:1 put:1 sous:1 serum:1 hook:1 iv:1 mehler:1 personnel:1 organization:1 peacekeeper:1 even:1 refugee:1 camp:1 source:2 bricklayer:1 paoua:1 since:1 independence:1 slow:1 progress:1 toward:1 mismanagement:1 poor:2 tax:2 scarce:1 private:1 investment:4 adverse:1 external:4 condition:2 lead:2 deficit:1 budget:3 trade:1 debt:2 burden:1 see:2 decline:1 caput:2 gnp:1 last:1 constraint:1 unskilled:1 work:1 force:2 legacy:1 misdirected:1 macroeconomic:1 policy:1 devaluation:1 currency:2 francophone:1 january:1 mixed:1 effect:1 increase:1 rise:1 military:2 rebellion:1 social:1 unrest:1 accompany:1 widespread:1 destruction:1 property:1 drop:1 ongoing:1 violence:1 rebel:1 group:1 pay:1 issue:1 live:1 political:1 representation:1 destroy:1 business:2 capital:1 reduced:1 imf:3 approve:1 extended:1 structure:1 adjustment:2 facility:1 set:1 target:1 growth:3 inflation:2 structural:1 program:1 bank:2 interest:1 free:1 credit:1 support:1 livestock:1 impact:1 encourage:1 concentrate:1 exclusively:1 implement:1 need:1 reform:1 jump:1 start:1 define:1 fundamental:1 priority:1 aim:1 alleviate:1 poverty:1 state:1 owned:1 entity:1 privatize:1 effort:1 standardize:1 simplify:1 labor:3 code:2 address:1 problem:1 corruption:1 process:1 adopt:1 new:1 statistic:1 purchasing:2 power:2 parity:2 billion:2 est:11 real:1 rate:5 composition:1 household:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 consumer:2 price:1 million:8 unemployment:1 expenditure:1 textile:2 footwear:1 assembly:1 bicycle:1 motorcycle:1 industrial:2 electricity:5 kwh:4 fossil:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 import:4 product:3 manioc:1 tapioca:1 banana:1 f:2 b:2 commodity:2 partner:2 canada:1 belgium:1 indonesia:1 italy:1 france:3 spain:1 democratic:1 congo:1 machinery:1 equipment:1 motor:1 vehicle:1 chemical:1 pharmaceutical:1 good:1 netherlands:1 u:2 recipient:1 oda:1 note:1 subsidy:1 communaute:2 financiere:2 africaine:2 franc:2 cfaf:1 centime:1 exchange:1 xaf:1 dollar:1 fiscal:1 calendar:1 africa:1 link:1 |@bigram per_capita:4 capita_income:4 sparsely_populate:1 subsistence_farming:1 subsistence_agriculture:1 sorghum_millet:2 millet_maize:2 cash_crop:5 export_earnings:2 ubangi_river:1 gasoline_diesel:1 kilometer_paved:1 paved_road:1 alcoholic_drink:1 per_caput:2 structural_adjustment:1 alleviate_poverty:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 textile_footwear:1 kwh_electricity:3 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 export_kwh:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 export_commodity:1 republic_congo:1 financiere_africaine:2 africaine_franc:2 franc_cfaf:1 centime_exchange:1 external_link:1 |
3,499 | Chalcogen | Group → 16 ↓ Period 2 3 4 5 6 7 The chalcogens are the chemical elements in group 16 (old-style: VIB or VIA) of the periodic table. This group is sometimes known as the oxygen family. It consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), the radioactive element polonium (Po), and the synthetic element ununhexium (Uuh). Like other groups, members of this family show similar patterns in their electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in similar trends in chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 8 oxygen 2, 6 16 sulfur 2, 8, 6 34 selenium 2, 8, 18, 6 52 tellurium 2, 8, 18, 18, 6 84 polonium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6 116 ununhexium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 6 The compounds of the heavier chalcogens (particularly the sulfides, selenides, and tellurides) are collectively known as chalcogenides. Unless grouped with a heavier chalcogen, oxides are not considered chalcogenides. The name is generally considered to mean "ore former" from the Greek chalcos "ore" and -gen "formation". A Second Note on the Term "Chalcogen" Oxygen and sulfur are nonmetals, and polonium, selenium and tellurium are metalloid semiconductors (i.e., their electrical properties are between those of a metal and an insulator). Nevertheless, tellurium, as well as selenium, is often referred to as a metal when in elemental form. Chalcogens are common as minerals. For example, pyrite (FeS2) is an iron ore, and the gold rush town Telluride, Colorado derives its name from the telluride calaverite (AuTe2). The formal oxidation number of the chalcogens is generally −2 in a chalcogenide but other values, such as −1 in pyrite, can be attained. The highest formal oxidation number +6 is found in sulfates, selenates and tellurates, such as in sulfuric acid or sodium selenate (Na2SeO4). Modern chemical understanding based on quantum theory supersedes the use of formal oxidation numbers in favour of a many-electron wavefunction approach allowing detailed computer simulation. The former concept, while flawed, is still useful in thought experiments and teaching redox reactions. + Explanation of above periodic table slice: Nonmetals Metalloids Poor metals Atomic numbers in are gases Atomic numbers in are solids Solid borders indicate primordial elements (older than the Earth) Dashed borders indicate radioactive natural elements Dotted borders indicate radioactive synthetic elements See also Gold chalcogenides External links | Chalcogen |@lemmatized group:5 period:1 chalcogens:4 chemical:3 element:8 old:2 style:1 vib:1 via:1 periodic:2 table:2 sometimes:1 know:2 oxygen:4 family:2 consist:1 sulfur:3 selenium:4 se:1 tellurium:4 te:1 radioactive:3 polonium:3 po:1 synthetic:2 ununhexium:2 uuh:1 like:1 member:1 show:1 similar:2 pattern:1 electron:3 configuration:1 especially:1 outermost:1 shell:2 result:1 trend:1 behavior:1 z:1 compound:1 heavy:2 particularly:1 sulfide:1 selenides:1 telluride:3 collectively:1 chalcogenides:3 unless:1 chalcogen:2 oxide:1 consider:2 name:2 generally:2 mean:1 ore:3 former:2 greek:1 chalcos:1 gen:1 formation:1 second:1 note:1 term:1 nonmetal:2 metalloid:1 semiconductor:1 e:1 electrical:1 property:1 metal:3 insulator:1 nevertheless:1 well:1 often:1 refer:1 elemental:1 form:1 common:1 mineral:1 example:1 pyrite:2 iron:1 gold:2 rush:1 town:1 colorado:1 derive:1 calaverite:1 formal:3 oxidation:3 number:5 chalcogenide:1 value:1 attain:1 high:1 find:1 sulfate:1 selenates:1 tellurates:1 sulfuric:1 acid:1 sodium:1 selenate:1 modern:1 understanding:1 base:1 quantum:1 theory:1 supersede:1 use:1 favour:1 many:1 wavefunction:1 approach:1 allow:1 detailed:1 computer:1 simulation:1 concept:1 flaw:1 still:1 useful:1 thought:1 experiment:1 teach:1 redox:1 reaction:1 explanation:1 slice:1 metalloids:1 poor:1 atomic:2 gas:1 solids:1 solid:1 border:3 indicate:3 primordial:1 earth:1 dash:1 natural:1 dot:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram periodic_table:2 outermost_shell:1 iron_ore:1 telluride_colorado:1 sulfuric_acid:1 redox_reaction:1 external_link:1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.